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diff --git a/41923-tei/41923-tei.tei b/41923-tei/41923-tei.tei new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e822ca8 --- /dev/null +++ b/41923-tei/41923-tei.tei @@ -0,0 +1,29834 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" ?> + +<!DOCTYPE TEI.2 SYSTEM "http://www.gutenberg.org/tei/marcello/0.4/dtd/pgtei.dtd" [ + +<!ENTITY u5 "http://www.tei-c.org/Lite/"> + +]> + +<TEI.2 lang="en"> +<teiHeader> + <fileDesc> + <titleStmt> + <title>The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 6 of 12)</title> + <author><name reg="Frazer, James George">James George Frazer</name></author> + </titleStmt> + <editionStmt> + <edition n="3">Edition 3</edition> + </editionStmt> + <publicationStmt> + <publisher>Project Gutenberg</publisher> + <date>January 26, 2013</date> + <idno type="etext-no">41923</idno> + <availability> + <p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and + with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it + away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg + License online at www.gutenberg.org/license</p> + </availability> + </publicationStmt> + <sourceDesc> + <bibl> + Created electronically. + </bibl> + </sourceDesc> + </fileDesc> + <encodingDesc> + </encodingDesc> + <profileDesc> + <langUsage> + <language id="en"></language> + <language id="la"></language> + <language id="de"></language> + <language id="he"></language> + </langUsage> + </profileDesc> + <revisionDesc> + <change> + <date value="2013-01-26">January 26, 2013</date> + <respStmt> + <name> + Produced by David Edwards, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This file was produced from images generously + made available by The Internet Archive.) + </name> + </respStmt> + <item>Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</item> + </change> + </revisionDesc> +</teiHeader> + +<pgExtensions> + <pgStyleSheet> + .boxed { x-class: boxed } + .shaded { x-class: shaded } + .rules { x-class: rules; rules: all } + .indent { margin-left: 2 } + .bold { font-weight: bold } + .italic { font-style: italic } + .smallcaps { font-variant: small-caps } + </pgStyleSheet> + + <pgCharMap formats="txt.iso-8859-1"> + <char id="U0x2014"> + <charName>mdash</charName> + <desc>EM DASH</desc> + <mapping>--</mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2003"> + <charName>emsp</charName> + <desc>EM SPACE</desc> + <mapping> </mapping> + </char> + <char id="U0x2026"> + <charName>hellip</charName> + <desc>HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS</desc> + <mapping>...</mapping> + </char> + </pgCharMap> +</pgExtensions> + +<text lang="en"> + <front> + <div> + <divGen type="pgheader" /> + </div> + <div> + <divGen type="encodingDesc" /> + </div> + + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <p rend="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center">The Golden Bough</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">A Study in Magic and Religion</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">By</p> + <p rend="font-size: x-large; text-align: center">James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Vol. VI. of XII.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Part IV: Adonis Attis Osiris.</p> + <p rend="font-size: large; text-align: center">Vol. 2 of 2.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">New York and London</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">MacMillan and Co.</p> + <p rend="text-align: center">1911</p> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: always"> + <head>Contents</head> + <divGen type="toc" /> + </div> + + </front> +<body> + +<div> +<p rend='text-align: center'> +<figure url='images/cover.jpg' rend='width: 40%'> +<figDesc>Cover Art</figDesc> +</figure> +</p> +<p> +[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter at +Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.] +</p> +</div> + +<pb n='003'/><anchor id='Pg003'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter I. The Myth Of Osiris.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris the +Egyptian +counterpart +of +Adonis +and Attis.</note> +In ancient Egypt the god whose death and resurrection were +annually celebrated with alternate sorrow and joy was +Osiris, the most popular of all Egyptian deities; and there +are good grounds for classing him in one of his aspects with +Adonis and Attis as a personification of the great yearly +vicissitudes of nature, especially of the corn. But the immense +vogue which he enjoyed for many ages induced his devoted +worshippers to heap upon him the attributes and powers +of many other gods; so that it is not always easy to strip +him, so to say, of his borrowed plumes and to restore them +to their proper owners. In the following pages I do not +pretend to enumerate and analyse all the alien elements +which thus gathered round the popular deity. All that I +shall attempt to do is to peel off these accretions and to +exhibit the god, as far as possible, in his primitive simplicity. +The discoveries of recent years in Egypt enable us to do so +with more confidence now than when I first addressed myself +to the problem many years ago. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The myth +of Osiris. The +Pyramid +Texts.</note> +The story of Osiris is told in a connected form only +by Plutarch, whose narrative has been confirmed and +to some extent amplified in modern times by the evidence +of the monuments.<note place='foot'>See Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, +12-20; R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di +Mitologia Egizia</hi> (Turin, 1881-1884), +vol. ii. pp. 692 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im +Altertum</hi> (Tübingen, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 365-369; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1909), pp. 38 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. +Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der alten +Ägypter</hi> (Münster i. W. 1890), pp. +109 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi> (London, 1897), pp. 207 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne +des Peuples de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 172 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods +of the Egyptians</hi> (London, 1904), ii. +123 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi> (London, 1911), i. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Of the monuments which illustrate +<pb n='004'/><anchor id='Pg004'/> +the myth or legend of Osiris the oldest are a long +series of hymns, prayers, incantations, and liturgies, which +have been found engraved in hieroglyphics on the walls, +passages, and galleries of five pyramids at Sakkara. From +the place where they were discovered these ancient religious +records are known as the Pyramid Texts. They +date from the fifth and sixth dynasties, and the period +of time during which they were carved on the pyramids +is believed to have been roughly a hundred and fifty +years from about the year 2625 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> onward. But from +their contents it appears that many of these documents +were drawn up much earlier; for in some of them there +are references to works which have perished, and in others +there are political allusions which seem to show that the +passages containing them must have been composed at +a time when the Northern and Southern Kingdoms +were still independent and hostile states and had not yet +coalesced into a single realm under the sway of one powerful +monarch. As the union of the kingdoms appears +to have taken place about three thousand four hundred +years before our era, the whole period covered by the composition +of the Pyramid Texts probably did not fall short of +a thousand years. Thus the documents form the oldest +body of religious literature surviving to us from the ancient +world, and occupy a place in the history of Egyptian language +and civilization like that which the Vedic hymns and +incantations occupy in the history of Aryan speech and +culture.<note place='foot'>J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development of +Religion and Thought in Ancient +Egypt</hi> (London, 1912), pp. vii. <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 77 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 84 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>History +of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, +1908), p. 68; Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des +Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. pp. 116 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi> (London, 1911), i. 100 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The first series of the texts was +discovered in 1880 when Mariette's +workmen penetrated into the pyramid +of King Pepi the First. Till then it +had been thought by modern scholars +that the pyramids were destitute of +inscriptions. The first to edit the +Pyramid Texts was Sir Gaston Maspero.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Pyramid +Texts +intended +to ensure +the blissful +immortality +of +Egyptian +kings.</note> +The special purpose for which these texts were engraved +on the pyramids was to ensure the eternal life and felicity +of the dead kings who slept beneath these colossal monuments. +<pb n='005'/><anchor id='Pg005'/> +Hence the dominant note that sounds through +them all is an insistent, a passionate protest against the +reality of death: indeed the word death never occurs in the +Pyramid Texts except to be scornfully denied or to be +applied to an enemy. Again and again the indomitable +assurance is repeated that the dead man did not die but +lives. <q>King Teti has not died the death, he has become +a glorious one in the horizon.</q> <q>Ho! King Unis! Thou +didst not depart dead, thou didst depart living.</q> <q>Thou +hast departed that thou mightest live, thou hast not departed +that thou mightest die.</q> <q>Thou diest not.</q> <q>This +King Pepi dies not.</q> <q>Have ye said that he would die? +He dies not; this King Pepi lives for ever.</q> <q>Live! Thou +shalt not die.</q> <q>Thou livest, thou livest, raise thee up.</q> +<q>Thou diest not, stand up, raise thee up.</q> <q>O lofty one +among the Imperishable Stars, thou perishest not eternally.</q><note place='foot'>J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development of +Religion and Thought in Ancient +Egypt</hi>, pp. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Among the earlier +works referred to in the Pyramid Texts +are <q>the chapter of those who ascend</q> +and <q>the chapter of those who raise +themselves up</q> (J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 85). From their titles these +works would seem to have recorded a +belief in the resurrection and ascension +of the dead.</note> +Thus for Egyptian kings death was swallowed up +in victory; and through their tears Egyptian mourners +might ask, like Christian mourners thousands of years afterwards, +<q>O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is +thy victory?</q> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +story of +Osiris +in the +Pyramid +Texts.</note> +Now it is significant that in these ancient documents, +though the myth or legend of Osiris is not set forth at +length, it is often alluded to as if it were a matter of common +knowledge. Hence we may legitimately infer the +great antiquity of the Osirian tradition in Egypt. Indeed +so numerous are the allusions to it in the Pyramid Texts +that by their help we could reconstruct the story in its main +outlines even without the narrative of Plutarch.<note place='foot'>This has been done by Professor +J. H. Breasted in his <hi rend='italic'>Development of +Religion and Thought in Ancient +Egypt</hi>, pp. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Thus the +discovery of these texts has confirmed our belief in the +accuracy and fidelity of the Greek writer, and we may +accept his account with confidence even when it records +incidents or details which have not yet been verified by a +<pb n='006'/><anchor id='Pg006'/> +comparison with original Egyptian sources. The tragic +tale runs thus: +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris a +son of the +earth-god +and the +sky-goddess.</note> +Osiris was the offspring of an intrigue between the +earth-god Seb (Keb or Geb, as the name is sometimes transliterated) +and the sky-goddess Nut. The Greeks identified +his parents with their own deities Cronus and Rhea. When +the sun-god Ra perceived that his wife Nut had been unfaithful +to him, he declared with a curse that she should be +delivered of the child in no month and no year. But the +goddess had another lover, the god Thoth or Hermes, as the +Greeks called him, and he playing at draughts with the +moon won from her a seventy-second part<note place='foot'>In Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 12, we +must clearly read ἑβδομηκοστὸν δεύτερον +with Scaliger and Wyttenbach for the +ἑβδομηκοστόν of the MSS.</note> of every day, +and having compounded five whole days out of these parts +he added them to the Egyptian year of three hundred and +sixty days. This was the mythical origin of the five supplementary +days which the Egyptians annually inserted at the +end of every year in order to establish a harmony between +lunar and solar time.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann's +note; L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der +mathematischen und technischen Chronologie</hi> +(Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. 468 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. +Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples +de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 208 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On these five days, regarded as +outside the year of twelve months, the curse of the sun-god +did not rest, and accordingly Osiris was born on the first of +them. At his nativity a voice rang out proclaiming that the +Lord of All had come into the world. Some say that a +certain Pamyles heard a voice from the temple at Thebes +bidding him announce with a shout that a great king, the +beneficent Osiris, was born. But Osiris was not the only +child of his mother. On the second of the supplementary +days she gave birth to the elder Horus, on the third to the +god Set, whom the Greeks called Typhon, on the fourth to +the goddess Isis, and on the fifth to the goddess Nephthys.<note place='foot'>The birth of the five deities on the +five supplementary days is mentioned +by Diodorus Siculus (i. 13. 4) as well +as by Plutarch (<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 12). +The memory of the five supplementary +days seems to survive in the modern +Coptic calendar of Egypt. The days +from the first to the sixth of Amshir +(February) are called <q>the days outside +the year</q> and they are deemed unlucky. +<q>Any child begotten during +these days will infallibly be misshapen +or abnormally tall or short. This also +applies to animals so that cattle and +mares are not covered during these +days; moreover, some say (though +others deny) that neither sowing nor +planting should be undertaken.</q> However, +these unlucky days are not the +true intercalary days of the Coptic +calendar, which occur in the second +week of September at the end of the +Coptic year. See C. G. Seligmann, +<q>Ancient Egyptian Beliefs in Modern +Egypt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Essays and Studies presented to +William Ridgeway</hi> (Cambridge, 1913), +p. 456. As to the unluckiness of +intercalary days in general, see <hi rend='italic'>The +Scapegoat</hi>, pp. 339 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +<pb n='007'/><anchor id='Pg007'/> +Afterwards Set married his sister Nephthys, and Osiris +married his sister Isis. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris +introduces +the +cultivation +of corn and +of the vine. +His violent +death. Isis +searches +for his +body.</note> +Reigning as a king on earth, Osiris reclaimed the +Egyptians from savagery, gave them laws, and taught them +to worship the gods. Before his time the Egyptians had +been cannibals. But Isis, the sister and wife of Osiris, +discovered wheat and barley growing wild, and Osiris introduced +the cultivation of these grains amongst his people, +who forthwith abandoned cannibalism and took kindly to a +corn diet. Moreover, Osiris is said to have been the first +to gather fruit from trees, to train the vine to poles, and to +tread the grapes. Eager to communicate these beneficent +discoveries to all mankind, he committed the whole government +of Egypt to his wife Isis, and travelled over the world, +diffusing the blessings of civilization and agriculture wherever +he went. In countries where a harsh climate or niggardly +soil forbade the cultivation of the vine, he taught the inhabitants +to console themselves for the want of wine by +brewing beer from barley. Loaded with the wealth that had +been showered upon him by grateful nations, he returned to +Egypt, and on account of the benefits he had conferred on +mankind he was unanimously hailed and worshipped as a +deity.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 13; Diodorus +Siculus, i. 14, 17, 20; Tibullus, +i. 7. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> But his brother Set (whom the Greeks called +Typhon) with seventy-two others plotted against him. +Having taken the measure of his good brother's body by +stealth, the bad brother Typhon fashioned and highly decorated +a coffer of the same size, and once when they were all +drinking and making merry he brought in the coffer and +jestingly promised to give it to the one whom it should fit +exactly. Well, they all tried one after the other, but it fitted +none of them. Last of all Osiris stepped into it and lay down. +On that the conspirators ran and slammed the lid down on +him, nailed it fast, soldered it with molten lead, and flung the +<pb n='008'/><anchor id='Pg008'/> +coffer into the Nile. This happened on the seventeenth day +of the month Athyr, when the sun is in the sign of the +Scorpion, and in the eight-and-twentieth year of the reign or +the life of Osiris. When Isis heard of it she sheared off +a lock of her hair, put on mourning attire, and wandered +disconsolately up and down, seeking the body.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>She takes +refuge +in the +papyrus +swamps. +Isis and +her infant +son Horus.</note> +By the advice of the god of wisdom she took refuge +in the papyrus swamps of the Delta. Seven scorpions +accompanied her in her flight. One evening when she +was weary she came to the house of a woman, who, +alarmed at the sight of the scorpions, shut the door in her +face. Then one of the scorpions crept under the door and +stung the child of the woman that he died. But when Isis +heard the mother's lamentation, her heart was touched, and +she laid her hands on the child and uttered her powerful +spells; so the poison was driven out of the child and he +lived. Afterwards Isis herself gave birth to a son in the +swamps. She had conceived him while she fluttered in the +form of a hawk over the corpse of her dead husband. The +infant was the younger Horus, who in his youth bore the +name of Harpocrates, that is, the child Horus. Him Buto, +the goddess of the north, hid from the wrath of his wicked +uncle Set. Yet she could not guard him from all mishap; +for one day when Isis came to her little son's hiding-place +she found him stretched lifeless and rigid on the ground: a +scorpion had stung him. Then Isis prayed to the sun-god +Ra for help. The god hearkened to her and staid his bark +in the sky, and sent down Thoth to teach her the spell by +which she might restore her son to life. She uttered the +words of power, and straightway the poison flowed from +the body of Horus, air passed into him, and he lived. Then +Thoth ascended up into the sky and took his place once +more in the bark of the sun, and the bright pomp passed +onward jubilant.<note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, p. 366; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Berlin, +1909), p. 40; A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Religion +of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, +1897), pp. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, i. 487 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +ii. 206-211; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi> (London, 1911), i. 92-96, +ii. 84, 274-276. These incidents of +the scorpions are not related by Plutarch +but are known to us from Egyptian +sources. The barbarous legend of the +begetting of Horus by the dead Osiris +is told in unambiguous language in the +Pyramid Texts, and it is illustrated by +a monument which represents the two +sister goddesses hovering in the likeness +of hawks over the god, while +Hathor sits at his head and the Frog-goddess +Heqet squats in the form of a +huge frog at his feet. See J. H. Breasted, +<hi rend='italic'>Development of Religion and Thought +in Ancient Egypt</hi>, p. 28, with note 2; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and +the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 280. +Harpocrates is in Egyptian <hi rend='italic'>Her-pe-khred</hi>, +<q>Horus the child</q> (A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, +p. 223). Plutarch, who appears to +distinguish him from Horus, says that +Harpocrates was begotten by the dead +Osiris on Isis, and that he was born +untimely and was weak in his lower +limbs (<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 19). Elsewhere +he tells us that Harpocrates <q>was +born, incomplete and youthful, about +the winter solstice along with the early +flowers and blossoms</q> (<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, +65).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='009'/><anchor id='Pg009'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The body +of Osiris +floats to +Byblus, +where it is +recovered +by Isis. The +body of +Osiris dismembered +by Typhon, +and the +pieces +recovered +by Isis. +Diodorus +Siculus on +the burial +of Osiris.</note> +Meantime the coffer containing the body of Osiris had +floated down the river and away out to sea, till at last it +drifted ashore at Byblus, on the coast of Syria. Here a fine +<foreign rend='italic'>erica</foreign>-tree shot up suddenly and enclosed the chest in its +trunk. The king of the country, admiring the growth of +the tree, had it cut down and made into a pillar of his +house; but he did not know that the coffer with the dead +Osiris was in it. Word of this came to Isis and she +journeyed to Byblus, and sat down by the well, in humble +guise, her face wet with tears. To none would she speak +till the king's handmaidens came, and them she greeted +kindly, and braided their hair, and breathed on them from +her own divine body a wondrous perfume. But when the +queen beheld the braids of her handmaidens' hair and smelt +the sweet smell that emanated from them, she sent for the +stranger woman and took her into her house and made her +the nurse of her child. But Isis gave the babe her finger +instead of her breast to suck, and at night she began to burn +all that was mortal of him away, while she herself in the +likeness of a swallow fluttered round the pillar that contained +her dead brother, twittering mournfully. But the +queen spied what she was doing and shrieked out when she +saw her child in flames, and thereby she hindered him from +becoming immortal. Then the goddess revealed herself +and begged for the pillar of the roof, and they gave it her, +and she cut the coffer out of it, and fell upon it and embraced +it and lamented so loud that the younger of the king's +children died of fright on the spot. But the trunk of the tree +she wrapped in fine linen, and poured ointment on it, and gave +it to the king and queen, and the wood stands in a temple of +<pb n='010'/><anchor id='Pg010'/> +Isis and is worshipped by the people of Byblus to this day. +And Isis put the coffer in a boat and took the eldest of +the king's children with her and sailed away. As soon as +they were alone, she opened the chest, and laying her face +on the face of her brother she kissed him and wept. But the +child came behind her softly and saw what she was about, +and she turned and looked at him in anger, and the child +could not bear her look and died; but some say that it was +not so, but that he fell into the sea and was drowned. It is +he whom the Egyptians sing of at their banquets under the +name of Maneros. But Isis put the coffer by and went to +see her son Horus at the city of Buto, and Typhon found +the coffer as he was hunting a boar one night by the light of a +full moon.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 8, 18.</note> And he knew the body, and rent it into fourteen +pieces, and scattered them abroad. But Isis sailed up and +down the marshes in a shallop made of papyrus, looking for +the pieces; and that is why when people sail in shallops +made of papyrus, the crocodiles do not hurt them, for they +fear or respect the goddess. And that is the reason, too, +why there are many graves of Osiris in Egypt, for she buried +each limb as she found it. But others will have it that she +buried an image of him in every city, pretending it was his +body, in order that Osiris might be worshipped in many +places, and that if Typhon searched for the real grave he +might not be able to find it.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 18.</note> However, the genital member +of Osiris had been eaten by the fishes, so Isis made an image +of it instead, and the image is used by the Egyptians +at their festivals to this day.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 18. Compare +Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refutatio omnium +haeresium</hi>, v. 7, p. 142, ed. L. Duncker +and F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, +1859).</note> <q>Isis,</q> writes the historian +Diodorus Siculus, <q>recovered all the parts of the body except +the genitals; and because she wished that her husband's +grave should be unknown and honoured by all who dwell in +the land of Egypt, she resorted to the following device. +She moulded human images out of wax and spices, corresponding +to the stature of Osiris, round each one of +the parts of his body. Then she called in the priests +according to their families and took an oath of them all that +<pb n='011'/><anchor id='Pg011'/> +they would reveal to no man the trust she was about to repose +in them. So to each of them privately she said that +to them alone she entrusted the burial of the body, and reminding +them of the benefits they had received she exhorted +them to bury the body in their own land and to honour +Osiris as a god. She also besought them to dedicate one of +the animals of their country, whichever they chose, and to +honour it in life as they had formerly honoured Osiris, and +when it died to grant it obsequies like his. And because she +would encourage the priests in their own interest to bestow +the aforesaid honours, she gave them a third part of the land +to be used by them in the service and worship of the gods. +Accordingly it is said that the priests, mindful of the benefits +of Osiris, desirous of gratifying the queen, and moved by the +prospect of gain, carried out all the injunctions of Isis. +Wherefore to this day each of the priests imagines that +Osiris is buried in his country, and they honour the beasts +that were consecrated in the beginning, and when the +animals die the priests renew at their burial the mourning +for Osiris. But the sacred bulls, the one called Apis and +the other Mnevis, were dedicated to Osiris, and it was +ordained that they should be worshipped as gods in common +by all the Egyptians; since these animals above all others +had helped the discoverers of corn in sowing the seed +and procuring the universal benefits of agriculture.</q><note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 21. 5-11; +compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, iv. 6. 3; Strabo, xvii. 1. +23, p. 803.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +various +members +of Osiris +treasured +as relics in +various +parts of +Egypt.</note> +Such is the myth or legend of Osiris, as told by Greek +writers and eked out by more or less fragmentary notices or +allusions in native Egyptian literature. A long inscription +in the temple at Denderah has preserved a list of the god's +graves, and other texts mention the parts of his body which +were treasured as holy relics in each of the sanctuaries. +Thus his heart was at Athribis, his backbone at Busiris, his +neck at Letopolis, and his head at Memphis. As often +happens in such cases, some of his divine limbs were miraculously +multiplied. His head, for example, was at Abydos as +well as at Memphis, and his legs, which were remarkably +numerous, would have sufficed for several ordinary mortals.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <q>Das Osiris-Mysterium +von Tentyra,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde</hi>, +xix. (1881) pp. 77 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; V. +Loret, <q>Les fêtes d'Osiris au mois de +Khoiak,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Recueil de Travaux relatifs +à la Philologie et à l'Archéologie +Égyptiennes et Assyriennes</hi>, iii. (1882) +pp. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario +di Mitologia Egizia</hi>, pp. 697 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites +Buch</hi> (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 584 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der alten Ägypter</hi>, +p. 115; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi>, pp. 215 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im +Altertum</hi>, pp. 367 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +<pb n='012'/><anchor id='Pg012'/> +In this respect, however, Osiris was nothing to St. Denys, +of whom no less than seven heads, all equally genuine, are +extant.<note place='foot'>J. Rendel Harris, <hi rend='italic'>The Annotators +of the Codex Bezae</hi> (London, 1901), p. +104, note 2, referring to Dulaure.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris +mourned +by Isis and +Nephthys.</note> +According to native Egyptian accounts, which supplement +that of Plutarch, when Isis had found the corpse of +her husband Osiris, she and her sister Nephthys sat down +beside it and uttered a lament which in after ages became +the type of all Egyptian lamentations for the dead. <q>Come +to thy house,</q> they wailed, <q>Come to thy house. O god +On! come to thy house, thou who hast no foes. O fair +youth, come to thy house, that thou mayest see me. I am +thy sister, whom thou lovest; thou shalt not part from me. +O fair boy, come to thy house.... I see thee not, yet doth +my heart yearn after thee and mine eyes desire thee. Come +to her who loves thee, who loves thee, Unnefer, thou blessed +one! Come to thy sister, come to thy wife, to thy wife, +thou whose heart stands still. Come to thy housewife. I +am thy sister by the same mother, thou shalt not be far from +me. Gods and men have turned their faces towards thee +and weep for thee together.... I call after thee and weep, +so that my cry is heard to heaven, but thou hearest not my +voice; yet am I thy sister, whom thou didst love on earth; +thou didst love none but me, my brother! my brother!</q><note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Berlin, 1909), pp. 39 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. +A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, ii. 59 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +This lament for the fair youth cut off in his prime reminds +us of the laments for Adonis. The title of Unnefer or <q>the +Good Being</q> bestowed on him marks the beneficence which +tradition universally ascribed to Osiris; it was at once his +commonest title and one of his names as king.<note place='foot'>A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, p. 211.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Being +brought +to life +again, +Osiris +reigns as +king and +judge of +the dead +in the other +world. +The confession +of +the dead.</note> +The lamentations of the two sad sisters were not in +vain. In pity for her sorrow the sun-god Ra sent down +from heaven the jackal-headed god Anubis, who, with the +<pb n='013'/><anchor id='Pg013'/> +aid of Isis and Nephthys, of Thoth and Horus, pieced +together the broken body of the murdered god, swathed it +in linen bandages, and observed all the other rites which +the Egyptians were wont to perform over the bodies of the +departed. Then Isis fanned the cold clay with her wings: +Osiris revived, and thenceforth reigned as king over the +dead in the other world.<note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 39 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient +Classique</hi>, i. 176; E. A. Wallis +Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, ii. +140, 262; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, i. 70-75, 80-82. On +Osiris as king of the dead see Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 79.</note> There he bore the titles of Lord +of the Underworld, Lord of Eternity, Ruler of the Dead.<note place='foot'>Miss Margaret A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The +Osireion at Abydos</hi> (London, 1904), +pp. 8, 17, 18.</note> +There, too, in the great Hall of the Two Truths, assisted by +forty-two assessors, one from each of the principal districts of +Egypt, he presided as judge at the trial of the souls of the +departed, who made their solemn confession before him, and, +their heart having been weighed in the balance of justice, received +the reward of virtue in a life eternal or the appropriate +punishment of their sins.<note place='foot'>On Osiris as judge of the dead +see A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der +alten Ägypter</hi>, pp. 131 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, +pp. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient +Classique</hi>, i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. A. Wallis +Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Book of the Dead</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, +1909), i. pp. liii. <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of +the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris +and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 305 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 116 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The confession or rather profession +which the <hi rend='italic'>Book of the Dead</hi> puts in the mouth of the deceased +at the judgment-bar of Osiris<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Book of the Dead</hi>, ch. cxxv. +(vol. ii. pp. 355 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> of Budge's +translation; P. Pierret, <hi rend='italic'>Le Livre des +Morts</hi>, Paris, 1882, pp. 369 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>); +R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia +Egizia</hi>, pp. 788 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der alten Ägypter</hi>, pp. +132-134; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi>, pp. 249 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. Maspero, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient +Classique</hi>, i. 188-191; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 117-121; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 337 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. +H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development of Religion +and Thought in Ancient Egypt</hi>, pp. +297 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> sets the morality of the +ancient Egyptians in a very favourable light. In rendering +an account of his life the deceased solemnly protested that he +had not oppressed his fellow-men, that he had made none +to weep, that he had done no murder, neither committed +fornication nor borne false witness, that he had not falsified +the balance, that he had not taken the milk from the mouths +of babes, that he had given bread to the hungry and water +to the thirsty, and had clothed the naked. In harmony +<pb n='014'/><anchor id='Pg014'/> +with these professions are the epitaphs on Egyptian graves, +which reveal, if not the moral practice, at least the moral +ideals of those who slept beneath them. Thus, for example, +a man says in his epitaph: <q>I gave bread to the hungry +and clothes to the naked, and ferried across in my own boat +him who could not pass the water. I was a father to the +orphan, a husband to the widow, a shelter from the wind to +them that were cold. I am one that spake good and told +good. I earned my substance in righteousness.</q><note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +p. 121. Compare A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Religion der alten Ägypter</hi>, pp. 134 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi>, p. 253.</note> Those +who had done thus in their mortal life and had been acquitted +at the Great Assize, were believed to dwell thenceforth at +ease in a land where the corn grew higher than on earth, +where harvests never failed, where trees were always green, +and wives for ever young and fair.<note place='foot'>A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, p. 254; E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, i. 305 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. Maspero, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die +ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. +A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 100 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. Lefébure, <q>Le Paradis +Egyptien,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Sphinx</hi>, iii. (Upsala, 1900) +pp. 191 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The fate of +the wicked.</note> +We are not clearly informed as to the fate which the +Egyptians supposed to befall the wicked after death. In +the scenes which represent the Last Judgment there is seen +crouching beside the scales, in which the heart of the +dead is being weighed, a monstrous animal known as the +<q>Eater of the Dead.</q> It has the head of a crocodile, the +trunk of a lion, and the hinder parts of a hippopotamus. +Some think that the souls of those whose hearts had been +weighed in the balance and found wanting were delivered +over to this grim monster to be devoured; but this view +appears to be conjectural. <q>Generally the animal seems +to have been placed there simply as guardian of the entrance +to the Fields of the Blessed, but sometimes it is likened to +Set. Elsewhere it is said that the judges of the dead slay +the wicked and drink their blood. In brief, here also we have +conflicting statements, and can only gather that there seems to +have been no general agreement among the dwellers in the +Valley of the Nile as to the ultimate lot of the wicked.</q><note place='foot'>A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, p. 249. Compare +A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 117, 121; E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, +i. 317, 328.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='015'/><anchor id='Pg015'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In the +resurrection +of +Osiris the +Egyptians +saw a +pledge +of their +own immortality.</note> +In the resurrection of Osiris the Egyptians saw the +pledge of a life everlasting for themselves beyond the grave. +They believed that every man would live eternally in the +other world if only his surviving friends did for his body +what the gods had done for the body of Osiris. Hence the +ceremonies observed by the Egyptians over the human +dead were an exact copy of those which Anubis, Horus, +and the rest had performed over the dead god. <q>At +every burial there was enacted a representation of the +divine mystery which had been performed of old over +Osiris, when his son, his sisters, his friends were gathered +round his mangled remains and succeeded by their spells +and manipulations in converting his broken body into +the first mummy, which they afterwards reanimated and +furnished with the means of entering on a new individual +life beyond the grave. The mummy of the deceased was +Osiris; the professional female mourners were his two sisters +Isis and Nephthys; Anubis, Horus, all the gods of the +Osirian legend gathered about the corpse.</q> In this solemn +drama of death and resurrection the principal part was +played by the celebrant, who represented Horus the son of +the dead and resuscitated Osiris.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <q>Le rituel du sacrifice +funéraire,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Études de Mythologie +et d'Archéologie Égyptiennes</hi> (Paris, +1893-1912), i. 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> He formally opened the +eyes and mouth of the dead man by rubbing or pretending +to rub them four times with the bleeding heart and thigh +of a sacrificed bull; after which a pretence was made of +actually opening the mouth of the mummy or of the statue +with certain instruments specially reserved for the purpose. +Geese and gazelles were also sacrificed by being decapitated; +they were supposed to represent the enemies of Osiris, who +after the murder of the divine man had sought to evade the +righteous punishment of their crime but had been detected +and beheaded.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 300-316. +Compare A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion +der alten Ägypter</hi>, pp. 123 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, +pp. 234 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>The Book of the Dead</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1909), +i. pp. iiii. <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the +Egyptians</hi>, ii. 126, 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris +and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 66 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 101 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 176, 305, 399 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. +Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Du Caractère religieux de la +Royauté Pharaonique</hi> (Paris, 1902), +p. 312; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Kings and Gods of Egypt</hi> +(New York and London, 1912), pp. +91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères Égyptiens</hi> (Paris, +1913), pp. 37 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> <q>In one of the +ceremonies of the <q>Opening of the +Mouth</q> the deceased was temporarily +placed in a bull's skin, which was +probably that of one of the bulls which +were offered up during the celebration +of the service. From this skin the +deceased obtained further power, and +his emergence from it was the visible +symbol of his resurrection and of his +entrance into everlasting life with all +the strength of Osiris and Horus</q> +(E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 400).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='016'/><anchor id='Pg016'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Every dead +Egyptian +identified +with Osiris.</note> +Thus every dead Egyptian was identified with Osiris and +bore his name. From the Middle Kingdom onwards it was +the regular practice to address the deceased as <q>Osiris So-and-So,</q> +as if he were the god himself, and to add the +standing epithet <q>true of speech,</q> because true speech was +characteristic of Osiris.<note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, p. 416; J. +H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>History of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi>, pp. 149 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Margaret A. +Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The Osireion at Abydos</hi> (London, +1904), p. 31. Under the earlier +dynasties only kings appear to have +been identified with Osiris.</note> The thousands of inscribed and +pictured tombs that have been opened in the valley of the +Nile prove that the mystery of the resurrection was performed +for the benefit of every dead Egyptian;<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères Égyptiens</hi> +(Paris, 1913), p. 40.</note> as Osiris died and +rose again from the dead, so all men hoped to arise like him +from death to life eternal. In an Egyptian text it is said of +the departed that <q>as surely as Osiris lives, so shall he live +also; as surely as Osiris did not die, so shall he not die; as surely +as Osiris is not annihilated, so shall he too not be annihilated.</q> +The dead man, conceived to be lying, like Osiris, with +mangled body, was comforted by being told that the heavenly +goddess Nut, the mother of Osiris, was coming to gather up +his poor scattered limbs and mould them with her own hands +into a form immortal and divine. <q>She gives thee thy +head, she brings thee thy bones, she sets thy limbs together +and puts thy heart in thy body.</q> Thus the resurrection of +the dead was conceived, like that of Osiris, not merely as +spiritual but also as bodily. <q>They possess their heart, they +possess their senses, they possess their mouth, they possess +their feet, they possess their arms, they possess all their +limbs.</q><note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 111-113. However, in +later times the body with which the +dead came to life was believed to be a +spiritual, not a material body; it was +called <foreign rend='italic'>sāhu</foreign>. See E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>The Book of the Dead</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. pp. lvii. <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, +ii. 123 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Combat +between +Set and +Horus, the +brother +and the son +of Osiris, +for the +crown of +Egypt.</note> +If we may trust Egyptian legend, the trials and contests +of the royal house did not cease with the restoration of Osiris +<pb n='017'/><anchor id='Pg017'/> +to life and his elevation to the rank of presiding deity in the +world of the dead. When Horus the younger, the son of +Osiris and Isis, was grown to man's estate, the ghost of his +royal and murdered father appeared to him and urged him, +like another Hamlet, to avenge the foul unnatural murder +upon his wicked uncle. Thus encouraged, the youth attacked +the miscreant. The combat was terrific and lasted many +days. Horus lost an eye in the conflict and Set suffered a +still more serious mutilation. At last Thoth parted the +combatants and healed their wounds; the eye of Horus he +restored by spitting on it. According to one account the +great battle was fought on the twenty-sixth day of the month +of Thoth. Foiled in open war, the artful uncle now took +the law of his virtuous nephew. He brought a suit of +bastardy against Horus, hoping thus to rob him of his +inheritance and to get possession of it himself; nay, not +content with having murdered his good brother, the unnatural +Set carried his rancour even beyond the grave by accusing +the dead Osiris of certain high crimes and misdemeanours. +The case was tried before the supreme court of the gods in +the great hall at Heliopolis. Thoth, the god of wisdom, +pleaded the cause of Osiris, and the august judges decided +that <q>the word of Osiris was true.</q> Moreover, they pronounced +Horus to be the true-begotten son of his father. +So that prince assumed the crown and mounted the throne +of the lamented Osiris. However, according to another and +perhaps later version of the story, the victory of Horus over +his uncle was by no means so decisive, and their struggles +ended in a compromise, by which Horus reigned over the +Delta, while Set became king of the upper valley of the Nile +from near Memphis to the first cataract. Be that as it may, +with the accession of Horus began for the Egyptians the +modern period of the world, for on his throne all the kings +of Egypt sat as his successors.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 19 and 55; +A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, p. 368; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die +ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. +Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der alten +Ägypter</hi>, p. 114; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, pp. 214 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. +Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples +de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 176-178; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 64, +89 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 309 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The legend +of their +contest +may be a +reminiscence +of +dynastic +struggles.</note> +These legends of a contest for the throne of Egypt +<pb n='018'/><anchor id='Pg018'/> +may perhaps contain a reminiscence of real dynastical +struggles which attended an attempt to change the right of +succession from the female to the male line. For under a +rule of female kinship the heir to the throne is either the +late king's brother, or the son of the late king's sister, while +under a rule of male kinship the heir to the throne is the +late king's son. In the legend of Osiris the rival heirs are +Set and Horus, Set being the late king's brother, and Horus +the late king's son; though Horus indeed united both claims +to the crown, being the son of the king's sister as well as of +the king. A similar attempt to shift the line of succession +seems to have given rise to similar contests at Rome.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris represented +as a king in +tradition +and art. +The tomb +of Osiris at +Abydos.</note> +Thus according to what seems to have been the +general native tradition Osiris was a good and beloved +king of Egypt, who suffered a violent death but rose from +the dead and was henceforth worshipped as a deity. In +harmony with this tradition he was regularly represented +by sculptors and painters in human and regal form as a +dead king, swathed in the wrappings of a mummy, but +wearing on his head a kingly crown and grasping in one +of his hands, which were left free from the bandages, a +kingly sceptre.<note place='foot'>A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, p. 217. For +details see E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris +and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. +30 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Two cities above all others were associated +with his myth or memory. One of them was Busiris in +Lower Egypt, which claimed to possess his backbone; the +other was Abydos in Upper Egypt, which gloried in +the possession of his head.<note place='foot'>J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>History of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, 1908), p. +61; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Development of Religion and +Thought in Ancient Egypt</hi>, p. 38; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and +the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 37, 67, +81, 210, 212, 214, 290, ii. 1, 2, 8-13, +82-85; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 21, 23, 110; A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, +p. 289; Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des +Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. pp. 70, 96, 97. It +appears to be now generally held that +the original seat of the worship of +Osiris was at Busiris, but that at Abydos +the god found a second home, which in +time eclipsed the old one in glory. +According to Professors Ed. Meyer +and A. Erman, the god whom Osiris +displaced at Abydos was Anubis.</note> Encircled by the nimbus of +the dead yet living god, Abydos, originally an obscure +place, became from the end of the Old Kingdom the +holiest spot in Egypt; his tomb there would seem to have +been to the Egyptians what the Church of the Holy +<pb n='019'/><anchor id='Pg019'/> +Sepulchre at Jerusalem is to Christians. It was the wish +of every pious man that his dead body should rest in +hallowed earth near the grave of the glorified Osiris. Few +indeed were rich enough to enjoy this inestimable privilege; +for, apart from the cost of a tomb in the sacred city, the +mere transport of mummies from great distances was both +difficult and expensive. Yet so eager were many to absorb +in death the blessed influence which radiated from the holy +sepulchre that they caused their surviving friends to convey +their mortal remains to Abydos, there to tarry for a short +time, and then to be brought back by river and interred in +the tombs which had been made ready for them in their +native land. Others had cenotaphs built or memorial +tablets erected for themselves near the tomb of their dead +and risen Lord, that they might share with him the bliss of +a joyful resurrection.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 20; A. +Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben +im Altertum</hi>, p. 417; J. H. Breasted, +<hi rend='italic'>History of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1908), pp. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Ed. +Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. +2. p. 209; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris +and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 68 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. 3.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The tombs +of the old +kings at +Abydos. +The tomb +of King +Khent +identified +with the +tomb of +Osiris. +The sculptured +effigy +of Osiris. The hawk +the crest of +the earliest +dynasties.</note> +Hence from the earliest ages of Egyptian history Abydos +would seem to have been a city of the dead rather than of +the living; certainly there is no evidence that the place +was ever of any political importance.<note place='foot'>Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2. p. 125.</note> No less than nine of +the most ancient kings of Egypt known to us were buried +here, for their tombs have been discovered and explored +within recent years.<note place='foot'>J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>History of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, pp. 43, 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +The excavations were begun by E. +Amélineau and continued by W. M. +Flinders Petrie (Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte +des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. p. 119). See +E. Amélineau, <hi rend='italic'>Le Tombeau d'Osiris</hi> +(Paris, 1899); W. M. Flinders Petrie, +<hi rend='italic'>The Royal Tombs of the Earliest +Dynasties</hi>, Part ii. (London, 1901). +The excavations of the former have +been criticized by Sir Gaston Maspero +(<hi rend='italic'>Études de Mythologie et d'Archéologie +Égyptiennes</hi>, vi. (Paris, 1912) pp. +153-182).</note> The royal necropolis lies on the edge +of the desert about a mile and a half from the temple of +Osiris.<note place='foot'>Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2. pp. 119, 124; E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, ii. 8. The place is now +known by the Arabic name of Umm +al-Ka'âb or <q>Mother of Pots</q> on +account of the large quantity of pottery +that has been found there.</note> Of the graves the oldest is that of King Khent, +the second or third king of the first dynasty. His reign, +which fell somewhere between three thousand four hundred +<pb n='020'/><anchor id='Pg020'/> +and three thousand two hundred years before our era, +seems to have marked an epoch in the history of Egypt, +for under him the costume, the figure drawing, and the +hieroglyphics all assumed the character which they thenceforth +preserved to the very end of Egyptian nationality.<note place='foot'>Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2. pp. 119, 125, 127, 128, +129, 209. The king's Horus name has +sometimes been read Zer, but according +to Professor Meyer (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 128) and +Dr. Budge (<hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, ii. 83) the true reading is +Khent (Chent). The king's personal +name was perhaps Ka (Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 128).</note> +Later ages identified him with Osiris in a more intimate +sense than that in which the divine title was lavished +on every dead king and indeed on every dead man; for +his tomb was actually converted into the tomb of Osiris +and as such received in great profusion the offerings of the +faithful. Somewhere between the twenty-second and the +twenty-sixth dynasty a massive bier of grey granite was +placed in the sepulchral chamber. On it, cut in high relief, +reposes a shrouded figure of the dead Osiris. He lies at +full length, with bare and upturned face. On his head is +the White Crown of Upper Egypt; in his hands, which +issue from the shroud, he holds the characteristic emblems +of the god, the sceptre and the scourge. At the four corners +of the bier are perched four hawks, representing the four +children of Horus, each with their father's banner, keeping +watch over the dead god, as they kept watch over the four +quarters of the world. A fifth hawk seems to have been +perched on the middle of the body of Osiris, but it had been +broken off before the tomb was discovered in recent years, for +only the bird's claws remain in position. Finely carved heads +of lions, one at each corner of the bier, with the claws to +match below, complete the impressive monument. The +scene represented is unquestionably the impregnation of Isis +in the form of a hawk by the dead Osiris; the Copts who +dismantled the shrine appear to have vented their pious +rage on the figure of the hawk Isis by carrying it off or +smashing it. If any doubt could exist as to the meaning +of these sculptured figures, it would be set at rest by the +ancient inscriptions attached to them. Over against the +right shoulder of the shrouded figure, who lies stretched on +the bier, are carved in hieroglyphics the words, <q>Osiris, the +<pb n='021'/><anchor id='Pg021'/> +Good Being, true of speech</q>; and over against the place +where the missing hawk perched on the body of the dead +god is carved the symbol of Isis. Two relics of the ancient +human occupants of the tomb escaped alike the fury of the +fanatics and the avarice of the plunderers who pillaged and +destroyed it. One of the relics is a human skull, from +which the lower jawbone is missing; the other is an arm +encircled by gorgeous jewelled bracelets of gold, turquoises, +amethysts, and dark purple lapis lazuli. The former may +be the head of King Khent himself; the latter is almost +certainly the arm of his queen. One of the bracelets is +composed of alternate plaques of gold and turquoise, each +ornamented with the figure of a hawk perched on the +top of it.<note place='foot'>E. Amélineau, <hi rend='italic'>Le Tombeau d'Osiris</hi> +(Paris, 1899), pp. 107-115; W. M. +Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>The Royal Tombs of +the Earliest Dynasties</hi>, Part ii. (London, +1901) pp. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 16-19, with +the frontispiece and plates lx. lxi.; +G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Études de Mythologie et +d'Archéologie Égyptiennes</hi> (Paris, 1893-1912), +vi. 167-173; J. H. Breasted, +<hi rend='italic'>History of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1908), pp. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 148; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, ii. 8-10, 13, +83-85. The tomb, with its interesting +contents, was discovered and excavated +by Monsieur E. Amélineau. +The masses, almost the mountains, +of broken pottery, under which the +tomb was found to be buried, are +probably remains of the vessels in +which pious pilgrims presented their +offerings at the shrine. See E. Amélineau, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 85 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. H. +Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 51, 148. The +high White Crown, worn by Osiris, +was the symbol of the king's dominion +over Upper Egypt; the flat Red +Crown, with a high backpiece and a +projecting spiral, was the symbol of +his dominion over Lower Egypt. On +the monuments the king is sometimes +represented wearing a combination of +the White and the Red Crown to +symbolize his sovereignty over both +the South and the North. White was +the distinctive colour of Upper, as red +was of Lower, Egypt. The treasury +of Upper Egypt was called <q>the +White House</q>; the treasury of Lower +Egypt was called <q>the Red House.</q> +See Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2. pp. 103 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. H. +Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>History of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi> (London, 1908), pp. 34 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +36, 41.</note> The hawk was the sacred bird or crest of +the earliest dynasties of Egyptian kings. The figure of a +hawk was borne before the king as a standard on solemn +occasions: the oldest capital of the country known to us +was called Hawk-town: there the kings of the first dynasty +built a temple to the hawk: there in modern times has +been found a splendid golden head of a hawk dating from +the Ancient Empire; and on the life-like statue of King +Chephren of the third dynasty we see a hawk with out-spread +wings protecting the back of the monarch's head. +<pb n='022'/><anchor id='Pg022'/> +From the earliest to the latest times of Egyptian civilization +<q>the Hawk</q> was the epithet of the king of Egypt +and of the king alone; it took the first place in the list of +his titles.<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères Égyptiens</hi> +(Paris, 1913), pp. 159-162, with +plate iii. Compare Victor Loret, +<q>L'Égypte au temps du totémisme,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Conférences faites au Musée Guimet, +Bibliothèque de Vulgarisation</hi>, xix. +(Paris, 1906) pp. 179-186. Both +these writers regard the hawk as the +totem of the royal clan. This view is +rejected by Prof. Ed. Meyer, who, +however, holds that Horus, whose +emblem was the hawk, was the oldest +national god of Egypt (<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des +Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. pp. 102-106). He +prefers to suppose that the hawk, or +rather the falcon, was the emblem of a +god of light because the bird flies high +in the sky (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 73; according +to him the bird is not the sparrow-hawk +but the falcon, ib. p. 75). A +similar view is adopted by Professor +A. Wiedemann (<hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, p. 26). Compare +A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 10, 11. The native Egyptian +name of Hawk-town was Nechen, in +Greek it was Hieraconpolis (Ed. Meyer, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 103). Hawks were worshipped +by the inhabitants (Strabo, +xvii. 1. 47, p. 817).</note> The sanctity of the bird may help us to understand +why Isis took the form of a hawk in order to mate +with her dead husband; why the queen of Egypt wore on +her arm a bracelet adorned with golden hawks; and why in +the holy sepulchre the four sons of Horus were represented +in the likeness of hawks keeping watch over the effigy of +their divine grandfather.<note place='foot'>According to the legend the four +sons of Horus were set by Anubis to +protect the burial of Osiris. They +washed his dead body, they mourned +over him, and they opened his cold +lips with their fingers. But they disappeared, +for Isis had caused them to +grow out of a lotus flower in a pool of +water. In that position they are sometimes +represented in Egyptian art +before the seated effigy of Osiris. See +A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +p. 43; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris +and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 40, +41, 327.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The association +of +Osiris with +Byblus.</note> +The legend recorded by Plutarch which associated the +dead Osiris with Byblus in Phoenicia<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> is doubtless late and +probably untrustworthy. It may have been suggested by +the resemblance which the worship of the Egyptian Osiris +bore to the worship of the Phoenician Adonis in that city. +But it is possible that the story has no deeper foundation +than a verbal misunderstanding. For Byblus is not only +the name of a city, it is the Greek word for papyrus; and +as Isis is said after the death of Osiris to have taken refuge +in the papyrus swamps of the Delta, where she gave birth to +and reared her son Horus, a Greek writer may perhaps have +confused the plant with the city of the same name.<note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and +the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> However +<pb n='023'/><anchor id='Pg023'/> +that may have been, the association of Osiris with +Adonis at Byblus gave rise to a curious tale. It is said +that every year the people beyond the rivers of Ethiopia +used to write a letter to the women of Byblus informing +them that the lost and lamented Adonis was found. This +letter they enclosed in an earthen pot, which they sealed +and sent floating down the river to the sea. The waves +carried the pot to Byblus, where every year it arrived at +the time when the Syrian women were weeping for their +dead Lord. The pot was taken up from the water and +opened: the letter was read; and the weeping women +dried their tears, because the lost Adonis was found.<note place='foot'>Cyril of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>In Isaiam</hi>, lib. ii. Tomus iii. (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia +Graeca</hi>, lxx. 441).</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='024'/><anchor id='Pg024'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter II. The Official Egyptian Calendar.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The date +of a +festival +sometimes +furnishes +a clue to +the nature +of the god.</note> +A useful clue to the original nature of a god or goddess is +often furnished by the season at which his or her festival is +celebrated. Thus, if the festival falls at the new or the full +moon, there is a certain presumption that the deity thus +honoured either is the moon or at least has lunar affinities. +If the festival is held at the winter or summer solstice, we +naturally surmise that the god is the sun, or at all events +that he stands in some close relation to that luminary. +Again, if the festival coincides with the time of sowing or +harvest, we are inclined to infer that the divinity is an +embodiment of the earth or of the corn. These presumptions +or inferences, taken by themselves, are by no means conclusive; +but if they happen to be confirmed by other +indications, the evidence may be regarded as fairly strong. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The year +of the +Egyptian +calendar +a vague or +movable +one.</note> +Unfortunately, in dealing with the Egyptian gods we are +in a great measure precluded from making use of this clue. +The reason is not that the dates of the festivals are always +unknown, but that they shifted from year to year, until +after a long interval they had revolved through the whole +course of the seasons. This gradual revolution of the +festal Egyptian cycle resulted from the employment of a +calendar year which neither corresponded exactly to the +solar year nor was periodically corrected by intercalation.<note place='foot'>As to the Egyptian calendar see +L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi> +(Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 93 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Sir +J. G. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, +1878), ii. 368 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Chronologie der Aegypter</hi>, i. (Berlin, +1849) pp. 125 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; H. Brugsch, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Ägyptologie</hi> (Leipsic, 1891), pp. +347-366; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und +aegyptisches Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. +468 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne +des Peuples de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 207-210; Ed. Meyer, +<q>Aegyptische Chronologie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen +der königl. Preuss. Akademie +der Wissenschaften</hi>, 1904, pp. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Nachträge zur ägyptischen +Chronologie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der +königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften</hi>, +1907, pp. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. pp. +28 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; F. K. Ginzel, +<hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen und +technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. (Leipsic, +1906) pp. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +<pb n='025'/><anchor id='Pg025'/> +The solar year is equivalent to about three hundred and sixty-five +and a quarter days; but the ancient Egyptians, ignoring +the quarter of a day, reckoned the year at three hundred and +sixty-five days only.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann's +note; Geminus, <hi rend='italic'>Elementa +Astronomiae</hi>, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius +(Leipsic, 1898); Censorinus, <hi rend='italic'>De +die natali</hi>, xviii. 10.</note> Thus each of their calendar years +was shorter than the true solar year by about a quarter of a +day. In four years the deficiency amounted to one whole +day; in forty years it amounted to ten days; in four hundred +years it amounted to a hundred days; and so it went on +increasing until after a lapse of four times three hundred and +sixty-five, or one thousand four hundred and sixty solar +years, the deficiency amounted to three hundred and sixty-five +days, or a whole Egyptian year. Hence one thousand +four hundred and sixty solar years, or their equivalent, +one thousand four hundred and sixty-one Egyptian years, +formed a period or cycle at the end of which the Egyptian +festivals returned to those points of the solar year at which +they had been celebrated in the beginning.<note place='foot'>Geminus, <hi rend='italic'>Elementa Astronomiae</hi>, +8, pp. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ed. C. Manitius.</note> In the meantime +they had been held successively on every day of the +solar year, though always on the same day of the calendar. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus the +official +calendar +was +divorced +from the +natural +calendar, +which is +marked by +the course +of the +seasons.</note> +Thus the official calendar was completely divorced, +except at rare and long intervals, from what may be called +the natural calendar of the shepherd, the husbandman, and +the sailor—that is, from the course of the seasons in which +the times for the various labours of cattle-breeding, tillage, +and navigation are marked by the position of the sun in the +sky, the rising or setting of the stars, the fall of rain, the +growth of pasture, the ripening of the corn, the blowing of +certain winds, and so forth. Nowhere, perhaps, are the +events of this natural calendar better marked or more +regular in their recurrence than in Egypt; nowhere accordingly +could their divergence from the corresponding dates +of the official calendar be more readily observed. The +<pb n='026'/><anchor id='Pg026'/> +divergence certainly did not escape the notice of the +Egyptians themselves, and some of them apparently +attempted successfully to correct it. Thus we are told that +the Theban priests, who particularly excelled in astronomy, +were acquainted with the true length of the solar year, and +harmonized the calendar with it by intercalating a day +every few, probably every four, years.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 50. 2; Strabo, +xvii. i. 46, p. 816. According to H. +Brugsch (<hi rend='italic'>Die Ägyptologie</hi>, pp. 349 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), the Egyptians would seem to have +denoted the movable year of the +calendar and the fixed year of the sun +by different written symbols. For more +evidence that they were acquainted +with a four years' period, corrected by +intercalation, see R. Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>Chronologie +der Aegypter</hi>, i. 149 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> But this scientific +improvement was too deeply opposed to the religious conservatism +of the Egyptian nature to win general acceptance. +<q>The Egyptians,</q> said Geminus, a Greek astronomer writing +about 77 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, <q>are of an opposite opinion and purpose from +the Greeks. For they neither reckon the years by the sun +nor the months and days by the moon, but they observe a +peculiar system of their own. They wish, in fact, that the +sacrifices should not always be offered to the gods at the +same time of the year, but that they should pass through +all the seasons of the year, so that the summer festival should +in time be celebrated in winter, in autumn, and in spring. +For that purpose they employ a year of three hundred and +sixty-five days, composed of twelve months of thirty days +each, with five supplementary days added. But they do +not add the quarter of a day for the reason I have given—namely, +in order that their festivals may revolve.</q><note place='foot'>Geminus, <hi rend='italic'>Elementa Astronomiae</hi>, +8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius. The same +writer further (p. 108) describes as a +popular Greek error the opinion that +the Egyptian festival of Isis coincided +with the winter solstice. In his day, +he tells us, the two events were +separated by an interval of a full month, +though they had coincided a hundred +and twenty years before the time he +was writing.</note> So +attached, indeed, were the Egyptians to their old calendar, +that the kings at their consecration were led by the priest +of Isis at Memphis into the holy of holies, and there made +to swear that they would maintain the year of three hundred +and sixty-five days without intercalation.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Scholia in Caesaris Germanici +Aratea</hi>, p. 409, ed. Fr. Eyssenhardt, +in his edition of Martianus Capella +(Leipsic, 1866).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Attempt of +Ptolemy +III. to +reform the +Egyptian +calendar +by intercalation.</note> +The practical inconvenience of a calendar which marked +true time only once in about fifteen hundred years might be +<pb n='027'/><anchor id='Pg027'/> +calmly borne by a submissive Oriental race like the ancient +Egyptians, but it naturally proved a stumbling-block to the +less patient temperament of their European conquerors. +Accordingly in the reign of King Ptolemy III. Euergetes a +decree was passed that henceforth the movable Egyptian +year should be converted into a fixed solar year by the +intercalation of one day at the end of every four years, <q>in +order that the seasons may do their duty perpetually +according to the present constitution of the world, and that +it may not happen, through the shifting of the star by one +day in four years, that some of the public festivals which +are now held in the winter should ever be celebrated in the +summer, and that other festivals now held in the summer +should hereafter be celebrated in the winter, as has happened +before, and must happen again if the year of three hundred and +sixty-five days be retained.</q> The decree was passed in the +year 239 or 238 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> by the high priests, scribes, and other +dignitaries of the Egyptian church assembled in convocation +at Canopus; but we cannot doubt that the measure, though +it embodied native Egyptian science, was prompted by the +king or his Macedonian advisers.<note place='foot'>Copies of the decree in hieroglyphic, +demotic, and Greek have been +found inscribed on stones in Egypt. +See Ch. Michel, <hi rend='italic'>Recueil d'Inscriptions +Grecques</hi> (Brussels, 1900), pp. 415 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +No. 551; W. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Orientis +Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae</hi> (Leipsic, +1903-1905), vol. i. pp. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. +56; J. P. Mahaffy, <hi rend='italic'>The Empire of the +Ptolemies</hi> (London, 1895), pp. 205 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 226 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The star mentioned in +the decree is the Dog-star (Sirius). +See below, pp. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> This sage attempt to +reform the erratic calendar was not permanently successful. +The change may indeed have been carried out during the +reign of the king who instituted it, but it was abandoned by +the year 196 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> at latest, as we learn from the celebrated +inscription known as the Rosetta stone, in which a month +of the Macedonian calendar is equated to the corresponding +month of the movable Egyptian year.<note place='foot'>W. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Orientis Graeci +Inscriptiones Selectae</hi>, vol. i. pp. 140 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. 90, with note 25 of the +editor.</note> And the testimony +of Geminus, which I have cited, proves that in the following +century the festivals were still revolving in the old style. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Institution +of the fixed +Alexandrian +year by +the +Romans.</note> +The reform which the Macedonian king had vainly +attempted to impose upon his people was accomplished by +the practical Romans when they took over the administration +<pb n='028'/><anchor id='Pg028'/> +of the country. The expedient by which they effected +the change was a simple one; indeed it was no other than +that to which Ptolemy Euergetes had resorted for the same +purpose. They merely intercalated one day at the end of +every four years, thus equalizing within a small fraction four +calendar years to four solar years. Henceforth the official +and the natural calendars were in practical agreement. The +movable Egyptian year had been converted into the fixed +Alexandrian year, as it was called, which agreed with the +Julian year in length and in its system of intercalation, +though it differed from that year in retaining the twelve +equal Egyptian months and five supplementary days.<note place='foot'>On the Alexandrian year see L. +Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 140 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> That admirable chronologer +argued (pp. 153-161) that the innovation +was introduced not, as had +been commonly supposed, in 25 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, +but in 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, the year in which +Augustus defeated Mark Antony under +the walls of Alexandria and captured +the city. However, the question seems +to be still unsettled. See F. K. Ginzel, +<hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen und +technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 226 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +who thinks it probable that the change +was made in 26 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> For the purposes +of this study the precise date of the +introduction of the Alexandrian year is +not material.</note> But +while the new calendar received the sanction of law and +regulated the business of government, the ancient calendar +was too firmly established in popular usage to be at once +displaced. Accordingly it survived for ages side by side with +its modern rival.<note place='foot'>In demotic the fixed Alexandrian +year is called <q>the year of the +Ionians,</q> while the old movable year +is styled <q>the year of the Egyptians.</q> +Documents have been found which are +dated by the day and the month of +both years. See H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Ägyptologie</hi>, pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The spread of Christianity, which required +a fixed year for the due observance of its festivals, did much +to promote the adoption of the new Alexandrian style, and +by the beginning of the fifth century the ancient movable year +of Egypt appears to have been not only dead but forgotten.<note place='foot'>L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 149-152. +Macrobius thought that the Egyptians +had always employed a solar year of +365-¼ days (<hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 12. 2, i. 14. 3). +The ancient calendar of the Mexicans +resembled that of the Egyptians except +that it was divided into eighteen months +of twenty days each (instead of twelve +months of thirty days each), with five +supplementary days added at the end +of the year. These supplementary +days (<foreign rend='italic'>nemontemi</foreign>) were deemed unlucky: +nothing was done on them: +they were dedicated to no deity; and +persons born on them were considered +unfortunate. See B. de Sahagun, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire générale des choses de la +Nouvelle-Espagne</hi>, traduite par D. +Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), +pp. 50, 164; F. S. Clavigero, <hi rend='italic'>History +of Mexico</hi> (London, 1807), i. 290. +Unlike the Egyptian calendar, however, +the Mexican appears to have +been regularly corrected by intercalation +so as to bring it into harmony +with the solar year. But as to the +mode of intercalation our authorities +differ. According to the positive +statement of Sahagun, one of the +earliest and best authorities, the +Mexicans corrected the deficiency of +their year by intercalating one day in +every fourth year, which is precisely the +correction adopted in the Alexandrian +and the Julian calendar. See B. de +Sahagun, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 286 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, where +he expressly asserts the falsehood of +the view that the bissextile year was +unknown to the Mexicans. This +weighty statement is confirmed by the +practice of the Indians of Yucatan. +Like the Aztecs, they reckoned a year +to consist of 360 days divided into +18 months of 20 days each, with 5 +days added so as to make a total of +365 days, but every fourth year they +intercalated a day so as to make a +total of 366 days. See Diego de +Landa, <hi rend='italic'>Relation des choses de Yucatan</hi> +(Paris, 1864), pp. 202 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> On the +other hand the historian Clavigero, +who lived in the eighteenth century, +but used earlier authorities, tells us +that the Mexicans <q>did not interpose +a day every four years, but thirteen +days (making use here even of this +favourite number) every fifty-two years; +which produces the same regulation of +time</q> (<hi rend='italic'>History of Mexico</hi>, Second +Edition, London, 1807, vol. i. p. 293). +However, the view that the Mexicans +corrected their year by intercalation is +rejected by Professor E. Seler. See his +<q>Mexican Chronology,</q> in <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin 28</hi> +of the Bureau of American Ethnology +(Washington, 1904), pp. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; and +on the other side Miss Zelia Nuttall, +<q>The Periodical Adjustments of the +Ancient Mexican Calendar,</q> <hi rend='italic'>American +Anthropologist</hi>, N.S. vi. (1904) pp. +486-500.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='030'/><anchor id='Pg030'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter III. The Calendar of the Egyptian Farmer.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The Rise and Fall of the Nile.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Rise and Fall of the Nile.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In Egypt +the operations +of +husbandry +are +dependent +on the +annual rise +and fall of +the Nile.</note> +If the Egyptian farmer of the olden time could thus get no +help, except at the rarest intervals, from the official or sacerdotal +calendar, he must have been compelled to observe for +himself those natural signals which marked the times for the +various operations of husbandry. In all ages of which we +possess any records the Egyptians have been an agricultural +people, dependent for their subsistence on the growth of the +corn. The cereals which they cultivated were wheat, barley, +and apparently sorghum (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Holcus sorghum</foreign>, Linnaeus), the +<foreign rend='italic'>doora</foreign> of the modern fellaheen.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 36, with A. Wiedemann's +note; Diodorus Siculus, i. 14-1, +i. 17. 1; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> v. 57 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, xviii. 60; Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, +<hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, 1878), +ii. 398, 399, 418, 426 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im +Altertum</hi>, pp. 577 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. de Candolle, +<hi rend='italic'>Origin of Cultivated Plants</hi> +(London, 1884), pp. 354 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 369, +381; G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne +des Peuples de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 66.</note> Then as now the whole +country, with the exception of a fringe on the coast of the +Mediterranean, was almost rainless, and owed its immense +fertility entirely to the annual inundation of the Nile, which, +regulated by an elaborate system of dams and canals, was +distributed over the fields, renewing the soil year by year +with a fresh deposit of mud washed down from the great +equatorial lakes and the mountains of Abyssinia. Hence +the rise of the river has always been watched by the inhabitants +with the utmost anxiety; for if it either falls short +of or exceeds a certain height, dearth and famine are the +inevitable consequences.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 14; Diodorus +Siculus, i. 36; Strabo, xvii. 1. 3, pp. +786-788; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xviii. 167-170; +Seneca, <hi rend='italic'>Natur. Quaest.</hi> iv. 2. +1-10; E. W. Lane, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the Modern Egyptians</hi> (Paisley +and London, 1895), pp. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 495 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 21-25; +G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> However, +since the Suez Canal was cut, +rain has been commoner in Lower +Egypt (A. H. Sayce on Herodotus, +ii. 14).</note> The water begins to rise early in +<pb n='031'/><anchor id='Pg031'/> +June, but it is not until the latter half of July that it swells to +a mighty tide. By the end of September the inundation is +at its greatest height. The country is now submerged, and +presents the appearance of a sea of turbid water, from which +the towns and villages, built on higher ground, rise like +islands. For about a month the flood remains nearly +stationary, then sinks more and more rapidly, till by December +or January the river has returned to its ordinary +bed. With the approach of summer the level of the water +continues to fall. In the early days of June the Nile is +reduced to half its ordinary breadth; and Egypt, scorched +by the sun, blasted by the wind that has blown from the +Sahara for many days, seems a mere continuation of the +desert. The trees are choked with a thick layer of grey +dust. A few meagre patches of vegetables, watered with +difficulty, struggle painfully for existence in the immediate +neighbourhood of the villages. Some appearance of verdure +lingers beside the canals and in the hollows from which the +moisture has not wholly evaporated. The plain appears to +pant in the pitiless sunshine, bare, dusty, ash-coloured, +cracked and seamed as far as the eye can see with a network +of fissures. From the middle of April till the middle +of June the land of Egypt is but half alive, waiting for the +new Nile.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des +Peuples de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 22-26; +A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, p. 23. According +to Lane (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) the Nile +rises in Egypt about the summer solstice +(June 21) and reaches its greatest +height by the autumnal equinox (September 22). +This agrees exactly with +the statement of Diodorus Siculus (i. +36. 2). Herodotus says (ii. 19) that +the rise of the river lasted for a hundred +days from the summer solstice. +Compare Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> v. 57, +xviii. 167; Seneca, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Quaest.</hi> iv. +2. 1. According to Prof. Ginzel the +Nile does not rise in Egypt till the last +week of June (<hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi>, +i. 154). For ancient descriptions of +Egypt in time of flood see Herodotus, +ii. 97; Diodorus Siculus, i. 36. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Strabo, xvii. 1. 4, p. 788; Aelian, <hi rend='italic'>De +natura animalium</hi>, x. 43; Achilles +Tatius, iv. 12; Seneca, <hi rend='italic'>Natur. Quaest.</hi> +iv. 2. 8 and 11.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Irrigation, +sowing, +and harvest +in Egypt.</note> +For countless ages this cycle of natural events has +determined the annual labours of the Egyptian husbandman. +The first work of the agricultural year is the cutting +<pb n='032'/><anchor id='Pg032'/> +of the dams which have hitherto prevented the swollen +river from flooding the canals and the fields. This is done, +and the pent-up waters released on their beneficent mission, +in the first half of August.<note place='foot'>Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Manners +and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1878), ii. 365 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. W. +Lane, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs of the +Modern Egyptians</hi> (Paisley and London, +1895), pp. 498 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. Maspero, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient +Classique</hi>, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 69. The last-mentioned +writer says (p. 24) that the +dams are commonly cut between the +first and sixteenth of July, but apparently +he means August.</note> In November, when the inundation +has subsided, wheat, barley, and sorghum are sown. +The time of harvest varies with the district, falling about a +month later in the north than in the south. In Upper or +Southern Egypt barley is reaped at the beginning of March, +wheat at the beginning of April, and sorghum about the +end of that month.<note place='foot'>Sir J. D. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 398 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, cited +above, vol. i. p. 231, note 3. According +to Pliny (<hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xviii. 60) barley +was reaped in Egypt in the sixth month +from sowing, and wheat in the seventh +month. Diodorus Siculus, on the other +hand, says (i. 36. 4) that the corn was +reaped after four or five months. Perhaps +Pliny refers to Lower, and Diodorus +to Upper Egypt. Elsewhere +Pliny affirms (<hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xviii. 169) +that the corn was sown at the beginning +of November, and that the reaping +began at the end of March and was +completed in May. This certainly +applies better to Lower than to Upper +Egypt.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The events +of the agricultural +year were +probably +celebrated +with +religious +rites.</note> +It is natural to suppose that these various events of the +agricultural year were celebrated by the Egyptian farmer +with some simple religious rites designed to secure the +blessing of the gods upon his labours. These rustic ceremonies +he would continue to perform year after year at +the same season, while the solemn festivals of the priests +continued to shift, with the shifting calendar, from summer +through spring to winter, and so backward through autumn +to summer. The rites of the husbandman were stable +because they rested on direct observation of nature: the +rites of the priest were unstable because they were based on +a false calculation. Yet many of the priestly festivals may +have been nothing but the old rural festivals disguised in the +course of ages by the pomp of sacerdotalism and severed, by +the error of the calendar, from their roots in the natural +cycle of the seasons. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='033'/><anchor id='Pg033'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Rites of Irrigation.'/> +<head>§ 2. Rites of Irrigation.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mourning +for Osiris +at midsummer +when the +Nile begins +to rise.</note> +These conjectures are confirmed by the little we know +both of the popular and of the official Egyptian religion. +Thus we are told that the Egyptians held a festival of Isis +at the time when the Nile began to rise. They believed +that the goddess was then mourning for the lost Osiris, and +that the tears which dropped from her eyes swelled the +impetuous tide of the river.<note place='foot'>Pausanias, x. 32. 18.</note> Hence in Egyptian inscriptions +Isis is spoken of as she <q>who maketh the Nile to swell +and overflow, who maketh the Nile to swell in his season.</q><note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and +the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, ii. 278.</note> +Similarly the Toradjas of Central Celebes imagine that +showers of rain are the tears shed by the compassionate +gods in weeping for somebody who is about to die; a +shower in the morning is to them an infallible omen of +death.<note place='foot'>N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, <hi rend='italic'>De +Bare'e-sprekende Toradjas van Midden-Celebes</hi> +(Batavia, 1912), i. 273. The +more civilized Indians of tropical +America, who practised agriculture +and had developed a barbaric art, +appear to have commonly represented +the rain-god in human form with tears +streaming down from his eyes. See +T. A. Joyce, <q>The Weeping God,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Essays and Studies presented to William +Ridgeway</hi> (Cambridge, 1913), pp. 365-374.</note> However, an uneasy suspicion would seem to have +occurred to the Egyptians that perhaps after all the tears of +the goddess might not suffice of themselves to raise the +water to the proper level; so in the time of Rameses II. +the king used on the first day of the flood to throw into the +Nile a written order commanding the river to do its duty, +and the submissive stream never failed to obey the royal +mandate.<note place='foot'>This we learn from inscriptions +at Silsilis. See A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères +Égyptiens</hi> (Paris, 1913), p. 180.</note> Yet the ancient belief survives in a modified +form to this day. For the Nile, as we saw, begins to rise in +June about the time of the summer solstice, and the people +still attribute its increased volume to a miraculous drop +which falls into the river on the night of the seventeenth of +the month. The charms and divinations which they practise +on that mystic night in order to ascertain the length of their +own life and to rid the houses of bugs may well date from +a remote antiquity.<note place='foot'>E. W. Lane, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs +of the Modern Egyptians</hi> (Paisley and +London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 495 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Now if Osiris was in one of his aspects +<pb n='034'/><anchor id='Pg034'/> +a god of the corn, nothing could be more natural than that +he should be mourned at midsummer. For by that time the +harvest was past, the fields were bare, the river ran low, life +seemed to be suspended, the corn-god was dead. At such a +moment people who saw the handiwork of divine beings in +all the operations of nature might well trace the swelling of +the sacred stream to the tears shed by the goddess at the +death of the beneficent corn-god her husband. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sirius +regarded +as the star +of Isis. The rising +of Sirius +marked +the beginning +of +the sacred +Egyptian +year. The observation +of +the gradual +displacement +of +Sirius in +the calendar +led to +the determination +of the true +length of +the solar +year.</note> +And the sign of the rising waters on earth was accompanied +by a sign in heaven. For in the early days of +Egyptian history, some three or four thousand years before +the beginning of our era, the splendid star of Sirius, the +brightest of all the fixed stars, appeared at dawn in the east +just before sunrise about the time of the summer solstice, +when the Nile begins to rise.<note place='foot'>L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi>, +i. 124 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; R. Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>Die Chronologie +der Aegypter</hi>, i. 168 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. K. +Ginzel, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 190 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Ed. Meyer, <q>Nachträge zur +ägyptischen Chronologie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen +der königl. Preuss. Akademie +der Wissenschaften</hi>, 1907 (Berlin, +1908), pp. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des +Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The +coincidence of the rising of Sirius with +the swelling of the Nile is mentioned +by Tibullus (i. 7. 21 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) and Aelian +(<hi rend='italic'>De natura animalium</hi>, x. 45). In +later times, as a consequence of the +precession of the equinoxes, the rising +of Sirius gradually diverged from the +summer solstice, falling later and later +in the solar year. In the sixteenth +and fifteenth century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> Sirius rose +seventeen days after the summer +solstice, and at the date of the Canopic +decree (238 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>) it rose a whole +month after the first swelling of the +Nile. See L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 130; +F. K. Ginzel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 190; Ed. +Meyer, <q>Nachträge zur ägyptischen +Chronologie,</q> pp. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> According +to Censorinus (<hi rend='italic'>De die natali</hi>, xxi. 10), +Sirius regularly rose in Egypt on the +twentieth of July (Julian calendar); +and this was true of latitude 30° in +Egypt (the latitude nearly of Heliopolis +and Memphis) for about three thousand +years of Egyptian history. See L. +Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 128-130. But the +date of the rising of the star is not +the same throughout Egypt; it varies +with the latitude, and the variation +within the limits of Egypt amounts to +seven days or more. Roughly speaking, +Sirius rises nearly a whole day +earlier for each degree of latitude you +go south. Thus, whereas near Alexandria +in the north Sirius does not rise +till the twenty-second of July, at Syene +in the south it rises on the sixteenth +of July. See R. Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. +168 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; F. K. Ginzel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. +182 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Now it is to be remembered +that the rising of the Nile, as well as +the rising of Sirius, is observed earlier +and earlier the further south you go. +The coincident variation of the two +phenomena could hardly fail to confirm +the Egyptians in their belief of a +natural or supernatural connexion between +them.</note> The Egyptians called it +Sothis, and regarded it as the star of Isis,<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 4; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 21, 22, 38, 61; +Porphyry, <hi rend='italic'>De antro nympharum</hi>, 24; +Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, ii. +517; Canopic decree, lines 36 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, in +W. Dittenberger's <hi rend='italic'>Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones +Selectae</hi>, vol. i. p. 102, No. +56 (lines 28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> in Ch. Michel's <hi rend='italic'>Recueil +d'Inscriptions Grecques</hi>, p. 417, +No. 551); R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario +di Mitologia Egizia</hi>, pp. 825 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> On +the ceiling of the Memnonium at +Thebes the heliacal rising of Sirius is +represented under the form and name +of Isis (Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Manners +and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, +London, 1878, iii. 102).</note> just as the +<pb n='035'/><anchor id='Pg035'/> +Babylonians deemed the planet Venus the star of Astarte. +To both peoples apparently the brilliant luminary in the +morning sky seemed the goddess of life and love come to +mourn her departed lover or spouse and to wake him from the +dead. Hence the rising of Sirius marked the beginning of the +sacred Egyptian year,<note place='foot'>Porphyry and the Canopic decree, +<hi rend='italic'>ll.cc.</hi>; Censorinus, <hi rend='italic'>De die natali</hi>, xviii. +10, xxi. 10. In inscriptions on the +temple at Syene, the modern Assuan, +Isis is called <q>the mistress of the beginning +of the year,</q> the goddess +<q>who revolves about the world, near +to the constellation of Orion, who rises +in the eastern sky and passes to the +west perpetually</q> (R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 826). According to some, the +festival of the rising of Sirius and the +beginning of the sacred year was held +on the nineteenth, not the twentieth +of July. See Ed. Meyer, <q>Ägyptische +Chronologie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der +königl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften</hi>, +1904, pp. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Nachträge zur ägyptischen Chronologie,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der königl. +Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften</hi>, +1907, pp. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des +Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. pp. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> and was regularly celebrated by a festival +which did not shift with the shifting official year.<note place='foot'><p><hi rend='italic'>Eudoxi ars astronomica, qualis +in charta Aegyptiaca superest</hi>, ed. +F. Blass (Kiliae, 1887), p. 14, οἱ δὲ +ἀσ[τρο]λ[ό]γοι καὶ οἱ ἱερογραμμ[ατεῖς] +χ[ρῶν]ται ταῖς κατὰ σελή[ν]ἠ[ν] ἡμ[έ]ραις +καὶ ἄγουσι πανδημ[ι]κὰς ἕ[ορ]τας +τινὰς μὲν ὡς ἐνομί[σθ]ἠ τὰ δὲ καταχυτήρια +καὶ κυνὸς ἀνατολὴν καὶ σεληναῖα +κατὰ θεό[ν], ἀναλεγόμενοι τὰς ἡμέρας ἐκ +τῶν Αἰγυπτίων. This statement of +Eudoxus or of one of his pupils is +important, since it definitely proves +that, besides the shifting festivals of +the shifting official year, the Egyptians +celebrated other festivals, which were +dated by direct observation of natural +phenomena, namely, the annual inundation, +the rise of Sirius, and the +phases of the moon. The same distinction +of the fixed from the movable +festivals is indicated in one of the +Hibeh papyri, but the passage is unfortunately +mutilated. See <hi rend='italic'>The Hibeh +Papyri</hi>, part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell +and A. S. Hunt (London, 1906), +pp. 145, 151 (pointed out to me by +my friend Mr. W. Wyse). The +annual festival in honour of Ptolemy +and Berenice was fixed on the day of +the rising of Sirius. See the Canopic +decree, in W. Dittenberger's <hi rend='italic'>Orientis +Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae</hi>, No. 56 +(vol. i. pp. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). +</p> +<p> +The rise of Sirius was carefully +observed by the islanders of Ceos, in +the Aegean. They watched for it +with arms in their hands and sacrificed +on the mountains to the star, drawing +from its aspect omens of the salubrity +or unhealthiness of the coming year. +The sacrifice was believed to secure the +advent of the cool North winds (the +Etesian winds as the Greeks call +them), which regularly begin to blow +about this time of the year, and mitigate +the oppressive heat of summer in +the Aegean. See Apollonius Rhodius, +<hi rend='italic'>Argon.</hi> ii. 516-527, with the notes of +the Scholiast on vv. 498, 526; Theophrastus, +<hi rend='italic'>De ventis</hi>, ii. 14; Clement +of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi> vi. 3. 29, p. 753, +ed. Potter; Nonnus, <hi rend='italic'>Dionys.</hi> v. 269-279; +Hyginus, <hi rend='italic'>Astronomica</hi>, ii. 4; +Cicero, <hi rend='italic'>De divinatione</hi>, i. 57. 130; +M. P. Nilsson, <hi rend='italic'>Griechische Feste</hi> +(Leipsic, 1906), pp. 6-8; C. Neumann und J. Partsch, <hi rend='italic'>Physikalische +Geographie von Griechenland</hi> (Breslau, +1885), pp. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> On the top of +Mount Pelion in Thessaly there was a +sanctuary of Zeus, where sacrifices were +offered at the rising of Sirius, in the +height of the summer, by men of rank, +who were chosen by the priest and +wore fresh sheep-skins. See [Dicaearchus,] +<q>Descriptio Graeciae,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Geographi +Graeci Minores</hi>, ed. C. Müller, +i. 107; <hi rend='italic'>Historicorum Graecorum Fragmenta</hi>, +ed. C. Müller, ii. 262.</p></note> The +<pb n='036'/><anchor id='Pg036'/> +first day of the first month Thoth was theoretically supposed +to date from the heliacal rising of the bright star, and in all +probability it really did so when the official or civil year of +three hundred and sixty-five days was first instituted. But +the miscalculation which has been already explained<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> had +the effect of making the star to shift its place in the calendar +by one day in four years. Thus if Sirius rose on the first +of Thoth in one year, it would rise on the second of Thoth +four years afterwards, on the third of Thoth eight years +afterwards, and so on until after the lapse of a Siriac or +Sothic period of fourteen hundred and sixty solar years the +first of Thoth again coincided with the heliacal rising of +Sirius.<note place='foot'><p>We know from Censorinus (<hi rend='italic'>De die +natali</hi>, xxi. 10) that the first of Thoth +coincided with the heliacal rising of +Sirius on July 20 (Julian calendar) in +the year 139 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> Hence reckoning +backwards by Sothic periods of 1460 +solar years we may infer that Sirius +rose on July 20th (Julian calendar) in +the years 1321 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, 2781 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, and +4241 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>; and accordingly that the +civil or vague Egyptian year of 365 +days was instituted in one of these +years. In favour of supposing that it +was instituted either in 2781 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> or +4241 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, it may be said that in both +these years the rising of Sirius nearly +coincided with the summer solstice and +the rising of the Nile; whereas in the +year 1321 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> the summer solstice, +and with it the rising of the Nile, fell +nineteen days before the rising of Sirius +and the first of Thoth. Now when we +consider the close causal connexion +which the Egyptians traced between +the rising of Sirius and the rising of +the Nile, it seems probable that they +started the new calendar on the first +of Thoth in a year in which the two +natural phenomena coincided rather +than in one in which they diverged +from each other by nineteen days. +Prof. Ed. Meyer decides in favour of +the year 4241 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> as the date of the +introduction of the Egyptian calendar +on the ground that the calendar was +already well known in the Old Kingdom. +See L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 125 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; F. K. Ginzel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 192 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +Ed. Meyer, <q>Nachträge zur ägyptischen +Chronologie,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen +der königl. Preuss. Akademie der +Wissenschaften</hi>, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), +pp. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2. pp. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 98 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +When the fixed Alexandrian year was +introduced in 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> (see above, pp. +<ref target='Pg027'>27</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) the first of Thoth fell on +August 29, which accordingly was +thenceforth reckoned the first day of +the year in the Alexandrian calendar. +See L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 153 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The +period of 1460 solar or 1461 movable +Egyptian years was variously called a +Sothic period (Clement of Alexandria, +<hi rend='italic'>Strom.</hi> i. 21. 136, p. 401 ed. Potter), +a Canicular year (from <hi rend='italic'>Canicula</hi>, <q>the +Dog-star,</q> that is, Sirius), a heliacal +year, and a year of God (Censorinus, +<hi rend='italic'>De die natali</hi>, xviii. 10). But there is +no evidence or probability that the +period was recognized by the Egyptian +astronomers who instituted the movable +year of 365 days. Rather, as +Ideler pointed out (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 132), it +must have been a later discovery based +on continued observations of the heliacal +rising of Sirius and of its gradual displacement +through the whole length of +the official calendar. Brugsch, indeed, +went so far as to suppose that the +period was a discovery of astronomers +of the second century <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, to which +they were led by the coincidence of +the first of Thoth with the heliacal +rising of Sirius in 139 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Die +Ägyptologie</hi>, p. 357). But the discovery, +based as it is on a very simple +calculation (365 × 4 = 1460), could +hardly fail to be made as soon as +astronomers estimated the length of +the solar year at 365-¼ days, and that +they did so at least as early as 238 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> +is proved conclusively by the Canopic +decree. See above, pp. 25 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 27. As to +the Sothic period see further R. Lepsius, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Chronologie der Aegypter</hi>, i. 165 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; F. K. Ginzel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +</p> +<p> +For the convenience of the reader I +subjoin a table of the Egyptian months, +with their dates, as these fell, (1) in a +year when the first of Thoth coincided +with July 20 of the Julian calendar, +and (2) in the fixed Alexandrian year. +</p> +<p> +Egyptian Months, Sothic Year beginning July 20, Alexandrian Year.<lb/> +1 Thoth, 20 July, 29 August<lb/> +1 Phaophi, 19 August, 28 September<lb/> +1 Atbyr, 18 September, 28 October<lb/> +1 Khoiak, 18 October, 27 November<lb/> +1 Tybi, 17 November, 27 December<lb/> +1 Mechir, 17 December, 26 January<lb/> +1 Phamenoth, 16 January, 25 February<lb/> +1 Pharmuthi, 15 February, 27 March<lb/> +1 Pachon, 17 March, 26 April<lb/> +1 Payni, 16 April, 26 May<lb/> +1 Epiphi, 16 May, 25 June<lb/> +1 Mesori, 15 June, 25 July<lb/> +1 Supplementary, 15 July, 24 August +</p> +<p> +See L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 143 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +F. K. Ginzel, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 200.</p></note> This observation of the gradual displacement of +<pb n='037'/><anchor id='Pg037'/> +the star in the calendar has been of the utmost importance +for the progress of astronomy, since it led the Egyptians +directly to the determination of the approximately true +length of the solar year and thus laid the basis of our +modern calendar; for the Julian calendar, which we owe +to Caesar, was founded on the Egyptian theory, though not +on the Egyptian practice.<note place='foot'>The Canopic decree (above, p. +<ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>) suffices to prove that the +Egyptian astronomers, long before +Caesar's time, were well acquainted +with the approximately exact length of +the solar year, although they did not +use their knowledge to correct the +calendar except for a short time in the +reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. With +regard to Caesar's debt to the Egyptian +astronomers see Dio Cassius, xliii. 26; +Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn</hi>, i. 14. 3, i. 16. 39; +L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 166 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> It was therefore a fortunate +moment for the world when some pious Egyptian, thousands +of years ago, identified for the first time the bright star of +Sirius with his goddess; for the identification induced his +countrymen to regard the heavenly body with an attention +which they would never have paid to it if they had known +it to be nothing but a world vastly greater than our own +and separated from it by an inconceivable, if not immeasurable, +abyss of space. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +observed in +Egypt at +the cutting +of the +dams early +in August. +The Bride +of the Nile. +Sacrifices +offered by +savages at +the cutting +of dams.</note> +The cutting of the dams and the admission of the water +<pb n='038'/><anchor id='Pg038'/> +into the canals and fields is a great event in the Egyptian +year. At Cairo the operation generally takes place between +the sixth and the sixteenth of August, and till lately was +attended by ceremonies which deserve to be noticed, because +they were probably handed down from antiquity. An +ancient canal, known by the name of the Khalíj, formerly +passed through the native town of Cairo. Near its entrance +the canal was crossed by a dam of earth, very broad at +the bottom and diminishing in breadth upwards, which used +to be constructed before or soon after the Nile began to +rise. In front of the dam, on the side of the river, was +reared a truncated cone of earth called the <foreign rend='italic'>'arooseh</foreign> or +<q>bride,</q> on the top of which a little maize or millet was +generally sown. This <q>bride</q> was commonly washed down +by the rising tide a week or a fortnight before the cutting +of the dam. Tradition runs that the old custom was to +deck a young virgin in gay apparel and throw her into +the river as a sacrifice to obtain a plentiful inundation.<note place='foot'>E. W. Lane, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and +Customs of the Modern Egyptians</hi> +(Paisley and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. +pp. 499 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Certainly human sacrifices were offered for a similar purpose +by the Wajagga of German East Africa down to recent +years. These people irrigate their fields by means of skilfully +constructed channels, through which they conduct the +water of the mountain brooks and rivers to the thirsty land. +They imagine that the spirits of their forefathers dwell +in the rocky basins of these rushing streams, and that they +would resent the withdrawal of the water to irrigate the +fields if compensation were not offered to them. The +water-rate paid to them consisted of a child, uncircumcised +and of unblemished body, who was decked with ornaments +and bells and thrown into the river to drown, before they +ventured to draw off the water into the irrigation channel. +Having thrown him in, his executioners shewed a clean +pair of heels, because they expected the river to rise in flood +at once on receipt of the water-rate.<note place='foot'>Bruno Gutmann, <q>Feldbausitten +und Wachstumsbräuche der Wadschagga,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</hi>, +xlv. (1913) pp. 484 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In similar circumstances +the Njamus of British East Africa sacrifice a sheep +before they let the water of the stream flow into the ditch +<pb n='039'/><anchor id='Pg039'/> +or artificial channel. The fat, dung, and blood of the +animal are sprinkled at the mouth of the ditch and in +the water; thereupon the dam is broken down and the +stream pours into the ditch. The sacrifice may only be +offered by a man of the Il Mayek clan, and for two days +afterwards he wears the skin of the beast tied round his +head. No one may quarrel with this man while the water +is irrigating the crops, else the people believe that the water +would cease to flow in the ditch; more than that, if the +men of the Il Mayek clan were angry and sulked for ten +days, the water would dry up permanently for that season. +Hence the Il Mayek clan enjoys great consideration in the +tribe, since the crops are thought to depend on their good +will and good offices. Ten elders assist at the sacrifice of +the sheep, though they may take no part in it. They must +all be of a particular age; and after the ceremony they +may not cohabit with their wives until harvest, and they are +obliged to sleep at night in their granaries. Curiously enough, +too, while the water is irrigating the fields, nobody may kill +waterbuck, eland, oryx, zebra, rhinoceros, or hippopotamus. +Anybody caught red-handed in the act of breaking this game-law +would at once be cast out of the village.<note place='foot'>Hon. K. R. Dundas, <q>Notes +on the tribes inhabiting the Baringo +District, East Africa Protectorate,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xl. (1910) p. 54.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Modern +Egyptian +ceremony +at the +cutting of +the dams.</note> +Whether the <q>bride</q> who used to figure at the ceremony +of cutting the dam in Cairo was ever a live woman or not, +the intention of the practice appears to have been to marry +the river, conceived as a male power, to his bride the corn-land, +which was soon to be fertilized by his water. The +ceremony was therefore a charm to ensure the growth of the +crops. As such it probably dated, in one form or another, +from ancient times. Dense crowds assembled to witness +the cutting of the dam. The operation was performed +before sunrise, and many people spent the preceding night +on the banks of the canal or in boats lit with lamps on the +river, while fireworks were displayed and guns discharged +at frequent intervals. Before sunrise a great number of +workmen began to cut the dam, and the task was accomplished +about an hour before the sun appeared on the +<pb n='040'/><anchor id='Pg040'/> +horizon. When only a thin ridge of earth remained, a boat +with an officer on board was propelled against it, and +breaking through the slight barrier descended with the rush +of water into the canal. The Governor of Cairo flung a +purse of gold into the boat as it passed. Formerly the +custom was to throw money into the canal. The populace +used to dive after it, and several lives were generally lost +in the scramble.<note place='foot'>E. W. Lane, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 500-504; +Sir Auckland Colvin, <hi rend='italic'>The Making of +Modern Egypt</hi> (London, 1906), pp. +278 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> According to the latter writer, +a dressed dummy was thrown into the +river at each cutting of the dam.</note> This practice also would seem to have +been ancient, for Seneca tells us that at a place called +the Veins of the Nile, not far from Philae, the priests used +to cast money and offerings of gold into the river at a +festival which apparently took place at the rising of the +water.<note place='foot'>Seneca, <hi rend='italic'>Naturales Quaestiones</hi>, +iv. 2. 7. The cutting of the dams +is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus +(i. 36. 3), and the festival on that +occasion (τὰ καταχυτήρια) is noticed +by Eudoxus (or one of his pupils) +in a passage which has already been +quoted. See above, p. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>, note 2.</note> At Cairo the time-honoured ceremony came to an +end in 1897, when the old canal was filled up. An electric +tramway now runs over the spot where for countless ages +crowds of worshippers or holiday-makers had annually +assembled to witness the marriage of the Nile.<note place='foot'>Sir Auckland Colvin, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Rites of Sowing.'/> +<head>§ 3. Rites of Sowing.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The sowing +of the +seed in +November. +Plutarch +on the +mournful +character +of the rites +of sowing. The sadness +of +autumn.</note> +The next great operation of the agricultural year in +Egypt is the sowing of the seed in November, when the +water of the inundation has retreated from the fields. With +the Egyptians, as with many peoples of antiquity, the committing +of the seed to the earth assumed the character of +a solemn and mournful rite. On this subject I will let +Plutarch speak for himself. <q>What,</q> he asks, <q>are we to +make of the gloomy, joyless, and mournful sacrifices, if it is +wrong either to omit the established rites or to confuse and +disturb our conceptions of the gods by absurd suspicions? +For the Greeks also perform many rites which resemble +those of the Egyptians and are observed about the same +time. Thus at the festival of the Thesmophoria in Athens +<pb n='041'/><anchor id='Pg041'/> +women sit on the ground and fast. And the Boeotians +open the vaults of the Sorrowful One,<note place='foot'>Τῆς Ἀχαίας. Plutarch derives the +name from ἄχος, <q>pain,</q> <q>grief.</q> +But the etymology is uncertain. It +has lately been proposed to derive the +epithet from ὀχή, <q>nourishment.</q> See +M. P. Nilsson, <hi rend='italic'>Griechische Feste</hi> +(Leipsic, 1906), p. 326. As to the +vaults (μέγαρα) of Demeter see Pausanias, +ix. 8. 1; Scholiast on Lucian, +<hi rend='italic'>Dial. Meretr.</hi> ii. pp. 275 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ed. +H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906).</note> naming that festival +sorrowful because Demeter is sorrowing for the descent of +the Maiden. The month is the month of sowing about the +setting of the Pleiades.<note place='foot'>In antiquity the Pleiades set at +dawn about the end of October or +early in November. See L. Ideler, +<hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen und +technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 242; Aug. +Mommsen, <hi rend='italic'>Chronologie</hi> (Leipsic, 1883), +pp. 16, 27; G. F. Unger, <q>Zeitrechnung +der Griechen und Römer,</q> in +Iwan Müller's <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der klassischen +Altertumswissenschaft</hi>, i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi> (Nördlingen, +1886) pp. 558, 585.</note> The Egyptians call it Athyr, the +Athenians Pyanepsion, the Boeotians the month of Demeter. +Theopompus informs us that the western peoples consider +and call the winter Cronus, the summer Aphrodite, and the +spring Persephone, and they believe that all things are +brought into being by Cronus and Aphrodite. The +Phrygians imagine that the god sleeps in winter and wakes +in summer, and accordingly they celebrate with Bacchic +rites the putting him to bed in winter and his awakening in +summer. The Paphlagonians allege that he is bound fast +and shut up in winter, but that he stirs and is set free in +spring. And the season furnishes a hint that the sadness is +for the hiding of those fruits of the earth which the ancients +esteemed, not indeed gods, but great and necessary gifts +bestowed by the gods in order that men might not lead the +life of savages and of wild beasts. For it was that time of +year when they saw some of the fruits vanishing and falling +from the trees, while they sowed others grudgingly and with +difficulty, scraping the earth with their hands and huddling +it up again, on the uncertain chance that what they deposited +in the ground would ever ripen and come to maturity. Thus +they did in many respects like those who bury and mourn +their dead. And just as we say that a purchaser of Plato's +books purchases Plato, or that an actor who plays the +comedies of Menander plays Menander, so the men of old +did not hesitate to call the gifts and products of the gods by +the names of the gods themselves, thereby honouring and +glorifying the things on account of their utility. But in +<pb n='042'/><anchor id='Pg042'/> +after ages simple folk in their ignorance applied to the gods +statements which only held true of the fruits of the earth, +and so they came not merely to say but actually to believe +that the growth and decay of plants, on which they subsisted,<note place='foot'>Τὰς παρουσίας τῶν ἀναγκαίων καί +ἀποκρύψεις.</note> +were the birth and the death of gods. Thus they fell into +absurd, immoral, and confused ways of thinking, though all +the while the absurdity of the fallacy was manifest. Hence +Xenophanes of Colophon declared that if the Egyptians +deemed their gods divine they should not weep for them, +and that if they wept for them they should not deem +them divine. <q>For it is ridiculous,</q> said he, <q>to lament +and pray that the fruits would be good enough to grow and +ripen again in order that they may again be eaten and +lamented.</q> But he was wrong, for though the lamentations +are for the fruits, the prayers are addressed to the gods, as +the causes and givers of them, that they would be pleased +to make fresh fruits to spring up instead of those that +perish.</q><note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 69-71. +With the sleep of the Phrygian +gods we may compare the sleep of +Vishnu. The toils and anxieties of +the Indian farmer <q>are continuous, +and his only period of comparative +rest is in the heavy rain time, when, +as he says, the god Vishnu goes to +sleep, and does not wake till October +is well advanced and the time has +come to begin cutting and crushing the +sugar-cane and boiling down the juice</q> +(W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Natives of Northern +India</hi>, London, 1907, p. 159).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Plutarch's +view that +the worship +of the +fruits of +the earth +sprang +from a +verbal +misunderstanding.</note> +In this interesting passage Plutarch expresses his belief +that the worship of the fruits of the earth was the result of +a verbal misapprehension or disease of language, as it has +been called by a modern school of mythologists, who explain +the origin of myths in general on the same easy principle of +metaphors misunderstood. Primitive man, on Plutarch's +theory, firmly believed that the fruits of the earth on which +he subsisted were not themselves gods but merely the gifts +of the gods, who were the real givers of all good things. +Yet at the same time men were in the habit of bestowing on +these divine products the names of their divine creators, +either out of gratitude or merely for the sake of brevity, as +when we say that a man has bought a Shakespeare or acted +Molière, when we mean that he has bought the works of +Shakespeare or acted the plays of Molière. This abbreviated +mode of expression was misunderstood in later times, and so +<pb n='043'/><anchor id='Pg043'/> +people came to look upon the fruits of the earth as themselves +divine instead of as being the work of divinities: in +short, they mistook the creature for the creator. In like +manner Plutarch would explain the Egyptian worship of +animals as reverence done not so much to the beasts themselves +as to the great god who displays the divine handiwork +in sentient organisms even more than in the most beautiful +and wonderful works of inanimate nature.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 77.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>His theory +is an +inversion +of the +truth: for +fetishism +is the +antecedent, +not the +corruption, +of theism. +Lamentations +of the +savage for +the animals +and plants +which he +kills and +eats.</note> +The comparative study of religion has proved that these +theories of Plutarch are an inversion of the truth. Fetishism, +or the view that the fruits of the earth and things in general +are divine or animated by powerful spirits, is not, as Plutarch +imagined, a late corruption of a pure and primitive theism, +which regarded the gods as the creators and givers of all +good things. On the contrary, fetishism is early and theism +is late in the history of mankind. In this respect Xenophanes, +whom Plutarch attempts to correct, displayed a much truer +insight into the mind of the savage. To weep crocodile +tears over the animals and plants which he kills and eats, +and to pray them to come again in order that they may +be again eaten and again lamented—this may seem absurd +to us, but it is precisely what the savage does. And from +his point of view the proceeding is not at all absurd but +perfectly rational and well calculated to answer his ends. +For he sincerely believes that animals and fruits are tenanted +by spirits who can harm him if they please, and who cannot +but be put to considerable inconvenience by that destruction +of their bodies which is unfortunately inseparable from the +processes of mastication and digestion. What more natural, +therefore, than that the savage should offer excuses to the +beasts and the fruits for the painful necessity he is under of +consuming them, and that he should endeavour to alleviate +their pangs by soft words and an air of respectful sympathy, +in order that they may bear him no grudge, and may in due +time come again to be again eaten and again lamented? +Judged by the standard of primitive manners the attitude of +the walrus to the oysters was strictly correct:— +</p> + +<pb n='044'/><anchor id='Pg044'/> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'><q>I weep for you,</q> the Walrus said:</hi></q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q rend='none'><hi rend='italic'><q>I deeply sympathize.</q></hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>With sobs and tears he sorted out</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>Those of the largest size,</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Holding his pocket-handkerchief</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Before his streaming eyes.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Respect +shown by +savages +for the +fruits and +the animals +which +they eat.</note> +Many examples of such hypocritical lamentations for +animals, drawn not from the fancy of a playful writer but +from the facts of savage life, could be cited.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</hi>, +ii. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Here I +shall quote the general statement of a writer on the Indians +of British Columbia, because it covers the case of vegetable +as well as of animal food. After describing the respectful +welcome accorded by the Stlatlum Indians to the first +<q>sock-eye</q> salmon which they have caught in the season, +he goes on: <q>The significance of these ceremonies is easy +to perceive when we remember the attitude of the Indians +towards nature generally, and recall their myths relating to +the salmon, and their coming to their rivers and streams. +Nothing that the Indian of this region eats is regarded by +him as mere food and nothing more. Not a single plant, +animal, or fish, or other object upon which he feeds, is +looked upon in this light, or as something he has secured +for himself by his own wit and skill. He regards it rather +as something which has been voluntarily and compassionately +placed in his hands by the goodwill and consent of the +'spirit' of the object itself, or by the intercession and magic +of his culture-heroes; to be retained and used by him only +upon the fulfilment of certain conditions. These conditions +include respect and reverent care in the killing or plucking +of the animal or plant and proper treatment of the parts he +has no use for, such as the bones, blood, and offal; and the +depositing of the same in some stream or lake, so that the +object may by that means renew its life and physical form. +The practices in connection with the killing of animals and +the gathering of plants and fruits all make this quite clear, +and it is only when we bear this attitude of the savage +towards nature in mind that we can hope to rightly understand +the motives and purposes of many of his strange +customs and beliefs.</q><note place='foot'>C. Hill Tout, <q>Report on the +Ethnology of the Stlatlum Indians of +British Columbia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxv. (1905) +pp. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='045'/><anchor id='Pg045'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus the +lamentations +of +the sower +become +intelligible.</note> +We can now understand why among many peoples of +antiquity, as Plutarch tells us, the time of sowing was a +time of sorrow. The laying of the seed in the earth was +a burial of the divine element, and it was fitting that like a +human burial it should be performed with gravity and the +semblance, if not the reality, of sorrow. Yet they sorrowed +not without hope, perhaps a sure and certain hope, that the +seed which they thus committed with sighs and tears to +the ground would yet rise from the dust and yield fruit a +hundredfold to the reaper. <q>They that sow in tears shall +reap in joy. He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing +precious seed, shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, +bringing his sheaves with him.</q><note place='foot'>Psalm cxxvi. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Firmicus +Maternus asks the Egyptians (<hi rend='italic'>De +errore profanarum religionum</hi>, ii. 7), +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cur plangitis fruges terrae et crescentia +lugetis semina?</foreign></q></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. Rites of Harvest.'/> +<head>§ 4. Rites of Harvest.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Lamentations +of +the +Egyptian +corn-reapers.</note> +The Egyptian harvest, as we have seen, falls not in +autumn but in spring, in the months of March, April, and +May. To the husbandman the time of harvest, at least in a +good year, must necessarily be a season of joy: in bringing +home his sheaves he is requited for his long and anxious +labours. Yet if the old Egyptian farmer felt a secret joy +at reaping and garnering the grain, it was essential that he +should conceal the natural emotion under an air of profound +dejection. For was he not severing the body of the corn-god +with his sickle and trampling it to pieces under the +hoofs of his cattle on the threshing-floor?<note place='foot'>As to the Egyptian modes of +reaping and threshing see Sir J. +Gardiner Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and +Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1878), ii. 419 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. +Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. 572 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Accordingly we +are told that it was an ancient custom of the Egyptian corn-reapers +to beat their breasts and lament over the first sheaf +cut, while at the same time they called upon Isis.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2.</note> The +invocation seems to have taken the form of a melancholy +chant, to which the Greeks gave the name of Maneros. +Similar plaintive strains were chanted by corn-reapers in +<pb n='046'/><anchor id='Pg046'/> +Phoenicia and other parts of Western Asia.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, +iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7; Athenaeus, +xiv. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, pp. 618-620. As to +these songs see <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and +of the Wild</hi>, i. 214 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Probably all +these doleful ditties were lamentations for the corn-god +killed by the sickles of the reapers. In Egypt the slain +deity was Osiris, and the name <hi rend='italic'>Maneros</hi> applied to the dirge +appears to be derived from certain words meaning <q>Come +to thy house,</q> which often occur in the lamentations for the +dead god.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Adonisklage und +Linoslied</hi> (Berlin, 1852), p. 24, corrected +by A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Herodots +zweites Buch</hi>, p. 336. As to the lamentations +for Osiris see above, p. 12.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Similar +ceremonies +observed +by the +Cherokee +Indians +in the +cultivation +of the +corn. +The Old +Woman of +the corn +and the +laments for +her death.</note> +Ceremonies of the same sort have been observed by +other peoples, probably for the same purpose. Thus we are +told that among all vegetables corn (<foreign rend='italic'>selu</foreign>), by which is +apparently meant maize, holds the first place in the household +economy and the ceremonial observance of the +Cherokee Indians, who invoke it under the name of <q>the +Old Woman</q> in allusion to a myth that it sprang from +the blood of an old woman killed by her disobedient sons. +<q>Much ceremony accompanied the planting and tending of +the crop. Seven grains, the sacred number, were put into +each hill, and these were not afterwards thinned out. After +the last working of the crop, the priest and an assistant—generally +the owner of the field—went into the field and +built a small enclosure in the centre. Then entering it, +they seated themselves upon the ground, with heads bent +down, and while the assistant kept perfect silence the priest, +with rattle in hand, sang songs of invocation to the spirit of +the corn. Soon, according to the orthodox belief, a loud +rustling would be heard outside, which they would know +was caused by the <q>Old Woman</q> bringing the corn into the +field, but neither must look up until the song was finished. +This ceremony was repeated on four successive nights, after +which no one entered the field for seven other nights, when +the priest himself went in, and, if all the sacred regulations +had been properly observed, was rewarded by finding young +ears upon the stalks. The corn ceremonies could be performed +by the owner of the field himself, provided he was +willing to pay a sufficient fee to the priest in order to learn +the songs and ritual. Care was always taken to keep a +<pb n='047'/><anchor id='Pg047'/> +clean trail from the field to the house, so that the corn +might be encouraged to stay at home and not go wandering +elsewhere. Most of these customs have now fallen into disuse +excepting among the old people, by many of whom +they are still religiously observed. Another curious ceremony, +of which even the memory is now almost forgotten, was +enacted after the first working of the corn, when the owner +or priest stood in succession at each of the four corners of +the field and wept and wailed loudly. Even the priests are +now unable to give a reason for this performance, which may +have been a lament for the bloody death of Selu,</q> the Old +Woman of the Corn.<note place='foot'>J. Mooney, <q>Myths of the +Cherokee,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Nineteenth Annual Report +of the Bureau of American +Ethnology</hi> (Washington, 1900), pp. +423 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> I do not know what precisely +the writer means by <q>the last working +of the crop</q> and <q>the first working of +the corn.</q></note> In these Cherokee practices the +lamentations and the invocations of the Old Woman of +the Corn resemble the ancient Egyptian customs of lamenting +over the first corn cut and calling upon Isis, herself +probably in one of her aspects an Old Woman of the Corn. +Further, the Cherokee precaution of leaving a clear path +from the field to the house resembles the Egyptian invitation +to Osiris, <q>Come to thy house.</q> So in the East Indies +to this day people observe elaborate ceremonies for the +purpose of bringing back the Soul of the Rice from the +fields to the barn.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the +Wild</hi>, i. 180 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The Nandi of British East Africa perform +a ceremony in September when the eleusine grain is +ripening. Every woman who owns a plantation goes out +with her daughters into the cornfields and makes a bonfire +of the branches and leaves of certain trees (the <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Solanum +campylanthum</foreign> and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Lantana salvifolia</foreign>). After that they pluck +some of the eleusine, and each of them puts one grain in her +necklace, chews another and rubs it on her forehead, throat, +and breast. <q>No joy is shown by the womenfolk on this +occasion, and they sorrowfully cut a basketful of the corn +which they take home with them and place in the loft to +dry.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), p. 46.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Lamentations +of +Indians at +cutting +sacred +wood.</note> +Just as the Egyptians lamented at cutting the corn, +so the Karok Indians of California lament at hewing the +<pb n='048'/><anchor id='Pg048'/> +sacred wood for the fire in the assembly-room. The +wood must be cut from a tree on the top of the highest +hill. In lopping off the boughs the Indian weeps and +sobs piteously, shedding real tears, and at the top of the +tree he leaves two branches and a top-knot, resembling +a man's head and outstretched arms. Having descended +from the tree, he binds the wood in a faggot and carries +it back to the assembly-room, blubbering all the way. +If he is asked why he thus weeps at cutting and fetching the +sacred fuel, he will either give no answer or say simply that +he does it for luck.<note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi> +(Washington, 1877), p. 25.</note> We may suspect that his real motive +is to appease the wrath of the tree-spirit, many of whose +limbs he has amputated, though he took care to leave him +two arms and a head. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Arab +ceremony +of burying +<q>the old +man</q> at +harvest.</note> +The conception of the corn-spirit as old and dead at +harvest is very clearly embodied in a custom observed by +the Arabs of Moab. When the harvesters have nearly +finished their task and only a small corner of the field +remains to be reaped, the owner takes a handful of wheat +tied up in a sheaf. A hole is dug in the form of a grave, +and two stones are set upright, one at the head and the +other at the foot, just as in an ordinary burial. Then the +sheaf of wheat is laid at the bottom of the grave, and +the sheikh pronounces these words, <q>The old man is dead.</q> +Earth is afterwards thrown in to cover the sheaf, with a +prayer, <q>May Allah bring us back the wheat of the dead.</q><note place='foot'>A. Jaussen, <q>Coutumes Arabes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Revue Biblique</hi>, 1<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>er</hi> avril 1903, p. 258; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes des Arabes au pays de +Moab</hi> (Paris 1908), pp. 252 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='049'/><anchor id='Pg049'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter IV. The Official Festivals of Osiris.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The Festival at Sais.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Festival at Sais.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>With the +adoption +of the Alexandrian +year in +30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> the +Egyptian +festivals +ceased to +rotate +through +the natural +year.</note> +Such, then, were the principal events of the farmer's calendar +in ancient Egypt, and such the simple religious rites by +which he celebrated them. But we have still to consider +the Osirian festivals of the official calendar, so far as these +are described by Greek writers or recorded on the monuments. +In examining them it is necessary to bear in mind +that on account of the movable year of the old Egyptian +calendar the true or astronomical dates of the official festivals +must have varied from year to year, at least until the adoption +of the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> From that time +onward, apparently, the dates of the festivals were determined +by the new calendar, and so ceased to rotate +throughout the length of the solar year. At all events +Plutarch, writing about the end of the first century, implies +that they were then fixed, not movable; for though he +does not mention the Alexandrian calendar, he clearly dates +the festivals by it.<note place='foot'>Thus with regard to the Egyptian +month of Athyr he tells us that the sun +was then in the sign of the Scorpion +(<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 13), that Athyr corresponded +to the Athenian month +Pyanepsion and the Boeotian month +Damatrius (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 69), that it was the +month of sowing (<hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi>), that in it the +Nile sank, the earth was laid bare by +the retreat of the inundation, the leaves +fell, and the nights grew longer than +the days (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 39). These indications +agree on the whole with the date +of Athyr in the Alexandrian calendar, +namely October 28-November 26. +Again, he says (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 43) that the +festival of the beginning of spring was +held at the new moon of the month +Phamenoth, which, in the Alexandrian +calendar, corresponded to February 24-March +26. Further, he tells us that a +festival was celebrated on the 23rd of +Phaophi after the autumn equinox +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 52), and in the Alexandrian +calendar Phaophi began on September +28, a few days after the autumn equinox. +Once more, he observes that another +festival was held after the spring +equinox (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 65), which implies +the use of a fixed solar year. See +G. Parthey in his edition of Plutarch's +<hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi> (Berlin, 1850), pp. 165-169.</note> Moreover, the long festal calendar of +<pb n='050'/><anchor id='Pg050'/> +Esne, an important document of the Imperial age, is obviously +based on the fixed Alexandrian year; for it assigns +the mark for New Year's Day to the day which corresponds +to the twenty-ninth of August, which was the first day of +the Alexandrian year, and its references to the rising of the +Nile, the position of the sun, and the operations of agriculture +are all in harmony with this supposition.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ägyptologie</hi>, p. +355.</note> Thus we +may take it as fairly certain that from 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> onwards the +Egyptian festivals were stationary in the solar year. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +sufferings +of Osiris +displayed +as a +mystery +at Sais. The +illumination +of +houses +throughout +Egypt on +the night +of the +festival +suggests +that the +rite was a +Feast of +All Souls.</note> +Herodotus tells us that the grave of Osiris was at Sais in +Lower Egypt, and that there was a lake there upon which the +sufferings of the god were displayed as a mystery by night.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 170.</note> +This commemoration of the divine passion was held once a +year: the people mourned and beat their breasts at it to testify +their sorrow for the death of the god; and an image of a cow, +made of gilt wood with a golden sun between its horns, was +carried out of the chamber in which it stood the rest of the +year.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 129-132.</note> The cow no doubt represented Isis herself, for cows +were sacred to her, and she was regularly depicted with the +horns of a cow on her head,<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 41, with Prof. A. +Wiedemann's note (<hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites +Buch</hi>, pp. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>); Diodorus +Siculus, i. 11. 4; Aelian, <hi rend='italic'>De natura +animalium</hi>, x. 27; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et +Osiris</hi>, 19 and 39. According to +Prof. Wiedemann <q>the Egyptian +name of the cow of Isis was <foreign rend='italic'>ḥes-t</foreign>, and +this is one of the rare cases in which +the name of the sacred animal agrees +with that of the deity.</q> <foreign rend='italic'>Hest</foreign> was the +usual Egyptian form of the name +which the Greeks and Romans represented +as Isis. See R. V. Lanzone, +<hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia</hi>, pp. +813 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> or even as a woman with the +head of a cow.<note place='foot'>In this form she is represented on +a relief at Philae pouring a libation in +honour of the soul of Osiris. See +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 8. She is +similarly portrayed in a bronze statuette, +which is now in the Louvre. +See G. Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +de l'Art dans l'Antiquité</hi>, i. (Paris, +1882) p. 60, fig. 40.</note> It is probable that the carrying out of her cow-shaped +image symbolized the goddess searching for the dead +body of Osiris; for this was the native Egyptian interpretation +of a similar ceremony observed in Plutarch's time about the +winter solstice, when the gilt cow was carried seven times +round the temple.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 52. The +interpretation is accepted by Prof. A. +Wiedemann (<hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites Buch</hi>, +p. 482).</note> A great feature of the festival was the +<pb n='051'/><anchor id='Pg051'/> +nocturnal illumination. People fastened rows of oil-lamps +to the outside of their houses, and the lamps burned all +night long. The custom was not confined to Sais, but was +observed throughout the whole of Egypt.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 62. In one of the +Hibeh papyri (No. 27, lines 165-167) +mention is made of the festival and of +the lights which were burned throughout +the district. See <hi rend='italic'>The Hibeh Papyri</hi>, +part i., ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. +Hunt (London, 1906), p. 149 (pointed +out to me by Mr. W. Wyse). In +the papyrus the festival is said to have +been held in honour of Athena (<hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> +Neith), the great goddess of Sais, who +was there identified with Isis. See +A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der alten +Ägypter</hi>, pp. 77 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of +the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, pp. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +This universal illumination of the houses on one night +of the year suggests that the festival may have been a commemoration +not merely of the dead Osiris but of the dead +in general, in other words, that it may have been a night of +All Souls.<note place='foot'>In the period of the Middle Kingdom +the Egyptians of Siut used to +light lamps for the dead on the last +day and the first day of the year. See +A. Erman, <q>Zehn Vorträge aus dem +mittleren Reich,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für ägyptische +Sprache und Alterthumskunde</hi>, +xx. (1882) p. 164; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und +aegyptisches Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. +434 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> For it is a widespread belief that the souls of +the dead revisit their old homes on one night of the year; +and on that solemn occasion people prepare for the reception +of the ghosts by laying out food for them to eat, and +lighting lamps to guide them on their dark road from and to +the grave. The following instances will illustrate the custom. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Feasts of All Souls.'/> +<head>§ 2. Feasts of All Souls.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead +among +the Esquimaux. +The lighting +of the +lamps for +the dead. Annual +festivals +of the dead +among the +Indians of +California. +Annual +festivals of +the dead +among the +Choctaws +and Pueblo +Indians.</note> +The Esquimaux of St. Michael and the lower Yukon +River in Alaska hold a festival of the dead every year at +the end of November or the beginning of December, as +well as a greater festival at intervals of several years. At +these seasons, food, drink, and clothes are provided for the +returning ghosts in the <foreign rend='italic'>kashim</foreign> or clubhouse of the village, +which is illuminated with oil lamps. Every man or +woman who wishes to honour a dead friend sets up a lamp +on a stand in front of the place which the deceased used to +occupy in the clubhouse. These lamps, filled with seal oil, +are kept burning day and night till the festival is over. +They are believed to light the shades on their return to +<pb n='052'/><anchor id='Pg052'/> +their old home and back again to the land of the dead. If +any one fails to put up a lamp in the clubhouse and to keep +it burning, the shade whom he or she desires to honour +could not find its way to the place and so would miss the +feast. On the eve of the festival the nearest male relation +goes to the grave and summons the ghost by planting there +a small model of a seal spear or of a wooden dish, according +as the deceased was a man or a woman. The badges +of the dead are marked on these implements. When all is +ready, the ghosts gather in the fire-pit under the clubhouse, +and ascending through the floor at the proper moment take +possession of the bodies of their namesakes, to whom the +offerings of food, drink, and clothing are made for the benefit +of the dead. Thus each shade obtains the supplies he needs +in the other world. The dead who have none to make +offerings to them are believed to suffer great destitution. +Hence the Esquimaux fear to die without leaving behind +them some one who will sacrifice to their spirits, and childless +people generally adopt children lest their shades should +be forgotten at the festivals. When a person has been +much disliked, his ghost is sometimes purposely ignored, +and that is deemed the severest punishment that could be +inflicted upon him. After the songs of invitation to the +dead have been sung, the givers of the feast take a small +portion of food from every dish and cast it down as an +offering to the shades; then each pours a little water on +the floor so that it runs through the cracks. In this way +they believe that the spiritual essence of all the food and +water is conveyed to the souls. The remainder of the food +is afterwards distributed among the people present, who eat +of it heartily. Then with songs and dances the feast comes +to an end, and the ghosts are dismissed to their own place. +Dances form a conspicuous feature of the great festival of the +dead, which is held every few years. The dancers dance not +only in the clubhouse but also at the graves and on the ice, +if the deceased met their death by drowning.<note place='foot'>E. W. Nelson, <q>The Eskimo about +Bering Strait,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eighteenth Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi>, +Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 363 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +The Indians of California used to observe annual ceremonies +<pb n='053'/><anchor id='Pg053'/> +of mourning for the dead,<note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi> +(Washington, 1877), pp. 328, 355, +356, 384.</note> at some of which the souls +of the departed were represented by living persons. Ten +or more men would prepare themselves to play the part of +the ghosts by fasting for several days, especially by abstaining +from flesh. Disguised with paint and soot, adorned with +feathers and grasses, they danced and sang in the village or +rushed about in the forest by night with burning torches in +their hands. After a time they presented themselves to the +relations of the deceased, who looked upon these maskers +as in very truth their departed friends and received them +accordingly with an outburst of lamentation, the old women +scratching their own faces and smiting their breasts with +stones in token of mourning. These masquerades were +generally held in February. During their continuance a +strict fast was observed in the village.<note place='foot'>Kostromitonow, <q>Bemerkungen +über die Indianer in Ober-Kalifornien,</q> +in K. F. v. Baer and Gr. v. Helmersen's +<hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen +Reiches</hi>, i. (St. Petersburg, 1839) +pp. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The natives of the western +islands of Torres Straits used to hold a +great death-dance at which disguised +men personated the ghosts of the lately +deceased, mimicking their characteristic +gait and gestures. Women and +children were supposed to take these +mummers for real ghosts. See A. C. +Haddon, in <hi rend='italic'>Reports of the Cambridge +Anthropological Expedition to Torres +Straits</hi>, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 252-256; +<hi rend='italic'>The Belief in Immortality and +the Worship of the Dead</hi>, i. 176 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Among the Konkaus +of California the dance of the dead is always held about the +end of August and marks their New Year's Day. They +collect a large quantity of food, clothing, baskets, ornaments, +and whatever else the spirits are supposed to need in the +other world. These they hang on a semicircle of boughs or +small trees, cut and set in the ground leafless. In the +centre burns a great fire, and hard by are the graves. The +ceremony begins at evening and lasts till daybreak. As +darkness falls, men and women sit on the graves and wail for +the dead of the year. Then they dance round the fire with +frenzied yells and whoops, casting from time to time the +offerings into the flames. All must be consumed before the +first faint streaks of dawn glimmer in the East.<note place='foot'>S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of California</hi>, +pp. 437 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +Choctaws used to have a great respect for their dead. They +did not bury their bodies but laid them on biers made of +bark and supported by forked sticks about fifteen feet high. +<pb n='054'/><anchor id='Pg054'/> +When the worms had consumed the flesh, the skeleton was +dismembered, any remains of muscles and sinews were +buried, and the bones were deposited in a box, the skull +being reddened with ochre. The box containing the bones +was then carried to the common burial ground. In the +early days of November the tribe celebrated a great festival +which they called the Festival of the Dead or of the Souls; +every family then gathered in the common burial ground, +and there with weeping and lamentation visited the boxes +which contained the mouldering relics of their dead. On +returning from the graveyard they held a great banquet, +which ended the festival.<note place='foot'>Bossu, <hi rend='italic'>Nouveaux Voyages aux +Indes Occidentales</hi> (Paris, 1768), ii. +95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Some of the Pueblo Indians +of New Mexico <q>believe that on a certain day (in August, +I think) the dead rise from their graves and flit about the +neighbouring hills, and on that day all who have lost friends +carry out quantities of corn, bread, meat, and such other good +things of this life as they can obtain, and place them in the +haunts frequented by the dead, in order that the departed +spirits may once more enjoy the comforts of this nether +world. They have been encouraged in this belief by the +priests, who were in the habit of sending out and appropriating +to themselves all these things, and then making the +poor simple Indians believe that the dead had eaten +them.</q><note place='foot'>T. G. S. Ten Broeck, in H. R. +Schoolcraft's <hi rend='italic'>Indian Tribes of the +United States</hi> (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), +iv. 78. The Pueblo village to +which the writer particularly refers is +Laguna.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival +of the dead +among the +Miztecs of +Mexico.</note> +The Miztecs of Mexico believed that the souls of the +dead came back in the twelfth month of every year, which +corresponded to our November. On this day of All Souls +the houses were decked out to welcome the spirits. Jars of +food and drink were set on a table in the principal room, +and the family went forth with torches to meet the ghosts +and invite them to enter. Then returning themselves to the +house they knelt around the table, and with eyes bent on +the ground prayed the souls to accept of the offerings and +to procure the blessings of the gods upon the family. Thus +they remained on bended knees and with downcast eyes till +the morning, not daring to look at the table lest they +<pb n='055'/><anchor id='Pg055'/> +should offend the spirits by spying on them at their meal. +With the first beams of the sun they rose, glad at heart. +The jars of food which had been presented to the dead were +given to the poor or deposited in a secret place.<note place='foot'>Brasseur de Bourbourg, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +des nations civilisées du Mexique et de +l'Amérique-Centrale</hi> (Paris, 1857-1859), +iii. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. H. Bancroft, +<hi rend='italic'>Native Races of the Pacific States</hi> +(London, 1875-1876), ii. 623. Similar +customs are still practised by the +Indians of a great part of Mexico and +Central America (Brasseur de Bourbourg, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iii. 24, note <hi rend='vertical-align: super'>1</hi>).</note> The +Indians of Santiago Tepehuacan believe that the souls of +their dead return to them on the night of the eighteenth of +October, the festival of St. Luke, and they sweep the roads +in order that the ghosts may find them clean on their +passage.<note place='foot'><q>Lettre du curé de Santiago +Tepehuacan àson évêque,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de +la Société de Géographie</hi> (Paris), II<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>me</hi> +Série, ii. (1834) p. 179.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead +in Sumba.</note> +Again, the natives of Sumba, an East Indian island, +celebrate a New Year's festival, which is at the same time a +festival of the dead. The graves are in the middle of the +village, and at a given moment all the people repair to them +and raise a loud weeping and wailing. Then after indulging +for a short time in the national pastimes they disperse to +their houses, and every family calls upon its dead to come +back. The ghosts are believed to hear and accept the +invitation. Accordingly betel and areca nuts are set out +for them. Victims, too, are sacrificed in front of every +house, and their hearts and livers are offered with rice to +the dead. After a decent interval these portions are distributed +amongst the living, who consume them and banquet +gaily on flesh and rice, a rare event in their frugal lives. +Then they play, dance, and sing to their heart's content, and +the festival which began so lugubriously ends by being the +merriest of the year. A little before daybreak the invisible +guests take their departure. All the people turn out of +their houses to escort them a little way. Holding in one +hand the half of a coco-nut, which contains a small packet +of provisions for the dead, and in the other hand a piece of +smouldering wood, they march in procession, singing a +drawling song to the accompaniment of a gong and waving +the lighted brands in time to the music. So they move +through the darkness till with the last words of the song +<pb n='056'/><anchor id='Pg056'/> +they throw away the coco-nuts and the brands in the +direction of the spirit-land, leaving the ghosts to wend +their way thither, while they themselves return to the +village.<note place='foot'>S. Roos, <q>Bijdrage tot de kennis +van taal, land en volk op het eiland +Soemba,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandelingen van het +Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten +en Wetenschappen</hi>, xxxvi. (1872) pp. +63-65.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead in +Kiriwina. +Festival of +the dead +among the +Sea Dyaks +of Borneo.</note> +In Kiriwina, one of the Trobriand Islands, to the east +of New Guinea, the spirits of the ancestors are believed +to revisit their native village in a body once a year after +the harvest has been got in. At this time the men perform +special dances, the people openly display their valuables, +spread out on platforms, and great feasts are made for +the spirits. On a certain night, when the moon is at the +full, all the people raise a great shout and so drive away +the spirits to the spirit land.<note place='foot'>Rev. S. B. Fellows, quoted by +George Brown, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians +and Polynesians</hi> (London, 1910), p. +237.</note> The Sea Dyaks of Borneo +celebrate a great festival in honour of the dead at irregular +intervals, it may be one or more years after the death +of a particular person. All who have died since the last +feast was held, and have not yet been honoured by such +a celebration, are remembered at this time; hence the +number of persons commemorated may be great, especially +if many years have elapsed since the last commemoration +service. The preparations last many weeks: food and +drink and all other necessaries are stored in plenty, and +the whole neighbourhood for miles round is invited to +attend. On the eve of the feast the women take bamboo +splints and fashion out of them little models of various +useful articles, and these models are hung over the graves +for the use of the dead in the other world. If the feast +is held in honour of a man, the things manufactured in +his behoof will take the form of a bamboo gun, a shield, +a war-cap, and so on; if it is a woman who is commemorated, +little models of a loom, a fish-basket, a winnowing-fan +and such like things will be provided for her spirit; and +if it is a child for whom the rite is performed, toys of +various kinds will be made ready for the childish ghost. +Finally, to stay the appetite of ghosts who may be too +sharp-set to wait for the formal banquet in the house, +<pb n='057'/><anchor id='Pg057'/> +a supply of victuals is very considerately placed outside +the house on which the hungry spirits may fall to without +delay. The dead arrive in a boat from the other world; +for living Dyaks generally travel by river, from which it +necessarily follows that Dyak ghosts do so likewise. The +ship in which the ghostly visitors voyage to the land of the +living is not much to look at, being in appearance nothing +but a tiny boat made out of a bamboo which has been used +to cook rice. Even this is not set floating on the river +but is simply thrown away under the house. Yet through +the incantations uttered by the professional wailing-woman +the bark is wafted away to the spirit world and is there +converted into a large war-canoe. Gladly the ghosts +embark and sail away as soon as the final summons comes. +It always comes in the evening, for it is then that the wailer +begins to croon her mournful ditties; but the way is so long +that the spirits do not arrive in the house till the day is +breaking. To refresh them after their weary journey a +bamboo full of rice-spirit awaits them; and this they partake +of by deputy, for a brave old man, who does not fear +the face of ghosts, quaffs the beverage in their stead amid +the joyful shouts of the spectators. On the morning after +the feast the living pay the last offices of respect to the +dead. Monuments made of ironwood, the little bamboo +articles, and food of all kinds are set upon the graves. +In consideration of these gifts the ghosts now relinquish +all claims on their surviving relatives, and henceforth earn +their own living by the sweat of their brow. Before they +take their final departure they come to eat and drink in the +house for the last time.<note place='foot'>E. H. Gomes, <hi rend='italic'>Seventeen Years +among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo</hi> (London, +1911), pp. 216-218. For another +and briefer account of this festival see +<hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>, p. 154.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead +among the +Nagas of +Manipur.</note> +Thus the Dyak festival of the dead is not an annual +welcome accorded to all the souls of ancestors; it is a +propitiatory ceremony designed to secure once for all the +eternal welfare of the recently departed, or at least to prevent +their ghosts from returning to infest and importune +the living. The same is perhaps the intention of the <q>soul +departure</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>Kathi Kasham</foreign>) festival which the Tangkul +<pb n='058'/><anchor id='Pg058'/> +Nagas of Manipur, in Assam, celebrate every year about +the end of January. At this great feast the dead are +represented by living men, chosen on the ground of their +likeness to the departed, who are decked with ornaments +and treated as if they were in truth the deceased persons +come to life again. In that character they dance together +in the large open space of the village, they are fed by the +female relations, and they go from house to house, receiving +presents of cloth. The festival lasts ten days, but the great +day is the ninth. Huge torches of pinewood are made +ready to be used that evening when darkness has fallen. +The time of departure of the dead is at hand. Their living +representatives are treated to a last meal in the houses, +and they distribute farewell presents to the sorrowing kinsfolk, +who have come to bid them good-bye. When the sun +has set, a procession is formed. At the head of it march +men holding aloft the flaring, sputtering torches. Then +follow the elders armed and in martial array, and behind +them stalk the representatives of the dead, with the relations +of the departed crowding and trooping about them. Slowly +and mournfully the sad procession moves, with loud lamentations, +through the darkness to a spot at the north end of +the village which is overshadowed by a great tree. The +light of the torches is to guide the souls of the dead to their +place of rest; the warlike array of the elders is to guard +them from the perils and dangers of the way. At the +village boundary the procession stops and the torch-bearers +throw down their torches. At the same moment the spirits +of the dead are believed to pass into the dying flambeaux +and in that guise to depart to the far country. There is +therefore no further need for their living representatives, +who are accordingly stripped of all their finery on the spot. +When the people return home, each family is careful to +light a pine torch and set it burning on a stone in the house +just inside the front door; this they do as a precaution +to prevent their own souls from following the spirits of the +dead to the other world. The expense of thus despatching +the dead to their long home is very great; when the head +of a family dies, debts may be incurred and rice-fields +and houses sold to defray the cost of carriage. Thus +<pb n='059'/><anchor id='Pg059'/> +the living impoverish themselves in order to enrich the +dead.<note place='foot'>Rev. Wm. Pettigrew, <q>Kathi +Kasham, the <q>Soul Departure</q> feast +as practised by the Tangkkul Nagas, +Manipur, Assam,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal and Proceedings +of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, +N.S. vol. v. 1909 (Calcutta, +1910), pp. 37-46; T. C. Hodson, +<hi rend='italic'>The Naga Tribes of Manipur</hi> (London, +1911), pp. 153-158.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead +among the +Oraons of +Bengal.</note> +The Oraons or Uraons of Bengal feast their dead every +year on a day in January. This ceremony is called the +Great Marriage, because by it the bones of the deceased +are believed to be mysteriously reunited to each other. The +Oraons treat the bones of the dead differently according to +the dates of their death in the agricultural year. The bones +of those who died before the seeds have sprouted in the +fields are burnt, and the few charred bones which have not +been reduced to ashes are gathered in an earthen pot. +With the bones in the pot are placed offerings of rice, +native gin, and money, and then they carry the urn to +the river, where the bones of their forefathers repose. But +the bones of all who die after the seeds have sprung up +and before the end of harvest may not be taken to the +river, because the people believe that were that to be done +the crops would suffer. These bones are therefore put +away in a pot under a stone near the house till the harvest +is over. Then on the appointed day in January they are +all collected. A banquet is given in honour of the dead, and +then both men and women form a procession to accompany +the bones to their last resting-place in the sands of the river. +But first the relics of mortality are carried from house to +house in the village, and each family pours rice and gin into +the urn which contains the bones of its dead. Then the procession +sets out for the river, men and women dancing, +singing, beating drums, and weeping, while the earthen pots +containing the bones are passed from hand to hand and +dance with the jigging steps of the dancers. When they +are yet some way from the spot, the bearers of the urns run +forward and bury them in the sand of the river. When the +rest come up, they all bathe and the Great Marriage is over.<note place='foot'>Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., <q>Religion +and Customs of the Uraons,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Memoirs +of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, vol. i. +No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906), p. 136. Compare +Rev. F. Hahn, <q>Some Notes on +the Religion and Superstition of the +Orāōs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Asiatic Society of +Bengal</hi>, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) +pp. 12 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> According to the latter +writer the pots containing the relics +of the dead are buried, not in the sand +of the river, but in a pit, generally +covered with huge stones, which is dug +for the purpose in some field or grove.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='060'/><anchor id='Pg060'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead in +Bilaspore.</note> +In the Bilaspore district of the Central Provinces, India, +<q>the festival known as the Fortnight of the Manes—<foreign rend='italic'>Pitr +Pāk</foreign>—occurs about September. It is believed that during +this fortnight it is the practice of all the departed to come +and visit their relatives. The homes are therefore cleaned, +and the spaces in front of the house are plastered and painted +in order to be pleasing to those who are expected. It is +believed that the departed will return on the very date on +which they went away. A father who left on the fourth, +be it the fourth of the dark half or the light half of the +moon, will return to visit his family on the fourth of the +Fortnight of the Manes. On that day cakes are prepared, +and with certain ceremony these are offered to the unseen +hovering spirit. Their implicit belief is that the spirit will +partake of the essence of the food, and that which remains—the +material portion—may be eaten by members of the +family. The souls of women, it is said, will all come on the +ninth of the fortnight. On the thirteenth come those who +have met with a violent death and who lost their lives by a +fall, by snake-bite, or any other unusual cause. During the +Fortnight of the Manes a woman is not supposed to put on +new bangles and a man is not permitted to shave. In +short, this is a season of sad remembrances, an annual +festival for the departed.</q><note place='foot'>E. M. Gordon, <hi rend='italic'>Indian Folk Tales</hi> +(London, 1908), p. 18. According to +Mr. W. Crooke, the Hindoo Feast of +Lamps (<foreign rend='italic'>Diwálî</foreign>) seems to have been +based on <q>the idea that on this night +the spirits of the dead revisit their +homes, which are cleaned and lighted +for their reception.</q> See W. Crooke, +<hi rend='italic'>The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of +Northern India</hi> (Westminster, 1896), +ii. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead +among the +Bghais and +Hkamies.</note> +The Bghais, a Karen tribe of Burma, hold an annual +feast for the dead at the new moon which falls near the end +of August or the beginning of September. All the villagers +who have lost relatives within the last three years take part +in it. Food and drink are set out on tables for the ghosts, +and new clothes for them are hung up in the room. All +being ready, the people beat gongs and begin to weep. +Each one calls upon the relation whom he has lost to come +and eat. When the dead are thought to have arrived, the +<pb n='061'/><anchor id='Pg061'/> +living address them, saying, <q>You have come to me, you +have returned to me. It has been raining hard, and you +must be wet. Dress yourselves, clothe yourselves with these +new garments, and all the companions that are with you. +Eat betel together with all that accompany you, all your +friends and associates, and the long dead. Call them all to +eat and drink.</q> The ghosts having finished their repast, +the people dry their tears and sit down to eat what is left. +More food is then prepared and put into a basket, and at +cock-crow next morning the contents of the basket are +thrown out of the house, while the living weep and call +upon their dead as before.<note place='foot'>Rev. F. Mason, D.D., <q>Physical +Character of the Karens,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of +the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, 1866, Part +ii. pp. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Lights are not mentioned +by the writer, but the festival +being nocturnal we may assume that +they are used for the convenience of +the living as well as of the dead. In +other respects the ceremonies are +typical.</note> The Hkamies, a hill tribe of +North Aracan, hold an important festival every year in +honour of departed spirits. It falls after harvest and is +called <q>the opening of the house of the dead.</q> When a +person dies and has been burnt, the ashes are collected and +placed in a small house in the forest together with his spear +or gun, which has first been broken. These little huts are +generally arranged in groups near a village, and are sometimes +large enough to be mistaken for one. After harvest +all the relations of the deceased cook various kinds of food +and take them with pots of liquor distilled from rice to the +village of the dead. There they open the doors of the +houses, and having placed the food and drink inside they +shut them again. After that they weep, eat, drink, and +return home.<note place='foot'>R. F. St. Andrew St. John, <q>A +Short Account of the Hill Tribes of +North Aracan,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, ii. (1873) p. 238. +At this festival the dead are apparently +not supposed to return to the houses.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead in +Cambodia.</note> +The great festival of the dead in Cambodia takes place +on the last day of the month Phatrabot (September-October), +but ever since the moon began to wane everybody has been +busy preparing for it. In every house cakes and sweetmeats +are set out, candles burn, incense sticks smoke, and +the whole is offered to the ancestral shades with an invocation +which is thrice repeated: <q>O all you our ancestors who +are departed, deign to come and eat what we have prepared +<pb n='062'/><anchor id='Pg062'/> +for you, and to bless your posterity and make it happy.</q> +Fifteen days afterwards many little boats are made of bark +and filled with rice, cakes, small coins, smoking incense +sticks, and lighted candles. At evening these are set floating +on the river, and the souls of the dead embark in them +to return to their own place. The living now bid them +farewell. <q>Go to the lands,</q> they say, <q>go to the fields +you inhabit, to the mountains, under the stones which are +your abodes. Go away! return! In due time your sons +and your grandsons will think of you. Then you will +return, you will return, you will return.</q> The river is now +covered with twinkling points of fire. But the current soon +bears them away, and as they vanish one by one in the +darkness the souls depart with them to the far country.<note place='foot'>E. Aymonier, <hi rend='italic'>Notice sur le Cambodge</hi> +(Paris, 1875), p. 59; A. Leclère, +<hi rend='italic'>Le Buddhisme au Cambodge</hi> (Paris, +1899), pp. 374-376. The departure +of the souls is described only by the +latter writer. Compare E. Aymonier, +<q>Notes sur les coutumes et croyances +superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Cochinchine Française, Excursions et +Reconnaissances</hi>, No. 16 (Saigon, +1883), pp. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +In Tonquin, as in Sumba, the dead revisit their kinsfolk +and their old homes at the New Year. From the hour of +midnight, when the New Year begins, no one dares to shut +the door of his house for fear of excluding the ghosts, who +begin to arrive at that time. Preparations have been made +to welcome and refresh them after their long journey. Beds +and mats are ready for their weary bodies to repose upon, +water to wash their dusty feet, slippers to comfort them, and +canes to support their feeble steps. Candles burn on the +domestic altar, and pastilles diffuse a fragrant odour. The +people bow before the unseen visitors and beseech them to +remember and bless their descendants in the coming year. +Having discharged this pious duty they abstain from sweeping +the houses for three days lest the dust should incommode +the ghosts.<note place='foot'>Mariny, <hi rend='italic'>Relation nouvelle et curieuse +des royaumes de Tunquin et de +Lao</hi> (Paris, 1666), pp. 251-253.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +the dead in +Annam.</note> +In Annam one of the most important festivals of the +year is the festival of Têt, which falls on the first three days +of the New Year. It is devoted to the worship of ancestors. +Everybody, even the poorest, must provide a good meal for +the souls of his dead at this time and must himself eat and +<pb n='063'/><anchor id='Pg063'/> +drink heartily. Some families, in order to discharge this +pious duty, run into debt for the whole year. In the houses +everything is put in order, washed, and scoured for the +reception of the dear and distinguished guests. A tall +bamboo pole is set up in the front of every house and allowed +to stand there for seven days. A small basket containing +areca, betel, and leaves of gilt paper is fastened to the pole. +The erection of the pole is a sacred rite which no family +omits to perform, though why they do so few people can +say. Some, however, allege that the posts are intended to +guide the ancestral spirits to their old homes. The ceremony +of the reception of the shades takes place at nightfall +on the last day of the year. The house of the head +of the family is then decked with flowers, and in the room +which serves as a domestic chapel the altar of the ancestors +is surrounded with flowers, among which the lotus, the +emblem of immortality, is most conspicuous. On a table +are set red candles, perfumes, incense, sandal-wood, and +plates full of bananas, oranges, and other fruits. The +relations crouch before the altar, and kneeling at the foot +of it the head of the house invokes the name of the family +which he represents. Then in solemn tones he recites an +incantation, mentioning the names of his most illustrious +ancestors and marking time with the strokes of a hammer +upon a gong, while crackers are exploded outside the +room. After that, he implores the ancestral shades to +protect their descendants and invites them to a repast, +which is spread for them on a table. Round this table he +walks, serving the invisible guests with his own hands. He +distributes to them smoking balls of rice in little china +saucers, and pours tea or spirits into each little cup, while +he murmurs words of invitation and compliment. When +the ghosts have eaten and drunk their fill, the head of the +family returns to the altar and salutes them for the last +time. Finally, he takes leaves of yellow paper, covered +with gold and silver spangles, and throws them into a +brazier placed at the foot of the ancestral tablets. These +papers represent imaginary bars of gold and silver which +the living send to the dead. Cardboard models of houses, +furniture, jewels, clothes, of everything in short that the +<pb n='064'/><anchor id='Pg064'/> +ghosts can need in the other world, are despatched to +them in like manner in the flames. Then the family sits +down to table and feasts on the remains of the ghostly +banquet.<note place='foot'>Le R. P. Cadière, <q>Coutumes +populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So'n,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient</hi>, +ii. (Hanoi, 1902) pp. 376-379; +P. d'Enjoy, <q>Du droit successoral en +Annam,</q> etc., <hi rend='italic'>Bulletins de la Société +d'Anthropologie de Paris</hi>, V<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>e</hi> Série, iv. +(1903) pp. 500-502; E. Diguet, <hi rend='italic'>Les +Annamites</hi> (Paris, 1906), pp. 372-375.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festival of +friendless +ghosts in +Annam.</note> +But in Annam it is not merely the spirits of ancestors +who are thus feasted and supplied with all the necessaries of +life. The poor ghosts of those who died without leaving +descendants or whose bodies were left unburied are not +forgotten by the pious Annamites. But these spirits come +round at a different time of year from the others. The +seventh month of the year is set apart for expiatory sacrifices +destined to benefit these unhappy beings, and that +is why in Annam nobody should marry or be betrothed in +that month. The great day of the month is the fifteenth, +which is called the Festival of the Souls. On that day the +ghosts in question are set free by the lord of the underworld, +and they come prowling about among the living. They +are exceedingly dangerous, especially to children. Hence in +order to appease their wrath and prevent them from entering +the houses every family takes care to put out offerings for +them in the street. Before every house on that night you +may see candles lighted, paper garments of many colours, +paper hats, paper boots, paper furniture, ingots of gold and +silver paper, all hanging in tempting array from a string, +while plates of food and cups of tea and rice-spirit stand +ready for the use of hungry and thirsty souls. The theory +is that the ghosts will be so busy consuming the victuals, +appropriating the deceitful riches, and trying on the paper +coats, hats, and boots that they will have neither the leisure +nor the inclination to intrude upon the domestic circle +indoors. At seven o'clock in the evening fire is put to the +offerings, and the paper wardrobe, furniture, and money soon +vanish crackling in the flames. At the same moment, +peeping in at a door or window, you may see the domestic +ancestral altar brilliantly illuminated. As for the food, it is +supposed to be thrown on the fire or on the ground for the +<pb n='065'/><anchor id='Pg065'/> +use of the ghosts, but practically it is eaten by vagabonds and +beggars, who scuffle for the booty.<note place='foot'>E. Diguet, <hi rend='italic'>Les Annamites</hi> (Paris, +1906), pp. 254 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Paul Giran, <hi rend='italic'>Magie +et Religion Annamites</hi> (Paris, 1912), +pp. 258 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> According to the latter +writer the offerings to the vagrant souls +are made on the first and last days of +the month, while sacrifices of a more +domestic character are performed on +the fifteenth.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festivals of +the dead in +Cochinchina, +Siam and +Japan.</note> +In Cochinchina the ancestral spirits are similarly propitiated +and fed on the first day of the New Year. The +tablets which represent them are placed on the domestic +altar, and the family prostrate themselves before these +emblems of the departed. The head of the family lights +sticks of incense on the altar and prays the shades of his +forefathers to accept the offerings and be favourable to their +descendants. With great gravity he waits upon the ghosts, +passing dishes of food before the ancestral tablets and pouring +out wine and tea to slake the thirst of the spirits. When +the dead are supposed to be satisfied with the shadowy +essence of the food, the living partake of its gross material +substance.<note place='foot'>L. E. Louvet, <hi rend='italic'>La Cochinchine +religieuse</hi> (Paris, 1885), pp. 149-151.</note> In Siam and Japan also the souls of the dead +revisit their families for three days in every year, and the +lamps which the Japanese kindle in multitudes on that +occasion to light the spirits on their way have procured +for the festival the name of the Feast of Lanterns. +It is to be observed that in Siam, as in Tonquin and +Sumba, the return of the ghosts takes place at the New +Year.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>, pp. 149 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festivals of +the dead +among the +Chewsurs +and +Armenians.</note> +The Chewsurs of the Caucasus believe that the souls of +the departed revisit their old homes on the Saturday night +of the second week in Lent. This gathering of the dead +is called the <q>Assembly of Souls.</q> The people spare no +expense to treat the unseen guests handsomely. Beer is +brewed and loaves of various shapes baked specially for the +occasion.<note place='foot'>C. v. Hahn, <q>Religiöse Anschauungen +und Totengedächtnisfeier +der Chewsuren,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxvi. (1899) +pp. 211 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Armenians celebrate the memory of the +dead on many days of the year, burning incense and +lighting tapers in their honour. One of their customs is to +keep a <q>light of the dead</q> burning all night in the house +in order that the ghosts may be able to enter. For if the +<pb n='066'/><anchor id='Pg066'/> +spirits find the house dark, they spit down the chimney and +depart, cursing the churlish inmates.<note place='foot'>M. Abeghian, <hi rend='italic'>Der armenische +Volksglaube</hi> (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 23 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festivals of +the dead +in Africa.</note> +Early in April every year the Dahomans of West Africa +<q>set a table, as they term it, and invite friends to eat with +the deceased relatives, whose spirits are supposed to move +round and partake of the good things of this life. Even my +interpreter, Madi-Ki Lemon, who pretends to despise the +belief in fetish, sets a table to his ancestors, and will tell you +that his grand- or great-grandfather, Corporal Lemon, makes +a meal on this occasion which will last him till the next +annual feast.</q><note place='foot'>Fred. E. Forbes, <hi rend='italic'>Dahomey and +the Dahomans</hi> (London, 1851), ii. 73. +Compare John Duncan, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in +Western Africa</hi> (London, 1847), i. +125 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking +Peoples of the Slave Coast</hi> (London, +1890), p. 108. The Tshi-speaking +peoples of the Gold Coast and Ashantee +celebrate an annual festival of eight +days in honour of the dead. It falls +towards the end of August. The offerings +are presented to the departed at +their graves. See A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The +Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast</hi> +(London, 1887), pp. 227 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. Perregaux, +<hi rend='italic'>Chez les Achanti</hi> (Neuchâtel, +1908), pp. 136, 138. According to +the latter writer the festival is celebrated +at the time of the yam harvest.</note> The Barea and apparently the Kunama, two +heathen tribes who lead a settled agricultural life to the +north of Abyssinia, celebrate every year a festival in the +month of November. It is a festival of thanksgiving for the +completion of the harvest, and at the same time a commemoration +and propitiation of the dead. Every house +prepares much beer for the occasion, and a small pot of +beer is set out for each deceased member of the household. +After standing for two days in the house the beer which +was devoted to the dead is drunk by the living. At these +festivals all the people of a district meet in a special place, +and there pass the time in games and dances. Among the +Barea the festive gatherings are held in a sacred grove. +We are told that <q>he who owes another a drubbing on this +day can pay his debt with impunity; for it is a day of +peace when all feuds are in abeyance.</q> Wild honey may +not be gathered till the festival has been held.<note place='foot'>W. Munzinger, <hi rend='italic'>Ostafrikanische +Studien</hi> (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. 473.</note> Apparently +the festival is a sort of Saturnalia, such as is celebrated +elsewhere at the end of harvest.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>, pp. 136 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> At that season there is +food and to spare for the dead as well as the living. +</p> + +<pb n='067'/><anchor id='Pg067'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festivals of +the dead +among +peoples of +the Aryan +stock. +Annual +festival of +the dead +(the Fravashis) +among +the old +Iranians. Annual +festival of +the dead +among the +Persians.</note> +Among peoples of the Aryan stock, so far back as we +can trace their history, the worship and propitiation of the +dead seem to have formed a principal element of the popular +religion;<note place='foot'>On the worship of the dead, and +especially of ancestors, among Aryan +peoples, see W. Caland, <hi rend='italic'>Über Totenverehrung +bei einigen der indo-germanischen +Völker</hi> (Amsterdam, 1888); O. +Schrader, <hi rend='italic'>Reallexikon der indogermanischen +Altertumskunde</hi> (Strasburg, +1901), pp. 21 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Aryan +Religion,</q> in Dr. J. Hastings's <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia +of Religion and Ethics</hi>, ii. +(Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> and like so many other races they appear to have +believed that once a year the souls of their departed kinsfolk +revisited their old homes and expected to be refreshed with +abundance of good cheer by their surviving relations. This +belief gave rise to the custom of celebrating an annual Feast +of All Souls, which has come down to us from a dateless +antiquity and is still observed year by year, with rites of +primitive simplicity, in some parts of Europe. Such a +festival was held every year in spring by the old Iranians. +The celebration fell at the end of the year and lasted ten +days, namely the last five days of the last month and the five +following supplementary days, which were regularly inserted +to make up a year of three hundred and sixty-five days; for +the old Iranian, like the old Egyptian, year was a vague year +of twelve months of thirty days each, with five supplementary +days added at the end for the sake of bringing it into +apparent, though not real, harmony with the sun's annual +course in the sky. According to one calculation the ten +days of the festival corresponded to the last days of +February, but according to another they fell in March; in +later ages the Parsees assigned them to the time of the +spring equinox. The name of the festival was Hamaspathmaedaya.<note place='foot'>As to the Iranian calendar see +W. Geiger, <hi rend='italic'>Altiranische Kultur im +Altertum</hi> (Erlangen, 1882), pp. 314 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; as to the Iranian worship of the +sainted dead (the Fravashis) see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> +pp. 286 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> As to the annual festival +of the dead (Hamaspathmaedaya) see +W. Caland, <hi rend='italic'>Über Totenverehrung bei +einigen der indo-germanischen Völker</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1888), pp. 64 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; N. +Söderblom, <hi rend='italic'>Les Fravashis</hi> (Paris, +1899), pp. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. H. Moulton, +<hi rend='italic'>Early Zoroastrianism</hi> (London, 1913), +pp. 256 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> All these writers agree +that the Fravashis of the <hi rend='italic'>Zend-Avesta</hi> +were originally the souls of the dead. +See also James Darmesteter, <hi rend='italic'>Zend-Avesta</hi>, +Part ii. (Oxford, 1883) p. 179: +<q>The Fravashi is the inner power in +every being that maintains it and makes +it grow and subsist. Originally the +Fravashis were the same as the <foreign rend='italic'>Pitris</foreign> +of the Hindus or the <foreign rend='italic'>Manes</foreign> of the +Latins, that is to say, the everlasting +and deified souls of the dead; but in +course of time they gained a wider +domain, and not only men, but gods +and even physical objects, like the +sky and the earth, etc., had each a +Fravashi.</q> Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Ormazd et +Ahriman</hi> (Paris, 1877), pp. 130 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +N. Söderblom, <hi rend='italic'>La Vie Future d'après +Le Mazdéisme</hi> (Paris, 1901), pp. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +A different view of the original nature +of the Fravashis was taken by C. P. +Tiele, according to whom they were +essentially guardian spirits. See C. P. +Tiele, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte der Religion im Altertum</hi> +(Gotha, 1896-1903), ii. 256 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +From a passage in the <hi rend='italic'>Zend-Avesta</hi>, the +<pb n='068'/><anchor id='Pg068'/> +ancient sacred book of the Iranians, we learn that on the +ten nights of the festival the souls of the dead (the Fravashis) +were believed to go about the village asking the people to +do them reverence, to pray to them, to meditate on them, +and to furnish them with meat and clothes, while at the +same time they promised that blessings should rest on the +pious householder who complied with their request.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Zend-Avesta</hi>, translated by +James Darmesteter, Part ii. (Oxford, +1883) pp. 192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Sacred Books of the +East</hi>, vol. xxiii.).</note> The +Arab geographer Albiruni, who flourished about the year +one thousand of our era, tells us that among the Persians of +his time the last five days of the month Aban were called +Farwardajan. <q>During this time,</q> he says, <q>people put +food in the halls of the dead and drink on the roofs of the +houses, believing that the spirits of their dead during these +days come out from the places of their reward or their +punishment, that they go to the dishes laid out for them, +imbibe their strength and suck their taste. They fumigate +their houses with juniper, that the dead may enjoy its smell. +The spirits of the pious men dwell among their families, +children, and relations, and occupy themselves with their +affairs, although invisible to them.</q> He adds that there +was a controversy among the Persians as to the date of this +festival of the dead, some maintaining that the five days +during which it lasted were the last five days of the month +Aban, whereas others held that they were the five supplementary +days which were inserted between the months Aban +and Adhar. The dispute, he continues, was settled by the +adoption of all ten days for the celebration of the feast.<note place='foot'>Albiruni, <hi rend='italic'>The Chronology of +Ancient Nations</hi>, translated and edited +by Dr. C. Edward Sachau (London, +1879), p. 210. In the <hi rend='italic'>Dinkard</hi>, a +Pahlavi work which seems to have +been composed in the first half of the +ninth century <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, the festival is +spoken of as <q>those ten days which +are the end of the winter and termination +of the year, because the five Gathic +days, among them, are for that purpose.</q> +By <q>the five Gathic days</q> the writer +means the five supplementary days added +at the end of the twelfth month to +complete the year of 365 days. See +<hi rend='italic'>Pahlavi Texts</hi> translated by E. W. West, +Part iv. (Oxford, 1892) p. 17 (<hi rend='italic'>The +Sacred Books of the East</hi>, vol. xxxvii.).</note> +</p> + +<pb n='069'/><anchor id='Pg069'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls +in Brittany +and other +parts of +France.</note> +Similar beliefs as to the annual return of the dead survive +to this day in many parts of Europe and find expression +in similar customs. The day of the dead or of All Souls, +as we call it, is commonly the second of November. Thus +in Lower Brittany the souls of the departed come to visit +the living on the eve of that day. After vespers are over, +the priests and choir walk in procession, <q>the procession of +the charnel-house,</q> chanting a weird dirge in the Breton +tongue. Then the people go home, gather round the fire, +and talk of the departed. The housewife covers the kitchen +table with a white cloth, sets out cider, curds, and hot pancakes +on it, and retires with the family to rest. The fire on +the hearth is kept up by a huge log known as <q>the log of +the dead</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>kef ann Anaon</foreign>). Soon doleful voices outside in +the darkness break the stillness of night. It is the <q>singers +of death</q> who go about the streets waking the sleepers by +a wild and melancholy song, in which they remind the +living in their comfortable beds to pray for the poor souls +in pain. All that night the dead warm themselves at the +hearth and feast on the viands prepared for them. Sometimes +the awe-struck listeners hear the stools creaking in +the kitchen, or the dead leaves outside rustling under the +ghostly footsteps.<note place='foot'>A. le Braz, <hi rend='italic'>La Légende de la Morten +Basse-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1893), pp. 280-287. +Compare J. Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses +du Bocage Normand</hi> (Condé-sur-Noireau, +1883-1887), ii. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In the Vosges Mountains on All Souls' +Eve the solemn sound of the church bells invites good +Christians to pray for the repose of the dead. While the +bells are ringing, it is customary in some families to uncover +the beds and open the windows, doubtless in order to let the +poor souls enter and rest. No one that evening would dare +to remain deaf to the appeal of the bells. The prayers are +prolonged to a late hour of the night. When the last <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>De +profundis</foreign> has been uttered, the head of the family gently +covers up the beds, sprinkles them with holy water, and +shuts the windows. In some villages fire is kept up on the +hearth and a basket of nuts is placed beside it for the use +of the ghosts.<note place='foot'>L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Le folk-lore des +Hautes-Vosges</hi> (Paris, 1889), pp. 295 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, in some parts of Saintonge and +Aunis a Candlemas candle used to be lit before the domestic +<pb n='070'/><anchor id='Pg070'/> +crucifix on All Souls' Day at the very hour when the last +member of the family departed this life; and some people, +just as in Tonquin, refrained from sweeping the house that +day lest they should thereby disturb the ghostly visitors.<note place='foot'>J. L. M. Noguès, <hi rend='italic'>Les mœurs +d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis</hi> +(Saintes, 1891), p. 76. As to the +observance of All Souls' Day in other +parts of France see A. Meyrac, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions, +coutumes, légendes et contes des +Ardennes</hi> (Charleville, 1890), pp. 22-24; +Ch. Beauquier, <hi rend='italic'>Les mois en +Franche-Comté</hi> (Paris, 1900), pp. 123-125.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls +in Belgium.</note> +In Bruges, Dinant, and other towns of Belgium holy +candles burn all night in the houses on the Eve of All +Souls, and the bells toll till midnight, or even till morning. +People, too, often set lighted candles on the graves. At +Scherpenheuvel the houses are illuminated, and the people +walk in procession carrying lighted candles in their hands. +A very common custom in Belgium is to eat <q>soul-cakes</q> +or <q>soul-bread</q> on the eve or the day of All Souls. The +eating of them is believed to benefit the dead in some way. +Perhaps originally, as among the Esquimaux of Alaska to +this day,<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>.</note> the ghosts were thought to enter into the bodies +of their relatives and so to share the victuals which the +survivors consumed. Similarly at festivals in honour of the +dead in Northern India it is customary to feed Brahmans, +and the food which these holy men partake of is believed +to pass to the deceased and to refresh their languid spirits.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>The Natives of Northern +India</hi> (London, 1907), p. 219.</note> +The same idea of eating and drinking by proxy may perhaps +partly explain many other funeral feasts. Be that as it may, +at Dixmude and elsewhere in Belgium they say that you +deliver a soul from Purgatory for every cake you eat. At +Antwerp they give a local colour to the soul-cakes by baking +them with plenty of saffron, the deep yellow tinge being suggestive +of the flames of Purgatory. People in Antwerp at +the same season are careful not to slam doors or windows +for fear of hurting the ghosts.<note place='foot'>Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, <hi rend='italic'>Calendrier +Belge</hi> (Brussels, 1861-1862), ii. 236-240; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Das festliche Jahr</hi> (Leipsic, +1863), pp. 229 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls in +Lechrain.</note> +In Lechrain, a district of Southern Bavaria which +extends along the valley of the Lech from its source to +near the point where the river flows into the Danube, the +two festivals of All Saints and All Souls, on the first +<pb n='071'/><anchor id='Pg071'/> +and second of November, have significantly fused in popular +usage into a single festival of the dead. In fact, the +people pay little or no heed to the saints and give all +their thoughts to the souls of their departed kinsfolk. The +Feast of All Souls begins immediately after vespers on All +Saints' Day. Even on the eve of All Saints' Day, that +is, on the thirty-first of October, which we call Hallowe'en, +the graveyard is cleaned and every grave adorned. The +decoration consists in weeding the mounds, sprinkling a layer +of charcoal on the bare earth, and marking out patterns on it +in red service-berries. The marigold, too, is still in bloom +at that season in cottage gardens, and garlands of its orange +blooms, mingled with other late flowers left by the departing +summer, are twined about the grey mossgrown tombstones. +The basin of holy water is filled with fresh water and a branch +of box-wood put into it; for box-wood in the popular mind +is associated with death and the dead. On the eve of All +Souls' Day the people begin to visit the graves and to offer +the soul-cakes to the hungry souls. Next morning, before +eight o'clock, commence the vigil, the requiem, and the +solemn visitation of the graves. On that day every household +offers a plate of meal, oats, and spelt on a side-altar in +the church; while in the middle of the sacred edifice a bier +is set, covered with a pall, and surrounded by lighted tapers +and vessels of holy water. The tapers burnt on that day and +indeed generally in services for the departed are red. In the +evening people go, whenever they can do so, to their native +village, where their dear ones lie in the churchyard; and +there at the graves they pray for the poor souls, and leave +an offering of soul-cakes also on a side-altar in the church. +The soul-cakes are baked of dough in the shape of a coil of +hair and are made of all sizes up to three feet long. They +form a perquisite of the sexton.<note place='foot'>Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, +<hi rend='italic'>Aus dem Lechrain</hi> (Munich, 1855), pp. +198-200.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Soul-cakes +and All +Souls' Day +in Southern +Germany.</note> +The custom of baking soul-cakes, sometimes called simply +<q>souls,</q> on All Souls' Day is widespread in Southern Germany +and Austria;<note place='foot'>O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Das festliche Jahr</hi> (Leipsic, +1863), p. 330. As to these cakes +(called <q>souls</q>) in Swabia see E. +Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und +Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, +1852), p. 452, § 174; Anton Birlinger, +<hi rend='italic'>Volksthümliches aus Schwaben</hi> (Freiburg +im Breisgau, 1861-1862), ii. 167 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The cakes are baked of white +flour, and are of a longish rounded +shape with two small tips at each +end.</note> everywhere, we may assume, the cakes were +originally intended for the benefit of the hungry dead, though +<pb n='072'/><anchor id='Pg072'/> +they are often eaten by the living. In the Upper Palatinate +people throw food into the fire on All Souls' Day for the +poor souls, set lights on the table for them, and pray on +bended knees for their repose. On the graves, too, lights +are kindled, vessels of holy water placed, and food deposited +for the refreshment of the souls. All over the Upper +Palatinate on All Souls' Day it is also customary to bake +special cakes of fine bread and distribute them to the poor,<note place='foot'>Adalbert Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologische +Studien</hi>, ii. (Gütersloh, 1912) pp. 41 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, citing F. Schönwerth, <hi rend='italic'>Aus der +Oberpfalz</hi>, i. 283.</note> +who eat them perhaps as the deputies of the dead. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls in +Bohemia.</note> +The Germans of Bohemia observe All Souls' Day with +much solemnity. Each family celebrates the memory of its +dead. On the eve of the day it is customary to eat cakes and +to drink cold milk for the purpose of cooling the poor souls +who are roasting in purgatory; from which it appears that +spirits feel the soothing effect of victuals consumed vicariously +by their friends on earth. The ringing of the church +bells to prayer on that evening is believed to be the signal +at which the ghosts, released from the infernal gaol, come +trooping to the old familiar fire-side, there to rest from their +pangs for a single night. So in many places people fill a +lamp with butter, light it, and set it on the hearth, that with +the butter the poor ghosts may anoint the burns they have +received from the sulphureous and tormenting flames of +purgatory. Next morning the chime of the church bells, +ringing to early mass, is the knell that bids the souls return +to their place of pain; but such as have completed their +penance take flight to heaven. So on the eve of All Saints' +Day each family gathers in the parlour or the kitchen, speaks +softly of those they have lost, recalls what they said and did +in life, and prays for the repose of their souls. While the +prayer is being said, the children kindle little wax lights +which have been specially bought for the purpose that day. +Next morning the families go to church, where mass is +celebrated for the dead; then they wend their way to the +<pb n='073'/><anchor id='Pg073'/> +churchyard, where they deck the graves of their kinsfolk with +flowers and wreaths and set little lights upon them. This +custom of illumining the graves and decking them with +flowers on the Eve or Day of All Souls is common all over +Bohemia; it is observed in Prague as well as in the country, +by Czechs as well as by Germans. In some Czech villages +four-cornered cakes of a special sort, baked of white wheaten +meal with milk, are eaten on All Souls' Day or given to +beggars that they may pray for the dead.<note place='foot'>O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, +<hi rend='italic'>Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen</hi> +(Prague, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 493-495.</note> Among the +Germans of Western Bohemia poor children go from house +to house on All Souls' Day, begging for soul-cakes, and +when they receive them they pray God to bless all poor +souls. In the southern districts every farmer used to grind +a great quantity of corn against the day and to bake it +into five or six hundred little black soul-cakes which he +gave away to the poor who came begging for them.<note place='foot'>Alois John, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und +Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen</hi> +(Prague, 1905), p. 97.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls in +Moravia.</note> +All Souls' Day is celebrated with similar rites by +the Germans of Moravia. <q>The festival of the farewell to +summer,</q> says a German writer on this subject, <q>was held +by our heathen forefathers in the beginning of November, +and with the memory of the departed summer they united +the memory of the departed souls, and this last has survived +in the Feast of All Souls, which is everywhere observed with +great piety. On the evening of All Souls the relations of +the departed assemble in the churchyards and adorn the +graves of their dear ones with flowers and lights, while the +children kindle little wax tapers, which have been bought for +them, to light the <q>poor souls.</q> According to the popular +belief, the dead go in procession to the church about midnight, +and any stout-hearted young man can there see all the +living men who will die within the year.</q><note place='foot'>Willibald Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur +Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren</hi> +(Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 330.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls in +the Tyrol and Baden.</note> +In the Tyrol the beliefs and customs are similar. There, +too, <q>soul-lights,</q> that is, lamps filled with lard or butter are +lighted and placed on the hearth on All Souls' Eve in order +that poor souls, escaped from the fires of purgatory, may smear +the melted grease on their burns and so alleviate their pangs. +<pb n='074'/><anchor id='Pg074'/> +Some people also leave milk and dough-nuts for them on +the table all night. The graves also are illuminated with +wax candles and decked with such a profusion of flowers +that you might think it was springtime.<note place='foot'>Ignaz V. Zingerle, <hi rend='italic'>Sitten, Bräuche +und Meiningen des Tiroler Volkes</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 176-178.</note> In the Italian +Tyrol it is customary to give bread or money to the poor on +All Souls' Day; in the Val di Ledro children threaten to +dirty the doors of houses if they do not get the usual dole. +Some rich people treat the poor to bean-soup on that day. +Others put pitchers full of water in the kitchen on All Souls' +night that the poor souls may slake their thirst.<note place='foot'>Christian Schneller, <hi rend='italic'>Märchen und +Sagen aus Wälschtirol</hi> (Innsbruck, +1867), p. 238.</note> In Baden +it is still customary to deck the graves with flowers and +lights on All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. The lights +are sometimes kindled in hollow turnips, on the sides of +which inscriptions are carved and shine out in the darkness. +If any child steals a turnip-lantern or anything else from a +grave, the indignant ghost who has been robbed appears to +the thief the same night and reclaims his stolen property. +A relic of the old custom of feeding the dead survives in the +practice of giving soul-cakes to godchildren.<note place='foot'>Elard Hugo Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Badisches +Volksleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert</hi> +(Strasburg, 1900), p. 601.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festivals of +the dead +among the +Letts and +Samagitians.</note> +The Letts used to entertain and feed the souls of the +dead for four weeks from Michaelmas (September 29) to +the day of St. Simon and St. Jude (October 28). They +called the season <foreign rend='italic'>Wellalaick</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Semlicka</foreign>, and regarded it +as so holy that while it lasted they would not willingly +thresh the corn, alleging that grain threshed at that time +would be useless for sowing, since the souls of the dead +would not allow it to sprout. But we may suspect that +the original motive of the abstinence was a fear lest the +blows of the flails should fall upon the poor ghosts +swarming in the air. At this season the people were wont +to prepare food of all sorts for the spirits and set it on the +floor of a room, which had been well heated and swept for +the purpose. Late in the evening the master of the house +went into the room, tended the fire, and called upon his +dead kinsfolk by their names to come and eat and drink. +If he saw the ghosts, he would die within the year; but if +<pb n='075'/><anchor id='Pg075'/> +he did not see them he would outlive it. When he thought +the souls had eaten and drunk enough, he took the staff +which served as a poker and laying it on the threshold cut +it in two with an axe. At the same time he bade the spirits +go their way, charging them to keep to the roads and paths +and not to tread upon the rye. If the crops turned out ill +next year, the people laid the failure at the door of the +ghosts, who fancied themselves scurvily treated and had +taken their revenge by trampling down the corn.<note place='foot'>P. Einhorn, <q>Historia Lettica,</q> +in <hi rend='italic'>Scriptores Rerum Livonicarum</hi>, ii. +(Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 587, 598, +630 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 645 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> See also the description +of D. Fabricius in his <q>Livonicae +Historiae compendiosa series,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> p. +441. Fabricius assigns the custom to +All Souls' Day.</note> The +Samagitians annually invited the dead to come from their +graves and enjoy a bath and a feast. For their entertainment +they prepared a special hut, in which they set out +food and drink, together with a seat and a napkin for every +soul who had been invited. They left the souls to revel by +themselves for three days in the hut; then they deposited +the remains of the banquet on the graves and bade the +ghosts farewell. The good things, however, were usually +consumed by charcoal burners in the forest. This feast of +the dead fell early in November.<note place='foot'>J. Lasicius, <q>De diis Samagitarum +caeterorumque Sarmatarum,</q> in +<hi rend='italic'>Magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-literärischen +Gesellschaft</hi>, xiv. 1. +(Mitau, 1868), p. 92.</note> The Esthonians prepare +a meal for their dead on All Souls' Day, the second of +November, and invite them by their names to come and +partake of it. The ghosts arrive in the early morning at +the first cock-crow, and depart at the second, being ceremoniously +lighted out of the house by the head of the +family, who waves a white cloth after them and bids them +come again next year.<note place='foot'>F. J. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aus dem +inneren und äussern Leben der Ehsten</hi> +(St. Petersburg, 1876), pp. 366 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Boecler-Kreutzwald, <hi rend='italic'>Der Ehsten abergläubische +Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten</hi> +(St. Petersburg, 1854), p. +89.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Festival of +the dead +in Russia.</note> +In some parts of the Russian Government of Olonets +the inhabitants of a village sometimes celebrate a joint +festival in honour of all their dead. Having chosen a house +for the purpose, they spread three tables, one outside the +front door, one in the passage, and one in the room which +is heated by a stove. Then they go out to meet their +<pb n='076'/><anchor id='Pg076'/> +unseen guests and usher them into the house with these +words, <q>Ye are tired, our own ones; take something to eat.</q> +The ghosts accordingly refresh themselves at each table +in succession. Then the master of the house bids them +warm themselves at the stove, remarking that they must +have grown cold in the damp earth. After that the living +guests sit down to eat at the tables. Towards the end of +the meal the host opens the window and lets the ghosts +gently out of it by means of the shroud in which they were +lowered into the grave. As they slide down it from the +warm room into the outer air, the people tell them, <q>Now +it is time for you to go home, and your feet must be tired; +the way is not a little one for you to travel. Here it is +softer for you. Now, in God's name, farewell!</q><note place='foot'>W. R. S. Ralston, <hi rend='italic'>Songs of the +Russian People</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1872), pp. +321 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The date of the festival is not +mentioned. Apparently it is celebrated +at irregular intervals.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Annual +festivals of +the dead +among the +Votiaks +of Russia.</note> +Among the Votiaks of Russia every family sacrifices to its +dead once a year in the week before Palm Sunday. The sacrifice +is offered in the house about midnight. Flesh, bread, or +cakes and beer are set on the table, and on the floor beside +the table stands a trough of bark with a lighted wax candle +stuck on the rim. The master of the house, having covered +his head with his hat, takes a piece of meat in his hand and +says, <q>Ye spirits of the long departed, guard and preserve +us well. Make none of us cripples. Send no plagues upon +us. Cause the corn, the wine, and the food to prosper +with us.</q><note place='foot'>M. Buch, <hi rend='italic'>Die Wotjäken</hi> (Stuttgart, +1882), p. 145.</note> The Votiaks of the Governments of Wjatka and +Kasan celebrate two memorial festivals of the dead every +year, one in autumn and the other in spring. On a certain +day koumiss is distilled, beer brewed, and potato scones +baked in every house. All the members of a clan, who +trace their descent through women from one mythical +ancestress, assemble in a single house, generally in one +which lies at the boundary of the clan land. Here an old +man moulds wax candles; and when the requisite number +is made he sticks them on the shelf of the stove, and begins +to mention the dead relations of the master of the house by +name. For each of them he crumbles a piece of bread, +<pb n='077'/><anchor id='Pg077'/> +gives each of them a piece of pancake, pours koumiss and +beer, and puts a spoonful of soup into a trough made for +the purpose. All persons present whose parents are dead +follow his example. The dogs are then allowed to eat out +of the trough. If they eat quietly, it is a sign that the dead +live at peace; if they do not eat quietly, it argues the +contrary. Then the company sit down to table and partake +of the meal. Next morning both the dead and the living +refresh themselves with a drink, and a fowl is boiled. The +proceedings are the same as on the evening before. But +now they treat the souls for the last time as a preparation +for their journey, saying: <q>Eat, drink, and go home to your +companions. Live at peace, be gracious to us, keep our +children, guard our corn, our beasts and birds.</q> Then the +people banquet and indulge in all sorts of improprieties. +The women refrain from feasting until the dead have taken +their departure; but when the souls are gone, there is no +longer any motive for abstinence, the koumiss circulates +freely among the women, and they grow wanton. Yet at +this, as at every other festival, the men and women eat in +different parts of the room.<note place='foot'>J. Wasiljev, <hi rend='italic'>Übersicht über die +heidnischen Gebräuche, Aberglauben +und Religion der Wotjäken</hi> (Helsingfors, +1902), pp. 34 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (<hi rend='italic'>Mémoires de +la Société Finno-Ougrienne</hi>, xviii.). As +to the Votiak clans see the same work, +pp. 42-44.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls +in the +Abruzzi.</note> +On All Saints' Day, the first of November, shops and +streets in the Abruzzi are filled with candles, which people +buy in order to kindle them in the evening on the graves +of their relations. For all the dead come to visit their +homes that night, the Eve of All Souls, and they need +lights to show them the way. For their use, too, lights are +kept burning in the houses all night. Before people go to +sleep they place on the table a lighted lamp or candle and +a frugal meal of bread and water. The dead issue from +their graves and stalk in procession through every street of +the village. You can see them if you stand at a cross-road +with your chin resting on a forked stick. First pass the +souls of the good, and then the souls of the murdered and +the damned. Once, they say, a man was thus peeping at +the ghastly procession. The good souls told him he had +<pb n='078'/><anchor id='Pg078'/> +better go home. He did not, and when he saw the tail of +the procession he died of fright.<note place='foot'>G. Finamore, <hi rend='italic'>Credenze, Usi e Costumi +Abruzzesi</hi> (Palermo, 1890), pp. +180-182. Mr. W. R. Paton writes to +me (12th December 1906): <q>You do +not mention the practice[s] on the +modern Greek feast τῶν ψυχῶν (in +May) which quite correspond. The +κόλυβα is made in every house and +put on a table laid with a white tablecloth. +A glass of water and a taper +are put on the table, and all is left so +for the whole night. Our Greek maid-servant +says that when she was a child +she remembers seeing the souls come +and partake. Almost the same rite is +practised for the κόλυβα made on the +commemoration of particular dead.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Soul-cakes +on All-Souls' +Day +in England. +<q>Souling +Day</q> in +Shropshire.</note> +In our own country the old belief in the annual return +of the dead long lingered in the custom of baking <q>soul-cakes</q> +and eating them or distributing them to the poor on +All Souls' Day. Peasant girls used to go from farmhouse +to farmhouse on that day, singing, +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Soul, soul, for a soul cake,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Pray you, good mistress, a soul cake.</hi></q><note place='foot'>John Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities +of Great Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), +i. 393.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +In Shropshire down to the seventeenth century it was +customary on All Souls' Day to set on the table a high +heap of soul-cakes, and most visitors to the house took one +of them. The antiquary John Aubrey, who records the +custom, mentions also the appropriate verses: +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>A soul-cake, a soul-cake,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Have mercy on all Christen soules for a soule-cake.</hi></q><note place='foot'>John Aubrey, <hi rend='italic'>Remaines of Gentilisme +and Judaisme</hi> (London, 1881), +p. 23.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +Indeed the custom of soul-cakes survived in Shropshire +down to the latter part of the nineteenth century and may +not be extinct even now. <q>With us, All Saints' Day is +known as <q>Souling Day,</q> and up to the present time in +many places, poor children, and sometimes men, go out +<q>souling</q>: which means that they go round to the houses of +all the more well-to-do people within reach, reciting a ditty +peculiar to the day, and looking for a dole of cakes, broken +victuals, ale, apples, or money. The two latter are now the +usual rewards, but there are few old North Salopians who +cannot remember when <q>soul-cakes</q> were made at all the +farms and <q>bettermost</q> houses in readiness for the day, and +were given to all who came for them. We are told of +<pb n='079'/><anchor id='Pg079'/> +liberal housewives who would provide as many as a clothes-basket +full.</q><note place='foot'>Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. +Jackson, <hi rend='italic'>Shropshire Folk-lore</hi> (London, +1883), p. 381. The writers record +(pp. 382 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) some of the ditties +which were sung on this occasion by +those who begged for soul-cakes.</note> The same custom of going out <q>a-souling</q> +on All Saints' Day or All Souls' Day used to be observed +in the neighbouring counties of Staffordshire, Cheshire, +Lancashire, Herefordshire, and Monmouthshire. In Herefordshire +the soul-cakes were made of oatmeal, and he or +she who received one of them was bound to say to the +giver: +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>God have your saul,</hi></q></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Beens and all.</hi></q><note place='foot'>J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of +Great Britain</hi>, i. 392, 393; W. Hone, +<hi rend='italic'>Year Book</hi> (London, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), col. 1288; +T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>British Popular +Customs</hi> (London, 1876), pp. 405, +406, 407, 409; J. Harland and T. +T. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Lancashire Folk-lore</hi> +(London, 1882), p. 251; Elizabeth +Mary Wright, <hi rend='italic'>Rustic Speech and Folk-lore</hi> +(Oxford, 1913), p. 300.</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +Thus the practice of <q>souling</q> appears to have prevailed +especially in the English counties which border on Wales. +In many parts of Wales itself down to the first half of the +nineteenth century poor peasants used to go about begging +for bread on All Souls' Day. The bread bestowed on them +was called <foreign rend='italic'>bara ran</foreign> or dole-bread. <q>This custom was a +survival of the Middle Ages, when the poor begged bread +for the souls of their departed relatives and friends.</q><note place='foot'>Marie Trevelyan, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore and +Folk-stories of Wales</hi> (London, 1909), +p. 255. See also T. F. Thiselton +Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>British Popular Customs</hi> (London, +1876), p. 410, who, quoting +Pennant as his authority, says that the +poor people who received soul-cakes +prayed God to bless the next crop of +wheat.</note> However, +the custom was not confined to the west of England, +for at Whitby in Yorkshire down to the early part of the +nineteenth century it was usual to make <q>soul mass loaves</q> +on or about All Souls' Day. They were small round loaves, +sold by bakers at a farthing apiece, chiefly for presents to +children. In former times people used to keep one or two +of them for good luck.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>County Folk-lore</hi>, vol. ii. <hi rend='italic'>North +Riding of Yorkshire, York, and the +Ainsty</hi> (London, 1901), quoting George +Young, <hi rend='italic'>A History of Whitby and +Streoneshalth Abbey</hi> (Whitby, 1817), +ii. 882.</note> In Aberdeenshire, also, <q>on All +Souls' Day, baked cakes of a particular sort are given away +to those who may chance to visit the house, where they are +<pb n='080'/><anchor id='Pg080'/> +made. The cakes are called <q>dirge-loaf.</q></q><note place='foot'>T. F. Thiselton Dyer, <hi rend='italic'>British +Popular Customs</hi>, p. 410.</note> Even in the +remote island of St. Kilda it was customary on All Saints' +Day to bake a large cake in the form of a triangle, furrowed +round; the cake must be all eaten that night.<note place='foot'>M. Martin, <q>Description of the +Western Islands of Scotland,</q> in John +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi> (London, +1808-1814), iii. 666.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Feast of +All Souls +among the +Indians of +Ecuador.</note> +The same mode of celebrating All Souls' Day has been +transported by Catholicism to the New World and imparted +to the aborigines of that continent. Thus in Carchi, a +province of Ecuador, the Indians prepare foods of various +sorts against All Souls' Day, and when the day has come +they take some of the provisions to the church and there +deposit them on tables set out for the purpose. These good +things are the perquisite of the priest, who celebrates mass +for the dead. After the service the Indians repair to the +cemetery, where with burning candles and pots of holy +water they prostrate themselves before the tombs of their +relations, while the priest or the sacristan recites prayers for +the souls of the departed. In the evening the Indians return +to their houses. A table with four lights on it is spread +with food and drink, especially with such things as the dead +loved in their life. The door is left open all night, no doubt +to let the spirits of the dead enter, and the family sits up, +keeping the invisible guests company through the long +hours of darkness. From seven o'clock and onwards troops +of children traverse the village and its neighbourhood. They +go from house to house ringing a bell and crying, <q>We are +angels, we descend from the sky, we ask for bread.</q> The +people go to their doors and beg the children to recite a +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Pater Noster</foreign> or an <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Ave Maria</foreign> for the dead whom they +name. When the prayer has been duly said, they give the +children a little of the food from the table. All night long +this goes on, band succeeding band of children. At five +o'clock in the morning the family consumes the remainder +of the food of the souls.<note place='foot'>Dr. Rivet, <q>Le Christianisme et +les Indiens de la République de +l'Équateur,</q> <hi rend='italic'>L'Anthropologie</hi>, xvii. +(1906) pp. 93 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Here the children going from door +to door during the night of All Souls appear to personate +the souls of the dead who are also abroad at that time; +hence to give bread to the children is the same thing as to +<pb n='081'/><anchor id='Pg081'/> +give bread to the poor hungry souls. Probably the same +explanation applies to the giving of soul-cakes to children +and the poor on All Souls' Day in Europe. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +nominally +Christian +feast of +All Souls +on Nov. 2 +appears +to be an +old Celtic +festival of +the dead +adopted +by the +Church in +998 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> Institution +of the +Feast of +All Souls +by the +Abbot of +Clugny.</note> +A comparison of these European customs with the +similar heathen rites can leave no room for doubt that the +nominally Christian feast of All Souls is nothing but an old +pagan festival of the dead which the Church, unable or +unwilling to suppress, resolved from motives of policy to +connive at. But whence did it borrow the practice of +solemnizing the festival on that particular day, the second +of November? In order to answer this question we should +observe, first, that celebrations of this sort are often held at +the beginning of a New Year,<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref>.</note> and, second, that the peoples +of North-Western Europe, the Celts and the Teutons, +appear to have dated the beginning of their year from the +beginning of winter, the Celts reckoning it from the first of +November<note place='foot'>Sir John Rhys, <hi rend='italic'>Celtic Heathendom</hi> +(London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. +460, 514 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Celtae and Galli,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the British Academy, +1905-1906</hi> (London, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 78; +<hi rend='italic'>Balder the Beautiful</hi>, i. 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> and the Teutons from the first of October.<note place='foot'>K. Müllenhoff, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Altertumskunde</hi>, +iv. (Berlin, 1900) pp. +379 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The first of October seems +to have been a great festival among +the Saxons and also the Samagitians. +See Widukind, <hi rend='italic'>Res gestae Saxonicae</hi>, +i. 12 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Latina</hi>, +cxxxvii. 135); M. A. Michov, <q>De +Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,</q> in +S. Grynaeus's <hi rend='italic'>Novus Orbis Regionum +ac Insularum veteribus incognitarum</hi> +(Bâle, 1532), p. 520. I have to +thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for +pointing out these two passages to +me. Mr. A. Tille prefers to date the +Teutonic winter from Martinmas, the +eleventh of November. See A. Tille, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht</hi> +(Leipsic, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +O. Schrader, <hi rend='italic'>Reallexikon der indogermanischen +Altertumskunde</hi> (Strasburg, +1901), p. 395.</note> +The difference of reckoning may be due to a difference of +climate, the home of the Teutons in Central and Northern +Europe being a region where winter sets in earlier than on +the more temperate and humid coasts of the Atlantic, the +home of the Celts. These considerations suggest that the +festival of All Souls on the second of November originated +with the Celts, and spread from them to the rest of the +European peoples, who, while they preserved their old +feasts of the dead practically unchanged, may have transferred +them to the second of November. This conjecture +is supported by what we know of the ecclesiastical +institution, or rather recognition, of the festival. For +<pb n='082'/><anchor id='Pg082'/> +that recognition was first accorded at the end of the +tenth century in France, a Celtic country, from which the +Church festival gradually spread over Europe. It was Odilo, +abbot of the great Benedictine monastery of Clugny, who +initiated the change in 998 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> by ordering that in all the +monasteries over which he ruled, a solemn mass should be +celebrated on the second of November for all the dead who +sleep in Christ. The example thus set was followed by +other religious houses, and the bishops, one after another, +introduced the new celebration into their dioceses. Thus +the festival of All Souls gradually established itself throughout +Christendom, though in fact the Church has never +formally sanctioned it by a general edict nor attached +much weight to its observance. Indeed, when objections +were raised to the festival at the Reformation, the ecclesiastical +authorities seemed ready to abandon it.<note place='foot'>A. J. Binterim, <hi rend='italic'>Die vorzüglichsten +Denkwürdigkeiten der Christ-Katholischen +Kirche</hi>, v. 1 (Mayence, 1829), +pp. 493 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. J. Herzog und G. F. +Plitt, <hi rend='italic'>Real-Encyclopädie für protestantische +Theologie und Kirche</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. (Leipsic, +1877), pp. 303 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Smith and S. +Cheetham, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Christian +Antiquities</hi> (London, 1875-1880), i. +57 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> These +facts are explained very simply by the theory that an old +Celtic commemoration of the dead lingered in France down +to the end of the tenth century, and was then, as a measure +of policy and a concession to ineradicable paganism, at last +incorporated in the Catholic ritual. The consciousness of +the heathen origin of the practice would naturally prevent +the supreme authorities from insisting strongly on its +observance. They appear rightly to have regarded it as +an outpost which they could surrender to the forces of +rationalism without endangering the citadel of the faith. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The feast +of All +Saints on +Nov. 1 +seems also +to have +displaced +a heathen +festival of +the dead.</note> +Perhaps we may go a step further and explain in like +manner the origin of the feast of All Saints on the first of +November. For the analogy of similar customs elsewhere +would lead us to suppose that the old Celtic festival of the +dead was held on the Celtic New Year's Day, that is, on the +first, not the second, of November. May not then the +institution of the feast of All Saints on that day have +been the first attempt of the Church to give a colour of +Christianity to the ancient heathen rite by substituting the +saints for the souls of the dead as the true object of worship? +<pb n='083'/><anchor id='Pg083'/> +The facts of history seem to countenance this hypothesis. +For the feast of All Saints was instituted in France and +Germany by order of the Emperor Lewis the Pious in +835 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>, that is, about a hundred and sixty years before +the introduction of the feast of All Souls. The innovation +was made by the advice of the pope, Gregory IV., whose +motive may well have been that of suppressing an old pagan +custom which was still notoriously practised in France and +Germany. The idea, however, was not a novel one, for the +testimony of Bede proves that in Britain, another Celtic +country, the feast of All Saints on the first of November was +already celebrated in the eighth century.<note place='foot'>A. J. Binterim, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> v. 1, pp. +487 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. J. Herzog und G. F. +Plitt, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. p. 303; W. Smith and +S. Cheetham, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Christian +Antiquities</hi>, i. 57. In the last of these +works a passage from the <hi rend='italic'>Martyrologium +Romanum Vetus</hi> is quoted which +states that a feast of Saints (<hi rend='italic'>Festivitas +Sanctorum</hi>) on the first of November +was celebrated at Rome. But the +date of this particular Martyrology is +disputed. See A. J. Binterim, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +v. 1, pp. 52-54.</note> We may conjecture +that this attempt to divert the devotion of the +faithful from the souls of the dead to the saints proved a +failure, and that finally the Church reluctantly decided to +sanction the popular superstition by frankly admitting a feast +of All Souls into the calendar. But it could not assign the +new, or rather the old, festival to the old day, the first of +November, since that was already occupied by the feast of +All Saints. Accordingly it placed the mass for the dead on +the next day, the second of November. On this theory the +feasts of All Saints and of All Souls mark two successive +efforts of the Catholic Church to eradicate an old heathen +festival of the dead. Both efforts failed. <q>In all Catholic +countries the day of All Souls has preserved the serious +character of a festival of the dead which no worldly gaieties +are allowed to disturb. It is then the sacred duty of the +survivors to visit the graves of their loved ones in the +churchyard, to deck them with flowers and lights, and to +utter a devout prayer—a pious custom with which in cities +like Paris and Vienna even the gay and frivolous comply +for the sake of appearance, if not to satisfy an impulse of +the heart.</q><note place='foot'>J. J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 304. A similar attempt to +reform religion by diverting the devotion +of the people from the spirits of their +dead appears to have been made in +antiquity by the doctors of the Persian +faith. For that faith <q>in its most +finished and purest form, in the <hi rend='italic'>Gathas</hi>, +does not recognize the dead as objects +worthy of worship and sacrifice. But +the popular beliefs were too firmly +rooted, and the Mazdeans, like the +sectaries of many other ideal and lofty +forms of religion, were forced to give +way. As they could not suppress the +worship and get rid of the primitive +and crude ideas involved in it, they +set about the reform in another way: +they interpreted the worship in a new +manner, and thus the worship of the +dead became a worship of the gods or +of a god in favour of the loved and lost +ones, a pious commemoration of their +names and their virtues.</q> See N. +Söderblom, <hi rend='italic'>Les Fravashis</hi> (Paris, 1899), +pp. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The <hi rend='italic'>Gathas</hi> form the oldest +part of the <hi rend='italic'>Zend-Avesta</hi>. James +Darmesteter, indeed, in his later life +startled the learned world by a theory +that the <hi rend='italic'>Gathas</hi> were a comparatively +late work based on the teaching of +Philo of Alexandria. But this attempt +of a Jew to claim for his race the +inspiration of the Persian scriptures +has been coldly received by Gentile +scholars. See J. H. Moulton, <hi rend='italic'>Early +Zoroastrianism</hi> (London, 1913), pp. 8 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='084'/><anchor id='Pg084'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. The Festival in the month of Athyr.'/> +<head>§ 3. The Festival in the Month of Athyr.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Festival of +the death +and resurrection +of +Osiris in +the month +of Athyr. The finding +of Osiris.</note> +The foregoing evidence lends some support to the conjecture—for +it is only a conjecture—that the great festival +of Osiris at Sais, with its accompanying illumination of the +houses, was a night of All Souls, when the ghosts of the +dead swarmed in the streets and revisited their old homes, +which were lit up to welcome them back again. Herodotus, +who briefly describes the festival, omits to mention its date, +but we can determine it with some probability from other +sources. Thus Plutarch tells us that Osiris was murdered +on the seventeenth of the month Athyr, and that the +Egyptians accordingly observed mournful rites for four +days from the seventeenth of Athyr.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 39. As +to the death of Osiris on the seventeenth +of Athyr see <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> 13 and 42. +Plutarch's statement on this subject is +confirmed by the evidence of the +papyrus Sallier IV., a document dating +from the 19th dynasty, which places +the lamentation for Osiris at Sais on +the seventeenth day of Athyr. See +A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites Buch</hi>, +p. 262; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die Religion der alten +Ägypter</hi>, p. 112; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, pp. 211 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Now in the Alexandrian +calendar, which Plutarch used, these four days +corresponded to the thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, and +sixteenth of November, and this date answers exactly to +the other indications given by Plutarch, who says that at +the time of the festival the Nile was sinking, the north +winds dying away, the nights lengthening, and the leaves +falling from the trees. During these four days a gilt cow +swathed in a black pall was exhibited as an image of Isis. +<pb n='085'/><anchor id='Pg085'/> +This, no doubt, was the image mentioned by Herodotus in +his account of the festival.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>.</note> On the nineteenth day of the +month the people went down to the sea, the priests carrying +a shrine which contained a golden casket. Into this casket +they poured fresh water, and thereupon the spectators raised +a shout that Osiris was found. After that they took some +vegetable mould, moistened it with water, mixed it with +precious spices and incense, and moulded the paste into a +small moon-shaped image, which was then robed and +ornamented.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 39. The +words which I have translated <q>vegetable +mould</q> are γῆν κάρπιμον, literally, +<q>fruitful earth.</q> The composition of +the image was very important, as we +shall see presently.</note> Thus it appears that the purpose of the +ceremonies described by Plutarch was to represent dramatically, +first, the search for the dead body of Osiris, and, +second, its joyful discovery, followed by the resurrection of +the dead god who came to life again in the new image of +vegetable mould and spices. Lactantius tells us how on +these occasions the priests, with their shaven bodies, beat +their breasts and lamented, imitating the sorrowful search +of Isis for her lost son Osiris, and how afterwards their +sorrow was turned to joy when the jackal-headed god +Anubis, or rather a mummer in his stead, produced a small +boy, the living representative of the god who was lost and +was found.<note place='foot'>Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>Divin. Institut.</hi>, i. 21; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Epitome Inst. Divin.</hi> 23 (18, ed. +Brandt and Laubmann). The description +of the ceremony which Minucius +Felix gives (<hi rend='italic'>Octavius</hi>, xxii. 1) agrees +closely with, and is probably copied +from, that of Lactantius. We know +from Appian (<hi rend='italic'>Bell. Civ.</hi> iv. 6. 47) +that in the rites of Isis a priest personated +Anubis, wearing a dog's, or +perhaps rather a jackal's, mask on his +head; for the historian tells how in the +great proscription a certain Volusius, +who was on the condemned list, escaped +in the disguise of a priest of Isis, +wearing a long linen garment and the +mask of a dog over his head.</note> Thus Lactantius regarded Osiris as the son +instead of the husband of Isis, and he makes no mention of +the image of vegetable mould. It is probable that the boy +who figured in the sacred drama played the part, not of +Osiris, but of his son Horus;<note place='foot'>The suggestion is due to Prof. A. +Wiedemann (<hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites Buch</hi>, p. +261).</note> but as the death and +resurrection of the god were celebrated in many cities of +Egypt, it is also possible that in some places the part of the +god come to life was played by a living actor instead of by +<pb n='086'/><anchor id='Pg086'/> +an image. Another Christian writer describes how the +Egyptians, with shorn heads, annually lamented over a buried +idol of Osiris, smiting their breasts, slashing their shoulders, +ripping open their old wounds, until, after several days of +mourning, they professed to find the mangled remains of the +god, at which they rejoiced.<note place='foot'>Firmicus Maternus, <hi rend='italic'>De errore profanarum +religionum</hi>, 2. Herodotus +tells (ii. 61) how the Carians cut their +foreheads with knives at the mourning +for Osiris.</note> However the details of the +ceremony may have varied in different places, the pretence +of finding the god's body, and probably of restoring it to +life, was a great event in the festal year of the Egyptians. +The shouts of joy which greeted it are described or alluded +to by many ancient writers.<note place='foot'>In addition to the writers who +have been already cited see Juvenal, +viii. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Athenagoras, <hi rend='italic'>Supplicatio +pro Christianis</hi>, 22, pp. 112, 114, ed. +J. C. T. Otto (Jena, 1857); Tertullian, +<hi rend='italic'>Adversus Marcionem</hi>, i. 13; Augustine, +<hi rend='italic'>De civitate Dei</hi>, vi. 10.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. The Festival in the month of Khoiak.'/> +<head>§ 4. The Festival in the Month of Khoiak.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The great +Osirian inscription +at +Denderah.</note> +The funeral rites of Osiris, as they were observed at his +great festival in the sixteen provinces of Egypt, are described +in a long inscription of the Ptolemaic period, which is +engraved on the walls of the god's temple at Denderah, the +Tentyra of the Greeks, a town of Upper Egypt situated on +the western bank of the Nile about forty miles north of +Thebes.<note place='foot'>W. Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Greek +and Roman Geography</hi>, ii. 1127.</note> Unfortunately, while the information thus furnished +is remarkably full and minute on many points, the arrangement +adopted in the inscription is so confused and the +expression often so obscure that a clear and consistent +account of the ceremonies as a whole can hardly be extracted +from it. Moreover, we learn from the document that the +ceremonies varied somewhat in the several cities, the ritual +of Abydos, for example, differing from that of Busiris. Without +attempting to trace all the particularities of local usage +I shall briefly indicate what seem to have been the leading +features of the festival, so far as these can be ascertained +with tolerable certainty.<note place='foot'>For complete translations of the +inscription see H. Brugsch, <q>Das +Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift +für ägyptische Sprache und +Alterthumskunde</hi>, 1881, pp. 77-111; +V. Loret, <q>Les fêtes d'Osiris au mois +de Khoiak,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Recueil de Travaux relatifs +à la Philologie et à l'Archéologie Égyptiennes +et Assyriennes</hi>, iii. (1882) pp. +43-57, iv. (1883) pp. 21-33, v. (1884) +pp. 85-103. On the document and the +festivals described in it see further A. +Mariette-Pacha, <hi rend='italic'>Dendérah</hi> (Paris, 1880), +pp. 334-347; J. Dümichen, <q>Die +dem Osiris im Denderatempel geweihten +Räume,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für ägyptische +Sprache und Alterthumskunde</hi>, 1882, +pp. 88-101; H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion +und Mythologie der alten Aegypter</hi> +(Leipsic, 1885-1888), pp. 616-618; +R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia +Egizia</hi>, pp. 725-744; A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites Buch</hi>, p. 262; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Osiris végétant,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Le Muséon</hi>, N.S. iv. +(1903) p. 113; E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 128 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, +ii. 21 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Miss Margaret +A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The Osireion at Abydos</hi> +(London, 1904), pp. 27 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='087'/><anchor id='Pg087'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The rites +of Osiris +in the +month of +Khoiak +represented +the god as +dead, dismembered, +and then +reconstituted +by +the union +of his +scattered +limbs.</note> +The rites lasted eighteen days, from the twelfth to the +thirtieth of the month Khoiak, and set forth the nature of +Osiris in his triple aspect as dead, dismembered, and finally +reconstituted by the union of his scattered limbs. In the first +of these aspects he was called Chent-Ament (Khenti-Amenti), +in the second Osiris-Sep, and in the third Sokari (Seker).<note place='foot'>R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 727.</note> +Small images of the god were moulded of sand or vegetable +earth and corn, to which incense was sometimes added;<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, in <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde</hi>, +1881, pp. 80-82; A. Wiedemann, +in <hi rend='italic'>Le Muséon</hi>, N.S. iv. (1903) +p. 113. The corn used in the making +of the images is called barley by +Brugsch and Miss M. A. Murray (<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>), +but wheat (<foreign rend='italic'>blé</foreign>) by Mr. V. Loret.</note> his +face was painted yellow and his cheek-bones green.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 99, 101.</note> These +images were cast in a mould of pure gold, which represented +the god in the form of a mummy, with the white crown of +Egypt on his head.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 728; Miss +Margaret A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 27.</note> The festival opened on the twelfth +day of Khoiak with a ceremony of ploughing and sowing. +Two black cows were yoked to the plough, which was made +of tamarisk wood, while the share was of black copper. A +boy scattered the seed. One end of the field was sown +with barley, the other with spelt, and the middle with flax. +During the operation the chief celebrant recited the ritual +chapter of <q>the sowing of the fields.</q><note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 96 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 98; R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +743 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The +Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 128. According +to Lanzone, the ploughing took +place, not on the first, but on the last +day of the festival, namely, on the +thirtieth of Khoiak; and that certainly +appears to have been the date of the +ploughing at Busiris, for the inscription +directs that there <q>the ploughing of +the earth shall take place in the +Serapeum of <foreign rend='italic'>Aa-n-beḥ</foreign> under the fine +Persea trees on the last day of the +month Khoiak</q> (H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +p. 84).</note> At Busiris on the +twentieth of Khoiak sand and barley were put in the god's +<pb n='088'/><anchor id='Pg088'/> +<q>garden,</q> which appears to have been a sort of large flower-pot. +This was done in the presence of the cow-goddess +Shenty, represented seemingly by the image of a cow made +of gilt sycamore wood with a headless human image in its +inside. <q>Then fresh inundation water was poured out of a +golden vase over both the goddess and the <q>garden</q> and the +barley was allowed to grow as the emblem of the resurrection +of the god after his burial in the earth, <q>for the growth +of the garden is the growth of the divine substance.</q></q><note place='foot'>Miss Margaret A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The +Osireion at Abydos</hi>, p. 28; H. Brugsch, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 83, 92. The headless +human image in the cow may have +stood for Isis, who is said to have been +decapitated by her son Horus, and to +have received from Thoth a cow's head +as a substitute. See Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et +Osiris</hi>, 20; G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne +des Peuples de l'Orient Classique</hi>, +i. 177; Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Isis,</q> in +W. H. Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. +und röm. Mythologie</hi>, ii. 366.</note> On +the twenty-second of Khoiak, at the eighth hour, the images +of Osiris, attended by thirty-four images of deities, performed +a mysterious voyage in thirty-four tiny boats made of +papyrus, which were illuminated by three hundred and sixty-five +lights.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 738-740; +A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites Buch</hi>, +p. 262; Miss M. A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +p. 35. An Egyptian calendar, written +at Sais about 300 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, has under the +date 26 Khoiak the following entry: +<q>Osiris goes about and the golden +boat is brought forth.</q> See <hi rend='italic'>The +Hibeh Papyri</hi>, Part i., edited by B. P. +Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (London, +1906), pp. 146, 153. In the Canopic +decree <q>the voyage of the sacred boat +of Osiris</q> is said to take place on the +29th of Khoiak from <q>the sanctuary +in the Heracleum</q> to the Canopic +sanctuary. See W. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Orientis +Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae</hi>, No. +56 (vol. i. pp. 105, 108). Hence it +would seem that the date of this part +of the festival varied somewhat in +different places or at different times.</note> On the twenty-fourth of Khoiak, after sunset, +the effigy of Osiris in a coffin of mulberry wood was laid in +the grave, and at the ninth hour of the night the effigy +which had been made and deposited the year before was +removed and placed upon boughs of sycamore.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 99; E. +A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the +Egyptians</hi>, ii. 129; compare Miss +Margaret A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 28, +who refers the ceremony to the twenty-fifth +of Khoiak.</note> Lastly, on +the thirtieth day of Khoiak they repaired to the holy +sepulchre, a subterranean chamber over which appears to +have grown a clump of Persea-trees. Entering the vault by +the western door, they laid the coffined effigy of the dead god +reverently on a bed of sand in the chamber. So they left him +to his rest, and departed from the sepulchre by the eastern +door. Thus ended the ceremonies in the month of Khoiak.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 94, 99; +A. Mariette-Pacha, <hi rend='italic'>Dendérah</hi>, pp. 336 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 744. +Mariette supposed that after depositing +the new image in the sepulchre they +carried out the old one of the preceding +year, thus setting forth the resurrection +as well as the death of the god. But +this view is apparently not shared by +Brugsch and Lanzone.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='089'/><anchor id='Pg089'/> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='5. The Resurrection of Osiris.'/> +<head>§ 5. The Resurrection of Osiris.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The resurrection +of +Osiris +represented +on the +monuments.</note> +In the foregoing account of the festival, drawn from the +great inscription of Denderah, the burial of Osiris figures +prominently, while his resurrection is implied rather than +expressed. This defect of the document, however, is amply +compensated by a remarkable series of bas-reliefs which +accompany and illustrate the inscription. These exhibit in +a series of scenes the dead god lying swathed as a mummy +on his bier, then gradually raising himself up higher and +higher, until at last he has entirely quitted the bier and is +seen erect between the guardian wings of the faithful Isis, +who stands behind him, while a male figure holds up before +his eyes the <foreign rend='italic'>crux ansata</foreign>, the Egyptian symbol of life.<note place='foot'>A. Mariette-Bey, <hi rend='italic'>Dendérah</hi>, iv. +(Paris, 1873) plates 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, +71, 72, 88, 89, 90; R. V. Lanzone, +<hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia</hi>, pp. +757 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, with plates cclxviii.-ccxcii.; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the +Egyptians</hi>, ii. 131-138; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris +and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, ii. +31 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> The +resurrection of the god could hardly be portrayed more +graphically. Even more instructive, however, is another +representation of the same event in a chamber dedicated to +Osiris in the great temple of Isis at Philae. Here we see +the dead body of Osiris with stalks of corn springing from +it, while a priest waters the stalks from a pitcher which he +holds in his hand. The accompanying inscription sets forth +that <q>this is the form of him whom one may not name, +Osiris of the mysteries, who springs from the returning +waters.</q><note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie +der alten Aegypter</hi>, p. 621; R. +V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia +Egizia</hi>, plate cclxi.; A. Wiedemann, +<q>L'Osiris végétant,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Le Muséon</hi>, +N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112; E. A. Wallis +Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, i. 58. According to Prof. +Wiedemann, the corn springing from +the god's body is barley. Similarly +in a papyrus of the Louvre (No. 3377) +Osiris is represented swathed as a +mummy and lying on his back, while +stalks of corn sprout from his body. +See R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 801 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, with plate ccciii. 2; A. Wiedemann, +<q>L'Osiris végétant,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Le Muséon</hi>, +N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112.</note> Taken together, the picture and the words seem +to leave no doubt that Osiris was here conceived and represented +as a personification of the corn which springs from +<pb n='090'/><anchor id='Pg090'/> +the fields after they have been fertilized by the inundation. +This, according to the inscription, was the kernel of the +mysteries, the innermost secret revealed to the initiated. So +in the rites of Demeter at Eleusis a reaped ear of corn was +exhibited to the worshippers as the central mystery of their +religion.<note place='foot'>Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refutatio omnium +haeresium</hi>, v. 8, p. 162 ed. L. Duncker +and F. G. Schneidewin (Göttingen, +1859). See <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of +the Wild</hi>, i. 38 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> We can now fully understand why at the great +festival of sowing in the month of Khoiak the priests used +to bury effigies of Osiris made of earth and corn. When +these effigies were taken up again at the end of a year or of +a shorter interval, the corn would be found to have sprouted +from the body of Osiris, and this sprouting of the grain +would be hailed as an omen, or rather as the cause, of the +growth of the crops.<note place='foot'>Prof. A. Erman rightly assumes +(<hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 234) that +the images made in the month of +Khoiak were intended to germinate as +a symbol of the divine resurrection.</note> The corn-god produced the corn +from himself: he gave his own body to feed the people: he +died that they might live. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Corn-stuffed +effigies of +Osiris +buried with +the dead +to ensure +their resurrection.</note> +And from the death and resurrection of their great god +the Egyptians drew not only their support and sustenance +in this life, but also their hope of a life eternal beyond the +grave. This hope is indicated in the clearest manner by +the very remarkable effigies of Osiris which have come to +light in Egyptian cemeteries. Thus in the Valley of the +Kings at Thebes there was found the tomb of a royal fan-bearer +who lived about 1500 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> Among the rich contents +of the tomb there was a bier on which rested a mattress of +reeds covered with three layers of linen. On the upper side +of the linen was painted a life-size figure of Osiris; and the +interior of the figure, which was waterproof, contained a +mixture of vegetable mould, barley, and a sticky fluid. The +barley had sprouted and sent out shoots two or three inches +long.<note place='foot'>A. Wiedemann, <q>L'Osiris végétant,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Le Muséon</hi>, N.S. iv. (1903) +p. 111; <hi rend='italic'>Egyptian Exploration Fund +Archaeological Report, 1898-1899</hi>, pp. +24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Kings and Gods of +Egypt</hi> (New York and London, 1912), +p. 94, with plate xi.; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères +Égyptiens</hi> (Paris, 1913), p. 41.</note> Again, in the cemetery at Cynopolis <q>were numerous +burials of Osiris figures. These were made of grain wrapped +up in cloth and roughly shaped like an Osiris, and placed +inside a bricked-up recess at the side of the tomb, sometimes +<pb n='091'/><anchor id='Pg091'/> +in small pottery coffins, sometimes in wooden coffins in the +form of a hawk-mummy, sometimes without any coffins +at all.</q><note place='foot'>B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, in +<hi rend='italic'>Egyptian Exploration Fund Archaeological +Report, 1902-1903</hi>, p. 5.</note> These corn-stuffed figures were bandaged like +mummies with patches of gilding here and there, as if +in imitation of the golden mould in which the similar +figures of Osiris were cast at the festival of sowing.<note place='foot'>Miss Margaret A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The +Osireion at Abydos</hi>, pp. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, +effigies of Osiris, with faces of green wax and their interior +full of grain, were found buried near the necropolis of +Thebes.<note place='foot'>Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>A +Second Series of the Manners and +Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1841), ii. 300, note §. The +writer seems to have doubted whether +these effigies represented Osiris. But +the doubt has been entirely removed +by subsequent discoveries. Wilkinson's +important note on the subject is +omitted by his editor, S. Birch (vol. +iii. p. 375, ed. 1878).</note> Finally, we are told by Professor Erman that +between the legs of mummies <q>there sometimes lies a figure +of Osiris made of slime; it is filled with grains of corn, the +sprouting of which is intended to signify the resurrection of +the god.</q><note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> We cannot doubt that, just as the burial of +corn-stuffed images of Osiris in the earth at the festival of +sowing was designed to quicken the seed, so the burial of +similar images in the grave was meant to quicken the +dead, in other words, to ensure their spiritual immortality. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='6. Readjustment of Egyptian Festivals.'/> +<head>§ 6. Readjustment of Egyptian Festivals.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +festivals of +Osiris in +the months +of Athyr +and +Khoiak +seem to +have been +substantially +the +same.</note> +The festival of Osiris which Plutarch assigns to the +month of Athyr would seem to be identical in substance +with the one which the inscription of Denderah assigns to +the following month, namely, to Khoiak. Apparently the +essence of both festivals was a dramatic representation of +the death and resurrection of the god; in both of them Isis +was figured by a gilt cow, and Osiris by an image moulded +of moist vegetable earth. But if the festivals were the same, +why were they held in different months? It is easy to +suggest that different towns in Egypt celebrated the festival +at different dates. But when we remember that according +to the great inscription of Denderah, the authority of which +is indisputable, the festival fell in the month of Khoiak in +<pb n='092'/><anchor id='Pg092'/> +every province of Egypt, we shall be reluctant to suppose +that at some one place, or even at a few places, it was +exceptionally held in the preceding month of Athyr, and +that the usually well-informed Plutarch described the +exception as if it had been the rule, of which on this +supposition he must have been wholly ignorant. More +probably the discrepancy is to be explained by the great +change which came over the Egyptian calendar between the +date of the inscription and the lifetime of Plutarch. For +when the inscription was drawn up in the Ptolemaic age +the festivals were dated by the old vague or movable year, +and therefore rotated gradually through the whole circle of +the seasons; whereas at the time when Plutarch wrote, +about the end of the first century, they were seemingly +dated by the fixed Alexandrian year, and accordingly had +ceased to rotate.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The old +festival of +Khoiak +may have +been +transferred +to Athyr +when the +Egyptians +adopted +the fixed +Alexandrian +year in +30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi></note> +But even if we grant that in Plutarch's day the festivals +had become stationary, still this would not explain why the +old festival of Khoiak had been transferred to Athyr. In +order to understand that transference it seems necessary to +suppose that when the Egyptians gave to their months fixed +places in the solar year by accepting the Alexandrian +system of intercalation, they at the same time transferred +the festivals from what may be called their artificial to their +natural dates. Under the old system a summer festival was +sometimes held in winter and a winter festival in summer; +a harvest celebration sometimes fell at the season of sowing, +and a sowing celebration at the season of harvest. People +might reconcile themselves to such anomalies so long as +they knew that they were only temporary, and that in the +course of time the festivals would necessarily return to their +proper seasons. But it must have been otherwise when +they adopted a fixed instead of a movable year, and so +arrested the rotation of the festivals for ever. For they +could not but be aware that every festival would thenceforth +continue to occupy for all time that particular place in the +solar year which it chanced to occupy in the year 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, +when the calendar became fixed. If in that particular year +it happened, as it might have happened, that the summer +<pb n='093'/><anchor id='Pg093'/> +festivals were held in winter and the winter festivals in +summer, they would always be so held in future; the +absurdity and anomaly would never again be rectified as it +had been before. This consideration, which could not have +escaped intelligent men, must have suggested the advisability +of transferring the festivals from the dates at which they +chanced to be celebrated in 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> to the dates at which +they ought properly to be celebrated in the course of nature. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The transference +would be +intelligible +if we +suppose +that in +30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> the +dates of +all the +Egyptian +festivals +were +shifted +backward +by about +a month in +order to +restore +them to +their +natural +places +in the +calendar.</note> +Now what in the year 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> was the actual amount of +discrepancy between the accidental and the natural dates of +the festivals? It was a little more than a month. In +that year Thoth, the first month of the Egyptian calendar, +happened to begin on the twenty-ninth of August,<note place='foot'>So it was reckoned at the time. +But, strictly speaking, Thoth in that +year began on August 31. The miscalculation +originated in a blunder of +the ignorant Roman pontiffs who, being +charged with the management of the +new Julian calendar, at first intercalated +a day every third, instead of +every fourth, year. See Solinus, <hi rend='italic'>Collectanea</hi>, +i. 45-47 (p. 15, ed. Th. +Mommsen, Berlin, 1864); Macrobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Saturn</hi>, i. 14. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. Ideler, +<hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen und +technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 157-161.</note> whereas +according to theory it should have begun with the heliacal +rising of Sirius on the twentieth of July, that is, forty +days or, roughly speaking, a month earlier. From this +it follows that in the year 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> all the Egyptian +festivals fell about a month later than their natural dates, +and they must have continued to fall a month late for +ever if they were allowed to retain those places in the +calendar which they chanced to occupy in that particular +year. In these circumstances it would be a natural and +sensible thing to restore the festivals to their proper places +in the solar year by celebrating them one calendar month +earlier than before.<note place='foot'><p>Theoretically the shift should have +been 40, or rather 42 days, that being the +interval between July 20 and August 29 +or 31 (see the preceding note). If that +shift was actually made, the calendar +date of any festival in the old vague +Egyptian year could be found by adding +40 or 42 days to its date in the Alexandrian +year. Thus if the death of +Osiris fell on the 17th of Athyr in the +Alexandrian year, it should have fallen +on the 27th or 29th of Khoiak in the +old vague year; and if his resurrection +fell on the 19th of Athyr in the Alexandrian +year, it should have fallen on +the 29th of Khoiak or the 1st of +Tybi in the old vague year. These +calculations agree nearly, but not +exactly, with the somewhat uncertain +indications of the Denderah calendar +(above, p. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>), and also with the independent +evidence which we possess +that the resurrection of Osiris was +celebrated on the 30th of Khoiak +(below, pp. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). These approximate +agreements to some extent confirm my theory that, with the adoption +of the fixed Alexandrian year, the dates +of the official Egyptian festivals were +shifted from their accidental places in +the calendar to their proper places in +the natural year. +</p> +<p> +Since I published in the first edition +of this book (1906) my theory that +with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian +year in 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> the Egyptian +festivals were shifted about a month +backward in the year, Professor Ed. +Meyer has shown independent grounds +for holding <q>that the festivals which +gave rise to the later names of the +(Egyptian) months were demonstrably +held a month later in earlier ages, +under the twentieth, eighteenth, indeed +partly under the twelfth dynasty; in +other words, that after the end of the +New Kingdom the festivals and the +corresponding names of the months were +displaced one month backwards. It is +true that this displacement can as yet +be proved for only five months; but as +the names of these months and the +festivals keep their relative position +towards each other, the assumption is +inevitable that the displacement affected +not merely particular festivals but the +whole system equally.</q> See Ed. +Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Nachträge zur ägyptischen +Chronologie</hi> (Berlin, 1908), pp. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der königl. Preuss. +Akademie der Wissenschaften vom +Jahre 1907</hi>). Thus it is possible that +the displacement of the festivals by a +month backward in the calendar took +place a good deal earlier than I had +supposed. In the uncertainty of the +whole question I leave my theory as it +stood.</p></note> If this measure were adopted the +<pb n='094'/><anchor id='Pg094'/> +festivals which had hitherto been held, for example, in the +third month Athyr would henceforth be held in the second +month Phaophi; the festivals which had hitherto fallen in +the fourth month Khoiak would thenceforth fall in the +third month Athyr; and so on. Thus the festal calendar +would be reduced to harmony with the seasons instead of +being in more or less flagrant discord with them, as it had +generally been before, and must always have been afterwards +if the change which I have indicated had not been +introduced. It is only to credit the native astronomers and +the Roman rulers of Egypt with common sense to suppose +that they actually adopted the measure. On that supposition +we can perfectly understand why the festival of sowing, +which had formerly belonged to the month of Khoiak, was +transferred to Athyr. For in the Alexandrian calendar +Khoiak corresponds very nearly to December, and Athyr to +November. But in Egypt the month of November, not the +month of December, is the season of sowing. There was +therefore every reason why the great sowing festival of the +corn-god Osiris should be held in Athyr and not Khoiak, in +November and not in December. In like manner we may +suppose that all the Egyptian festivals were restored to their +true places in the solar year, and that when Plutarch dates +a festival both by its calendar month and by its relation to +<pb n='095'/><anchor id='Pg095'/> +the cycle of the seasons, he is perfectly right in doing so, +and we may accept his evidence with confidence instead of +having to accuse him of ignorantly confounding the movable +Egyptian with the fixed Alexandrian year. Accusations of +ignorance levelled at the best writers of antiquity are apt to +recoil on those who make them.<note place='foot'>If the results of the foregoing +inquiry be accepted, the resurrection +of Osiris was regularly celebrated in +Egypt on the 15th of November from +the year 30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> onward, since the +15th of November corresponded to +the 19th of Athyr (the resurrection +day) in the fixed Alexandrian year. +This agrees with the indications of the +Roman Rustic Calendars, which place +the resurrection (<foreign rend='italic'>heuresis</foreign>, that is, the +discovery of Osiris) between the 14th +and the 30th of November. Yet according +to the calendar of Philocalus, the +official Roman celebration of the resurrection +seems to have been held on the +1st of November, not on the 15th. +How is the discrepancy to be explained? +Th. Mommsen supposed that the +festival was officially adopted at Rome +at a time when the 19th of Athyr of +the vague Egyptian year corresponded +to the 31st of October or the 1st of +November of the Julian calendar, and +that the Romans, overlooking the +vague or shifting character of the +Egyptian year, fixed the resurrection +of Osiris permanently on the 1st of +November. Now the 19th of Athyr +of the vague year corresponded to the +1st of November in the years 32-35 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> +and to the 31st of October in the years +36-39; and it appears that the festival +was officially adopted at Rome some +time before 65 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> (Lucan, <hi rend='italic'>Pharsalia</hi>, +viii. 831 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>). It is unlikely that the +adoption took place in the reign of +Tiberius, who died in 37 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>; for he +is known to have persecuted the +Egyptian religion (Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Annals</hi>, +ii. 85; Suetonius, <hi rend='italic'>Tiberius</hi>, 36; +Josephus, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. Jud.</hi> xviii. 3. 4); +hence Mommsen concluded that the +great festival of Osiris was officially +adopted at Rome in the early years of +the reign of Caligula, that is, in 37, 38, +or 39 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi> See Th. Mommsen, <hi rend='italic'>Corpus +Inscriptionum Latinarum</hi>, i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> Pars +prior (Berlin, 1893), pp. 333 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +H. Dessau, <hi rend='italic'>Inscriptiones Latinae +Selectae</hi>, vol. ii. p. 995, No. 8745. +This theory of Mommsen's assumes +that in Egypt the festivals were still +regulated by the old vague year +in the first century of our era. It +cannot, therefore, be reconciled with +the conclusion reached in the text that +the Egyptian festivals ceased to be +regulated by the old vague year from +30 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> onward. How the difference +of date between the official Roman and +the Egyptian festival of the resurrection +is to be explained, I do not pretend to +say.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='096'/><anchor id='Pg096'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter V. The Nature of Osiris.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Osiris a Corn-God.'/> +<head>§ 1. Osiris a Corn-God.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris in +one of his +aspects a +personification +of +the corn. Osiris a +child of +Sky and +Earth. +The legend +of the +dismemberment +of Osiris +points +to the +dismemberment +of human +beings, +perhaps of +the kings, +in the +character +of the +corn-spirit.</note> +The foregoing survey of the myth and ritual of Osiris may +suffice to prove that in one of his aspects the god was a +personification of the corn, which may be said to die and +come to life again every year. Through all the pomp and +glamour with which in later times the priests had invested +his worship, the conception of him as the corn-god comes +clearly out in the festival of his death and resurrection, which +was celebrated in the month of Khoiak and at a later period +in the month of Athyr. That festival appears to have been +essentially a festival of sowing, which properly fell at the +time when the husbandman actually committed the seed to +the earth. On that occasion an effigy of the corn-god, +moulded of earth and corn, was buried with funeral rites in +the ground in order that, dying there, he might come to life +again with the new crops. The ceremony was, in fact, a +charm to ensure the growth of the corn by sympathetic +magic, and we may conjecture that as such it was practised +in a simple form by every Egyptian farmer on his fields long +before it was adopted and transfigured by the priests in the +stately ritual of the temple. In the modern, but doubtless +ancient, Arab custom of burying <q>the Old Man,</q> namely, +a sheaf of wheat, in the harvest-field and praying that he +may return from the dead,<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>.</note> we see the germ out of which the +worship of the corn-god Osiris was probably developed. +<pb n='097'/><anchor id='Pg097'/> +Earth.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>.</note> What more appropriate parentage could be invented +for the corn which springs from the ground that has been +fertilized by the water of heaven? It is true that the land +of Egypt owed its fertility directly to the Nile and not to +showers; but the inhabitants must have known or guessed +that the great river in its turn was fed by the rains which +fell in the far interior. Again, the legend that Osiris was +the first to teach men the use of corn<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>.</note> would be most +naturally told of the corn-god himself. Further, the story +that his mangled remains were scattered up and down the +land and buried in different places may be a mythical way +of expressing either the sowing or the winnowing of the +grain. The latter interpretation is supported by the tale +that Isis placed the severed limbs of Osiris on a corn-sieve.<note place='foot'>Servius on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Georg.</hi> i. 166.</note> +Or more probably the legend may be a reminiscence of a +custom of slaying a human victim, perhaps a representative +of the corn-spirit, and distributing his flesh or scattering his +ashes over the fields to fertilize them. In modern Europe +the figure of Death is sometimes torn in pieces, and the +fragments are then buried in the ground to make the crops +grow well,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, p. 250.</note> and in other parts of the world human victims +are treated in the same way.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the +Wild</hi>, i. 236 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> With regard to the ancient +Egyptians we have it on the authority of Manetho that they +used to burn red-haired men and scatter their ashes with +winnowing fans,<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 73, compare +33.</note> and it is highly significant that this barbarous +sacrifice was offered by the kings at the grave of Osiris.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. 5. The +slaughter may have been performed by +the king with his own hand. On +Egyptian monuments the king is often +represented in the act of slaying +prisoners before a god. See A. Moret, +<hi rend='italic'>Du caractère religieux de la royauté +Pharaonique</hi> (Paris, 1902), pp. 179, +224; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and +the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +Similarly the kings of Ashantee and +Dahomey used often themselves to cut +the throats of the human victims. See +A. B. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>The Tshi-speaking Peoples +of the Gold Coast</hi> (London, 1887), +p. 162; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Ewe-speaking Peoples +of the Slave Coast</hi> (London, 1890), +pp. 125, 129.</note> +We may conjecture that the victims represented Osiris himself, +who was annually slain, dismembered, and buried in +their persons that he might quicken the seed in the earth. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Roman +and Greek +traditions +of the +dismemberment +of kings. Modern +Thracian +pretence +of killing +a man, +who is +sometimes +called a +king, for +the good of +the crops.</note> +Possibly in prehistoric times the kings themselves +<pb n='098'/><anchor id='Pg098'/> +played the part of the god and were slain and dismembered +in that character. Set as well as Osiris is said to have +been torn in pieces after a reign of eighteen days, which +was commemorated by an annual festival of the same +length.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Scholia in Caesaris Germanici +Aratea</hi>, in F. Eyssenhardt's edition of +Martianus Capella, p. 408 (Leipsic, +1866).</note> According to one story Romulus, the first +king of Rome, was cut in pieces by the senators, who +buried the fragments of him in the ground;<note place='foot'>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Rom.</hi> ii. 56. 4. Compare +Livy, i. 16. 4; Florus, i. 1. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Romulus</hi>, 27. Mr. A. B. +Cook was, I believe, the first to interpret +the story as a reminiscence of the +sacrifice of a king. See his article +<q>The European Sky-God,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xvi. (1905) pp. 324 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> However, the +acute historian A. Schwegler long ago +maintained that the tradition rested on +some very ancient religious rite, which +was afterwards abolished or misunderstood, +and he rightly compared the +legendary deaths of Pentheus and +Orpheus (<hi rend='italic'>Römische Geschichte</hi>, Tübingen, +1853-1858, vol. i. pp. 534 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). +See further W. Otto, <q>Juno,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Philologus</hi>, +lxiv. (1905) pp. 187 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> and +the traditional day of his death, the seventh of July, +was celebrated with certain curious rites, which were +apparently connected with the artificial fertilization of the +fig.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 313 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Again, Greek legend told how Pentheus, king of +Thebes, and Lycurgus, king of the Thracian Edonians, +opposed the vine-god Dionysus, and how the impious +monarchs were rent in pieces, the one by the frenzied +Bacchanals, the other by horses.<note place='foot'>Euripides, <hi rend='italic'>Bacchae</hi>, 43 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 1043 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Theocritus, xxvi.; Pausanias, ii. +2. 7; Apollodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, iii. 5. +1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Hyginus, <hi rend='italic'>Fab.</hi> 132 and 184. The +destruction of Lycurgus by horses +seems to be mentioned only by Apollodorus. +As to Pentheus see especially +A. G. Bather, <q>The Problem of the +Bacchae,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of Hellenic Studies</hi>, +xiv. (1904) pp. 244-263.</note> These Greek traditions +may well be distorted reminiscences of a custom of sacrificing +human beings, and especially divine kings, in the +character of Dionysus, a god who resembled Osiris in many +points and was said like him to have been torn limb from +limb.<note place='foot'>Nonnus, <hi rend='italic'>Dionys.</hi> vi. 165-205; +Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Protrept.</hi> ii. 17 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, p. 15 ed. Potter; Justin Martyr, +<hi rend='italic'>Apology</hi>, i. 54; Firmicus Maternus, +<hi rend='italic'>De errore profanarum religionum</hi>, 6; +Arnobius, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus Nationes</hi>, v. 19. +According to the Clementine <hi rend='italic'>Recognitiones</hi>, +x. 24 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Graeca</hi>, +i. 1434) Dionysus was torn in pieces +at Thebes, the very place of which +Pentheus was king. The description +of Euripides (<hi rend='italic'>Bacchae</hi>, 1058 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) +suggests that the human victim was tied +or hung to a pine-tree before being rent +to pieces. We are reminded of the effigy +of Attis which hung on the sacred +pine (above, vol. i. p. 267), and of +the image of Osiris which was made +out of a pine-tree and then buried in +the hollow of the trunk (below, p. 108). +The pine-tree on which Pentheus was +pelted by the Bacchanals before they +tore him limb from limb is said to have +been worshipped as if it were the god +himself by the Corinthians, who made +two images of Dionysus out of it +(Pausanias, ii. 2. 7). The tradition +points to an intimate connexion between +the tree, the god, and the human +victim.</note> We are told that in Chios men were rent in pieces +<pb n='099'/><anchor id='Pg099'/> +as a sacrifice to Dionysus;<note place='foot'>Porphyry, <hi rend='italic'>De abstinentia</hi>, ii. 55. +At Potniae in Boeotia a priest of +Dionysus is said to have been killed by +the drunken worshippers (Pausanias, +ix. 8. 2). He may have been sacrificed +in the character of the god.</note> and since they died the same +death as their god, it is reasonable to suppose that they +personated him. The story that the Thracian Orpheus was +similarly torn limb from limb by the Bacchanals seems to +indicate that he too perished in the character of the god whose +death he died.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>De saltatione</hi>, 51; Plato, +<hi rend='italic'>Symposium</hi>, 7, p. 179 <hi rend='smallcaps'>d</hi>, <hi rend='smallcaps'>e</hi>; Pausanias, +ix. 30. 5; Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> xi. 1-43; O. +Gruppe, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Orpheus,</q> in W. H. +Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. und röm. +Mythologie</hi>, iii. 1165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> That Orpheus +died the death of the god has been +observed both in ancient and modern +times. See E. Rohde, <hi rend='italic'>Psyche</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> (Tübingen +and Leipsic, 1903) ii. 118, note 2, +quoting Proclus on Plato; S. Reinach, +<q>La mort d'Orphée,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Cultes, Mythes +et Religions</hi>, ii. (1906) pp. 85 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +According to Ovid, the Bacchanals +killed him with hoes, rakes, and +mattocks. Similarly in West Africa +human victims used to be killed with +spades and hoes and then buried in +a field which had just been tilled +(J. B. Labat, <hi rend='italic'>Relation historique de +l'Ethiopie occidentale</hi>, Paris, 1732, i. +380). Such a mode of sacrifice points +to the identification of the human +victim with the fruits of the earth.</note> It is significant that the Thracian Lycurgus, +king of the Edonians, is said to have been put to death in +order that the ground, which had ceased to be fruitful, might +regain its fertility.<note place='foot'>Apollodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, iii. 5. 1.</note> In some Thracian villages at Carnival +time a custom is still annually observed, which may well be +a mitigation of an ancient practice of putting a man, perhaps +a king, to death in the character of Dionysus for the sake +of the crops. A man disguised in goatskins and fawnskins, +the livery of Dionysus, is shot at and falls down as dead. +A pretence is made of flaying his body and of mourning +over him, but afterwards he comes to life again. Further, +a plough is dragged about the village and seed is scattered, +while prayers are said that the wheat, rye, and barley may +be plentiful. One town (Viza), where these customs are +observed, was the capital of the old Thracian kings. In +another town (Kosti, near the Black Sea) the principal masker +is called the king. He wears goatskins or sheepskins, and is +attended by a boy who dispenses wine to the people. The +king himself carries seed, which he casts on the ground +before the church, after being invited to throw it on two +<pb n='100'/><anchor id='Pg100'/> +bands of married and unmarried men respectively. Finally, +he is stripped of the skins and thrown into the river.<note place='foot'>R. M. Dawkins, <q>The Modern +Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of +Dionysus,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of Hellenic Studies</hi>, +xxvi. (1906) pp. 191-206. See further +<hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild</hi>, i. +25 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Norwegian +tradition +of the +dismemberment +of a king, +Halfdan +the Black. +Frey, the +Scandinavian +god +of fertility, +buried at +Upsala.</note> +Further, we read of a Norwegian king, Halfdan the +Black, whose body was cut up and buried in different parts +of his kingdom for the sake of ensuring the fruitfulness +of the earth. He is said to have been drowned at the +age of forty through the breaking of the ice in spring. +What followed his death is thus related by the old Norse +historian Snorri Sturluson: <q>He had been the most +prosperous (literally, blessed with abundance) of all kings. +So greatly did men value him that when the news came +that he was dead and his body removed to Hringariki and +intended for burial there, the chief men from Raumariki and +Westfold and Heithmörk came and all requested that they +might take his body with them and bury it in their various +provinces; they thought that it would bring abundance to +those who obtained it. Eventually it was settled that the +body was distributed in four places. The head was laid in +a barrow at Steinn in Hringariki, and each party took away +their own share and buried it. All these barrows are called +Halfdan's barrows.</q><note place='foot'>Snorri Sturluson, <hi rend='italic'>Heimskringla, +Saga Halfdanar Svarta</hi>, ch. 9. I have +to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick +for referring me to this passage and +translating it for me. See also <hi rend='italic'>The +Stories of the Kings of Norway (Heimskringla)</hi>, +done into English by W. +Morris and E. Magnússon (London, +1893-1905), i. 86 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Halfdan the +Black was the father of Harold the +Fair-haired, king of Norway (860-933 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi>). Professor Chadwick tells me +that, though the tradition as to the +death and mutilation of Halfdan was +not committed to writing for three +hundred years, he sees no reason to +doubt its truth. He also informs me +that the word translated <q>abundance</q> +means literally <q>the produce of the +season.</q> <q>Plenteous years</q> is the +rendering of Morris and Magnússon.</note> It should be remembered that this +Halfdan belonged to the family of the Ynglings, who traced +their descent from Frey, the great Scandinavian god of +fertility.<note place='foot'>As to the descent of Halfdan and +the Ynglings from Frey, see <hi rend='italic'>Heimskringla</hi>, +done into English by W. +Morris and E. Magnússon, i. 23-71 +(<hi rend='italic'>The Saga Library</hi>, vol. iii.). With +regard to Frey, the god of fertility, +both animal and vegetable, see E. H. +Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Mythologie der Germanen</hi> +(Strasburg, 1903), pp. 366 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; P. +Hermann, <hi rend='italic'>Nordische Mythologie</hi> (Leipsic, +1903), pp. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Frey himself is said to have reigned as king of +Sweden at Upsala. The years of his reign were plenteous, +and the people laid the plenty to his account. So when he +<pb n='101'/><anchor id='Pg101'/> +died, they would not burn him, as it had been customary to +do with the dead before his time; but they resolved to +preserve his body, believing that, so long as it remained in +Sweden, the land would have abundance and peace. Therefore +they reared a great mound, and put him in it, and +sacrificed to him for plenty and peace ever afterwards. +And for three years after his death they poured the tribute +to him into the mound, as if he were alive; the gold they +poured in by one window, the silver by a second, and the +copper by a third.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Heimskringla</hi>, done into English +by W. Morris and E. Magnússon, i. 4, +22-24 (<hi rend='italic'>The Saga Library</hi>, vol. iii.).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Segera, a +magician +of Kiwai, +said to have +been cut up +after death +and the +pieces +buried in +gardens to +fertilize +them.</note> +The natives of Kiwai, an island lying off the mouth of +the Fly River in British New Guinea, tell of a certain +magician named Segera, who had sago for his totem. +When his son died, the death was set down to the magic +of an enemy, and the bereaved father was so angry that +by his spells he caused the whole crop of sago in the +country to fail; only in his own garden the sago grew as +luxuriantly as ever. When many had died of famine, the +people went to him and begged him to remove the spells +which he had cast on the sago palms, so that they might +eat food and live. The magician, touched with remorse and +pity, went round planting a sago shoot in every garden, and +the shoots flourished, sago was plentiful once more, and the +famine came to an end. When Segera was old and ill, he +told the people that he would soon die, but that, nevertheless, +he would cause their gardens to thrive. Accordingly, +he instructed them that when he was dead they should +cut him up and place pieces of his flesh in their gardens, +but his head was to be buried in his own garden. Of him +it is said that he outlived the ordinary age, and that no man +knew his father, but that he made the sago good and no +one was hungry any more. Old men who were alive a +few years ago affirmed that they had known Segera in their +youth, and the general opinion of the Kiwai people seems +to be that Segera died not more than two generations ago.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, ii. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +from information supplied by Dr. C. +G. Seligmann.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Apparently +widespread +custom +of dismembering +a king or +magician +and burying +the +pieces in +different +parts of the +kingdom.</note> +Taken all together, these legends point to a widespread +practice of dismembering the body of a king or magician +<pb n='102'/><anchor id='Pg102'/> +and burying the pieces in different parts of the country +in order to ensure the fertility of the ground and probably +also the fecundity of man and beast. Whether regarded as +the descendant of a god, as himself divine, or simply as a +mighty enchanter, the king was believed to radiate magical +virtue for the good of his subjects, quickening the seed in +the earth and in the womb. This radiation of reproductive +energy did not cease with his life; hence the people deemed +it essential to preserve his body as a pledge of the continued +prosperity of the country. It would be natural to +imagine that the spot where the dead king was buried +would enjoy a more than ordinary share of his blessed +influence, and accordingly disputes would almost inevitably +arise between different districts for the exclusive possession +of so powerful a talisman. These disputes could be settled +and local jealousies appeased by dividing the precious body +between the rival claimants, in order that all should benefit +in equal measure by its life-giving properties. This was +certainly done in Norway with the body of Halfdan the +Black, the descendant of the harvest-god Frey; it appears +to have been done with the body of Segera, the sago-magician +of Kiwai; and we may conjecture that in prehistoric +times it was done with the bodies of Egyptian +kings, who personated Osiris, the god of fertility in general +and of the corn in particular. At least such a practice +would account for the legend of the mangling of the god's +body and the distribution of the pieces throughout +Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In this +dismemberment +a special +virtue +seems to +have been +ascribed +to the +genital +organs.</note> +In this connexion the story that the genital member +of Osiris was missing when Isis pieced together his +mutilated body,<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>.</note> may not be without significance. When +a Zulu medicine-man wishes to make the crops grow +well, he will take the body of a man who has died in +full vigour and cut minute portions of tissue from the foot, +the leg, the arm, the face, and the nail of a single finger +in order to compound a fertilizing medicine out of them. +But the most important part of the medicine consists +of the dead man's generative organs, which are removed +entire. All these pieces of the corpse are fried with herbs +<pb n='103'/><anchor id='Pg103'/> +on a slow fire, then ground to powder, and sown over the +fields.<note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>Savage Childhood</hi> +(London, 1906), p. 291.</note> We have seen that similarly the Egyptians scattered +the ashes of human victims by means of winnowing-fans;<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</note> +and if my explanation of the practice is correct, it may well +have been that they, like the Zulus, attributed a special +power of reproduction to the genital organs, and therefore +carefully excised them from the body of the victim in order +to impart their virtue to the fields. I have conjectured that +a similar use was made of the severed portions of the priests +of Attis.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg268'>268</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Egyptian +kings +probably +opposed the +custom and +succeeded +in abolishing +it. +Precautions +taken to +preserve +the bodies +of kings +from +mutilation.</note> +To an ancient Egyptian, with his firm belief in a personal +immortality dependent on the integrity of the body, the +prospect of mutilation after death must have been very +repugnant; and we may suppose that the kings offered a +strenuous resistance to the custom and finally succeeded in +abolishing it. They may have represented to the people +that they would attain their object better by keeping the +royal corpse intact than by frittering it away in small pieces. +Their subjects apparently acquiesced in the argument, or at +all events in the conclusion; yet the mountains of masonry +beneath which the old Egyptian kings lay buried may have +been intended to guard them from the superstitious devotion +of their friends quite as much as from the hostile designs of +their enemies, since both alike must have been under a +strong temptation to violate the sanctity of the grave in +order to possess themselves of bodies which were believed +to be endowed with magical virtue of the most tremendous +potency. In antiquity the safety of the state was often +believed to depend on the possession of a talisman, which +sometimes consisted of the bones of a king or hero. Hence +the graves of such persons were sometimes kept secret.<note place='foot'>See my notes on Pausanias, i. 28. +7 and viii. 47. 5 (vol. ii. pp. 366 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +vol. iv. pp. 433 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> +The violation of royal tombs by a conqueror was not a +mere insult: it was a deadly blow struck at the prosperity +of the kingdom. Hence Ashurbanipal carried off to Assyria +the bones of the kings of Elam, believing that thus he gave +their shades no repose and deprived them of food and +<pb n='104'/><anchor id='Pg104'/> +drink.<note place='foot'>R. F. Harper, <hi rend='italic'>Assyrian and Babylonian +Literature</hi> (New York, 1901), +p. 116; C. Fossey, <hi rend='italic'>La Magie Assyrienne</hi> +(Paris, 1902), pp. 34 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The Moabites burned the bones of the king of +Edom into lime.<note place='foot'>Amos ii. 1.</note> Lysimachus is said to have opened the +graves of the kings of Epirus and scattered the bones of +the dead.<note place='foot'>Pausanias, i. 9. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Graves of +kings and +chiefs in +Africa kept +secret. Burial-place +of +chiefs in +Fiji kept +secret. +Graves of +Melanesian +magicians +kept secret.</note> +With savage and barbarous tribes in like manner it is +not unusual to violate the sanctity of the tomb either for +the purpose of wreaking vengeance on the dead or more +commonly perhaps for the sake of gaining possession of the +bones and converting them to magical uses. Hence the +Mpongwe kings of the Gaboon region in West Africa are +buried secretly lest their heads should fall into the hands of +men of another tribe, who would make a powerful fetish out +of the brains.<note place='foot'>P. B. du Chaillu, <hi rend='italic'>Explorations +and Adventures in Equatorial Africa</hi> +(London, 1861), pp. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, in Togoland, West Africa, the kings +of the Ho tribe are buried with great secrecy in the forest, +and a false grave is made ostentatiously in the king's house. +None but his personal retainers and a single daughter know +where the king's real grave is. The intention of this secret +burial is to prevent enemies from digging up the corpse and +cutting off the head.<note place='foot'>J. Spieth, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ewe-Stämme</hi> (Berlin, +1906), p. 107.</note> <q>The heads of important chiefs in +the Calabar districts are usually cut off from the body on +burial and kept secretly for fear the head, and thereby the +spirit, of the dead chief, should be stolen from the town. If +it were stolen it would be not only a great advantage to its +new possessor, but a great danger to the chief's old town, +because he would know all the peculiar ju-ju relating to it. +For each town has a peculiar one, kept exceedingly secret, +in addition to the general ju-jus, and this secret one would +then be in the hands of the new owners of the spirit.</q><note place='foot'>Mary H. Kingsley, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in +West Africa</hi> (London, 1897), pp. 449 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> In West African jargon the word +ju-ju means fetish or magic.</note> The +graves of Basuto chiefs are kept secret lest certain more or +less imaginary witches and wizards called <foreign rend='italic'>Baloi</foreign>, who haunt +tombs, should get possession of the bones and work evil +magic with them.<note place='foot'>Father Porte, <q>Les reminiscences +d'un missionnaire du Basutoland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxviii. (1896) +pp. 311 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> As to the <foreign rend='italic'>Baloi</foreign>, see +A. Merensky, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Kenntniss +Süd-Afrikas</hi> (Berlin, 1875), pp. 138 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. Gottschling, <q>The Bawenda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxv. (1905) p. 375. For these two +references I have to thank Mr. E. S. +Hartland.</note> In the Thonga tribe of South Africa, +<pb n='105'/><anchor id='Pg105'/> +when a chief dies, he is buried secretly by night in a sacred +wood, and few people know the place of the grave. With +some clans of the tribe it is customary to level the mound +over the grave so that no sign whatever remains to show +where the body has been buried. This is said to be done +lest enemies should exhume the corpse and cut off the ears, +the diaphragm, and other parts in order to make powerful +war-charms out of them.<note place='foot'>Henri A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>The Life of a +South African Tribe</hi> (Neuchâtel, 1912-1913), +i. 387 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> By many tribes in Fiji <q>the +burial-place of their chief is kept a profound secret, lest +those whom he injured during his lifetime should revenge +themselves by digging up and insulting or even eating his +body. In some places the dead chief is buried in his own +house, and armed warriors of his mother's kin keep watch +night and day over his grave. After a time his bones are +taken up and carried by night to some far-away inaccessible +cave in the mountains, whose position is known only to a +few trustworthy men. Ladders are constructed to enable +them to reach the cave, and are taken down when the bones +have been deposited there. Many frightful stories are told +in connection with this custom, and it is certain that not +even decomposition itself avails to baulk the last revenge of +cannibals if they can find the grave. The very bones of +the dead chief are not secure from the revenge of those +whose friends he killed during his lifetime, or whom he +otherwise so exasperated by the tyrannous exercise of his +power as to fill their hearts with a deadly hate. In one +instance within my own knowledge, when the hiding-place +was discovered, the bones were taken away, scraped, and +stewed down into a horrible hell-broth.</q><note place='foot'>Lorimer Fison, <q>Notes on Fijian +Burial Customs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, x. (1881) pp. +141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> When a +Melanesian dies who enjoyed a reputation for magical +powers in his lifetime, his friends will sometimes hold a +sham burial and keep the real grave secret for fear that +men might come and dig up the skull and bones to make +charms with them.<note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi> +(Oxford, 1891), p. 269.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='106'/><anchor id='Pg106'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Among the +Koniags of +Alaska the +bodies of +dead +whalers +were cut +up and +used as +talismans.</note> +Beliefs and practices of this sort are by no means +confined to agricultural peoples. Among the Koniags of +Alaska <q>in ancient times the pursuit of the whale was +accompanied by numerous superstitious observances kept a +secret by the hunters. Lieutenant Davidof states that the +whalers preserved the bodies of brave or distinguished men +in secluded caves, and before proceeding upon a whale-hunt +would carry these dead bodies into a stream and then drink +of the water thus tainted. One famous whaler of Kadiak +who desired to flatter Baranof, the first chief manager of the +Russian colonies, said to him, <q>When you die I shall try to +steal your body,</q> intending thus to express his great respect +for Baranof. On the occasion of the death of a whaler his +fellows would cut the body into pieces, each man taking +one of them for the purpose of rubbing his spear-heads +therewith. These pieces were dried or otherwise preserved, +and were frequently taken into the canoes as talismans.</q><note place='foot'>Ivan Petroff, <hi rend='italic'>Report on the Population, +Industries, and Resources of +Alaska</hi>, p. 142. The account seems to +be borrowed from H. J. Holmberg, who +adds that pains were taken to preserve +the flesh from decay, <q>because they +believed that their own life depended +on it.</q> See H. J. Holmberg, <q>Über +die Völker des russischen Amerika,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae</hi>, +iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) p. 391.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Assimilation +of +human +victims to +the corn.</note> +To return to the human victims whose ashes the Egyptians +scattered with winnowing-fans,<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>.</note> the red hair of these unfortunates +was probably significant. If I am right, the custom of +sacrificing such persons was not a mere way of wreaking +a national spite on fair-haired foreigners, whom the black-haired +Egyptians of old, like the black-haired Chinese of +modern times, may have regarded as red-haired devils. For +in Egypt the oxen which were sacrificed had also to be red; +a single black or white hair found on the beast would have +disqualified it for the sacrifice.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 31; Herodotus, +ii. 38.</note> If, as I conjecture, these +human sacrifices were intended to promote the growth of +the crops—and the winnowing of their ashes seems to +support this view—red-haired victims were perhaps selected +as best fitted to personate the spirit of the ruddy grain. For +when a god is represented by a living person, it is natural +that the human representative should be chosen on the +ground of his supposed resemblance to the divine original. +<pb n='107'/><anchor id='Pg107'/> +Hence the ancient Mexicans, conceiving the maize as a +personal being who went through the whole course of life +between seed-time and harvest, sacrificed new-born babes +when the maize was sown, older children when it had +sprouted, and so on till it was fully ripe, when they sacrificed +old men.<note place='foot'>Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Culturländer des alten Amerika</hi> +(Berlin, 1878), ii. 639; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>General +History of the vast Continent and +Islands of America</hi>, translated by Capt. +J. Stevens (London, 1725-26), ii. 379 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (whose version of the passage is +inadequate). Compare Brasseur de +Bourbourg, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire des nations civilisées +du Mexique et de l'Amérique +Centrale</hi> (Paris, 1857-59), i. 327, iii. +525.</note> A name for Osiris was the <q>crop</q> or +<q>harvest</q>;<note place='foot'>E. Lefébure, <hi rend='italic'>Le mythe Osirien</hi> +(Paris, 1874-75), p. 188.</note> and the ancients sometimes explained him as +a personification of the corn.<note place='foot'>Firmicus Maternus, <hi rend='italic'>De errore profanarum +religionum</hi>, 2, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Defensores +eorum volunt addere physicam +rationem, frugum semina Osirim +dicentes esse, Isim terram, Tyfonem +calorem: et quia maturatae fruges +calore ad vitam hominum colliguntur +et divisae a terrae consortio separantur +et rursus adpropinquante hieme seminantur, +hanc volunt esse mortem +Osiridis, cum fruges recondunt, inventionem +vero, cum fruges genitali +terrae fomento conceptae annua rursus +coeperint procreatione generari.</foreign></q> Tertullian, +<hi rend='italic'>Adversus Marcionem</hi>, i. 13, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sic et Osiris quod semper sepelitur +et in vivido quaeritur et cum gaudio +invenitur, reciprocarum frugum et +vividorum elementorum et recidivi anni +fidem argumentantur</foreign>.</q> Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis +et Osiris</hi>, 65, οὕτω δὲ καὶ τοῖς πολλοῖς +καὶ φορτικοῖς ἐπιχειρήσομεν, εἴτε ταῖς +καθ᾽ ὤραν μεταβολαῖς τοῦ περιέχοντος +εἴτε ταῖς καρπῶν γενέσεσι καὶ σποραῖς +καὶ ἀρότοις χαίρουσι τὰ περὶ τοὺς θεοὺς +τούτους συνοικειοῦντες, καὶ λέγοντες +θάπτεσθαι μὲν Ὄσιριν ὅτε κρύπτεται τῇ +γῇ σπειρόμενος ὁ καρπός, αὖθις δ᾽ ἀναβιοῦσθαι +καὶ ἀναφαίνεσφαι ὅτε βλαστήσεως +ἀρχή. Eusebius, <hi rend='italic'>Praeparatio +Evangelii</hi>, iii. 11. 31, ὁ δὲ Ὄσιρις παρ᾽ +Αἰγυπτίοις τὴν κάρπιμον παρίστησι +δύναμιν, ἢν θρήνοις ἀπομειλίσσονται εἰς +γὴν ἀφανιζομένην ἐν τῷ σπόρῳ καὶ ὑφ᾽ +ἡμῶν καταναλισκομένην εἰς τὰς τροφάς. +Athenagoras, <hi rend='italic'>Supplicatio pro Christianis</hi>, +22, pp. 112, 114 ed. J. C. T. +Otto, τὰ δὲ στοιχεῖα καὶ τὰ μόρια αὐτῶν +θεοποιοῦσιν, ἄλλοτε ἄλλα ὀνόματα αὐτοῖς +τιθέμενοι, τὴν μὲν τοῦ σίτου σπορὰν +Ὄσιριν (ὄφεν φασὶ μυστικῶς ἐπὶ τῇ +ἀνευρέσει τῶν μελῶν ἢ τῶν καρπῶν +ἐπιλεχθῆναι τῇ Ἴσιδι. Εὐρήκαμεν, +συγχαίρομεν). See also the passage of +Cornutus quoted above, vol. i. p. 229, +note 2.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Osiris a Tree-Spirit.'/> +<head>§ 2. Osiris a Tree-Spirit.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris as a +tree-spirit. His image +enclosed in +a pine-tree.</note> +But Osiris was more than a spirit of the corn; he was +also a tree-spirit, and this may perhaps have been his +primitive character, since the worship of trees is naturally +older in the history of religion than the worship of the +cereals. However that may have been, to an agricultural +people like the Egyptians, who depended almost wholly on +their crops, the corn-god was naturally a far more important +<pb n='108'/><anchor id='Pg108'/> +personage than the tree-god, and attracted a larger share of +their devotion. The character of Osiris as a tree-spirit was +represented very graphically in a ceremony described by +Firmicus Maternus.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>De errore profanarum religionum</hi>, +27.</note> A pine-tree having been cut down, the +centre was hollowed out, and with the wood thus excavated +an image of Osiris was made, which was then buried like a +corpse in the hollow of the tree. It is hard to imagine how +the conception of a tree as tenanted by a personal being +could be more plainly expressed. The image of Osiris thus +made was kept for a year and then burned, exactly as was +done with the image of Attis which was attached to the +pine-tree.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 267, 277.</note> The ceremony of cutting the tree, as described +by Firmicus Maternus, appears to be alluded to by Plutarch.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 21, αἰνῶ +δὲ τομὴν ξύλου καὶ σχίσιν λίνου καὶ χοὰς +χεομένας, διὰ τὸ πολλὰ τῶν μυστικῶν +ἀναμεμίχθαι τούτοις. Again, <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi> 42, +τὸ δὲ ξύλον ἐν ταῖς λεγομέναις Ὀσίριδος +ταφαῖς τέμνοντες κατασκευάζουσι λάρνακα +μηνοειδῆ.</note> +It was probably the ritual counterpart of the mythical discovery +of the body of Osiris enclosed in the <hi rend='italic'>erica</hi>-tree.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The setting +up of the +<foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> pillar +at the great +festival of +Osiris in +the month +of Khoiak. The setting +up of the +pillar may +have been +an emblem +of the +god's resurrection.</note> +Now we know from the monuments that at Busiris, +Memphis, and elsewhere the great festival of Osiris closed +on the thirtieth of Khoiak with the setting up of a remarkable +pillar known as the <foreign rend='italic'>tatu</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>tat</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>tet</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>dad</foreign>, or <foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign>. This was +a column with four or five cross-bars, like superposed capitals, +at the top. The whole roughly resembled a telegraph-post +with the cross-pieces which support the wires. Sometimes +on the monuments a human form is given to the pillar by +carving a grotesque face on it, robing the lower part, crowning +the top with the symbols of Osiris, and adding two arms +which hold two other characteristic emblems of the god, the +crook and the scourge or flail. On a Theban tomb the king +himself, assisted by his relations and a priest, is represented +hauling at the ropes by which the pillar is being raised, +while the queen looks on and her sixteen daughters accompany +the ceremony with the music of rattles and sistrums. +Again, in the hall of the Osirian mysteries at Abydos the +King Sety I. and the goddess Isis are depicted raising the +column between them. In Egyptian theology the pillar was +interpreted as the backbone of Osiris, and whatever its meaning +<pb n='109'/><anchor id='Pg109'/> +may have been, it was one of the holiest symbols of the +national religion. It might very well be a conventional way +of representing a tree stripped of its leaves; and if Osiris was +a tree-spirit, the bare trunk and branches might naturally be +described as his backbone. The setting up of the column +would thus, as several modern scholars believe, shadow forth +the resurrection of the god, and the importance of the +occasion would explain and justify the prominent part +which the king appears to have taken in the ceremony.<note place='foot'>As to the <foreign rend='italic'>tet</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> pillar and its +erection at the festival see H. Brugsch +in <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache +und Alterthumskunde</hi>, 1881, pp. 84, +96; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie der +alten Aegypter</hi>, p. 618; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im +Altertum</hi>, pp. 377 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die +ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 22, 64; C. P. +Tiele, <hi rend='italic'>History of the Egyptian Religion</hi> +(London, 1882), pp. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Sir J. +Gardiner Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Manners and +Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, +1878), iii. pp. 67, note 3, and 82; +A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi>, pp. 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. Maspero, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient +Classique</hi>, i. 130 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Moret, +<hi rend='italic'>Du caractère religieux de la royauté +Pharaonique</hi>, p. 153, note 1; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Mystères Égyptiens</hi>, pp. 12-16; E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, +ii. 122, 124, <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 6, 37, 48, +51 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Miss Margaret A. Murray, +<hi rend='italic'>The Osireion at Abydos</hi>, pp. 27, 28; +Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2, p. 70. In a letter to me (dated +8th December, 1910) my colleague Professor +P. E. Newberry tells me that he +believes Osiris to have been originally +a cedar-tree god imported into Egypt +from the Lebanon, and he regards the +<foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> pillar as a lopped cedar-tree. The +flail, as a symbol of Osiris, he believes to +be the instrument used to collect incense. +A similar flail is used by peasants in +Crete to extract the ladanum gum from +the shrubs. See P. de Tournefort, +<hi rend='italic'>Relation d'un Voyage du Levant</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1718), i. 29, with the +plate. For this reference I am indebted +to Professor Newberry.</note> It +is to be noted that in the myth of Osiris the <foreign rend='italic'>erica</foreign>-tree which +shot up and enclosed his dead body, was cut down by a +king and turned by him into a pillar of his house.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 15. See +above, p. 9.</note> We +can hardly doubt, therefore, that this incident of the legend +was supposed to be dramatically set forth in the erection of +the <foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> column by the king. Like the similar custom of +cutting a pine-tree and fastening an image to it in the +rites of Attis, the ceremony may have belonged to that class +of customs of which the bringing in of the May-pole is +among the most familiar. The association of the king and +queen of Egypt with the <foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> pillar reminds us of the association +of a King and Queen of May with the May-pole.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 88-90.</note> The +resemblance may be more than superficial. +</p> + +<pb n='110'/><anchor id='Pg110'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris +associated +with the +pine, the +sycamore, +the +tamarisk, +and the +acacia.</note> +In the hall of Osiris at Denderah the coffin containing +the hawk-headed mummy of the god is clearly depicted as +enclosed within a tree, apparently a conifer, the trunk and +branches of which are seen above and below the coffin.<note place='foot'>A. Mariette-Bey, <hi rend='italic'>Dendérah</hi>, iv. +pl. 66.</note> +The scene thus corresponds closely both to the myth and +to the ceremony described by Firmicus Maternus. In +another scene at Denderah a tree of the same sort is represented +growing between the dead and the reviving Osiris, as +if on purpose to indicate that the tree was the symbol of +the divine resurrection.<note place='foot'>A. Mariette-Bey, <hi rend='italic'>Dendérah</hi>, iv. +pl. 72. Compare E. Lefébure, <hi rend='italic'>Le +mythe Osirien</hi>, pp. 194, 196, who regards +the tree as a conifer. But it is +perhaps a tamarisk.</note> A pine-cone often appears on the +monuments as an offering presented to Osiris, and a manuscript +of the Louvre speaks of the cedar as sprung from him.<note place='foot'>E. Lefébure, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 195, 197.</note> +The sycamore and the tamarisk were also his trees. In +inscriptions he is spoken of as residing in them;<note place='foot'>S. Birch, in Sir J. G. Wilkinson's +<hi rend='italic'>Manners and Customs of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi> (London, 1878), iii. 84.</note> and in +tombs his mother Nut is often portrayed standing in the +midst of a sycamore-tree and pouring a libation for the +benefit of the dead.<note place='foot'>Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iii. +62-64; E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods +of the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. +Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples +de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 185.</note> In one of the Pyramid Texts we +read, <q>Hail to thee, Sycamore, which enclosest the god</q>;<note place='foot'>J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development of +Religion and Thought in Ancient +Egypt</hi> (London, 1912), p. 28.</note> +and in certain temples the statue of Osiris used to be +placed for seven days upon branches of sycamores. The +explanation appended in the sacred texts declares that the +placing of the image on the tree was intended to recall +the seven months passed by Osiris in the womb of his +mother Nut, the goddess of the sycamore.<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Kings and Gods of +Egypt</hi> (New York and London, 1912), +p. 83.</note> The rite recalls +the story that Adonis was born after ten months' gestation +from a myrrh-tree.<note place='foot'>Above, vol. i. pp. 227 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Further, in a sepulchre at How +(Diospolis Parva) a tamarisk is depicted overshadowing +the tomb of Osiris, while a bird is perched among the +branches with the significant legend <q>the soul of Osiris,</q><note place='foot'>Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iii. +349 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und +aegyptisches Leben im Altertum</hi>, p. 368; +H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie +der alten Aegypter</hi>, p. 621.</note> +<pb n='111'/><anchor id='Pg111'/> +showing that the spirit of the dead god was believed to +haunt his sacred tree.<note place='foot'>We may compare a belief of some +of the Californian Indians that the owl +is the guardian spirit and deity of the +<q>California big tree,</q> and that it is +equally unlucky to fell the tree or to +shoot the bird. See S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes +of California</hi> (Washington, 1877), p. +398. When a Maori priest desires to +protect the life or soul (<foreign rend='italic'>hau</foreign>) of a tree +against the insidious arts of magicians, +he sets a bird-snare in the tree, and +the first bird caught in the snare, or +its right wing, embodies the life or +soul of the tree. Accordingly the priest +recites appropriate spells over the bird +or its wing and hides it away in the +forest. After that no evil-disposed +magician can hurt the tree, since its +life or soul is not in it but hidden away +in the forest. See Elsdon Best, +<q>Spiritual Concepts of the Maori,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Polynesian Society</hi>, ix. +(1900) p. 195. Thus the bird or its +wing is the depository of the external +soul of the tree. Compare <hi rend='italic'>Balder the +Beautiful</hi>, i. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Again, in the series of sculptures +which illustrate the mystic history of Osiris in the great +temple of Isis at Philae, a tamarisk is figured with two men +pouring water on it. The accompanying inscription leaves +no doubt, says Brugsch, that the verdure of the earth was +believed to be connected with the verdure of the tree, and +that the sculpture refers to the grave of Osiris at Philae, of +which Plutarch tells us that it was overshadowed by a <foreign rend='italic'>methide</foreign> +plant, taller than any olive-tree. This sculpture, it may be +observed, occurs in the same chamber in which the god is +represented as a corpse with ears of corn springing from +him.<note place='foot'>Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> iii. +349 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und +Mythologie der alten Aegypter</hi>, p. 621; +R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia +Egizia</hi>, tav. cclxiii.; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et +Osiris</hi>, 20. In this passage of Plutarch +it has been proposed by G. Parthey +to read μυρίκης (tamarisk) for μηθίδης +(<foreign rend='italic'>methide</foreign>), and the conjecture appears +to be accepted by Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi></note> In inscriptions he is referred to as <q>the one in the +tree,</q> <q>the solitary one in the acacia,</q> and so forth.<note place='foot'>E. Lefébure, <hi rend='italic'>Le mythe Osirien</hi>, +p. 191.</note> On +the monuments he sometimes appears as a mummy covered +with a tree or with plants;<note place='foot'>E. Lefébure, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 188.</note> and trees are represented growing +from his grave.<note place='foot'>R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di +Mitologia Egizia</hi>, tav. ccciv.; G. +Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples +de l'Orient Classique</hi>, ii. 570, fig.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris in +relation to +fruit-trees, +wells, the +vine, and +ivy.</note> +It accords with the character of Osiris as a tree-spirit +that his worshippers were forbidden to injure fruit-trees, and +with his character as a god of vegetation in general that +they were not allowed to stop up wells of water, which are +so important for the irrigation of hot southern lands.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 35. One +of the points in which the myths of +Isis and Demeter agree is that both +goddesses in the search for the loved +and lost one are said to have sat down, +sad at heart and weary, on the edge of +a well. Hence those who had been +initiated at Eleusis were forbidden to +sit on a well. See Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et +Osiris</hi>, 15; Homer, <hi rend='italic'>Hymn to Demeter</hi>, +98 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Pausanias, i. 39. 1; Apollodorus, +<hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, i. 5. 1; Nicander, +<hi rend='italic'>Theriaca</hi>, 486; Clement of Alexandria, +<hi rend='italic'>Protrept.</hi> ii. 20, p. 16 ed. Potter.</note> +<pb n='112'/><anchor id='Pg112'/> +According to one legend, he taught men to train the vine +to poles, to prune its superfluous foliage, and to extract +the juice of the grape.<note place='foot'>Tibullus, i. 7. 33-36; Diodorus +Siculus, i. 17. 1, i. 20. 4.</note> In the papyrus of Nebseni, written +about 1550 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, Osiris is depicted sitting in a shrine, from +the roof of which hang clusters of grapes;<note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and +the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 38, 39.</note> and in the +papyrus of the royal scribe Nekht we see the god enthroned +in front of a pool, from the banks of which a luxuriant vine, +with many bunches of grapes, grows towards the green face +of the seated deity.<note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. +19, 45, with frontispiece.</note> The ivy was sacred to him, and was +called his plant because it is always green.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 17. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Osiris a God of Fertility.'/> +<head>§ 3. Osiris a God of Fertility.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris +perhaps +conceived +as a god of +fertility in +general.</note> +As a god of vegetation Osiris was naturally conceived +as a god of creative energy in general, since men at a certain +stage of evolution fail to distinguish between the reproductive +powers of animals and of plants. Hence a striking feature +in his worship was the coarse but expressive symbolism by +which this aspect of his nature was presented to the eye not +merely of the initiated but of the multitude. At his festival +women used to go about the villages singing songs in his +praise and carrying obscene images of him which they set +in motion by means of strings.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 48; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis +et Osiris</hi>, 12, 18, 36, 51; Diodorus +Siculus, i. 21. 5, i. 22. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, iv. 6. 3.</note> The custom was probably +a charm to ensure the growth of the crops. A similar image +of him, decked with all the fruits of the earth, is said to have +stood in a temple before a figure of Isis,<note place='foot'>Hippolytus, <hi rend='italic'>Refutatio omnium +haeresium</hi>, v. 7, p. 144 ed. Duncker +and Schneidewin.</note> and in the chambers +dedicated to him at Philae the dead god is portrayed lying +on his bier in an attitude which indicates in the plainest way +that even in death his generative virtue was not extinct but +only suspended, ready to prove a source of life and fertility +to the world when the opportunity should offer.<note place='foot'>A. Mariette-Bey, <hi rend='italic'>Dendérah</hi>, iv. +plates 66, 68, 69, 70, 88, 89, 90. Compare +R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di +Mitologia Egizia</hi>, tavv. cclxxi., cclxxii., +cclxxvi., cclxxxv., cclxxxvi., cclxxxvii., +cclxxxix., ccxc.; E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 132, +136, 137.</note> Hymns +<pb n='113'/><anchor id='Pg113'/> +addressed to Osiris contain allusions to this important side +of his nature. In one of them it is said that the world +waxes green in triumph through him; and another declares, +<q>Thou art the father and mother of mankind, they live on +thy breath, they subsist on the flesh of thy body.</q><note place='foot'>Miss Margaret A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The +Osireion at Abydos</hi>, p. 27.</note> We +may conjecture that in this paternal aspect he was supposed, +like other gods of fertility, to bless men and women with +offspring, and that the processions at his festival were +intended to promote this object as well as to quicken the +seed in the ground. It would be to misjudge ancient +religion to denounce as lewd and profligate the emblems +and the ceremonies which the Egyptians employed for the +purpose of giving effect to this conception of the divine +power. The ends which they proposed to themselves in +these rites were natural and laudable; only the means they +adopted to compass them were mistaken. A similar fallacy +induced the Greeks to adopt a like symbolism in their +Dionysiac festivals, and the superficial but striking resemblance +thus produced between the two religions has perhaps +more than anything else misled inquirers, both ancient and +modern, into identifying worships which, though certainly +akin in nature, are perfectly distinct and independent in +origin.<note place='foot'>That the Greek Dionysus was +nothing but a slightly disguised form +of the Egyptian Osiris has been held +by Herodotus in ancient and by Mr. +P. Foucart in modern times. See +Herodotus, ii. 49; P. Foucart, <hi rend='italic'>Le +culte de Dionysos en Attique</hi> (Paris, +1904) (<hi rend='italic'>Mémoires de l'Académie des +Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres</hi>, xxxvii.).</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='4. Osiris a God of the Dead.'/> +<head>§ 4. Osiris a God of the Dead.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>As god of +the corn +Osiris +came to be +viewed as +the god of +the resurrection.</note> +We have seen that in one of his aspects Osiris was the +ruler and judge of the dead.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> To a people like the Egyptians, +who not only believed in a life beyond the grave but actually +spent much of their time, labour, and money in preparing +for it, this office of the god must have appeared hardly, if +at all, less important than his function of making the earth +to bring forth its fruits in due season. We may assume +that in the faith of his worshippers the two provinces of the +<pb n='114'/><anchor id='Pg114'/> +god were intimately connected. In laying their dead in +the grave they committed them to his keeping who could +raise them from the dust to life eternal, even as he caused +the seed to spring from the ground. Of that faith the corn-stuffed +effigies of Osiris found in Egyptian tombs furnish an +eloquent and unequivocal testimony.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> They were at once +an emblem and an instrument of resurrection. Thus from +the sprouting of the grain the ancient Egyptians drew an +augury of human immortality. They are not the only +people who have built the same far-reaching hopes on the +same slender foundation. <q>Thou fool, that which thou +sowest, thou sowest not that body that shall be, but bare +grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other grain: but +God giveth it a body as it hath pleased him, and to every +seed his own body. So also is the resurrection of the dead. +It is sown in corruption; it is raised in incorruption: it is +sown in weakness; it is raised in power: it is sown a +natural body; it is raised a spiritual body.</q><note place='foot'>1 Corinthians xv. 36-38, 42-44.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Great +popularity +of the +worship +of Osiris.</note> +A god who thus fed his people with his own broken +body in this life, and who held out to them a promise of a +blissful eternity in a better world hereafter, naturally reigned +supreme in their affections. We need not wonder, therefore, +that in Egypt the worship of the other gods was overshadowed +by that of Osiris, and that while they were +revered each in his own district, he and his divine partner +Isis were adored in all.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 42. Compare E. +A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the +Egyptians</hi>, ii. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, +i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='115'/><anchor id='Pg115'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VI. Isis.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Multifarious +attributes +of Isis.</note> +The original meaning of the goddess Isis is still more +difficult to determine than that of her brother and husband +Osiris. Her attributes and epithets were so numerous that +in the hieroglyphics she is called <q>the many-named,</q> <q>the +thousand-named,</q> and in Greek inscriptions <q>the myriad-named.</q><note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie +der alten Aegypter</hi>, p. 645; W. +Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones +Selectae</hi>, vol. ii. p. 433, No. +695; <hi rend='italic'>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</hi>, +iii. p. 1232, No. 4941. Compare H. +Dessau, <hi rend='italic'>Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae</hi>, +vol. ii. Pars i. p. 179, No. 4376 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a</hi>. +In Egyptian her name is <foreign rend='italic'>Hest</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Ast</foreign>, +but the derivation and meaning of the +name are unknown. See A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>The Religion of the Ancient +Egyptians</hi>, pp. 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The late eminent Dutch scholar C. P. Tiele +confessed candidly that <q>it is now impossible to tell precisely +to what natural phenomena the character of Isis at +first referred.</q> Yet he adds, <q>Originally she was a goddess +of fecundity.</q><note place='foot'>C. P. Tiele, <hi rend='italic'>History of Egyptian +Religion</hi> (London, 1882), p. 57.</note> Similarly Dr. Budge writes that <q>Isis was +the great and beneficent goddess and mother, whose influence +and love pervaded all heaven and earth and the abode of +the dead, and she was the personification of the great +feminine, creative power which conceived, and brought forth +every living creature and thing, from the gods in heaven to +man on the earth, and to the insect on the ground; what +she brought forth she protected, and cared for, and fed, and +nourished, and she employed her life in using her power +graciously and successfully, not only in creating new beings +but in restoring those that were dead. She was, besides +these things, the highest type of a faithful and loving wife +<pb n='116'/><anchor id='Pg116'/> +and mother, and it was in this capacity that the Egyptians +honoured and worshipped her most.</q><note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of +the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>How Isis +resembled +yet differed +from the +Mother +Goddesses +of Asia. +Isis +perhaps +originally +a goddess +of the corn.</note> +Thus in her character of a goddess of fecundity Isis +answered to the great mother goddesses of Asia, though she +differed from them in the chastity and fidelity of her conjugal +life; for while they were unmarried and dissolute, she had a +husband and was a true wife to him as well as an affectionate +mother to their son. Hence her beautiful Madonna-like +figure reflects a more refined state of society and of morals +than the coarse, sensual, cruel figures of Astarte, Anaitis, +Cybele, and the rest of that crew. A clear trace, indeed, of +an ethical standard very different from our own lingers in +her double relation of sister and wife to Osiris; but in most +other respects she is rather late than primitive, the full-blown +flower rather than the seed of a long religious development. +The attributes ascribed to her were too various to be all +her own. They were graces borrowed from many lesser +deities, sweets rifled from a thousand humbler plants to +feed the honey of her superb efflorescence. Yet in her +complex nature it is perhaps still possible to detect the +original nucleus round which by a slow process of accretion +the other elements gathered. For if her brother and husband +Osiris was in one of his aspects the corn-god, as we have seen +reason to believe, she must surely have been the corn-goddess. +There are at least some grounds for thinking so. For if we +may trust Diodorus Siculus, whose authority appears to have +been the Egyptian historian Manetho, the discovery of wheat +and barley was attributed to Isis, and at her festivals stalks +of these grains were carried in procession to commemorate +the boon she had conferred on men.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Eusebius (<hi rend='italic'>Praeparatio Evangelii</hi>, iii. +3) quotes from Diodorus a long +passage on the early religion of +Egypt, prefacing it with the remark +that Diodorus's account of the subject +was more concise than that of +Manetho.</note> A further detail is +added by Augustine. He says that Isis made the discovery +of barley at the moment when she was sacrificing to the +common ancestors of her husband and herself, all of whom +had been kings, and that she showed the newly discovered +ears of barley to Osiris and his councillor Thoth or +Mercury, as Roman writers called him. That is why, +<pb n='117'/><anchor id='Pg117'/> +adds Augustine, they identify Isis with Ceres.<note place='foot'>Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De civitate Dei</hi>, viii. +27. Tertullian says that Isis wore a +wreath of the corn she had discovered +(<hi rend='italic'>De corona</hi>, 7).</note> Further, +at harvest-time, when the Egyptian reapers had cut the first +stalks, they laid them down and beat their breasts, wailing +and calling upon Isis.<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2.</note> The custom has been already explained +as a lament for the corn-spirit slain under the sickle.<note place='foot'>See above, p. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, and vol. i. p. 232.</note> +Amongst the epithets by which Isis is designated in the inscriptions +are <q>Creatress of green things,</q> <q>Green goddess, +whose green colour is like unto the greenness of the earth,</q> +<q>Lady of Bread,</q> <q>Lady of Beer,</q> <q>Lady of Abundance.</q><note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie +der alten Aegypter</hi>, p. 647; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, ii. 277.</note> +According to Brugsch she is <q>not only the creatress of the +fresh verdure of vegetation which covers the earth, but is +actually the green corn-field itself, which is personified as a +goddess.</q><note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 649. Compare +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of +the Egyptians</hi>, ii. 216.</note> This is confirmed by her epithet <foreign rend='italic'>Sochit</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Sochet</foreign>, +meaning <q>a corn-field,</q> a sense which the word still retains +in Coptic.<note place='foot'>H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi></note> The Greeks conceived of Isis as a corn-goddess, +for they identified her with Demeter.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 59, 156; Diodorus +Siculus, i. 13, 25, 95; Apollodorus, +<hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, ii. 1. 3; J. Tzetzes, <hi rend='italic'>Schol. +on Lycophron</hi>, 212. See further W. +Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Isis,</q> in W. H. Roscher's +<hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. und röm. +Mythologie</hi>, ii. 443 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In a Greek epigram +she is described as <q>she who has given birth to the fruits of +the earth,</q> and <q>the mother of the ears of corn</q>;<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Anthologia Planudea</hi>, cclxiv. 1.</note> and in +a hymn composed in her honour she speaks of herself as +<q>queen of the wheat-field,</q> and is described as <q>charged with +the care of the fruitful furrow's wheat-rich path.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus +conlecta</hi>, ed. G. Kaibel (Berlin, 1878), +No. 1028, pp. 437 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Orphica</hi>, ed. +E. Abel (Leipsic and Prague, 1885), +pp. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Accordingly, +Greek or Roman artists often represented her with ears +of corn on her head or in her hand.<note place='foot'>W. Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 448 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Refinement +and spiritualization +of Isis in +later times: +the popularity +of +her worship +in the +Roman +empire. Resemblance +of +Isis to the +Madonna.</note> +Such, we may suppose, was Isis in the olden time, a +rustic Corn-Mother adored with uncouth rites by Egyptian +swains. But the homely features of the clownish goddess +could hardly be traced in the refined, the saintly form which, +spiritualized by ages of religious evolution, she presented to +her worshippers of after days as the true wife, the tender +<pb n='118'/><anchor id='Pg118'/> +mother, the beneficent queen of nature, encircled with the +nimbus of moral purity, of immemorial and mysterious +sanctity. Thus chastened and transfigured she won many +hearts far beyond the boundaries of her native land. In that +welter of religions which accompanied the decline of national +life in antiquity her worship was one of the most popular at +Rome and throughout the empire. Some of the Roman +emperors themselves were openly addicted to it.<note place='foot'>Otho often celebrated, or at least +attended, the rites of Isis, clad in a +linen garment (Suetonius, <hi rend='italic'>Otho</hi>, 12). +Commodus did the same, with shaven +head, carrying the effigy of Anubis. +See Lampridius, <hi rend='italic'>Commodus</hi>, 9; Spartianus, +<hi rend='italic'>Pescennius Niger</hi>, 6; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Caracallus</hi>, +9.</note> And however +the religion of Isis may, like any other, have been often +worn as a cloak by men and women of loose life, her rites +appear on the whole to have been honourably distinguished +by a dignity and composure, a solemnity and decorum well +fitted to soothe the troubled mind, to ease the burdened heart. +They appealed therefore to gentle spirits, and above all to +women, whom the bloody and licentious rites of other +Oriental goddesses only shocked and repelled. We need +not wonder, then, that in a period of decadence, when +traditional faiths were shaken, when systems clashed, when +men's minds were disquieted, when the fabric of empire +itself, once deemed eternal, began to show ominous rents +and fissures, the serene figure of Isis with her spiritual +calm, her gracious promise of immortality, should have +appeared to many like a star in a stormy sky, and should +have roused in their breasts a rapture of devotion not unlike +that which was paid in the Middle Ages to the Virgin +Mary. Indeed her stately ritual, with its shaven and +tonsured priests, its matins and vespers, its tinkling music, +its baptism and aspersions of holy water, its solemn processions, +its jewelled images of the Mother of God, presented +many points of similarity to the pomps and ceremonies of +Catholicism.<note place='foot'>L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische Mythologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +(Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 373-385; J. +Marquardt, <hi rend='italic'>Römische Staatsverwaltung</hi> +(Leipsic, 1885), iii.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> 77-81; E. Renan, +<hi rend='italic'>Marc-Aurèle et la fin du Monde Antique</hi> +(Paris, 1882), pp. 570 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. Reville, +<hi rend='italic'>La religion romaine à Rome sous les +Sévères</hi> (Paris, 1886), pp. 54-61; G. +Lafaye, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire du culte des divinités +d'Alexandrie</hi> (Paris, 1884); E. Meyer +and W. Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Isis,</q> in W. H. +Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. und röm. +Mythologie</hi>, ii. 360 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; S. Dill, +<hi rend='italic'>Roman Society in the Last Century of +the Western Empire</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1899), +pp. 79 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 85 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Roman Society +from Nero to Marcus Aurelius</hi> (London, +1904), pp. 560 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The chief +passage on the worship of Isis in the +West is the eleventh book of Apuleius's +<hi rend='italic'>Metamorphoses</hi>. On the reputation +which the goddess enjoyed as a healer +of the sick see Diodorus Siculus, i. +25; W. Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 521 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The divine partner of Isis in +later times, especially outside of +Egypt, was Serapis, that is Osiris-Apis +(<foreign rend='italic'>Asar-Ḥāpi</foreign>), the sacred Apis bull +of Memphis, identified after death with +Osiris. His oldest sanctuary was at +Memphis (Pausanias, i. 18. 4), and +there was one at Babylon in the time +of Alexander the Great (Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Alexander</hi>, 76; Arrian, <hi rend='italic'>Anabasis</hi>, vii. +26). Ptolemy I. or II. built a great and +famous temple in his honour at Alexandria, +where he set up an image of +the god which was commonly said +to have been imported from Sinope +in Pontus. See Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Histor.</hi> iv. +83 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 27-29; +Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Protrept.</hi> iv. +48, p. 42 ed. Potter. In after ages +the institution of the worship of Serapis +was attributed to this Ptolemy, but all +that the politic Macedonian monarch +appears to have done was to assimilate +the Egyptian Osiris to the Greek Pluto, +and so to set up a god whom Egyptians +and Greeks could unite in worshipping. +Serapis gradually assumed the attributes +of Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing, +in addition to those of Pluto, the +Greek god of the dead. See G. Lafaye, +<hi rend='italic'>Histoire du culte des divinités d'Alexandrie</hi>, +pp. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Wiedemann, +<hi rend='italic'>Herodots zweites Buch</hi>, p. 589; E. +A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the +Egyptians</hi>, ii. 195 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The resemblance need not be purely accidental. +<pb n='119'/><anchor id='Pg119'/> +Ancient Egypt may have contributed its share +to the gorgeous symbolism of the Catholic Church as well +as to the pale abstractions of her theology.<note place='foot'>The resemblance of Isis to the +Virgin Mary has often been pointed +out. See W. Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Isis,</q> +in W. H. Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. +und röm. Mythologie</hi>, ii. 428 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Certainly in +art the figure of Isis suckling the infant Horus is so like +that of the Madonna and child that it has sometimes +received the adoration of ignorant Christians.<note place='foot'>W. Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 430 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> And to +Isis in her later character of patroness of mariners the +Virgin Mary perhaps owes her beautiful epithet of <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Stella +Maris</foreign>, <q>Star of the Sea,</q> under which she is adored by +tempest-tossed sailors.<note place='foot'>Th. Trede, <hi rend='italic'>Das Heidentum in der +römischen Kirche</hi> (Gotha, 1889-1891), +iii. 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The attributes of a marine deity +may have been bestowed on Isis by the sea-faring Greeks +of Alexandria. They are quite foreign to her original +character and to the habits of the Egyptians, who had no +love of the sea.<note place='foot'>On this later aspect of Isis see +W. Drexler, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 474 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> On this hypothesis Sirius, the bright star +of Isis, which on July mornings rises from the glassy waves +of the eastern Mediterranean, a harbinger of halcyon weather +to mariners, was the true <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Stella Maris</foreign>, <q>the Star of the +Sea.</q> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='120'/><anchor id='Pg120'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VII. Osiris and the Sun.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris interpreted +as the sun +by many +modern +writers.</note> +Osiris has been sometimes interpreted as the sun-god; +and in modern times this view has been held by so many +distinguished writers that it deserves a brief examination. +If we inquire on what evidence Osiris has been identified +with the sun or the sun-god, it will be found on analysis +to be minute in quantity and dubious, where it is not +absolutely worthless, in quality. The diligent Jablonski, the +first modern scholar to collect and sift the testimony of +classical writers on Egyptian religion, says that it can be +shown in many ways that Osiris is the sun, and that he +could produce a cloud of witnesses to prove it, but that it is +needless to do so, since no learned man is ignorant of the +fact.<note place='foot'>P. E. Jablonski, <hi rend='italic'>Pantheon Aegyptiorum</hi> +(Frankfort, 1750-1752), i. 125 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Of the writers whom he condescends to quote, the +only two who expressly identify Osiris with the sun are +Diodorus and Macrobius. The passage in Diodorus runs +thus:<note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 11. 1.</note> <q>It is said that the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, +looking up to the sky, and smitten with awe and wonder at +the nature of the universe, supposed that there were two +gods, eternal and primaeval, the sun and the moon, of whom +they named the sun Osiris and the moon Isis.</q> Even if +Diodorus's authority for this statement is Manetho, as there +is some ground for believing,<note place='foot'>See p. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>, note 2.</note> little or no weight can be +attached to it. For it is plainly a philosophical, and therefore +a late, explanation of the first beginnings of Egyptian +religion, reminding us of Kant's familiar saying about +the starry heavens and the moral law rather than of the +<pb n='121'/><anchor id='Pg121'/> +rude traditions of a primitive people. Jablonski's second +authority, Macrobius, is no better, but rather worse. For +Macrobius was the father of that large family of mythologists +who resolve all or most gods into the sun. According +to him Mercury was the sun, Mars was the sun, Janus +was the sun, Saturn was the sun, so was Jupiter, also +Nemesis, likewise Pan, and so on through a great part of +the pantheon.<note place='foot'>See Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturnalia</hi>, bk. i.</note> It was natural, therefore, that he should +identify Osiris with the sun,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 21. 11.</note> but his reasons for doing so +are exceedingly slight. He refers to the ceremonies of +alternate lamentation and joy as if they reflected the +vicissitudes of the great luminary in his course through the +sky. Further, he argues that Osiris must be the sun +because an eye was one of his symbols. It is true that +an eye was a symbol of Osiris,<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 10 and +51; Sir J. G. Wilkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Manners +and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> +(London, 1878), iii. 353; R. V. +Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di Mitologia +Egizia</hi>, pp. 782 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. A. Wallis +Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, +ii. 113 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development +of Religion and Thought in +Ancient Egypt</hi>, pp. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Strictly +speaking, the eye was the eye of Horus, +which the dutiful son sacrificed in +behalf of his father Osiris. <q>This act +of filial devotion, preserved to us in +the Pyramid Texts, made the already +sacred Horus-eye doubly revered in +the tradition and feeling of the +Egyptians. It became the symbol +of all sacrifice; every gift or offering +might be called a <q>Horus-eye,</q> +especially if offered to the dead. Excepting +the sacred beetle, or scarab, +it became the commonest and the +most revered symbol known to +Egyptian religion, and the myriads +of eyes, wrought in blue or green +glaze, or even cut from costly stone, +which fill our museum collections, and +are brought home by thousands by the +modern tourist, are survivals of this +ancient story of Horus and his devotion +to his father</q> (J. H. Breasted, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 31).</note> and it is also true that the +sun was often called <q>the eye of Horus</q>;<note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of +the Egyptians</hi>, i. 467; A. Erman, +<hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 8.</note> yet the coincidence +hardly suffices to establish the identity of the two +deities. The opinion that Osiris was the sun is also +mentioned, but not accepted, by Plutarch,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 52.</note> and it is referred +to by Firmicus Maternus.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>De errore profanarum religionum</hi>, +8.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The later +identification +of +Osiris with +Ra, the +sun-god, +does not +prove that +Osiris was +originally +the sun. +Such +identifications +sprang +from +attempts to +unify and +amalgamate +the +many +local cults +of Egypt.</note> +Amongst modern scholars, Lepsius, in identifying Osiris +with the sun, appears to rely mainly on the passage of +Diodorus already quoted. But the monuments, he adds, +also show <q>that down to a late time Osiris was sometimes +conceived as <foreign rend='italic'>Ra</foreign>. In this quality he is named <foreign rend='italic'>Osiris-Ra</foreign> +<pb n='122'/><anchor id='Pg122'/> +even in the <q>Book of the Dead,</q> and Isis is often called <q>the +royal consort of Ra.</q></q><note place='foot'>Lepsius, <q>Über den ersten +ägyptischen Götterkreis und seine +geschichtlich-mythologische Entstehung,</q> +in <hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der königlichen +Akademie der Wissenschaften zu +Berlin</hi>, 1851, pp. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> That Ra was both the physical sun +and the sun-god is undisputed; but with every deference +for the authority of so great a scholar as Lepsius, we may +doubt whether the identification of Osiris with Ra can +be accepted as proof that Osiris was originally the sun. +For the religion of ancient Egypt<note place='foot'>The view here taken of the history +of Egyptian religion is based on the +sketch in Ad. Erman's <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und +aegyptisches Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. +351 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> Compare C. P. Tiele, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte +der Religion im Altertum</hi> +(Gotha, 1896-1903), i. 79 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> may be described as +a confederacy of local cults which, while maintaining against +each other a certain measure of jealous and even hostile +independence, were yet constantly subjected to the fusing +and amalgamating influence of political centralization and +philosophic thought. The history of the religion appears +to have largely consisted of a struggle between these +opposite forces or tendencies. On the one side there was +the conservative tendency to preserve the local cults with all +their distinctive features, fresh, sharp, and crisp as they had +been handed down from an immemorial past. On the other +side there was the progressive tendency, favoured by the +gradual fusion of the people under a powerful central +government, first to dull the edge of these provincial distinctions, +and finally to break them down completely and +merge them in a single national religion. The conservative +party probably mustered in its ranks the great bulk of the +people, their prejudices and affections being warmly enlisted +in favour of the local deity, with whose temple and rites +they had been familiar from childhood; and the popular +dislike of change, based on the endearing effect of old +association, must have been strongly reinforced by the less +disinterested opposition of the local clergy, whose material +interests would necessarily suffer with any decay of their +shrines. On the other hand the kings, whose power and +glory rose with the political and ecclesiastical consolidation +of the realm, were the natural champions of religious unity; +and their efforts would be seconded by the refined and +<pb n='123'/><anchor id='Pg123'/> +thoughtful minority, who could hardly fail to be shocked by +the many barbarous and revolting elements in the local +rites. As usually happens in such cases, the process of +religious unification appears to have been largely effected +by discovering points of similarity, real or imaginary, between +the provincial deities, which were thereupon declared to be +only different names or manifestations of the same god. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Most +Egyptian +gods were +at some +time +identified +with the +sun. +Attempt of +Amenophis +IV. to +abolish all +gods except +the sun-god. Failure +of the +attempt.</note> +Of the deities who thus acted as centres of attraction, +absorbing in themselves a multitude of minor divinities, by +far the most important was the sun-god Ra. There appear +to have been few gods in Egypt who were not at one time +or other identified with him. Ammon of Thebes, Horus of +the East, Horus of Edfu, Chnum of Elephantine, Tum of +Heliopolis, all were regarded as one god, the sun. Even +the water-god Sobk, in spite of his crocodile shape, did not +escape the same fate. Indeed one king, Amenophis IV., +undertook to sweep away all the old gods at a stroke and +replace them by a single god, the <q>great living disc of the +sun.</q><note place='foot'>On this attempted revolution in +religion see Lepsius, in <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen +der königl. Akad. der Wissenschaften +zu Berlin</hi>, 1851, pp. 196-201; A. +Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Aegypten und aegyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 355-357; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +pp. 76-84; H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>History of +Egypt</hi> (London, 1879), i. 441 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +A. Wiedemann, <hi rend='italic'>Aegyptische Geschichte</hi> +(Gotha, 1884), pp. 396 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Religion der alten Agypter</hi>, pp. 20-22; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient Egyptians</hi>, +pp. 35-43; C. P. Tiele, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte der +Religion im Altertum</hi>, i. 84-92; G. +Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples +de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 316 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the +Egyptians</hi>, ii. 68-84; J. H. Breasted, +<hi rend='italic'>History of the Ancient Egyptians</hi> (London, +1908), pp. 264-279; A. Moret, +<hi rend='italic'>Kings and Gods of Egypt</hi> (New +York and London, 1912), pp. 41-68. +A very sympathetic account of this +remarkable religious reformer is given +by Professor J. H. Breasted (<hi rend='italic'>Development +of Religion and Thought +in Ancient Egypt</hi>, pp. 319-343). +Amenophis IV. reigned from about +1375 to 1358 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> His new capital, +Akhetaton, the modern Tell-el-Amarna, +was on the right bank of the Nile, +between Memphis and Thebes. The +king has been described as <q>of all the +Pharaohs the most curious and at the +same time the most enigmatic figure.</q> +To explain his bodily and mental +peculiarities some scholars conjectured +that through his mother, Queen Tii, +he might have had Semitic blood in his +veins. But this theory appears to have +been refuted by the discovery in 1905 +of the tomb of Queen Tii's parents, the +contents of which are of pure Egyptian +style. See A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In the hymns composed in his honour, this deity is +referred to as <q>the living disc of the sun, besides whom there +is none other.</q> He is said to have made <q>the far heaven</q> +and <q>men, beasts, and birds; he strengtheneth the eyes +with his beams, and when he showeth himself, all flowers +<pb n='124'/><anchor id='Pg124'/> +live and grow, the meadows flourish at his upgoing and +are drunken at his sight, all cattle skip on their feet, +and the birds that are in the marsh flutter for joy.</q> It is +he <q>who bringeth the years, createth the months, maketh +the days, calculateth the hours, the lord of time, by whom +men reckon.</q> In his zeal for the unity of god, the king +commanded to erase the names of all other gods from the +monuments, and to destroy their images. His rage was +particularly directed against the god Ammon, whose name +and likeness were effaced wherever they were found; even +the sanctity of the tomb was violated in order to destroy +the memorials of the hated deity. In some of the halls of +the great temples at Carnac, Luxor, and other places, all the +names of the gods, with a few chance exceptions, were +scratched out. The monarch even changed his own name, +Amenophis, because it was compounded of Ammon, and +took instead the name of Chu-en-aten, <q>gleam of the sun's +disc.</q> Thebes itself, the ancient capital of his glorious +ancestors, full of the monuments of their piety and idolatry, +was no longer a fit home for the puritan king. He deserted +it, and built for himself a new capital in Middle Egypt +at the place now known as Tell-el-Amarna. Here in a +few years a city of palaces and gardens rose like an +exhalation at his command, and here the king, his dearly +loved wife and children, and his complaisant courtiers +led a merry life. The grave and sombre ritual of Thebes +was discarded. The sun-god was worshipped with songs +and hymns, with the music of harps and flutes, with +offerings of cakes and fruits and flowers. Blood seldom +stained his kindly altars. The king himself celebrated the +offices of religion. He preached with unction, and we may +be sure that his courtiers listened with at least an outward +semblance of devotion. From the too-faithful portraits of +himself which he has bequeathed to us we can still picture +to ourselves the heretic king in the pulpit, with his tall, +lanky figure, his bandy legs, his pot-belly, his long, lean, +haggard face aglow with the fever of religious fanaticism. +Yet <q>the doctrine,</q> as he loved to call it, which he +proclaimed to his hearers was apparently no stern message +of renunciation in this world, of terrors in the world to +<pb n='125'/><anchor id='Pg125'/> +come. The thoughts of death, of judgment, and of a +life beyond the grave, which weighed like a nightmare +on the minds of the Egyptians, seem to have been +banished for a time. Even the name of Osiris, the +awful judge of the dead, is not once mentioned in the +graves at Tell-el-Amarna. All this lasted only during the +life of the reformer. His death was followed by a violent +reaction. The old gods were reinstated in their rank and +privileges: their names and images were restored, and new +temples were built. But all the shrines and palaces reared +by the late king were thrown down: even the sculptures +that referred to him and to his god in rock-tombs and on +the sides of hills were erased or filled up with stucco: his +name appears on no later monument, and was carefully +omitted from all official lists. The new capital was +abandoned, never to be inhabited again. Its plan can +still be traced in the sands of the desert. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Identification +with +the sun is +no evidence +of the +original +character +of an +Egyptian +god.</note> +This attempt of King Amenophis IV. is only an extreme +example of a tendency which appears to have +affected the religion of Egypt as far back as we can +trace it. Therefore, to come back to our point, in attempting +to discover the original character of any Egyptian god, +no weight can be given to the identification of him with +other gods, least of all with the sun-god Ra. Far from +helping to follow up the trail, these identifications only cross +and confuse it. The best evidence for the original character +of the Egyptian gods is to be found in their ritual and +myths, so far as these are known, and in the manner in +which they are portrayed on the monuments. It is mainly +on evidence drawn from these sources that I rest my +interpretation of Osiris. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The solar +theory of +Osiris does +not explain +his death +and resurrection.</note> +The ground upon which some modern writers seem chiefly +to rely for the identification of Osiris with the sun is that +the story of his death fits better with the solar phenomena +than with any other in nature. It may readily be admitted +that the daily appearance and disappearance of the sun +might very naturally be expressed by a myth of his death +and resurrection; and writers who regard Osiris as the sun +are careful to indicate that it is the diurnal, and not the +annual, course of the sun to which they understand the +<pb n='126'/><anchor id='Pg126'/> +myth to apply. Thus Renouf, who identified Osiris with +the sun, admitted that the Egyptian sun could not with any +show of reason be described as dead in winter.<note place='foot'>P. Le Page Renouf, <hi rend='italic'>Lectures on +the Origin and Growth of Religion</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1884), p. 113.</note> But if his +daily death was the theme of the legend, why was it celebrated +by an annual ceremony? This fact alone seems fatal to the +interpretation of the myth as descriptive of sunset and sunrise. +Again, though the sun may be said to die daily, in +what sense can he be said to be torn in pieces?<note place='foot'>The late eminent scholar C. P. +Tiele, who formerly interpreted Osiris +as a sun-god (<hi rend='italic'>History of Egyptian Religion</hi>, +pp. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>), afterwards adopted +a view of his nature which approaches +more nearly to the one advocated in +this book. See his <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte der Religion +im Altertum</hi>, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 123. +Professor Ed. Meyer also formerly +regarded Osiris as a sun-god; he now +interprets him as a great vegetation +god, dwelling in the depths of the +earth and causing the plants and +trees to spring from it. The god's +symbol, the <foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> pillar (see above, pp. +<ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), he takes to be a tree-trunk +with cross-beams. See Ed. Meyer, +<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>, i. p. 67, § 57 +(first edition, 1884); <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, i.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> 2. pp. 70, +84, 87 (second edition, 1909). Sir +Gaston Maspero has also abandoned the +theory that Osiris was the sun; he +now supposes that the deity originally +personified the Nile. See his <hi rend='italic'>Histoire +ancienne</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> (Paris, 1886), p. 35; and +his <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne des Peuples de +l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. (Paris, 1895), +p. 130. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge also +formerly interpreted Osiris as the Nile +(<hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, i. 122, +123), and this view was held by some +ancient writers (Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, +32, 34, 36, 38, 39). Compare Miss +M. A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The Osireion at Abydos</hi> +(London, 1904), p. 29. Dr. Budge +now explains Osiris as a deified king. +See his <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, +vol. i. pp. xviii, 30 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 37, 66 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 168, 254, 256, 290, 300, 312, +384. As to this view see below, +pp. 158 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The death +and resurrection +of +Osiris +are more +naturally +explained +by the +annual +decay and +growth of +vegetation.</note> +In the course of our inquiry it has, I trust, been made +clear that there is another natural phenomenon to which the +conception of death and resurrection is as applicable as to +sunset and sunrise, and which, as a matter of fact, has been +so conceived and represented in folk-custom. That phenomenon +is the annual growth and decay of vegetation. A +strong reason for interpreting the death of Osiris as the +decay of vegetation rather than as the sunset is to be found +in the general, though not unanimous, voice of antiquity, +which classed together the worship and myths of Osiris, +Adonis, Attis, Dionysus, and Demeter, as religions of +essentially the same type.<note place='foot'>For the identification of Osiris +with Dionysus, and of Isis with +Demeter, see Herodotus, ii. 42, 49, +59, 144, 156; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, +13, 35; Diodorus Siculus, i. 13, 25, +96, iv. 1; <hi rend='italic'>Orphica</hi>, Hymn 42; Eusebius, +<hi rend='italic'>Praepar. Evang.</hi> iii. 11. 31; Servius on +Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> xi. 287; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, on Virgil, +<hi rend='italic'>Georg.</hi> i. 166; J. Tzetzes, <hi rend='italic'>Schol. on +Lycophron</hi>, 212; Διηγήματα, xxii. 2, +in <hi rend='italic'>Mythographi Graeci</hi>, ed. A. Westermann +(Brunswick, 1843), p. 368; +Nonnus, <hi rend='italic'>Dionys.</hi> iv. 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Cornutus, +<hi rend='italic'>Theologiae Graecae Compendium</hi>, 28; +Ausonius, <hi rend='italic'>Epigrammata</hi>, 29 and 30. +For the identification of Osiris with +Adonis and Attis see Stephanus +Byzantius, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> Ἀμαθοῦς; Damascius, +<q>Vita Isodori,</q> in Photius, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, +ed. Im. Bekker (Berlin, 1824), +p. 343<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, lines 21 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Hippolytus, +<hi rend='italic'>Refutatio omnium haeresium</hi>, v. 9. p. +168 ed. Duncker and Schneidewin; +<hi rend='italic'>Orphica</hi>, Hymn 42. For the identification +of Attis, Adonis, and Dionysus +see Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Ecclesiastica</hi>, iii. +23 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Graeca</hi>, lxvii. +448); Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Conviviales</hi>, +iv. 5. 3; Clement of Alexandria, +<hi rend='italic'>Protrept.</hi> ii. 19, p. 16 ed. +Potter.</note> The consensus of ancient +<pb n='127'/><anchor id='Pg127'/> +opinion on this subject seems too great to be rejected as a +mere fancy. So closely did the rites of Osiris resemble +those of Adonis at Byblus that some of the people of +Byblus themselves maintained that it was Osiris and not +Adonis whose death was mourned by them.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>De dea Syria</hi>, 7. According +to Professor Ed. Meyer, the relations +of Egypt to Byblus were very +ancient and close; he even suggests +that there may have been from early +times an Egyptian colony, or at all +events an Egyptian military post, in +the city. The commercial importance +of Byblus arose from its possession +of the fine cedar forests on the Lebanon; +the timber was exported to Egypt, +where it was in great demand. See +Ed. Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2. pp. xix, 391 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Such a view +could certainly not have been held if the rituals of the two +gods had not been so alike as to be almost indistinguishable. +Herodotus found the similarity between the rites of Osiris +and Dionysus so great, that he thought it impossible the +latter could have arisen independently; they must, he +supposed, have been recently borrowed, with slight alterations, +by the Greeks from the Egyptians.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 49.</note> Again, Plutarch, a very +keen student of comparative religion, insists upon the detailed +resemblance of the rites of Osiris to those of Dionysus.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 35.</note> +We cannot reject the evidence of such intelligent and trustworthy +witnesses on plain matters of fact which fell under +their own cognizance. Their explanations of the worships +it is indeed possible to reject, for the meaning of religious +cults is often open to question; but resemblances of ritual +are matters of observation. Therefore, those who explain +Osiris as the sun are driven to the alternative of either +dismissing as mistaken the testimony of antiquity to the +similarity of the rites of Osiris, Adonis, Attis, Dionysus, +and Demeter, or of interpreting all these rites as sun-worship. +No modern scholar has fairly faced and accepted either side +of this alternative. To accept the former would be to affirm +<pb n='128'/><anchor id='Pg128'/> +that we know the rites of these deities better than the men +who practised, or at least who witnessed them. To accept +the latter would involve a wrenching, clipping, mangling, and +distorting of myth and ritual from which even Macrobius +shrank.<note place='foot'>Osiris, Attis, Adonis, and Dionysus +were all resolved by him into the sun; +but he spared Demeter (Ceres), whom, +however, he interpreted as the moon. +See the <hi rend='italic'>Saturnalia</hi>, bk. i.</note> On the other hand, the view that the essence of all +these rites was the mimic death and revival of vegetation, +explains them separately and collectively in an easy and +natural way, and harmonizes with the general testimony +borne by the ancients to their substantial similarity. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='129'/><anchor id='Pg129'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter VIII. Osiris and the Moon.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris was +sometimes +interpreted +by the +ancients as +the moon.</note> +Before we conclude this study of Osiris it will be +worth while to consider an ancient view of his nature, +which deserves more attention than it has received in +modern times. We are told by Plutarch that among the +philosophers who saw in the gods of Egypt personifications +of natural objects and forces, there were some who interpreted +Osiris as the moon and his enemy Typhon as the +sun, <q>because the moon, with her humid and generative +light, is favourable to the propagation of animals and the +growth of plants; while the sun with his fierce fire scorches +and burns up all growing things, renders the greater part +of the earth uninhabitable by reason of his blaze, and often +overpowers the moon herself.</q><note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 41.</note> Whatever may be thought +of the physical qualities here attributed to the moon, the +arguments adduced by the ancients to prove the identity of +Osiris with that luminary carry with them a weight which +has at least not been lightened by the results of modern +research. An examination of them and of other evidence +pointing in the same direction will, perhaps, help to set the +original character of the Egyptian deity in a clearer light.<note place='foot'>On Osiris as a moon-god see E. +A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 19-22, 59, +384 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +1. Osiris was said to have lived or reigned twenty-eight +years. This might fairly be taken as a mythical expression +for a lunar month.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 13, 42.</note> +</p> + +<p> +2. His body was reported to have been rent into fourteen +pieces.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> 18, 42. The hieroglyphic +texts sometimes speak of fourteen +pieces, and sometimes of sixteen, or +even eighteen. But fourteen seems to +have been the true number, because +the inscriptions of Denderah, which +refer to the rites of Osiris, describe the +mystic image of the god as composed +of fourteen pieces. See E. A. Wallis +Budge, <hi rend='italic'>The Gods of the Egyptians</hi>, ii. +126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, i. 386 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> This might be interpreted of the waning moon, +<pb n='130'/><anchor id='Pg130'/> +which appears to lose a portion of itself on each of the fourteen +days that make up the second half of a lunar month. +It is expressly said that his enemy Typhon found the body +of Osiris at the full moon;<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 8.</note> thus the dismemberment of the +god would begin with the waning of the moon. To primitive +man it seems manifest that the waning moon is actually +dwindling, and he naturally enough explains its diminution +by supposing that the planet is being rent or broken in +pieces or eaten away. The Klamath Indians of Oregon +speak of the moon as <q>the one broken to pieces</q> with +reference to its changing aspect; they never apply such a +term to the sun,<note place='foot'>A. S. Gatschet, <hi rend='italic'>The Klamath +Indians of South-Western Oregon</hi> +(Washington, 1890), p. lxxxix.</note> whose apparent change of bulk at different +seasons of the year is far too insignificant to attract the +attention of the savage, or at least to be described by him in +such forcible language. The Dacotas believe that when the +moon is full, a great many little mice begin to nibble at one +side of it and do not cease till they have eaten it all up, +after which a new moon is born and grows to maturity, only +to share the fate of its countless predecessors.<note place='foot'>S. R. Riggs, <hi rend='italic'>Dakota Grammar, +Texts, and Ethnography</hi> (Washington, +1893), p. 16.</note> A similar +belief is held by the Huzuls of the Carpathians, except that +they ascribe the destruction of the old moon to wolves +instead of to mice.<note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <hi rend='italic'>Die Huzulen</hi> +(Vienna, 1894), p. 97.</note> +</p> + +<p> +3. At the new moon of the month Phamenoth, which +was the beginning of spring, the Egyptians celebrated what +they called <q>the entry of Osiris into the moon.</q><note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 43.</note> +</p> + +<p> +4. At the ceremony called <q>the burial of Osiris</q> the +Egyptians made a crescent-shaped chest <q>because the +moon, when it approaches the sun, assumes the form of a +crescent and vanishes.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> 43.</note> +</p> + +<p> +5. The bull Apis, held to be an image of the soul of +Osiris,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Ibid.</hi> 20, 29.</note> was born of a cow which was believed to have been +<pb n='131'/><anchor id='Pg131'/> +impregnated, not in the vulgar way by a bull, but by a divine +influence emanating from the moon.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis et Osiris</hi>, 43; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Conviv.</hi> viii. 1. 3. Compare +Herodotus, iii. 28; Aelian, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Anim.</hi> +xi. 10; Mela, i. 9. 58.</note> +</p> + +<p> +6. Once a year, at the full moon, pigs were sacrificed +simultaneously to the moon and Osiris.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Isis +et Osiris</hi>, 8. As to pigs in relation to +Osiris, see <hi rend='italic'>Spirits of the Corn and of +the Wild</hi>, ii. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +7. In a hymn supposed to be addressed by Isis to Osiris, +it is said that Thoth— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l rend='margin-left: 8'><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Placeth thy soul in the bark Ma-at,</hi></q></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>In that name which is thine, of <hi rend='smallcaps'>God Moon</hi>.</hi></q></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +And again:— +</p> + +<quote rend='display'> +<lg> +<l><q rend='pre'><hi rend='italic'>Thou who comest to us as a child each month,</hi></q></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>We do not cease to contemplate thee.</hi></l> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Thine emanation heightens the brilliancy</hi></l> +<l><q rend='post'><hi rend='italic'>Of the stars of Orion in the firmament.</hi></q><note place='foot'>P. J. de Horrack, <q>Lamentations +of Isis and Nephthys,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Records of the +Past</hi>, ii. (London, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>) pp. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +H. Brugsch, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie +der alten Aegypter</hi>, pp. 629 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, i. 389. <q>Apart from +the fact that Osiris is actually called +<foreign rend='italic'>Āsār Aāḥ</foreign>, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> <q>Osiris the Moon,</q> there +are so many passages which prove +beyond all doubt that at one period at +least Osiris was the Moon-god, that it +is difficult to understand why Diodorus +stated that Osiris was the sun and Isis +the moon</q> (E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> i. 21).</note></l> +</lg> +</quote> + +<p> +Here then Osiris is identified with the moon in set terms. +If in the same hymn he is said to <q>illuminate us like Ra</q> +(the sun), that is obviously no reason for identifying him with +the sun, but quite the contrary. For though the moon may +reasonably be compared to the sun, neither the sun nor +anything else can reasonably be compared to itself. +</p> + +<p> +8. In art Osiris is sometimes represented as a human-headed +mummy grasping in his hands his characteristic +emblems and wearing on his head, instead of the usual +crown, a full moon within a crescent.<note place='foot'>E. A. Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the +Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, i. 59.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The identification +of +Osiris +with the +moon +appears to +be based +on a comparatively +late theory +that all +things +grow and +decay with +the waxing +and waning +of the +moon.</note> +Now if in one of his aspects Osiris was originally a +deity of vegetation, we can easily enough understand +why in a later and more philosophic age he should +come to be thus identified or confounded with the moon.<note place='foot'>According to C. P. Tiele (<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte +der Religion im Altertum</hi>, i. 79) the +conception of Osiris as the moon was +late and never became popular. This +entirely accords with the view adopted +in the text.</note> +For as soon as he begins to meditate upon the causes of +<pb n='132'/><anchor id='Pg132'/> +things, the early philosopher is led by certain obvious, +though fallacious, appearances to regard the moon as the +ultimate cause of the growth of plants. In the first place +he associates its apparent growth and decay with the +growth and decay of sublunary things, and imagines that in +virtue of a secret sympathy the celestial phenomena really +produce those terrestrial changes which in point of fact they +merely resemble. Thus Pliny says that the moon may fairly +be considered the planet of breath, <q>because it saturates the +earth and by its approach fills bodies, while by its departure +it empties them. Hence it is,</q> he goes on, <q>that shell-fish +increase with the increase of the moon and that bloodless +creatures especially feel breath at that time; even the blood +of men grows and diminishes with the light of the moon, and +leaves and herbage also feel the same influence, since the +lunar energy penetrates all things.</q><note place='foot'>Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> ii. 221.</note> <q>There is no doubt,</q> +writes Macrobius, <q>that the moon is the author and framer +of mortal bodies, so much so that some things expand or +shrink as it waxes or wanes.</q><note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Comment. in somnium +Scipionis</hi>, i. 11. 7.</note> Again, Aulus Gellius puts +in the mouth of a friend the remark that <q>the same things +which grow with the waxing, do dwindle with the waning +moon,</q> and he quotes from a commentary of Plutarch's on +Hesiod a statement that the onion is the only vegetable +which violates this great law of nature by sprouting in the +wane and withering in the increase of the moon.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, xx. 8. For the +opinions of the ancients on this subject +see further W. H. Roscher, <hi rend='italic'>Über Selene +und Verwandtes</hi> (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 61 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Scottish +Highlanders allege that in the increase of the moon everything +has a tendency to grow or stick together;<note place='foot'>John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, <hi rend='italic'>Scotland +and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth +Century</hi>, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh +and London, 1888), ii. 449.</note> and they +call the second moon of autumn <q>the ripening moon</q> +(<foreign rend='italic'>Gealach an abachaidh</foreign>), because they imagine that crops +ripen as much by its light as by day.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Glasgow, 1902), +pp. 306 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Practical +rules +founded on +this lunar +theory. Supposed +influence +of the +phases of +the moon +on the +operations +of +husbandry.</note> +From this supposed influence of the moon on the life of +plants and animals, men in ancient and modern times have +deduced a whole code of rules for the guidance of the +husbandman, the shepherd, and others in the conduct of +<pb n='133'/><anchor id='Pg133'/> +their affairs. Thus an ancient writer on agriculture lays it +down as a maxim, that whatever is to be sown should be +sown while the moon is waxing, and that whatever is to be +cut or gathered should be cut or gathered while it is waning.<note place='foot'>Palladius, <hi rend='italic'>De re rustica</hi>, i. 34. 8. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> i. 6. 12; Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> +xviii. 321, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>omnia quae caeduntur, +carpuntur, tondentur innocentius decrescente +luna quam crescente fiunt</foreign></q>; +<hi rend='italic'>Geoponica</hi>, i. 6. 8, τινὲς δοκιμάζουσι +μηδὲν φθινούσης τῆς σελήνης ἀλλὰ αὐξανομένης +φυτεύειν.</note> +A modern treatise on superstition describes how the superstitious +man regulates all his conduct by the moon: <q>Whatever +he would have to grow, he sets about it when she is in +her increase; but for what he would have made less he +chooses her wane.</q><note place='foot'>J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of +Great Britain</hi> (London, 1882-1883), +iii. 144, quoting Werenfels, <hi rend='italic'>Dissertation +upon Superstition</hi> (London, 1748), +p. 6.</note> In Germany the phases of the moon +are observed by superstitious people at all the more or even +less important actions of life, such as tilling the fields, +building or changing houses, marriages, hair-cutting, bleeding, +cupping, and so forth. The particular rules vary in different +places, but the principle generally followed is that whatever is +done to increase anything should be done while the moon +is waxing; whatever is done to diminish anything should +be done while the moon is waning. For example, sowing, +planting, and grafting should be done in the first half of +the moon, but the felling of timber and mowing should be +done in the second half.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +(Berlin, 1869), § 65, pp. 57 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche +Mythologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> (Berlin, 1875-1878), ii. +595; Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi> +(Iserlohn, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), p. 128; M. +Prätorius, <hi rend='italic'>Deliciae Prussicae</hi> (Berlin, +1871), p. 18; O. Schell, <q>Einige +Bemerkungen über den Mond im heutigen +Glauben des bergischen Volkes,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Am Ur-quell</hi>, v. (1894) p. 173. The +rule that the grafting of trees should be +done at the waxing of the moon is laid +down by Pliny (<hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvii. 108). +At Deutsch-Zepling in Transylvania, +by an inversion of the usual custom, +seed is generally sown at the waning +of the moon (A. Heinrich, <hi rend='italic'>Agrarische +Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen +Siebenbürgens</hi>, Hermannstadt, 1880, p. +7). Some French peasants also prefer +to sow in the wane (F. Chapiseau, +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche</hi>, +Paris, 1902, i. 291). In the Abruzzi +also sowing and grafting are commonly +done when the moon is on the wane; +timber that is to be durable must be +cut in January during the moon's decrease +(G. Finamore, <hi rend='italic'>Credenze, Usi e +Costumi Abruzzesi</hi>, Palermo, 1890, p. +43).</note> In various parts of Europe it +is believed that plants, nails, hair, and corns, cut while the +moon is on the increase, will grow again fast, but that if cut +while it is on the decrease they will grow slowly or waste +<pb n='134'/><anchor id='Pg134'/> +away.<note place='foot'>P. Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions et Superstitions +de la Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, +1882), ii. 355; L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore +des Hautes-Vosges</hi> (Paris, 1889), p. 5; +J. Brand, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Antiquities of +Great Britain</hi>, iii. 150; Holzmayer, +<q>Osiliana,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Verhandlungen der +gelehrten Estnichen Gesellschaft zu +Dorpat</hi>, vii. (1872) p. 47.</note> Hence persons who wish their hair to grow thick +and long should cut it in the first half of the moon.<note place='foot'>The rule is mentioned by Varro, +<hi rend='italic'>Rerum Rusticarum</hi>, i. 37 (where we +should probably read <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ne decrescente +tendens calvos fiam</foreign>,</q> and refer <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>istaec</foreign> to +the former member of the preceding +sentence); A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; Montanus, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 128; P. Sébillot, +<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten +und Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi> (Stuttgart, +1852), p. 511, § 421; W. J. A. von +Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, <hi rend='italic'>Die +Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens +und Westpreussens</hi> (Berlin, 1837), p. +283; A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Märkische Sagen und +Märchen</hi> (Berlin, 1843), p. 386, § 92; +L. Schandein, in <hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und +Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern</hi> +(Munich, 1860-1867), iv. 2, p. 402; +F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Volksglaube und religiöser +Brauch der Südslaven</hi> (Münster, i. W. +1890), p. 15; E. Krause, <q>Abergläubische +Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube +in Berlin,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für +Ethnologie</hi>, xv. (1883) p. 91; R. +Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Sächsische Volkskunde</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Dresden, +1901), p. 369; C. S. Burne and +G. F. Jackson, <hi rend='italic'>Shropshire Folk-lore</hi> +(London, 1883), p. 259. The reason +assigned in the text was probably the +original one in all cases, though it is +not always the one alleged now.</note> On +the same principle sheep are shorn when the moon is +waxing, because it is supposed that the wool will then +be longest and most enduring.<note place='foot'>F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 16; +Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; Varro, <hi rend='italic'>Rerum Rusticarum</hi>, +i. 37 (see above, note 2). However, +the opposite rule is observed in +the Upper Vosges, where it is thought +that if the sheep are shorn at the new +moon the quantity of wool will be much +less than if they were shorn in the +waning of the moon (L. F. Sauvé, +<hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</hi>, p. 5). In +the Bocage of Normandy, also, wool is +clipped during the waning of the moon; +otherwise moths would get into it (J. +Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses du Bocage Normand</hi>, +Condé-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887, ii. 12).</note> Some negroes of the +Gaboon think that taro and other vegetables never thrive +if they are planted after full moon, but that they grow fast +and strong if they are planted in the first quarter.<note place='foot'>Father Lejeune, <q>Dans la forêt,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Missions Catholiques</hi>, xxvii. (1895) p. +272.</note> The +Highlanders of Scotland used to expect better crops of +grain by sowing their seed in the moon's increase.<note place='foot'>S. Johnson, <hi rend='italic'>Journey to the Western +Islands of Scotland</hi> (Baltimore, 1810), +p. 183.</note> On the +other hand they thought that garden vegetables, such as +onions and kail, run to seed if they are sown in the increase, +but that they grow to pot-herbs if they are sown in +the wane.<note place='foot'>J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi>, p. 306.</note> So Thomas Tusser advised the peasant to +sow peas and beans in the wane of the moon <q>that they +with the planet may rest and arise.</q><note place='foot'>Thomas Tusser, <hi rend='italic'>Five Hundred +Points of Good Husbandry</hi>, New +Edition (London, 1812), p. 107 (under +February).</note> The Zulus welcome +<pb n='135'/><anchor id='Pg135'/> +the first appearance of the new moon with beating of drums +and other demonstrations of joy; but next day they abstain +from all labour, <q>thinking that if anything is sown on those +days they can never reap the benefit thereof.</q><note place='foot'>Fairweather, in W. F. Owen's +<hi rend='italic'>Narrative of Voyages to explore the +Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar</hi> +(London, 1833), ii. 396 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> But in this +matter of sowing and planting a refined distinction is sometimes +drawn by French, German, and Esthonian peasants; +plants which bear fruit above ground are sown by them +when the moon is waxing, but plants which are cultivated +for the sake of their roots, such as potatoes and turnips, are +sown when the moon is waning.<note place='foot'>A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>Der deutsche Volksaberglaube</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +§ 65, p. 58; J. Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>loc. cit.</hi>; +E. Meier, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und +Gebräuche aus Schwaben</hi>, p. 511, § +422; Th. Siebs, <q>Das Saterland,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Zeitschrift für Volkskunde</hi>, iii. (1893) +p. 278; Holzmayer, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 47.</note> The reason for this distinction +seems to be a vague idea that the waxing moon +is coming up and the waning moon going down, and that +accordingly fruits which grow upwards should be sown in +the former period, and fruits which grow downwards in the +latter. Before beginning to plant their cacao the Pipiles of +Central America exposed the finest seeds for four nights to +the moonlight,<note place='foot'>H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native Races of +the Pacific States</hi> (London, 1875-1876), +ii. 719 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> but whether they did so at the waxing or +waning of the moon is not said. Even pots, it would seem, +are not exempt from this great law of nature. In Uganda +<q>potters waited for the new moon to appear before baking +their pots; when it was some days old, they prepared their +fires and baked the vessels. No potter would bake pots +when the moon was past the full, for he believed that they +would be a failure, and would be sure to crack or break in +the burning, if he did so, and that his labour accordingly +would go for nothing.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), p. 402.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +phases of +the moon +in relation +to the +felling of +timber.</note> +Again, the waning of the moon has been commonly +recommended both in ancient and modern times as the +proper time for felling trees,<note place='foot'>Cato, <hi rend='italic'>De agri cultura</hi>, 37. 4; +Varro, <hi rend='italic'>Rerum Rusticarum</hi>, i. 37; +Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> xvi. 190; Palladius, +<hi rend='italic'>De re rustica</hi>, ii. 22, xii. 15; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Conviv.</hi> iii. 10. 3; Macrobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> vii. 16; A. Wuttke, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; +<hi rend='italic'>Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des +Königreichs Bayern</hi>, iv. 2, p. 402; +W. Kolbe, <hi rend='italic'>Hessische Volks-Sitten und +Gebräuche</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Marburg, 1888), p. 58; +L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</hi>, +p. 5; F. Chapiseau, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore +de la Beauce et du Perche</hi>, i. 291 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +M. Martin, <q>Description of the +Western Islands of Scotland,</q> in J. +Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, iii. +630; J. G. Campbell, <hi rend='italic'>Witchcraft and +Second Sight in the Highlands and +Islands of Scotland</hi>, p. 306; G. +Amalfi, <hi rend='italic'>Tradizioni ed Usi nella peninsola +Sorrentina</hi> (Palermo, 1890), p. +87; K. von den Steinen, <hi rend='italic'>Unter den +Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens</hi> (Berlin, +1894), p. 559. Compare F. de +Castelnau, <hi rend='italic'>Expédition dans les parties +centrales de l'Amérique du Sud</hi> (Paris, +1851-1852), iii. 438. Pliny, while +he says that the period from the +twentieth to the thirtieth day of the +lunar month was the season generally +recommended, adds that the best time +of all, according to universal opinion, +was the interlunar day, between the +old and the new moon, when the +planet is invisible through being in +conjunction with the sun.</note> apparently because it was +<pb n='136'/><anchor id='Pg136'/> +thought fit and natural that the operation of cutting down +should be performed on earth at the time when the lunar +orb was, so to say, being cut down in the sky. In France +before the Revolution the forestry laws enjoined that trees +should only be felled after the moon had passed the full; +and in French bills announcing the sale of timber you may +still read a notice that the wood was cut in the waning of +the moon.<note place='foot'>J. Lecœur, <hi rend='italic'>Esquisses du Bocage +Normand</hi>, ii. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> So among the Shans of Burma, when a house +is to be built, it is a rule that <q>a lucky day should be chosen +to commence the cutting of the bamboos. The day must +not only be a fortunate one for the builder, but it must also +be in the second half of the month, when the moon is +waning. Shans believe that if bamboos are cut during the +first half of the month, when the moon is waxing, they do +not last well, as boring insects attack them and they will +soon become rotten. This belief is prevalent all over the +East.</q><note place='foot'>Mrs. Leslie Milne, <hi rend='italic'>Shans at Home</hi> +(London, 1910), p. 100.</note> A like belief obtains in various parts of Mexico. +No Mexican will cut timber while the moon is increasing; +they say it must be cut while the moon is waning or the wood +will certainly rot.<note place='foot'>Letter of Mr. A. S. F. Marshall, +dated Hacienda <q>La Maronna,</q> Cd. +Porfirio Diaz, Coah., Mexico, 2nd +October 1908. The writer gives instances +confirmatory of this belief. I +have to thank Professor A. C. Seward +of Cambridge for kindly showing me +this letter.</note> In Colombia, South America, people think +that corn should only be sown and timber felled when the +moon is on the wane. They say that the waxing moon +draws the sap up through the trunk and branches, whereas +the sap flows down and leaves the wood dry during the +wane of the moon.<note place='foot'>Letter of Mr. Francis S. Schloss +to me, dated 58 New Cavendish +Street, W., 12th May 1912. Mr. +Schloss adds that <q>as a matter of +practical observation, timber, etc., +should only be felled when the moon +is waning. This has been stated to me +not only by natives, but also by English +mining engineers of high repute, who +have done work in Colombia.</q></note> But sometimes the opposite rule is +<pb n='137'/><anchor id='Pg137'/> +adopted, and equally forcible arguments are urged in its +defence. Thus, when the Wabondei of Eastern Africa are +about to build a house, they take care to cut the posts for +it when the moon is on the increase; for they say that +posts cut when the moon is wasting away would soon rot, +whereas posts cut while the moon is waxing are very +durable.<note place='foot'>O. Baumann, <hi rend='italic'>Usambara und seine +Nachbargebiete</hi> (Berlin, 1891), p. 125.</note> The same rule is observed for the same reason in +some parts of Germany.<note place='foot'>Montanus, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsche Volksfeste, +Volksbräuche und deutscher Volksglaube</hi>, +p. 128.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The moon +regarded +as the +source of +moisture.</note> +But the partisans of the ordinarily received opinion have +sometimes supported it by another reason, which introduces +us to the second of those fallacious appearances by which +men have been led to regard the moon as the cause of growth +in plants. From observing rightly that dew falls most +thickly on cloudless nights, they inferred wrongly that it +was caused by the moon, a theory which the poet Alcman +expressed in mythical form by saying that dew was a +daughter of Zeus and the moon.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Conviv.</hi> iii. 10. +3; Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> vii. 16. See +further, W. H. Roscher, <hi rend='italic'>Über Selene +und Verwandtes</hi> (Leipsic, 1890), pp. +49 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Hence the ancients concluded +that the moon is the great source of moisture, as the +sun is the great source of heat.<note place='foot'>Plutarch and Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>ll.cc.</hi>; +Pliny, <hi rend='italic'>Nat. Hist.</hi> ii. 223, xx. 1; +Aristotle, <hi rend='italic'>Problemata</hi>, xxiv. 14, p. +937 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b</hi>, 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> ed. I. Bekker (Berlin).</note> And as the humid power +of the moon was assumed to be greater when the planet +was waxing than when it was waning, they thought that +timber cut during the increase of the luminary would be +saturated with moisture, whereas timber cut in the wane +would be comparatively dry. Hence we are told that in +antiquity carpenters would reject timber felled when the +moon was growing or full, because they believed that such +timber teemed with sap;<note place='foot'>Macrobius and Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>ll.cc.</hi></note> and in the Vosges at the present +day people allege that wood cut at the new moon does not +dry.<note place='foot'>L. F. Sauvé, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges</hi>, +p. 5.</note> We have seen that the same reason is assigned for +the same practice in Colombia.<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref>.</note> In the Hebrides peasants +<pb n='138'/><anchor id='Pg138'/> +give the same reason for cutting their peats when the moon +is on the wane; <q>for they observe that if they are cut in +the increase, they continue still moist and never burn clear, +nor are they without smoke, but the contrary is daily +observed of peats cut in the decrease.</q><note place='foot'>M. Martin, <q>Description of the +Western Islands of Scotland,</q> in +J. Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +iii. 630.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The moon, +being +viewed as +the cause +of vegetable +growth, is +naturally +worshipped +by agricultural +peoples.</note> +Thus misled by a double fallacy primitive philosophy +comes to view the moon as the great cause of vegetable +growth, first, because the planet seems itself to grow, and +second, because it is supposed to be the source of dew +and moisture. It is no wonder, therefore, that agricultural +peoples should adore the planet which they believe to +influence so profoundly the crops on which they depend +for subsistence. Accordingly we find that in the hotter +regions of America, where maize is cultivated and manioc is +the staple food, the moon was recognized as the principal +object of worship, and plantations of manioc were assigned +to it as a return for the service it rendered in the production +of the crops. The worship of the moon in preference to the +sun was general among the Caribs, and, perhaps, also among +most of the other Indian tribes who cultivated maize in the +tropical forests to the east of the Andes; and the same +thing has been observed, under the same physical conditions, +among the aborigines of the hottest region of Peru, the +northern valleys of Yuncapata. Here the Indians of Pacasmayu +and the neighbouring valleys revered the moon as +their principal divinity. The <q>house of the moon</q> at Pacasmayu +was the chief temple of the district; and the same +sacrifices of maize-flour, of wine, and of children which were +offered by the mountaineers of the Andes to the Sun-god, +were offered by the lowlanders to the Moon-god in order +that he might cause their crops to thrive.<note place='foot'><p>E. J. Payne, <hi rend='italic'>History of the New +World called America</hi>, i. (Oxford, +1892) p. 495. In his remarks on +the origin of moon-worship this learned +and philosophical historian has indicated +(<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 493 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) the true causes +which lead primitive man to trace the +growth of plants to the influence of +the moon. Compare Sir E. B. Tylor, +<hi rend='italic'>Primitive Culture</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, 1873), +i. 130. Payne suggests that the custom +of naming the months after the principal +natural products that ripen in them may +have contributed to the same result. +The custom is certainly very common +among savages, as I hope to show +elsewhere, but whether it has contributed +to foster the fallacy in question +seems doubtful. +</p> +<p> +The Indians of Brazil are said to +pay more attention to the moon than +to the sun, regarding it as a source +both of good and ill. See J. B. von +Spix und C. F. von Martius, <hi rend='italic'>Reise in +Brasilien</hi> (Munich, 1823-1831), i. 379. +The natives of Mori, a district of Central +Celebes, believe that the rice-spirit +Omonga lives in the moon and eats up +the rice in the granary if he is not +treated with due respect. See A. C. +Kruijt, <q>Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen +omtrent de Toboengkoe en de +Tomori,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen van wege het +Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, +xliv. (1900) p. 231.</p></note> In ancient +<pb n='139'/><anchor id='Pg139'/> +Babylonia, where the population was essentially agricultural, +the moon-god took precedence of the sun-god and was +indeed reckoned his father.<note place='foot'>E. A. Budge, <hi rend='italic'>Nebuchadnezzar, +King of Babylon, on recently-discovered +inscriptions of this King</hi>, pp. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +A. H. Sayce, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the Ancient +Babylonians</hi>, p. 155; M. Jastrow, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</hi>, pp. +68 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. W. King, <hi rend='italic'>Babylonian +Religion and Mythology</hi> (London, +1899), pp. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The Ahts of Vancouver +Island, a tribe of fishers and +hunters, view the moon as the husband +of the sun and as a more powerful +deity than her (G. M. Sproat, <hi rend='italic'>Scenes +and Studies of Savage Life</hi>, London, +1868, p. 206).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus +Osiris, the +old corn-god, +was +afterwards +identified +with the +moon.</note> +Hence it would be no matter for surprise if, after +worshipping the crops which furnished them with the means +of subsistence, the ancient Egyptians should in later times +have identified the spirit of the corn with the moon, which +a false philosophy had taught them to regard as the +ultimate cause of the growth of vegetation. In this way +we can understand why in their most recent forms the myth +and ritual of Osiris, the old god of trees and corn, should +bear many traces of efforts made to bring them into a +superficial conformity with the new doctrine of his lunar +affinity. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='140'/><anchor id='Pg140'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter IX. The Doctrine of Lunar Sympathy.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +doctrine +of lunar +sympathy.</note> +In the preceding chapter some evidence was adduced of the +sympathetic influence which the waxing or waning moon is +popularly supposed to exert on growth, especially on the +growth of vegetation. But the doctrine of lunar sympathy +does not stop there; it is applied also to the affairs of man, +and various customs and rules have been deduced from it +which aim at the amelioration and even the indefinite +extension of human life. To illustrate this application of +the popular theory at length would be out of place here, but +a few cases may be mentioned by way of specimen. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Theory +that all +things wax +or wane +with the +moon. The +ceremonies +observed at +new moon +are often +magical +rather than +religious, +being +intended +to renew +sympathetically +the +life of man.</note> +The natural fact on which all the customs in question +seem to rest is the apparent monthly increase and decrease +of the moon. From this observation men have inferred that +all things simultaneously wax or wane in sympathy with it.<note place='foot'>This principle is clearly recognized +and well illustrated by J. Grimm +(<hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. 594-596).</note> +Thus the Mentras or Mantras of the Malay Peninsula have a +tradition that in the beginning men did not die but grew +thin with the waning of the moon, and waxed fat as she +neared the full.<note place='foot'>D. F. A. Hervey, <q>The Mentra +Traditions,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Straits +Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</hi>, +No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 190; +W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, +<hi rend='italic'>Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula</hi> +(London, 1906), ii. 337.</note> Of the Scottish Highlanders we are told +that <q>the moon in her increase, full growth, and in her +wane are with them the emblems of a rising, flourishing, +and declining fortune. At the last period of her revolution +they carefully avoid to engage in any business of importance; +but the first and middle they seize with avidity, presaging +the most auspicious issue to their undertakings.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Grant (parish minister of +Kirkmichael), in Sir John Sinclair's +<hi rend='italic'>Statistical Account of Scotland</hi> (Edinburgh, +1791-1799), xii. 457.</note> Similarly +<pb n='141'/><anchor id='Pg141'/> +in some parts of Germany it is commonly believed that +whatever is undertaken when the moon is on the increase +succeeds well, and that the full moon brings everything to +perfection; whereas business undertaken in the wane of the +moon is doomed to failure.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, <hi rend='italic'>Nord-deutsche +Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche</hi> +(Leipsic, 1848), p. 457, § 419.</note> This German belief has come +down, as we might have anticipated, from barbaric times; +for Tacitus tells us that the Germans considered the new or +the full moon the most auspicious time for business;<note place='foot'>Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, 11.</note> and +Caesar informs us that the Germans despaired of victory if +they joined battle before the new moon.<note place='foot'>Caesar, <hi rend='italic'>De bello Gallico</hi>, i. 50.</note> The Spartans +seem to have been of the same opinion, for it was a rule +with them never to march out to war except when the moon +was full. The rule prevented them from sending troops in +time to fight the Persians at Marathon,<note place='foot'>Herodotus, vi. 106; Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>De +astrologia</hi>, 25; Pausanias, i. 28. 4.</note> and but for +Athenian valour this paltry superstition might have turned +the scale of battle and decided the destiny of Greece, if not +of Europe, for centuries. The Athenians themselves paid +dear for a similar scruple: an eclipse of the moon cost them +the loss of a gallant fleet and army before Syracuse, and +practically sealed the fate of Athens, for she never recovered +from the blow.<note place='foot'>Thucydides, vii. 50.</note> So heavy is the sacrifice which superstition +demands of its votaries. In this respect the Greeks were +on a level with the negroes of the Sudan, among whom, if a +march has been decided upon during the last quarter of the +moon, the departure is always deferred until the first day +of the new moon. No chief would dare to undertake an +expedition and lead out his warriors before the appearance +of the crescent. Merchants and private persons observe the +same rule on their journeys.<note place='foot'>Le capitaine Binger, <hi rend='italic'>Du Niger +au Golfe de Guinée</hi> (Paris, 1892), ii. +116.</note> In like manner the Mandingoes +of Senegambia pay great attention to the changes of the +moon, and think it very unlucky to begin a journey or any +other work of consequence in the last quarter.<note place='foot'>Mungo Park, <hi rend='italic'>Travels in the +Interior Districts of Africa</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>5</hi> (London, +1807), pp. 406 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +It is especially the appearance of the new moon, with +<pb n='142'/><anchor id='Pg142'/> +its promise of growth and increase, which is greeted with +ceremonies intended to renew and invigorate, by means of +sympathetic magic, the life of man. Observers, ignorant of +savage superstition, have commonly misinterpreted such +customs as worship or adoration paid to the moon. In +point of fact the ceremonies of new moon are probably in +many cases rather magical than religious. The Indians of +the Ucayali River in Peru hail the appearance of the new +moon with great joy. They make long speeches to her, +accompanied with vehement gesticulations, imploring her +protection and begging that she will be so good as to +invigorate their bodies.<note place='foot'>W. Smythe and F. Lowe, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative +of a Journey from Lima to Para</hi> +(London, 1836), p. 230.</note> On the day when the new moon +first appeared, it was a custom with the Indians of San Juan +Capistrano, in California, to call together all the young men +for the purpose of its celebration. <q><foreign rend='italic'>Correr la luna!</foreign></q> shouted +one of the old men, <q>Come, my boys, the moon! the moon!</q> +Immediately the young men began to run about in a +disorderly fashion as if they were distracted, while the old +men danced in a circle, saying, <q>As the moon dieth, and +cometh to life again, so we also having to die will again +live.</q><note place='foot'>Father G. Boscana, <q>Chinig-chinich,</q> +in <hi rend='italic'>Life in California, by an +American</hi> [A. Robinson] (New York, +1846), pp. 298 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> An old traveller tells us that at the appearance of +every new moon the negroes of the Congo clapped their +hands and cried out, sometimes falling on their knees, <q>So +may I renew my life as thou art renewed.</q> But if the sky +happened to be clouded, they did nothing, alleging that the +planet had lost its virtue.<note place='foot'>Merolla, <q>Voyage to Congo,</q> in +J. Pinkerton's <hi rend='italic'>Voyages and Travels</hi>, +xvi. 273.</note> A somewhat similar custom +prevails among the Ovambo of South-Western Africa. On +the first moonlight night of the new moon, young and old, +their bodies smeared with white earth, perhaps in imitation +of the planet's silvery light, dance to the moon and address +to it wishes which they feel sure will be granted.<note place='foot'>H. Schinz, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika</hi> +(Oldenburg and Leipsic, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), +p. 319.</note> We may +conjecture that among these wishes is a prayer for a renewal +of life. When a Masai sees the new moon he throws a +twig or stone at it with his left hand, and says, <q>Give me +<pb n='143'/><anchor id='Pg143'/> +long life,</q> or <q>Give me strength</q>; and when a pregnant +woman sees the new moon she milks some milk into a +small gourd, which she covers with green grass. Then she +pours the milk away in the direction of the moon and says, +<q>Moon, give me my child safely.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Masai</hi> (Oxford, +1905), p. 274.</note> Among the Wagogo +of German East Africa, at sight of the new moon some +people break a stick in pieces, spit on the pieces, and throw +them towards the moon, saying, <q>Let all illness go to the +west, where the sun sets.</q><note place='foot'>H. Cole, <q>Notes on the Wagogo +of German East Africa,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxii. (1902) +p. 330.</note> Among the Boloki of the +Upper Congo there is much shouting and gesticulation on +the appearance of a new moon. Those who have enjoyed +good health pray that it may be continued, and those who +have been sick ascribe their illness to the coming of the +luminary and beg her to take away bad health and give +them good health instead.<note place='foot'>John H. Weeks, <hi rend='italic'>Among Congo +Cannibals</hi> (London, 1913), p. 142.</note> The Esthonians think that all +the misfortunes which might befall a man in the course of a +month may be forestalled and shifted to the moon, if a man +will only say to the new moon, <q>Good morrow, new moon. +I must grow young, you must grow old. My eyes must +grow bright, yours must grow dark. I must grow light as +a bird, you must grow heavy as iron.</q><note place='foot'>J. G. Kohl, <hi rend='italic'>Die deutsch-russischen +Ostseeprovinzen</hi> (Dresden and Leipsic, +1841), ii. 279. Compare Boecler-Kreutzwald, +<hi rend='italic'>Der Ehsten abergläubische +Gebräuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten</hi> +(St. Petersburg, 1854), pp. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. +595, note 1. The power of regeneration +ascribed to the moon in these +customs is sometimes attributed to the +sun. Thus it is said that the Chiriguanos +Indians of South-Eastern +Bolivia often address the sun as follows: +<q>Thou art born and disappearest +every day, only to revive always young. +Cause that it may be so with me.</q> +See A. Thouar, <hi rend='italic'>Explorations dans +l'Amérique du Sud</hi> (Paris, 1891), +p. 50.</note> On the fifteenth +day of the moon, that is, at the time when the luminary has +begun to wane, the Coreans take round pieces of paper, either +red or white, which represent the moon, and having fixed +them perpendicularly on split sticks they place them on the +tops of the houses. Then persons who have been forewarned +by fortune-tellers of impending evil pray to the moon to +remove it from them.<note place='foot'>W. Woodville Rockhill, <q>Notes +on some of the Laws, Customs, and +Superstitions of Korea,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The American +Anthropologist</hi>, iv. (Washington, 1891), +p. 185.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='144'/><anchor id='Pg144'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Attempts +to eat or +drink the +moonlight.</note> +In India people attempt to absorb the vital influence +of the moon by drinking water in which the luminary is +reflected. Thus the Mohammedans of Oude fill a silver +basin with water and hold it so that the orb of the full moon +is mirrored in it. The person to be benefited must look +steadfastly at the moon in the basin, then shut his eyes +and drink the water at one gulp. Doctors recommend the +draught as a remedy for nervous disorders and palpitation +of the heart. Somewhat similar customs prevail among the +Hindoos of Northern India. At the full moon of the month +of Kuar (September-October) people lay out food on the +house-tops, and when it has absorbed the rays of the moon +they distribute it among their relations, who are supposed to +lengthen their life by eating of the food which has thus been +saturated with moonshine. Patients are often made to look +at the moon reflected in melted butter, oil, or milk as a cure +for leprosy and the like diseases.<note place='foot'>W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion and +Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> (Westminster, +1896), i. 14 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +supposed +influence of +moonlight +on children: +presentation +of +infants to +the new +moon.</note> +Naturally enough the genial influence of moonshine is +often supposed to be particularly beneficial to children; for +will not the waxing moon help them to wax in strength and +stature? Hence in the island of Kiriwina, one of the +Trobriands Group to the east of New Guinea, a mother +always lifts up or presents her child to the first full moon +after its birth in order that it may grow fast and talk soon.<note place='foot'>George Brown, D.D., <hi rend='italic'>Melanesians +and Polynesians</hi> (London, 1910), p. +37.</note> +So among the Baganda of Central Africa it was customary +for each mother to take her child out at the first new +moon after its birth, and to point out the moon to the +infant; this was thought to make the child grow healthy +and strong.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), p. 58.</note> Among the Thonga of South Africa the +presentation of the baby to the moon does not take place +until the mother has resumed her monthly periods, which +usually happens in the third month after the birth. When +the new moon appears, the mother takes a torch or a +burning brand from the fire and goes to the ash-heap behind +the hut. She is followed by the grandmother carrying the +child. At the ash-heap the mother throws the burning +stick towards the moon, while the grandmother tosses the +<pb n='145'/><anchor id='Pg145'/> +baby into the air, saying, <q>This is your moon!</q> The +child squalls and rolls over on the ash-heap. Then the +mother snatches up the infant and nurses it; so they go +home.<note place='foot'>Henri A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>The Life of a +South African Tribe</hi> (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), +i. 51.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Infants +presented +to the +moon by +the Guarayos +Indians of +Bolivia +and the +Apinagos +Indians of +Brazil.</note> +The Guarayos Indians, who inhabit the gloomy tropical +forests of Eastern Bolivia, lift up their children in the +air at new moon in order that they may grow.<note place='foot'>A. d'Orbigny, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage dans l'Amérique +Méridionale</hi>, iii. 1<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>re</hi> Partie (Paris +and Strasburg, 1844), p. 24.</note> Among +the Apinagos Indians, on the Tocantins River in Brazil, the +French traveller Castelnau witnessed a remarkable dance by +moonlight. The Indians danced in two long ranks which +faced each other, the women on one side, the men on the +other. Between the two ranks of dancers blazed a great +fire. The men were painted in brilliant colours, and for the +most part wore white or red skull-caps made of maize-flour +and resin. Their dancing was very monotonous and consisted +of a jerky movement of the body, while the dancer +advanced first one leg and then the other. This dance they +accompanied with a melancholy song, striking the ground +with their weapons. Opposite them the women, naked and +unpainted, stood in a single rank, their bodies bent slightly +forward, their knees pressed together, their arms swinging in +measured time, now forward, now backward, so as to join +hands. A remarkable figure in the dance was a personage +painted scarlet all over, who held in his hand a rattle composed +of a gourd full of pebbles. From time to time he +leaped across the great fire which burned between the men +and the women. Then he would run rapidly in front of the +women, stopping now and then before one or other and +performing a series of strange gambols, while he shook his +rattle violently. Sometimes he would sink with one knee +to the ground, and then suddenly throw himself backward. +Altogether the agility and endurance which he displayed +were remarkable. This dance lasted for hours. When a +woman was tired out she withdrew, and her place was taken +by another; but the same men danced the monotonous +dance all night. Towards midnight the moon attained the +zenith and flooded the scene with her bright rays. A change +<pb n='146'/><anchor id='Pg146'/> +now took place in the dance. A long line of men and +women advanced to the fire between the ranks of the +dancers. Each of them held one end of a hammock in +which lay a new-born infant, whose squalls could be heard. +These babes were now to be presented by their parents to +the moon. On reaching the end of the line each couple +swung the hammock, accompanying the movement by a +chant, which all the Indians sang in chorus. The song +seemed to consist of three words, repeated over and over +again. Soon a shrill voice was heard, and a hideous old +hag, like a skeleton, appeared with her arms raised above +her head. She went round and round the assembly several +times, then disappeared in silence. While she was present, +the scarlet dancer with the rattle bounded about more +furiously than ever, stopping only for a moment while he +passed in front of the line of women. His body was contracted +and bent towards them, and described an undulatory +movement like that of a worm writhing. He shook his +rattle violently, as if he would fain kindle in the women the +fire which burned in himself. Then rising abruptly he would +resume his wild career. During this time the loud voice +of an orator was heard from the village repeating a curious +name without cessation. Then the speaker approached +slowly, carrying on his back some gorgeous bunches of +brilliant feathers and under his arm a stone axe. Behind +him walked a young woman bearing an infant in a loose +girdle at her waist; the child was wrapped in a mat, which +protected it against the chill night air. The couple paced +slowly for a minute or two, and then vanished without +speaking a word. At the same moment the curious name +which the orator had shouted was taken up by the whole +assembly and repeated by them again and again. This +scene in its turn lasted a long time, but ceased suddenly +with the setting of the moon. The French traveller who +witnessed it fell asleep, and when he awoke all was calm +once more: there was nothing to recall the infernal dances of +the night.<note place='foot'>F. de Castelnau, <hi rend='italic'>Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du +Sud</hi> (Paris, 1850-1851), ii. 31-34.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +presentation +of +infants to +the moon is +probably +intended to +make them +grow.</note> +In explanation of these dances Castelnau merely observes +<pb n='147'/><anchor id='Pg147'/> +that the Apinagos, like many other South American Indians, +pay a superstitious respect to the moon. We may suppose +that the ceremonious presentation of the infants to the moon +was intended to ensure their life and growth. The names +solemnly chanted by the whole assembly were probably +those which the parents publicly bestowed on their children. +As to the scarlet dancer who leaped across the fire, we may +conjecture that he personated the moon, and that his strange +antics in front of the women were designed to impart to +them the fertilizing virtue of the luminary, and perhaps to +facilitate their delivery. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Baganda +ceremonies +at new +moon.</note> +Among the Baganda of Central Africa there is general +rejoicing when the new moon appears, and no work is done +for seven days. When the crescent is first visible at +evening, mothers take out their babies and hold them at +arms' length, saying, <q>I want my child to keep in health +till the moon wanes.</q> At the same time a ceremony is +performed which may be intended to ensure the king's life +and health throughout the ensuing month. It is a custom +with the Baganda to preserve the king's navel-string with +great care during his life. The precious object is called +the <q>Twin</q> of the king, as if it were his double; and the +ghost of the royal afterbirth is believed to be attached to +it. Enclosed in a pot, which is wrapt in bark cloths, the +navel-string is kept in a temple specially built for it near +the king's enclosure, and a great minister of state acts as its +guardian and priest. Every new moon, at evening, he +carries it in state, wrapped in bark cloths, to the king, who +takes it into his hands, examines it, and returns it to the +minister. The keeper of the navel-string then goes back +with it to the house and sets it in the doorway, where it +remains all night. Next morning it is taken from its +wrappings and again placed in the doorway until the +evening, when it is once more swathed in bark cloths and +restored to its usual place.<note place='foot'>J. Roscoe, <q>Further Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda.</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxii. (1902) pp. 63, 76; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The +Baganda</hi> (London, 1911) pp. 235 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +In the former passage the part of the +king's person which is treated with +this ceremony is said to be the placenta, +not the navel-string.</note> Apparently the navel-string is +conceived as a vital portion, a sort of external soul, of the +<pb n='148'/><anchor id='Pg148'/> +king; and the attentions bestowed on it at the new moon +may be supposed to refresh and invigorate it, thereby +refreshing and invigorating the king's life. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Baleful +influence +supposed +to be +exercised +by the +moon on +children.</note> +The Armenians appear to think that the moon exercises +a baleful influence on little children. To avert that influence +a mother will show the moon to her child and say, +<q>Thine uncle, thine uncle.</q> For the same purpose the +father and mother will mount to the roof of the house at +new moon on a Wednesday or Friday. The father then +puts the child on a shovel and gives it to the mother, saying, +<q>If it is thine, take it to thee. But if it is mine, rear it and +give it to me back.</q> The mother then takes the child and +the shovel, and returns them to the father in like manner.<note place='foot'>M. Abeghian, <hi rend='italic'>Der armenische +Volksglaube</hi> (Leipsic, 1899), p. 49.</note> +A similar opinion as to the noxious influence of moonshine +on children was apparently held by the ancient Greeks; for +Greek nurses took great care never to show their infants to +the moon.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Conviviales</hi>, +iv. 10. 3. 7.</note> Some Brazilian Indians in like manner guard +babies against the moon, believing that it would make them +ill. Immediately after delivery mothers will hide themselves +and their infants in the thickest parts of the forest in order +that the moonlight may not fall on them.<note place='foot'>J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von +Martius, <hi rend='italic'>Reise in Brasilien</hi> (Munich, +1823-1831), i. 381, iii. 1186.</note> It would be +easy to understand why the waning moon should be deemed +injurious to children; they might be supposed to peak and +pine with its dwindling light. Thus in Angus it is thought +that if a child be weaned during the waning of the moon, +it will decay all the time that the moon continues to +wane.<note place='foot'>J. Jamieson, <hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of the +Scottish Language</hi>, New Edition edited +by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson +(Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. 300 (<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<q>Mone</q>).</note> But it is less easy to see why the same deleterious +influence on children should be ascribed to moonlight in +general. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Use of the +moon to +increase +money or +decrease +sickness.</note> +There are many other ways in which people have sought +to turn lunar sympathy to practical account. Clearly the +increase of the moon is the time to increase your goods, +and the decrease of the moon is the time to diminish your +ills. Acting on this imaginary law of nature many persons +in Europe show their money to the new moon or turn it in +<pb n='149'/><anchor id='Pg149'/> +their pockets at that season, in the belief that the money +will grow with the growth of the planet; sometimes, by way +of additional precaution, they spit on the coin at the same +time.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi> (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. +260; P. Drechsler, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte, Brauch und +Volksglaube in Schlesien</hi>, ii. (Leipsic, +1906) p. 131; W. Henderson, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore +of the Northern Counties of England</hi> +(London, 1879), p. 114; C. S. +Burne and G. F. Jackson, <hi rend='italic'>Shropshire +Folk-lore</hi> (London, 1883), p. 257; W. +Gregor, <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore of the North-East of +Scotland</hi> (London, 1881), p. 151.</note> <q>Both Christians and Moslems in Syria turn their +silver money in their pockets at the new moon for luck; +and two persons meeting under the new moon will each +take out a silver coin and embrace, saying, <q>May you begin +and end; and may it be a good month to us.</q></q><note place='foot'>C. R. Conder, <hi rend='italic'>Heth and Moab</hi> +(London, 1883), p. 286.</note> Conversely +the waning of the moon is the most natural time to +get rid of bodily ailments. In Brittany they think that +warts vary with the phases of the moon, growing as it waxes +and vanishing away as it wanes.<note place='foot'>P. Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Traditions et Superstitions +de la Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, +1882), ii. 355.</note> Accordingly, they say in +Germany that if you would rid yourself of warts you should +treat them when the moon is on the decrease.<note place='foot'>A. Kuhn, <hi rend='italic'>Märkische Sagen und +Märchen</hi> (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, § 93.</note> And a +German cure for toothache, earache, headache, and so forth, +is to look towards the waning moon and say, <q>As the moon +decreases, so may my pains decrease also.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie</hi> +(Chemnitz, 1759), p. 447.</note> However, +some Germans reverse the rule. They say, for example, +that if you are afflicted with a wen, you should face the +waxing moon, lay your finger on the wen, and say thrice, +<q>What I see waxes; what I touch, let it vanish away.</q> +After each of these two sentences you should cross yourself +thrice. Then go home without speaking to any one, and +repeat three paternosters behind the kitchen door.<note place='foot'>F. Panzer, <hi rend='italic'>Beitrag zur deutschen +Mythologie</hi>, ii. 302. Compare J. +Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> ii. +596.</note> The +Huzuls of the Carpathians recommend a somewhat similar, +and no doubt equally efficacious, cure for waterbrash. They +say that at new moon the patient should run thrice round +the house and then say to the moon, <q>Moon, moon, where +wast thou?</q> <q>Behind the mountain.</q> <q>What hast thou +eaten there?</q> <q>Horse flesh.</q> <q>Why hast thou brought +me nothing?</q> <q>Because I forgot.</q> <q>May the waterbrash +<pb n='150'/><anchor id='Pg150'/> +forget to burn me!</q><note place='foot'>R. F. Kaindl, <q>Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Globus</hi>, lxxvi. (1899) +p. 256.</note> Thus a curative virtue appears to +be attributed by some people to the waning and by others +to the waxing moon. There is perhaps just as much, or as +little, to be said for the one attribution as for the other. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='151'/><anchor id='Pg151'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter X. The King As Osiris.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris +personated +by the +king of +Egypt.</note> +In the foregoing discussion we found reason to believe that +the Semitic Adonis and the Phrygian Attis were at one +time personated in the flesh by kings, princes, or priests who +played the part of the god for a time and then either died +a violent death in the divine character or had to redeem +their life in one way or another, whether by performing a +make-believe sacrifice at some expense of pain and danger +to themselves, or by delegating the duty to a substitute.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 48 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 110, 114, 170 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 172 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 176 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 179 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 285 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 288 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +Further, we conjectured that in Egypt the part of Osiris +may have been played by the king himself.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It remains to +adduce some positive evidence of this personation. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The Sed +festival +celebrated +in Egypt +at intervals +of thirty +years.</note> +A great festival called the Sed was celebrated by the +Egyptians with much solemnity at intervals of thirty years. +Various portions of the ritual are represented on the ancient +monuments of Hieraconpolis and Abydos and in the oldest +decorated temple of Egypt known to us, that of Usirniri at +Busiris, which dates from the fifth dynasty. It appears that +the ceremonies were as old as the Egyptian civilization, and +that they continued to be observed till the end of the Roman +period.<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Du caractère religieux +de la royauté Pharaonique</hi> (Paris, +1902), pp. 235-238. The festival is +discussed at length by M. Moret (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> +pp. 235-273). See further R. Lepsius, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Chronologie der Aegypter</hi>, i. 161-165; +Miss M. A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The Osireion +at Abydos</hi>, pp. 32-34; W. M. Flinders +Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>Researches in Sinai</hi> (London, +1906), pp. 176-185. In interpreting +the festival I follow Professor Flinders +Petrie. That the festival occurred, theoretically +at least, at intervals of thirty +years, appears to be unquestionable; +for in the Greek text of the Rosetta +Stone Ptolemy V. is called <q>lord of +periods of thirty years,</q> and though the +corresponding part of the hieroglyphic +text is lost, the demotic version of the +words is <q>master of the years of the +Sed festival.</q> See R. Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> pp. 161 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. Dittenberger, +<hi rend='italic'>Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae</hi>, +No. 90, line 2 (vol. i. p. 142); A. +Moret, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> 260. However, the +kings appear to have sometimes celebrated +the festival at much shorter +intervals, so that the dates of its recurrence +cannot safely be used for +chronological purposes. See Ed. +Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Nachträge zur ägyptischen +Chronologie</hi> (Berlin, 1908), pp. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +(<hi rend='italic'>Abhandlungen der königl. Akademie +der Wissenschaften vom Jahre 1907</hi>); +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. +pp. xix. 130.</note> The reason for holding them at intervals of thirty +<pb n='152'/><anchor id='Pg152'/> +years is uncertain, but we can hardly doubt that the period +was determined by astronomical considerations. According +to one view, it was based on the observation of Saturn's +period of revolution round the sun, which is, roughly speaking, +thirty years, or, more exactly, twenty-nine years and one +hundred and seventy-four days.<note place='foot'>This was Letronne's theory (R. +Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 163).</note> According to another +view, the thirty years' period had reference to Sirius, the +star of Isis. We have seen that on account of the vague +character of the old Egyptian year the heliacal rising of +Sirius shifted its place gradually through every month of +the calendar.<note place='foot'>See above, pp. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In one hundred and twenty years the star +thus passed through one whole month of thirty days. To +speak more precisely, it rose on the first of the month during +the first four years of the period: it rose on the second of +the month in the second four years, on the third of the +month in the third four years; and so on successively, +till in the last four years of the hundred and +twenty years it rose on the last day of the month. As the +Egyptians watched the annual summer rising of the star with +attention and associated it with the most popular of their +goddesses, it would be natural that its passage from one +month to another, at intervals of one hundred and twenty +years, should be the occasion of a great festival, and that +the long period of one hundred and twenty years should be +divided into four minor periods of thirty years respectively, +each celebrated by a minor festival.<note place='foot'>This was in substance the theory +of Biot (R. Lepsius, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>), and it is the +view of Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie +(<hi rend='italic'>Researches in Sinai</hi>, pp. 176 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>).</note> If this theory of the +Sed festivals is correct, we should expect to find that every +fourth celebration was distinguished from the rest by a +higher degree of solemnity, since it marked the completion +of a twelfth part of the star's journey through the twelve +<pb n='153'/><anchor id='Pg153'/> +months. Now it appears that in point of fact every fourth +Sed festival was marked off from its fellows by the adjective +<foreign rend='italic'>tep</foreign> or <q>chief,</q> and that these <q>chief</q> celebrations fell as a +rule in the years when Sirius rose on the first of the month.<note place='foot'>W. M. Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>Researches +in Sinai</hi>, p. 180.</note> +These facts confirm the view that the Sed festival was closely +connected with the star Sirius, and through it with Isis. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Intention +of the Sed +festival to +renew the +king's life.</note> +However, we are here concerned rather with the meaning +and the rites of the festival than with the reasons for holding +it once every thirty years. The intention of the festival +seems to have been to procure for the king a new lease of +life, a renovation of his divine energies, a rejuvenescence. +In the inscriptions of Abydos we read, after an account of +the rites, the following address to the king: <q>Thou dost +recommence thy renewal, thou art granted to flourish again +like the infant god Moon, thou dost grow young again, and +that from season to season, like Nun at the beginning of +time, thou art born again in renewing the Sed festivals. +All life comes to thy nostril, and thou art king of the whole +earth for ever.</q><note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Du caractère religieux +de la royauté Pharaonique</hi>, pp. 255 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In short, on these occasions it appears to +have been supposed that the king was in a manner born +again. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The king +identified +with the +dead Osiris +at the Sed +festival.</note> +But how was the new birth effected? Apparently the +essence of the rites consisted in identifying the king with +Osiris; for just as Osiris had died and risen again from the +dead, so the king might be thought to die and to live again +with the god whom he personated. The ceremony would +thus be for the king a death as well as a rebirth. Accordingly +in pictures of the Sed festival on the monuments we +see the king posing as the dead Osiris. He sits in a shrine +like a god, holding in his hands the crook and flail of +Osiris: he is wrapped in tight bandages like the mummified +Osiris; indeed, there is nothing but his name to prove that +he is not Osiris himself. This enthronement of the king in +the attitude of the dead god seems to have been the principal +event of the festival.<note place='foot'>W. M. Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>Researches +in Sinai</hi>, p. 181.</note> Further, the queen and the king's +daughters figured prominently in the ceremonies.<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 240; Miss +M. A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>The Osireion at Abydos</hi>, +pp. 33 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, with the slip inserted at p. +33; W. Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 184.</note> A +<pb n='154'/><anchor id='Pg154'/> +discharge of arrows formed part of the rites;<note place='foot'>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 242.</note> and in some +sculptures at Carnac the queen is portrayed shooting arrows +towards the four quarters of the world, while the king +does the same with rings.<note place='foot'>Miss M. A. Murray, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi>, slip +inserted at p. 33.</note> The oldest illustration of the +festival is on the mace of Narmer, which is believed to date +from 5500 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> Here we see the king seated as Osiris in a +shrine at the top of nine steps. Beside the shrine stand fan-bearers, +and in front of it is a figure in a palanquin, which, +according to an inscription in another representation of the +scene, appears to be the royal child. An enclosure of +curtains hung on poles surrounds the dancing-ground, where +three men are performing a sacred dance. A procession of +standards is depicted beside the enclosure; it is headed by +the standard of the jackal-god Up-uat, the <q>opener of ways</q> +for the dead.<note place='foot'>W. M. Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>Researches +in Sinai</hi>, p. 183.</note> Similarly on a seal of King Zer, or rather +Khent, one of the early kings of the first dynasty, the +monarch appears as Osiris with the standard of the jackal-god +before him. In front of him, too, is the ostrich feather +on which <q>the dead king was supposed to ascend into heaven. +Here, then, the king, identified with Osiris, king of the dead, +has before him the jackal-god, who leads the dead, and the +ostrich feather, which symbolizes his reception into the sky.</q><note place='foot'>W. M. Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi> As to +the king's name (Khent instead of Zer) +see above, p. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, note 1.</note> +There are even grounds for thinking that in order to complete +the mimic death of the king at the Sed festival an effigy of +him, clad in the costume of Osiris, was solemnly buried in a +cenotaph.<note place='foot'>J. Capart, <q>Bulletin critique des +religions de l'Égypte,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de l'Histoire +des Religions</hi>, liii. (1906) pp. +332-334. I have to thank Professor +W. M. Flinders Petrie for calling my +attention to this passage.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Professor +Flinders +Petrie's +explanation +of the Sed +festival.</note> +According to Professor Flinders Petrie, <q>the conclusion +may be drawn thus. In the savage age of prehistoric +times, the Egyptians, like many other African and Indian +peoples, killed their priest-king at stated intervals, in order +that the ruler should, with unimpaired life and health, be +enabled to maintain the kingdom in its highest condition. +The royal daughters were present in order that they might +be married to his successor. The jackal-god went before +<pb n='155'/><anchor id='Pg155'/> +him, to open the way to the unseen world; and the ostrich +feather received and bore away the king's soul in the breeze +that blew it out of sight. This was the celebration of the +<q>end,</q> the <foreign rend='italic'>sed</foreign> feast. The king thus became the dead king, +patron of all those who had died in his reign, who were his +subjects here and hereafter. He was thus one with Osiris, +the king of the dead. This fierce custom became changed, +as in other lands, by appointing a deputy king to die in his +stead; which idea survived in the Coptic Abu Nerūs, with +his tall crown of Upper Egypt, false beard, and sceptre. +After the death of the deputy, the real king renewed his +life and reign. Henceforward this became the greatest of +the royal festivals, the apotheosis of the king during his life, +after which he became Osiris upon earth and the patron of +the dead in the underworld.</q><note place='foot'>W. M. Flinders Petrie, <hi rend='italic'>Researches +in Sinai</hi>, p. 185. As to the Coptic +mock-king see C. B. Klunzinger, <hi rend='italic'>Bilder +aus Oberägypten, der Wüste und dem +Rothen Meere</hi> (Stuttgart, 1877), pp. +180 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 151 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +For examples of human sacrifices +offered to prolong the lives of kings +see below, vol. ii. pp. 219 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Alexandre +Moret's +theory that +at the Sed +festivals +the king +was supposed +to +die and to +be born +again.</note> +A similar theory of the Sed festival is maintained by +another eminent Egyptologist, M. Alexandre Moret. He +says: <q rend='pre'>In most of the temples of Egypt, of all periods, +pictures set forth for us the principal scenes of a solemn +festival called <q>festival of the tail,</q> the Sed festival. It consisted +essentially in a representation of the ritual death of the +king followed by his rebirth. In this case the king is identified +with Osiris, the god who in historical times is the hero +of the sacred drama of humanity, he who guides us through +the three stages of life, death, and rebirth in the other world. +Hence, clad in the funeral costume of Osiris, with the tight-fitting +garment clinging to him like a shroud, Pharaoh is conducted +to the tomb; and from it he returns rejuvenated and +reborn like Osiris emerging from the dead. How was this +fiction carried out? how was this miracle performed? By +the sacrifice of human or animal victims. On behalf of the +king a priest lay down in the skin of the animal victim: he +assumed the posture characteristic of an embryo in its +mother's womb: when he came forth from the skin he was +deemed to be reborn; and Pharaoh, for whom this rite was +celebrated, was himself reborn, or to adopt the Egyptian expression, +<pb n='156'/><anchor id='Pg156'/> +<q>he renewed his births.</q> And in testimony of the +due performance of the rites the king girt his loins with the +tail, a compendious representative of the skin of the sacrificed +beast, whence the name of <q>the festival of the tail.</q></q> +</p> + +<p> +<q>How are we to explain the rule that at a certain point +of his reign every Pharaoh must undergo this ritual death +followed by fictitious rebirth? Is it simply a renewal of the +initiation into the Osirian mysteries? or does the festival +present some more special features? The ill-defined part +played by the royal children in these rites seems to me to +indicate that the Sed festival represents other episodes which +refer to the transmission of the regal office. At the dawn +of civilization in Egypt the people were perhaps familiar +with the alternative either of putting their king to death in +his full vigour in order that his power should be transmitted +intact to his successor, or of attempting to rejuvenate +him and to <q>renew his life.</q> The latter measure was an +invention of the Pharaohs. How could it be carried out +more effectively than by identifying themselves with Osiris, +by applying to themselves the process of resurrection, the +funeral rites by which Isis, according to the priests, had +magically saved her husband from death? Perhaps the +fictitious death of the king may be regarded as a mitigation +of the primitive murder of the divine king, a transition from +a barbarous reality to symbolism.</q><note place='foot'><p>A. Moret, <hi rend='italic'>Mystères Égyptiens</hi> +(Paris, 1913), pp. 187-190. For a +detailed account of the Egyptian evidence, +monumental and inscriptional, +on which M. Moret bases his view of +the king's rebirth by deputy from the +hide of a sacrificed animal, see pp. 16 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 72 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> of the same work. Compare +his article, <q>Du sacrifice en +Égypte,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Revue de l'Histoire des Religions</hi>, +lvii. (1908) pp. 93 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In support +of the view that the king of Egypt +was deemed to be born again at the Sed +festival it has been pointed out that on +these solemn occasions, as we learn +from the monuments, there was carried +before the king on a pole an object +shaped like a placenta, a part of the +human body which many savage or +barbarous peoples regard as the twin +brother or sister of the new-born child. +See C. G. Seligmann and Margaret A. +Murray, <q>Note upon an early +Egyptian standard,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Man</hi>, xi. (1911) +pp. 165-171. The object which these +writers take to represent a human +placenta is interpreted by M. Alexandre +Moret as the likeness of a human +embryo. As to the belief that the +afterbirth is a twin brother or sister +of the infant, see above, vol. i. p. 93, +and below, pp. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>The Magic +Art and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, i. +82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +</p> +<p> +Professor J. H. Breasted thinks that +the Sed festival is probably <q>the oldest +religious feast of which any trace has +been preserved in Egypt</q>; he admits +that on these occasions <q>the king +assumed the costume and insignia of +Osiris, and undoubtedly impersonated +him,</q> and further that <q>one of the +ceremonies of this feast symbolized +the resurrection of Osiris</q>; but he +considers that the significance of the +festival is as yet obscure. See J. H. +Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development of Religion and +Thought in Ancient Egypt</hi> (London, +1912), p. 39.</p></note> +</p> + +<pb n='157'/><anchor id='Pg157'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Osiris +personated +by the +king of +Egypt.</note> +Whether this interpretation of the Sed festival be +accepted in all its details or not, one thing seems quite +certain: on these solemn occasions the god Osiris was personated +by the king of Egypt himself. That is the point +with which we are here chiefly concerned. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='158'/><anchor id='Pg158'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter XI. The Origin of Osiris.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>How did +the conception +of +Osiris as a +god of +vegetation +and of the +dead +originate?</note> +Thus far we have discussed the character of Osiris as he is +presented to us in the art and literature of Egypt and in the +testimonies of Greek writers; and we have found that judged +by these indications he was in the main a god of vegetation +and of the dead. But we have still to ask, how did the conception +of such a composite deity originate? Did it arise +simply through observation of the great annual fluctuations +of the seasons and a desire to explain them? Was it a +result of brooding over the mystery of external nature? +Was it the attempt of a rude philosophy to lift the veil and +explore the hidden springs that set the vast machine in +motion? That man at a very early stage of his long history +meditated on these things and evolved certain crude theories +which partially satisfied his craving after knowledge is +certain; from such meditations of Babylonian and Phrygian +sages appear to have sprung the pathetic figures of Adonis +and Attis; and from such meditations of Egyptian sages +may have sprung the tragic figure of Osiris. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>While +Adonis and +Attis were +subordinate +figures +in their +respective +pantheons, +Osiris was +the greatest +and most +popular +god of +Egypt.</note> +Yet a broad distinction seems to sever the myth and +worship of Osiris from the kindred myths and worships of +Adonis and Attis. For while Adonis and Attis were minor +divinities in the religion of Western Asia, completely overshadowed +by the greater deities of their respective pantheons, +the solemn figure of Osiris towered in solitary grandeur over +all the welter of Egyptian gods, like a pyramid of his native +land lit up by the last rays of the setting sun when all +below it is in shadow. And whereas legend generally represented +Adonis and Attis as simple swains, mere herdsmen +<pb n='159'/><anchor id='Pg159'/> +or hunters whom the fatal love of a goddess had elevated +above their homely sphere into a brief and melancholy pre-eminence, +Osiris uniformly appears in tradition as a great +and beneficent king. In life, he ruled over his people, +beloved and revered for the benefits he conferred on them +and on the world; in death he reigned in their hearts and +memories as lord of the dead, the awful judge at whose bar +every man must one day stand to give an account of the +deeds done in the body and to receive the final award. In +the faith of the Egyptians the cruel death and blessed +resurrection of Osiris occupied the same place as the death +and resurrection of Christ hold in the faith of Christians. +As Osiris died and rose again from the dead, so they hoped +through him and in his dear name to wake triumphant from +the sleep of death to a blissful eternity. That was their +sheet-anchor in life's stormy sea; that was the hope which +supported and consoled millions of Egyptian men and +women for a period of time far longer than that during +which Christianity has now existed on earth. In the long +history of religion no two divine figures resemble each +other more closely in the fervour of personal devotion which +they have kindled and in the high hopes which they have +inspired than Osiris and Christ. The sad figure of Buddha +indeed has been as deeply loved and revered by countless +millions; but he had no glad tidings of immortality for men, +nothing but the promise of a final release from the burden +of mortality. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +personal +devotion +of the +Egyptians +to Osiris +suggests +that he +may have +been a real +man; for +all the permanent +religious +or semi-religious +systems of +the world +have been +founded by +individual +great men.</note> +And if Osiris and Christ have been the centres of the +like enthusiastic devotion, may not the secret of their influence +have been similar? If Christ lived the life and died +the death of a man on earth, may not Osiris have done so +likewise? The immense and enduring popularity of his +worship speaks in favour of the supposition; for all the +other great religious or semi-religious systems which have +won for themselves a permanent place in the affections of +mankind, have been founded by individual great men, who +by their personal life and example exerted a power of +attraction such as no cold abstractions, no pale products of +the collective wisdom or folly could ever exert on the minds +and hearts of humanity. Thus it was with Buddhism, with +<pb n='160'/><anchor id='Pg160'/> +Confucianism, with Christianity, and with Mohammedanism; +and thus it may well have been with the religion of Osiris. +Certainly we shall do less violence to the evidence if we +accept the unanimous tradition of ancient Egypt on this +point than if we resolve the figure of Osiris into a myth pure +and simple. And when we consider that from the earliest +to the latest times Egyptian kings were worshipped as gods +both in life and in death, there appears to be nothing extravagant +or improbable in the view that one of them by his +personal qualities excited a larger measure of devotion than +usual during his life and was remembered with fonder affection +and deeper reverence after his death; till in time his +beloved memory, dimmed, transfigured, and encircled with a +halo of glory by the mists of time, grew into the dominant +religion of his people. At least this theory is reasonable +enough to deserve a serious consideration. If we accept it, +we may suppose that the mythical elements, which legend +undoubtedly ascribed to Osiris, were later accretions which +gathered about his memory like ivy about a ruin. There is +no improbability in such a supposition; on the contrary, all +analogy is in its favour, for nothing is more certain than +that myths grow like weeds round the great historical figures +of the past. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +historical +reality of +Osiris as an +old king of +Egypt can +be supported +by +modern +African +analogies.</note> +In recent years the historical reality of Osiris as a king +who once lived and reigned in Egypt has been maintained +by more than one learned scholar;<note place='foot'>It is maintained by the discoverer +of the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, +Monsieur E. Amélineau, in his work +<hi rend='italic'>Le Tombeau d'Osiris</hi> (Paris, 1899) and +by Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge in his +elaborate treatise <hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian +Resurrection</hi>, in which the author +pays much attention to analogies drawn +from the religion and customs of modern +African tribes.</note> and without venturing +to pronounce a decided opinion on so obscure and difficult a +question, I think it worth while, following the example of +Dr. Wallis Budge, to indicate certain modern African analogies +which tend to confirm the view that beneath the +mythical wrappings of Osiris there lay the mummy of a +dead man. At all events the analogies which I shall cite +suffice to prove that the custom of worshipping dead kings +has not been confined to Egypt, but has been apparently +widespread throughout Africa, though the evidence now at +our disposal only enables us to detect the observance of the +<pb n='161'/><anchor id='Pg161'/> +custom at a few points of the great continent. But even if +the resemblance in this respect between ancient Egypt and +modern Africa should be regarded as established, it would +not justify us in inferring an ethnical affinity between the +fair or ruddy Egyptians and the black aboriginal races +who occupy almost the whole of Africa except a comparatively +narrow fringe on the northern sea-board. Scholars +are still divided on the question of the original home and +racial relationship of the ancient Egyptians. It has been +held on the one hand that they belong to an indigenous +white race which has been always in possession of the +Mediterranean coasts of Africa; and on the other hand +it has been supposed that they are akin to the Semites +in blood as well as in language, and that they entered +Africa from the East, whether by gradual infiltration or +on a sudden wave of conquest like the Arabs in the +decline of the Roman empire.<note place='foot'>G. Maspero, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire ancienne +des Peuples de l'Orient Classique</hi>, i. 43 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>History of the +Ancient Egyptians</hi>, pp. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Ed. +Meyer, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. +pp. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The affinity of the Egyptian +language to the Semitic family of +speech seems now to be admitted even +by historians who maintain the African +origin of the Egyptians.</note> On either view a great gulf +divided them from the swarthy natives of the Sudan, with +whom they were always in contact on their southern border; +and though a certain admixture may have taken place +through marriage between the two races, it seems unsafe to +assume that the religious and political resemblances which +can be traced between them are based on any closer relationship +than the general similarity in structure and functions +of the human mind. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +spirits of +dead kings +worshipped +by the +Shilluks +of the +White +Nile. +Sacrifices +to the +dead kings.</note> +In a former part of this work we saw that the Shilluks, +a pastoral and partially agricultural people of the White +Nile, worship the spirits of their dead kings.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The +information there given was kindly supplied +by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who has +since published it with fuller details. +See C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>The Cult of +Nyakang and the Divine Kings of the +Shilluk</hi> (Khartoum, 1911), pp. 216-232 +(reprint from <hi rend='italic'>Fourth Report of the +Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories, +Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum</hi>); +W. Hofmayr, <q>Religion der +Schilluk,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, vi. (1911) pp. +120-131; Diedrich Westermann, <hi rend='italic'>The +Shilluk People, their Language and Folk-lore</hi> +(Berlin, preface dated 1912), pp. +xxxix. <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In what follows I have +drawn on all these authorities.</note> The graves +of the deceased monarchs form indeed the national or tribal +<pb n='162'/><anchor id='Pg162'/> +temples; and as each king is interred at the village where +he was born and where his afterbirth is buried, these grave-shrines +are scattered over the country. Each of them +usually comprises a small group of round huts, resembling +the common houses of the people, the whole being enclosed +by a fence; one of the huts is built over the grave, the +others are occupied by the guardians of the shrine, who at +first are generally the widows or old men-servants of the +deceased king. When these women or retainers die, they +are succeeded in office by their descendants, for the tombs +are maintained in perpetuity, so that the number of +temples and of gods is always on the increase. Cattle are +dedicated to these royal shrines and animals sacrificed at +them. For example, when the millet crop threatens to fail +or a murrain breaks out among the beasts, one of the dead +kings will appear to somebody in a dream and demand a +sacrifice. The dream is reported to the king, and he +immediately orders a bullock and a cow to be sent to the +grave of the dead king who appeared in a vision of the +night to the sleeper. This is done; the bullock is killed and +the cow added to the sacred herd of the shrine. It is +customary, also, though not necessary, at harvest to offer +some of the new millet at the temple-tombs of the kings; +and sick people send animals to be sacrificed there on their +behalf. Special regard is paid to trees that grow near +the graves of the kings; and the spirits of the departed +monarchs are believed to appear from time to time in the +form of certain animals. One of them, for example, always +takes the shape of a certain insect, which seems to be the +larva of the <foreign rend='italic'>Mantidae</foreign>. When a Shilluk finds one of these +insects, he will take it up in his hands and deposit it reverentially +at the shrine. Other kings manifest themselves as a +certain species of white birds; others assume the form of +giraffes. When one of these long-legged and long-necked +creatures comes stalking up fearlessly to a village where +there is a king's grave, the people know that the king's soul +is in the animal, and the attendants at the royal tomb testify +their joy at the appearance of their master by sacrificing a +sheep or even a bullock. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Worship of +Nyakang, +the first +of the +Shilluk +kings.</note> +But of all the dead kings none is revered so deeply or +<pb n='163'/><anchor id='Pg163'/> +occupies so large a place in the minds of the people as +Nyakang, the traditional founder of the dynasty and the +ancestor of all the kings who have reigned after him to the +present day. Of these kings the Shilluks have preserved +the memory and the genealogy; twenty-six seem to have +sat on the throne since Nyakang, but the period of time +covered by their reigns is much shorter than it would have +been under conditions such as now prevail in Europe; for +down to the time when their country came under British +rule it was the regular custom of the Shilluks to put their +kings to death as soon as they showed serious symptoms of +bodily or mental decay. The custom was based on <q>the +conviction that the king must not be allowed to become ill +or senile, lest with his diminishing vigour the cattle should +sicken and fail to bear their increase, the crops should rot in +the fields, and man, stricken with disease, should die in ever-increasing +numbers.</q><note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>The Cult of +Nyakang</hi>, p. 221.</note> It is said that Nyakang, like Romulus, +disappeared in a great storm, which scattered all the people +about him; in their absence the king took a cloth, tied it +tightly round his neck, and strangled himself. According +to one account, that is the death which all his successors on +the throne have died;<note place='foot'>D. Westermann, <hi rend='italic'>The Shilluk +People</hi>, p. xlii.</note> but while tradition appears to be +unanimous as to the custom of regicide, it varies as to the +precise mode in which the kings were relieved of their office +and of life. But still the people are convinced that Nyakang +did not really die but only vanished mysteriously away like +the wind. When a missionary asked the Shilluks as to the +manner of Nyakang's death, they were filled with amazement +at his ignorance and stoutly maintained that he never died, for +were he to die all the Shilluks would die also.<note place='foot'>D. Westermann, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> The graves +of this deified king are shown in various parts of the country. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +spirit of +Nyakang +supposed +to manifest +itself in +certain +animals.</note> +From time to time the spirit of Nyakang manifests itself +to his people in the form of an animal. Any creature of +regal port or surpassing beauty may serve as his temporary +incarnation. Such among wild animals are lions, crocodiles, +little yellow snakes that crawl about men's houses, the finest +sorts of antelopes, flamingoes with their rose-pink and scarlet +<pb n='164'/><anchor id='Pg164'/> +plumage, and butterflies of all sorts with their brilliant and +varied hues. An unusually fine head of cattle is also +recognized as the abode of the great king's soul; for example +he once appeared in the shape of a white bull, whereupon +the living king commanded special sacrifices to be offered in +honour of his deified predecessor. When a bird in which the +royal spirit is known to be lodged lights on a tree, that tree +becomes sacred to Nyakang; beads and cloths are hung on its +boughs, sacrifices and prayers are offered below it. Once when +the Turks unknowingly felled such a tree, fear and horror fell +on the Shilluks who beheld the sacrilege. They filled the air +with lamentations and killed an ox to appease their insulted +ancestor.<note place='foot'>W. Hofmayr, <q>Religion der Schilluk,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Anthropos</hi>, vi. (1911) pp. 123 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 230; D. +Westermann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. xliii.</note> Particular regard is also paid to trees that grow +near the graves of Nyakang, though they are not regularly +worshipped.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 229 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In one place two gigantic baobab trees are +pointed out as marking the spot where Nyakang once stood, +and sacrifices are now offered under their spreading shade.<note place='foot'>W. Hofmayr, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 125.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The deified +Nyakang +seems to +have been +a real man. Relation of +Nyakang +to the +creator +Juok.</note> +There seems to be no doubt that in spite of the mythical +elements which have gathered round his memory, Nyakang +was a real man, who led the Shilluks to their present home +on the Nile either from the west or from the south; for on +this point tradition varies. <q>The first and most important +ancestor, who is everywhere revered, is Nyakang, the first +Shilluk king. He always receives the honourable titles of +Father (<foreign rend='italic'>uò</foreign>), Ancestor (<foreign rend='italic'>qua</foreign>), King (<foreign rend='italic'>red</foreign>) or Kings (<foreign rend='italic'>ror</foreign>), +Ancestors, and Great Man Above (<foreign rend='italic'>čal duong mal</foreign>) to distinguish +him from the other great men on earth. Nyakang, as +we know, was an historical personage; he led the Shilluks +to the land which they now occupy; he helped them to +victory, made them great and warlike, regulated marriage +and law, distributed the country among them, divided it into +districts, and in order to increase the dependence of the +people on him and to show them his power, became their +greatest benefactor by giving himself out as the bestower +of rain.</q><note place='foot'>W. Hofmayr, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 123. +This writer spells the name of the +deified king as Nykang. I have adopted +Dr. Seligmann's spelling.</note> Yet Nyakang is now universally revered by +the people as a demi-god; indeed for all practical purposes +<pb n='165'/><anchor id='Pg165'/> +his worship quite eclipses that of the supreme god +Juok, the creator, who, having ordered the world, committed +it to the care of ancestral spirits and demons, and now, +dwelling aloft, concerns himself no further with human affairs. +Hence men pay little heed to their creator and seldom take +his name into their lips except in a few conventional forms of +salutation at meeting and parting like our <q>Good-bye.</q> Far +otherwise is it with Nyakang. He <q>is the ancestor of the +Shilluk nation and the founder of the Shilluk dynasty. He +is worshipped, sacrifices and prayers are offered to him; he +may be said to be lifted to the rank of a demi-god, though +they never forget that he has been a real man. He is +expressly designated as <q>little</q> in comparison with God.</q> +Yet <q>in the political, religious and personal life Nyakang +takes a far more important place than Juok. Nyakang is +the national hero, of whom each Shilluk feels proud, who is +praised in innumerable popular songs and sayings; he is not +only a superior being, but also a man. He is the sublime +model for every true Shilluk; everything they value most in +their national and private life has its origin in him: their +kingdom and their fighting as well as cattle-breeding and +farming. While Nyakang is their good father, who only +does them good, Juok is the great, uncontrollable power, +which is to be propitiated, in order to avoid his inflictions of +evil.</q><note place='foot'>Diederich Westermann, <hi rend='italic'>The Shilluk +People, their Language and Folklore</hi> +(Berlin, preface dated 1912), pp. xlii, +xliii. Mr. Westermann gives the names +of the demi-god and the god as Nyikang +and Jwok respectively. For the sake +of uniformity I have altered them to +Nyakang and Juok, the forms adopted +by Dr. C. G. Seligmann.</note> Indeed <q>the whole working religion of the Shilluk +is a cult of Nyakang, the semi-divine ancestor of their kings, +in each of whom his spirit is immanent.</q><note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>The Cult of +Nyakang and the Divine Kings of the +Shilluk</hi> (Khartoum, 1911), p. 220.</note> The transmission +of the divine or semi-divine spirit of Nyakang to the reigning +monarch appears to take place at the king's installation and +to be effected by means of a rude wooden effigy of Nyakang, +in which the spirit of that deified man is perhaps supposed +to be immanent. But however the spiritual transmission +may be carried out, <q>the fundamental idea of the cult of the +Shilluk divine kings is the immanence in each of the spirit of +Nyakang.</q><note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +231.</note> Thus the Shilluk kings are encircled with a +<pb n='166'/><anchor id='Pg166'/> +certain halo of divinity because they are thought to be +animated by the divine spirit of their ancestor, the founder +of the dynasty. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The belief +in the +former +humanity +of Nyakang +is confirmed +by +the analogy +of his +worship to +that of the +dead +Shilluk +kings.</note> +The universal belief of the Shilluks in the former +humanity of Nyakang is strongly confirmed by the exact +parallelism which prevails between his worship and that of +the dead kings his successors. Like them he is worshipped +at his tomb; but unlike them he has not one tomb +only, but ten scattered over the country. Each of these +tombs is called <q>the grave of Nyakang,</q> though the people +well know that nobody is buried there. Like the grave-shrines +of the other kings, those of Nyakang consist of a +small group of circular huts of the ordinary pattern enclosed +by a fence. Only children under puberty and the few old +people whose duty it is to take care of the shrines may +enter these sacred enclosures. The rites performed at them +resemble those observed at the shrines of the kings. Two +great ceremonies are annually performed at the shrines of +Nyakang: one is observed before the beginning of the +rainy season in order to ensure a due supply of rain; +the other is a thanksgiving at harvest, when porridge +made from the new grain is poured out on the threshold +of Nyakang's hut and smeared on the outer walls of the +building. Even before the millet is reaped the people +cut some of the ripening ears and thrust them into the +thatch of the sacred hut. Thus it would seem that the +Shilluks believe themselves to be dependent on the favour +of Nyakang for the rain and the crops. <q>As the giver of +rain, Nyakang is the first and greatest benefactor of the +people. In that country rain is everything, without rain +there is nothing. The Shilluk does not trouble his head +about artificial irrigation, he waits for the rain. If the rain +falls, then the millet grows, the cows thrive, man has food +and can dance and marry; for that is the ideal of the +Shilluks.</q><note place='foot'>W. Hofmayr, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 125. +<q>It must be remembered that the due +growth of the crops, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> of the most +important part of the vegetable world, +depends on the well-being of the divine +king</q> (C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 229).</note> Sick people also bring or send sheep as an +offering to the nearest shrine of Nyakang in order that they +may be healed of their sickness. The attendants of the +<pb n='167'/><anchor id='Pg167'/> +sanctuary slaughter the animal, consume its flesh, and give +the sufferer the benefit of their prayers.<note place='foot'>C. G. Seligmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. +227.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Comparison +of +Nyakang +with Osiris.</note> +The example of Nyakang seems to show that under +favourable circumstances the worship of a dead king may +develop into the dominant religion of a people. There is, +therefore, no intrinsic improbability in the view that in +ancient Egypt the religion of Osiris originated in that +way. Certainly some curious resemblances can be traced +between the dead Nyakang and the dead Osiris. Both +died violent and mysterious deaths: the graves of both +were pointed out in many parts of the country: both were +deemed the great sources of fertility for the whole land: +and both were associated with certain sacred trees and +animals, particularly with bulls. And just as Egyptian +kings identified themselves both in life and in death with +their deified predecessor Osiris, so Shilluk kings are still +believed to be animated by the spirit of their deified predecessor +Nyakang and to share his divinity. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The spirits +of dead +kings worshipped +by the +Baganda of +Central +Africa.</note> +Another African people who regularly worship, or rather +used to worship, the spirits of their dead kings are the +Baganda. Their country Uganda lies at the very source of +the Nile, where the great river issues from Lake Victoria +Nyanza. Among them the ghosts of dead kings were placed +on an equality with the gods and received the same honour +and worship; they foretold events which concerned the State, +and they advised the living king, warning him when war was +likely to break out. The king consulted them periodically, +visiting first one and then another of the temples in which +the mortal remains of his predecessors were preserved with +religious care. But the temple (<foreign rend='italic'>malolo</foreign>) of a king contained +only his lower jawbone and his navel-string (<foreign rend='italic'>mulongo</foreign>); his +body was buried elsewhere.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), p. 283.</note> For curiously enough the +Baganda believed that the part of the body to which the +ghost of a dead man adheres above all others is the lower +jawbone; wherever that portion of his person may be +carried, the ghost, in the opinion of these people, will follow +it, even to the ends of the earth, and will be perfectly +content to remain with it so long as the jawbone is +<pb n='168'/><anchor id='Pg168'/> +honoured.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 113, +282.</note> Hence the jawbones of all the kings of Uganda +from the earliest times to the present day have been preserved +with the utmost care, each of them being deposited, along +with the stump of the monarch's navel-string, in a temple +specially dedicated to the worship of the king's ghost; for +it is believed that the ghosts of the deceased monarchs +would quarrel if they shared the same temple, the question +of precedence being one which it would be very difficult +for them to adjust to their mutual satisfaction.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 110, +282, 285.</note> All the +temples of the dead kings stand in the district called Busiro, +which means the place of the graves, because the tombs as +well as the temples of the departed potentates are situated +within its boundaries. The supervision of the temples and +of the estates attached to them was a duty incumbent on +the <foreign rend='italic'>Mugema</foreign> or earl of Busiro, one of the few hereditary +chiefs in the country. His principal office was that of +Prime Minister (<foreign rend='italic'>Katikiro</foreign>) to the dead kings.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 104, +252 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; L. F. Cunningham, <hi rend='italic'>Uganda +and its People</hi> (London, 1905), p. +226.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Tombs of +the dead +kings of +Uganda.</note> +When a king dies, his body is sent to Busiro and there +embalmed. Then it is laid to rest in a large round house, +which has been built for its reception on the top of a hill. +This is the king's tomb. It is a conical structure supported +by a central post, with a thatched roof reaching down to +the ground. Round the hut a high strong fence of reeds +is erected, and an outer fence encircles the whole at some +distance lower down the hill. Here the body is placed on +a bedstead; the sepulchral chamber is filled with bark cloths +till it can hold no more, the mainpost is cut down, and the +door of the tomb closed, so that no one can enter it again. +When that was done, the wives of the late king used to be +brought, with their arms pinioned, and placed at intervals +round the outer wall of the tomb, where they were clubbed +to death. Hundreds of men were also killed in the space +between the two fences, that their ghosts might wait on the +ghost of the dead king in the other world. None of their +bodies were buried; they were left to rot where they fell. +Then the gates in the fences were closed; and three chiefs +<pb n='169'/><anchor id='Pg169'/> +with their men guarded the dead bodies from the wild +beasts and the vultures. But the hut in which the king's +body reposed was never repaired; it was allowed to moulder +and fall into decay.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 104-107, <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxi. (1901) p. 129; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Further Notes on the Manners and +Customs of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, xxxii. +(1902) pp. 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Compare L. F. +Cunningham, <hi rend='italic'>Uganda and its People</hi> +(London, 1905), pp. 224, 226.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ghosts of +the dead +kings of +Uganda +supposed +to adhere +to their +lower jawbones +and +their navel-strings, +which are +accordingly +preserved +in +temples +dedicated +to the worship +of the +kings.</note> +Five months later the jawbone of the royal corpse was +removed in order to be fashioned into an effigy or representative +of the dead king. For this purpose three chiefs +entered the tomb, not through the door, but by cutting a hole +through the wall, and having severed the head from the +body they brought it out, carefully filling up the hole in the +wall behind them, replacing the thatch, and securing the +gates in the fence. When the jawbone had been removed +by a chief of the Civet clan, the skull was sent back to Busiro +and buried with honour near the mouldering tomb. In +contrast to the neglect of the tomb where the royal body +lay, the place where the skull was buried was kept in good +repair and guarded by some of the old princesses and +widows. As for the jawbone, it was put in an ant-hill and +left there till the ants had eaten away all the flesh. Then, +after it had been washed in beer and milk, it was decorated +with cowry-shells and placed in a wooden vessel; this vessel +was next wrapt in bark cloths till it assumed a conical +shape, about two and a half feet high by a foot and a half +broad at the base. This conical packet, decorated on the +outside with beads, was treated as an image of the deceased +king or rather as if it were the king himself in life, for it +was called simply <q>The King.</q> Beside it was placed the +stump of the king's navel-string, similarly wrapt in bark +cloths and decorated, though not made up into a conical +shape.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 109 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The reason for preserving both the jawbone and +the navel-string was that the ghost of the king was supposed +to attach itself to his jawbone, and the ghost of his +double to his navel-string. For in the belief of the Baganda +every person has a double, namely, the afterbirth or placenta, +which is born immediately after him and is regarded by the +<pb n='170'/><anchor id='Pg170'/> +people as a second child. Now that double has a ghost of +its own, which adheres to the navel-string; and if the +person is to remain healthy, it is essential that the ghost of +his double should be carefully preserved. Hence every +Baganda man and woman keeps his or her navel-string +wrapt up in bark cloth as a treasure of great price on which +his health and prosperity are dependent; the precious little +bundle is called his Twin (<foreign rend='italic'>mulongo</foreign>), because it contains the +ghost of his double, the afterbirth. If that is deemed +necessary for everybody, much more is it deemed essential +for the welfare of the king; hence during his life the stump +of his navel-string is kept, as we saw,<note place='foot'>Above, p. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>.</note> by one of the +principal ministers of state and is inspected by the king +himself every month. And when his majesty has departed +this life, the unity of his spirit imperatively demands that +his own ghost and the ghost of his double should be kept +together in the same place; that is why the jawbone and +the navel-string of every dead king are carefully preserved +in the same temple, because the two ghosts adhere respectively +to these two parts of his person, and it would be +unreasonable and indeed cruel to divide them.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>Kibuka, the +War God of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Man</hi>, vii. +(1907) pp. 164 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 235 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +temples +of the +dead kings +of Uganda.</note> +The two ghosts having been thus safely lodged in the +two precious parcels, the next thing was to install them in +the temple, where they were to enter on their career of +beneficent activity. A site having been chosen, the whole +country supplied the labour necessary for building the +temple; and ministers were appointed to wait upon the +dead king. The officers of state who had held important +posts during his life retained their titles and continued to +discharge their duties towards their old master in death. +Accordingly houses were built for them near the temple. +The dowager queen also took up her residence at the +entrance to the temple enclosure, and became its principal +guardian. Many also of the king's widows of lower rank +were drafted off to live inside the enclosure and keep +watch over it. When the queen or any of these widows +died, her place was supplied by another princess or a +<pb n='171'/><anchor id='Pg171'/> +woman of the same clan; for the temple was maintained in +perpetuity. However, when the reigning king died, the +temple of his predecessor lost much of its importance, +though it was still kept up in a less magnificent style; +indeed no temple of a dead king was allowed to disappear +altogether.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 110-112, 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Of all the attendants at the temple the most +important probably was the prophet or medium (<foreign rend='italic'>mandwa</foreign>), +whose business it was from time to time to be inspired by +the ghost of the deceased monarch and to give oracles in +his name. To this holy office he dedicated himself by +drinking a draught of beer and a draught of milk out of +the dead king's skull.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxi. (1901) pp. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, +<q>Further Notes on the Manners and +Customs of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, xxxii. +(1902) p. 45.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Oracles +given by +the dead +kings of +Uganda +by the +mouth of +an inspired +prophet.</note> +The temple consecrated to the worship of a king regularly +stood on a hill. The site was generally chosen by the king +in his life, but sometimes his choice was set aside by his +successor, who gave orders to build the temple in another +place.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +p. 283.</note> The structure was a large conical or bee-hive-shaped +hut of the ordinary pattern, divided internally into two +chambers, an outer and an inner. Any person might enter +the outer chamber, but the inner was sacred and no profane +person might set foot in it; for there the holy relics of the +dead king, his jawbone and his navel-string, were kept for +safety in a cell dug in the floor, and there, in close attendance +on them, the king's ghost was believed to dwell. In front +of the partition which screened this Holy of Holies from the +gaze of the multitude there stood a throne, covered with lion +and leopard skins and fenced off from the rest of the sacred +edifice by a glittering rail of brass spears, shields, and knives. +A forest of poles, supporting the roof, formed a series of aisles +in perfect line, and at the end of the central nave appeared, +like the altar of a Christian church, the throne in all its +glory. When the king's ghost held a reception, the holy +relics, the jawbone and the navel-string, each in its decorated +wrappings, were brought forth and set on the throne; and +every person who entered the temple bowed to the ground +<pb n='172'/><anchor id='Pg172'/> +and greeted the jawbone in an awestruck voice, for he +regarded it as the king in person. Solemn music played +during the reception, the drums rolling and the women +chanting, while they clapped their hands to the rhythm of +the songs. Sometimes the dead king spoke to the congregation +by the voice of his prophet. That was a great event. +When the oracle was about to be given to the expectant +throng, the prophet stepped up to the throne, and addressing +the spirit informed him of the business in hand. Then he +smoked one or two pipes, and the fumes bringing on the +prophetic fit, he began to rave and to speak in the very +voice and with the characteristic turns of speech of the +departed monarch, for the king's spirit was now in him. +This message from the world beyond the grave was naturally +received with rapt attention. Gradually the fit of inspiration +passed: the voice of the prophet resumed its natural +tones: the spirit had departed from him and returned to its +abode in the inner room. Such a solemn audience used to +be announced beforehand by the beating of the drums in +the early morning, and the worshippers brought with them +to the temple offerings of food for the dead king, as if he +were still alive.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>Notes on the +Manners and Customs of the Baganda,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxi. (1901) p. 130; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Further +Notes on the Manners and Customs +of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>ibid.</hi>, xxxii. (1902) +p. 46; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, pp. 283-285.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Visit paid +by the +living king +to the +temple of +his dead +father. Human +victims +sacrificed +in order +that their +ghosts +might serve +the ghost +of the dead +king.</note> +But the greatest day of all was when the reigning king +visited the temple of his father. This he did as a rule only +once during his reign. Nor did the people approve of the +visits being repeated, for each visit was the signal for the +death of many. Yet, attracted by a painful curiosity, crowds +assembled, followed the monarch to the temple, and thronged +to see the great ceremony of the meeting between the king +and the ghost of his royal father. The sacred relics were +displayed: an old man explained them to the monarch and +placed them in his hands: the prophet, inspired by the dead +king's spirit, revealed to the living king his destiny. The +interview over, the king was carried back to his house. It +was on the return journey that he always gave, suddenly +and without warning, the signal of death. Obedient to his +<pb n='173'/><anchor id='Pg173'/> +orders the guards rushed upon the crowd, captured hundreds +of spectators, pinioned them, marched them back to the +temple, and slaughtered them within the precincts, that their +ghosts might wait on the ghost of the dead king.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 112, 284.</note> But +though the king rarely visited his father's ghost at the +temple, he had a private chapel for the ghost within the vast +enclosure of the royal residence; and here he often paid +his devotions to the august spirit, of whom he stood greatly +in awe. He took his wives with him to sing the departed +monarch's praise, and he constantly made offerings at the +shrine. Thither, too, would come the prophet to suck words +of wisdom from the venerable ghost and to impart them +to the king, who thus walked in the counsel of his glorified +father.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +p. 112. It may be worth while to +quote an early notice of the worship of +the Kings of Uganda. See C. T. +Wilson and R. W. Felkin, <hi rend='italic'>Uganda +and the Egyptian Soudan</hi> (London, +1882), i. 208: <q>The former kings of +the country appear also to be regarded +as demi-gods, and their graves are +kept with religious care, and houses are +erected over them, which are under +the constant supervision of one of the +principal chiefs of the country, and +where human sacrifices are also occasionally +offered.</q> The graves here spoken +of are no doubt the temples in which +the jawbones and navel-strings of the +dead kings are kept and worshipped.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The souls +of dead +kings +worshipped +in Kiziba.</note> +In Kiziba, a district of Central Africa on the western +side of Lake Victoria Nyanza, the souls of dead kings +become ruling spirits; temples are built in their honour and +priests appointed to serve them. The people are composed +of two different races, the Bairu, who are aboriginals, and +the Bahima, who are immigrants from the north. The +royal family belongs to the Bahima stock. In his lifetime +the king's person is sacred; and all his actions, property, +and so forth are described by special terms appropriated to +that purpose. The people are divided into totemic clans: +the totems (<foreign rend='italic'>muziro</foreign>) are mostly animals or parts of animals: +no man may kill or eat his totem animal, nor marry a +woman who has the same totem as himself. The royal +family seems to have serpents for their totem; after death +the king's soul lives in a serpent, while his body is buried in +the hut where he died. The people revere a supreme god +named Rugaba, who is believed to have created man and +cattle; but they know little about him, and though they +<pb n='174'/><anchor id='Pg174'/> +occasionally pray to him, particularly in the case of a +difficult birth, he has no priests and receives no sacrifices. +The business of the priests is to act as intermediaries, not +between God and man, but between men and the spirits. +The spirits are believed to have been formerly kings of the +world. The highest of them is a certain Wamara, who +rules over the souls of the dead, and who would seem to +have been a great king in his life. Temples are built for +him; they are like the houses of men, but only half as +large. A perpetual holy fire is kept up in each temple, +and the priest passes the night in it. He receives white +sheep or goats as victims, and generally acts also as a +diviner or physician. When a man is very ill, he thinks +that Wamara, the lord of the spirits of the dead, is summoning +him to the far country; so he sends a sacrifice to +Wamara's priest, who prays to the spirit to let the sick +man live yet a while.<note place='foot'>Hermann Rehse, <hi rend='italic'>Kiziba, Land +und Leute</hi> (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 4-7, +106 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 121, 125 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 130. Among +the totems of the people are the long-tailed +monkey (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cercopithecus</foreign>), a small +species of antelope, the locust, the +hippopotamus, the buffalo, the otter, +dappled cows, and the hearts of all +animals. The members of the clan +which is charged with the duty of +burying the king's body have for their +totem the remains of a goat that has +been killed by a leopard. See H. +Rehse, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 5 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> This great spirit of an ancient +king, who now rules over the dead, resembles the Egyptian +Osiris. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship of +ancestral +spirits +among the +Bantu +tribes of +Northern +Rhodesia.</note> +The Bantu tribes who inhabit the great tableland of +Northern Rhodesia revere a supreme being whom they call +Leza, but their ideas about him are hazy. Thunder, lightning, +earthquakes, rain, and other natural phenomena are +grouped together under his name as manifestations of his +power. Among the more progressive tribes, such as the +Awemba and the Wabisa, the great god is thought to take +some interest in human affairs; and though they do not +pray to him, they nevertheless invoke him by his names of +praise, which set forth his attributes as the protector and +judge of mankind. It is he, too, who receives the souls of +the departed. <q>Yet, as far as the dominant Wemba tribe +is concerned, the cult of Leza is outside their ordinary +religion. There is no direct access to him by prayer or by +sacrifices, which are made to Mulenga and the other great +<pb n='175'/><anchor id='Pg175'/> +tribal and ancestral spirits instead. For upon such animism +is founded the whole fabric of Wemba religion.</q><note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia</hi> +(London, 1911), pp. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The +ancestral spirits whom the Awemba and all other tribes of +this region worship may be divided into two main classes. +First come the spirits of departed chiefs, who are publicly +worshipped by the whole tribe; and second come the +spirits of near relations who are worshipped privately +by each head of a family.<note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia</hi>, +pp. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> <q>Among the Awemba there +is no special shrine for these purely family spirits, who are +worshipped inside the hut, and to whom family sacrifice of +a sheep, a goat, or a fowl is made, the spirit receiving the +blood spilt on the ground, while all the members of the +family partake of the flesh together. For a religious Wemba +man the cult of the spirit of his nearest relations (of his +grandparents, or of his deceased father, mother, elder brother, +or maternal uncle) is considered quite sufficient. Out of +these spirit relatives a man will worship one whom he +considers as his special familiar, for various reasons. For +instance, the diviner may have told him that his last illness +was caused because he had not respected the spirit of his +uncle; accordingly he will be careful in future to adopt his +uncle as his tutelary spirit. As a mark of such respect he +may devote a cow or a goat to one of the spirits of his +ancestors. Holding the fowl, for instance, in his hands, he +will dedicate it, asking the spirit to come and abide in it, +upon which the fowl is let go, and is afterwards called by the +name of the spirit. If the necessities, however, of the larder +demand that it should be killed, another animal is taken, and +the spirit is asked to accept it as a substitute! Before +beginning any special task, such as hoeing a new garden, +or going on a journey, Wemba men invoke their tutelary +spirits to be with them and to assist their efforts, in short +ejaculatory prayers usually couched in a set formula. Among +many of the tribes in the North Luangwa district longer +formal prayers are still made to all the deceased ancestors +of the clan at the time of harvest, asking them to protect +the crops and to drive away illnesses and evil spirits from +<pb n='176'/><anchor id='Pg176'/> +the family, which honours them with libations of beer and +offerings of the first-fruits.</q><note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 84 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship of +ancestral +spirits is +apparently +the main +practical +religion of +all the +Bantu +tribes.</note> +Thus among these tribes, who all belong to the great +Bantu family, the public worship which a whole tribe pays +to the souls of its dead chiefs is probably nothing but an +extension of the private worship which every family pays +privately to the souls of its dead members. And just as +the members of his family whom a man worships privately +are not mythical beings conjured up by imagination out of +a distant past, but were once real men like himself whom he +knew in life, it may be his father, or uncle, or elder brother, +so we may be sure that in like manner the dead chiefs +revered by the whole tribe are not creations of the mythical +fancy, but were once real men of flesh and blood, who ruled +over the tribe, and whose memory has been more or less +faithfully preserved by tradition. In this respect the tribes +of Northern Rhodesia are typical of all the tribes of that +great Bantu family which occupies nearly the whole southern +half of Africa, from the great equatorial lakes to the Cape +of Good Hope. The main practical religion of all these +numerous and widespread peoples appears to be the worship +of their ancestors. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship of +ancestral +spirits +among the +Bantu +tribes of +South +Africa.</note> +To adduce in full the evidence which points to this +conclusion would lead us too far from our present subject; +it must suffice to cite a few typical statements of +competent authorities which refer to different tribes of the +Bantu stock. Speaking with special reference to the tribes of +South-Eastern Africa, the Rev. James Macdonald tells us +that <q>the religion of the Bantu, which they not only profess +but really regulate their conduct by, is based on the belief +that the spirits of their ancestors interfere constantly in their +affairs. Every man worships his own ancestors and offers +sacrifices to avert their wrath. The clan worships the spirits +of the ancestors of its chiefs, and the tribe worships the +spirits of the ancestors of the paramount chief.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. James Macdonald, <q>Manners, +Customs, Superstitions, and Religions +of South African Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Institute</hi>, xix. (1890) +p. 286. Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Light in Africa</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1890), p. 191.</note> <q>The +religion of the Bantu was based upon the supposition of the +<pb n='177'/><anchor id='Pg177'/> +existence of spirits that could interfere with the affairs of +this world. These spirits were those of their ancestors and +their deceased chiefs, the greatest of whom had control over +lightning. When the spirits became offended or hungry +they sent a plague or disaster until sacrifices were offered +and their wrath or hunger was appeased. The head of a +family of commoners on such an occasion killed an animal, +and all ate of the meat, as the hungry ghost was supposed +to be satisfied with the smell.</q><note place='foot'>G. McCall Theal, <hi rend='italic'>Records of +South-Eastern Africa</hi>, vii. (1901) pp. +399 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> With regard to the ghost who +controls lightning see Mr. Warner's +notes in Col. Maclean's <hi rend='italic'>Compendium +of Kafir Laws and Customs</hi> (Cape +Town, 1866), pp. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: <q>The +Kafirs have strange notions respecting +the lightning. They consider that it +is governed by the <foreign rend='italic'>umshologu</foreign>, or ghost, +of the greatest and most renowned of +their departed chiefs; and who is +emphatically styled the <foreign rend='italic'>inkosi</foreign>; but +they are not at all clear as to which +of their ancestors is intended by this +designation. Hence they allow of no +lamentation being made for a person +killed by lightning; as they say that it +would be a sign of disloyalty to lament +for one whom the <foreign rend='italic'>inkosi</foreign> had sent for, +and whose services he consequently +needed; and it would cause him to +punish them, by making the lightning +again to descend and do them another +injury.</q></note> For example, in the year +1891 the son of a chief of the Pondomisi tribe was arrested +for an assault and sent for trial before a colonial court. It +chanced to be a season of intense heat and severe drought, +and the Pondomisi tribe attributed these calamities to the +wrath of a dead chief named Gwanya, very famous in his +lifetime, whose body, fastened to a log, had been buried +under a heap of stones in a deep pool of the Lina river. +This redoubtable chieftain was the seventh ancestor in the +direct line of the man who had committed the assault; and +he warmly resented the indignity which the whites had done +to a noble scion of his house by consigning him to durance +vile. To appease the natural indignation of the ghost, the +tribesmen killed cattle on the banks of the pool which +contained his grave, and threw the flesh into the water +along with new dishes full of beer. The prisoner, however, +was convicted of the assault and sentenced by the ruthless +magistrate, who was no respecter of ghosts, to pay a fine. +But the tribe clubbed together and paid the fine for him; +and a few days later rain fell in plenty. The mollified ghost +had opened the celestial sluices.<note place='foot'>G. McCall Theal, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vii. 400.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sacrifices +to the dead +among +the Bantu +tribes of +South +Africa.</note> +Another writer, describing the religion of the South +<pb n='178'/><anchor id='Pg178'/> +African Bantus, tells us that <q>the ancestral spirits love the +very things they loved before they passed through the flesh; +they cherish the same desires and have the same antipathies. +The living cannot add to the number of the wives of ancestral +spirits; but they can kill cattle in their honour and keep +their praise and memory alive on earth. Above all things, +they can give them beef and beer. And if the living do +not give them sufficient of these things the spirits are supposed +to give the people a bad time: they send drought, and sickness, +and famine, until people kill cattle in their honour. +When men are alive they love to be praised and flattered, +fed and attended to; after death they want the very same +things, for death does not change personality.... In +time of drought, or sickness, or great trouble, there would +be great searchings of heart as to which ancestor had been +neglected, for the trouble would be supposed to be caused +by the neglected ancestor. Most of the people would get +the subject on their nerves (at least, as far as a Kafir could +get anything on the leather strings which do duty for nerves), +and some one would be sure to have a vivid dream in which +an ancestor would complain that the people had not praised +him half enough of late. So an ox would be killed, either +by the head-man of the kraal or by a diviner. Then the +man would say over the ox as it was being killed, <q>Cry out, +ox of So-and-So; listen to us, So-and-So; this is your ox; +we praise you by all your laud-giving names, and tell of all +your deeds; do not be angry with us any more; do you not +see that this is your ox? Do not accuse us of neglecting +you; when, forsooth, have we ceased to praise you and offer +you meat and beer? Take note, then, that here is another +ox we are offering to you.</q> When the ox is dead some of +the meat is mixed with herbs and medicines and placed in +a hut with a bowlful of blood. This meat is placed in the +part of the hut where the man loved to sit while he was +alive, and some one is told off to guard the sacrifice. The +meat is left for a night, or longer, and the spirits are +supposed to come and enjoy the smell, or drink the serum +which oozes from the meat, and to inhale the smell of the +beer. The priest or diviner will then sprinkle the people +and the huts with medicine made from the contents of the +<pb n='179'/><anchor id='Pg179'/> +stomach of the ox. He places a little on a sherd; when +this is dry he burns it and calls on the spirits to smell the +incense. After the meat has been left for a certain time it +is taken out and cooked, and eaten by the men near the +cattle kraal in public.... If the trouble does not vanish +after this ceremony the people get angry and say to the +spirits, <q>When have we ceased to kill cattle for you, and +when have we ever refused to praise you by your praise-names? +Why, then, do you treat us so shabbily? If you +do not behave better we shall utterly forget your names, and +then what will you do when there is no one to praise you? +You will have to go and live on grasshoppers. If you do +not mend your ways we shall forget you. What use is it +that we kill oxen for you and praise you? You do not give +us rain or crops, or cause our cattle to bear well; you show +no gratitude in return for all we do for you. We shall +utterly disown you. We shall tell the people that, as for us, +we have no ancestral spirits, and this will be to your shame. +We are disgusted with you.</q></q><note place='foot'>Dudley Kidd, <hi rend='italic'>The Essential Kafir</hi> (London, 1904), pp. 88-91.</note> Thus the sweet savour of +beef and beer does not suffice to content Caffre ghosts; +they share the love of praise and flattery with many gods +of higher rank. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Worship +of the dead +among the +Basutos.</note> +Among the Basutos, an important Bantu people of +South Africa, <q>each family is supposed to be under the +direct influence and protection of its ancestors; but the +tribe, taken as a whole, acknowledges for its national gods +the ancestors of the reigning sovereign. Thus, the Basutos +address their prayers to Monaheng and Motlumi, from +whom their chiefs are descended. The Baharutsis and the +Barolongs invoke Tobege and his wife Mampa. Mampa +makes known the will of her husband, announcing each of +her revelations by these words, <q><foreign rend='italic'>O re! O re!</foreign></q> <q>He has +said! he has said!</q> They make a distinction between the +ancient and modern divinities. The latter are considered +inferior in power, but more accessible; hence this formula, +which is often used: <q>New gods! entreat the ancient gods +for us!</q> In all countries spirits are more the objects of +fear than of love. A deep feeling of terror generally accompanies +the idea that the dead dispose of the lot of the living. +<pb n='180'/><anchor id='Pg180'/> +The ancients spoke much of incensed shades. If they +sacrificed to the manes, it was generally in order to appease +them. These ideas perfectly correspond to those of the +Basutos. They conjure rather than pray; although they +seek to gain favours, they think more of averting chastisement. +Their predominating idea as to their ancestors is, +that they are continually endeavouring to draw them to +themselves. Every disease is attributed to them; thus +medicine among these people is almost entirely a religious +affair. The first thing is to discover, by means of the <foreign rend='italic'>litaola</foreign> +(divining bones), under the influence of what <foreign rend='italic'>molimo</foreign> the +patient is supposed to be. Is it an ancestor on the father's +side or the mother's? According as fate decides, the +paternal or maternal uncle will offer the purifying sacrifice, +but rarely the father or brother. This sacrifice alone can +render efficacious the medicines prescribed by the <foreign rend='italic'>ngaka</foreign> +(doctor).... As soon as a person is dead he takes his +place among the family gods. His remains are deposited +in the cattle-pen. An ox is immolated over his grave: +this is the first oblation made to the new divinity, and at +the same time an act of intercession in his favour, serving +to ensure his happy reception in the subterranean regions. +All those present aid in sprinkling the grave, and repeat the +following prayer: <q>Repose in peace with the gods; give us +tranquil nights.</q></q><note place='foot'>Rev. E. Casalis, <hi rend='italic'>The Basutos</hi> +(London, 1861), pp. 248-250.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Worship +of the dead +among the +Thonga.</note> +Similarly among the Thonga, another Bantu tribe of +South Africa, <q>any man, who has departed this earthly life, +becomes a <foreign rend='italic'>shikwembu</foreign>, a god</q>;<note place='foot'>Henri A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>The Life of a +South African Tribe</hi> (Neuchâtel, 1912-1913), +ii. 347.</note> <q>when an old decrepit +man or woman dies, he at once becomes a god: he has +entered the domain of infinity.</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 385.</note> In this tribe <q>the spirits +of the ancestors are the main objects of religious worship. +They form the principal category of spirits.</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 344.</note> <q>On the +one hand, the ancestor-gods are truly gods, endowed with +the attributes of divinity; whilst, on the other, they seem +to be nothing but mere human beings, exactly on the same +level as their worshippers.</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 385.</note> There are two great classes +<pb n='181'/><anchor id='Pg181'/> +of these ancestor-gods, to wit, <q>those of the family, and +those of the country, the latter being those of the reigning +family. They do not differ as regards their nature. In +national calamities those of the country are invoked, whilst, +for purely family matters, those of the family are called +upon. Moreover, each family has two sets of gods, those +on the father's side and those on the mother's, those of +<foreign rend='italic'>kweru</foreign> and those of <foreign rend='italic'>bakokwana</foreign>. They are equal in dignity. +Both can be invoked, and the divinatory bones are always +asked to which the offering must be made. It seems, +however, as if the gods on the mother's side were more +tender-hearted and more popular than those on the father's. +The reason for this is, perhaps, that relations are easier with +the family of the mother than with that of the father. It is +also just possible that it is a relic of the matriarchal period, +when the ancestors of the mother only were known, and +consequently invoked. At any rate, the part played by +<foreign rend='italic'>batukulu</foreign> [uterine] nephews in the offerings shows that they +are the true representatives of the gods, not of those of their +father, but of their mother.</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 348 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Among the Thonga <q>the +belief in the continuation of life after death is universal, +being at the base of the ancestrolatry, which is the religion +of the tribe.</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 341.</note> <q>How real is the ancestrolatry, the religion +of the Thonga, of, in fact, all the South African Bantus! +How frequent and manifold are its manifestations! This is +the first, and the most perceptible set of their religious +intuitions, and any European, who has stayed in their +villages, learnt their language, and tried to understand their +customs, has had the opportunity of familiarizing himself +with this religion.</q><note place='foot'>H. A. Junod, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 346.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sacrifices +to dead +chiefs +among the +Basutos +and +Bechuanas.</note> +Among the Basutos and Bechuanas, who also belong to +the great Bantu family, the sacrificial ritual is not highly +developed. <q>Only in great misfortunes which affect the +whole people or the royal family, a black ox is slaughtered; +for in such cases they always think that the angry spirits +of the departed are the cause of all the suffering. <q><foreign rend='italic'>Re +amogioa ki badimo</foreign>,</q> say the people, <q>the spirits are robbing +us.</q> The ox is led to the chiefs grave; there they +<pb n='182'/><anchor id='Pg182'/> +pray, <q>Lord, we are come to call upon thee, we who are +thy children; make not our hearts troubled; take not, +Lord, that which is ours.</q> The old chief is honoured and +praised in songs, he is invoked by all his praise-names, the +ox is killed and its flesh eaten, but the blood and the +contents of the stomach are poured on the grave, and there +the bones of the sacrificed animal are also deposited.</q><note place='foot'>A. Merensky, <hi rend='italic'>Beiträge zur Kenntnis +Süd-Afrikas</hi> (Berlin, 1875), p. 130.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Worship +of the dead +among the +Zulus.</note> +The Zulus, another great Bantu tribe of South Africa, +believe in the existence of a being whom they call Unkulunkulu, +which means <q>the Old-Old-one, the most ancient +man.</q> They say that <q>it is he who was the first man; he +broke off in the beginning. We do not know his wife; and +the ancients do not tell us that he had a wife.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. H. Callaway, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of the Amazulu</hi>, i. (Natal, +Springvale, etc., 1868) pp. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> This +Old-Old-one or Great-Great-one <q>is represented as having +made all things—men, cattle, water, fire, the mountains, +and whatever else is seen. He is also said to have appointed +their names. Creation was effected by splitting a reed, when +the first man and other things issued from the cleft.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. Joseph Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs +of Natal and the Zulu Country</hi> (London, +1857), p. 159.</note> +Further, the Zulus and other Caffre tribes of Natal <q>believe +that, when a person dies, his <foreign rend='italic'>i-hloze</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>isi-tute</foreign> survives. +These words are translated <q>spirit,</q> and there seems no +objection to the rendering. They refer to something manifestly +distinguished from the body, and the nature of which +the prophets endeavour to explain by saying that it is +identical with the shadow. The residence of the <foreign rend='italic'>ama-hloze</foreign>, +or spirits, seems to be beneath; the practice of breaking a +man's assagais, before they are buried with him, shows that +he is believed to return to earth through the grave; while it +appears to be generally thought that, if the earth were +removed from the grave, the ghost would return and frighten +his descendants. When spirits have entered the future state, +they are believed to possess great power; prosperity is +ascribed to their favour, and misfortune to their anger; they +are elevated in fact to the rank of deities, and (except where +the Great-Great is worshipped concurrently with them) they +are the only objects of a Kafir's adoration. Their attention +<pb n='183'/><anchor id='Pg183'/> +(or providence) is limited to their own relatives—a father +caring for the family, and a chief for the tribe, which they +respectively left behind them. They are believed to occupy +the same relative position as they did in the body, the departed +spirit of a chief being sometimes invoked to compel a man's +ancestors to bless him.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 161.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sacrifices +and prayers +to the dead +among the +Zulus.</note> +<q>To these shades of the dead, especially to the ghosts of +their great men, as Jama, Senzangakona, and Chaka, their +former kings, they look for help, and offer sacrifices; that is, +slaughter cattle to them, and offer a sort of prayer, in time +of danger and distress.... When they are sick, they +slaughter cattle to the shades, and say, <q>Father, look on me, +that this disease may cease from me. Let me have health +on the earth, and live a long time.</q> They carry the meat +into the house, and shut it up there, saying, <q>Let the paternal +shades eat, so shall they know that the offering was made +for them, and grant us great wealth, so that both we and our +children may prosper.</q> In the cattle-fold they talk a long +time, praising the ghosts; they take the contents of the +stomach, and strew it upon all the fold. Again they take +it, and strew it within the houses, saying, <q>Hail, friend! Thou +of such a place, grant us a blessing, beholding what we have +done. You see this distress; may you remove it, since we +have given you our animal. We know not what more you +want, whether you still require anything more or not.</q> They +say, <q>May you grant us grain, that it may be abundant, that +we may eat, of course, and not be in need of anything, since +now we have given you what you want.</q> They say, <q>Yes, +for a long time have you preserved me in all my going. +Behold, you see, I have just come to have a kraal. This +kraal was built by yourself, father; and now why do you +consent to diminish your own kraal? Build on us as you +have begun, let it be large, that your offspring, still here +above, may increase, increasing in knowledge of you, whence +cometh great power.</q> Sometimes they make beer for the +ghosts, and leave a little in the pot, saying, <q>It will be eaten +by the ghosts that they may grant an abundant harvest +again, that we may not have a famine.</q> If one is on the +point of being injured by anything, he says, <q>I was preserved +<pb n='184'/><anchor id='Pg184'/> +by our divinity, which was still watching over me.</q> +Perhaps he slaughters a goat in honour of the same, and +puts the gall on his head; and when the goat cries out for +pain of being killed, he says, <q>Yes, then, there is your animal, +let it cry, that ye may hear, ye our gods who have preserved +me; I myself am desirous of living on thus a long time here +on the earth; why then do you call me to account, since I +think I am all right in respect to you? And while I live, I +put my trust in you, our paternal and maternal gods.</q></q><note place='foot'>Rev. Lewis Grout, <hi rend='italic'>Zulu-land, or +Life among the Zulu-Kafirs</hi> (Philadelphia, +<hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), pp. 137, 143-145.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>A native +Zulu +account +of the +worship of +the dead.</note> +<q>Black people,</q> say the Zulus, <q>do not worship all +Amatongo indifferently, that is, all the dead of their tribe. +Speaking generally, the head of each house is worshipped +by the children of that house; for they do not know the +ancients who are dead, nor their laud-giving names, nor their +names. But their father whom they knew is the head by +whom they begin and end in their prayer, for they know +him best, and his love for his children; they remember his +kindness to them whilst he was living; they compare his +treatment of them whilst he was living, support themselves +by it, and say, <q>He will still treat us in the same way now +he is dead. We do not know why he should regard others +besides us; he will regard us only.</q> So it is then although +they worship the many Amatongo of their tribe, making a +great fence around them for their protection; yet their father +is far before all others when they worship the Amatongo. +Their father is a great treasure to them even when he is +dead. And those of his children who are already grown up +know him thoroughly, his gentleness, and his bravery. And +if there is illness in the village, the eldest son lauds him +with the laud-giving names which he gained when fighting +with the enemy, and at the same time lauds all the other +Amatongo; the son reproves the father, saying, <q>We for our +parts may just die. Who are you looking after? Let us +die all of us, that we may see into whose house you will +enter.<note place='foot'><q>That is, they suggest to the +Itongo [ancestral spirit, singular of +Amatongo], by whose ill-will or want +of care they are afflicted, that if they +should all die in consequence, and thus +his worshippers come to an end, he +would have none to worship him; and +therefore for his own sake, as well as +for theirs, he had better preserve his +people, that there may be a village for +him to enter, and meat of the sacrifices +for him to eat.</q></note> You will eat grasshoppers; you will no longer be +<pb n='185'/><anchor id='Pg185'/> +invited to go anywhere, if you destroy your own village.</q> +After that, because they have worshipped him, they take +courage saying, <q>He has heard; he will come and treat our +diseases, and they will cease.</q> Such then is the faith which +children have in the Itongo [ancestral spirit] which is their +father. And if there is a chief wife of a village, who has +given birth to children, and if her husband is not dead, her +Itongo is much reverenced by her husband and all the +children. And that chief wife becomes an Itongo which +takes great care of the village. But it is the father especially +that is the head of the village.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. Henry Callaway, <hi rend='italic'>The Religious +System of the Amazulu</hi>, Part ii., +<hi rend='italic'>Amatongo or Ancestor Worship as existing +among the Amazulu, in their own +words, with a translation into English</hi> +(Natal, Springvale, etc., 1869), pp. +144-146.</note> Thus among the Zulus +it is the spirits of those who have just died, especially the +spirits of fathers and mothers, who are most revered and +worshipped. The spirits of the more remote dead are forgotten. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship +of the dead +among the +Herero +of German +South-West +Africa. Ancestral +spirits +(<foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign>) +worshipped +by the +Herero.</note> +When the missionaries inquired into the religious ideas +of the Herero, a Bantu tribe of German South-West Africa, +they heard much of a certain Mukuru, whom at first they +took to be the great god of heaven and earth. Accordingly +they adopted Mukuru as the native name for the +Christian God, and set out on their mission to preach the +glad tidings of Mukuru and his divine Son to the poor +benighted heathen. But their first experiences were disconcerting. +Again and again when they arrived in +a village and announced their intention to the chief, they +were brought up very short by that great man, who told +them with an air of astonishment that he himself was +Mukuru. For example, Messrs. Büttner and Irle paid a visit +to an old chief named Tjenda and remonstrated with him on +the impropriety of which he had been guilty in giving a +baptized girl in marriage to a native gentleman whose +domestic arrangements were framed on the polygamous +patriarchal pattern. <q>Mukuru will punish you for that,</q> +said Mr. Büttner. <q>What?</q> roared the chief. <q>Who's +Mukuru? Why, I am Mukuru in my own tribe,</q> and he +<pb n='186'/><anchor id='Pg186'/> +bundled the two missionaries out of the village. A repetition +of these painful incidents at last impressed on the minds of +the missionaries the conviction that Mukuru was not God at +all but merely the head of a family, an ancestor, whether +alive or dead.<note place='foot'>Missionar J. Irle, <hi rend='italic'>Die Herero, ein +Beitrag zur Landes- Volks- und Missionskunde</hi> +(Gütersloh, 1906), pp. 72 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> They ascertained at the same time that the +Herero recognize a good god who dwells in heaven and +bears the name of Ndjambi Karunga. But they do not +worship him nor bring him offerings, because he is so kind +that he hurts nobody, and therefore they need not fear him. +<q>Rather they share the opinion of the other Bantu tribes +that Ndjambi, the good Creator, has withdrawn to heaven +and left the government on earth to the demons.</q><note place='foot'>J. Irle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 73.</note> <q>It is +true that the Herero are acquainted with punishment for +what is bad. But that punishment they ascribe to Mukuru +or their ancestors. It is their ancestors (<foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign><note place='foot'><foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign>, the plural form of +<foreign rend='italic'>Mukuru</foreign>.</note>) whom +they must fear; it is they who are angry and can bring +danger and misfortune on a man. So it is intelligible that +the whole of their worship turns, not on Ndjambi Karunga, +but on their ancestors. It is in order to win and keep their +favour, to avert their displeasure and wrath, in short to +propitiate them, that the Herero bring their many offerings; +they do so not out of gratitude, but out of fear, not out of +love, but out of terror. Their religion is a worship of +ancestors with here and there touches of fetishism.</q><note place='foot'>J. Irle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 74.</note> <q>Thus +among the Herero, as among all Bantu tribes, there exists a +religious dualism: they know the highest, the true God, but +they worship their ancestors.</q><note place='foot'>J. Irle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 75. The writer +tells us (<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>) that the Herero name for +the good celestial God, whom they +acknowledge but do not worship, is +common, in different forms, to almost +all the Bantu tribes. Among the +Ovambo it is Kalunga; among tribes +of Loango, the Congo, Angola and +Benguela it is Zambi, Njambi, Ambi, +Njame, Onjame, Ngambe, Nsambi; +in the Cameroons it is Nzambi, etc. +Compare John H. Weeks, <hi rend='italic'>Among +Congo Cannibals</hi> (London, 1913), pp. +246 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: <q>We have found a vague +knowledge of a Supreme Being, and +a belief in Him, very general among +those tribes on the Congo with which +we have come into contact.... On +the Lower Congo He is called <foreign rend='italic'>Nzambi</foreign>, +or by His fuller title <foreign rend='italic'>Nzambi a mpungu</foreign>; +no satisfactory root word has yet been +found for <foreign rend='italic'>Nzambi</foreign>, but for <foreign rend='italic'>mpungu</foreign> +there are sayings and proverbs that +clearly indicate its meaning as, most +of all, supreme, highest, and <foreign rend='italic'>Nzambi +a mpungu</foreign> as the Being most High, +or Supreme. On the Upper Congo +among the Bobangi folk the word used +for the Supreme Being is <foreign rend='italic'>Nyambe</foreign>; +among the Lulanga people, <foreign rend='italic'>Nzakomba</foreign>; +among the Boloki, <foreign rend='italic'>Njambe</foreign>; among +the Bopoto people it is <foreign rend='italic'>Libanza</foreign>.... +It is interesting to note that the most +common name for the Supreme Being +on the Congo is also known, in one +form or another, over an extensive +area of Africa reaching from 6° north +of the Equator away to extreme South +Africa; as, for example, among the +Ashanti it is <foreign rend='italic'>Onyame</foreign>, at Gaboon it +is <foreign rend='italic'>Anyambie</foreign>, and two thousand miles +away among the Barotse folk it is +<foreign rend='italic'>Niambe</foreign>. These are the names that +stand for a Being who is endowed +with strength, wealth, and wisdom by +the natives; and He is also regarded +and spoken of by them as the principal +Creator of the world, and the Maker +of all things.... But the Supreme +Being is believed by the natives to have +withdrawn Himself to a great distance +after performing His creative works; +that He has now little or no concern +in mundane affairs; and apparently +no power over spirits and no control +over the lives of men, either to protect +them from malignant spirits or to +help them by averting danger. They +also consider the Supreme Being +(<foreign rend='italic'>Nzambi</foreign>) as being so good and kind +that there is no need to appease +Him by rites, ceremonies or sacrifices. +Hence they never pray to this +Supreme One, they never worship Him, +or think of Him as being interested +in the doings of the world and its +peoples.</q></note> And among the worshipful +<pb n='187'/><anchor id='Pg187'/> +ancestors <q>the old dead chiefs of every tribe take the first +place. The son of a great dead chief and the whole tribe +worship that old father as their god. But the remote +ancestors of that chief they do not worship, indeed they +hardly know them by name and can no longer point to their +graves.</q><note place='foot'>J. Irle, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 77. Mr. Irle's +account of the religion of the Herero +or Ovaherero is fully borne out by +the testimony of earlier missionaries +among the tribe. See Rev. G. +Viehe, <q>Some Customs of the Ovaherero</q> +<hi rend='italic'>(South African) Folk-lore +Journal</hi>, i. (Cape Town, 1879) pp. +64 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>: <q>The religious customs and +ceremonies of the Ovaherero are all +rooted in the presumption that the +deceased continue to live, and that +they have a great influence on earth, +and exercise power over the life and +death of man. This influence and +power is ascribed especially to those +who have been great men, and who +become <foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign> after death. The +numerous religious customs and ceremonies +are a worshipping of the +ancestors.</q> Further, Mr. Viehe reports +that <q>the Ovaherero have a +slight idea of another being (Supreme +being?) which differs greatly from the +<foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign>, is superior to them, and is +supposed never to have been a human +being. It is called <foreign rend='italic'>Karunga</foreign>.... +<foreign rend='italic'>Karunga</foreign> does only good; whilst the +influence of the <foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign> is more +feared than wished for; and, therefore, +it is not thought necessary to +bring sacrifices to <foreign rend='italic'>Karunga</foreign> to guard +against his influence.</q> He is situated +so high, and is so superior to men <q>that +he takes little special notice of them; +and so the Ovaherero, on their part, +also trouble themselves little about +this superior being</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 67 +note 1). Similar evidence is given +by another missionary as to the belief +of the Herero in a superior god +Karunga and their fear and worship +of ancestral spirits. See the Rev. H. +Beiderbecke, <q>Some Religious Ideas +and Customs of the Ovaherero</q> <hi rend='italic'>(South +African) Folk-lore Journal</hi>, ii. (Cape +Town, 1880) pp. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Thus with the Herero, as with the Zulus, it is +the recent and well-remembered dead who are chiefly or +exclusively worshipped; as the souls of the departed recede +<pb n='188'/><anchor id='Pg188'/> +further and further into the past their memory perishes, and +the nimbus of supernatural glory which encircled it for a time +fades gradually away. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship +of the dead +among the +Ovambo.</note> +The religion of the Ovambo, another Bantu tribe of +German South-West Africa, is similar. They also recognize +a great being named Kalunga, who created the world and +man, but they neither fear nor worship him. A far greater +part is played in the religion of the Ovambo by their belief +in spirits, and amongst the worshipful spirits a conspicuous +place is assigned to the souls of the dead. Every man +leaves behind him at death a spirit, which continues to exist +on earth and can influence the living; for example, it may +enter into their bodies and thereby cause all sorts of sickness. +However, the souls of ordinary dead men can exert +their influence only on members of their own families; the +souls of dead chiefs, on the other hand, have power over the +rain, which they can either give or withhold. To these +powerful spirits a portion of the new corn is offered at +harvest as a thank-offering for their forbearance in not +visiting the people with sickness, and above all for their +bounty in sending down the fertilizing showers on the crops. +The souls of dead magicians are particularly dreaded; and +to prevent the multiplication of these dangerous spirits it +is customary to dismember their bodies, severing the arms +and legs from the trunk and cutting the tongue out of +the mouth. If these precautions are taken immediately +after death, the soul of the dead man cannot become +a dangerous ghost; the mutilation of his body has practically +disarmed his spirit.<note place='foot'>Hermann Tönjes, <hi rend='italic'>Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission</hi> (Berlin, 1911), pp. +193-197.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship of +the dead +among the +Wahehe of +German +East +Africa.</note> +The Wahehe, a Bantu tribe of German East Africa, +believe in a great invisible spirit named Nguruhi, who created +the world and rules both human destiny and the elements. +He it is who makes the rain to fall, the sun to shine, +the wind to blow, the thunder to roll, and the crops to +grow. <q>This god is accordingly conceived as all-powerful, +yet with the limitation that he only exercises a general +power of direction over the world, especially human fate, +while the <foreign rend='italic'>masoka</foreign>, the spirits of the dead, wield a permanent +<pb n='189'/><anchor id='Pg189'/> +and very considerable influence on the course of +particular events. Nguruhi is lord also of all the spirits +of the dead (<foreign rend='italic'>masoka</foreign>), but his relation to them has not +been further thought out. With this Supreme Being the +people hold no intercourse by means of prayer, sacrifice, +or in any other way. He stands remote from the religious +life of the Wahehe and really serves only as an explanation +of all those things and events which are otherwise +inexplicable. All religious intercourse, all worship centres +alone on the spirits of the dead. Hence if we speak of a +religion of the Wahehe, it must be described as a pure +worship of ancestors.</q><note place='foot'>E. Nigmann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Wahehe</hi> (Berlin, +1908), pp. 22 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The writer does +not describe the Wahehe as a Bantu +tribe, but from the characteristic prefixes +which they employ to designate +the tribe, individual tribesmen, the +country, and so forth (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 124) +we may infer that the people belong to +the Bantu stock.</note> The human soul quits the body at +death and at once becomes an ancestral spirit (<foreign rend='italic'>m'soka</foreign>), +invisible and endowed with complete liberty of motion. +Even the youngest children have souls which rank among +the ancestral spirits at death. Hence the great multitude of +the dead comprises spirits of all ages, from the infant one +day old to the grey-haired patriarch. They are good or bad +according as they were good or bad in life, and their social +position also is unchanged. He who was powerful in life is +powerful also in death; he who was a nobody among men +is a nobody also among the spirits. Hence the ghost of a +great man can do more for the living than the ghost of a +common man; and the ghost of a man can do more than +the ghost of a woman. Yet even the meanest ghost has power +over the greatest living man, who can only defend himself +by appealing for help to stronger ancestral spirits. Thus +while the Supreme Being exercises a general superintendence +over affairs, the real administration is in the hands of the +ancestral spirits. While he, for example, regulates the +weather as a whole, it is the ghosts who cause each particular +shower to fall or the sun to break out in glory from +the clouds. If he sends plagues on the whole people or +stays the ravages of disease, it is the ghosts who make each +individual sick or sound. These powerful spirits exert +themselves especially to help their descendants, though they +<pb n='190'/><anchor id='Pg190'/> +do not hesitate to plague their own kith and kin if they think +themselves neglected. They flit freely through the air and +perch on trees, mountains, and so forth, but they lodge by +preference at their graves, and you are always sure of finding +them there, if you wish to consult them.<note place='foot'>E. Nigmann, <hi rend='italic'>Die Wahehe</hi>, pp. 23 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> That is why in +the country of the Wahehe the only places of sacrifice are +the graves; temples and altars are unknown.<note place='foot'>E. Nigmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 35.</note> However, it is +only the bodies of considerable persons that are buried; the +corpses of common folk are simply thrown away in the +bush;<note place='foot'>E. Nigmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 39.</note> so that the number of graves and consequently of +sacrificial places is strictly limited. The spirits of the dead +appear to the living most commonly in dreams to give +them information or warning, but oftener to chide and +torment them. So the sleeper wakes in a fright and consults +a diviner, who directs him what he must do in order to +appease the angry ghost. Following the directions of his +spiritual adviser the man sacrifices an ox, or it may be only +a sheep or a fowl, at the tomb of one of his ancestors, prays +to the ghost, and having scattered a few morsels of the +victim's flesh on the grave, and spat a mouthful of beer upon +it, retires with his family to feast on the remainder of the +carcase. Such sacrifices to the dead are offered on occasion +of sickness, the lack of male heirs, a threatened war, an +intended journey, in short, before any important undertaking +of which the issue is doubtful; and, they are accompanied +by prayers for health, victory, good harvests, and so forth.<note place='foot'>E. Nigmann, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +35 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship +of the dead +among the +Bahima +of Ankole, +in Central +Africa.</note> +Once more, the Bahima, a Bantu people of Ankole, in +Central Africa, believe in a supreme god Lugaba, who +dwells in the sky and created man and beast; but <q>this +supreme being is not worshipped nor are offerings made to +him; he has no sacred place. Although they talk freely about +him, and acknowledge him to be their great benefactor, +they accept all his gifts as a matter of course, and make him +no offering in return.... One must not, therefore, conclude +that the Bahima are an irreligious people; like most of +the Bantu tribes their religion consists chiefly in dealing with +ghosts of departed relatives, and in standing well with them; +<pb n='191'/><anchor id='Pg191'/> +from the king to the humblest peasant the ghosts call for +daily consideration and constant offerings, whilst the deities +are only sought in case of great trials or national calamities.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>The Bahima, a +Cow Tribe of Enkole,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Royal Anthropological Institute</hi>, xxxvii. +(1907) pp. 108 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The supreme +god Lugaba is no doubt the same with +the supreme god Rugaba worshipped +by the Bahimas in Kiziba. See +above, p. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>. With regard to the +religion of the Baganda the same +authority tells us that <q>the last, and +possibly the most venerated, class of +religious objects were the ghosts of +departed relatives. The power of +ghosts for good or evil was incalculable</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, p. 273).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship of +dead chiefs +or kings +among the +Bantu +tribes of +Northern +Rhodesia.</note> +To return, now, to the worship of dead chiefs or kings +among the Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia. The spirits +of dead chiefs had priestesses to wait upon them, who were +called the <q>wives of the departed.</q> These were elderly +women who led a celibate life and swept the huts dedicated +to the ghosts of the chiefs. The aid of these dead +potentates was invoked in time of war and in seasons of +drought, and special offerings were brought to their shrines +at harvest.<note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia</hi>, +p. 83.</note> Among the Awemba, who form the aristocracy +of the country,<note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 11.</note> when a diviner announced that a +drought was caused by the spirits of dead chiefs or kings +buried at Mwaruli, a bull would be sent to be sacrificed +to the souls of the deceased rulers; or if the drought +was severe, a human victim would be despatched, and the +high priest would keep him caged in a stoutly woven +fish-basket, until the preparations for the sacrifice were +complete.<note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 292.</note> Among the Yombe no one might eat of the +first-fruits of the crops until the living chief had sacrificed +a bull before the tomb of his grandfather, and had deposited +pots of fresh beer and porridge, made from the first-fruits, +in front of the shrine. The ground about the tomb was +then carefully weeded, and the blood of the sacrificial victim +sprinkled on the freshly turned up soil and on the rafters +of the little hut. After thanking the ghost of his grandfather +for the harvest, and begging him to partake of the first-fruits, +the chief and his train withdrew to feast on the +carcase and the fresh porridge and beer at the village.<note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +When the head chief or king of the Awemba had resolved +<pb n='192'/><anchor id='Pg192'/> +to make war on a distant enemy, he and the older men +of the tribe would pray daily for victory to the spirits of +the dead kings, his predecessors. The day before the army +was to set forth, the great war-drum boomed out and the +warriors flocked together from the outlying districts under +their respective captains. In the dusk of the evening the +king and the elderly women, who passed for the wives of +the dead kings and tended their shrines at the capital, +went and prayed at these shrines that the souls of the +departed monarchs would keep the war-path free from foes +and lead the king in a straight course to the enemy's +stockade. These solemn prayers the king led in person, +and the women beat their bare breasts as they joined in +the earnest appeal. Next morning the whole army was +marshalled in front of the ghost-huts of the dead kings: +the living king danced a war-dance before his ancestors, +while his chief wife sprinkled him with holy flour; and +all prostrated themselves in supplication before the shrines.<note place='foot'>J. H. West Sheane, <q>Wemba +Warpaths,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the African +Society</hi>, No. xli. (October, 1911) pp. +25 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Among +these tribes +the spirits +of dead +chiefs or +kings are +thought +sometimes +to take +bodily +possession +of men and +women +or to be +incarnate +in animals.</note> +Among these tribes of Northern Rhodesia the spirits +of dead chiefs or kings sometimes take possession of the +bodies of live men or women and prophesy through their +mouths. When the spirit of a dead chief comes over a +man, he begins to roar like a lion, whereupon the women +gather together and beat the drums, shouting that the chief +has come to visit the village. The man thus temporarily +inspired will prophesy of future wars or impending attacks +by lions. While the inspiration lasts, he may eat nothing +cooked by fire, but only unfermented dough. However, +the spirit of a departed chief takes possession of women +oftener than of men. <q>These women assert that they are +possessed by the soul of some dead chief, and when they +feel the divine afflatus, whiten their faces to attract attention, +and anoint themselves with flour, which has a religious +and sanctifying potency. One of their number beats a +drum, and the others dance, singing at the same time +a weird song, with curious intervals. Finally, when they +have arrived at the requisite pitch of religious exaltation, +the possessed woman falls to the ground, and bursts forth +<pb n='193'/><anchor id='Pg193'/> +into a low and almost inarticulate chant, which has a most +uncanny effect. All are silent at once, and the <foreign rend='italic'>bashing'anga</foreign> +(medicine-men) gather round to interpret the voice of the +spirit.</q><note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>The Great Plateau of Northern Nigeria</hi>, +p. 83.</note> Sometimes the spirits of departed chiefs are +reincarnated in animals, which are then revered as the +abodes of the dead rulers. Thus the paramount chief of +the Amambwe is incarnated after death in the form of a +young lion, while Bisa and Wiwa chiefs come back in the +shape of pythons. In one of the rest-houses near Fife +a tame python waxed fat on the offerings of fowls and sour +beer which the Winamwanga presented to it in the fond +belief that it housed the spirit of one of their dead chiefs. +One day unfortunately for himself the reptile deity ventured +to dispute the possession of the rest-house with a German +cattle-dealer who was passing by; a discharge of shot +settled the dispute in favour of the cattle-dealer, and the +worshippers of the deity beheld him no more.<note place='foot'>C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, +<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 84.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Belief of +the +Barotse in +a supreme +god +Niambe.</note> +Another Bantu people who worship the spirits of their +dead kings are the Barotse or Marotse of the Upper +Zambesi. The Barotse believe in a supreme god, the +creator of all things, whom they call Niambe. He lives +in the sun, and by his marriage with the moon begat the +world, the animals, and last of all men. But the cunning +and ferocity of his creature man terrified the beneficent +creator, so that he fled from earth and escaped up the +thread of a spider's web to heaven. There he still retains +a certain power to interfere in human affairs, and that is +why men sometimes pray and sacrifice to him. For +example, the worshipper salutes the rising sun and offers +him a vessel of water, no doubt to quench the thirst of +the deity on his hot journey across the sky. Again, when +a long drought has prevailed, a black ox is sacrificed to +Niambe <q>as a symbol of the clouds big with the longed-for +rain.</q> And before they sow the fields, the women pile the +seeds and their digging hoes in a heap, and pray to the god +that he would render their labour fruitful.<note place='foot'>Eugène Béguin, <hi rend='italic'>Les Ma-rotsé</hi> +(Lausanne and Fontaines, 1903), pp. +118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='194'/><anchor id='Pg194'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +worship of +dead kings +among the +Barotse.</note> +Yet while they acknowledge the divine supremacy of +Niambe, the Barotse address their prayers most frequently +to the inferior deities, the <foreign rend='italic'>ditino</foreign>, who are the deified kings +of the country. The tombs of the departed monarchs may +be seen near the villages which they inhabited in life. Each +tomb stands in a grove of beautiful trees and is encircled by +a tall palisade of pointed stakes, covered with fine mats, like +the palisade which surrounds the royal residence of a living +king. Such an enclosure is sacred; the people are forbidden +to enter it lest they should disturb the ghost of him +who sleeps below. But the inhabitants of the nearest village +are charged with the duty of keeping the tomb and the enclosure +in good order, repairing the palisade, and replacing +the mats when they are worn out. Once a month, at the +new moon, the women sweep not only the grave and the +enclosure but the whole village. The guardian of the tomb +is at the same time a priest; he acts as intermediary between +the god and the people who come to pray to the deity. +He bears the title of Ngomboti; he alone has the right to +enter the sacred enclosure; the profane multitude must stand +at a respectful distance. Even the king himself, when he +comes to consult one of his ancestors, is forbidden to set +foot on the holy ground. In presence of the god, or, as +they call him, the Master of the Tomb, the monarch must +bear himself like a slave in the presence of his lord. He +kneels down near the entrance, claps his hands, and gives +the royal salute; and from within the enclosure the priest +solemnly returns the salute, just as the king himself, when +he holds his court, returns the salute of his subjects. Then +the suppliant, whether king or commoner, makes his petition +to the deity and deposits his offering; for no man may pray +to the god with empty hands. Inside the enclosure, close +to the entrance, is a hole which is supposed to serve as a +channel of communication with the spirit of the deified king. +In it the offerings are placed. Often they consist of milk +which is poured into the hole; and the faster it drains +away, the more favourably inclined is the god thought to be +to the petitioner. More solid offerings, such as flesh, clothes, +and glass beads, become the property of the priest after they +have been allowed to lie for a decent time beside the sacred +<pb n='195'/><anchor id='Pg195'/> +aperture of the tomb. The spirits of dead kings are thus +consulted on matters of public concern as well as by private +individuals touching their own affairs. If a war is to be +waged, if a plague is raging among the people or a murrain +among the cattle, if the land is parched with drought, in +short, if any danger threatens or any calamity has afflicted +the country, recourse is had to these local gods, dwelling +each in his shady grove, not far from the abodes of the +living. They are near, but the great god in heaven is far +away. What wonder, therefore, that their help is often +sought while he is neglected? They are national heroes as +well as gods; their history is remembered; men tell of the +doughty deeds they did in their lifetime; why should they +not be able to succour their votaries now that they have put +on immortality? All over the country these temple-tombs +may be seen. They serve as historical monuments to recall +to the people the names of their former kings and the annals +of their country. One of the most popular of the royal +shrines is near Senanga at the southern end of the great +plain of the Barotse. Voyagers who go down the Zambesi +do not fail to pay their devotions at the shrine, that the god +of the place may make their voyage to prosper and may +guard the frail canoe from shipwreck in the rush and roar +of the rapids; and when they return in safety they repair +again to the sacred spot to deposit a thank-offering for the +protection of the deity.<note place='foot'>Eugène Béguin, <hi rend='italic'>Les Ba-rotsé</hi>, pp. 120-123. Compare <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and +Exogamy</hi>, iv. 306 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus the +worship +of dead +kings has +been an +important +element in +the religion +of many +African +tribes.</note> +The foregoing examples suffice to prove that the worship +of dead chiefs and kings has been an important, perhaps we +may even say, the most important element in the religion +of many African tribes. Regarded from the native point +of view nothing could be more natural. The king rules +over his people in life; and since all these tribes entertain +a firm and unquestioning belief not only in the existence +but in the power of the spirits of the dead, they necessarily +conclude that of all the departed spirits none can be so +potent for good or evil, none therefore need to be propitiated +so earnestly by prayer and sacrifice, as the souls of +dead kings. Thus while every family worships privately the +<pb n='196'/><anchor id='Pg196'/> +spirits of its own ancestors, the whole tribe worships publicly +the spirits of its departed monarchs, paying to each of these +invisible potentates, whose reality they never dream of +doubting, a homage of precisely the same sort as that which +they render to his living successor on the throne. Such a +religion of the dead is by no means incompatible with the +recognition of higher spiritual powers who may have an origin +quite independent of the worship of ancestors. We have +seen in point of fact that many tribes, whose practical religion +is concentrated chiefly on their dead, nevertheless +acknowledge the existence of a supreme god, the creator of +man and of all things, whom they do not regard as a +glorified ghost. The Baganda, the most progressive and +advanced of all the Bantu tribes, had a whole pantheon of +gods whom they sharply distinguished from the worshipful +spirits of their forefathers. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Perhaps +some +African +gods, who +are now +distinguished +from +ghosts, +were once +dead men.</note> +Yet in spite of this distinction we may suspect that in many +cases the seeming line of division between gods and worshipful +ghosts is deceptive; and that the magic touch of time, which +distorts and magnifies the past, especially among peoples who +see it only through the haze of oral tradition, has glorified and +transfigured many a dead man into a deity. This at all +events seems to have been the history of some of the Baganda +gods. On this subject our best authority says that <q>the +principal gods appear to have been at one time human +beings, noted for their skill and bravery, who were afterwards +deified by the people and invested with supernatural +powers.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> (London, 1911), p. 271.</note> <q>Mukasa held the highest rank among the gods +of Uganda. He was a benign god; he never asked for the +life of any human being, but animals were sacrificed to him +at the yearly festivals, and also at other times when the +king, or a leading chief, wished to consult him. He had +nothing to do with war, but sought to heal the bodies and +minds of men. He was the god of plenty; he gave the +people an increase of food, cattle, and children. From the +legends still current it seems to be almost certain that he +was a human being who, because of his benevolence, came +to be regarded as a god.... The legends about Mukasa +are of great interest; they show how the human element +<pb n='197'/><anchor id='Pg197'/> +has been lost in the divine, how the natural has been effaced +by the supernatural, until, in the minds of the common +people, only the supernatural remains.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 290, +291. In the worship of Mukasa <q>the +principal ceremony was the annual +festival, when the king sent his presents +to the god, to secure a blessing +on the crops and on the people for the +year.</q> (J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 298).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +human +remains of +Kibuka, +the war-god +of the +Baganda.</note> +If we cannot prove that the great god Mukasa himself +was once a man, we have very tangible evidence that his +brother the war-god Kibuka was so. For like the dead kings +of Uganda, Kibuka was worshipped in a great conical hut +resembling the huts which living people inhabit: like them, +his spirit was supposed to enter from time to time into the +body of his priest and to give oracles through him; and like +them he was represented in his temple by his personal relics, +his jawbone and his navel-string, which were rescued from +the ruins of his temple and now rest in the Ethnological +Museum at Cambridge. In face of this complete parallelism +between the god and the kings whose personal existence is +not open to question, it seems difficult to doubt that Kibuka +was once like them a real man, and that he spoke with the +jawbone and made bodily use of the other corporeal organs +which were preserved in his temple.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <q>Kibuka, the +War God of the Baganda,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Man</hi>, vii. +(1907) pp. 161-166; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 301-308. Among the personal +relics of Kibuka kept in his temple +were his genital organs; these also +were rescued when the Mohammedans +burned down his temple in the civil +wars of 1887-1890. They are now +with the rest of the god's, or rather +the man's, remains at Cambridge.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus it is +possible +that Osiris +and Isis +may have +been a +real king +and queen +of Egypt, +perhaps +identical +with King +Khent and +his queen.</note> +These analogies lend some support to the theory that in +ancient Egypt, where the kings were worshipped by their +people both in life and death, Osiris may have been originally +nothing but one of these deified monarchs whose worship +gradually eclipsed that of all the rest and ended by rivalling +or even surpassing that of the great sun-god himself. We +have seen that at Abydos, one of the principal centres of his +worship, the tomb of Osiris was identified with the tomb of +King Khent, one of the earliest monarchs of the first Egyptian +dynasty, and that in this tomb were found a woman's richly +jewelled arm and a human skull lacking the lower jawbone, +which may well be the head of the king himself and the +arm of his queen. The carved monument of Osiris which was +found in the sepulchral chamber appears indeed to be a +<pb n='198'/><anchor id='Pg198'/> +work of late Egyptian art, but it may have replaced an earlier +sarcophagus. Certainly we may reasonably suppose that the +identification of the tomb of Osiris with the tomb of King +Khent was very ancient; for though the priests may have +renewed the sculptured effigy of the dead god, they would +hardly dare to shift the site of the Holy Sepulchre.<note place='foot'>This consideration is rightly urged +by H. Schäfer as a strong argument in +favour of the antiquity of the tradition +which associated the grave of Osiris +with the grave of King Khent. See +H. Schäfer, <hi rend='italic'>Die Mysterien des Osiris +in Abydos</hi> (Leipsic, 1904), pp. 28 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Now +the sepulchre is distant about a mile and a half from the +temple in which Osiris was worshipped as a god. There is +thus a curious coincidence, if there is nothing more, between +the worship of Osiris and the worship of the dead kings of +Uganda. As a dead king of Uganda was worshipped in a +temple, while his headless body reposed at some distance in +a royal tomb, and his head, without the lower jawbone, was +buried by itself near the grave, so Osiris was worshipped +in a temple not far from the royal tomb which tradition +identified with his grave. Perhaps after all tradition +was right. It is possible, though it would be very rash to +affirm, that Osiris was no other than the historical King +Khent of the first dynasty;<note place='foot'>One of the commonest and oldest +titles of Osiris was Chent (Khent)-Ament +or Chenti (Khenti)-Amenti, as +the name is also written. It means +<q>Chief of those who are in the West</q> +and refers to the Egyptian belief that +the souls of the dead go westward. +See R. V. Lanzone, <hi rend='italic'>Dizionario di +Mitologia Egizia</hi>, p. 727; H. Brugsch, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion und Mythologie der alten +Aegypter</hi>, p. 617; A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Die +ägyptische Religion</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 23, 103 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +J. H. Breasted, <hi rend='italic'>Development of Religion +and Thought in Ancient Egypt</hi>, +pp. 38, 143 (who spells the name +Khenti-Amentiu); E. A. Wallis Budge, +<hi rend='italic'>Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection</hi>, +i. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 67. <q>Khenti-Amenti was +one of the oldest gods of Abydos, and +was certainly connected with the dead, +being probably the ancient local god +of the dead of Abydos and its neighbourhood. +Now, in the Pyramid Texts, +which were written under the VIth +dynasty, there are several mentions of +Khenti-Amenti, and in a large number +of instances the name is preceded by +that of Osiris. It is quite clear, therefore, +that the chief attributes of the one +god must have resembled those of the +other, and that Osiris Khenti-Amenti +was assumed to have absorbed the +powers of Khenti-Amenti. In the +representations of the two gods which +are found at Abydos there is usually +no difference, at least not under the +XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties</q> (E. A. +Wallis Budge, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 31). However, +it would be unsafe to infer that +the resemblance between the name of +the god and the name of the king is +more than accidental.</note> that the skull found in the +tomb is the skull of Osiris himself; and that while it reposed +in the grave the missing jawbone was preserved, like the +jawbone of a dead king of Uganda, as a holy and perhaps +<pb n='199'/><anchor id='Pg199'/> +oracular relic in the neighbouring temple. If that were so, +we should be almost driven to conclude that the bejewelled +woman's arm found in the tomb of Osiris is the arm of Isis. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Suggested +parallel +between +Osiris and +Charlemagne.</note> +In support of the conclusion that the myth and religion +of Osiris grew up round the revered memory of a dead man +we may quote the words in which the historian of European +morals describes the necessity under which the popular +imagination labours of embodying its cherished ideals in +living persons. He is referring to the dawn of the age of +chivalry, when in the morning twilight the heroic figure of +Charlemagne rose like a bright star above the political +horizon, to be thenceforth encircled by a halo of romance +like the nimbus that shone round the head of Osiris. <q>In +order that the tendencies I have described should acquire +their full force, it was necessary that they should be represented +or illustrated in some great personage, who, by the +splendour and the beauty of his career, could fascinate the +imaginations of men. It is much easier to govern great +masses of men through their imagination than through their +reason. Moral principles rarely act powerfully upon the +world, except by way of example or ideals. When the +course of events has been to glorify the ascetic or monarchical +or military spirit, a great saint, or sovereign, or +soldier will arise, who will concentrate in one dazzling focus +the blind tendencies of his time, kindle the enthusiasm and +fascinate the imagination of the people. But for the prevailing +tendency, the great man would not have arisen, or +would not have exercised his great influence. But for the +great man, whose career appealed vividly to the imagination, +the prevailing tendency would never have acquired its +full intensity.</q><note place='foot'>W. E. H. Lecky, <hi rend='italic'>History of +European Morals from Augustus to +Charlemagne</hi>, Third Edition (London, +1877), ii. 271.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +question +of the +historical +reality of +Osiris +left open.</note> +Whether the parallel thus suggested between Charlemagne, +the mediaeval ideal of a Christian knight, and Osiris, +the ancient Egyptian ideal of a just and beneficent monarch, +holds good or not, it is now impossible to determine. For +while Charlemagne stands near enough to allow us clearly +to discern his historical reality, Osiris is so remote that we +can no longer discriminate with any certitude between the +<pb n='200'/><anchor id='Pg200'/> +elements of history and fable which appear to have blended +in his traditional character. I am content to indicate bare +possibilities: dogmatism on such points would be in the +highest degree rash and unbecoming. Whether Osiris and +Isis were from first to last purely imaginary beings, the +ideal creations of a primitive philosophy, or whether they +were originally a real man and woman about whom after +death the myth-making fancy wove its gossamer rainbow-tinted +web, is a question to which I am not bold enough to +give a decided answer. +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='201'/><anchor id='Pg201'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Chapter XII. Mother-Kin And Mother Goddesses.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Dying Gods and Mourning Goddesses.'/> +<head>§ 1. Dying Gods and Mourning Goddesses.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Essential +similarity +of Adonis, +Attis, and +Osiris.</note> +We have now concluded our inquiry into the nature and +worship of the three Oriental deities Adonis, Attis, and +Osiris. The substantial similarity of their mythical character +justifies us in treating of them together. All three apparently +embodied the powers of fertility in general and of +vegetation in particular. All three were believed to have +died and risen again from the dead; and the divine death +and resurrection of all three were dramatically represented +at annual festivals, which their worshippers celebrated with +alternate transports of sorrow and joy, of weeping and +exultation. The natural phenomena thus mythically conceived +and mythically represented were the great changes of +the seasons, especially the most striking and impressive +of all, the decay and revival of vegetation; and the intention +of the sacred dramas was to refresh and strengthen, by +sympathetic magic, the failing energies of nature, in order +that the trees should bear fruit, that the corn should ripen, +that men and animals should reproduce their kinds. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The superiority +of the +goddesses +associated +with +Adonis, +Attis, and +Osiris +points to a +system of +mother-kin.</note> +But the three gods did not stand by themselves. The +mythical personification of nature, of which all three were +in at least one aspect the products, required that each of +them should be coupled with a goddess, and in each case it +appears that originally the goddess was a more powerful +and important personage than the god. At all events it is +always the god rather than the goddess who comes to a sad +end, and whose death is annually mourned. Thus, whereas +Osiris was slain by Typhon, his divine spouse Isis survived +<pb n='202'/><anchor id='Pg202'/> +and brought him to life again. This feature of the myth +seems to indicate that in the beginning Isis was, what +Astarte and Cybele always continued to be, the stronger +divinity of the pair. Now the superiority thus assigned to +the goddess over the god is most naturally explained as the +result of a social system in which maternity counted for +more than paternity, descent being traced and property +handed down through women rather than through men. At +all events this explanation cannot be deemed intrinsically +improbable if we can show that the supposed cause has produced +the very same effect among existing peoples, about +whose institutions we possess accurate information. This I +will now endeavour to do. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Influence of Mother-Kin on Religion.'/> +<head>§ 2. Influence of Mother-Kin on Religion.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mother-kin +and father-kin. +The +Khasis of +Assam +have +mother-kin, +and +among +them +goddesses +predominate +over +gods and +priestesses +over +priests.</note> +The social system which traces descent and transmits +property through the mother alone may be called mother-kin, +while the converse system which traces descent and +transmits property through the father alone may be called +father-kin.<note place='foot'>I have adopted the terms <q>mother-kin</q> +and <q>father-kin</q> as less ambiguous +than the terms <q>mother-right</q> +and <q>father-right,</q> which I formerly +employed in the same sense.</note> A good example of the influence which mother-kin +may exert on religion is furnished by the Khasis of Assam, +whose customs and beliefs have lately been carefully recorded +by a British officer specially charged with the study of the +native races of the province.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Khasis</hi>, by Major P. R. T. +Gurdon, I.A., Deputy Commissioner +Eastern Bengal and Assam Commission, +and Superintendent of Ethnography in +Assam (London, 1907).</note> Like the ancient Egyptians +and the Semites of Syria and Mesopotamia, the Khasis live +in settled villages and maintain themselves chiefly by the +cultivation of the ground; yet <q>their social organization +presents one of the most perfect examples still surviving of +matriarchal institutions, carried out with a logic and thoroughness +which, to those accustomed to regard the status and +authority of the father as the foundation of society, are +exceedingly remarkable. Not only is the mother the head +and source, and only bond of union, of the family: in the +most primitive part of the hills, the Synteng country, she +is the only owner of real property, and through her alone is +<pb n='203'/><anchor id='Pg203'/> +inheritance transmitted.<note place='foot'><q>The Khasi saying is, <q><foreign rend='italic'>long jaid +na ka kynthei</foreign></q> (from the woman sprang +the clan). The Khasis, when reckoning +descent, count from the mother +only; they speak of a family of brothers +and sisters, who are the great grandchildren +of one great grandmother, as +<foreign rend='italic'>shi kpoh</foreign>, which, being literally translated, +is one womb, <hi rend='italic'>i.e.</hi> the issue of +one womb. The man is nobody</q> +(P. R. T. Gurdon, <hi rend='italic'>The Khasis</hi>, p. 82). +<q>All land acquired by inheritance must +follow the Khasi law of entail, by which +property descends from the mother to +the youngest daughter, and again from +the latter to her youngest daughter. +Ancestral landed property must therefore +be always owned by women. The +male members of the family may cultivate +such lands, but they must carry +all the produce to the house of their +mother, who will divide it amongst the +members of the family</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 88). +<q>The rule amongst the Khasis is that +the youngest daughter <q>holds</q> the +religion, <q><foreign rend='italic'>ka bat ka niam</foreign>.</q> Her house +is called, <q><foreign rend='italic'>ka iing seng</foreign>,</q> and it is here +that the members of the family assemble +to witness her performance of the family +ceremonies. Hers is, therefore, the +largest share of the family property, +because it is she whose duty it is to +perform the family ceremonies, and +propitiate the family ancestors</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. +cit.</hi> p. 83).</note> The father has no kinship with +his children, who belong to their mother's clan; what he +earns goes to his own matriarchal stock, and at his death +his bones are deposited in the cromlech of his mother's kin. +In Jowai he neither lives nor eats in his wife's house, but +visits it only after dark. In the veneration of ancestors, +which is the foundation of the tribal piety, the primal +ancestress (<foreign rend='italic'>Ka Iāwbei</foreign>) and her brother are the only persons +regarded. The flat memorial stones set up to perpetuate +the memory of the dead are called after the woman who +represents the clan (<foreign rend='italic'>māw kynthei</foreign>), and the standing stones +ranged behind them are dedicated to the male kinsmen on +the mother's side. In harmony with this scheme of ancestor +worship, the other spirits to whom propitiation is offered are +mainly female, though here male personages also figure. +The powers of sickness and death are all female, and these +are those most frequently worshipped. The two protectors +of the household are goddesses, though with them is also +revered the first father of the clan, <foreign rend='italic'>U Thāwlang</foreign>. Priestesses +assist at all sacrifices, and the male officiants are +only their deputies; in one important state, Khyrim, the +High Priestess and actual head of the State is a woman, +who combines in her person sacerdotal and regal functions.</q><note place='foot'>Sir C. J. Lyall, in his Introduction +to <hi rend='italic'>The Khasis</hi>, by Major P. R. T. +Gurdon, pp. xxiii. <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Sir C. J. Lyall +himself lived for many years among +the Khasis and studied their customs. +For the details of the evidence on which +his summary is based see especially pp. +63 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 68 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 76, 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 88, 106 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 109 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 121, 150, of +Major Gurdon's book. As to the Khasi +priestesses, see above, vol. i. p. 46.</note> +Thus amongst the Khasis of the present day the +<pb n='204'/><anchor id='Pg204'/> +superiority of the goddess to the god, and especially of +the revered ancestress to the revered ancestor, is based +directly on the social system which traces descent and +transmits property through women only. It is not unreasonable +therefore to suppose that in Western Asia the +superiority of the Mother Goddess to the Father God +originated in the same archaic system of mother-kin. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Again, the +Pelew +Islanders +have +mother-kin, +and +the deities +of their +clans are all +goddesses.</note> +Another instance of the same cause producing the +same effect may be drawn from the institutions of the +Pelew Islanders, which have been described by an accurate +observer long resident in the islands. These people, who +form a branch of the Micronesian stock, are divided into +a series of exogamous families or clans with descent in +the female line,<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi> (Berlin, 1885), pp. +35 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The writer calls one of these +kins indifferently a <foreign rend='italic'>Familie</foreign> or a +<foreign rend='italic'>Stamm</foreign>.</note> so that, as usually happens under such a +system, a man's heirs are not his own children but the +children of his sister or of his maternal aunt.<note place='foot'>J. S. Kubary, <q>Die Todtenbestattung +auf den Pelau-Inseln,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Original-Mittheilungen +aus der ethnologischen +Abtheilung der königlichen Museen zu +Berlin</hi>, i. (Berlin, 1885) p. 7.</note> Every family +or clan traces its descent from a woman, the common mother +of the whole kin,<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, p. 40.</note> and accordingly the members of the clan +worship a goddess, not a god.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <q>Die Religion der +Pelauer,</q> in A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus +Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi> (Berlin, +1888), i. 20-22. The writer says that +the family or clan gods of the Pelew +Islanders are too many to be enumerated, +but he gives as a specimen a list +of the family deities of one particular +district (Ngarupesang). Having done +so he observes that they are all goddesses, +and he adds that <q>this is +explained by the importance of the +woman for the clan. The deity of the +mother is inherited, that of the father +is not</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 22). As he says +nothing to indicate that the family +deities of this particular district are +exceptional, we may infer, as I have +done, that the deities of all the families +or clans are goddesses. Yet a few +pages previously (pp. 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) he tells us +that a village which contains twenty +families will have at least forty deities, +if not more, <q>for some houses may +have two <foreign rend='italic'>kalids</foreign> [deities], and every +house has also a goddess.</q> This seems +to imply that the families or clans have +gods as well as goddesses. The seeming +discrepancy is perhaps to be explained +by another statement of the +writer that <q>in the family only the +<foreign rend='italic'>kalids</foreign> [deities] of the women count</q> +(<q><foreign lang='de' rend='italic'>sich geltend machen</foreign>,</q> J. Kubary, +<hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer</hi>, +p. 38).</note> These families or clans, with +female descent and a worship of goddesses rather than of +gods, are grouped together in villages, each village comprising +<pb n='205'/><anchor id='Pg205'/> +about a score of clans and forming with its lands a petty +independent state.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, pp. 33 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 63; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Die Religion der Pelauer,</q> in A. +Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi>, +i. 16.</note> Every such village-state has its special +deity or deities, generally a god and a goddess. But these +political deities of the villages are said to be directly derived +from the domestic deities of the families or clans,<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <q>Die Religion der +Pelauer,</q> in A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus +Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi>, i. 15-17, +22, 25-27.</note> from +which it seems to follow that among these people gods are +historically later than goddesses and have been developed +out of them.<note place='foot'>From the passages cited in the +preceding note it appears that this was +Kubary's opinion, though he has not +stated it explicitly.</note> The late origin of the gods as compared +with the goddesses is further indicated by the nature of their +names.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <q>Die Religion der +Pelauer,</q> in A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus +Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi>, i. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This preference +for +goddesses +is to be +explained +by the +importance +of women +in the +social +system of +the Pelew +Islanders.</note> +This preference for goddesses over gods in the clans of +the Pelew Islanders has been explained, no doubt rightly, +by the high importance of women in the social system of +the people.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, p. 38. See also +above, p. 204, note 4.</note> For the existence of the clan depends entirely +on the life of the women, not at all upon the life of the men. +If the women survive, it is no matter though every man of +the clan should perish; for the women will, as usual, marry +men of another clan, and their offspring will inherit their +mother's clan, thereby prolonging its existence. Whereas +if the women of the clan all die out, the clan necessarily +becomes extinct, even though every man of it should survive; +for the men must, as usual, marry women of another +clan, and their offspring will inherit their mothers' clan, not +the clan of their fathers, which accordingly, with the death +of the fathers, is wiped out from the community. Hence in +these islands women bear the titles of <foreign rend='italic'>Adhalál a pelú</foreign>, +<q>Mothers of the Land,</q> and <foreign rend='italic'>Adhalál a blay</foreign>, <q>Mothers of +the Clan,</q> and they are said to enjoy complete equality with +the men in every respect.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> Indeed, in one passage our principal +authority speaks of <q>the predominance of feminine +influence in the social condition of the people,</q> and asserts +without qualification that the women are politically and +<pb n='206'/><anchor id='Pg206'/> +socially superior to the men.<note place='foot'>See the statement of Kubary +quoted in the next paragraph.</note> The eldest women of the clan +exercise, he tells us, the most decisive influence on the conduct +of its affairs, and the headman does nothing without +full consultation with them, a consultation which in the great +houses extends to affairs of state and foreign politics.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, p. 39.</note> Nay, +these elder women are even esteemed and treated as equal +to the deities in their lifetime.<note place='foot'>See the statement of Kubary quoted +in the next paragraph.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The high +position of +women in +the Pelew +Islands has +also an +industrial +basis; for +they alone +cultivate +the taro, +the staple +food of +the people.</note> +But the high position which women thus take in Pelew +society is not a result of mother-kin only. It has an industrial +as well as a kinship basis. For the Pelew Islanders +subsist mainly on the produce of their taro fields, and the +cultivation of this, their staple food, is the business of the +women alone. <q>This cardinal branch of Pelew agriculture, +which is of paramount importance for the subsistence of the +people, is left entirely in the hands of the women. This +fact may have contributed materially to the predominance +of female influence in the social condition of the people. +The women do not merely bestow life on the people, they +also do that which is most essential for the preservation of +life, and therefore they are called <foreign rend='italic'>Adhalál a pelú</foreign>, the +<q>Mothers of the Land,</q> and are politically and socially +superior to men. Only their offspring enjoy the privilege of +membership of the state (the children of the men are, strictly +speaking, strangers destitute of rights), and the oldest women +of the families are esteemed and treated as equal to deities +even in their lifetime, and they exercise a decisive influence +on the conduct of affairs of state. No chief would venture +to come to a decision without first consulting with the +<foreign rend='italic'>Adhalál a blay</foreign>, the <q>Mothers of the Family.</q> From this +point of view it is impossible to regard the assignment +of the taro cultivation to women as a consequence of +their subordinate position in society: the women themselves +do not so regard it. The richest woman of the village looks +with pride on her taro patch, and although she has female +followers enough to allow her merely to superintend the +work without taking part in it, she nevertheless prefers to +lay aside her fine apron and to betake herself to the deep +<pb n='207'/><anchor id='Pg207'/> +mire, clad in a small apron that hardly hides her nakedness, +with a little mat on her back to protect her from the +burning heat of the sun, and with a shade of banana leaves +for her eyes. There, dripping with sweat in the burning +sun and coated with mud to the hips and over the elbows, +she toils to set the younger women a good example. +Moreover, as in every other occupation, the <foreign rend='italic'>kaliths</foreign>, the gods, +must also be invoked, and who could be better fitted for the +discharge of so important a duty than the Mother of the +House?</q><note place='foot'>J. S. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische +Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Karolinen +Archipels</hi> (Leyden, 1895), p. 159. On +the importance of the taro or sweet +potato as the staple food of the people, +see <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi> pp. 156 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> It seems clear that in any agricultural people +who, like the Pelew Islanders, retain mother-kin and depute +the labours of husbandry to women, the conception of a +great Mother Goddess, the divine source of all fertility, +might easily originate. Perhaps the same social and industrial +conditions may have combined to develop the great +Mother Goddesses of Western Asia and Egypt. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Both men +and women +in the +Pelew +Islands +attain to +power by +posing +as the +inspired +mouthpieces +of +the gods.</note> +But in the Pelew Islands women have yet another road +to power. For some of them are reputed to be the wives of +gods, and act as their oracular mouthpieces. Such prophetesses +are called <foreign rend='italic'>Amlaheys</foreign>, and no surprise is felt when one +of them is brought to bed. Her child passes for the offspring +of the god, her divine husband, and goes about with his hair +hanging loose in token of his superhuman parentage. It is +thought that no mortal man would dare to intrigue with one +of these human wives of a god, since the jealous deity would +surely visit the rash culprit with deadly sickness and a +lingering decline.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <q>Die Religion der +Pelauer,</q> in A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus +Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi>, i. 34.</note> But in these islands men as well as +women are often possessed by a deity and speak in his +name. Under his inspiration they mimic, often with great +histrionic skill, the particular appearance and manner which +are believed to be characteristic of the indwelling divinity. +These inspired men (<foreign rend='italic'>Korongs</foreign>) usually enjoy great consideration +and exert a powerful influence over the whole community. +They always acquire wealth in the exercise of their profession. +When they are not themselves chiefs, they are treated as chiefs +or even preferred to them. In not a few places the deity whom +<pb n='208'/><anchor id='Pg208'/> +they personate is also the political head of the land; and +in that case his inspired priest, however humble his origin, +ranks as a spiritual king and rules over all the chiefs. +Indeed we are told that, with the physical and intellectual +decay of the race, the power of the priests is more and more +in the ascendant and threatens, if unchecked, to develop +before long into an absolute theocracy which will swallow up +every other form of government.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <q>Die Religion der +Pelauer,</q> in A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus +Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi>, i. 30-35. +The author wrote thus in the year +1883, and his account of the Pelew +religion was published in 1888. Compare +his work <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, p. 81. Great +changes have probably taken place in +the islands since Kubary wrote.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Parallel +between +the Pelew +Islands of +to-day +and the +religious +and social +state of +Western +Asia and +Egypt in +antiquity.</note> +Thus the present, or at least the recent, state of society +and religion in the Pelew Islands presents some interesting +parallels to the social and religious condition of Western +Asia and Egypt in early days, if the conclusions reached in +this work are correct. In both regions we see a +society based on mother-kin developing a religion in which +goddesses of the clan originally occupied the foremost +place, though in later times, as the clans coalesced into states, +the old goddesses have been rivalled and to some extent +supplanted by the new male gods of the enlarged pantheon. +But in the religion of the Pelew Islanders, as in that of the +Khasis and the ancient Egyptians, the balance of power +has never wholly shifted from the female to the male line, +because society has never passed from mother-kin to father-kin. +And in the Pelew Islands as in the ancient East we see +the tide of political power running strongly in the direction of +theocracy, the people resigning the conduct of affairs into +the hands of men who claimed to rule them in the name +of the gods. In the Pelew Islands such men might have +developed into divine kings like those of Babylon and Egypt, +if the natural course of evolution had not been cut short +by the intervention of Europe.<note place='foot'>For some other parallels between +the state of society and religion in +these two regions, see Note IV. at the +end of the volume.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mother-kin +does not +imply that +the government +is in +the hands +of women.</note> +The evidence of the Khasis and the Pelew Islanders, two +peoples very remote and very different from each other, +suffices to prove that the influence which mother-kin +may exert on religion is real and deep. But in order +<pb n='209'/><anchor id='Pg209'/> +to dissipate misapprehensions, which appear to be rife +on this subject, it may be well to remind or inform the +reader that the ancient and widespread custom of tracing +descent and inheriting property through the mother +alone does not by any means imply that the government +of the tribes which observe the custom is in the hands of +women; in short, it should always be borne in mind that +mother-kin does not mean mother-rule. On the contrary, +the practice of mother-kin prevails most extensively +amongst the lowest savages, with whom woman, instead of +being the ruler of man, is always his drudge and often +little better than his slave. Indeed, so far is the system +from implying any social superiority of women that it +probably took its rise from what we should regard as their +deepest degradation, to wit, from a state of society in which +the relations of the sexes were so loose and vague that +children could not be fathered on any particular man.<note place='foot'>Compare E. Stephan und F. +Graebner, <hi rend='italic'>Neu-Mecklenburg</hi> (Berlin, +1907), p. 107 note 1: <q>It is necessary +always to repeat emphatically that the +terms father-right and mother-right +indicate simply and solely the group-membership +of the individual and the +systems of relationship which that +membership implies, but that they have +nothing at all to do with the higher or +lower position of women. Rather the +opposite might be affirmed, namely, +that woman is generally more highly +esteemed in places where father-right +prevails than in places where mother-right +is the rule.</q></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The inheritance +of +property, +especially +of landed +property, +through +the mother +certainly +tends to +raise the +social +importance +of women, +but this +tendency +is never +carried so +far as to +subordinate +men +politically +to women.</note> +When we pass from the purely savage state to that +higher plane of culture in which the accumulation of property, +and especially of landed property, has become a +powerful instrument of social and political influence, we +naturally find that wherever the ancient preference for the +female line of descent has been retained, it tends to increase +the importance and enhance the dignity of woman; and her +aggrandizement is most marked in princely families, where +she either herself holds royal authority as well as private +property, or at least transmits them both to her consort or +her children. But this social advance of women has never +been carried so far as to place men as a whole in a position +of political subordination to them. Even where the system +of mother-kin in regard to descent and property has prevailed +most fully, the actual government has generally, if +not invariably, remained in the hands of men. Exceptions +have no doubt occurred; women have occasionally arisen +<pb n='210'/><anchor id='Pg210'/> +who by sheer force of character have swayed for a time the +destinies of their people. But such exceptions are rare and +their effects transitory; they do not affect the truth of the +general rule that human society has been governed in the +past and, human nature remaining the same, is likely to +be governed in the future, mainly by masculine force and +masculine intelligence. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus while +the Khasis +and Pelew +Islanders +have +mother-kin, +they +are +governed +by men, +not by +women.</note> +To this rule the Khasis, with their elaborate system of +mother-kin, form no exception. For among them, while +landed property is both transmitted through women and +held by women alone, political power is transmitted indeed +through women, but is held by men; in other words, the +Khasi tribes are, with a single exception, governed by kings, +not by queens. And even in the one tribe, which is nominally +ruled by women, the real power is delegated by the reigning +queen or High Priestess to her son, her nephew, or a more +distant male relation. In all the other tribes the kingship +may be held by a woman only on the failure of all male +heirs in the female line.<note place='foot'>Major P. R. T. Gurdon, <hi rend='italic'>The +Khasis</hi>, pp. 66-71. The rule of +succession is as follows. A <foreign rend='italic'>Siem</foreign>, or +king, <q>is succeeded by the eldest of +his uterine brothers; failing such +brothers, by the eldest of his sisters' +sons; failing such nephews, by the +eldest of the sons of his sisters' +daughters; failing such grand-nephews, +by the eldest of the sons of his mother's +sisters; and, failing such first cousins, +by the eldest of his male cousins on +the female side, other than first cousins, +those nearest in degree of relationship +having prior claim. If there were no +heirs male, as above, he would be succeeded +by the eldest of his uterine +sisters; in the absence of such sisters, +by the eldest of his sisters' daughters; +failing such nieces, by the eldest of the +daughters of his sisters' daughters; +failing such grand-nieces, by the eldest +of the daughters of his mother's sisters; +and failing such first cousins, by the +eldest of his female cousins on the +female side, other than first cousins, +those nearest in degree of relationship +having prior claim. A female <foreign rend='italic'>Siem</foreign> +would be succeeded by her eldest son, +and so on</q> (<hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 71). The rule +illustrates the logical precision with +which the system of mother-kin is +carried out by these people even when +the intention is actually to exclude +women from power.</note> So far is mother-kin from implying +mother-rule. A Khasi king inherits power in right +of his mother, but he exercises it in his own. Similarly +the Pelew Islanders, in spite of their system of mother-kin, +are governed by chiefs, not by chieftainesses. It +is true that there are chieftainesses, and that they +indirectly exercise much influence; but their direct +authority is limited to the affairs of women, especially to +the administration of the women's clubs or associations, which +<pb n='211'/><anchor id='Pg211'/> +answer to the clubs or associations of the men.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, pp. 35, 39 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +73-83. See also above, pp. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> And +to take another example, the Melanesians, like the Khasis +and the Pelew Islanders, have the system of mother-kin, +being similarly divided into exogamous clans with descent in +the female line; <q>but it must be understood that the +mother is in no way the head of the family. The house of +the family is the father's, the garden is his, the rule and +government are his.</q><note place='foot'>R. H. Codrington, <hi rend='italic'>The Melanesians</hi> +(Oxford, 1891), p. 34.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The theory +of a gynaecocracy +and of the +predominance +of +the female +imagination +in +religion +is an +idle dream.</note> +We may safely assume that the practice has been the +same among all the many peoples who have retained the +ancient system of mother-kin under a monarchical constitution. +In Africa, for example, the chieftainship or +kingship often descends in the female line, but it is men, +not women, who inherit it.<note place='foot'>See A. H. Post, <hi rend='italic'>Afrikanische +Jurisprudenz</hi> (Oldenburg and Leipsic, +1887), i. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Captain W. Gill +reports that the Su-Mu, a Man-Tzŭ +tribe in Southern China numbering +some three and a half millions, is +always ruled by a queen (<hi rend='italic'>The River of +Golden Sand</hi>, London, 1880, i. 365). +But Capt. Gill was not nearer to +the tribe than a six days' journey; +and even if his report is correct we +may suppose that the real power is +exercised by men, just as it is in the +solitary Khasi tribe which is nominally +governed by a woman.</note> The theory of a gynaecocracy +is in truth a dream of visionaries and pedants. And equally +chimerical is the idea that the predominance of goddesses +under a system of mother-kin like that of the Khasis is a +creation of the female mind. If women ever created gods, +they would be more likely to give them masculine than +feminine features. In point of fact the great religious ideals +which have permanently impressed themselves on the world +seem always to have been a product of the male imagination. +Men make gods and women worship them. The combination +of ancestor-worship with mother-kin furnishes a simple +and sufficient explanation of the superiority of goddesses +over gods in a state of society where these conditions prevail. +Men naturally assign the first place in their devotions to +the ancestress from whom they trace their descent. We +need not resort to a fantastic hypothesis of the preponderance +of the feminine fancy in order to account for the facts. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>But +mother-kin +is a solid +fact, which +can hardly +have failed +to modify +the religion +of the +peoples +who practise +it.</note> +The theory that under a system of mother-kin the +women rule the men and set up goddesses for them to +<pb n='212'/><anchor id='Pg212'/> +worship is indeed so improbable in itself, and so contrary +to experience, that it scarcely deserves the serious attention +which it appears to have received.<note place='foot'>The theory, or at all events the +latter part of it, has been carefully +examined by Dr. L. R. Farnell; and +if, as I apprehend, he rejects it, I +agree with him. See his article +<q>Sociological Hypotheses concerning +the position of Women in Ancient +Religion,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</hi>, +vii. (1904) pp. 70-94; his <hi rend='italic'>Cults of +the Greek States</hi> (Oxford, 1896-1909), +iii. 109 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; and <hi rend='italic'>The Hibbert Journal</hi>, +April 1907, p. 690. But I differ from +him, it seems, in thinking that mother-kin +is favourable to the growth of +mother goddesses.</note> But when we have +brushed aside these cobwebs, as we must do, we are still left +face to face with the solid fact of the wide prevalence of +mother-kin, that is, of a social system which traces descent +and transmits property through women and not through +men. That a social system so widely spread and so deeply +rooted should have affected the religion of the peoples who +practise it, may reasonably be inferred, especially when we +remember that in primitive communities the social relations +of the gods commonly reflect the social relations of their +worshippers. How the system of mother-kin may mould +religious ideas and customs, creating goddesses and assigning +at least a nominal superiority to priestesses over priests, is +shown with perfect lucidity by the example of the Khasis, +and hardly less clearly by the example of the Pelew Islanders. +It cannot therefore be rash to hold that what the system has +certainly done for these peoples, it may well have done for +many more. But unfortunately through lack of documentary +evidence we are seldom able to trace its influence so clearly. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Mother-Kin and Mother Goddesses in the Ancient East.'/> +<head>§ 3. Mother-Kin and Mother Goddesses in the +Ancient East.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mother-kin +and +mother-goddesses +in Western +Asia.</note> +While the combination of mother-kin in society with a +preference for goddesses in religion is to be found as a matter +of fact among the Khasis and Pelew Islanders of to-day, the +former prevalence of mother-kin in the lands where the great +goddesses Astarte and Cybele were worshipped is a matter +of inference only. In later times father-kin had certainly +displaced mother-kin among the Semitic worshippers of +Astarte, and probably the same change had taken place +among the Phrygian worshippers of Cybele. Yet the older +<pb n='213'/><anchor id='Pg213'/> +custom lingered in Lycia down to the historical period;<note place='foot'>The Lycians traced their descent +through women, not through men; +and among them it was the daughters, +not the sons, who inherited the family +property. See Herodotus, i. 174; +Nicolaus Damascenus, in Stobaeus, +<hi rend='italic'>Florilegium</hi>, xliv. 41 (<hi rend='italic'>Fragmenta +Historicorum Graecorum</hi>, ed. C. +Müller, iii. 461); Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>De mulierum +virtutibus</hi>, 9. An ancient historian +even asserts that the Lycians +were ruled by women (ἐκ παλαιοῦ +γυναικοκρατοῦνται, Heraclides Ponticus, +Frag. 15, in <hi rend='italic'>Fragmenta Historicorum +Graecorum</hi>, ed. C. Müller, ii. 217). +Inscriptions found at Dalisandos, in +Isauria, seem to prove that it was not +unusual there to trace descent through +the mother even in the third or the +fourth century after Christ. See Sir +W. M. Ramsay, <q>The Permanence of +Religion at Holy Places in the East,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>The Expositor</hi>, November 1906, p. 475. +Dr. L. Messerschmidt seems to think +that the Lycians were Hittites (<hi rend='italic'>The +Hittites</hi>, p. 20). Scholars are not +agreed as to the family of speech to +which the Lycian language belongs. +Some think that it was an Indo-European +tongue; but this view is +now abandoned by Professor Ed. Meyer +(<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> i. 2. p. 626).</note> +and we may conjecture that in former times it was widely +spread through Asia Minor. The secluded situation and +rugged mountains of Lycia favoured the survival of a native +language and of native institutions long after these had +disappeared from the wide plains and fertile valleys which +lay on the highroads of war and commerce. Lycia was to +Asia Minor what the highlands of Wales and of Scotland +have been to Britain, the last entrenchments where the old +race stood at bay. And even among the Semites of antiquity, +though father-kin finally prevailed in matters of descent and +property, traces of an older system of mother-kin, with its +looser sexual relations, appear to have long survived in the +sphere of religion. At all events one of the most learned +and acute of Semitic scholars adduced what he regarded as +evidence sufficient to prove <q>that in old Arabian religion +gods and goddesses often occurred in pairs, the goddess +being the greater, so that the god cannot be her Baal, that +the goddess is often a mother without being a wife, and the +god her son, and that the progress of things was towards +changing goddesses into gods or lowering them beneath the +male deity.</q><note place='foot'>W. Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Kinship and +Marriage in Early Arabia</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, +1903), p. 306. The hypothesis of the +former existence of mother-kin among +the Semites is rejected by Professor +Ed. Meyer (<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte des Altertums</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. 2, p. 360) and W. W. Graf Baudissin +(<hi rend='italic'>Adonis und Esmun</hi>, pp. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Mother-kin +in +ancient +Egypt.</note> +In Egypt the archaic system of mother-kin, with its +preference for women over men in matters of property and +inheritance, lasted down to Roman times, and it was traditionally +<pb n='214'/><anchor id='Pg214'/> +based on the example of Isis, who had avenged +her husband's murder and had continued to reign after +his decease, conferring benefits on mankind. <q>For these +reasons,</q> says Diodorus Siculus, <q>it was appointed that the +queen should enjoy greater power and honour than the king, +and that among private people the wife should rule over her +husband, in the marriage contract the husband agreeing to +obey his wife in all things.</q><note place='foot'>Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +In spite of this express testimony to +the existence of a true gynaecocracy in +ancient Egypt, I am of opinion that +the alleged superiority of the queen to +the king and of the wife to her husband +must have been to a great extent only +nominal. Certainly we know that it +was the king and not the queen who +really governed the country; and we +can hardly doubt that in like manner +it was for the most part the husband +and not the wife who really ruled the +house, though unquestionably in regard +to property the law seems to have +granted important rights to women +which it denied to men. On the +position of women in ancient Egypt +see especially the able article of Miss +Rachel Evelyn White (Mrs. Wedd), +<q>Women in Ptolemaic Egypt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of Hellenic Studies</hi>, xviii. (1898) pp. +238-256.</note> A corollary of the superior +position thus conceded to women in Egypt was that the +obligation of maintaining parents in their old age rested on +the daughters, not on the sons, of the family.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, ii. 35.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Marriages +of brothers +with sisters +in ancient +Egypt.</note> +The same legal superiority of women over men accounts +for the most remarkable feature in the social system of +the ancient Egyptians, to wit, the marriage of full brothers +with full sisters. That marriage, which to us seems strange +and unnatural, was by no means a whim of the reigning +Ptolemies; on the contrary, these Macedonian conquerors +appear, with characteristic prudence, to have borrowed the +custom from their Egyptian predecessors for the express +purpose of conciliating native prejudice. In the eyes of the +Egyptians <q>marriage between brother and sister was the +best of marriages, and it acquired an ineffable degree of +sanctity when the brother and sister who contracted it were +themselves born of a brother and sister, who had in their +turn also sprung from a union of the same sort.</q><note place='foot'>Sir Gaston Maspero, quoted by +Miss R. E. White, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 244.</note> Nor did +the principle apply only to gods and kings. The common +people acted on it in their daily life. They regarded +marriages between brothers and sisters as the most natural +and reasonable of all.<note place='foot'>J. Nietzold, <hi rend='italic'>Die Ehe in Ägypten +zur ptolemäisch-römischen Zeit</hi> (Leipzic, +1903), p. 12.</note> The evidence of legal documents, +<pb n='215'/><anchor id='Pg215'/> +including marriage contracts, tends to prove that such +unions were the rule, not the exception, in ancient Egypt, +and that they continued to form the majority of marriages +long after the Romans had obtained a firm footing in the +country. As we cannot suppose that Roman influence +was used to promote a custom which must have been +abhorrent to Roman instincts, we may safely assume that +the proportion of brother and sister marriages in Egypt +had been still greater in the days when the country was +free.<note place='foot'>A. Erman, <hi rend='italic'>Ägypten und ägyptisches +Leben im Altertum</hi>, pp. 221 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +U. Wilcken, <q>Arsinoitische Steuerprofessionen +aus dem Jahre 189 n. +Chr.,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Sitzungsberichte der könig. +Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften +zu Berlin</hi>, 1883, p. 903; J. Nietzold, +<hi rend='italic'>Die Ehe in Ägypten zur ptolemäisch-römischen +Zeit</hi>, pp. 12-14.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Such +marriages +were based +on a wish +to keep the +property in +the family.</note> +It would doubtless be a mistake to treat these marriages +as a relic of savagery, as a survival of a tribal communism +which knew no bar to the intercourse of the sexes. For +such a theory would not explain why union with a sister +was not only allowed, but preferred to all others. The true +motive of that preference was most probably the wish of +brothers to obtain for their own use the family property, +which belonged of right to their sisters, and which otherwise +they would have seen in the enjoyment of strangers, the +husbands of their sisters. This is the system which in +Ceylon is known as <foreign rend='italic'>beena</foreign> marriage. Under it the daughter, +not the son, is the heir. She stays at home, and her husband +comes and lives with her in the house; but her brother goes +away and dwells in his wife's home, inheriting nothing from +his parents.<note place='foot'>J. F. McLennan, <hi rend='italic'>Studies in Ancient +History</hi> (London, 1886), pp. 101 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> +Among the Kocchs of North-Eastern +India <q>the property of the husband is +made over to the wife; when she dies +it goes to her daughters, and when he +marries he lives with his wife's mother</q> +(R. G. Latham, <hi rend='italic'>Descriptive Ethnology</hi>, +London, 1859, i. 96).</note> Such a system could not fail in time to prove +irksome. Men would be loth to quit the old home, resign +the ancestral property to a stranger, and go out to seek +their fortune empty-handed in the world. The remedy was +obvious. A man had nothing to do but to marry his sister +himself instead of handing her over to another. Having +done so he stayed at home and enjoyed the family estate in +virtue of his marriage with the heiress. This simple and +perfectly effective expedient for keeping the property in the +<pb n='216'/><anchor id='Pg216'/> +family most probably explains the custom of brother and +sister marriage in Egypt.<note place='foot'>This is in substance the explanation +which Miss Rachel Evelyn White +(Mrs. Wedd) gives of the Egyptian +custom. See her paper, <q>Women in +Ptolemaic Egypt,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of Hellenic +Studies</hi>, xviii. (1898) p. 265. Similarly +Mr. J. Nietzold observes that <q>economical +considerations, especially in the +case of great landowners, may often have +been the occasion of marriages with +sisters, the intention being in this way +to avoid a division of the property</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>Die Ehe in Ägypten</hi>, p. 13). The +same explanation of the custom has +been given by Prof. W. Ridgeway. +See his <q>Supplices of Aeschylus,</q> in +<hi rend='italic'>Praelections delivered before the Senate +of the University of Cambridge</hi> (Cambridge, +1906), pp. 154 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> I understand +from Professor W. M. Flinders +Petrie that the theory has been a +commonplace with Egyptologists for +many years. McLennan explained the +marriage of brothers and sisters in +royal families as an expedient for shifting +the succession from the female to +the male line; but he did not extend +the theory so as to explain similar marriages +among common people in Egypt, +perhaps because he was not aware of +the facts. See J. F. McLennan, <hi rend='italic'>The +Patriarchal Theory</hi>, edited and completed +by D. McLennan (London, +1885), p. 95.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Thus the +traditional +marriage of +Osiris with +his sister +Isis +reflected a +real social +custom. +The +passing +of the +old world +in Egypt.</note> +Thus the union of Osiris with his sister Isis was not a +freak of the story-teller's fancy: it reflected a social custom +which was itself based on practical considerations of the +most solid kind. When we reflect that this practice of +mother-kin as opposed to father-kin survived down to +the latest times of antiquity, not in an obscure and barbarous +tribe, but in a nation whose immemorial civilization +was its glory and the wonder of the world, we may without +being extravagant suppose that a similar practice formerly +prevailed in Syria and Phrygia, and that it accounts for +the superiority of the goddess over the god in the divine +partnerships of Adonis and Astarte, of Attis and Cybele. +But the ancient system both of society and of religion +had undergone far more change in these countries than +in Egypt, where to the last the main outlines of the old +structure could be traced in the national institutions to +which the Egyptians clung with a passionate, a fanatical +devotion. Mother-kin, the divinity of kings and queens, a +sense of the original connexion of the gods with nature—these +things outlived the Persian, the Macedonian, the Roman +conquest, and only perished under the more powerful solvent +of Christianity. But the old order did not vanish at once +with the official establishment of the new religion. In the +age of Constantine the Greeks of Egypt still attributed the +rise of the Nile to Serapis, the later form of Osiris, alleging +<pb n='217'/><anchor id='Pg217'/> +that the inundation could not take place if the standard +cubit, which was used to measure it, were not deposited +according to custom in the temple of the god. The emperor +ordered the cubit to be transferred to a church; and next +year, to the general surprise, the river rose just as usual.<note place='foot'>Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Ecclesiastica</hi>, i. +18 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Graeca</hi>, lxvii. +121). The learned Valesius, in his +note on this passage, informs us that +the cubit was again transferred by the +Emperor Julian to the Serapeum, where +it was left in peace till the destruction +of that temple.</note> +Even at a later time Athanasius himself had to confess with +sorrow and indignation that under his own eyes the Egyptians +still annually mourned the death of Osiris.<note place='foot'>Athanasius, <hi rend='italic'>Oratio contra Gentes</hi>, +10 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Graeca</hi>, xxv. +24).</note> The end came +with the destruction of the great Serapeum at Alexandria, +the last stronghold of the heathen in Egypt. It perished in +a furious and bloody sedition, in which Christians and pagans +seem to have vied with each other in mutual atrocities. +After its fall the temples were levelled with the ground or +converted into churches, and the images of the old gods +went to the melting-pot to be converted into base uses for +the rabble of Alexandria.<note place='foot'>Socrates, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Ecclesiastica</hi>, v. +16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia Graeca</hi>, +lxvii. 604 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>); Sozomenus, <hi rend='italic'>Historia +Ecclesiastica</hi>, vii. 15 (Migne's <hi rend='italic'>Patrologia +Graeca</hi>, lxvii. 1152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>). These +events took place under the Emperor +Theodosius in the year 391 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a.d.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Egyptian +conservatism +partly +an effect of +natural +conditions +and habits +of life.</note> +The singular tenacity with which the Egyptian people +maintained their traditional beliefs and customs for thousands +of years sprang no doubt from the stubborn conservatism +of the national character. Yet that conservatism was itself +in great measure an effect of geographical and climatic +conditions and of the ways of life which they favoured. +Surrounded on every side by deserts or almost harbourless +seas, the Egyptians occupied a position of great natural +strength which for long ages together protected them from +invasion and allowed their native habits to set and harden, +undisturbed by the subversive influence of foreign conquest. +The wonderful regularity of nature in Egypt also conduced +to a corresponding stability in the minds of the people. +Year in, year out, the immutable succession of the seasons +brought with it the same unvarying round of agricultural +toil. What the fathers had done, the sons did in the +same manner at the same season, and so it went on from +<pb n='218'/><anchor id='Pg218'/> +generation to generation. This monotonous routine is +common indeed to all purely agricultural communities, and +everywhere tends to beget in the husbandman a settled +phlegmatic habit of mind very different from the mobility, +the alertness, the pliability of character which the hazards +and uncertainties of commerce and the sea foster in the +merchant and the sailor. The saturnine temperament of +the farmer is as naturally averse to change as the more +mercurial spirit of the trader and the seaman is predisposed +to it. But the stereotyping of ideas and of customs was +carried further in Egypt than in most lands devoted to +husbandry by reason of the greater uniformity of the +Egyptian seasons and the more complete isolation of +the country. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The old +type of +Osiris +better +preserved +than those +of Adonis +and Attis.</note> +The general effect of these causes was to create a type +of national character which presented many points of resemblance +to that of the Chinese. In both we see the same +inflexible strength of will, the same astonishing industry, the +same strange blend of humanity and savagery, the same +obstinate adherence to tradition, the same pride of race and +of ancient civilization, the same contempt for foreigners as +for upstarts and barbarians, the same patient outward submission +to an alien rule combined with an unshakeable +inward devotion to native ideals. It was this conservative +temper of the people, bred in great measure of the physical +nature of their land, which, so to say, embalmed the memory +of Osiris long after the corresponding figures of Adonis +and Attis had suffered decay. For while Egypt enjoyed +profound repose, the tides of war and conquest, of traffic +and commerce, had for centuries rolled over Western Asia, +the native home of Adonis and Attis; and if the shock +of nationalities in this great meeting-ground of East and +West was favourable to the rise of new faiths and new +moralities, it was in the same measure unfavourable to the +preservation of the old. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='219'/><anchor id='Pg219'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Notes.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>I. Moloch The King.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Moloch +perhaps +the human +king +regarded +as an +incarnate +deity.</note> +I cannot leave the evidence for the sacred character of Jewish +kings<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 17 sqq.</note> without mentioning a suggestion which was made to me by +my friend and teacher the Rev. Professor R. H. Kennett. He +thinks that Moloch, to whom first-born children were burnt by their +parents in the valley of Hinnom, outside the walls of Jerusalem,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 168 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; +G. F. Moore, in <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Biblica</hi>, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Molech.</q> The phrase translated +<q>make pass through the fire to +Molech</q> (2 Kings xxiii. 10) means +properly, Professor Kennett tells me, +<q>make to pass over by means of fire +to Molech,</q> where the verb has the +sense of <q>make over to,</q> <q>dedicate,</q> +<q>devote,</q> as appears from its use in +Exodus xiii. 12 (<q>set apart,</q> English +Version) and Ezekiel xx. 26. That +the children were not made simply to +pass through the fire, but were burned +in it, is shown by a comparison of 2 +Kings xvi. 3, xxiii. 10, Jeremiah +xxxii. 35, with 2 Chronicles xxviii. 3, +Jeremiah vii. 31, xix. 5. As to the +use of the verb העכיר in the sense of +<q>dedicate,</q> <q>devote,</q> see G. F. +Moore, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Molech,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia +Biblica</hi>, iii. 3184; F. Brown, S. R. +Driver, and C. A. Briggs, <hi rend='italic'>Hebrew +and English Lexicon of the Old Testament</hi> +(Oxford, 1906), p. 718. <q>The +testimony of both the prophets and +the laws is abundant and unambiguous +that the victims were slain and burnt +as a holocaust</q> (G. F. Moore, in +<hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Biblica</hi>, iii. 3184). +Similarly Principal J. Skinner translates +the phrase in 2 Kings xvi. 3 by +<q>dedicated his son by fire,</q> and remarks +that the expression, <q>whatever +its primary sense may be, undoubtedly +denoted actual burning</q> (commentary +on Kings in <hi rend='italic'>The Century Bible</hi>). +The practice would seem to have been +very ancient at Jerusalem, for tradition +placed the attempted burnt-sacrifice of +Isaac by his father Abraham on Mount +Moriah, which was no other than +Mount Zion, the site of the king's +palace and of the temple of Jehovah. +See Genesis xxii. 1-18; 2 Chronicles +iii. 1; J. Benzinger, <hi rend='italic'>Hebräische Archäologie</hi> +(Freiburg i. Baden and Leipsic, +1894), pp. 45, 233; T. K. Cheyne, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Moriah,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Biblica</hi>, +iii. 3200 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +may have been originally the human king regarded as an incarnate +deity. Certainly the name of Moloch, or rather Molech (for so it +is always written in the Massoretic text<note place='foot'>Leviticus xviii. 21, xx. 2-5; 1 +Kings xi. 7; 2 Kings xxiii. 10; +Jeremiah xxxii. 35.</note>), is merely a slightly disguised +<pb n='220'/><anchor id='Pg220'/> +form of <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>melech</foreign>, the ordinary Hebrew word for <q>king,</q> the +scribes having apparently given the dreadful word the vowels of +bosheth, <q>shameful thing.</q><note place='foot'>W. Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>The Religion +of the Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 372, note 1.</note> But it seems clear that in historical +times the Jews who offered these sacrifices identified Molech, not +with the human king, but with Jehovah, though the prophets +protested against the custom as an outrage on the divine +majesty.<note place='foot'><q>It is plain, from various passages +of the prophets, that the sacrifices of +children among the Jews before the +captivity, which are commonly known +as sacrifices to Moloch, were regarded +by the worshippers as oblations to +Jehovah, under the title of king</q> +(W. Robertson Smith, <hi rend='italic'>Religion of the +Semites</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 372, referring to Jeremiah +vii. 31, xix. 5, xxxii. 35; Ezekiel +xxiii. 39; Micah vi. 7). The same +view is taken by Prof. G. F. Moore, +in <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia Biblica</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Molech,</q> +vol. iii. 3187 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +sacrifices to +Moloch +may have +been intended +to +prolong the +king's life. +Vicarious +sacrifices +for a king +or queen +in Sweden, +Persia, and +Madagascar.</note> +If, however, these sacrifices were originally offered to or in behalf +of the human king, it is possible that they were intended to +prolong his life and strengthen his hands for the performance of +those magical functions which he was expected to discharge for the +good of his people. The old kings of Sweden answered with their +heads for the fertility of the ground,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, i. 366 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> and we read that one of them, +Aun or On by name, sacrificed nine of his sons to Odin at Upsala +in order that his own life might be spared. After the sacrifice of +his second son he received from the god an oracle that he should +live as long as he gave him one of his sons every tenth year. When +he had thus sacrificed seven sons, the ruthless father still lived, but +was so feeble that he could no longer walk and had to be carried +in a chair. Then he offered up his eighth son and lived ten years +more, bedridden. After that he sacrificed his ninth son, and lived +ten years more, drinking out of a horn like a weaned child. He +now wished to sacrifice his last remaining son to Odin, but the +Swedes would not let him, so he died and was buried in a mound +at Upsala.<note place='foot'><q>Ynglinga Saga,</q> 29, in <hi rend='italic'>The +Heimskringla or Chronicle of the Kings +of Norway</hi>, translated by S. Laing +(London, 1844), i. 239 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. M. +Chadwick, <hi rend='italic'>The Cult of Othin</hi> (London, +1899), pp. 4, 27; <hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, +pp. 160 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Similarly in Peru, when +a person of note was sick, he would +sometimes sacrifice his son to the idol +in order that his own life might be +spared. See A. de Herrera, <hi rend='italic'>The +General History of the Vast Continent +and Islands of America</hi>, translated by +Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), +iv. 347 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In this Swedish tradition the king's children seem +to have been looked upon as substitutes offered to the god in +place of their father, and apparently this was also the current explanation +of the slaughter of the first-born in the later times of Israel.<note place='foot'>Micah vi. 6-8.</note> +On that view the sacrifices were vicarious, and therefore purely +religious, being intended to propitiate a stern and exacting deity. +Similarly we read that when Amestris, wife of Xerxes, was grown +old, she sacrificed on her behalf twice seven noble children to the +<pb n='221'/><anchor id='Pg221'/> +earth god by burying them alive.<note place='foot'>Herodotus, vii. 114; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>De superstitione</hi>, 13.</note> If the story is true—and it rests +on the authority of Herodotus, a nearly contemporary witness—we +may surmise that the aged queen acted thus with an eye to the +future rather than to the past; she hoped that the grim god of +the nether-world would accept the young victims in her stead, and +let her live for many years. The same idea of vicarious suffering +comes out in a tradition told of a certain Hova king of Madagascar, +who bore the sonorous name of Andriamasinavalona. When he had +grown sickly and feeble, the oracle was consulted as to the best way +of restoring him to health. <q>The following result was the consequence +of the directions of the oracle. A speech was first delivered +to the people, offering great honours and rewards to the family of +any individual who would freely offer himself to be sacrificed, in +order to the king's recovery. The people shuddered at the idea, +and ran away in different directions. One man, however, presented +himself for the purpose, and his offer was accepted. The sacrificer +girded up his loins, sharpened his knife, and bound the victim. +After which, he was laid down with his head towards the east, upon +a mat spread for the purpose, according to the custom with animals +on such occasions, when the priest appeared, to proceed with all +solemnity in slaughtering the victim by cutting his throat. A +quantity of red liquid, however, which had been prepared from a +native dye, was spilled in the ceremony; and, to the amazement +of those who looked on, blood seemed to be flowing all around. The +man, as might be supposed, was unhurt; but the king rewarded him +and his descendants with the perpetual privilege of exemption from +capital punishment for any violation of the laws. The descendants +of the man to this day form a particular class, called <foreign rend='italic'>Tay maty +manota</foreign>, which may be translated, <q>Not dead, though transgressing.</q> +Instances frequently occur, of individuals of this class appropriating +bullocks, rice, and other things belonging to the sovereign, as if +they were their own, and escaping merely with a reprimand, while +a common person would have to suffer death, or be reduced to +slavery.</q><note place='foot'>W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>History of Madagascar</hi> +(London, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), i. 344 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Other sacrifices +for +prolonging +the king's +life appear +to be +magical +rather than +religious. Custom in +the Niger +delta.</note> +Sometimes, however, the practices intended to prolong the king's +life seem to rest on a theory of nutrition rather than of substitution; +in other words, the life of the victims, instead of being offered +vicariously to a god, is apparently supposed to pass directly into the +body of the sacrificer, thus refreshing his failing strength and prolonging +his existence. So regarded, the custom is magical rather +than religious in character, since the desired effect is thought to +follow directly without the intervention of a deity. At all events, it +can be shown that sacrifices of this sort have been offered to prolong +the life of kings in other parts of the world. Thus in regard to +<pb n='222'/><anchor id='Pg222'/> +some of the negroes who inhabit the delta of the Niger we read +that: <q>A custom which formerly was practised by the Ibani, and is +still prevalent among all the interior tribes, consists in prolonging +the life of a king or ancestral representative by the daily, or possibly +weekly, sacrifice of a chicken and egg. Every morning, as soon as +the patriarch has risen from his bed, the sacrificial articles are procured +either by his mother, head wife, or eldest daughter, and given +to the priest, who receives them on the open space in front of the +house. When this has been reported to the patriarch, he comes +outside and, sitting down, joins in the ceremony. Taking the +chicken in his hand, the priest first of all touches the patriarch's +face with it, and afterwards passes it over the whole of his body. +He then cuts its throat and allows the blood to drop on the ground. +Mixing the blood and the earth into a paste, he rubs it on the old +man's forehead and breast, and this is not to be washed off under +any circumstances until the evening. The chicken and the egg, +also a piece of white cloth, are now tied on to a stick, which, if a +stream is in the near vicinity, is planted in the ground at the water-side. +During the carriage of these articles to the place in question, +all the wives and many members of the household accompany the +priest, invoking the deity as they go to prolong their father's life. +This is done in the firm conviction that through the sacrifice of +each chicken his life will be accordingly prolonged.</q><note place='foot'>Major A. G. Leonard, <hi rend='italic'>The Lower +Niger and its Tribes</hi> (London, 1906), +p. 457.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Customs +observed +by the +Zulus and +Caffres to +prolong the +king's life.</note> +The ceremony thus described is, like so many other rites, a +combination of magic and religion; for whereas the prayers to the +god are religious, the passing of the victim over the king's body and +the smearing of him with its blood are magical, being plainly intended +to convey to him directly, without the mediation of any +deity, the life of the fowl. In the following instances the practices +for prolonging the king's life seem to be purely magical. Among +the Zulus, at one of the annual feasts of first-fruits, a bull is killed +by a particular regiment. In slaughtering the beast they may not +use spears or sticks, but must break its neck or choke it with their +bare hands. <q>It is then burned, and the strength of the bull is +supposed to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his life.</q><note place='foot'>D. Leslie, <hi rend='italic'>Among the Zulus and +Amatongas</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 91. +This sacrifice may be the one described +by J. Shooter, <hi rend='italic'>The Kafirs of Natal</hi> +(London, 1857), p. 26. The reason +for not stabbing the animal is perhaps +a wish not to lose any of the blood, +but to convey its life intact to the +king. The same reason would explain +the same rule which the Baganda +observed in killing a human victim for +the same purpose (see below, p. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>).</note> Again, +in an early Portuguese historian we read of a Caffre king of East +Africa that <q>it is related of this Monomotapa that he has a house +where he commands bodies of men who have died at the hands of +the law to be hung up, and where thus hanging all the humidity +<pb n='223'/><anchor id='Pg223'/> +of their bodies falls into vases placed underneath, and when all +has dropped from them and they shrink and dry up he commands +them to be taken down and buried, and with the fat and moisture +in the vases they say he makes ointments with which he anoints +himself in order to enjoy long life—which is his belief—and also to +be proof against receiving harm from sorcerers.</q><note place='foot'>J. Dos Santos, <hi rend='italic'>Eastern Ethiopia</hi>, +bk. ii. chap. 16 (G. M'Call Theal's +<hi rend='italic'>Records of South-Eastern Africa</hi>, vii. +289).</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Customs +observed +by the +Baganda +to prolong +the king's +life. +Human +victims +killed in +order to +invigorate +the king.</note> +The Baganda of Central Africa used to kill men on various +occasions for the purpose of prolonging the king's life; in all cases +it would seem to be thought that the life of the murdered man +was in some mysterious fashion transferred to the king, so that +the monarch received thereby a fresh accession of vital energy. +For example, whenever a particular royal drum had a new skin +put on it, not only was a cow killed to furnish the skin and its +blood run into the drum, but a man was beheaded and the spouting +blood from the severed neck was allowed to gush into the drum, +<q>so that, when the drum was beaten, it was supposed to add fresh +life and vigour to the king from the life of the slain man.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), pp. 27 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Again, at the coronation of a new king, a royal chamberlain was +chosen to take charge of the king's inner court and to guard his +wives. From the royal presence the chamberlain was conducted, +along with eight captives, to one of the human shambles; there +he was blindfolded while seven of the men were clubbed to death, +only the dull thud and crashing sound telling him of what was +taking place. But when the seven had been thus despatched, +the bandages were removed from the chamberlain's eyes and he +witnessed the death of the eighth. As each man was killed, his +belly was ripped open and his bowels pulled out and hung round +the chamberlain's neck. These deaths were said to add to the +King's vigour and to make the chamberlain strong and faithful.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +p. 200.</note> +Nor were these the only human sacrifices offered at a king's +coronation for the purpose of strengthening the new monarch. +When the king had reigned two or three months, he was expected +to hunt first a leopard and then a bushbuck. On the night after +the hunt of the bushbuck, one of the ministers of State caught +a man and brought him before the king in the dark; the king +speared him slightly, then the man was strangled and the body +thrown into a papyrus swamp, that it might never be found again. +Another ceremony performed about this time to confirm the king +in his kingdom was to catch a man, bind him, and bring him +before the king, who wounded him slightly with a spear. Then +the man was put to death. These men were killed to invigorate +the king.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='224'/><anchor id='Pg224'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Chief's son +killed to +provide the +king with +anklets.</note> +When a king of Uganda had reigned some time, apparently +several years, a ceremony was performed for the sake of prolonging +his life. For this purpose the king paid a visit—a fatal visit—to +a chief of the Lung-fish clan, who bore the title of Nankere +and resided in the district of Busiro, where the tombs and temples +of the kings were situated. When the time for the ceremony had +been appointed, the chief chose one of his own sons, who was +to die that the king might live. If the chief had no son, a near +relation was compelled to serve as a substitute. The hapless youth +was fed and clothed and treated in all respects like a prince, +and taken to live in a particular house near the place where the +king was to lodge for the ceremony. When the destined victim +had been feasted and guarded for a month, the king set out on +his progress from the capital. On the way he stopped at the +temple of the great god Mukasa; there he changed his garments, +leaving behind him in the temple those which he had been wearing. +Also he left behind him all his anklets, and did not put on any +fresh ones, for he was shortly to receive new anklets of a remarkable +kind. When the king arrived at his destination, the chief +met him, and the two exchanged a gourd of beer. At this interview +the king's mother was present to see her son for the last +time; for from that moment the two were never allowed to look +upon each other again. The chief addressed the king's mother +informing her of this final separation; then turning to the king +he said, <q>You are now of age; go and live longer than your +forefathers.</q> Then the chief's son was introduced. The chief +took him by the hand and presented him to the king, who +passed him on to the body-guard; they led him outside and +killed him by beating him with their clenched fists. The muscles +from the back of the body of the murdered youth were removed +and made into two anklets for the king, and a strip of skin +cut from the corpse was made into a whip, which was kept +in the royal enclosure for special feasts. The dead body was +thrown on waste land and guarded against wild beasts, but not +buried.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, pp. 210 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The king's +game.</note> +When that ceremony was over, the king departed to go to +another chief in Busiro; but on the way thither he stopped at +a place called Baka and sat down under a great tree to play a +game of spinning fruit-stones. It is a children's game, but it was +no child's play to the man who ran to fetch the fruit-stones for +the king to play with; for he was caught and speared to death +on the spot for the purpose of prolonging the king's life. After +the game had been played the king with his train passed on and +lodged with a certain princess till the anklets made from the +muscles of the chief's murdered son were ready for him to wear; +<pb n='225'/><anchor id='Pg225'/> +it was the princess who had to superintend the making of these +royal ornaments.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, +pp. 211 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> I have abridged the +account of the ceremonies.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The whip +of human +skin.</note> +When all these ceremonies were over, the king made a great +feast. At this feast a priest went about carrying under his mantle +the whip that had been made from the skin of the murdered +young man. As he passed through the crowd of merrymakers, +he would flick a man here and there with the whip, and it was +believed that the man on whom the lash lighted would be childless +and might die, unless he made an offering of either nine or +ninety cowrie shells to the priest who had struck him. Naturally +he hastened to procure the shells and take them to the striker, +who, on receiving them, struck the man on the shoulder with his +hand, thus restoring to him the generative powers of which the +blow of the whip had deprived him. At the end of the feast +the drummers removed all the drums but one, which they left +as if they had forgotten it. Somebody in the crowd would +notice the apparent oversight and run after the drummers with +the drum, saying, <q>You have left one behind.</q> The thanks he +received was that he was caught and killed and the bones of his +upper arm made into drumsticks for that particular drum. The +drum was never afterwards brought out during the whole of the +king's reign, but was kept covered up till the time came to bring +it out on the corresponding feast of his successor. Yet from time +to time the priest, who had flicked the revellers with the whip +of human skin, would dress himself up in a mantle of cow-hide +from neck to foot, and concealing the drumstick of human bones +under his robe would go into the king's presence, and suddenly +whipping out the bones from his bosom would brandish them +in the king's face. Then he would as suddenly hide them again, +but only to repeat the manoeuvre. After that he retired and +restored the bones to their usual place. They were decorated +with cowrie shells and little bells, which jingled as he shook them +at the king.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 213 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Modes in +which the +strength of +the human +victims was +thought to +pass into +the king.</note> +The precise meaning of these latter ceremonies is obscure; but +we may suppose that just as the human blood poured into a drum +was thought to pass into the king's veins in the booming notes of +the drum, so the clicking of the human bones and the jingling of +their bells were supposed to infuse into the royal person the vigour +of the murdered man. The purpose of flicking commoners with the +whip made of human skin is even more obscure; but we may +conjecture that the life or virility of every man struck with the whip +was supposed to be transmitted in some way to the king, who thus +recruited his vital, and especially his reproductive, energies at this +solemn feast. If I am right in my interpretation, all these Baganda +<pb n='226'/><anchor id='Pg226'/> +modes of strengthening the king and prolonging his life belonged to +the nutritive rather than to the vicarious type of sacrifice, from +which it will follow that they were magical rather than religious in +character. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Massacres +perpetrated +when a +king of +Uganda +was ill.</note> +The same thing may perhaps be said of the wholesale massacres +which used to be perpetrated when a king of Uganda was ill. At +these times the priests informed the royal patient that persons +marked by a certain physical peculiarity, such as a cast of the eye, +a particular gait, or a distinctive colouring, must be put to death. +Accordingly the king sent out his catchpoles, who waylaid such +persons in the roads and dragged them to the royal enclosure, where +they were kept until the tale of victims prescribed by the priest was +complete. Before they were led away to one of the eight places of +execution, which were regularly appointed for this purpose in different +parts of the kingdom, the victims had to drink medicated beer with +the king out of a special pot, in order that he might have power +over their ghosts, lest they should afterwards come back to torment +him. They were killed, sometimes by being speared to death, +sometimes by being hacked to pieces, sometimes by being burned +alive. Contrary to the usual custom of the Baganda, the bodies, or +what remained of the bodies, of these unfortunates were always left +unburied on the place of execution.<note place='foot'>From information furnished by my +friend the Rev. J. Roscoe. Compare +his book, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi>, pp. 331 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> In what way precisely the +sick king was supposed to benefit by these massacres of his subjects +does not appear, but we may surmise that somehow the victims +were believed to give their lives for him or to him. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Yet the +sacrifices +of children +to Moloch +may be +otherwise +explained.</note> +Thus it is possible that in Israel also the sacrifices of children +to Moloch were in like manner intended to prolong the life of the +human king (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>melech</foreign>) either by serving as substitutes for him or by +recruiting his failing energies with their vigorous young life. But it +is equally possible, and perhaps more probable, that the sacrifice +of the first-born children was only a particular application of the +ancient law which devoted to the deity the first-born of every womb, +whether of cattle or of human beings.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 166 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='227'/><anchor id='Pg227'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>II. The Widowed Flamen.</head> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. The Pollution of Death.'/> +<head>§ 1. The Pollution of Death.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Theory +that the +resignation +of the +widowed +Flamen +Dialis was +caused +by the +pollution +of death.</note> +A different explanation of the rule which obliged the Flamen +Dialis to resign the priesthood on the death of his wife<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. p. 45.</note> has been +suggested by my friend Dr. L. R. Farnell. He supposes that such +a bereavement would render the Flamen ceremonially impure, and +therefore unfit to hold office.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Hibbert Journal</hi>, April 1907, +p. 689.</note> It is true that the ceremonial pollution +caused by death commonly disqualifies a man for the discharge +of sacred functions, but as a rule the disqualification is only temporary +and can be removed by seclusion and the observance of +purificatory rites, the length of the seclusion and the nature of the +purification varying with the degree of relationship in which the living +stand to the dead. Thus, for example, if one of the sacred eunuchs +at Hierapolis-Bambyce saw the dead body of a stranger, he was unclean +for that day and might not enter the sanctuary of the goddess; +but next day after purifying himself he was free to enter. But if the +corpse happened to be that of a relation he was unclean for thirty +days and had to shave his head before he might set foot within the +holy precinct.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>De dea Syria</hi>, 53.</note> Again, in the Greek island of Ceos persons who had +offered the annual sacrifices to their departed friends were unclean +for two days afterwards and might not enter a sanctuary; they had +to purify themselves with water.<note place='foot'>G. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge Inscriptionum +Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> vol. ii. pp. 725 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, Nos. 877, 878.</note> Similarly no one might go into +the shrine of Men Tyrannus for ten days after being in contact with +the dead.<note place='foot'>G. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> vol. ii. +pp. 429 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. 633.</note> Once more, at Stratonicea in Caria a chorus of thirty +noble boys, clad in white and holding branches in their hands, +used to sing a hymn daily in honour of Zeus and Hecate; but if +one of them were sick or had suffered a domestic bereavement, he +was for the time being excused, not permanently excluded, from the +<pb n='228'/><anchor id='Pg228'/> +performance of his sacred duties.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</hi>, +ed. Aug. Boeckh, etc. (Berlin, 1828-1877), +vol. ii. pp. 481 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. 2715, +οὔσης ἐξουσίας το[ῖς παισίν, ἐά]ν τινες +αὐτῶν μὴ ὦσιν ὑγιεῖς ἤ πένθει οἰκείῳ +κατέχωνται, where I understand ἐξουσία +to mean <q>leave of absence.</q></note> On the analogy of these and +similar cases we should expect to find the widowed Flamen temporarily +debarred from the exercise of his office, not permanently +relieved of it. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Apparent +parallel +among the +Todas.</note> +However, in support of Dr. Farnell's view I would cite an +Indian parallel which was pointed out to me by Dr. W. H. R. +Rivers. Among the Todas of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India +the priestly dairyman (<foreign rend='italic'>palol</foreign>) is a sacred personage, and his life, like +that of the Flamen Dialis, is hedged in by many taboos. Now +when a death occurs in his clan, the dairyman may not attend any +of the funeral ceremonies unless he gives up office, but he may be +re-elected after the second funeral ceremonies have been completed. +In the interval his place must be taken by a man of another clan. +Some eighteen or nineteen years ago a man named Karkievan +resigned the office of dairyman when his wife died, but two years +later he was re-elected and has held office ever since. There have +meantime been many deaths in his clan, but he has not attended +a funeral, and has not therefore had to resign his post again. +Apparently in old times a more stringent rule prevailed, and the +dairyman was obliged to vacate office whenever a death occurred in +his clan. For, according to tradition, the clan of Keadrol was +divided into its two existing divisions for the express purpose of +ensuring that there might still be men to undertake the office of +dairyman when a death occurred in the clan, the men of the one +division taking office whenever there was a death in the other.<note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi> +(London, 1906), pp. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +At first sight this case may seem exactly parallel to the case of +the Flamen Dialis and the Flaminica on Dr. Farnell's theory; for +here there can be no doubt whatever that it is the pollution of death +which disqualifies the sacred dairyman from holding office, since, if +he only avoids that pollution by not attending the funeral, he is +allowed at the present day to retain his post. On this analogy we +might suppose that it was not so much the death of his wife as the +attendance at her funeral which compelled the Flamen Dialis to +resign, especially as we know that he was expressly forbidden to +touch a dead body or to enter the place where corpses were +burned.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 24.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>But on +inspection +the analogy +breaks +down.</note> +But a closer inspection of the facts proves that the analogy +breaks down at some important points. For though the Flamen +Dialis was forbidden to touch a dead body or to enter a place where +corpses were burned, he was permitted to attend a funeral;<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>: <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>funus tamen +exequi non est religio.</foreign></q></note> so that +there could hardly be any objection to his attending the funeral of +<pb n='229'/><anchor id='Pg229'/> +his wife. This permission clearly tells against the view that it was +the mere pollution of death which obliged him to resign office when +his wife died. Further, and this is a point of fundamental difference +between the two cases, whereas the Flamen Dialis was bound to be +married, and married too by a rite of special solemnity,<note place='foot'>Gaius, <hi rend='italic'>Instit.</hi> i. 112, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>quod jus +etiam nostris temporibus in usu est: +nam flamines majores, id est Diales, +Martiales, Quirinales, item reges sacrorum, +nisi</foreign> (qui) <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>ex farreatis nati</foreign> sunt +<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>non leguntur: ac ne ipsi quidem sine +confarreatione sacerdotium habere possunt</foreign></q>; +Servius on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 103, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>quae res ad farreatas nuptias pertinet, +quibus flaminem et flaminicam jure +pontificio in matrimonium necesse est +convenire</foreign>.</q> For a fuller description +of the rite see Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> +iv. 374. From the testimony of Gaius +it appears that not only the Flamen +Dialis but all the other principal +Flamens were bound to be married. +However, the text of Gaius in this +passage is somewhat uncertain. I have +quoted it from P. E. Huschke's third +edition (Leipsic, 1878).</note> there is no +such obligation on the sacred dairyman of the Todas; indeed, if he is +married, he is bound to live apart from his wife during his term of +office.<note place='foot'>W. H. R. Rivers, <hi rend='italic'>The Todas</hi>, p. +99. According to an old account, +there was an important exception to +the rule, but Dr. Rivers was not able +to verify it; he understood that during +the tenure of his office the dairyman is +really celibate.</note> Surely the obligation laid on the Flamen Dialis to be +married of itself implies that with the death of his wife he necessarily +ceased to hold office: there is no need to search for another +reason in the pollution of death which, as I have just shown, does not +seem to square with the permission granted to the Flamen to attend +a funeral. That this is indeed the true explanation of the rule in +question is strongly suggested by the further and apparently parallel +rule which forbade the Flamen to divorce his wife; nothing but +death might part them.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 23, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Matrimonium +flaminis nisi morte dirimi jus +non est</foreign></q>; Festus, p. 89, ed. C. O. +Müller, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Flammeo</q>; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Romanae</hi>, 50. Plutarch +mentions as an illegal exception that +in his own time the Emperor Domitian +allowed a Flamen to divorce his wife, +but the ceremony of the divorce was +attended by <q>many awful, strange, +and gloomy rites</q> performed by the +priests.</note> Now the rule which enjoined that a +Flamen must be married, and the rule which forbade him to divorce +his wife, have obviously nothing to do with the pollution of death, +yet they can hardly be separated from the other rule that with the +death of his wife he vacated office. All three rules are explained in +the most natural way on the hypothesis which I have adopted, +namely, that this married priest and priestess had to perform in +common certain rites which the husband could not perform without +his wife. The same obvious solution of the problem was suggested +long ago by Plutarch, who, after asking why the Flamen Dialis had +to lay down office on the death of his wife, says, amongst other +things, that <q>perhaps it is because she performs sacred rites along +with him (for many of the rites may not be performed without the +presence of a married woman), and to marry another wife immediately +<pb n='230'/><anchor id='Pg230'/> +on the death of the first would hardly be possible or decent.</q><note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Romanae</hi>, 50. +That the wives of Roman priests aided +their husbands in the performance of +sacred rites is mentioned by Dionysius +of Halicarnassus, who attributes the +institution of these joint priesthoods +to Romulus (<hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. Rom.</hi> ii. 22).</note> +This simple explanation of the rule seems quite sufficient, and it +would clearly hold good whether I am right or wrong in further supposing +that the human husband and wife in this case represented a +divine husband and wife, a god and goddess, to wit Jupiter and +Juno, or rather Dianus (Janus) and Diana;<note place='foot'>The epithet Dialis, which was +applied to the Flaminica as well as to +the Flamen (Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 26; +Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 137), +would of itself prove that husband and +wife served the same god or pair of +gods; and while the word was doubtfully +derived by Varro from Jove (<hi rend='italic'>De +lingua Latina</hi>, v. 84), we are expressly +told that the Flamen was the priest +and the Flaminica the priestess of that +god (Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Rom.</hi> 109; +Festus, p. 92, ed. C. O. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<q>Flammeo</q>). There is therefore +every reason to accept the statement of +Plutarch (<hi rend='italic'>Quaest. Rom.</hi> 86) that the +Flaminica was reputed to be sacred to +Juno, the divine partner of Jupiter, in +spite of the objections raised by Mr. W. +Warde Fowler (<q>Was the Flaminica +Dialis priestess of Juno?</q> <hi rend='italic'>Classical +Review</hi>, ix. (1895) pp. 474 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>).</note> and that supposition +in its turn might still hold good even if I were wrong in further conjecturing +that of this divine pair the goddess (Juno or rather Diana) +was originally the more important partner. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Customs of +the Kota +and Jewish +priests.</note> +However it is to be explained, the Roman rule which forbade the +Flamen Dialis to be a widower has its parallel among the Kotas, a +tribe who, like the Todas, inhabit the Neilgherry Hills of Southern +India. For the higher Kota priests are not allowed to be +widowers; if a priest's wife dies while he is in office, his appointment +lapses. At the same time priests <q>should avoid pollution, +and may not attend a Toda or Badaga funeral, or approach the +seclusion hut set apart for Kota women.</q><note place='foot'>E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Castes and Tribes +of Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1909), iv. +10.</note> Jewish priests were +specially permitted to contract the pollution of death for near relations, +among whom father, mother, son, daughter, and unmarried +sister are particularly enumerated; but they were forbidden to contract +the pollution for strangers. However, among the relations for +whom a priest might thus defile himself a wife is not mentioned.<note place='foot'>Leviticus, xxi. 1-3; Ezekiel, xliv. +25.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. The Marriage of the Roman Gods.'/> +<head>§ 2. The Marriage of the Roman Gods.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The theory +that the +Roman +gods were +celibate is +contradicted +by +Varro and +Seneca.</note> +The theory that the Flamen Dialis and his wife personated a +divine couple, whether Jupiter and Juno or Dianus (Janus) and +Diana, supposes a married relation between the god and goddess, +and so far it would certainly be untenable if Dr. Farnell were right +in assuming, on the authority of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, that the +Roman gods were celibate.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Hibbert Journal</hi>, iv. (1906) +p. 932.</note> On that subject, however, Varro, the +<pb n='231'/><anchor id='Pg231'/> +most learned of Roman antiquaries, was of a contrary opinion. He +not only spoke particularly of Juno as the wife of Jupiter,<note place='foot'>Varro, <hi rend='italic'>De lingua Latina</hi>, v. 67, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quod Jovis Juno conjux et is caelum.</foreign></q></note> but he also +affirmed generally, in the most unambiguous language, that the old +Roman gods were married, and in saying so he referred not to the +religion of his own day, which had been modified by Greek influence, +but to the religion of the ancient Romans, his ancestors.<note place='foot'>Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De civitate Dei</hi>, iv. +32, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Dicit etiam [scil. Varro] de +generationibus deorum magis ad poetas +quam ad physicos fuisse populos inclinatos, +et ideo et sexum et generationes +deorum majores suos, id est veteres +credidisse Romanos et eorum constituisse +conjugia.</foreign></q></note> Seneca +ridiculed the marriage of the Roman gods, citing as examples the +marriages of Mars and Bellona, of Vulcan and Venus, of Neptune +and Salacia, and adding sarcastically that some of the goddesses were +spinsters or widows, such as Populonia, Fulgora, and Rumina, whose +faded charms or unamiable character had failed to attract a suitor.<note place='foot'>Seneca, quoted by Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De +civitate Dei</hi>, vi. 10, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Quid quod et +matrimonia, inquit, deorum jungimus, +et ne pie quidem, fratrum ac sororum? +Bellonam Marti conlocamus, Vulcano +Venerem, Neptuno Salaciam. Quosdam +tamen caelibes relinquimus, quasi condicio +defecerit, praesertim cum quaedam +viduae sint, ut Populonia vel Fulgora +et diva Rumina; quibus non miror +petitorem defuisse.</foreign></q> In this passage +the marriage of Venus to Vulcan is +probably Greek; all the rest is pure +Roman.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +marriage +of Orcus.</note> +Again, the learned Servius, whose commentary on Virgil is a +gold mine of Roman religious lore, informs us that the pontiffs +celebrated the marriage of the infernal deity Orcus with very great +solemnity;<note place='foot'>Servius, on Virgil, Georg. i. 344, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Aliud est sacrum, aliud nuptias +Cereri celebrare, in quibus re vera +vinum adhiberi nefas fuerat, quae Orci +nuptiae dicebantur, quas praesentia +sua pontifices ingenti solemnitate celebrabant.</foreign></q></note> and for this statement he would seem to have had the +authority of the pontifical books themselves, for he refers to them +in the same connexion only a few lines before. As it is in the +highest degree unlikely that the pontiffs would solemnize any foreign +rites, we may safely assume that the marriage of Orcus was not +borrowed from Greek mythology, but was a genuine old Roman +ceremony, and this is all the more probable because Servius, our +authority for the custom, has recorded some curious and obviously +ancient taboos which were observed at the marriage and in the +ritual of Ceres, the goddess who seems to have been joined in +wedlock to Orcus. One of these taboos forbade the use of wine, +the other forbade persons to name their father or daughter.<note place='foot'>Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Georg.</hi> i. 344, +and on <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> iv. 58. As to the prohibition +of wine, compare Macrobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> iii. 11. There seems to be +no doubt that Orcus was a genuine old +Italian god of death and the dead. +See the evidence collected by R. Peter, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Orcus,</q> in W. H. Roscher's +<hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie</hi>, +iii. 940 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, who says that <q>Orcus +was obviously one of those old Roman +gods who occupied the thoughts of the +people in the most lively manner.</q> On +the other hand, Prof. G. Wissowa supposes +that Orcus is merely a borrowed +form of the Greek Horkos (<hi rend='italic'>Religion und +Kultus der Römer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 310). But Horkos +was not a god of death and the dead; +he was simply a personified oath (ὅρκος; +see Hesiod, <hi rend='italic'>Works and Days</hi>, 804 +Ὅρκον γεινόμενον, τὸν Ἔρις τέκε πῆμ᾽ +ἐπιόρκοις), an abstract idea which +makes no figure in Greek mythology +and religion. That such a rare and +thin Greek abstraction should through +a gross misunderstanding be transformed +into a highly popular Roman +god of death, who not only passed +muster with the people but was admitted +by the pontiffs themselves to +the national pantheon and honoured +by them with a solemn ritual, is in the +last degree improbable.</note> +</p> + +<pb n='232'/><anchor id='Pg232'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Evidence +of Aulus +Gellius as +to the +marriage +of the +Roman +gods. Paternity +and +maternity +of Roman +deities.</note> +Further, the learned Roman antiquary Aulus Gellius quotes +from <q>the books of the priests of the Roman people</q> (the highest +possible authority on the subject) and from <q>many ancient speeches</q> +a list of old Roman deities, in which there seem to be at least five +pairs of males and females.<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, xiii. 23 (22), 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Conprecationes deum inmortalium, +quae ritu Romano fiunt, expositae sunt +in libris sacerdotum populi Romani et +in plerisque antiquis orationibus. In +his scribtum est: Luam Saturni, +Salaciam Neptuni, Horam Quirini, +Virites Quirini, Maiam Volcani, +Heriem Junonis, Moles Martis Nerienemque +Martis.</foreign></q> As to this list see +Mr. W. Warde Fowler, <hi rend='italic'>Roman Festivals +of the Period of the Republic</hi> +(London, 1899), pp. 60-62; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>The +Religious Experience of the Roman +People</hi> (London, 1911), pp. 150 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, +481 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> He holds (p. 485) that the +feminine names Salacia, etc., do not +designate goddesses, the wives of the +gods, but that they <q>indicate functions +or attributes of the male deity to whom +they are attached.</q></note> More than that he proves conclusively +by quotations from Plautus, the annalist Cn. Gellius, and Licinius +Imbrex that these old writers certainly regarded one at least of the +pairs (Mars and Nerio) as husband and wife;<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, xiii. 23 (22), 11-16.</note> and we have good +ancient evidence for viewing in the same light three others of the +pairs. Thus the old annalist and antiquarian L. Cincius Alimentus, +who fought against Hannibal and was captured by him, affirmed in +his work on the Roman calendar that Maia was the wife of Vulcan;<note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 12. 18, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cingius mensem [Maium] nominatum +putat a Maia, quam Vulcani dicit +uxorem, argumentoque utitur quod +flamen Vulcanalis Kalendis Maiis +huic deae rem divinam facit: sed Piso +uxorem Vulcani Majestam, non Maiam, +dicit vocari.</foreign></q> The work of Cincius +(Cingius) is mentioned by Macrobius +in the same chapter (§ 12, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Cingius +in eo libro quem de fastis reliquit</foreign></q>). +As to the life and writings of this old +annalist and antiquary see M. Schanz, +<hi rend='italic'>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +i. (Munich, 1898), p. 128; G. +Wissowa, Münzer, and Cichorius, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<q>Cincius,</q> in Pauly-Wissowa's <hi rend='italic'>Realencyclopädie +der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</hi>, +iii. 2555 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> All these +writers distinguish the old annalist +from the antiquary, whom they take to +have been a later writer of the same +name. But the distinction appears to +be purely arbitrary and destitute of any +ancient authority.</note> +and as there was a Flamen of Vulcan, who sacrificed to Maia on +May Day,<note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 12. 18. +See the preceding note.</note> it is reasonable to suppose that he was assisted in the +ceremony by a Flaminica, his wife, just as on my hypothesis the +Flamen Dialis was assisted by his wife the Flaminica. Another old +Roman historian, L. Calpurnius Piso, who wrote in the second +century <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi>, said that the name of Vulcan's wife was not Maia but +<pb n='233'/><anchor id='Pg233'/> +Majestas.<note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 12. 18. See +the passage cited above, p. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref>, note 3.</note> In saying so he may have intended to correct what he +believed to be a mistake of his predecessor L. Cincius. Again, +that Salacia was the wife of Neptune is perhaps implied by Varro,<note place='foot'>Varro, <hi rend='italic'>De lingua Latina</hi>, v. 72, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Salacia Neptuni a salo</foreign>.</q> This was +probably one of the cases which Varro +had in his mind when he stated that +the ancient Roman gods were married.</note> +and is positively affirmed by Seneca, Augustine, and Servius.<note place='foot'>Augustine, <hi rend='italic'>De civitate Dei</hi>, vii. +22, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Jam utique habebat Salaciam +Neptunus uxorem</foreign></q>; Servius, on Virgil, +<hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> x. 76, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sane hanc Veniliam +quidam Salaciam accipiunt, Neptuni +uxorem</foreign>.</q> As for Seneca's evidence +see above, p. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, note 3.</note> Again, +Ennius appears to have regarded Hora as the wife of Quirinus, for +in the first book of his Annals he declared his devotion to that +divine pair.<note place='foot'>Nonius Marcellus, <hi rend='italic'>De compendiosa +doctrina</hi>, p. 125, ed. L. Quicherat +(Paris, 1872), <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hora juventutis dea. +Ennius Annali[um] lib. i. [Teque,] +Quirine pater, veneror, Horamque +Quirini.</foreign></q></note> In fact, of the five pairs of male and female deities +cited by Aulus Gellius from the priestly books and ancient speeches +the only one as to which we have not independent evidence that it +consisted of a husband and wife is Saturn and Lua; and in regard +to Lua we know that she was spoken of as a mother,<note place='foot'>Livy, viii. 1. 6, xlv. 33. 2.</note> which renders +it not improbable that she was also a wife. However, according to +some very respectable authorities the wife of Saturn was not Lua, +but Ops,<note place='foot'>Festus, p. 186, ed. C. O. Müller, +<q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Opima spolia dicuntur originem +quidem trahentia ab Ope Saturni +uxore</foreign></q>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, p. 187, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Opis dicta est +conjux Saturni</foreign></q>; Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturnal.</hi> +i. 10. 19, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Hanc autem deam Opem +Saturni conjugem crediderunt, et ideo +hoc mense Saturnalia itemque Opalia +celebrari, quod Saturnus ejusque uxor +tam frugum quam fructuum repertores +esse creduntur.</foreign></q> Varro couples Saturn +and Ops together (<hi rend='italic'>De lingua Latina</hi>, +v. 57, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Principes in Latio Saturnus +et Ops</foreign></q>; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, v. 64), but +without expressly affirming them to +be husband and wife. Professor G. +Wissowa, however, argues that the +male partner (he would not say husband) +of Ops was not Saturn but +Consus. See G. Wissowa, <q><hi rend='italic'>De feriis +anni Romanorum vetustissimi observationes +selectae</hi>,</q> reprinted in his <hi rend='italic'>Gesammelte +Abhandlungen zur römischen +Religions- und Stadtgeschichte</hi> (Munich, +1904), pp. 156 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> His view is accepted +by Mr. W. Warde Fowler (<hi rend='italic'>Roman +Festivals of the Period of the Republic</hi>, +p. 212; <hi rend='italic'>The Religious Experience of +the Roman People</hi>, p. 482).</note> so that we have two independent lines of proof that +Saturn was supposed to be married. +</p> + +<p> +Lastly, the epithets <q>father</q> and <q>mother</q> which the Romans +bestowed on many of their deities<note place='foot'><p>Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>Divin. Instit.</hi> iv. 3, +<q rend='pre'><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Itaque et Jupiter a precantibus pater +vocatur, et Saturnus, et Janus, et +Liber, et ceteri deinceps, quod Lucilius +in deorum consilio irridet</foreign></q>: +</p> +<p> +<q rend='post'><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Ut nemo sit nostrum, quin aut pater optimus divum<lb/> +Ut Neptunus pater, Liber, Saturnus pater, Mars,<lb/> +Janus, Quirinus pater nomen dicatur ad unum.</foreign></q> +</p> +<p> +Compare Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 5; +Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Georg.</hi> ii. 4. +Roman goddesses who received the +title of Mother were Vesta, Earth, +Ops, Matuta, and Lua. As to Mother +Vesta see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 229; as to Mother +Earth see H. Dessau, <hi rend='italic'>Inscriptiones +Latinae Selectae</hi>, Nos. 3950-3955, +3960; as to Mother Ops see Varro, +<hi rend='italic'>De lingua Latina</hi>, v. 64; as to +Mother Matuta see L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische +Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> i. 322 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; G. +Wissowa, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus der +Römer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Mater +Matuta,</q> in W. H. Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon +der griech. und röm. Mythologie</hi>, ii. +2462 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> I cite these passages only +to prove that the Romans commonly +applied the titles <q>father</q> and +<q>mother</q> to their deities. The inference +that these titles implied paternity +or maternity is my own, but in the +text I have given some reasons for +thinking that the Romans themselves +accepted the implication. Mr. W. +Warde Fowler, on the other hand, +prefers to suppose that the titles were +employed in a merely figurative sense +to <q>imply the dependence of the +human citizen upon his divine protector</q>; +but he admits that what exactly +the Romans understood by <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>pater</foreign> +and <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>mater</foreign> applied to deities is not +easy to determine (<hi rend='italic'>The Religious Experience +of the Roman People</hi>, pp. 155-157). +He makes at the same time +the important observation that the +Romans never, so far as he is aware, +applied the terms Father and Mother +to foreign gods, but <q>always to <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>di +indigetes</foreign>, those on whom the original +Roman stock looked as their fellow-citizens +and guardians.</q> The limitation +is significant and seems more +naturally explicable on my hypothesis +than on that of my learned friend.</p></note> are most naturally understood +<pb n='234'/><anchor id='Pg234'/> +to imply paternity and maternity; and if the implication is admitted, +the inference appears to be inevitable that these divine beings were +supposed to exercise sexual functions, whether in lawful marriage or +in unlawful concubinage. As to Jupiter in particular his paternity +is positively attested by Latin inscriptions, one of them very old, +which describe Fortuna Primigenia, the great goddess of Praeneste, +as his daughter.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</hi>, +xiv. Nos. 2862, 2863; H. +Dessau, <hi rend='italic'>Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae</hi>, +Nos. 3684, 3685; R. Peter, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> +<q>Fortuna,</q> in W. H. Roscher's +<hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griechischen und römischen +Mythologie</hi>, i. 1542; G. Wissowa, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus der Römer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. +259. I have to thank my learned and +candid friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler +for referring me to this good evidence +of Jupiter's paternal character.</note> Again, the rustic deity Faunus, one of the oldest +and most popular gods of Italy,<note place='foot'>L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische Mythologie</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +(Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 379.</note> was represented by tradition in the +character of a husband and a father; one of the epithets applied to +him expressed in a coarse way his generative powers.<note place='foot'>The epithet <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Inuus</foreign> applied to +Faunus was so understood by the +ancients, and this suffices to prove the +conception they had of the god's +virility, whether the etymology was +right or wrong. See Servius, on +Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vi. 775, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Dicitur autem +Inuus ab ineundo passim cum omnibus +animalibus.</foreign></q> As to the title see G. +Wissowa, <hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus der +Römer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> p. 211, who, however, rejects +the ancient etymology and the identification +of Inuus with Faunus.</note> Fauna or +the Good Goddess (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Bona Dea</foreign>), another of the oldest native Italian +deities, was variously called his wife or his daughter, and he is said +to have assumed the form of a snake in order to cohabit with her.<note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 12. 21-24; +Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>Divin. Instit.</hi> i. 22; +Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> viii. 314; +Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Caesar</hi>, 9; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>Quaest. +Roman.</hi> 20. According to Varro, +the goddess was the daughter of +Faunus (Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> i. 12. 27); +according to Sextus Clodius she was +his wife (Lactantius, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>; compare +Arnobius, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus nationes</hi>, v. 18).</note> +Again, the most famous of all Roman myths represented the founder +<pb n='235'/><anchor id='Pg235'/> +of Rome himself, Romulus and his twin brother Remus, as begotten +by the god Mars on a Vestal Virgin;<note place='foot'>Livy, i. 4. 2; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Romulus</hi>, +4; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Roman.</hi> i. 77.</note> and every Roman who +accepted the tradition thereby acknowledged the fatherhood of the +god in the physical, not in a figurative, sense of the word. If the +story of the birth of Romulus and Remus should be dismissed as a +late product of the mythical fancy working under Greek influence, +the same objection can hardly be urged against the story of the birth +of another Roman king, Servius Tullius, who is said to have been a +son of the fire-god and a slave woman; his mother conceived him +beside the royal hearth, where she was impregnated by a flame that +shot out from the fire in the shape of the male organ of generation.<note place='foot'>See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 195 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +It would scarcely be possible to express the physical fatherhood of +the fire-god in more unambiguous terms. Now a precisely similar +story was told of the birth of Romulus himself;<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Romulus</hi>, 2. Plutarch's +authority was Promathion in his history +of Italy. See <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the +Evolution of Kings</hi>, ii. 196.</note> and we may +suspect that this was an older form of the story than the legend +which fathered the twins on Mars. Similarly, Caeculus, the founder +of Praeneste, passed for a son of the fire-god Vulcan. It was said +that his mother was impregnated by a spark which leaped from the +fire and struck her as she sat by the hearth. In later life, when +Caeculus boasted of his divine parentage to a crowd, and they +refused to believe him, he prayed to his father to give the unbelievers +a sign, and straightway a lambent flame surrounded the +whole multitude. The proof was conclusive, and henceforth Caeculus +passed for a true son of the fire-god.<note place='foot'>Servius, on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> vii. 678.</note> Such tales of kings or heroes +begotten by the fire-god on mortal women appear to be genuine old +Italian myths, which may well go back far beyond the foundation +of Rome to the common fountain of Aryan mythology; for the +marriage customs observed by various branches of the Aryan family +point clearly to a belief in the power of fire to impregnate women.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>We must +conclude +that the +Roman +gods were +thought to +be married +and to +beget +children.</note> +On the whole, if we follow the authority of the ancients +themselves, we seem bound to conclude that the Roman gods, +like those of many other early peoples, were believed to be +married and to beget children. It is true that, compared +with the full-blooded gods of Greece, the deities of Rome +appear to us shadowy creatures, pale abstractions garbed in little +that can vie with the gorgeous pall of myth and story which Grecian +fancy threw around its divine creations. Yet the few specimens of +Roman mythology which have survived the wreck of antiquity<note place='foot'>Such, for example, as the loves of +Vertumnus for Pomona (Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Metam.</hi> +xiv. 623 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>), of Jupiter for Juturna +(Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Fasti</hi>, ii. 585 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>), and of +Janus for Carna (Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Fasti</hi>, vi. 101 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) and for Camasene (Servius, on +Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> viii. 330). The water-nymph +Juturna beloved by Jupiter is +said to have been the daughter of the +river Vulturnus, the wife of Janus, and +the mother of Fontus (Arnobius, <hi rend='italic'>Adversus +nationes</hi>, iii. 29). Janus in +particular would seem to have been +the theme of many myths, and his +claim to be a genuine Italian god has +never been disputed.</note> +<pb n='236'/><anchor id='Pg236'/> +justify us in believing that they are but fragments of far more +copious traditions which have perished. At all events the comparative +aridity and barrenness of the Roman religious imagination +is no reason for setting aside the positive testimony of learned +Roman writers as to a point of fundamental importance in their +own religion about which they could hardly be mistaken. It should +never be forgotten that on this subject the ancients had access to +many sources of information which are no longer open to us, and +for a modern scholar to reject their evidence in favour of a personal +impression derived from a necessarily imperfect knowledge of the +facts seems scarcely consistent with sound principles of history and +criticism.<note place='foot'>The marriage of the Roman gods +has been denied by E. Aust (<hi rend='italic'>Die Religion +der Römer</hi>, Münster i. W. 1899, +pp. 19 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>) and Professor G. Wissowa +(<hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus der Römer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. +26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), as well as by Mr. W. Warde +Fowler. On the other hand, the +evidence for it has been clearly and +concisely stated by L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische +Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> i. 55-57. It is with +sincere diffidence that I venture to +differ on a point of Roman religion +from the eminent scholars I have +named. But without for a moment +pitting my superficial acquaintance with +Roman religion against their deep learning, +I cannot but think that the single +positive testimony of Varro on a matter +about which he could scarcely be ignorant +ought to outweigh the opinion of +any modern scholar, however learned +and able.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Children of Living Parents in Ritual.'/> +<head>§ 3. Children of Living Parents in Ritual.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Rule of +Greek and +Roman +ritual that +certain +offices +could only +be held by +boys whose +parents +were both +alive.</note> +But Dr. Farnell adduces another argument in support of his +view that it was the pollution of death which obliged the widowed +Flamen Dialis to resign the priesthood. He points to what he considers +the analogy of the rule of Greek ritual which required that +certain sacred offices should be discharged only by a boy whose parents +were both alive.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Hibbert Journal</hi>, April 1907, +p. 689. Such a boy was called a παῖς +ἀμφιθαλής, <q>a boy blooming on both +sides,</q> the metaphor being drawn from +a tree which sends out branches on +both sides. See Plato, <hi rend='italic'>Laws</hi>, xi. 8, +p. 927 <hi rend='smallcaps'>d</hi>; Julius Pollux, iii. 25; +Hesychius and Suidas, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> ἀμφιθαλής.</note> This rule he would explain in like manner by +supposing that the death of one or both of his parents would render +a boy ceremonially impure and therefore unfit to perform religious +functions. Dr. Farnell might have apparently strengthened his case +by observing that the Flamen Dialis and the Flaminica Dialis were +themselves assisted in their office, the one by a boy, the other by a +girl, both of whose parents must be alive.<note place='foot'>Festus, p. 93, ed. C. O. Müller, +<hi rend='italic'>s.vv.</hi> <q>Flaminius</q> and <q>Flaminia.</q> +That certain Roman rites had to be +performed by the children of living +parents is mentioned in general terms +by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (<hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Rom.</hi> ii. 22).</note> At first sight this fits in +<pb n='237'/><anchor id='Pg237'/> +perfectly with his theory: the Flamen, the Flaminica, and their +youthful ministers were all rendered incapable of performing their +sacred duties by the taint or corruption of death. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>But the +rule which +excludes +orphans +from certain +sacred +offices +cannot be +based on +a theory +that they +are ceremonially +unclean +through +the death +of their +parents.</note> +But a closer scrutiny of the argument reveals a flaw. It proves +too much. For observe that in these Greek and Roman offices +held by boys and girls the disqualification caused by the death of a +parent is necessarily lifelong, since the bereavement is irreparable. +Accordingly, if Dr. Farnell's theory is right, the ceremonial pollution +which is the cause of the disqualification must also be lifelong; in +other words, every orphan is ceremoniously unclean for life and +thereby excluded for ever from the discharge of sacred duties. So +sweeping a rule would at a stroke exclude a large, if not the larger, +part of the population of any country from the offices of religion, +and lay them permanently under all those burdensome restrictions +which the pollution of death entails among many nations; for +obviously a large, if not the larger, part of the population of any +country at any time has lost one or both of its parents by death. +No people, so far as I know, has ever carried the theory of the +ceremonial pollution of death to this extremity in practice. And +even if it were supposed that the taint wore off or evaporated with +time from common folk so as to let them go about their common +duties in everyday life, would it not still cleave to priests? If it +incapacitated the Flamen's minister, would it not incapacitate the +Flamen himself? In other words, would not the Flamen Dialis be +obliged to vacate office on the death of his father or mother? There +is no hint in ancient writers that he had to do so. And while +it is generally unsafe to argue from the silence of our authorities, +I think that we may do so in this case without being rash; for +Plutarch not only mentions but discusses the rule which obliged the +Flamen Dialis to resign office on the death of his wife,<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Romanae</hi>, 50.</note> and if he +had known of a parallel rule which compelled him to retire on the +death of a parent, he would surely have mentioned it. But if the +ceremonial pollution which would certainly be caused by the death +of a parent did not compel the Flamen Dialis to vacate office, we +may safely conclude that neither did the similar pollution caused +by the death of his wife. Thus the argument adduced by Dr. +Farnell in favour of his view proves on analysis to tell strongly +against it. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Examples +of the +exclusion +of orphans +from sacred +offices.</note> +But if the rule which excluded orphans from certain sacred +offices cannot with any probability be explained on the theory of +their ceremonial pollution, it may be worth while to inquire whether +another and better explanation of the rule cannot be found. For +that purpose I shall collect all the cases of it known to me. The +collection is doubtless far from complete: I only offer it as a +starting-point for research. +</p> + +<pb n='238'/><anchor id='Pg238'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Boys and +girls of +living +parents +employed +in Greek +rites at the +vintage, +harvest-home, +and +sowing.</note> +At the time of the vintage, which in Greece falls in October, +Athenian boys chosen from every tribe assembled at the sanctuary +of Dionysus, the god of the vine. There, branches of vines laden +with ripe grapes were given to them, and holding them in their +hands they raced to the sanctuary of Athena Sciras. The winner +received and drained a cup containing a mixture of olive-oil, wine, +honey, cheese, and barley-groats. It was necessary that both the +parents of each of these boy-runners should be alive.<note place='foot'>Proclus, in Photius, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, +p. 322 <hi rend='smallcaps'>a</hi>, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, +1824); Athenaeus, xi. 92, pp. 495 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Scholiast on Nicander, <hi rend='italic'>Alexipharmaca</hi>, +109. Only the last of +these writers mentions that the boys +had to be ἀμφιθαλεῖς. As to this +and the following custom see A. +Mommsen, <hi rend='italic'>Feste der Stadt Athen im +Altertum</hi> (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 278 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; W. Mannhardt, Antike <hi rend='italic'>Wald- +und Feldkulte</hi>, pp. 214 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> At the +same festival, and perhaps on the same day, an Athenian boy, whose +parents must both be alive, carried in procession a branch of olive +wreathed with white and purple wool and decked with fruits of +many kinds, while a chorus sang that the branch bore figs, fat +loaves, honey, oil, and wine. Thus they went in procession to a +temple of Apollo, at the door of which the boy deposited the holy +bough. The ceremony is said to have been instituted by the +Athenians in obedience to an oracle for the purpose of supplicating +the help of the god in a season of dearth.<note place='foot'>Eustathius, on Homer, <hi rend='italic'>Iliad</hi>, xxii. +495, p. 1283; <hi rend='italic'>Etymologicum Magnum</hi>, +p. 303. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> Εἰρεσιώνη; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Theseus</hi>, 22. According to a +scholiast on Aristophanes (<hi rend='italic'>Plutus</hi>, +1054) the branch might be either of +olive or laurel.</note> Similar boughs +similarly laden with fruits and loaves were hung up on the doors of +every Athenian house and allowed to remain there a year, at the +end of which they were replaced by fresh ones. While the branch +was being fastened to the door, a boy whose parents were both +alive recited the same verses about the branch bearing figs, fat +loaves, honey, oil, and wine. This custom also is said to have +been instituted for the sake of putting an end to a dearth.<note place='foot'>Scholiast on Aristophanes, <hi rend='italic'>Plutus</hi>, +1054.</note> The +people of Magnesia on the Maeander vowed a bull every year to +Zeus, the Saviour of the City, in the month of Cronion, at the +beginning of sowing, and after maintaining the animal at the public +expense throughout the winter they sacrificed it, apparently at +harvest-time, in the following summer. Nine boys and nine girls, +whose fathers and mothers were all living, took part in the religious +services of the consecration and the sacrifice of the bull. At the +consecration public prayers were offered for the safety of the city +and the land, for the safety of the citizens and their wives and +children, for the safety of all that dwelt in the city and the land, +for peace and wealth and abundance of corn and all other fruits, +and for the cattle. A herald led the prayers, and the priest and +priestess, the boys and girls, the high officers and magistrates, all +<pb n='239'/><anchor id='Pg239'/> +joined in these solemn petitions for the welfare of their country.<note place='foot'>O. Kern, <hi rend='italic'>Die Inschriften von +Magnesia am Maeander</hi> (Berlin, 1900), +No. 98; G. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge Inscriptionum +Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> vol. ii. pp. +246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. 553. This inscription +has been well expounded by Prof. +M. P. Nilsson (<hi rend='italic'>Griechische Feste</hi>, +Leipsic, 1906, pp. 23-27). I follow +him and Dittenberger in regarding +the month of Artemision, when the +bull was sacrificed, as the harvest +month corresponding to the Attic +Thargelion.</note> +Among the Karo-Bataks of Central Sumatra the threshing of the +rice is the occasion of various ceremonies, and in these a prominent +part is played by a girl, whose father and mother must be both alive. +Her special duty is to take care of the sheaf of rice in which the soul +of the rice is believed to reside. This sheaf usually consists of the +first rice cut and bound in the field; it is treated exactly like a +person.<note place='foot'>J. H. Neumann, <q>Iets over den +landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Mededeelingen +van wege het Nederlandsche +Zendelinggenootschap</hi>, xlvi. (1902) p. 381.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Boys of +living +parents +employed +in the rites +of the +Arval +Brothers.</note> +The rites thus far described, in which boys and girls of living +parents took part, were clearly ceremonies intended specially to +ensure the fertility of the soil. This is indicated not merely by the +nature of the rites and of the prayers or verses which accompanied +them, but also by the seasons at which they were observed; for +these were the vintage, the harvest-home, and the beginning of +sowing. We may therefore compare a custom practised by the +Roman Brethren of the Ploughed Fields (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Fratres Arvales</foreign>), a college +of priests whose business it was to perform the rites deemed necessary +for the growth of the corn. As a badge of office they wore +wreaths of corn-ears, and paid their devotions to an antique goddess +of fertility, the Dea Dia. Her home was in a grove of ancient +evergreen oaks and laurels out in the Campagna, five miles from +Rome. Hither every year in the month of May, when the fields +were ripe or ripening to the sickle, reaped ears of the new corn were +brought and hallowed by the Brethren with quaint rites, that a +blessing might rest on the coming harvest. The first or preliminary +consecration of the ears, however, took place, not in the grove, but +in the house of the Master of the Brethren at Rome. Here the +Brethren were waited upon by four free-born boys, the children of +living fathers and mothers. While the Brethren reclined on couches, +the boys were allowed to sit on chairs and partake of the feast, and +when it was over they carried the rest of the now hallowed corn and +laid it on the altar.<note place='foot'>G. Henzen, <hi rend='italic'>Acta Fratrum Arvalium</hi> +(Berlin, 1874), pp. vi. <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, cix. +cx. cxix. cliii. clix. clxxxvii. 12, 13, +15. As to the evergreen oaks and +laurels of the grove, see <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi>, pp. 137, +138; as to the wreaths of corn-ears, +see <hi rend='italic'>ib.</hi>, pp. 26, 28; Aulus Gellius, +vii. 7. 8. That the rites performed +by the Arval Brothers were intended +to make the fields bear corn is expressly +stated by Varro (<hi rend='italic'>De lingua +Latina</hi>, v. 85, <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Fratres Arvales dicti +sunt, qui sacra publica faciunt propterea +ut fruges ferant arva</foreign></q>). On +the Arval Brothers and their rites +see also L. Preller, <hi rend='italic'>Römische Mythologie</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +ii. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. Marquardt, +<hi rend='italic'>Römische Staatsverwaltung</hi>, iii.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Leipsic, +1885) pp. 447-462; G. Wissowa, +<hi rend='italic'>Religion und Kultus der Römer</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> pp. +561 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; J. B. Carter, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Arval +Brothers,</q> in J. Hastings's <hi rend='italic'>Encyclopaedia +of Religion and Ethics</hi>, ii. +(Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<pb n='240'/><anchor id='Pg240'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In fertility +rites the +employment +of +such +children is +intelligible +on the +principle +of sympathetic +magic.</note> +In these and all other rites intended to ensure the fertility of +the ground, of cattle, or of human beings, the employment of +children of living parents seems to be intelligible on the principle +of sympathetic magic; for such children might be deemed fuller +of life than orphans, either because they <q>flourished on both sides,</q> +as the Greeks put it, or because the very survival of their parents +might be taken as a proof that the stock of which the children came +was vigorous and therefore able to impart of its superabundant +energy to others. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sons of +living +parents +employed +to cut the +olive-wreath +at Olympia +and the +laurel-wreath +at +Tempe.</note> +But the rites in which the children of living parents are required +to officiate do not always aim at promoting the growth of the crops. +At Olympia the olive-branches which formed the victors' crowns +had to be cut from a sacred tree with a golden sickle by a lad whose +father and mother must be both alive.<note place='foot'>Scholiast on Pindar, <hi rend='italic'>Olymp.</hi> iii. 60.</note> The tree was a wild olive +growing within the holy precinct, at the west end of the temple of +Zeus. It bore the name of the Olive of the Fair Crown, and near +it was an altar to the Nymphs of the Fair Crowns.<note place='foot'>Pausanias, v. 15. 3.</note> At Delphi +every eighth year a sacred drama or miracle-play was acted which +drew crowds of spectators from all parts of Greece. It set forth +the slaying of the Dragon by Apollo. The principal part was +sustained by a lad, the son of living parents, who seems to have +personated the god himself. In an open space the likeness of a +lordly palace, erected for the occasion, represented the Dragon's +den. It was attacked and burned by the lad, aided by women who +carried blazing torches. When the Dragon had received his deadly +wound, the lad, still acting the part of the god, fled far away to +be purged of the guilt of blood in the beautiful Vale of Tempe, +where the Peneus flows in a deep wooded gorge between the +snowy peaks of Olympus and Ossa, its smooth and silent tide +shadowed by overhanging trees and tall white cliffs. In places +these great crags rise abruptly from the stream and approach +each other so near that only a narrow strip of sky is visible overhead; +but where they recede a little, the meadows at their foot +are verdant with evergreen shrubs, among which Apollo's own laurel +may still be seen. In antiquity the god himself, stained with the +Dragon's blood, is said to have come, a haggard footsore wayfarer, +to this wild secluded glen and there plucked branches from +one of the laurels that grew in its green thickets beside the +rippling river. Some of them he used to twine a wreath for his +brows, one of them he carried in his hand, doubtless in order that, +guarded by the sacred plant, he might escape the hobgoblins which +<pb n='241'/><anchor id='Pg241'/> +dogged his steps. So the boy, his human representative, did the +same, and brought back to Delphi wreaths of laurel from the same +tree to be awarded to the victors in the Pythian games. Hence +the whole festival of the Slaying of the Dragon at Delphi went by +the name of the Festival of Crowning.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Graecae</hi>, 12; +<hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>De defectu oraculorum</hi>, 15; Aelian, +<hi rend='italic'>Varia Historia</hi>, iii. 1; Strabo, ix. 3. +12, p. 422. In a note on Pausanias +(ii. 7. 7, vol. iii. pp. 53 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>) I have +described the festival more fully and +adduced savage parallels. As to the +Vale of Tempe see W. M. Leake, +<hi rend='italic'>Travels in Northern Greece</hi> (London, +1835), iii. 390 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> The rhetoric of +Livy (xliv. 6. 8) has lashed the smooth +and silent current of the Peneus into a +roaring torrent.</note> From this it appears +that at Delphi as well as at Olympia the boughs which were used +to crown the victors had to be cut from a sacred tree by a boy +whose parents must be both alive. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Sons of +living +parents +acted as +Laurel-bearers +at +Thebes.</note> +At Thebes a festival called the Laurel-bearing was held once in +every eight years, when branches of laurel were carried in procession +to the temple of Apollo. The principal part in the procession was +taken by a boy who held a laurel bough and bore the title of the +Laurel-bearer: he seems to have personated the god himself. His +hair hung down on his shoulders, and he wore a golden crown, a +bright-coloured robe, and shoes of a special shape: both his parents +must be alive.<note place='foot'>Proclus, in Photius, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, +ed. I. Bekker, p. 321.</note> We may suppose that the golden crown which he +wore was fashioned in the shape of laurel leaves and replaced a +wreath of real laurel. Thus the boy with the laurel wreath on +his head and the laurel bough in his hand would resemble the +traditional equipment of Apollo when he purified himself for the +slaughter of the dragon. We may conjecture that at Thebes the +Laurel-bearer originally personated not Apollo but the local hero +Cadmus, who slew the dragon and had like Apollo to purify himself +for the slaughter. The conjecture is confirmed by vase-paintings +which represent Cadmus crowned with laurel preparing to attack the +dragon or actually in combat with the monster, while goddesses +bend over him holding out wreaths of laurel as the meed of victory.<note place='foot'>O. Crusius, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Kadmos,</q> in +W. H. Roscher's <hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. +und röm. Mythologie</hi>, ii. 830, 838, 839. +On an Etruscan mirror the scene of +Cadmus's combat with the dragon is +surrounded with a wreath of laurel +(O. Crusius, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> ii. 862). My learned +friend Mr. A. B. Cook was the first to +call attention to these vase-paintings +in confirmation of my view that the +Festival of the Laurel-bearing celebrated +the destruction of the dragon +by Cadmus. See A. B. Cook, <q>The +European Sky-God,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, xv. +(1904) p. 411, note 224; and my note +on Pausanias, ix. 10. 4 (vol. v. pp. +41 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>).</note> +On this hypothesis the octennial Delphic Festival of Crowning and +the octennial Theban Festival of Laurel-bearing were closely akin: +in both the prominent part played by the laurel was purificatory or +expiatory.<note place='foot'>I have examined both festivals +more closely in a former part of this +work (<hi rend='italic'>The Dying God</hi>, pp. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>), +and have shown grounds for holding +that the old octennial cycle in Greece, +based on an attempt to harmonize solar +and lunar time, gave rise to an octennial +festival at which the mythical marriage +of the sun and moon was celebrated by +the dramatic marriage of human actors, +who appear sometimes to have been +the king and queen. In the Laurel-bearing +at Thebes a clear reference +to the astronomical character of the +festival is contained in the emblems of +the sun, moon, stars, and days of the +year which were carried in procession +(Proclus, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>); and another reference +to it may be detected in the legendary +marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia. +Dr. L. R. Farnell supposes that the +festival of the Laurel-bearing <q>belongs +to the maypole processions, universal in +the peasant-religion of Europe, of which +the object is to quicken the vitalizing +powers of the year in the middle of +spring or at the beginning of summer</q> +(<hi rend='italic'>The Cults of the Greek States</hi>, iv. 285). +But this explanation appears to be inconsistent +with the octennial period of +the festival.</note> Thus at Olympia, Delphi, and Thebes a boy whose +<pb n='242'/><anchor id='Pg242'/> +parents were both alive was entrusted with the duty of cutting or +wearing a sacred wreath at a great festival which recurred at intervals +of several years.<note place='foot'>We may conjecture that the +Olympic, like the Delphic and the +Theban, festival was at first octennial, +though in historical times it was +quadrennial. Certainly it seems to +have been based on an octennial cycle. +See the Scholiast on Pindar, <hi rend='italic'>Olymp.</hi> +iii. 35 (20); Aug. Boeckh on Pindar, +<hi rend='italic'>Explicationes</hi> (Leipsic, 1821), p. 138; +L. Ideler, <hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der mathematischen +und technischen Chronologie</hi>, i. 366 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; G. F. Unger, <q>Zeitrechnung der +Griechen und Römer,</q> in Iwan Müller's +<hi rend='italic'>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</hi>, +i. (Nördlingen, 1886) +pp. 605 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; K. O. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Die Dorier</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(Breslau, 1844), ii. 483. The Pythian +games, which appear to have been at +first identical with the Delphic Festival +of Crowning, were held originally at +intervals of eight instead of four years. +See the Scholiast on Pindar, <hi rend='italic'>Pyth. Argum.</hi> +p. 298, ed. A. Boeckh (Leipsic, +1819); Censorinus, <hi rend='italic'>De die natali</hi>, +xviii. 6; compare Eustathius on Homer, +<hi rend='italic'>Od.</hi> iii. 267, p. 1466. 29. As to the +original identity of the Pythian games +and the Festival of Crowning see Th. +Schreiber, <hi rend='italic'>Apollon Pythoktonos</hi> (Leipsic, +1879), pp. 37 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; A. B. Cook, +<q>The European Sky-God,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Folk-lore</hi>, +xv. (1904) pp. 404 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>If wreaths +were +originally +amulets, +we could +understand +why +children +of living +parents +were +chosen to +cut and +wear them.</note> +Why a boy of living parents should be chosen for such an office +is not at first sight clear; the reason might be more obvious if we +understood the ideas in which the custom of wearing wreaths and +crowns had its origin. Probably in many cases wreaths and crowns +were amulets before they were ornaments; in other words, their +first intention may have been not so much to adorn the head as to +protect it from harm by surrounding it with a plant, a metal, or any +other thing which was supposed to possess the magical virtue of +banning baleful influences. Thus the Arabs of Moab will put a +circlet of copper on the head of a man who is suffering from +headache, for they believe that this will banish the pain; and if the +pain is in an arm or a leg, they will treat the ailing limb in like +manner. They think that red beads hung before the eyes of +children who are afflicted with ophthalmia will rid them of the +malady, and that a red ribbon tied to the foot will prevent it from +stumbling on a stony path.<note place='foot'>Antonin Jaussen, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes des +Arabes au pays de Moab</hi> (Paris, 1908), +p. 382.</note> Again, the Melanesians of the Gazelle +Peninsula in New Britain often deck their dusky bodies with +<pb n='243'/><anchor id='Pg243'/> +flowers, leaves, and scented herbs not only at festivals but on other +occasions which to the European might seem inappropriate for +such gay ornaments. But in truth the bright blossoms and verdant +foliage are not intended to decorate the wearer but to endow him +with certain magical virtues, which are supposed to inhere in the +flowers and leaves. Thus one man may be seen strutting about +with a wreath of greenery which passes round his neck and droops +over his shoulders, back, and breast. He is not a mere dandy, but +a lover who hopes that the wreath will work as a charm on a +woman's heart. Again, another may be observed with a bunch of +the red dracaena leaves knotted round his neck and the long stalk +hanging down his back. He is a soldier, and these leaves are +supposed to make him invulnerable. But if the lover should fail to +win the affections of his swarthy mistress, if the warrior should be +wounded in battle, it never occurs to either of them to question +the magical virtue of the charm; they ascribe the failure either +to the more potent charm of another magician or to some +oversight on their own part.<note place='foot'>R. Parkinson, <hi rend='italic'>Dreissig Jahre in der +Südsee</hi> (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 150-152.</note> On the theory that wreaths and +garlands serve as amulets to protect the wearer against the powers +of evil we can understand not only why in antiquity sacred +persons such as priests and kings wore crowns, but also why +dead bodies, sacrificial victims, and in certain circumstances even +inanimate objects such as the implements of sacrifice, the doors +of houses, and so forth, were decorated or rather guarded by +wreaths.<note place='foot'>On the use of crowns and wreaths +in classical antiquity see W. Smith's +<hi rend='italic'>Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +i. 545 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Corona</q>; +E. Saglio, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Corona,</q> in Ch. Daremberg +et E. Saglio's <hi rend='italic'>Dictionnaire des +Antiquités Grecques et Romaines</hi>, iii. +1520 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi> In time of mourning the +ancients laid aside crowns (Athenaeus, +xv. 16, p. 675 A); and so did the +king at Athens when he tried a homicide +(Aristotle, <hi rend='italic'>Constitution of Athens</hi>, +57). I mention these cases because +they seem to conflict with the theory +in the text, in accordance with which +crowns might be regarded as amulets +to protect the wearer against ghosts +and the pollution of blood.</note> Further, on this hypothesis we may perhaps perceive +why children of living parents were specially chosen to cut or wear +sacred wreaths. Since such children were apparently supposed to +be endowed with a more than common share of vital energy, they +might be deemed peculiarly fitted to make or wear amulets which +were designed to protect the wearer from injury and death: the +current of life which circulated in their own veins overflowed, as it +were, and reinforced the magic virtue of the wreath. For the same +reason such children would naturally be chosen to personate gods, +as they seemingly were at Delphi and Thebes. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Children +of living +parents +acting as +priest and +priestess +of Apollo +and +Artemis. +At Rome +the Vestals +and the +Salii must +be the +children +of parents +who were +alive at the +date of the +election. +Children of +living +parents +employed +in expiatory +rites +at Rome.</note> +At Ephesus, if we may trust the evidence of the Greek romance-writer, +Heliodorus, a boy and girl of living parents used to hold for a +year the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis respectively. When their +<pb n='244'/><anchor id='Pg244'/> +period of office was nearly expired, they led a sacred embassy to +Delos, the birthplace of the divine brother and sister, where they +superintended the musical and athletic contests and laid down the +priesthood.<note place='foot'>Heliodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Aethiopica</hi>, i. 22.</note> At Rome no girl might be chosen a Vestal Virgin +unless both her father and mother were living;<note place='foot'>Aulus Gellius, i. 12. 2.</note> yet there is no +evidence or probability that a Vestal vacated office on the death of +a parent; indeed she generally held office for life.<note place='foot'>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Rom.</hi> ii. 67; Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Numa</hi>, +10. We read of a Vestal who held +office for fifty-seven years (Tacitus, +<hi rend='italic'>Annals</hi>, ii. 86). It is unlikely that +the parents of this venerable lady were +both alive at the date of her decease.</note> This alone may +suffice to prove that the custom of entrusting certain sacred duties +to children of living parents was not based on any notion that +orphans as such were ceremonially unclean. Again, the dancing +priests of Mars, the Salii, must be sons of living parents;<note place='foot'>Dionysius Halicarnasensis, <hi rend='italic'>Antiquit. +Rom.</hi> ii. 71.</note> but as in +the case of the Vestals this condition probably only applied at the +date of their election, for they seem like the Vestals to have held +office for life. At all events we read of a lively old gentleman who +still skipped and capered about as a dancing priest with an agility +which threw the efforts of his younger colleagues into the shade.<note place='foot'>Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Sat.</hi> iii. 14. 14. That +the rule as to their parents being both +alive applied to the Vestals and Salii +only at the time of their entrance +on office is recognized by Marquardt +(<hi rend='italic'>Römische Staatsverwaltung</hi>, iii.<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> 228, +note 1).</note> +Again, at the public games in Rome boys of living parents had to +escort the images of the gods in their sacred cars, and it was a dire +omen if one of them relaxed his hold on the holy cart or let a strap +slip from his fingers.<note place='foot'>Cicero, <hi rend='italic'>De haruspicum responso</hi>, +11.</note> And when the stout Roman heart was +shaken by the appalling news that somebody had been struck by +lightning, that the sky had somewhere been suddenly overcast, or +that a she-mule had been safely delivered of a colt, boys and girls +whose fathers and mothers were still alive used to be sought out and +employed to help in expiating the terrific prodigy.<note place='foot'>Livy, xxxvii. 3; Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> +i. 6. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Vopiscus, <hi rend='italic'>Aurelianus</hi>, 19 +(where the words <q><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>patrimis matrimisque +pueris carmen indicite</foreign></q> are +omitted from the text by H. Peter).</note> Again, when +the Capitol had been sacked and burned by the disorderly troops of +Vitellius, solemn preparations were made to rebuild it. The whole +area was enclosed by a cordon of fillets and wreaths. Then soldiers +chosen for their auspicious names entered within the barriers holding +branches of lucky trees in their hands; and afterwards the Vestal +Virgins, aided by boys and girls of living parents, washed the +foundations with water drawn from springs and rivers.<note place='foot'>Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Histor.</hi> iv. 53. For the +sack and conflagration of the Capitol +see <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> iii. 71-75.</note> In this +ceremony the choice of such children seems to be based on the same +idea as the choice of such water; for as running water is deemed to +<pb n='245'/><anchor id='Pg245'/> +be especially alive,<note place='foot'>Flowing water in Hebrew is +called <q>living water</q> (מים היים).</note> so the vital current might be thought to flow +without interruption in the children of living parents but to stagnate +in orphans. Hence the children of living parents rather than orphans +would naturally be chosen to pour the living water over the foundations, +and so to lend something of their own vitality or endurance to +a building that was designed to last for ever. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Children +of living +parents +employed +at marriage +ceremonies +in Greece, +Italy, +Albania, +Bulgaria, +and Africa.</note> +On the same principle we can easily understand why the +children of living parents should be especially chosen to perform +certain offices at marriage. The motive of such a choice may be a +wish to ensure by sympathetic magic the life of the newly wedded +pair and of their offspring. Thus at Roman marriages the bride +was escorted to her new home by three boys whose parents were all +living. Two of the boys held her, and the third carried a torch of +buckthorn or hawthorn in front of her,<note place='foot'>Festus, <hi rend='italic'>De verborum significatione</hi>, +ed. C. O. Müller (Leipsic, 1839), pp. +244, 245, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Patrimi et matrimi +pueri.</q></note> probably for the purpose +of averting the powers of evil; for buckthorn or hawthorn was +credited with this magical virtue.<note place='foot'>Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Fasti</hi>, vi. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 165-168.</note> At marriages in ancient Athens +a boy whose parents were both living used to wear a wreath of +thorns and acorns and to carry about a winnowing-fan full of loaves, +crying, <q>I have escaped the bad, I have found the better.</q><note place='foot'>Zenobius, <hi rend='italic'>Proverb.</hi> iii. 98; Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Proverb.</hi> i. 16; Apostolius, +<hi rend='italic'>Proverb.</hi> viii. 16 (<hi rend='italic'>Paroemiographi +Graeci</hi>, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. +82, 323 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. 429); Eustathius, on +Homer, <hi rend='italic'>Od.</hi> xii. 357, p. 1726; +Photius, <hi rend='italic'>Lexicon</hi>, <hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> ἔφυγον κακόν.</note> In +modern Greece on the Sunday before a marriage the bridegroom +sends to the bride the wedding cake by the hands of a boy, both of +whose parents must be living. The messenger takes great care not +to stumble or to injure the cake, for to do either would be a very +bad omen. He may not enter the bride's house till she has taken +the cake from him. For this purpose he lays it down on the +threshold of the door, and then both of them, the boy and the +bride, rush at it and try to seize the greater part of the cake. And +when cattle are being slaughtered for the marriage festivities, the +first beast killed for the bride's house must be killed by a youth +whose parents are both alive. Further, a son of living parents must +solemnly fetch the water with which the bridegroom's head is +ceremonially washed by women before marriage. And on the day +after the marriage bride and bridegroom go in procession to the +well or spring from which they are henceforth to fetch their water. +The bride greets the spring, drinks of the water from the hollow of +her hand, and throws money and food into it. Then follows a +dance, accompanied by a song, round about the spring. Lastly, a +lad whose parents are both living draws water from the spring in +a special vessel and carries it to the house of the bridal pair without +speaking a word: this <q>unspoken water,</q> as it is called, is regarded +<pb n='246'/><anchor id='Pg246'/> +as peculiarly holy and wholesome. When the young couple return +from the spring, they fill their mouths with the <q>unspoken water</q> +and try to spirt it on each other inside the door of the house.<note place='foot'>C. Wachsmuth, <hi rend='italic'>Das alte Griechenland +im neuen</hi> (Bonn, 1864), pp. 83-85, +86, 87, 100 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> In +Albania, when women are baking cakes for a wedding, the first to +put hand to the dough must be a maiden whose parents are both +alive and who has brothers, the more the better; for only such a +girl is deemed lucky. And when the bride has dismounted from +her horse at the bridegroom's door, a small boy whose parents are +both alive (for only such a boy is thought to bring luck) is passed +thrice backwards and forwards under the horse's belly, as if he +would girdle the beast.<note place='foot'>J. G. von Hahn, <hi rend='italic'>Albanesische +Studien</hi> (Jena, 1854), i. 144, 146.</note> Among the South Slavs of Bulgaria a +little child whose father and mother are both alive helps to bake the +two bridal cakes, pouring water and salt on the meal and stirring +the mixture with a spurtle of a special shape; then a girl lifts the +child in her arms, and the little one touches the roof-beam thrice +with the spurtle, saying, <q>Boys and girls.</q> And when the bride's +hair is to be dressed for the wedding day, the work of combing and +plaiting it must be begun by a child of living parents.<note place='foot'>F. S. Krauss, <hi rend='italic'>Sitte und Brauch +der Süd-Slaven</hi> (Vienna, 1885), pp. +438, 441.</note> Among the +Eesa and Gadabursi, two Somali tribes, on the morning after a +marriage <q>the bride's female relations bring presents of milk, and +are accompanied by a young male child whose parents are living. +The child drinks some of the milk before any one else tastes it; +and after him the bridegroom, if his parents are living; but if one +or both of his parents are dead, and those of the bride living, she +drinks after the child. By doing this they believe that if the newly-married +woman bears a child the father will be alive at the time.</q><note place='foot'>Captain J. S. King, <q>Notes on +the Folk-lore and some Social Customs +of the Western Somali Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The +Folk-lore Journal</hi>, vi. (1888) p. 124. +Compare Ph. Paulitschke, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographie +Nordost-Afrikas, die materielle +Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl</hi> +(Berlin, 1893), p. 200.</note> +A slightly different application of the same principle appears in +the old Hindoo rule that when a bride reached the house of her +husband, she should be made to descend from the chariot by women +of good character whose husbands and sons were living, and that +afterwards these women should seat the bride on a bull's hide, while +her husband recited the verse, <q>Here ye cows, bring forth calves.</q><note place='foot'>The <hi rend='italic'>Grihya-Sûtras</hi>, translated by +H. Oldenberg, Part ii. (Oxford, 1892) +p. 50 (<hi rend='italic'>The Sacred Books of the East</hi>, +vol. xxx.).</note> +Here the ceremony of seating the young wife on a bull's hide seems +plainly intended to make her fruitful through the generative virtue +of the bull; while the attendance of women, whose husbands and +sons are living, is no doubt a device for ensuring, by sympathetic +magic, the life both of the bride's husband and of her future offspring. +</p> + +<pb n='247'/><anchor id='Pg247'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Children +of living +parents +apparently +supposed +to impart +life and +longevity. +Child of +living +parents +employed +in funeral +rites.</note> +In the Somali custom just described the part played by the child +of living parents is unambiguous and helps to throw light on the +obscurer cases which precede. Such a child is clearly supposed to +impart the virtue of longevity to the milk of which it partakes, and +so to transmit it to the newly married pair who afterwards drink of +the milk. Similarly, we may suppose that in all marriage rites at +least, if not in religious rites generally, the employment of children +of living parents is intended to diffuse by sympathy the blessings of +life and longevity among all who participate in the ceremonies. +This intention seems to underlie the use which the Malagasy make +of the children of living parents in ritual. Thus, when a child is a +week old, it is dressed up in the finest clothes that can be got, and +is then carried out of the house by some person whose parents are +both still living; afterwards it is brought back to the mother. In +the act of being carried out and in, the infant must be twice carefully +lifted over the fire, which is placed near the door. If the +child is a boy, the axe, knife, and spear of the family, together with +any building tools that may be in the house, are taken out of it at +the same time. <q>The implements are perhaps used chiefly as +emblems of the occupations in which it is expected the infant will +engage when it arrives at maturer years; and the whole may be +regarded as expressing the hopes cherished of his activity, wealth, +and enjoyments.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. William Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>History of +Madagascar</hi> (London, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n.d.</hi>), i. 151 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> On such an occasion the service of a person +whose parents are both alive seems naturally calculated to promote +the longevity of the infant. For a like reason, probably, the holy +water used at the Malagasy ceremony of circumcision is drawn from +a pool by a person whose parents are both still living.<note place='foot'>Rev. W. Ellis, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 180.</note> The same +idea may explain a funeral custom observed by the Sihanaka of +Madagascar. After a burial the family of the deceased, with their +near relatives and dependents, meet in the house from which the +corpse was lately removed <q>to drink rum and to undergo a purifying +and preserving baptism called <foreign rend='italic'>fàfy rànom-bóahàngy</foreign>. Leaves of the +lemon or lime tree, and the stalks of two kinds of grass, are gathered +and placed in a vessel with water. A person, both of whose parents +are living, is chosen to perform the rite, and this <q>holy water</q> is then +sprinkled upon the walls of the house and upon all assembled within +them, and finally around the house outside.</q><note place='foot'>J. Pearse, <q>Customs connected +with Death and Burial among the +Sihanaka,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Antananarivo Annual +and Madagascar Magazine</hi>, vol. ii. (a +reprint of the second four numbers, +1881-1884) (Antananarivo, 1896) p. +152.</note> Here a person whose +parents are both living appears to be credited with a more than +common share of life and longevity; from which it naturally follows +that he is better fitted than any one else to perform a ceremony +intended to avert the danger of death from the household. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The use +of children +of living +parents in +ritual may +be explained +by +a notion +that they +are fuller +of life and +therefore +luckier +than +orphans.</note> +The notion that a child of living parents is endowed with a +<pb n='248'/><anchor id='Pg248'/> +higher degree of vitality than an orphan probably explains all the +cases of the employment of such a child in ritual, whether the +particular rite is designed to ensure the fertility of the ground or +the fruitfulness of women, or to avert the danger of death and +other calamities. Yet it might be a mistake to suppose that this +notion is always clearly apprehended by the persons who practise +the customs. In their minds the definite conception of superabundant +and overflowing vitality may easily dissolve into a vague +idea that the child of living parents is luckier than other folk. No +more than this seems to be at the bottom of the Masai rule that +when the warriors wish to select a chief, they must choose <q>a man +whose parents are still living, who owns cattle and has never killed +anybody, whose parents are not blind, and who himself has not a +discoloured eye.</q><note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Masai</hi> (Oxford, +1905), p. 299.</note> And nothing more is needed to explain the +ancient Greek custom which assigned the duty of drawing lots from +an urn to a boy under puberty whose father and mother were both +in life.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>Hermotimus</hi>, 57.</note> At Athens it would appear that registers of these boys +were kept, perhaps in order that the lads might discharge, as +occasion arose, those offices of religion which required the service +of such auspicious youths.<note place='foot'>A fragmentary list of these youths +is preserved in an Athenian inscription +of the year 91 or 90 <hi rend='smallcaps'>b.c.</hi> See +Ch. Michel, <hi rend='italic'>Recueil d'Inscriptions +Grecques</hi>, Supplément, i. (Paris, 1912) +p. 104, No. 1544.</note> The atrocious tyrant Heliogabalus, one +of the worst monsters who ever disgraced the human form, caused +search to be made throughout Italy for noble and handsome boys +whose parents were both alive, and he sacrificed them to his barbarous +gods, torturing them first and grabbling among their entrails afterwards +for omens. He seems to have thought that such victims +would be peculiarly acceptable to the Syrian deities whom he +worshipped; so he encouraged the torturers and butchers at their +work, and thanked the gods for enabling him to ferret out <q>their +friends.</q><note place='foot'>Aelius Lampridius, <hi rend='italic'>Antoninus +Heliogabalus</hi>, viii. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> The historian +thinks that the monster chose these +victims merely for the pleasure of +rending the hearts of both the parents.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='249'/><anchor id='Pg249'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>III. A Charm To Protect a Town.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +Bechuanas +use the +hide of a +sacrificial +ox at +founding a +new town.</note> +The tradition that a Lydian king tried to make the citadel of Sardes +impregnable by carrying round it a lion<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. p. 184.</note> may perhaps be illustrated +by a South African custom. When the Bechuanas are about to +found a new town, they observe an elaborate ritual. They choose +a bull from the herd, sew up its eyelids with sinew, and then allow +the blinded animal to wander at will for four days. On the fifth +day they track it down and sacrifice it at sunset on the spot where +it happens to be standing. The carcase is then roasted whole and +divided among the people. Ritual requires that every particle of +the flesh should be consumed on the spot. When the sacrificial +meal is over, the medicine-men take the hide and mark it with +appropriate medicines, the composition of which is a professional +secret. Then with one long spiral cut they convert the whole hide +into a single thong. Having done so they cut up the thong into +lengths of about two feet and despatch messengers in all directions +to peg down one of those strips in each of the paths leading to the +new town. <q>After this,</q> it is said, <q>if a foreigner approaches the +new town to destroy it with his charms, he will find that the town +has prepared itself for his coming.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. W. C. Willoughby, <q>Notes +on the Totemism of the Becwana,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxv. (1905) pp. 303 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Thus it would seem that the +pastoral Bechuanas attempt to place a new town under the protection +of one of their sacred cattle<note place='foot'>For more evidence of the sanctity +of cattle among the Bechuanas see the +Rev. W. C. Willoughby, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. +301 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> by distributing pieces of its hide +at all points where an enemy could approach it, just as the Lydian +king thought to place the citadel of his capital under the protection +of the lion-god by carrying the animal round the boundaries. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The custom +may +explain +the legend +of the +foundation +of Carthage +and similar +tales.</note> +Further, the Bechuana custom may throw light on a widespread +legend which relates how a wily settler in a new country bought +from the natives as much land as could be covered with a hide, and +how he then proceeded to cut the hide into thongs and to claim +as much land as could be enclosed by the thongs. It was thus, +<pb n='250'/><anchor id='Pg250'/> +according to the Hottentots, that the first European settlers obtained +a footing in South Africa.<note place='foot'>T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, <hi rend='italic'>Voyage +d'Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie +du Cap de Bonne-Espérance</hi> (Paris, +1842), p. 49.</note> But the most familiar example of such +stories is the tradition that Dido procured the site of Carthage +in this fashion, and that the place hence received the name of Byrsa +or <q>hide.</q><note place='foot'>Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> i. 367 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, with the +commentary of Servius; Justin, xviii. +5. 9. Thongs cut from the hide of the +ox sacrificed to the four-handed Apollo +were given as prizes. See Hesychius, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> κυνακίας; compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, πυρώλοφοι. +Whether the Greek custom was related +to those discussed in the text seems +doubtful. I have to thank my colleague +and friend Professor R. C. Bosanquet +for calling my attention to these passages +of Hesychius.</note> Similar tales occur in the legendary history of Saxons +and Danes,<note place='foot'>Saxo Grammaticus, <hi rend='italic'>Historia Danica</hi>, +ix. vol. i. pp. 462 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> ed. P. +E. Müller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858) +(where the hide employed is that of a +horse); J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>3</hi> +(Göttingen, 1881), pp. 90 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare R. Köhler, <q>Sage von Landerwerbung +durch zerschnittene Häute,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Orient und Occident</hi>, iii. 185-187.</note> and they meet us in India, Siberia, Burma, Cambodia, +Java, and Bali.<note place='foot'>Lieutenant-Colonel James Tod, +<hi rend='italic'>Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han</hi>, +ii. (London, 1832) p. 235; W. Radloff, +<hi rend='italic'>Proben der Volkslitteratur der +türkischen Stämme Süd-Sibiriens</hi>, iv. +(St. Petersburg, 1872) p. 179; A. +Bastian, <hi rend='italic'>Die Voelker des oestlichen +Asien</hi> (Berlin, 1884-1889), i. 25, iv. +367 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; T. Stamford Raffles, <hi rend='italic'>History +of Java</hi> (London, 1817), ii. 153 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +R. van Eck, <q>Schetsen van het eiland +Bali,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +Feb. 1880, p. 117. The substance +of all these stories, except the +first, was given by me in a note on +<q>Hide-measured Lands,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Classical +Review</hi>, ii. (1888) p. 322.</note> The wide diffusion of such stories confirms the +conjecture of Jacob Grimm that in them we have a reminiscence +of a mode of land measurement which was once actually in use, +and of which the designation is still retained in the English <emph>hide</emph>.<note place='foot'>J. Grimm, <hi rend='italic'>Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer</hi>, +pp. 538 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +The Bechuana custom suggests that the mode of measuring by +a hide may have originated in a practice of encompassing a piece of +land with thongs cut from the hide of a sacrificial victim in order to +place the ground under the guardianship of the sacred animal. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The ox +whose hide +is used is +blinded in +order that +the new +town +may be +invisible +to its +enemies.</note> +But why do the Bechuanas sew up the eyelids of the bull which +is to be used for this purpose? The answer appears to be given by +the ceremonies which the same people observe when they are going +out to war. On that occasion a woman rushes up to the army with +her eyes shut and shakes a winnowing-fan, while she cries out, <q>The +army is not seen! The army is not seen!</q> And a medicine-man +at the same time sprinkles medicine over the spears, crying out +in like manner, <q>The army is not seen! The army is not seen!</q> +After that they seize a bull, sew up its eyelids with a hair of its tail, +and drive it for some distance along the road which the army is to +take. When it has preceded the army a little way, the bull is sacrificed, +roasted whole, and eaten by the warriors. All the flesh must +be consumed on the spot. Such parts as cannot be eaten are burnt +with fire. Only the contents of the stomach are carefully preserved +<pb n='251'/><anchor id='Pg251'/> +as a charm which is to lead the warriors to victory. Chosen men +carry the precious guts in front of the army, and it is deemed most +important that no one should precede them. When they stop, the +army stops, and it will not resume the march till it sees that the +men with the bull's guts have gone forward.<note place='foot'>Rev. W. C. Willoughby, <q>Notes +on the Totemism of the Becwana,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxv. (1905) p. 304.</note> The meaning of these +ceremonies is explained by the cries of the woman and the priest, +<q>The army is not seen! The army is not seen!</q> Clearly it is +desirable that the army should not be perceived by the enemies +until it is upon them. Accordingly on the principles of homoeopathic +magic the Bechuanas apparently imagine that they can make themselves +invisible by eating of the flesh of a blind bull, blindness and +invisibility being to their simple minds the same thing. For the +same reason the bowels of the blind ox are carried in front of the +army to hide its advance from hostile eyes. In like manner the +custom of sacrificing and eating a blind ox on the place where +a new town is to be built may be intended to render the town +invisible to enemies. At all events the Bawenda, a South African +people who belong to the same Bantu stock as the Bechuanas, take +great pains to conceal their kraals from passers-by. The kraals are +built in the forest or bush, and the long winding footpaths which +lead to them are often kept open only by the support of a single +pole here and there. Indeed the paths are so low and narrow that +it is very difficult to bring a horse into such a village. In time +of war the poles are removed and the thorny creepers fall down, +forming a natural screen or bulwark which the enemy can neither +penetrate nor destroy by fire. The kraals are also surrounded by +walls of undressed stones with a filling of soil; and to hide them +still better from the view of the enemy the tops of the walls are +sown with Indian corn or planted with tobacco. Hence travellers +passing through the country seldom come across a Bawenda kraal. +To see where the Bawenda dwell you must climb to the tops of +mountains and look down on the roofs of their round huts peeping +out of the surrounding green like clusters of mushrooms in the +woods.<note place='foot'>Rev. E. Gottschling, <q>The Bawenda, +a Sketch of their History and +Customs,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xxxv. (1905) pp. 368 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The object which the Bawenda attain by these perfectly +rational means, the Bechuanas seek to compass by the sacrifice and +consumption of a blind bull. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>This explanation +of the +use of a +blinded ox +is confirmed +by +a Caffre +custom.</note> +This explanation of the use of a blinded ox in sacrifice is +confirmed by the reasons alleged by a Caffre for the observance of +a somewhat similar custom in purificatory ceremonies after a battle. +On these occasions the Bechuanas and other Caffre tribes of South +Africa kill a black ox and cut out the tip of its tongue, an eye, +a piece of the ham-string, and a piece of the principal sinew of the +<pb n='252'/><anchor id='Pg252'/> +shoulder. These parts are fried with certain herbs and rubbed into +the joints of the warriors. By cutting out the tongue of the ox they +think to prevent the enemy from wagging his tongue against them; +by severing the sinews of the ox they hope to cause the enemy's +sinews to fail him in the battle; and by removing the eye of the ox +they imagine that they prevent the enemy from casting a covetous +eye on their cattle.<note place='foot'>T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, <hi rend='italic'>Relation d'un Voyage d'Exploration</hi>, pp. +561-565.</note> +</p> + +</div> + +<pb n='253'/><anchor id='Pg253'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>IV. Some Customs Of The Pelew Islanders.</head> + +<p> +We have seen that the state of society and religion among the Pelew +Islanders in modern times presents several points of similarity to +the condition of the peoples about the Eastern Mediterranean in +antiquity.<note place='foot'>Above, pp. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Here I propose briefly to call attention to certain other +customs of the Pelew Islanders which may serve to illustrate some of +the institutions discussed in this volume. +</p> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='1. Priests dressed as Women.'/> +<head>§ 1. Priests dressed as Women.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In the +Pelew +Islands a +man who is +inspired by +a goddess +wears +female +attire and +is treated +as a +woman. +This pretended +change of +sex under +the inspiration +of a +female +spirit may +explain a +widespread +custom +whereby +men dress +and live +like +women.</note> +In the Pelew Islands it often happens that a goddess chooses +a man, not a woman, for her minister and inspired mouthpiece. +When that is so, the favoured man is thenceforth regarded and +treated as a woman. He wears female attire, he carries a piece of +gold on his neck, he labours like a woman in the taro fields, and he +plays his new part so well that he earns the hearty contempt of his +fellows.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <q>Die Religion der +Pelauer,</q> in A. Bastian's <hi rend='italic'>Allerlei aus +Volks- und Menschenkunde</hi> (Berlin, +1888), i. 35.</note> The pretended change of sex under the inspiration of a +female spirit perhaps explains a custom widely spread among +savages, in accordance with which some men dress as women and +act as women through life. These unsexed creatures often, perhaps +generally, profess the arts of sorcery and healing, they communicate +with spirits, and are regarded sometimes with awe and sometimes +with contempt, as beings of a higher or lower order than common +folk. Often they are dedicated and trained to their vocation +from childhood. Effeminate sorcerers or priests of this sort are +found among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo,<note place='foot'>C. A. L. M. Schwaner, <hi rend='italic'>Borneo</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1853), i. 186; M. T. H. +Perelaer, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographische Beschrijving +der Dajaks</hi> (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), pp. +32-35; Captain Rodney Mundy, <hi rend='italic'>Narrative +of Events in Borneo and +Celebes from the Journals of James +Brooke, Esq., Rajah of Sarawak</hi> +(London, 1848), ii. 65 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Charles +Brooke, <hi rend='italic'>Ten Years in Sarawak</hi> (London, +1866), ii. 280; H. Low, +<hi rend='italic'>Sarawak</hi> (London, 1848), pp. 174-177; +The Bishop of Labuan, <q>On the Wild +Tribes of the North-West Coast of +Borneo,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the Ethnological +Society of London</hi>, N.S. ii. +(1863) pp. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Spenser St. John, +<hi rend='italic'>Life in the Forests of the Far East</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> +(London, 1863), i. 73. In Sarawak +these men are called <foreign rend='italic'>manangs</foreign>, in Dutch +Borneo they are called <foreign rend='italic'>bazirs</foreign> or +<foreign rend='italic'>bassirs</foreign>.</note> the Bugis of South +<pb n='254'/><anchor id='Pg254'/> +Celebes,<note place='foot'>Captain R. Mundy, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> i. 82 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Over de Bissoes of +heidensche Priesters en Priesteressen +der Boeginezen</hi> (Amsterdam, 1872), +pp. 1 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> the Patagonians of South America,<note place='foot'>Th. Falkner, <hi rend='italic'>Description of Patagonia</hi> +(Hereford, 1774), p. 117; J. +Hutchinson, <q>The Tehuelche Indians +of Patagonia,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Transactions of the +Ethnological Society of London</hi>, N.S. +vii. (1869) p. 323. Among the +Guaycurus of Southern Brazil there is +a class of men who dress as women and +do only women's work, such as spinning, +weaving, and making pottery. But so +far as I know, they are not said to be +sorcerers or priests. See C. F. Ph. v. +Martius, <hi rend='italic'>Zur Ethnographie Amerikas +zumal Brasiliens</hi> (Leipsic, 1867), pp. +74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> and the Aleutians and +many Indian tribes of North America.<note place='foot'>G. H. von Langsdorff, <hi rend='italic'>Reise um +die Welt</hi> (Frankfort, 1812), ii. 43; +H. J. Holmberg, <q>Über die Völker +des Russischen Amerika,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Acta Societatis +Scientiarum Fennicae</hi>, iv. (Helsingfors, +1856) pp. 400 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. H. Dall, +<hi rend='italic'>Alaska</hi> (London, 1870), pp. 402 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Ross Cox, <hi rend='italic'>The Columbia River</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (London, +1832), i. 327 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Father G. Boscana, +<q>Chinigchinich,</q> in [A. Robinson's] +<hi rend='italic'>Life in California</hi> (New York, 1846), +pp. 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; S. Powers, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of +California</hi> (Washington, 1877), pp. +132 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; H. H. Bancroft, <hi rend='italic'>Native +Races of the Pacific States</hi> (London, +1875-1876), i. 82, 92, 415, 585, 774; +Hontan, <hi rend='italic'>Mémoires de l'Amérique +Septentrionale</hi> (Amsterdam, 1705), p. +144; J. F. Lafitau, <hi rend='italic'>Mœurs des Sauvages +Amériquains</hi> (Paris, 1724), i. 52-54; +Charlevoix, <hi rend='italic'>Histoire de la Nouvelle +France</hi> (Paris, 1744), vi. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; W. +H. Keating, <hi rend='italic'>Expedition to the Source +of St. Peter's River</hi> (London, 1825), +i. 227 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 436; George Catlin, <hi rend='italic'>North +American Indians</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>4</hi> (London, 1844), +ii. 214 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, +<hi rend='italic'>Reise in das innere Nord-America</hi> +(Coblentz, 1839-1841), ii. 132 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +D. G. Brinton, <hi rend='italic'>The Lenâpé and their +Legends</hi> (Philadelphia, 1885), pp. 109 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; J. G. Müller, <hi rend='italic'>Geschichte der +amerikanischen Urreligionen</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Bâle, +167), pp. 44 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 418. Among the +tribes which permitted the custom were +the Illinois, Mandans, Dacotas (Sioux), +Sauks, and Foxes, to the east of the +Rocky Mountains, the Yukis, Pomos, +and Pitt River Indians of California, +and the Koniags of Alaska.</note> In the island of Rambree, off +the coast of Aracan, a set of vagabond <q>conjurors,</q> who dressed and +lived as women, used to dance round a tall pole, invoking the aid of +their favourite idol on the occasion of any calamity.<note place='foot'>Lieut. W. Foley, <q>Journal of a +Tour through the Island of Rambree,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</hi>, +iv. (Calcutta, 1835) p. 199.</note> Male members +of the Vallabha sect in India often seek to win the favour of the god +Krishna, whom they specially revere, by wearing their hair long and +assimilating themselves to women; even their spiritual chiefs, the +so-called Maharajas, sometimes simulate the appearance of women +when they lead the worship of their followers.<note place='foot'>Monier Williams, <hi rend='italic'>Religious Life +and Thought in India</hi> (London, 1883), +p. 136. Compare J. A. Dubois, +<hi rend='italic'>Mœurs, Institutions, et Cérémonies des +Peuples de l'Inde</hi> (Paris, 1825), i. 439.</note> In Madagascar we +hear of effeminate men who wore female attire and acted as women, +thinking thereby to do God service.<note place='foot'>O. Dapper, <hi rend='italic'>Description de l'Afrique</hi> +(Amsterdam, 1686), p. 467.</note> In the kingdom of Congo +there was a sacrificial priest who commonly dressed as a woman and +<pb n='255'/><anchor id='Pg255'/> +gloried in the title of the Grandmother. The post of Grandmother +must have been much coveted, for the incumbent might not be put +to death, whatever crimes or rascalities he committed; and to +do him justice he appears commonly to have taken full advantage +of this benefit of clergy. When he died, his fortunate successor +dissected the body of the deceased Grandmother, extracting his +heart and other vital organs, and amputating his fingers and toes, +which he kept as priceless relics, and sold as sovereign remedies +for all the ills that flesh is heir to.<note place='foot'>J. B. Labat, <hi rend='italic'>Relation historique +de l'Éthiopie Occidentale</hi> (Paris, 1732), +ii. 195-199. Wherever men regularly +dress as women, we may suspect that +a superstitious motive underlies the +custom even though our authorities do +not mention it. The custom is thus +reported among the Italmenes of +Kamtschatka (G. W. Steller, <hi rend='italic'>Beschreibung +von dem Lande Kamtschatka</hi>, +Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774, pp. 350 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>), the Lhoosais of South-Eastern +India (Capt. T. H. Lewin, <hi rend='italic'>Wild Races +of South-Eastern India</hi>, London, 1870, +p. 255), and the Nogay or Mongutay +of the Caucasus (J. Reinegg, <hi rend='italic'>Beschreibung +des Kaukasus</hi>, St. Petersburg, +Gotha, and Hildesheim, 1796-1797, +i. 270). Among the Lhoosais or +Lushais not only do men sometimes +dress like women and consort and +work with them (T. H. Lewin, +<hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi>), but, on the other hand, women +sometimes dress and live like men, +adopting masculine habits in all +respects. When one of these unsexed +women was asked her reasons for +adopting a masculine mode of life, she +at first denied that she was a woman, +but finally confessed <q>that her <foreign rend='italic'>khuavang</foreign> +was not good, and so she became +a man.</q> See the extract from the +<hi rend='italic'>Pioneer Mail</hi> of May 1890, quoted in +<hi rend='italic'>The Indian Antiquary</hi>, xxxii. (1903) +p. 413. The permanent transformation +of women into men seems to be +much rarer than the converse change +of men into women.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Such transformations +seem to +have been +often +carried out +in obedience +to +intimations +received in +dreams or +in ecstasy. Transformed +medicine-men +among the +Sea Dyaks and Chukchees.</note> +We may conjecture that in many of these cases the call to this +strange form of the religious life came in the shape of a dream or +vision, in which the dreamer or visionary imagined himself to be +a woman or to be possessed by a female spirit; for with many +savage races the disordered fancies of sleep or ecstasy are accepted +as oracular admonitions which it would be perilous to disregard. +At all events we are told that a dream or a revelation of some sort +was the reason which in North America these men-women commonly +alleged for the life they led; it had been thus brought home +to them, they said, that their medicine or their salvation lay in +living as women, and when once they had got this notion into their +head nothing could drive it out again. Many an Indian father +attempted by persuasion, by bribes, by violence, to deter his son from +obeying the mysterious call, but all to no purpose.<note place='foot'>Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, <hi rend='italic'>Reise +in das innere Nord-America</hi>, ii. 133.</note> Among the +Sauks, an Indian tribe of North America, these effeminate beings +were always despised, but sometimes they were pitied <q>as labouring +under an unfortunate destiny which they cannot avoid, being +supposed to be impelled to this course by a vision from the female +spirit that resides in the moon.</q><note place='foot'>W. H. Keating, <hi rend='italic'>Expedition to +the Source of St. Peter's River</hi>, i. 227 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Similarly the Omahas, another +<pb n='256'/><anchor id='Pg256'/> +Indian tribe of North America, <q>believe that the unfortunate beings, +called <foreign rend='italic'>Min-qu-ga</foreign>, are mysterious or sacred because they have been +affected by the Moon Being. When a young Omaha fasted for +the first time on reaching puberty, it was thought that the Moon +Being appeared to him, holding in one hand a bow and arrows and +in the other a pack strap, such as the Indian women use. When +the youth tried to grasp the bow and arrows the Moon Being +crossed his hands very quickly, and if the youth was not very careful +he seized the pack strap instead of the bow and arrows, thereby +fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he could not help acting +the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just as Indian women +used to do.</q><note place='foot'>Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, <q>A Study +of Siouan Cults,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Eleventh Annual +Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</hi> +(Washington, 1894), p. 378.</note> Among the Ibans or Sea Dyaks of Borneo the +highest class of sorcerers or medicine-men (<foreign rend='italic'>manangs</foreign>) are those who +are believed to have been transformed into women. Such a man is +therefore called a <q>changed medicine-man</q> (<foreign rend='italic'>manang bali</foreign>) on +account of his supposed change of sex. The call to transform himself +into a woman is said to come as a supernatural command thrice +repeated in dreams; to disregard the command would mean death. +Accordingly he makes a feast, sacrifices a pig or two to avert evil +consequences from the tribe, and then assumes the garb of a woman. +Thenceforth he is treated as a woman and occupies himself in +feminine pursuits. His chief aim is to copy female manners and +habits as accurately as possible. He is employed for the same +purposes as an ordinary medicine-man and his methods are similar, +but he is paid much higher fees and is often called in when others +have been unable to effect a cure.<note place='foot'>E. H. Gomes, <hi rend='italic'>Seventeen Years +among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo</hi> (London, +1911), p. 179; Ch. Hose and +W. McDougall, <hi rend='italic'>The Pagan Tribes of +Borneo</hi> (London, 1912), ii. 116.</note> Similarly among the Chukchees +of North-Eastern Asia there are shamans or medicine-men +who assimilate themselves as far as possible to women, and who are +believed to be called to this vocation by spirits in a dream. The +call usually comes at the critical age of early youth when the +shamanistic inspiration, as it is called, first manifests itself. But the +call is much dreaded by the youthful adepts, and some of them +prefer death to obedience. There are, however, various stages or +degrees of transformation. In the first stage the man apes a +woman only in the manner of braiding and arranging the hair of his +head. In the second he dons female attire; in the third stage he +adopts as far as possible the life and characteristics of the female +sex. A young man who is undergoing this final transformation +abandons all masculine occupations and manners. He throws away +the rifle and the lance, the lasso of the reindeer herdsman, and the +harpoon of the seal-hunter, and betakes himself to the needle and +the skin-scraper instead. He learns the use of them quickly, +<pb n='257'/><anchor id='Pg257'/> +because the spirits are helping him all the time. Even his pronunciation +changes from the male to the female mode. At the +same time his body alters, if not in outward appearance, at least in +its faculties and forces. He loses masculine strength, fleetness of +foot, endurance in wrestling, and falls into the debility and helplessness +of a woman. Even his mental character undergoes a change. +His old brute courage and fighting spirit are gone; he grows shy and +bashful before strangers, fond of small talk and of dandling little +children. In short he becomes a woman with the appearance of a +man, and as a woman he is often taken to wife by another man, +with whom he leads a regular married life. Extraordinary powers +are attributed to such transformed shamans. They are supposed to +enjoy the special protection of spirits who play the part of supernatural +husbands to them. Hence they are much dreaded even by +their colleagues in the profession who remain mere men; hence, +too, they excel in all branches of magic, including ventriloquism.<note place='foot'>Waldemar Bogoras, <hi rend='italic'>The Chukchee</hi> +(Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), +pp. 448-453 (<hi rend='italic'>The Jesup North Pacific +Expedition</hi>, vol. vii.; <hi rend='italic'>Memoir of +the American Museum of Natural +History</hi>).</note> +Among the Teso of Central Africa medicine-men often dress as +women and wear feminine ornaments, such as heavy chains of beads +and shells round their heads and necks.<note place='foot'>Rev. A. L. Kitching, <hi rend='italic'>On the +Backwaters of the Nile</hi> (London, 1912), +p. 239, with the plate.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Women +inspired +by a god +dress as +men.</note> +And just as a man inspired by a goddess may adopt female +attire, so conversely a woman inspired by a god may adopt male +costume. In Uganda the great god Mukasa, the deity of the Victoria +Nyanza Lake and of abundance, imparted his oracles through a +woman, who in ordinary life dressed like the rest of her sex in a +bark cloth wrapped round the body and fastened with a girdle, so as +to leave the arms and shoulders bare; but when she prophesied under +the inspiration of the god, she wore two bark cloths knotted in masculine +style over her shoulders and crossing each other on her breast and +back.<note place='foot'>For this information I have to +thank my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe. +He tells me that according to tradition +Mukasa used to give his oracles by the +mouth of a man, not of a woman. To +wear two bark cloths, one on each +shoulder, is a privilege of royalty and +of priests. The ordinary man wears a +single bark cloth knotted on one +shoulder only. With the single exception +mentioned in the text, women in +Uganda never wear bark cloths fastened +over the shoulders.</note> When once the god had chosen her, she retained office for life; +she might not marry or converse with any man except one particular +priest, who was always present when she was possessed by the deity.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. Roscoe, <hi rend='italic'>The Baganda</hi> +(London, 1911), p. 297.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +theory of +inspiration +by a female +spirit +perhaps +explains +the legends +of the +effeminate +Sardanapalus +and the +effeminate +Hercules, +both of +whom may +have been +thought +to be +possessed +by the +great +Asiatic +goddess +Astarte +or her +equivalent.</note> +Perhaps this assumed change of sex under the inspiration of +a goddess may give the key to the legends of the effeminate +Sardanapalus and the effeminate Hercules,<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>, pp. 387 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> as well as to the practice +of the effeminate priests of Cybele and the Syrian goddess. In all +<pb n='258'/><anchor id='Pg258'/> +such cases the pretended transformation of a man into a woman +would be intelligible if we supposed that the womanish priest or king +thought himself animated by a female spirit, whose sex, accordingly, +he felt bound to imitate. Certainly the eunuch priests of Cybele +seem to have bereft themselves of their manhood under the +supposed inspiration of the Great Goddess.<note place='foot'>Catullus, lxiii. This is in substance +the explanation of the custom +given by Dr. L. R. Farnell, who +observes that <q>the mad worshipper +endeavoured thus against nature to +assimilate himself more closely to his +goddess</q> (<q>Sociological hypotheses +concerning the position of women in +ancient religion,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</hi>, +vii. (1904) p. 93). The +theory is not necessarily inconsistent +with my conjecture as to the magical +use made of the severed parts. See +above, vol. i. pp. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> The priest of Hercules +at Antimachia, in Cos, who dressed as a woman when he offered +sacrifice, is said to have done so in imitation of Hercules who +disguised himself as a woman to escape the pursuit of his enemies.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Graecae</hi>, 58.</note> +So the Lydian Hercules wore female attire when he served for +three years as the purchased slave of the imperious Omphale, +Queen of Lydia.<note place='foot'>Apollodorus, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, ii. 6. 2 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; Athenaeus, xii. 11, pp. 515 <hi rend='smallcaps'>f</hi>-516 +<hi rend='smallcaps'>b</hi>; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 31; +Joannes Lydus, <hi rend='italic'>De magistratibus</hi>, iii. +64; Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>Dialogi deorum</hi>, xiii. 2; +Ovid, <hi rend='italic'>Heroides</hi>, ix. 55 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Statius, +<hi rend='italic'>Theb.</hi> x. 646-649.</note> If we suppose that Queen Omphale, like Queen +Semiramis, was nothing but the great Asiatic goddess,<note place='foot'>On Semiramis in this character see +above, vol. i. pp. 176 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>The Scapegoat</hi>, +pp. 369 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> or one of +her Avatars, it becomes probable that the story of the womanish +Hercules of Lydia preserves a reminiscence of a line or college of +effeminate priests who, like the eunuch priests of the Syrian goddess, +dressed as women in imitation of their goddess and were supposed +to be inspired by her. The probability is increased by the practice +of the priests of Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who, as we have just +seen, actually wore female attire when they were engaged in their sacred +duties. Similarly at the vernal mysteries of Hercules in Rome the men +were draped in the garments of women;<note place='foot'>Joannes Lydus, <hi rend='italic'>De mensibus</hi>, iv. +46, p. 81, ed. I. Bekker (Bonn, 1837). +Yet at Rome, by an apparent contradiction, +women might not be present +at a sacrifice offered to Hercules +(Propertius, v. 9. 67-70; see further +above, vol. i. p. 113, note 1), and +at Gades women might not enter +the temple of Melcarth, the Tyrian +Hercules (Silius Italicus, iii. 22). +There was a Greek proverb, <q>A +woman does not go to a temple +of Hercules</q> (Macarius, <hi rend='italic'>Cent.</hi> iii. 11; +<hi rend='italic'>Paroemiographi Graeci</hi>, ed. Leutsch et +Schneidewin, i. 392, ii. 154). Roman +women did not swear by Hercules +(Aulus Gellius, xi. 6).</note> and in some of the rites +and processions of Dionysus also men wore female attire.<note place='foot'>Lucian, <hi rend='italic'>Calumniae non temere credendum</hi>, +16; Hesychius and Suidas, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> Ἰθύφαλλοι. At the Athenian vintage +festival of the Oschophoria a chorus +of singers was led in procession by two +young men dressed exactly like girls; +they carried branches of vines laden with +ripe clusters. The procession was said +to be in honour of Dionysus and Athena +or Ariadne. See Proclus, quoted by +Photius, <hi rend='italic'>Bibliotheca</hi>, p. 322<hi rend='italic'>a</hi>, ed. I. +Bekker (Berlin, 1824); Plutarch, +<hi rend='italic'>Theseus</hi>, 23.</note> In +<pb n='259'/><anchor id='Pg259'/> +legend and art there are clear traces of an effeminate Dionysus, who +perhaps figured in a strange ceremony for the artificial fertilization of +the fig.<note place='foot'>Clement of Alexandria, <hi rend='italic'>Protrept.</hi> ii. +34, pp. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ed. Potter; Arnobius, +<hi rend='italic'>Adversus Nationes</hi>, v. 28; <hi rend='italic'>Mythographi +Graeci</hi>, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, +1843), p. 368; J. Tzetzes, <hi rend='italic'>Scholia on +Lycophron</hi>, 212. As to the special +association of the fig with Dionysus, see +Athenaeus, iii. 14, p. 78. As to the +artificial fertilization of the fig, see <hi rend='italic'>The +Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings</hi>, +ii. 314 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> On the type of the effeminate +Dionysus in art see E. Thraemer, +<hi rend='italic'>s.v.</hi> <q>Dionysos,</q> in W. H. Roscher's +<hi rend='italic'>Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie</hi>, +i. 1135 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> Among the Nahanarvals, an ancient German tribe, a priest +garbed as a woman presided over a sacred grove.<note place='foot'>Tacitus, <hi rend='italic'>Germania</hi>, 43. Perhaps, +as Professor Chadwick thinks, this priest +may have succeeded to a priestess when +the change from mother-kin to father-kin +took place. See H. M. Chadwick, +<hi rend='italic'>The Origin of the English Nation</hi> +(Cambridge, 1907), p. 339.</note> These and similar +practices<note place='foot'>In Cyprus there was a bearded and +masculine image of Venus (probably +Astarte) in female attire: according to +Philochorus, the deity thus represented +was the moon, and sacrifices were +offered to him or her by men clad as +women, and by women clad as men. +See Macrobius, <hi rend='italic'>Saturn.</hi> iii. 7. 2 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; +Servius on Virgil, <hi rend='italic'>Aen.</hi> ii. 632. A +similar exchange of garments took +place between Argive men and women +at the festival of the Hybristica, which +fell in the month of Hermes, either at +the new moon or on the fourth of the +month. See Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>De mulierum +virtutibus</hi>, 4; Polyaenus, viii. 33. On +the thirteenth of January flute-players +paraded the streets of Rome in the +garb of women (Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones +Romanae</hi>, 55).</note> need not necessarily have any connexion with the social +system of mother-kin. Wherever a goddess is revered and the theory +of inspiration is held, a man may be thought to be possessed by a +female spirit, whether society be organized on mother-kin or on +father-kin. Still the chances of such a transformation of sex will +be greater under mother-kin than under father-kin if, as we have +found reason to believe, a system of mother-kin is more favourable +to the development and multiplication of goddesses than of gods. +It is therefore, perhaps, no mere accident that we meet with these +effeminate priests in regions like the Pelew Islands and Western +Asia, where the system of mother-kin either actually prevails or has +at least left traces of it behind in tradition and custom. Such +traces, for example, are to be found in Lydia and Cos,<note place='foot'>For traces of mother-kin in Lydia +see <hi rend='italic'>The Magic Art and the Evolution +of Kings</hi>, ii. 281 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> With regard to +Cos we know from inscriptions that at +Halasarna all who shared in the sacred +rites of Apollo and Hercules had to +register the names of their father, their +mother, and of their mother's father; +from which it appears that maternal +descent was counted more important +than paternal descent. See H. Collitz +und F. Bechtel, <hi rend='italic'>Sammlung der griechischen +Dialekt-Inschriften</hi>, iii. 1 +(Göttingen, 1899), pp. 382-393, Nos. +3705, 3706; G. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge +Inscriptionum Graecarnum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> vol. ii. pp. +396 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. 614; Ch. Michel, +<hi rend='italic'>Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques</hi>, pp. +796 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, No. 1003; J. Toepffer, +<hi rend='italic'>Attische Genealogie</hi> (Berlin, 1889), pp. +192 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> On traces of mother-kin in +the legend and ritual of Hercules see +A. B. Cook, <q>Who was the wife of +Hercules?</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Classical Review</hi>, xx. +(1906) pp. 376 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> Mr. Cook conjectures +that a Sacred Marriage of +Hercules and Hera was celebrated in +Cos. We know in fact from a Coan +inscription that a bed was made and a +marriage celebrated beside the image +of Hercules, and it seems probable that +the rite was that of a Sacred Marriage, +though some scholars interpret it merely +of an ordinary human wedding. See +G. Dittenberger, <hi rend='italic'>Sylloge Inscriptionum +Graecarum</hi>,<hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> vol. ii. pp. 577 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, No. +734; R. Dareste, B. Haussoulier, Th. +Reinach, <hi rend='italic'>Recueil d'Inscriptions Juridiques +Grecques</hi>, Deuxième Série +(Paris, 1898), No. xxiv. B, pp. 94 +<hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>; Fr. Back, <hi rend='italic'>De Graecorum caerimoniis +in quibus homines deorum +vice fungebantur</hi> (Berlin, 1883), pp. +14-24.</note> in both of +which the effeminate Hercules had his home. +</p> + +<pb n='260'/><anchor id='Pg260'/> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>But the +exchange +of costume +between +men and +women has +probably +been practised +also +from other +motives, for +example, +from a wish +to avert the +Evil Eye. +This +motive +seems to +explain +the interchange +of +male and +female +costume +between +bride and +bridegroom +at +marriage.</note> +But the religious or superstitious interchange of dress between +men and women is an obscure and complex problem, and it is +unlikely that any single solution would apply to all the cases. +Probably the custom has been practised from many different +motives. For example, the practice of dressing boys as girls has +certainly been sometimes adopted to avert the Evil Eye;<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Panjab Notes and Queries</hi>, i. (1884) +§§ 219, 869, 1007, 1029; <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi> ii. (1885) +§§ 344, 561, 570; <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the +Anthropological Society of Bombay</hi>, i. +(1886) p. 123; <hi rend='italic'>North Indian Notes +and Queries</hi>, iii. (1893) § 99. Compare +my notes, <q>The Youth of Achilles,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>The Classical Review</hi>, vii. (1893) pp. +292 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; and on Pausanias, i. 22. 6 +(vol. ii. p. 266).</note> and it is +possible that the custom of changing garments at marriage, the +bridegroom disguising himself as a woman, or the bride disguising +herself as a man, may have been resorted to for the same purpose. +Thus in Cos, where the priest of Hercules wore female attire, the +bridegroom was in like manner dressed as a woman when he received +his bride.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Quaestiones Graecae</hi>, 58.</note> Spartan brides had their hair shaved, and were clad in +men's clothes and booted on their wedding night.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Lycurgus</hi>, 15.</note> Argive brides +wore false beards when they slept with their husbands for the first +time.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>De mulierum virtutibus</hi>, +4.</note> In Southern Celebes a bridegroom at a certain point of the +long and elaborate marriage ceremonies puts on the garments which +his bride has just put off.<note place='foot'>B. F. Matthes, <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de +Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes</hi> (The +Hague, 1875), p. 35. The marriage +ceremonies here described are especially +those of princes.</note> Among the Jews of Egypt in the Middle +Ages the bride led the wedding dance with a helmet on her head +and a sword in her hand, while the bridegroom adorned himself as +a woman and put on female attire.<note place='foot'>Sepp, <hi rend='italic'>Altbayerischer Sagenschatz</hi> +(Munich, 1876), p. 232, referring to +Maimonides.</note> At a Brahman marriage in +Southern India <q>the bride is dressed up as a boy, and another girl +is dressed up to represent the bride. They are taken in procession +through the street, and, on returning, the pseudo-bridegroom is +made to speak to the real bridegroom in somewhat insolent +tones, and some mock play is indulged in. The real bridegroom +is addressed as if he was the syce (groom) or gumasta (clerk) +of the pseudo-bridegroom, and is sometimes treated as a thief, +and judgment passed on him by the latter.</q><note place='foot'>E. Thurston, <hi rend='italic'>Ethnographic Notes +in Southern India</hi> (Madras, 1906), p. 3. +The pseudo-bridegroom is apparently +the bride in masculine attire.</note> Among the Bharias +<pb n='261'/><anchor id='Pg261'/> +of the Central Provinces of India <q>the bridegroom puts on +women's ornaments and carries with him an iron nut-cutter or dagger +to keep off evil spirits.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Central Provinces, Ethnographic +Survey</hi>, iii. <hi rend='italic'>Draft Articles on Forest +Tribes</hi> (Allahabad, 1907), p. 31.</note> Similarly among the Khangars, a low +Hindustani caste of the same region, <q>the bridegroom is dressed +in a yellow gown and overcloth, with trousers of red chintz, red +shoes, and a marriage crown of date-palm leaves. He has the +silver ornaments usually worn by women on his neck, as the <foreign rend='italic'>khang-wāri</foreign> +or silver ring and the <foreign rend='italic'>hamel</foreign> or necklace of rupees. In order +to avert the evil eye he carries a dagger or nut-cracker, and a smudge +of lampblack is made on his forehead to disfigure him and thus +avert the evil eye, which, it is thought, would otherwise be too probably +attracted by his exquisitely beautiful appearance in his wedding +garments.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Central Provinces, Ethnographic +Survey</hi>, i. <hi rend='italic'>Draft Articles on Hindustani +Castes</hi> (Allahabad, 1907), p. 48.</note> These examples render it highly probable that, like +the dagger or nut-cracker which he holds in his hand, the woman's +ornaments which he wears are intended to protect the bridegroom +against demons or the evil eye at this critical moment of his life, the +protection apparently consisting in a disguise which enables him to +elude the unwelcome attentions of malignant beings.<note place='foot'>Elsewhere I have conjectured that +the wearing of female attire by the +bridegroom at marriage may mark a +transition from mother-kin to father-kin, +the intention of the custom being +to transfer to the father those rights +over the children which had previously +been enjoyed by the mother alone. +See <hi rend='italic'>Totemism</hi> (Edinburgh, 1887), pp. +78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>; <hi rend='italic'>Totemism and Exogamy</hi>, i. +73. But I am now disposed to think +that the other explanation suggested +in the text is the more probable.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The same +explanation +may +account for +the interchange +of male +and female +costume +between +other +persons at +marriage.</note> +A similar explanation probably accounts for the similar exchange +of costume between other persons than the bride and bridegroom at +marriage. For example, after a Bharia wedding, <q>the girl's mother +gets the dress of the boy's father and puts it on, together with a +false beard and moustaches, and dances holding a wooden ladle +in one hand and a packet of ashes in the other. Every time she +approaches the bridegroom's father on her rounds she spills some +of the ashes over him and occasionally gives him a crack on the +head with her ladle, these actions being accompanied by bursts of +laughter from the party and frenzied playing by the musicians. +When the party reach the bridegroom's house on their return, his +mother and the other women come out, and burn a little mustard +and human hair in a lamp, the unpleasant smell emitted by these +articles being considered potent to drive away evil spirits.</q><note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Central Provinces, Ethnographic +Survey</hi>, iii. <hi rend='italic'>Draft Articles on Forest +Tribes</hi> (Allahabad, 1907), p. 31.</note> Again, +after a Khangar wedding the father of the bridegroom, dressed in +women's clothes, dances with the mother of the bride, while the two +throw turmeric mixed with water on each other.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Central Provinces, Ethnographic +Survey</hi>, iii. <hi rend='italic'>Draft Articles on Forest +Tribes</hi> (Allahabad, 1907), p. 48.</note> Similarly after a +<pb n='262'/><anchor id='Pg262'/> +wedding of the Bharbhunjas, another Hindustani caste of the +Central Provinces, the bridegroom's father dances before the family +in women's clothes which have been supplied by the bride's father.<note place='foot'><hi rend='italic'>Central Provinces, Ethnographic +Survey</hi>, vi. <hi rend='italic'>Draft Articles on Hindustani +Castes</hi>, Second Series (Allahabad, +1911), p. 50.</note> +Such disguises and dances may be intended either to protect the +disguised dancer himself against the evil eye or perhaps rather to +guard the principal personages of the ceremony, the bride and bridegroom, +by diverting the attention of demons from them to the guiser.<note place='foot'>Compare W. Crooke, <hi rend='italic'>Popular Religion +and Folk-lore of Northern India</hi> +(Westminster, 1896), ii. 8, who proposes, +with great probability, to explain +on a similar principle, the European +marriage custom known as the False +Bride. For more instances of the +interchange of male and female costume +at marriage between persons other than +the bridegroom see Capt. J. S. King, +<q>Social Customs of the Western +Somali Tribes,</q> <hi rend='italic'>The Folk-lore Journal</hi>, +vi. (1888) p. 122; J. P. Farler, <q>The +Usambara Country in East Africa,</q> +<hi rend='italic'>Proceedings of the Royal Geographical +Society</hi>, N.S. i. (1879) p. 92; Major +J. Biddulph, <hi rend='italic'>Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh</hi> +(Calcutta, 1880), pp. 78, 80; G. A. +Grierson, <hi rend='italic'>Bihar Peasant Life</hi> (Calcutta, +1885), p. 365; A. de Gubernatis, <hi rend='italic'>Usi +Nuziali in Italia</hi><hi rend='vertical-align: super'>2</hi> (Milan, 1878), p. +190; P. Sébillot, <hi rend='italic'>Coutumes Populaires +de la Haute-Bretagne</hi> (Paris, 1886), +p. 438.</note> +However, when at marriage the bride alone assumes the costume +and appearance of the other sex, the motive for the disguise may +perhaps be a notion that on the principle of homoeopathic magic +she thereby ensures the birth of a male heir. Similarly in Sweden +there is a popular superstition that <q>on the night preceding her +nuptials the bride should have a baby-boy to sleep with her, in which +case her first-born will be a son</q>;<note place='foot'>L. Lloyd, <hi rend='italic'>Peasant Life in Sweden</hi> +(London, 1870), p. 85.</note> and among the Kabyles, when +a bride dismounts from her mule at her husband's house, a young +lad leaps into the saddle before she touches the ground, in order +that her first child may be a boy.<note place='foot'>J. Liorel, <hi rend='italic'>Kabylie du Jurjura</hi> +(Paris, <hi rend='smallcaps'>n. d.</hi>), p. 406.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Women's +dress +assumed +by men +for the +purpose of +deceiving +demons +and ghosts.</note> +Be that as it may, there is no doubt that the assumption of +woman's dress is sometimes intended to disguise a man for the +purpose of deceiving a demon. Thus among the Boloki or Bangala +on the Upper Congo a man was long afflicted with an internal +malady. When all other remedies had failed, a witch-doctor informed +the sufferer that the cause of his trouble was an evil spirit, +and that the best thing he could do was to go far away where the +devil could not get at him, and to remain there till he had recovered +his health. The patient followed the prescription. At dead of +night he left his house, taking only two of his wives with him and +telling no one of his destination, lest the demon should hear it and +follow him. So he went far away from his town, donned a woman's +dress, and speaking in a woman's voice he pretended to be other +than he was, in order that the devil should not be able to find him +at his new address. Strange to say, these sage measures failed to +<pb n='263'/><anchor id='Pg263'/> +effect a cure, and wearying of exile he at last returned home, where +he continued to dress and speak as a woman.<note place='foot'>Rev. J. H. Weeks, <hi rend='italic'>Among Congo +Cannibals</hi> (London, 1913), p. 267. +Compare <hi rend='italic'>id.</hi>, <q>Anthropological Notes +on the Bangala of the Upper Congo +River,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal of the Royal Anthropological +Institute</hi>, xl. (1910) pp. 370 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> Again, the Kuki-Lushai +of Assam believe that if a man kills an enemy or a wild +beast, the ghost of the dead man or animal will haunt him and drive +him mad. The only way of averting this catastrophe is to dress up +as a woman and pretend to be one. For example, a man who had +shot a tiger and was in fear of being haunted by the animal's ghost, +dressed himself up in a woman's petticoat and cloth, wore ivory +earrings, and wound a mottled cloth round his head like a turban. +Then smoking a woman's pipe, carrying a little basket, and spinning +a cotton spindle, he paraded the village followed by a crowd roaring +and shrieking with laughter, while he preserved the gravity of a +judge, for a single smile would have been fatal. To guard against +the possibility of unseasonable mirth, he carried a porcupine in +his arms, and if ever, tickled beyond the pitch of endurance, he +burst into a guffaw, the crowd said, <q>It was the porcupine that +laughed.</q> All this was done to mortify the pride of the tiger's ghost +by leading him to believe that he had been shot by a woman.<note place='foot'>Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespear, +<q>The Kuki-Lushai Clans,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Journal +of the Royal Anthropological Institute</hi>, +xxxix. (1909) pp. 380 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Exchange +of costume +between +the sexes +at circumcision.</note> +The same dread of attracting the attention of dangerous spirits +at critical times perhaps explains the custom observed by some East +African tribes of wearing the costume of the opposite sex at circumcision. +Thus, when Masai boys have been circumcised they dress +as women, wearing earrings in their ears and long garments that +reach to the ground. They also whiten their swarthy faces with +chalk. This costume they retain till their wounds are healed, +whereupon they are shaved and assume the skins and ornaments +of warriors.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Masai</hi> (Oxford, +1905), p. 298.</note> Among the Nandi, a tribe of British East Africa, +before boys are circumcised they receive a visit from young girls, +who give them some of their own garments and ornaments. These +the boys put on and wear till the operation of circumcision is over, +when they exchange the girls' clothes for the garments of women, +which, together with necklaces, are provided for them by their +mothers; and these women's garments the newly circumcised lads +must continue to wear for months afterwards. Girls are also circumcised +among the Nandi, and before they submit to the operation +they attire themselves in men's garments and carry clubs in their +hands.<note place='foot'>A. C. Hollis, <hi rend='italic'>The Nandi</hi> (Oxford, +1909), pp. 53-58. Mr. Hollis informs +me that among the Akikuyu, another +tribe of British East Africa, the custom +of boys dressing as girls at or after +circumcision is also observed.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Other cases +of the interchange +of +male and +female +costume.</note> +If such interchange of costume between men and women is +<pb n='264'/><anchor id='Pg264'/> +intended to disguise the wearers against demons, we may compare +the practice of the Lycian men, who regularly wore women's dress +in mourning;<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>Consolatio ad Apollonium</hi>, +22; Valerius Maximus, ii. 6. 13.</note> for this might be intended to conceal them from the +ghost, just as perhaps for a similar reason some peoples of antiquity +used to descend into pits and remain there for several days, shunning +the light of the sun, whenever a death had taken place in the family.<note place='foot'>Plutarch, <hi rend='italic'>l.c.</hi></note> +A similar desire to deceive spirits may perhaps explain a device to +which the Loeboes, a primitive tribe of Sumatra, resort when they +wish to obtain male or female offspring. If parents have several +sons and desire that the next child shall be a girl, they dress the +boys as girls, cut their hair after the girlish fashion, and hang necklaces +round their necks. On the contrary, when they have many +daughters and wish to have a son, they dress the girls up as boys.<note place='foot'>J. Kreemer, <q>De Loeboes in +Mandailing,</q> <hi rend='italic'>Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- +en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië</hi>, +lxvi. (1912) p. 317.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Conclusion.</note> +On the whole we conclude that the custom of men dressing as +women and of women dressing as men has been practised from a +variety of superstitious motives, among which the principal would +seem to be the wish to please certain powerful spirits or to deceive +others. +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='2. Prostitution of Unmarried Girls,'/> +<head>§ 2. Prostitution of Unmarried Girls.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +systematic +prostitution +of +unmarried +girls for +hire in the +Pelew +Islands +seems to +be a form +of sexual +communism +and +of group-marriage.</note> +Like many peoples of Western Asia in antiquity, the Pelew +Islanders systematically prostitute their unmarried girls for hire. +Hence, just as in Lydia and Cyprus of old, the damsels are a +source of income to their family, and women wait impatiently for +the time when their young daughters will be able to help the household +by their earnings. Indeed the mother regularly anticipates the +time by depriving the girl of her virginity with her own hands.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, pp. 50 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +Hence the theory that the prostitution of unmarried girls is a device +to destroy their virginity without risk to their husbands is just as +inapplicable to the Pelew Islanders as we have seen it to be to +the peoples of Western Asia in antiquity. When a Pelew girl has +thus been prepared for her vocation by her mother, she sells her +favours to all the men of her village who can pay for them and +who do not belong to her own exogamous clan; but she never +grants her favours to the same man twice. Accordingly in every +village of the Pelew Islands it may be taken as certain that the +men and women know each other carnally, except that members +of the same clan are debarred from each other by the rule of +exogamy.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> p. 51.</note> Thus a well-marked form of sexual communism, limited +only by the exogamous prohibitions which attach to the clans, prevails +among these people. Nor is this communism restricted to the inhabitants +<pb n='265'/><anchor id='Pg265'/> +of the same village, for the girls of each village are regularly +sent away to serve as prostitutes (<foreign rend='italic'>armengols</foreign>) in another village. There +they live with the men of one of the many clubs or associations +(<foreign rend='italic'>kaldebekels</foreign>) in the clubhouse (<foreign rend='italic'>blay</foreign>), attending to the house, consorting +freely with the men, and receiving pay for their services. +A girl leading this life in the clubhouse of another village is well +treated by the men: a wrong done to her is a wrong done to the +whole club; and in her own village her value is increased, not +diminished, by the time she thus spends as a prostitute in a +neighbouring community. After her period of service is over +she may marry either in the village where she has served or in +her own. Sometimes many or all of the young women of a village +go together to act as prostitutes (<foreign rend='italic'>armengols</foreign>) in a neighbouring +village, and for this they are well paid by the community which +receives them. The money so earned is divided among the chiefs +of the village to which the damsels belong. Such a joint expedition +of the unmarried girls of a village is called a <foreign rend='italic'>blolobol</foreign>. But the young +women never act as <foreign rend='italic'>armengols</foreign> in any clubhouse of their own +village.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 51-53, 91-98.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The +custom +supports +by analogy +the derivation +of the +similar +Asiatic +custom +from a +similar +state of +society.</note> +Thus, while the Pelew custom of prostituting the unmarried +girls to all the men of their own village, but not of their own clan, is +a form of sexual communism practised within a local group, the +custom of prostituting them to men of other villages is a form of +sexual communism practised between members of different local +groups; it is a kind of group-marriage. These customs of the +Pelew Islanders therefore support by analogy the hypothesis that +among the ancient peoples of Western Asia also the systematic +prostitution of unmarried women may have been derived from an +earlier period of sexual communism.<note place='foot'>See above, vol. i. pp. 39 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Somewhat +similar +custom +observed +in Yap, +one of the +Caroline +Islands.</note> +A somewhat similar custom prevails in Yap, one of the western +group of the Caroline Islands, situated to the north of the Pelew +group. In each of the men's clubhouses <q>are kept three or four +unmarried girls or <foreign rend='italic'>Mespil</foreign>, whose business it is to minister to the +pleasures of the men of the particular clan or brotherhood to which +the building belongs. As with the Kroomen on the Gold Coast, +each man, married or single, takes his turn by rotation in the rites +through which each girl must pass before she is deemed ripe for +marriage. The natives say it is an ordeal or preliminary trial to fit +them for the cares and burden of maternity. She is rarely a girl of +the same village, and, of course, must be sprung from a different +sept. Whenever she wishes to become a <foreign rend='italic'>Langin</foreign> or respectable +married woman, she may, and is thought none the less of for her +frailties as a <foreign rend='italic'>Mespil</foreign>.... But I believe this self-immolation before +marriage is confined to the daughters of the inferior chiefs and +<pb n='266'/><anchor id='Pg266'/> +commons. The supply of <foreign rend='italic'>Mespil</foreign> is generally kept up by the purchase +of slave girls from the neighbouring districts.</q><note place='foot'>F. W. Christian, <hi rend='italic'>The Caroline +Islands</hi> (London, 1899), pp. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi> +Compare W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>The Island +of Stone Money, Uap of the Carolines</hi> +(Philadelphia and London, 1910), pp. +46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></note> According +to another account a <foreign rend='italic'>mespil</foreign> <q>must always be stolen, by force or +cunning, from a district at some distance from that wherein her +captors reside. After she has been fairly, or unfairly, captured and +installed in her new home, she loses no shade of respect among her +own people; on the contrary, have not her beauty and her worth +received the highest proof of her exalted perfection, in the devotion, +not of one, but of a whole community of lovers?</q><note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> However, +though the girl is nominally stolen from another district, the matter +is almost always arranged privately with the local chief, who consents +to wink hard at the theft in consideration of a good round sum of +shell money and stone money, which serves <q>to salve the wounds of +a disrupted family and dispel all thoughts of a bloody retaliation. +Nevertheless, the whole proceeding is still carried out with the +greatest possible secrecy and stealth.</q><note place='foot'>W. H. Furness, <hi rend='italic'>op. cit.</hi> pp. 49 +<hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></note> +</p> + +</div> + +<div> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf' level1='3. Custom of slaying Chiefs.'/> +<head>§ 3. Custom of slaying Chiefs.</head> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>In the +Pelew +Islands the +heir to the +chieftainship +of a +clan has +a formal +right to +slay his +predecessor.</note> +In the Pelew Islands when the chief of a clan has reigned too +long or has made himself unpopular, the heir has a formal right to +put him to death, though for reasons which will appear this right is +only exercised in some of the principal clans. The practice of regicide, +if that word may be extended to the assassination of chiefs, is +in these islands a national institution regulated by exact rules, and +every high chief must lay his account with it. Indeed so well +recognized is the custom that when the heir-apparent, who under the +system of mother-kin must be a brother, a nephew, or a cousin on +the mother's side, proves himself precocious and energetic, the people +say, <q>The cousin is a grown man. The chief's <foreign rend='italic'>tobolbel</foreign> is nigh at +hand.</q><note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen +der Pelauer</hi>, p. 43. The +writer does not translate the word +<foreign rend='italic'>tobolbel</foreign>, but the context sufficiently +explains its meaning.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The plot +of death +and its +execution.</note> +In such cases the plot of death is commonly so well hushed +up that it seldom miscarries. The first care of the conspirators +is to discover where the doomed man keeps his money. For +this purpose an old woman will sleep for some nights in the +house and make inquiries quietly, till like a sleuth-hound she has +nosed the hoard. Then the conspirators come, and the candidate +for the chieftainship despatches his predecessor either with his own +hand or by the hand of a young cousin. Having done the deed he +takes possession of the official residence, and applies to the widow +<pb n='267'/><anchor id='Pg267'/> +of the deceased the form of persuasion technically known as +<foreign rend='italic'>meleket</foreign>. This consists of putting a noose round her neck, and +drawing it tighter and tighter till she consents to give up her late +husband's money. After that the murderer and his friends have +nothing further to do for the present, but to remain quietly in the +house and allow events to take their usual course. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>Ceremonies +observed +before the +assassin is +recognized +as chief in +room of his +victim.</note> +Meantime the chiefs assemble in the council-house, and the +loud droning notes of the triton-shell, which answers the purpose +of a tocsin, summon the whole population to arms. The warriors +muster, and surrounding the house where the conspirators are +ensconced they shower spears and stones at it, as if to inflict condign +punishment on the assassins. But this is a mere blind, a sham, a +legal fiction, intended perhaps to throw dust in the eyes of the +ghost and make him think that his death is being avenged. In +point of fact the warriors take good care to direct their missiles +at the roof or walls of the house, for if they threw them at the +windows they might perhaps hurt the murderer. After this formality +has been satisfactorily performed, the regicide steps out of the house +and engages in the genial task of paying the death duties to the +various chiefs assembled. When he has observed this indispensable +ceremony, the law is satisfied: all constitutional forms have been +carried out: the assassin is now the legitimate successor of his +victim and reigns in his stead without any further trouble. +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>But the +formalities +which a +chief has +to observe +at his +accession +are much +more complicated +and tedious +if he has not +murdered +his predecessor.</note> +But if he has omitted to massacre his predecessor and has +allowed him to die a natural death, he suffers for his negligence +by being compelled to observe a long series of complicated and +irksome formalities before he can make good his succession in the +eyes of the law. For in that case the title of chief has to be formally +withdrawn from the dead man and conferred on his successor by a +curious ceremony, which includes the presentation of a coco-nut +and a taro plant to the new chief. Moreover, at first he may not +enter the chief's house, but has to be shut up in a tiny hut for thirty +or forty days during all the time of mourning, and even when that is +over he may not come out till he has received and paid for a human +head brought him by the people of a friendly state. After that he +still may not go to the sea-shore until more formalities have been fully +observed. These comprise a very costly fishing expedition, which is +conducted by the inhabitants of another district and lasts for weeks. +At the end of it a net full of fish is brought to the chief's house, and +the people of the neighbouring communities are summoned by the +blast of trumpets. As soon as the stranger fishermen have been +publicly paid for their services, a relative of the new chief steps +across the net and solemnly splits a coco-nut in two with an old-fashioned +knife made of a Tridacna shell, while at the same time he +bans all the evils that might befall his kinsman. Then, without +looking at the nut, he throws the pieces on the ground, and if they +<pb n='268'/><anchor id='Pg268'/> +fall so that the two halves lie with the opening upwards, it is an omen +that the chief will live long. The pieces of the nut are then tied +together and taken to the house of another chief, the friend of the +new ruler, and there they are kept in token that the ceremony has +been duly performed. Thereupon the fish are divided among the +people, the strangers receiving half. This completes the legal +ceremonies of accession, and the new chief may now go about +freely. But these tedious formalities and others which I pass over +are dispensed with when the new chief has proved his title by slaying +his predecessor. In that case the procedure is much simplified, +but on the other hand the death duties are so very heavy that +only rich men can afford to indulge in the luxury of regicide. Hence +in the Pelew Islands of to-day, or at least of yesterday, the old-fashioned +mode of succession by slaughter is now restricted to a few +families of the bluest blood and the longest purses.<note place='foot'>J. Kubary, <hi rend='italic'>Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer</hi>, pp. 43-45, 75-78.</note> +</p> + +<p> +<note place='margin'>The Pelew +custom +shows how +regicide +may be +regarded as +an ordinary +incident of +constitutional +government.</note> +If this account of the existing or recent usage of the Pelew +Islanders sheds little light on the motives for putting chiefs to death, +it well illustrates the business-like precision with which such a +custom may be carried out, and the public indifference, if not +approval, with which it may be regarded as an ordinary incident of +constitutional government. So far, therefore, the Pelew custom +bears out the view that a systematic practice of regicide, however +strange and revolting it may seem to us, is perfectly compatible +with a state of society in which human conduct and human life +are estimated by a standard very different from ours. If we would +understand the early history of institutions, we must learn to detach +ourselves from the prepossessions of our own time and country, +and to place ourselves as far as possible at the standpoint of men +in distant lands and distant ages. +</p> + +</div> + +</div> + +</div> + +<pb n='269'/><anchor id='Pg269'/> + +<div rend='page-break-before: always'> +<index index='toc'/> +<index index='pdf'/> +<head>Index.</head> + +<lg> +<l>Aban, a Persian month, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abd-Hadad, priestly king of Hierapolis, i. 163 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aberdeenshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abi-baal, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abi-el, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abi-jah, King, his family, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>father of Jehovah,</q> 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abi-melech, <q>father of a king,</q> i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abi-milk (Abi-melech), king of Tyre, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abimelech massacres his seventy brothers, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abipones, of South America, their worship of the Pleiades, i. 258 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abraham, his attempted sacrifice of Isaac, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abruzzi, gossips of St. John in the, i. 245 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marvellous properties attributed to water on St. John's Night in the, 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Easter ceremonies in the, 256;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the feast of All Souls in the, ii. <ref target='Pg077'>77</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rules as to sowing seed and cutting timber in the, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abu Rabah, resort of childless wives in Palestine, i. 78, 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Abydos, head of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the favourite burial-place of the Egyptians, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>specially associated with Osiris, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tombs of the ancient Egyptian kings at, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ritual of, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hall of the Osirian mysteries at, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>representations of the Sed festival at, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inscriptions at, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of Osiris at, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acacia, Osiris in the, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Achaia, subject to earthquakes, i. 202</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acharaca, cave of Pluto at, i. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Acilisena, temple of Anaitis at, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adad, Syrian king, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder and lightning, 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adana in Cilicia, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Addison, Joseph, on the grotto <foreign rend='italic'>dei cani</foreign> at Naples, i. 205 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adhar, a Persian month, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adom-melech or Uri-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14, 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Adon</foreign>, a Semitic title, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 16 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 20, 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adonai, title of Jehovah, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adoni, <q>my lord,</q> Semitic title, i. 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>names compounded with, 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adoni-bezek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adoni-jah, elder brother of King Solomon, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adonis, myth of, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Greek worship of, 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Greek mythology, 10 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Syria, 13 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>monuments of, 29;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Cyprus, 31 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 49;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Osiris, 32;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourning for, at Byblus, 38;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>said to be the fruit of incest, 43;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his mother Myrrha, 43;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>son of Theias, 43 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, 55 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the son of Cinyras, 49;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the title of the sons of Phoenician kings in Cyprus, 49;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his violent death, 55;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>music in the worship of, 55;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred prostitution in the worship of, 57;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inspired prophets in worship of, 76;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human representatives of, perhaps burnt, 110;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>doves burned in honour of, 147;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personated by priestly kings, 223;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ritual of, 223 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his death and resurrection represented in his rites, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festivals of, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>flutes played in the laments for, 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ascension of, 225;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>images of, thrown into the sea or springs, 225, 227 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 236;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>born from a myrrh-tree, 227, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bewailed by Argive women, i. 227 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>analogy of his rites to Indian and European ceremonies, 227;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his death and resurrection interpreted as representations of the decay and revival of vegetation, 227 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted as the sun, 228;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted by the ancients as the god of the reaped and sprouting corn, 229;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a corn-spirit, 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hunger the root of the worship of, 231;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps +<pb n='270'/><anchor id='Pg270'/> +originally a personification of wild vegetation, especially grass and trees, 233;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the gardens of, 236 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rain-charm in the rites of, 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resemblance of his rites to the festival of Easter, 254 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 306;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Bethlehem, 257 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the planet Venus as the Morning Star, 258 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sometimes identified with Attis, 263;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swine not eaten by worshippers of, 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of, among the Greeks, 298;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lamented by women at Byblus, ii. <ref target='Pg023'>23</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Adonis and Aphrodite, i. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 29, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Attis identified with Dionysus, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Osiris, similarity between their rites, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Attis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the river, its valley, i. 28 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual discoloration of the, 30, 225</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aedepsus, hot springs of Hercules at, i. 211 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aedesius, Sextilius Agesilaus, dedicates altar to Attis, i. 275 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aegipan and Hermes, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aelian, on impregnation of Judean maid by serpent, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aeneas and Dido, i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aeschylus, on Typhon, i. 156</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aesculapius, in relation to serpents, i. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reputed father of Aratus, 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his shrines at Sicyon and Titane, 81;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his dispute with Hercules, 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aeson and Medea, i. 181 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Aetna</hi>, Latin poem, i. 221 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Africa, serpents as reincarnations of the dead in, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>infant burial in, 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reincarnation of the dead in, 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festivals of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of dead kings and chiefs in, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supreme gods in, <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inheritance of the kingship under mother-kin in, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, North, custom of bathing at Midsummer among the Mohammedan peoples of, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, West, sacred men and women in, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices in, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Afterbirth'/> +<l>Afterbirth or placenta regarded as a person's double or twin, ii. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>See <hi rend='italic'>also</hi> <ref target='Index-Placenta'>Placenta</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Afterbirths buried in banana groves, i. 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as twins of the children, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Shilluk kings interred where their afterbirths are buried, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agbasia, West African god, i. 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agdestis, a man-monster in the myth of Attis, i. 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agesipolis, King of Sparta, his conduct in an earthquake, i. 196</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agraulus, daughter of Cecrops, worshipped at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145, 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agricultural peoples worship the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Agriculture, religious objections to, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the hands of women in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its tendency to produce a conservative character, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ahts of Vancouver Island regard the moon as the husband of the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Airi, a deity of North-West India, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aiyar, N. Subramhanya, on Indian dancing-girls, i. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ajax and Teucer, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 161</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akhetaton (Tell-el-Amarna), the capital of Amenophis IV., ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Akikuyu of British East Africa, their worship of snakes, i. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, 82, 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alaska, the Esquimaux of, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Koniags of, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albania, marriage custom in, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albanians of the Caucasus, their worship of the moon, i. 73</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albinoes the offspring of the moon, i. 91</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Albiruni, Arab geographer, on the Persian festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alcman on dew, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aleutians, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander Severus, at festival of Attis, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexander the Great expels a king of Paphos, i. 42;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his fabulous birth, 81;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assumes costumes of deities, 165;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to Megarsian Athena, 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexandria, festival of Adonis at, i. 224;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Serapeum at, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alexandrian calendar, used by Plutarch, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— year, the fixed, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Plutarch's use of the, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>All Saints, feast of, perhaps substituted for an old pagan festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>All Souls, feast of, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>originally a pagan festival of the dead, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>instituted by Odilo, abbot of Clugny, <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Allatu, Babylonian goddess, i. 9</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='271'/><anchor id='Pg271'/> + +<lg> +<l>Allifae in Samnium, baths of Hercules at, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Almo, procession to the river, in the rites of Attis, i. 273.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Almond causes virgin to conceive, i. 263;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the father of all things, 263 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alyattes, king of Lydia, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Alynomus, king of Paphos, i. 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amambwe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, its head chief reincarnated in a lion, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amasis, king of Egypt, his body burnt by Cambyses, i. 176 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amathus, in Cyprus, Adonis and Melcarth at, i. 32, 117;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>statue of lion-slaying god found at, 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amatongo, ancestral spirits (Zulu term), i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ambabai, an Indian goddess, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ambala District, Punjaub, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amélineau, E., discovers the tomb of King Khent, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amenophis IV., king of Egypt, his attempt to abolish all gods but the sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>America, reincarnation of the dead in, i. 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the moon worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amestris, wife of Xerxes, her sacrifice of children, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ammon, Milcom, the god of, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ammon (the Egyptian) at Thebes, his human wives, i. 72;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Thebes identified with the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rage of King Amenophis IV. against the god, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amoor, Gilyaks of the, i. 278 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amorites, their law as to fornication, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amsanctus, the valley of, i. 204 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amulets, crowns and wreaths as, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amyclae, in the vale of Sparta, i. 313, 314, 315</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Amyclas, father of Hyacinth, i. 313</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anacreon, on Cinyras, i. 55</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anacyndaraxes, father of Sardanapalus, i. 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anaitis, sacred prostitution in the worship of, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Anassa</foreign>, <q>Queen,</q> title of goddess, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anazarba or Anazarbus, in Cilicia, i. 167 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestor-worship among the Khasis of Assam, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>combined with mother-kin tends to a predominance of goddesses over gods in religion, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ancestors, propitiation of deceased, i. 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the worship of, the main practical religion of the Bantu tribes, ii. <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Ancestral-Spirits'/> +<l>Ancestral spirits on shoulders of medicine-men, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incarnate in serpents, 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the form of animals, 83;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prayers to, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>s.q.</hi>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the father's and on the mother's side, the two distinguished, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Dead'>Dead</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anchiale in Cilicia, i. 144; monument of Sardanapalus at, 172</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andania in Messenia, sacred men and women at, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Andriamasinavalona, a Hova king, vicarious sacrifice for, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anemone, the scarlet, sprung from the blood of Adonis, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angel, the Destroying, over Jerusalem, i. 24</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Angus, belief as to the weaning of children in, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anhalt, custom at sowing in, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Animals sacrificed by being hanged, i. 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 292;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and plants, edible, savage lamentations for, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dead kings and chiefs incarnate in, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed to prolong the life of kings, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anje-a, a mythical being who brings children to women, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anklets made of human sinews worn by king of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ankole, in Central Africa, the Bahima of, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anna, sister of Dido, i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Annam, offerings to the dead in spring in, i. 235 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festivals of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Annual death and resurrection of gods, i. 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anointing as a ceremony of consecration, i. 21 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2 and 3, 68, 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacred stones, custom of, i. 36</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antelopes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Anthesteria</foreign>, festival of the dead at Athens, i. 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antigonus, King, i. 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antimachia in Cos, priest of Hercules at, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antioch, destroyed by an earthquake, i. 222 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Adonis at, 227, 257 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antiochus, Greek calendar of, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Antwerp, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Anubis, Egyptian jackal-headed god, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>finds the body of Osiris, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apameia, worship of Poseidon at, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aphaca in Syria, sanctuary of Astarte at, i. 28, 259;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meteor as signal for festival at, 259</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='272'/><anchor id='Pg272'/> + +<lg> +<l>Aphrodite, her sacred doves, i. 33, 147;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sanctuary of, at Paphos, 33 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the month of, 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her blood dyes white roses red, 226;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name applied to summer, ii. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Adonis, i. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 29, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Cinyras, i. 48 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Pygmalion, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Lebanon, the mourning, i. 29 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apinagos Indians of Brazil, their dances and presentation of children to the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourning for the death of, i. 225;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>held to be an image of the soul of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apollo, the friend of Cinyras, i. 54;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>music in the worship of, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reputed father of Augustus, 81;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Catalonian, 147 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his musical contest with Marsyas, 288;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>purified at Tempe, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Artemis, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Marsyas, i. 55</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— at Delphi, sacrifices of Croesus to, i. 180 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the Dragon at Delphi, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Golden Sword, i. 176</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the Four-handed, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apotheosis by being burnt alive, i. 179 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Appian, on the costume of a priest of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apples forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Apuleius, on the worship of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabic writer on the mourning for Tá-uz (Tammuz) in Harran, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arabs resort to the springs of Callirrhoe in Moab, i. 215 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Moab, their custom at harvest, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their remedies for ailments, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aratus of Sicyon, deemed a son of Aesculapius, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Araucanian Indians of South America eat fruit of Araucanian pine, i. 278 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Araunah, the threshing-floor of, i. 24</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arcadians sacrifice to thunder and lightning, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Archigallus, high-priest of Attis, i. 268, 279;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prophesies, 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arctic origin, alleged, of the Aryans, i. 229 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arenna or Arinna, i. 136 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sun-goddess of, 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arensdorf, custom at sowing in, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Argaeus, Mount, in Cappadocia, i. 190 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Argive brides wore false beards, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women bewail Adonis, i. 227 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristomenes, Messenian hero, his fabulous birth, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristophanes, on the Spartan envoy, i. 196 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hercules as patron of hot springs, 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristotelian philosophy, revival of the, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aristotle on the political institutions of Cyprus, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on earthquakes, 211 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Armengols</hi>, in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armenia, sacred prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Armenians, their festivals of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their opinion of the baleful influence of the moon on children, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arrian on Attis, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Artemis at Perga, i. 35;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name given by Greeks to Asiatic Mother Goddesses, 169</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Apollo, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Ephesus served by eunuch priests, i. 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the Hanged, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Laphrian, at Patrae, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Perasian, at Castabala, i. 115, 167 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Sarpedonian, in Cilicia, i. 167, 171</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Tauropolis, i. 275 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Tauric, human sacrifices to the, i. 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Artemision, a Greek month, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Arunta of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99, 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Arval-Brethren'/> +<l>Arval Brethren, their wreaths of corn, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Roman college of priests, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aryan family, marriage customs of the, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aryans, their alleged Arctic origin, i. 229 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aryenis, daughter of Alyattes, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ascalon, the goddess Derceto at, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ascension of Adonis, i. 225</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashantee, human sacrifices at earthquakes in, i. 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kings of, their human sacrifices, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Asherim</foreign>, sacred poles, i. 18, 18 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 107, 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashes of human victims scattered by winnowing-fans, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashtoreth (Astarte), i. 18 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2 <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Astarte'>Astarte</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, i. 144;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>confused with the legendary Sardanapalus, +<pb n='273'/><anchor id='Pg273'/> +173 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carries off the bones of the kings of Elam, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ashvin, an Indian month, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asia Minor, priestly dynasties of, i. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subject to volcanic forces, 190;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subject to earthquakes, 202</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asiatic goddesses of fertility served by eunuch priests, i. 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asopus, the river, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>A-souling,</q> custom of, in England, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aspalis, a form of Artemis, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assam, the Khasis of, i. 46, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Tangkul Nagas of, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assumption of the Virgin and the festival of Diana, i. 308, 309</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assyrian cavalry, i. 25 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Assyrians in Cilicia, i. 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Astarte'/> +<l>Astarte at Byblus, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the <foreign rend='italic'>asherim</foreign>, 18;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kings as priests of, 26;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Paphos, 33 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>doves sacred to, 147;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the planet Venus, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Syrian Hierapolis served by eunuch priests, 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called by Lucian the Assyrian Hera, 280 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Heavenly Goddess, 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the planet Venus her star, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Aphrodite, i. 304 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Asteria, mother of the Tyrian Hercules (Melcarth), i. 112</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Astyages, king of the Medes, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Asvattha</foreign> tree, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atargatis, Syrian goddess, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Hierapolis-Bambyce, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>derivation of the name, 162;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her husband-god, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ates, a Phrygian, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athamas, the dynasty of, i. 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athanasius, on the mourning for Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>'Atheh, Cilician goddess, i. 162</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athena, temple of, at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and hot springs, 209, 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Magarsian, a Cilician goddess, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sciras, sanctuary of, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athenian boys, race of, at the vintage, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>boy carrying an olive-branch in procession, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athenians, their superstition as to an eclipse of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athens, sacred serpent at, i. 87;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Commemoration of the Dead at, 234;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of an ox at, 296 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage custom at, ii. <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athribis, heart of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Athyr, Egyptian month, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris murdered on the seventeenth day of, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Osiris in the month of, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atonga, tribe of Lake Nyassa, their theory of earthquakes, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Attica, summer festival of Adonis in, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Attis, priests of Cybele called, i. 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sometimes identified with Adonis, 263;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth and ritual of, 263 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>beloved by Cybele, 263, 282;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legends of his death, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his legend at Pessinus, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his self-mutilation, 264 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the pine-tree, 264, 265, 267, 271, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 285, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his eunuch priests, i. 265, 266;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of his death and resurrection in March, 267 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 272 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>violets sprung from the blood of, 267;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the mourning for, 272;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bath of bull's blood in the rites of, 274 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mysteries of, 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a god of vegetation, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 279;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as the Father God, 281 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Zeus, 282;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a sky-god, 282 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emasculation of, suggested explanation of myth, 283;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his star-spangled cap, 284;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Phrygian moon-god Men Tyrannus, 284;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human representatives of, 285 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>title borne by priests of Cybele, 285, 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Adonis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Atys, son of Croesus, his death, i. 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>early king of Lydia, 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aubrey, John, on soul-cakes, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augustine on the effeminate priests of the Great Mother, i. 298;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the heathen origin of Christmas, 305;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the discovery of corn by Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augustodunum (Autun), worship of Cybele at, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Augustus reputed a son of Apollo, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aulus Gellius on the influence of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Aun'/> +<l>Aun, or On, King of Sweden, sacrifices his sons to Odin, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aunis, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aurelia Aemilia, a sacred harlot, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aurohuacas, Indians of Colombia, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Aust, E., on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Australia, belief as to the reincarnation of the dead in, i. 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Australian aborigines, their preparation for marriage, i. 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief in conception without sexual intercourse, 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their cuttings for the dead, 268</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Austria, leaping over Midsummer fires in, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Awakening of Hercules,</q> festival at Tyre, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='274'/><anchor id='Pg274'/> + +<lg> +<l>Awemba, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of ancestral spirits, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their prayers to dead kings before going to war, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Axe, emblem of Hittite god of thundering sky, i. 134;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as divine emblem, 163;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbol of Asiatic thunder-god, 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, double-headed, symbol of Sandan, i. 127;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried by Lydian kings, 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty, 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured on coins, 183 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ba-bwende, a tribe of the Congo, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ba-sundi, a tribe of the Congo, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baal, Semitic god, i. 15, 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>royal names compounded with, 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as the god of fertility, 26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>conceived as god who fertilizes land by subterranean water, 159</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Sandan at Tarsus, i. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 161</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Lebanon, i. 32</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Tarsus, i. 117 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baalath or Astarte, i. 26, 34</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Baal, i. 27</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Gebal, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baalbec, i. 28;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred prostitution at, 37;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of Hadad at, 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baalim, firstlings and first-fruits offered to the, i. 27;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called lovers, 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylon, early kings of, worshipped as gods, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of Mylitta at, 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>religious prostitution at, 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human wives of Marduk at, 71;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sanctuary of Serapis at, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylonia, worship of Tammuz in, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the moon-god took precedence of the sun-god in ancient, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Babylonian hymns to Tammuz, i. 9</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bacchanals tear Pentheus in pieces, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bacchic orgies suppressed by Roman government, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bacchylides as to Croesus on the pyre, i. 175 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Backbone of Osiris represented by the <foreign rend='italic'>ded</foreign> pillar, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baden, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baethgen, F., on goddess 'Hatheh, i. 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Baganda'/> +<l>Baganda, their worship of the python, i. 86;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rebirth of the dead among the, 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their theory of earthquakes, 199;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their presentation of infants to the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremony observed by the king at new moon, <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of dead kings, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their veneration for the ghosts of dead relations, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their pantheon, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices offered to prolong the life of their kings, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bagishu (Bageshu) of Mount Elgon, reincarnation of the dead among the, i. 92</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bagobos of the Philippine Islands, their theory of earthquakes, i. 200;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Mindanao, their custom of hanging and spearing human victims, 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baharutsis, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bahima, their belief as to dead kings and chiefs, i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Ankole in Central Africa, their worship of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief in a supreme god Lugaba, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Kiziba, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baigas, Dravidian tribe of India, their objection to agriculture, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bailly, French astronomer, on the Arctic origin of the rites of Adonis, i. 229</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bairu, the, of Kiziba, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baku, on the Caspian, perpetual fires at, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Balinese, their conduct in an earthquake, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Baloi</hi>, witches and wizards, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Banana, women impregnated by the flower of the, i. 93</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bangalas of the Congo, rebirth of dead among the, i. 92. <hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> Boloki</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bantu tribes, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of ancestral spirits, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their main practical religion a worship of ancestors, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of the dead, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Banyoro, their worship of serpents, i. 86 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baptism of bull's blood in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bar-rekub, king of Samal, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baralongs, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barea and Kunama, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barley forced for festival, i. 240, 241, 242, 244, 251 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and wheat discovered by Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barotse, a Bantu tribe of the Zambesi, their belief in a supreme god Niambe, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of dead kings, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barren women resort to graves in order to get children, i. 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>entice souls of dead children to them, 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Barrenness'/> +<l>Barrenness of women cured by passing through holed stone, i. 36, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>removed by serpent, 86;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children murdered as a remedy for, 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barrows of Halfdan, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='275'/><anchor id='Pg275'/> + +<lg> +<l>Barsom, bundle of twigs used by Parsee priests, i. 191 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Barth, H., on sculptures at BoghazKeui, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basil, pots of, on St. John's Day in Sicily, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basuto chiefs buried secretly, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Basutos, worship of the dead among the, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bataks of Sumatra, their theory of earthquakes, i. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Batara-guru, the Batak creator, i. 199 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bath in river at the rites of Cybele, i. 273, 274 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of bull's blood in the rites of Attis, 274 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of image of Cybele perhaps a rain-charm, 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Aphrodite, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Demeter, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Hera in the river Burrha, i. 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the spring of Canathus, 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bathing on St. John's Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), i. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pagan origin of the custom, 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baths of Hercules, i. 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Solomon in Moab, i. 215</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Batoo Bedano, an earthquake god, i. 202</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Battle, purificatory ceremonies after a, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the gods and giants, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Baudissin, W. W. Graf von, on Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Adonis as the personification of the spring vegetation, 228 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on summer festival of Adonis, 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bavaria, gardens of Adonis in, i. 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bawenda, the, of South Africa, the positions of their villages hidden, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bearded Venus, in Cyprus, i. 165, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beaufort, F., on perpetual flame in Lycia, i. 222 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bechuana ritual at founding a new town, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bechuanas, their sacrifice of a blind bull on various occasions, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bede, on the feast of All Saints, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Beech, M. W. H., on serpent-worship, i. 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Beena</foreign> marriage in Ceylon, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Begbie, General, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bel or Marduk at Babylon, i. 71</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Belgium, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bellerophon and Pegasus, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bellona and Mars, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bendall, Professor C., i. 229 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Benefit of clergy, i. 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bengal, the Oraons and Mundas of, i. 46, 240</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Benin, human victims crucified at, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bent, J. Theodore, discovers ruins of Olba, i. 151;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identifies site of Hieropolis-Castabala, 168 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berecynthia, title of Cybele, i. 279 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Berenice and Ptolemy, annual festival in their honour, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bes, Egyptian god, i. 118 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bethlehem, worship of Adonis at, i. 257 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fertility of the neighbourhood, 257 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Star of, 259</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Betsileo of Madagascar, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 83</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bghais, a Karen tribe of Burma, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bhâdon, Indian month, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bharbhunjas, of the Central Provinces, India, marriage custom of the, ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bharias, of the Central Provinces, India, exchange of costume between men and women at marriage among the, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bhujariya, festival in the Central Provinces of India, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bilaspore, infant burial in, i. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bion on the scarlet anemone, i. 226 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bird, soul of a tree in a, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— called <q>the soul of Osiris,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birds burnt in honour of Artemis, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>white, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birks, Rev. E. B., on harvest custom at Orwell, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birth, new, through blood in rites of Attis, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Birthday of the Sun, the twenty-fifth of December, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bisa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bishnois of the Punjaub, infant burial among the, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bithynians invoke Attis, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Black-snake clan, i. 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Blay</foreign>, men's clubhouse in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blekinge, province of Sweden, Midsummer custom in, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blind bull sacrificed at the foundation of a town, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed before an army going to war, <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blood, bath of bull's, in the rites of Attis, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>remission of sins through the shedding of, 299;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used in expiation for homicide, 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of pig used in exorcism and purification, 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not to be shed in certain sacrifices, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='276'/><anchor id='Pg276'/> + +<lg> +<l>Blood, the Day of, in the festival of Attis, i. 268, 285</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blowing of Trumpets in the festival of Attis, i. 268</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Blue Spring, the, at Syracuse, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boar, Attis killed by a, i. 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bocage of Normandy, rule as to the clipping of wool in the, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodies of the dead, magical uses made of the, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>guarded against mutilation, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be endowed with magical powers, <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref>, <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bodroum in Cilicia, ruins of, i. 167</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boghaz-Keui, Hittite capital, excavations of H. Winckler at, i. 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>situation and remains, 128 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the gods of, 128 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rock-hewn sculptures at, 129 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bohemia, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bolivia, the Chiriguanos Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boloki, or Bangala, of the Upper Congo, their ceremonies at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>attempt to deceive spirit of disease among the, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bones of the dead used in rain-making ceremonies, i. 22;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dead kings carried off or destroyed by enemies, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, fossil, source of myths about giants, i. 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bonfire on St. John's Eve, dances round it, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Book of the Dead</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bor, the ancient Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Borneo, custom of head-hunting in, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effeminate sorcerers in, ii. <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bosanquet, Professor R. C., on the Four-handed Apollo, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bosman, W., on serpent-worship, i. 67</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bouche, Abbé, on West African priestesses, i. 66 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Boys of living parents in ritual, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as girls to avert the Evil Eye, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage customs to ensure the birth of, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brahman marriage in Southern India, bride dressed as a boy at, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brazil, the Apinagos Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brazilian Indians, their belief in the noxious influence of the moon on children, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bread, fast from, in mourning for Attis, i. 272</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breasted, Professor J. H., on the eye of Horus, ii. <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Amenophis IV., <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Sed festival, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Breath not to defile sacred flame, i. 191</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brethren of the Ploughed Fields (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Fratres Arvales</foreign>), a Roman college of priests, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Arval-Brethren'>Arval Brethren</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Bride</q> of the Nile, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Bridegroom at Midsummer in Sweden, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bridegroom disfigured in order to avert the evil eye, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>British Columbia, the Indians of, respect the animals and plants which they eat, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brittany, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>belief as to warts and the moon in, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bromo, volcano in Java, worshipped, i. 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brother of a god, i. 51;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dead elder, worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brothers and sisters, marriages of, in royal families, i. 44;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their intention to keep the property in the family, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brown, A. R., on the beliefs of the West Australian aborigines as to the causes of childbirth, i. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brown, Dr. George, on snakes as reincarnations of chiefs, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bruges, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Brugsch, H., on Egyptian names for a year, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Sothic period, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the grave of Osiris at Philae, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Isis as a personified corn-field, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buddha and Buddhism, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buddhism, spiritual declension of, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Budge, Dr. E. A. Wallis, on goddess Net, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on an Egyptian funeral rite, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Isis, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the nature of Osiris, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the solar theory of Osiris, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the historical reality of Osiris, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Khenti-Amenti, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buduna tribe of West Australia, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bugis of South Celebes, effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bulgaria, marriage customs in, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bull as emblem of generative force, i. 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the Hittites, 123, 132;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of Hittite thunder-god, 134 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hittite god standing on a, 135;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as emblem of a thunder-god, 136;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as symbol of thunder and fertility, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the emblem of the Father God, 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Euyuk, 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>testicles of, used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed at Egyptian funeral, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>white, +<pb n='277'/><anchor id='Pg277'/> +soul of dead king incarnate in a, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed to prolong the life of a king, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed to Zeus, the Saviour of the City, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>blinded and sacrificed at the foundation of a town, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bull's blood, bath of, in the rites of Attis, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— hide cut in strips and pegged down round the site of a new town, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bride seated on a, <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— skin, body of the dead placed in a, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bulls, husband-god at Hierapolis seated on, i. 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrificed at caves of Pluto, i. 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed to Persephone, 213 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed to dead chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burial at cross-roads, i. 93 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of infants to ensure their rebirth, i. 91, 93 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Gezer, 108 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Osiris in his rites, ii. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burma, the Bghais of, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burmese, their conduct during an earthquake, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burne, Miss C. S., and Miss G. F. Jackson on <q>Souling Day</q> in Shropshire, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burning of Melcarth, i. 110 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Sandan, 117 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Cilician gods, 170 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Sardanapalus, 172 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Croesus, 174 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of a god, 188 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burnings for dead kings of Judah, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for dead Jewish Rabbis at Meiron, 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burns, Robert, on John Barleycorn, i. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burnt alive, apotheosis by being, i. 179 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Land of Lydia, i. 193 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Burrha, river, Hera's bath in the, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buru, East Indian island, use of oil as a charm in, i. 21 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Busiris, backbone of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>specially associated with Osiris, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ritual of, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of Osiris at, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak at, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of Usirniri at, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Busiro, the district containing the graves and temples of the kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref>, <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Bustard totem, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Buto, city in Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Butterflies, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Byblus, Adonis at, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the kings of, 14 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourning for Adonis at, 38;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>religious prostitution at, 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inspired prophets at, 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Adonis at, 225;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris and Isis at, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the queen of, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris associated with, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its relation to Egypt, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Byrsa, origin of the name, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cadmus turned into a snake, i. 86 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps personated by the Laurel-bearer at Thebes, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Mount, i. 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cadys, a Lydian, i. 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caeculus, son of the fire-god Vulcan, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caesar introduces the Julian calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as to German observation of the moon, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caffre purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cairo, ceremony of cutting the dams at, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabar district, heads of chiefs buried secretly in the, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calabria, Easter custom in, i. 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calauria, Poseidon worshipped in, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calendar, the natural, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Alexandrian, used by Plutarch, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Coptic, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Egyptian, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of its introduction, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Egyptian farmer, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Esne, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Indians of Yucatan, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Julian, ii. <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the ancient Mexicans, its mode of intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Philocalus, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 304 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calendars, the Roman Rustic, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>California, the Karok Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Indians of, their annual festivals of the dead, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Californian Indians eat pine nuts, i. 278 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their notion that the owl is the guardian of the <q>California big tree,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Callaway, Rev. Henry, on the worship of the dead among the Zulus, ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Callirrhoe, the springs of, in Moab, i. 214 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calpurnius Piso, L., on the wife of Vulcan, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Calycadnus River, in Cilicia, i. 167 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Camasene and Janus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambodia, annual festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambridge, personal relics of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, preserved at, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cambyses, king of Persia, his treatment of Amasis, i. 176 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cameroon negroes, expiation for homicide among the, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='278'/><anchor id='Pg278'/> + +<lg> +<l>Camul, custom as to hospitality in, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canaanite kings of Jerusalem, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canathus, Hera's annual bath in the spring of, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Candaules, king of Lydia, i. 182, 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canicular year, a Sothic period, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canopic decree, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Canopus, the decree of, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capaneus and Evadne, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cape Bedford in Queensland, belief of the natives as to the birth of children, i. 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capital punishment among some peoples originally a sacrifice, i. 290 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Capitol at Rome, ceremonies at the rebuilding of the, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cappadocia, volcanic region of, i. 189 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fire-worship in, 191 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Car Nicobar, exorcism in, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carchemish, Hittite capital on Euphrates, i. 123, 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carchi, a province of Ecuador, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caria, Zeus Labrandeus in, i. 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>poisonous vapours in, 205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carians, their mourning for Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caribs worshipped the moon in preference to the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carlyle, Thomas, on the execution of the astronomer Bailly, i. 229 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carna and Janus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carnae, temples at, ii. <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sculptures at, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carnival at Rome in the rites of Attis, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— custom in Thracian villages, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carpini, de Plano, on funeral customs of the Mongols, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Carthage, legend and worship of Dido at, i. 113 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hamilcar worshipped at, 116;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the <foreign rend='italic'>suffetes</foreign> of, 116 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of Cybele at, 274 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the effeminate priests of the Great Mother at, 298;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legend as to the foundation of, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Casalis, E., on serpent-worship, i. 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the worship of the dead among the Basutos, ii. <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castabala in Cappadocia, i. 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— in Cilicia, worship of Perasian Artemis at, i. 115, 167 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castelnau, F. de, on the reverence of the Apinagos for the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg146'>146</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castiglione a Casauria, in the Abruzzi, Midsummer custom at, i. 246</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castor's tune, i. 196 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Castration of Cronus and Uranus, i. 283;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of sky-god, suggested explanation of, 283;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of priests, suggested explanation of, 283 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catafalque burnt at funeral of king of Siam, i. 179</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catania in Sicily, the vineyards of, i. 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gardens of Adonis at, 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catholic Church, the ritual of the, i. 54;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ceremonies on Good Friday in the, 254, 255 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cato, i. 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Catullus on self-mutilation of a priest of Attis, i. 270</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caucasus, the Albanians of the, i. 73;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Chewsurs of the, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cauldron, the magical, which makes the old young again, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caverns of Demeter, i. 88</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Caves, limestone, i. 152;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Semitic religion, 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cecrops, father of Agraulus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cedar forests of Cilicia, i. 149, 150 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sprung from the body of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree god, Osiris interpreted as a, ii. <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celaenae, skin of Marsyas shown at, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celebes, conduct of the inhabitants in an earthquake, i. 200</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Central, the Toradjas of, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Southern, marriage custom in, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celenderis in Cilicia, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Celtic year reckoned from November 1st, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Censorinus, on the date of the rising of Sirius, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Central Provinces of India, gardens of Adonis in the, i. 242 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceos, the rising of Sirius observed in, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rule as to the pollution of death in, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cereals cultivated in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceremonies, magical, for the regulation of the seasons, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceres married to Orcus, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ceylon, <foreign rend='italic'>beena</foreign> marriage in, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chadwick, Professor H. M., ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the dismemberment of Halfdan the Black, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on a priest dressed as a woman, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Change in date of Egyptian festivals with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chants, plaintive, of corn-reapers in antiquity, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charlemagne compared to Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charm, to protect a town, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Charon, places of, i. 204, 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Charonia</foreign>, places of Charon, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chastity, ceremonial, i. 43;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ordeal of, 115 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='279'/><anchor id='Pg279'/> + +<lg> +<l>Chent-Ament (Khenti-Amenti), title of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chephren, King of Egypt, his statue, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cherokee Indians, their myth of the Old Woman of the corn, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their lamentations after <q>the first working of the corn,</q> <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chewsurs of the Caucasus, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cheyne, T. K., on lament for kings of Judah, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chief, ancestral, reincarnate in snakes, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiefs in the Pelew Islands, custom of slaying, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, dead, worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to control the rain, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spirits of, prophesy through living men and women, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Child-stones,</q> where souls of dead await rebirth, i. 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Childbirth, primitive ignorance of the causes of, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Childless'/> +<l>Childless women expect offspring from St. George, i. 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resort to Baths of Solomon, 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>receive offspring from serpent, 86;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resort to graves in order to secure offspring, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resort to hot springs in Syria, 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Children bestowed by saints, i. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>given by serpent, 86;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murdered that their souls may be reborn in barren women, 95;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed to volcano in Siao, 219;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed at irrigation channels, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificed by the Mexicans for the maize, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>presented to the moon, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of God, i. 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of living parents in ritual, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>apparently thought to be endowed with more vitality than others, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chili, earthquakes in, i. 202</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chimaera, Mount, in Lycia, perpetual fire on, i. 221</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>China, funeral of emperor of, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chinese author on disturbance of earth-spirits by agriculture, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— character compared to that of the ancient Egyptians, ii. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chios, men sacrificed to Dionysus in, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiriguanos Indians of Bolivia, their address to the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chiriqui, volcano, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chittim (Citium) in Cyprus, i. 31</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chnum of Elephantine identified with the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Choctaws, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christ crucified on March 25th, tradition, i. 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christian, F. W., on the prostitution of unmarried girls in Yap, ii. <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christian festivals displace heathen festivals, i. 308</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christianity and paganism, their resemblances explained as diabolical counterfeits, i. 302, 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christians and pagans, their controversy as to Easter, i. 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Christmas, festival of, borrowed from the Mithraic religion, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the heathen origin of, 305</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chu-en-aten, name assumed by King Amenophis IV., ii. <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Chukchees of North-Eastern Asia, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cicero at Cybistra, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>corresponds with Cilician king, 145 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cilicia, male deity of, assimilated to Zeus, i. 118 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kings of, their affinity to Sandan, 144;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Assyrians in, 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Western or Rugged, described, i. 148 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fossils of, 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cilician deity assimilated to Zeus, i. 144 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 148, 152</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Gates, pass of the, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— goddesses, i. 161 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— gods, the burning of, i. 170 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— pirates, i. 149 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— priests, names of, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cincius Alimentus, L., on Maia as the wife of Vulcan, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cinyrads, dynasty of the, i. 41 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cinyras, the father of Adonis, i. 13, 14, 49;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king of Byblus, 27;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founds sanctuary of Astarte, 28;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>said to have instituted religious prostitution, 41, 50;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his daughters, 41, 50;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his riches, 42;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his incest, 43;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>wooed by Aphrodite, 48 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of the name, 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the friend of Apollo, 54;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legends of his death, 55</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ciotat in Provence, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Circumcision, exchange of dress between men and women at, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Citium (Chittim), in Cyprus, i. 31, 50</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Civilization, ancient, undermined by Oriental religions and other causes, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Claudianus, Lucius Minius, i. 164</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Claudius, the Emperor, and the rites of Attis, i. 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Claudius Gothicus, the Emperor, i. 266 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clavigero, on the Mexican calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='280'/><anchor id='Pg280'/> + +<lg> +<l>Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and serpents, i. 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cleon of Magnesia at Gades, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Climatic and geographical conditions, their effect on national character, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Clymenus, king of Arcadia, his incest, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cnossus in Crete, prehistoric palace at, i. 34</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cochinchina, annual festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cock as emblem of a priest of Attis, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Codrington, Dr. R. H., on mother-kin in Melanesia, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coimbatore, dancing-girls at, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coincidence between the Christian and the heathen festivals of the divine death and resurrection, i. 308 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cologne, Petrarch at, on St. John's Eve, i. 247 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Colombia, rule as to the felling of timber in, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Comana, in Cappadocia, i. 136 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— in Pontus, worship of goddess Ma at, i. 39;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>swine not allowed to enter, 265 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the two cities, i. 168 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Commemoration of the Dead at Athens, i. 234</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Commodus, conspiracy against, i. 273;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>addicted to the worship of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Communal rights over women, i. 40, 61 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Compromise of Christianity with paganism, parallel with Buddhism, i. 310 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Conception'/> +<l>Conception, supposed, without sexual intercourse, i. 91, 93 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in women supposed to be caused by food, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Impregnation'>Impregnation</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conceptional animals and plants as causes of pregnancy in women, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 104 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Concubines, human, of the god Ammon, i. 72</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conder, C. R., on <q>holy men</q> in Syria, i. 77 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on turning money at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Condylea in Arcadia, sacred grove of Artemis at, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cone, image of Astarte, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cones as emblems of a goddess, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>votive, found in Babylonia, 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Confession of the dead, the Egyptian, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Confucianism, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Congo, burial of infants on the, i. 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priest dressed as a woman on the, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conibos Indians of the Ucayali River, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Conical stone as divine emblem, i. 165, 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Constantine destroys temple of Astarte, i. 28;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suppresses sacred prostitution, 37;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>removes standard cubit from the Serapeum, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Consus and Ops, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Contest for the throne of Egypt, traditions of a, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cook, A. B., i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on name of priest of Corycian Zeus, 155 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the death of Romulus, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the festival of Laurel-bearing at Thebes, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on traces of mother-kin in the myth and ritual of Hercules, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coomassie, in Ashantee, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Copenhagen, bathing on St. John's Eve at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coptic calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corea, dance of eunuchs in, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coreans, their ceremony on the fifteenth day of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corn sprouting from the dead body of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and grapes, symbols of the god of Tarsus, i. 119, 143;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the god of Ibreez, 121;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured with double-headed axe on Lydian coin, 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and vine, emblems of the gods of Tarsus and Ibreez, i. 160 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god, Adonis as a, i. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Attis as a, 279;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourned at midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris as a, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -reaping in Egypt, Palestine, and Greece, date of the, i. 231 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -sieve, severed limbs of Osiris placed on a, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirit, Tammuz or Adonis as a, i. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>propitiation of the, perhaps fused with a worship of the dead, 233 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented as a dead old man, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented by human victims, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -stuffed effigies of Osiris buried with the dead as a symbol of resurrection, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -wreaths as first-fruits, i. 43;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by Arval Brethren, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Coronation, human sacrifices to prolong a king's life at his, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corycian cave, priests of Zeus at the, i. 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the god of the, 152 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>described, 153 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>saffron at the, 187;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name perhaps derived from crocus, 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Corycus in Cilicia, ruins of, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cos, traces of mother-kin in, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>;</l> +<pb n='281'/><anchor id='Pg281'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sacred Marriage in, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bridegroom dressed as woman in, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cosenza in Calabria, Easter custom at, i. 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cotys, king of Lydia, i. 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cow, image of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Isis represented with the head of a, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be impregnated by moonshine, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— goddess Shenty, ii. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cows sacred to Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Creation of the world thought to be annually repeated, i. 284</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crescent-shaped chest in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crests of the Cilician pirates, i. 149</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crete, sacred trees and pillars in, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crimea, the Taurians of the, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crocodile-shaped hero, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Croesus, king of Lydia, captures Pteria, i. 128;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the burning of, 174 sqq., 179;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his burnt offerings to Apollo at Delphi, 180 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dedicates golden lion at Delphi, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his son Atys, 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cronion, a Greek month, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cronus, identified with Phoenician El, i. 166;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>castrates his father Uranus and is castrated by his son Zeus, 283;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>name applied to winter, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crook and scourge or flail, the emblems of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, compare 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crooke, W., on sacred dancing-girls, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Mohammedan saints, 78 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on infant burial, 93 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the custom of the False Bride, ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crops dependent on serpent-god, i. 67;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human victims sacrificed for the, 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cross-roads, burial at, i. 93 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crown-wearer, priest of Hercules at Tarsus, i. 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crowns as amulets, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>laid aside in mourning, etc., <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Egypt, the White and the Red, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Crucifixion of Christ, tradition as to the date of, i. 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of human victims at Benin, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gentile, at the spring equinox, 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Crux ansata</foreign>, the Egyptian symbol of life, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cubit, the standard, kept in the temple of Serapis, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cultivation of staple food in the hands of women (Pelew Islands), ii. <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cumont, Professor Franz, on the <foreign rend='italic'>taurobolium</foreign>, i. 275 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Nativity of the Sun, 303 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as to the parallel between Easter and the rites of Attis, 310 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Customs of the Pelew Islanders, ii. <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cuthar, father of Adonis, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cuttings for the dead, i. 268</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyaxares, king of the Medes, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cybele, the image of, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her cymbals and tambourines, 54;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her lions and turreted crown, 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests of, called Attis, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Mother of the Gods, 263;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her love for Attis, 263, 282;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her worship adopted by the Romans, 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of virility to image of, 268;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subterranean chambers of, 268;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>orgiastic rites of, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a goddess of fertility, 279;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped in Gaul, 279;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fasts observed by the worshippers of, 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a friend of Marsyas, 288;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effeminate priests of, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cybistra in Cappadocia, i. 120, 122, 124</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cymbal, drinking out of a, i. 274</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cymbals in religious music, i. 52, 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and tambourines in worship of Cybele, i. 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cynopolis, the cemetery of, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cypriote syllabary, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyprus, Phoenicians in, i. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Adonis in, 31 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred prostitution in, 36, 50, 59;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Melcarth worshipped in, 117;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices in, 145 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the bearded Venus in, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyril of Alexandria on the festival of Adonis at Alexandria, i. 224 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyrus and Croesus, i. 174 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Cyzicus, worship of the Placianian Mother at, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dacia, hot springs in, i. 213</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dacotas, their theory of the waning moon, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Dad</foreign> pillar. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Ded'><foreign rend='italic'>Ded</foreign> pillar</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dahomans, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dahomey, kings of, their human sacrifices, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dairyman, sacred, of the Todas, his custom as to the pollution of death, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bound to live apart from his wife, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dalisandos in Isauria, inscriptions at, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damascus, Aramean kings of, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damasen, a giant, i. 186</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Damatrius, a Greek month, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dams in Egypt, the cutting of the, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dance of eunuchs in Corea, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Congo, 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of hermaphrodites in Pegu, 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred, at the Sed festival, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of king before the ghosts of his ancestor, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='282'/><anchor id='Pg282'/> + +<lg> +<l>Dances, religious, i. 61, 65, 68;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at festivals of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>, <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the new moon, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dancing-girls in India, harlots and wives of the gods, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dañh-gbi, python-god, i. 66</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Darmesteter, James, on the Fravashis, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his theory as to the date of the <hi rend='italic'>Gathas</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Dâsî</foreign>, dancing-girl, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dastarkon in Cappadocia, i. 147 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dates forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Daughter of a god, i. 51</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>David, King, in relation to the old kings of Jerusalem, i. 18 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his conquest of Ammon, 19;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his taking of a census, 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a harper, 52, 53, 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Goliath, i. 19 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Saul, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Davis, Mr. R. F., on harvest custom in Nottinghamshire, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Day of Blood in rites of Attis, i. 268, 285</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>De Plano Carpini, on the funeral customs of the Mongols, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dea Dia, a Roman goddess of fertility, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Dead'/> +<l>Dead, Festival of the, in Java, i. 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of the, perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, 233 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cuttings for the, 268;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris king and judge of the, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Egyptian, identified with Osiris, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festivals of the, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the spirits of the, personated by living men, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>magical uses made of their bodies, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of the, among the Bantu tribes of Africa, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Ancestral-Spirits'>Ancestral spirits</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, reincarnation of the, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in America, 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, 91 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings and chiefs worshipped in Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices offered to, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incarnate in animals, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>consulted as oracles, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices to, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the Barotse, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— men believed to beget children, i. 91, 264</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sea, i. 23</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Death in the fire as an apotheosis, i. 179 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the pollution of, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and resurrection, annual, of gods, i. 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Adonis represented in his rites, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>coincidence between the pagan and the Christian festival of the divine, 308;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Osiris dramatically represented in his rites, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Osiris interpreted as the decay and growth of vegetation, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>December, the twenty-fifth of, reckoned the winter solstice, and the birthday of the Sun, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Decline of the civic virtues under the influence of Oriental religions, i. 300 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Ded'/> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ded</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>tet</foreign> pillar, the backbone of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dedicated men and women in Africa, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dedication of girls to the service of a temple, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of children to gods, 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dee, river, holed stone in the, i. 36 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Defoe, Daniel, on the Angel of the Plague, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delos, sacred embassy to, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Delphi, Apollo and the Dragon at, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Delphinium Ajacis</foreign>, i. 314 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Demeter, her sacred caverns, i. 88;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred vaults of, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sorrowing for the descent of the Maiden, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the month of, <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mysteries of, at Eleusis, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the well, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Isis, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and ears of corn, i. 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Poseidon, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the king's son at Eleusis, i. 180</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Denderah, inscriptions at, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the hall of Osiris at, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Derceto, goddess at Ascalon, i. 34 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dervishes revered in Syria, i. 77 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Asia Minor, 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deucalion at Hierapolis, i. 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deuteronomic redactor, i. 26 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deuteronomy, publication of, i. 18 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Deutsch-Zepling in Transylvania, rule as to sowing in, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Dêvadâsî</foreign>, dancing-girl, i. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Dêvaratiâl</foreign>, dancing-girl, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dew, bathing in the, on Midsummer Eve or Day, i. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a daughter of Zeus and the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diabolical counterfeits, resemblances of paganism to Christianity explained as, i. 302, 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diana, a Mother Goddess, i. 45;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her sanctuary at Nemi, 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dianus and Diana, i. 27, 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dido flees from Tyre, i. 50;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her traditional death in the fire, 114;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Carthage, 114;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of the name, 114 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an Avatar of Astarte, 177;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>how she procured the site of Carthage, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dinant, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Dinkard</hi>, a Pahlavi work, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dinkas, their belief in serpents as reincarnations +<pb n='283'/><anchor id='Pg283'/> +of the dead, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pour milk on graves, 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dio Chrysostom, on the people of Tarsus, i. 118;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on pyre at Tarsus, 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diodorus Siculus, on worship of Poseidon in Peloponnese, i. 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the burial of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the rise of the Nile, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the date of harvest in Egypt, <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Osiris as a sun-god, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the predominance of women over men in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diomede, human sacrifices to, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dionysus in form of bull, i. 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>with vine and ploughman on a coin, 166;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ancient interpretation of, 194, 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death, resurrection, and ascension of, 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torn in pieces, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices to, in Chios, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his coarse symbolism, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Osiris, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>race of boys at vintage from his sanctuary, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>men dressed as women in the rites of, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the effeminate, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diospolis Parva (How), monument of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Diphilus, king of Cyprus, i. 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disc, winged, as divine emblem, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Discoloration, annual, of the river Adonis, i. 30, 225</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Discovery of the body of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disease of language the supposed source of myths, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Disguises to avert the evil eye, ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to deceive dangerous spirits, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dismemberment of Osiris, suggested explanations of the, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Halfdan the Black, king of Norway, <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Segera, a magician of Kiwai, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of kings and magicians, and use of their severed limbs to fertilize the country, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the bodies of the dead to prevent their souls from becoming dangerous ghosts, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ditino</foreign>, deified dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divination at Midsummer, i. 252 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divining bones, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divinities of the volcano Kirauea, i. 217</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Divinity of Semitic kings, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Lydian kings, 182 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dixmude, in Belgium, feast of All Souls at, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dobrizhoffer, M., on the respect of the Abipones for the Pleiades, i. 258 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doctrine of lunar sympathy, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Dôd</foreign>, <q>beloved,</q> i. 19 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dog-star. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Sirius'>Sirius</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doliche in Commagene, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Domaszewski, Professor A., on the rites of Attis at Rome, i. 266 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dorasques of Panama, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dos Santos, J., Portuguese historian, on the method adopted by a Caffre king to prolong his life, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Double, the afterbirth or placenta, regarded as a person's double, ii. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -headed axe, symbol of Sandan, i. 127;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried by Lydian kings, 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty, 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>figured on coins, 183 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -headed eagle, Hittite emblem, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doutté, Edmond, on sacred prostitution in Morocco, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Doves burnt in honour of Adonis, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 147</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, sacred, of Aphrodite, i. 33;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or Astarte, 147</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dowries earned by prostitution, i. 38, 59</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dragon slain by Cadmus at Thebes, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Apollo, at Delphi, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drama, sacred, of the death and resurrection of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dramas, magical, for the regulation of the seasons, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dramatic representation of the resurrection of Osiris in his rites, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dreams, revelations given to sick people by Pluto and Persephone in, i. 205;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spirits of the dead appear to the living in, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as causes of attempted transformation of men into women, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drenching last corn cut with water as a rain-charm, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drinking out of a king's skull in order to be inspired by his spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drought, kings answerable for, i. 21 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drum, eating out of a, i. 274</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Drums, human sacrifice for royal, ii. <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Duchesne, Mgr. L., on the origin of Christmas, i. 305 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the date of the Crucifixion, 307</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Dyaks of Sarawak, their custom of head-hunting, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ea, Babylonian god, i. 9</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eagle to carry soul to heaven, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>double-headed, Hittite emblem, 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ears of corn, emblem of Demeter, i. 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Earth as the Great Mother, i. 27</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and sky, myth of their violent separation, i. 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the goddess, mother of Typhon, i. 156</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='284'/><anchor id='Pg284'/> + +<lg> +<l>Earth-goddess annually married to Sun-god, i. 47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disturbed by the operations of husbandry, 88 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>married to Sky-god, 282, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirits disturbed by agriculture, i. 89</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Earthquake god, i. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Earthquakes, attempts to stop, i. 196 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>East, mother-kin and Mother Goddesses in the ancient, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Easter, gardens of Adonis at, in Sicily, i. 253 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resemblance of the festival of, to the rites of Adonis, 254 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 306;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the festival of, assimilated to the spring festival of Attis, 306 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>controversy between Christians and pagans as to the origin of, 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Eater of the Dead,</q> fabulous Egyptian monster, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eclipse of the moon, Athenian superstition as to an, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eden, the tree of life in, i. 186 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Edom, the kings of, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their bones burned by the Moabites, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Edonians in Thrace, Lycurgus king of the, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eesa, a Somali tribe, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effect of geographical and climatic conditions on national character, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effeminate sorcerers or priests, order of, ii. <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Effigies of Osiris, stuffed with corn, buried with the dead as a symbol of resurrection, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egypt, wives of Ammon in, i. 72;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of the corn-reaping in, 231 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in early June, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mother-kin in ancient, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptian astronomers acquainted with the true length of the solar year, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— calendar, the official, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of its introduction, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— ceremony at the winter solstice, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— dead identified with Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— farmer, calendar of the, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— festivals, their dates shifting, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>readjustment of, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— funeral rites a copy of those performed over Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— hope of immortality centred in Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings worshipped as gods, i. 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the most ancient, buried at Abydos, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their oath not to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps formerly slain in the character of Osiris, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as Osiris, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>renew their life by identifying themselves with the dead and risen Osiris, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>born again at the Sed festival, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps formerly put to death to prevent their bodily and mental decay, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptian language akin to the Semitic, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— months, table of, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— myth of the separation of earth and sky, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— people, the conservatism of their character, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared to the Chinese, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— reapers, their lamentations and invocations of Isis, i. 232, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— religion, the development of, ii. <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dominated by Osiris, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— standard resembling a placenta, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— year vague, not corrected by intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sacred, began with the rising of Sirius, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Egyptians sacrifice red-haired men, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ancient, question of their ethnical affinity, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ekoi of Southern Nigeria, their custom of mutilating men and women at festivals, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>El, Phoenician god, i. 13, 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Cronus, 166</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>El-Bùgât, festival of mourning for Tammuz in Harran, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elam, the kings of, their bones carried off by Ashurbanipal, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eleusis, Demeter and the king's son at, i. 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of oxen at, 292 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mysteries of Demeter at, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eli, the sons of, i. 76</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Elisha prophesies to music, i. 53, 54;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>finds water in the desert, 53, 75</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ellis, A. B., on sacred prostitution in West Africa, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 69 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on tattoo marks of priests, 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on an ordeal of chastity, 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emesa, sun-god Heliogabalus at, i. 35</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Empedocles leaps into the crater of Etna, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Emperor of China, funeral of an, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ἐναγίζειν distinguished from θύειν, i. 316 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Enemy, charms to disable an, ii. <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>England, harvest custom in, i. 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ennius, on Hora and Quirinus, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Entry of Osiris into the moon,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Enylus, king of Byblus, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ephesus, Artemis of, i. 269;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hecate at, 291;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis at, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epidaurus, Aesculapius at, i. 80</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Epiphany, the sixth of January, i. 305</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='285'/><anchor id='Pg285'/> + +<lg> +<l>Epirus, the kings of, their bones scattered by Lysimachus, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Equinox, the vernal, resurrection of Attis at the, i. 273, 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of the Crucifixion assigned to the spring equinox, 307;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition that the world was created at the spring equinox, 307</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Erechtheum, sacred serpent in the, i. 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Erechtheus, king of Athens, his incest with his daughter, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his sacred serpent, 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eregli (the ancient Cybistra) in Cappadocia, i. 120, 122</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eresh-Kigal, Babylonian goddess, i. 9</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Erica</foreign>-tree, Osiris in the, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eriphyle, the necklace of, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Erman, Professor A., on Anubis at Abydos, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the development of Egyptian religion, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Erme</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Nenneri</foreign>, gardens of Adonis in Sardinia, i. 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eshmun, Phoenician deity, i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esne, the festal calendar of, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esquimaux of Alaska, their annual festival of the dead, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esthonian peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Esthonians, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eternal life, initiate born again to, in the rites of Cybele and Attis, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Etesian winds, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Etna, Mount, Typhon buried under, i. 156, 157;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the death of Empedocles on, 181;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ashes of, 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offerings thrown into the craters of, 221</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euboea subject to earthquakes, i. 211;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of threshing in, 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>harvest custom in, 238</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eudoxus, on the Egyptian festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eunuch, priests of the Mother Goddess, i. 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the service of Asiatic goddesses of fertility, 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in various lands, 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Attis tattooed with pattern of ivy, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Cybele, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eunuchs, dances of, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dedicated to a goddess in India, 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred, at Hierapolis-Bambyce, their rule as to the pollution of death, ii. <ref target='Pg272'>272</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euripides on the death of Pentheus, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Europe, custom of showing money to the new moon in, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eusebius on sacred prostitution, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 73 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Euyuk in Cappadocia, Hittite palace at, i. 123, 132, 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bull worshipped at, 164</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Evadne and Capaneus, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Evil Eye, boys dressed as girls to avert the, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bridegroom disfigured in order to avert the, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>disguises to avert the, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ewe farmers fear to wound the Earth goddess, i. 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— people of Togo-land, their belief in the marriage of Sky with Earth, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, sacred prostitution among the, i. 65 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship pythons, 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exchange of dress between men and women in rites, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at marriage, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at circumcision, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exogamous clans in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Exorcism by means of music, i. 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Expiation for homicide, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Roman, for prodigies, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eye as a symbol of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of sacrificial ox cut out, <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Horus, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref> with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Evil, boys dressed as girls to avert the, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bridegroom disfigured in order to avert, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Eyes of the dead, Egyptian ceremony of opening the, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ezekiel on the mourning for Tammuz, i. 11, 17, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Assyrian cavalry, 25 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the king of Tyre, 114</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>False Bride, custom of the ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Farnell, Dr. L. R., on Greek religious music, i. 55 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1 and 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on religious prostitution in Western Asia, 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 58 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the position of women in ancient religion, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Flamen Dialis, <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the children of living parents in ritual, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the festival of Laurel-bearing at Thebes, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on eunuch priests of Cybele, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Farwardajan, a Persian festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fast from bread in mourning for Attis, i. 272</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fasts observed by the worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Isis and Cybele, 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Father named after his son, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of a god, 51, 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dead, worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the head of the family under a system of mother-kin, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -deity of the Hittites, the god of the thundering sky, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— God, his emblem the bull, i. 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Attis as the, 281 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>often less important than Mother Goddess, 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -kin at Rome, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Mother, and Son divinities represented at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='286'/><anchor id='Pg286'/> + +<lg> +<l>Father Sky fertilizes Mother Earth, i. 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and mother, names for, i. 281;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as epithets of Roman gods and goddesses, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fatherhood of God, the physical, i. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fauna, rustic Roman goddess, her relationship to Faunus, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Faunus, old Roman god, his relationship to Fauna or the Good Goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feast of All Saints on November 1st, perhaps substituted for an old pagan festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>instituted by Lewis the Pious, <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of All Souls, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Christian, originally a pagan festival of the dead, <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Golden Flower at Sardes, i. 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Lanterns in Japan, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Feet first, children born, custom observed at their graves, i. 93</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Felkin, R. W. and C. T. Wilson, on the worship of the dead kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fellows, Ch., on flowers in Caria, i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Female-Kinship'/> +<l>Female kinship, rule of descent of the throne under, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> Mother-kin</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fertility of ground thought to be promoted by prostitution, i. 39;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>promoted by marriage of women to serpent, 67;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>goddesses of, served by eunuch priests, 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris as a god of, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fertilization of the fig, artificial, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Festival of <q>the awakening of Hercules</q> at Tyre, i. 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Dead in Java, 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Flowers (<foreign rend='italic'>Anthesteria</foreign>), 234 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Joy (<foreign rend='italic'>Hilaria</foreign>) in the rites of Attis, 273;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Sais, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Crowning at Delphi, <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Festivals of the Egyptian farmer, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Osiris, the official, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian readjustment of, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fetishism early in human history, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Field of the giants,</q> i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fig, artificial fertilization of the, at Rome in July, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fiji, chiefs buried secretly in, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fijian god of fruit-trees, i. 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Lent, i. 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fijians, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Financial oppression, Roman, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Finlay, George, on Roman financial oppression, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire, purification by, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 179 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Persian reverence for, 174 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death in the, as an apotheosis, 179 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed able to impregnate women, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fire, perpetual, in Zoroastrian religion, i. 191;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped, 191 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the temples of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god, the father of Romulus, Servius Tullius, and Caeculus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -walk of the king of Tyre, i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of priestesses at Castabala, 168</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -worship in Cappadocia, i. 191 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Firmicus Maternus, on the mourning for Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on use of a pine-tree in the rites of Osiris, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>First-born, Semitic sacrifice of the, i. 110;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sacrifice of, at Jerusalem, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -fruits offered to the Baalim, i. 27;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to the Mother of the Gods, 280 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to dead chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Firstlings offered to the Baalim, i. 27</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fish, soul of dead in, i. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fison, Rev. Lorimer, on Fijian god of earthquakes, i. 202 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on secret burial of chiefs in Fiji, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flail or scourge, an emblem of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for collecting incense, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flamen forbidden to divorce his wife, ii. <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Vulcan, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Dialis, the widowed, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>forbidden to touch a dead body, but allowed to attend a funeral, <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bound to be married, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Dialis and Flaminica, i. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>assisted by boy and girl of living parents, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flamingoes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flaminica and her husband the Flamen Dialis, i. 45 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flax, omens from the growth of, i. 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flower of the banana, women impregnated by the, i. 93</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— of Zeus,</q> i. 186, 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flowers and leaves as talismans, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flute, skill of Marsyas on the, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— music, its exciting influence, i. 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -players dressed as women at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Flutes played in the laments for Tammuz, i. 9;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for Adonis, 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Food, virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain, i. 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a cause of conception in women, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foreigners as kings, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fortuna Primigenia, goddess of Praeneste, daughter of Jupiter, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fortune of the city on coins of Tarsus, i. 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the guardian of cities, 164</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='287'/><anchor id='Pg287'/> + +<lg> +<l>Fossil bones in limestone caves, i. 152 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a source of myths about giants, 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Foucart, P., identifies Dionysus with Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Four-handed Apollo, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fowler, W. Warde, on the celibacy of the Roman gods, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fra Angelico, his influence on Catholicism, i. 54 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>France, harvest custom in, i. 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>timber felled in the wane of the moon in, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Fratres Arvales</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fravashis, the souls of the dead in the Iranian religion, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>French peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frey, the Scandinavian god of fertility, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frigento, Valley of Amsanctus near, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Frodsham, Dr., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fruit-trees, worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Fulgora, a Roman goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Funeral custom in Madagascar, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— pyre of Roman emperor, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rites of the Egyptians a copy of those performed over Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Osiris, described in the inscription of Denderah, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Furies, their snakes, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Furness, W. H., on the prostitution of unmarried girls in Yap, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaboon, Mpongwe kings of the, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>negroes of the, regulate their planting by the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gad, Semitic god of fortune, i. 164, 165</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gadabursi, a Somali tribe, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gades (Cadiz), worship of Hercules (Melcarth), at, i. 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of Melcarth at, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galelareese of Halmahera, as to human sacrifices to volcanoes, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gallas, their worship of serpents, i. 86 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galli, the emasculated priests of Attis, i. 266, 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Galton, Sir Francis, on the vale of the Adonis, i. 29</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Game with fruit-stones played by kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— law of the Njamus, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garden of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gardens of Adonis, i. 236 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>charms to promote the growth of vegetation, 236 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 239;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, 239 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Bavaria, 244;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Sardinia, 244 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Sicily, 245;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Easter, 253 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gardens of God, i. 123, 159</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gardner, Professor E. A. on date of the corn-reaping in Greece, i. 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Garstang, Professor J., on sculptures at Ibreez, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 123 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hittite sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Arenna, 136 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Syrian god Hadad, 163 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Gathas</hi>, a part of the <hi rend='italic'>Zend-Avesta</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gaul, worship of Cybele in, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain, conduct of the natives in an earthquake, i. 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Melanesians of the, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gazelles sacrificed at Egyptian funerals, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gebal, Semitic name of Byblus, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Geese sacrificed at Egyptian funerals, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gellius, Aulus, his list of old Roman deities, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gellius, Cnaeus, on Mars and Nerio, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Geminus, Greek astronomer, on the vague Egyptian year, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Genital organs of Osiris, tradition as to the, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dead man used to fertilize the fields, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Genius</foreign>, Roman, symbolized by a serpent, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Geographical and climatic conditions, their effect on national character, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>German peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Germans, the ancient, their regard for the phases of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Germany, harvest custom in, i. 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over Midsummer fires in, 251;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>popular superstition as to the influence of the moon in, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gezer, Canaanitish city, excavations at, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gezo, King, i. 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghineh, monument of Adonis at, i. 29</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghost of afterbirth thought to adhere to navel-string, ii. <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ghosts thought to impregnate women, i. 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the dead personated by living men, ii. <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref>, <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg058'>58</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giants, myths of, based on discovery of fossil bones, i. 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and gods, their battle, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giaour-Kalesi, Hittite sculptures at, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gilbert Islands, sacred stones in the, i. 108 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gill, Captain W., on a tribe in China governed by a woman, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gilyaks of the Amoor eat nutlets of stone-pine, i. 278 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='288'/><anchor id='Pg288'/> + +<lg> +<l>Ginzel, Professor F. K., on the rise of the Nile, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Giraffes, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Glaucus, son of Minos, restored to life, i. 186 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goat sacrificed by being hanged, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>God, children of, i. 68;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sons of, 78 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the physical fatherhood of, 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gardens of, 123, 159</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the burning of a, i. 188 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the hanged, 288 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of earthquakes, i. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Godavari District, Southern India, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goddess, identified with priestess, i. 219;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>superiority of the, in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. 201 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goddesses, Cilician, i. 161 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>place infant sons of kings on fire to render them immortal, 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of fertility served by eunuch priests, 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their superiority over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the development of, favoured by mother-kin, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gods, annual death and resurrection of, i. 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>personated by priests, 45, 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>married to sisters, 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their human wives, ii. <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>made by men and worshipped by women, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and giants, the battle of, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gold Coast of West Africa, the Tshi-speaking peoples of the, i. 69</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Golden Flower, the Feast of the, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sea, the, i. 150</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Golgi in Cyprus, i. 35</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goliath and David, i. 19 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gonds, ceremony of bringing back souls of the dead among the, i. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Good Friday, effigies and sepulchres of Christ on, i. 254 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Goddess (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Bona Dea</foreign>), her relationship to Faunus, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Goowoong Awoo, volcano, children sacrificed to, i. 219</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gordias and Midas, names of Phrygian kings, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gordon, E. M., on infant burial, i. 94 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the festival of the dead in Bilaspore, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gouri, an Indian goddess of fertility, i. 241 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gournia in Crete, prehistoric shrine at, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grandmother, title of an African priest, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Earth thought to cause earthquakes, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grandparents, dead, worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grapes as divine emblem, i. 165</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grave of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human victims sacrificed at the, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— shrines of Shilluk kings, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dead kings, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Graves, milk offered at, i. 87;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>childless women resort to, in order to ensure offspring, 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>illuminated on All Souls' Day, ii. <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the only places of sacrifice in the country of the Wahehe, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of kings, chiefs, and magicians kept secret, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices at, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Great burnings</q> for kings of Judah, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Marriage, annual festival of the dead among the Oraons of Bengal, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— men, history not to be explained without the influence of, i. 311 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great religious systems founded by, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their influence on the popular imagination, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mother, popularity of her worship in the Roman empire, i. 298 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— religious systems founded by individual great men, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>religious ideals a product of the male imagination, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greece, date of the corn-reaping in, i. 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>modern, marriage customs in, ii. <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Greek belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 86 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Church, ceremonies on Good Friday in the, i. 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— feast of All Souls in May, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— gods, discrimination of their characters, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— mythology, Adonis in, i. 10 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— notion as to birth from trees and rocks, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the noxious influence of moonshine on children, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— purification for homicide, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— use of music in religion, i. 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— writers on the worship of Adonis, i. 223 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gregory IV. and the feast of All Saints, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grenfell, B. P., and A. S. Hunt on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grimm, Jacob, on hide-measured lands, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Grotto of the Sibyl, at Marsala, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Growth and decay of all things associated with the waxing and waning of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guarayos Indians of Bolivia, their presentation of children to the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg145'>145</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='289'/><anchor id='Pg289'/> + +<lg> +<l>Guardian spirits in the form of animals, i. 83;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in serpents, 83, 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guaycurus of Brazil, men dressed as women among the, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Guevo Upas, the Valley of Poison, in Java, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gujrat District, Punjaub, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gurdon, Major P. R. T., on the Khasis of Assam, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gwanya, a worshipful dead chief, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gyges, king of Lydia, dedicates double-headed axe to Zeus, i. 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Gynaecocracy a dream, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hadad, chief male deity of the Syrians, i. 15, 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Syrian god of thunder and fertility, 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hadadrimmon, i. 164 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the mourning of or for, 15 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Haddon, A. C., on worship of animal-shaped heroes, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hadrian, human sacrifice suppressed in reign of, i. 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hair, sacrifice of women's, i. 38;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to goddess of volcano, 218;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of head shaved in mourning for dead gods, 225;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to be cut when the moon is waxing, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halasarna in Cos, rites of Apollo and</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hercules at, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halfdan, the Black, King of Norway, dismembered after death, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halicarnassus, worship of Pergaean Artemis at, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hall of the Two Truths, the judgment hall in the other world, ii. <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Halmahera, the Galelareese of, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hamaspathmaedaya, old Iranian festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hamilcar, his self-sacrifice at the battle of Himera, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Carthage, 116;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burns himself, 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped after death, 180</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hamilton, Alexander, on dance of hermaphrodites in Pegu, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hamilton, Professor G. L., i. 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hammurabi, the code of, i. 71 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 72 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Handel, the harmonies of, i. 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanged god, the, i. 288 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanging as a mode of sacrifice, i. 289 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hannah, the prayer of, i. 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hannibal, his prayers to Melcarth, i. 113;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his retirement from Italy, 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hanway, J., on worship of perpetual fires at Baku, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harmonia, the necklace of, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>turned into a snake, 86 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harold the Fair-haired, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harp, the music of the, in religion, i. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harpalyce, her incest with her father, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harpocrates, the younger Horus, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harran, mourning of women for Tammuz in, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harrison, Miss J. E., on the hyacinth (<foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Delphinium Ajacis</foreign>), i. 314 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hartland, E. S., on the reincarnation of the dead, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on primitive paternity, 106 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Harvest, rites of, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festival of the dead after, <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>new corn offered to dead kings or chiefs at, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prayers to the spirits of ancestors at, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to dead chiefs at, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— in Egypt, the date of, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— custom of throwing water on the last corn cut as a rain-charm, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Arabs of Moab, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hathor, Egyptian goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hattusil, king of the Hittites, i. 135</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Havamal</foreign>, how Odin learned the magic runes in the, i. 290</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawaii, the volcano of Kirauea in, i. 216 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawes, Mrs., on date of the corn-reaping in Crete, i. 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawk, Isis in the form of a, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sacred bird of the earliest Egyptian dynasties, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>epithet regularly applied to the king of Egypt, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -town (Hieraconpolis) in Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hawks carved on the bier of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hazael, king of Damascus, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Head-Feast</q> among the Dyaks of Borneo, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -hunting in Borneo, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heads of dead chiefs cut off and buried secretly, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, human, thought to promote the fertility of the ground and of women, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>used as guardians by Taurians and tribes of Borneo, 294 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heathen festivals displaced by Christian, i. 308</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— origin of Midsummer festival (festival of St. John), i. 249 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heavenly Virgin or Goddess, mother of the Sun, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hebrew kings, traces of their divinity, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— names ending in <hi rend='italic'>-el</hi> or <hi rend='italic'>-iah</hi>, i. 79 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— prophecy, the distinctive character of, i. 75</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='290'/><anchor id='Pg290'/> + +<lg> +<l>Hebrew prophets, their resemblance to those of Africa, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hebrides, peats cut in the wane of the moon in the, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hecaerge, an epithet of Artemis, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hecate at Ephesus, i. 291;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sometimes identified with Artemis, 292 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Zeus worshipped at Stratonicea, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hecatombeus, a Greek month, i. 314</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hehn, V., on derivation of name Corycian, i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helen of the Tree, worshipped in Rhodes, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliacal rising of Sirius, ii. <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Helice, in Achaia, destroyed by earthquake, i. 203;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Poseidon worshipped at, 203 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliodorus, on the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis at Ephesus, ii. <ref target='Pg243'>243</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliogabalus, sun-god at Emesa, i. 35;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his sacrifice of children of living parents, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliopolis (Baalbec), in Syria, i. 163 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred prostitution at, 37, 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heliopolis (the Egyptian), trial of the dead Osiris before the gods at, ii. <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hepding, H., on Attis, i. 263 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Catullus's poem <hi rend='italic'>Attis</hi>, 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the bath of Cybele's image, 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hephaestus and hot springs, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heqet, Egyptian frog-goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hera's marriage with Zeus, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heraclids, Lydian dynasty of the, i. 182, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps Hittite, 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hercules identified with Melcarth, i. 16, 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slain by Typhon and revived by Iolaus, 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt on Mount Oeta, 111, 116, 211;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Gades, 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>women excluded from sacrifices to, 113 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Sandan, 125, 143, 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burns himself, 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped after death, 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the itch of, 209;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his dispute with Aesculapius, 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the patron of hot springs, 209 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>altar of, at Thermopylae, 210;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the effeminate, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priest of, dressed as a woman, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>vernal mysteries of, at Rome, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices to, at Rome, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the lion, i. 184</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Omphale, i. 182, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Sardanapalus, i. 172 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Lydian, identical with the Cilician Hercules, i. 182, 184, 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— with the lion's scalp, Greek type of, i. 117 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hereditary deities, i. 51</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herefordshire, soul-cakes in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herero, a Bantu tribe of German South-West Africa, the worship of the dead among the, ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermaphrodite son of Sky and Earth, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermaphrodites, dance of, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermes and Aegipan, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermesianax, on the death of Attis, i. 264 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hermus, river, i. 185, 186</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herod resorts to the springs of Callirrhoe, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herodes Atticus, his benefaction at Thermopylae, i. 210</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Herodotus on sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos, i. 34;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on religious prostitution, 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on wife of Bel, 71;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Cyrus and Croesus, 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sacrifices of Croesus to Apollo, 180 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on so-called monument of Sesostris, 185;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the festival of Osiris at Sais, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the mourning for Osiris, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identifies Osiris with Dionysus, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the similarity between the rites of Osiris and Dionysus, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on human sacrifices offered by the wife of Xerxes, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Heroes worshipped in form of animals, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hertz, W., on religious prostitution, i. 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 59 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hesse, custom at ploughing in, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Hest</foreign>, the Egyptian name for Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hettingen in Baden, custom at sowing at, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hezekiah, King, his reformation, i. 25, 107;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of his reign, 25 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hibeh papyri, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hide-measured lands, legends as to, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hieraconpolis in Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>representations of the Sed festival at, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hierapolis, the Syrian, festival of the Pyre or Torch at, i. 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred doves at, 147;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great sanctuary of Astarte at, 269;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>eunuch priests of Astarte at, 269 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, in the valley of the Maeander, cave of Pluto at, i. 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hot springs at, 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and <foreign rend='italic'>Hieropolis</foreign>, distinction between, i. 168 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -Bambyce, Atargatis the goddess of, i. 137, 162;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mysterious golden image at, 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rules as to the pollution of death at, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hieroglyphics, Hittite, i. 124, 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>High-priest of Syrian goddess, i. 143 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Priestess, head of the State, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Highlanders, Scottish, on the influence of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='291'/><anchor id='Pg291'/> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Hilaria</foreign>, Festival of Joy in the rites of Attis, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hill, G. F., on image of Artemis at Perga, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on legend of coins of Tarsus, 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on goddess 'Atheh, 162;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on coins of Mallus, 165 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hill Tout, C., on respect shown by the Indians of British Columbia for the animals and plants which they eat, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Himalayan districts of North-Western India, gardens of Adonis in the, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Himera, the battle of, i. 115;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hot springs of, 213 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hindoo burial of infants, i. 94;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage custom, old, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of perpetual fire, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hindoos of Northern India, their mode of drinking moonshine, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hinnom, the Valley of, i. 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of first-born children in, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hippodamia, her incest with her father, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hirpini, valley of Amsanctus in the land of the, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hissar District, Punjaub, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>History not to be explained without the influence of great men, i. 311 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hittite, correct form of the national name Chatti or Hatti, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— costume, i. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 131</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— deity named Tark or Tarku, i. 147</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— god of thunder, i. 134, 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— gods at Tarsus and Sardes, 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— hieroglyphics, i. 124, 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— inscription on Mount Argaeus, i. 190 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— priest or king, his costume, i. 131 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sculptures at Carchemish, i. 38 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Ibreez, 121 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Bor (Tyana), 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Euyuk, 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Boghaz-Keui, 128 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Babylon, 134;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Zenjirli, 134;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Giaour-Kalesi, 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Kara-Bel, 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Marash, 173;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Lydia, 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— seals of treaty, i. 136, 142 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 145 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Sun-goddess, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— treaty with Egypt, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hittites worship the bull, i. 123, 132;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their empire, language, etc., 124 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of mother-kin among the, 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hkamies of North Aracan, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ho tribe of Togoland, their kings buried secretly, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hofmayr, W., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hogarth, D. G., on relics of paganism at Paphos, i. 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Corycian cave, 155 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Roman remains at Tarsus, 172 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hogs sacrificed to goddess of volcano, i. 218 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hollis, A. C., on serpent-worship of the Akikuyu, i. 67 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on serpent-worship, 84 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Holy men</q> in Syria, i. 77 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hommel, Professor F., on the Hittite deity Tarku, i. 147 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honey and milk offered to snakes, i. 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Honey-cakes offered to serpent, i. 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hope of immortality, the Egyptian, centred in Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hopladamus, a giant, i. 157 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hora and Quirinus, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horkos, the Greek god of oaths, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horned cap worn by priest or god, i. 123;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Hittite god, 134</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— god, Hittite and Greek, i. 123</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— lion, i. 127</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horns, as a religious emblem, i. 34;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by gods, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of a cow worn by Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horses sacrificed for the use of the dead, i. 293 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, torn in pieces by, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Horus, the four sons of, in the likeness of hawks, ii. <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>decapitates his mother Isis, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the eye of, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref> with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Edfu identified with the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the elder, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the younger, son of Isis and the dead Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>accused by Set of being a bastard, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his combat with Set, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his eye destroyed by Set and restored by Thoth, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reigns over the Delta, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hose, Ch., and McDougall, W., on head-hunting in Borneo, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hosea on religious prostitution, i. 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Baalim, 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the prophet as a madman, 77</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hot springs, worship of, i. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hercules the patron of, 209 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>resorted to by childless women in Syria, 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huligamma, Indian goddess, eunuchs dedicated to her, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human representatives of Attis, i. 285 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrifice, substitutes for, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 285, 289, ii. 99, 221</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sacrifices in worship of the moon, i. 73;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to the Tauric Artemis, 115;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to Diomede at Salamis, 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered at earthquakes, 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered at irrigation +<pb n='292'/><anchor id='Pg292'/> +channels, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the kings of Ashantee and Dahomey, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to Dionysus, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered by the Mexicans for the maize, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the graves of the kings of Uganda, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to dead kings, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to dead chiefs, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to prolong the life of kings, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Human victims thrown into volcanoes, i. 219 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>uses made of their skins, 293;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as representatives of the corn-spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>killed with hoes, spades, and rakes, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hunger the root of the worship of Adonis, i. 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hurons, their burial of infants, i. 91</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Huzuls of the Carpathians, their theory of the waning moon, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their cure for water-brash, <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyacinth, son of Amyclas, killed by Apollo, i. 313;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his flower, 313 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his tomb and festival, 314 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an aboriginal deity, 315 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his sister Polyboea, 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps a deified king of Amyclae, i. 316 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyacinthia, the festival of Hyacinth, i. 314 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyacinthius, a Greek month, i. 315 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hybristica, an Argive festival, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hygieia, the goddess, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hymns to Tammuz, i. 9;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to the sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Hyria in Cilicia, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibani of the Niger delta, their sacrifices to prolong the lives of kings and others, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibans or Sea Dyaks, their worship of serpents, i. 83.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Sea-Dyaks'>Sea Dyaks</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibn Batuta, Arab traveller, on funeral of emperor of China, i. 293 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ibreez in Southern Cappadocia, i. 119 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>village of, 120 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hittite sculptures at, 121 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the god of, i. 119 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his horned cap, 164</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Idalium in Cyprus, i. 50;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bilingual inscription of, 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Melcarth worshipped at, 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ideals of humanity, two different, the heroic and the saintly, i. 300;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>great religious, a product of the male imagination, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ideler, L., on the date of the introduction of the fixed Alexandrian year, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Sothic period, 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ignorance of paternity, primitive, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Il Mayek clan of the Njamus, their supposed power over irrigation water and the crops, ii. <ref target='Pg039'>39</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ilium, animals sacrificed by hanging at, i. 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Illumination, nocturnal, at festival of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of graves on All Souls' Day, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ilpirra of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Images of Osiris made of vegetable mould, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Immortality, Egyptian hope of, centred in Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> sq., <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>, <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Impregnation'/> +<l>Impregnation of women by serpents, i. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the dead, 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by ghosts, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the flower of the banana, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>supposed, through eating food, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by fire, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Conception'>Conception</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Isis by the dead Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— without sexual intercourse, belief in, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incense burnt at the rites of Adonis, i. 228;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burnt in honour of the Queen of Heaven, 228;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>collected by a flail, ii. <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Incest with a daughter in royal families, reported cases of, i. 43 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inconsistency of common thought, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Increase of the moon the time for increasing money, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>India, sacred women (dancing-girls) in, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnation of women by stone serpents in, 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burial of infants in, 93 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gardens of Adonis in, 239 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>eunuchs dedicated to a goddess in, 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>drinking moonlight as a medicine in, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indian ceremonies analogous to the rites of Adonis, i. 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— prophet, his objections to agriculture, i. 88 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Indians of tropical America represent the rain-god weeping, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of California, their annual festivals of the dead, <ref target='Pg052'>52</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Brazil attend to the moon more than to the sun, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of San Juan Capistrano, their ceremony at the new moon, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Ucayali River in Peru, their greeting to the new moon, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of North America, effeminate sorcerers among the, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref>, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Infant sons of kings placed by goddesses on fire, i. 180</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Infants buried so as to ensure their rebirth, i. 91, 93 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burial of, at Gezer, 108 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Influence of great men on the popular imagination, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of mother-kin on religion, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ingarda tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 104</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='293'/><anchor id='Pg293'/> + +<lg> +<l>Ingleborough in Yorkshire, i. 152</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inheritance of property under mother-kin, rules of, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Injibandi tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Insect, soul of dead in, i. 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Insensibility to pain as a sign of inspiration, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inspiration, insensibility to pain as sign of, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>savage theory of, i. 299</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, prophetic, under the influence of music, i. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 74;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Inspired men and women in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Intercalation introduced to correct the vague Egyptian year, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref>, <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Inuus</foreign>, epithet applied to Faunus, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Invisible, charm to make an army, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iolaus, friend of Hercules, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iranian year, the old, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iranians, the old, their annual festival of the dead (Fravashis), ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ireland, sacred oaks in, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irle, J., on the religion of the Herero, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iron not allowed to touch Atys, i. 286 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Irrigation in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of, in Egypt, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices offered in connexion with, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isa or Parvati, an Indian goddess, i. 241</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isaac, Abraham's attempted sacrifice of, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isaiah, on the king's pyre in Tophet, i. 177, 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>possible allusion to gardens of Adonis in, 236 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on dew, 247 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ishtar, great Babylonian goddess, i. 8, 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to Tammuz, 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— (Astarte) and Mylitta, i. 36, 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isis, sister and wife of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of the festival of, <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a cow or a woman with the head of a cow, i. 50, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invoked by Egyptian reapers, i. 232, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the form of a hawk, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the papyrus swamps, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the form of a swallow, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Byblus, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the well, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her search for the body of Osiris, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovers and buries the body of Osiris, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourns Osiris, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>restores Osiris to life, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her tears supposed to swell the Nile, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her priest wears a jackal's mask, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>decapitated by her son Horus, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her temple at Philae, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her many names, <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sister and wife of Osiris, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a corn-goddess, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her discovery of wheat and barley, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Ceres, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Demeter, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as the ideal wife and mother, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>refinement and spiritualization of, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>popularity of her worship in the Roman empire, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her resemblance to the Virgin Mary, <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sirius her star, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Isis and the king's son at Byblus, i. 180;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and the scorpions, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Iswara or Mahadeva, an Indian god, i. 241, 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Italian myths of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Italy, hot springs in, i. 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Midsummer in, 254</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Itch of Hercules, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Itongo, an ancestral spirit (Zulu term, singular of Amatongo), ii. <ref target='Pg184'>184</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ivy, sacred to Attis, i. 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred to Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jablonski, P. E., on Osiris as a sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jackal-god Up-uat, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jackal's mask worn by priest of Isis, 11, 85 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jamblichus on insensibility to pain as sign of inspiration, i. 169;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the purifying virtue of fire, 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>January, the sixth of, reckoned in the East the Nativity of Christ, i. 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Janus in Roman mythology, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -like deity on coins, i. 165</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Japan, annual festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jars, children buried in, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jason and Medea, i. 181 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jastrow, Professor M., on the festival of Tammuz, i. 10 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the character of Tammuz, 230 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Java, conduct of natives in an earthquake, i. 202 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Valley of Poison in, 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of volcanoes in, 220 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jawbone, the ghost of the dead thought to adhere to the, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and navel-string of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jawbones, lower, of dead kings of Uganda preserved and worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ghosts of the kings supposed to attach to their jawbones, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='294'/><anchor id='Pg294'/> + +<lg> +<l>Jâyi or Jawâra, festival in Upper India, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Jebel Hissar</foreign>, Olba, i. 151</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jehovah in relation to thunder, i. 22 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to rain, 23 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jensen, P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hittite inscription, 145 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Syrian god Hadad, 163 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jeremiah, on the prophet as a madman, i. 77;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on birth from stocks and stones, 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jericho, death of Herod at, i. 214</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerome, on the date of the month Tammuz, i. 10 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the worship of Adonis at Bethlehem, 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jerusalem, mourning for Tammuz at, i. 11, 17, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Canaanite kings of, 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the returned captives at, 23;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Destroying Angel over, 24;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>besieged by Sennacherib, 25;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the religious orchestra at, 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>great burnings</q> for the kings at, 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the king's pyre at, 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Church of the Holy Sepulchre at, Good Friday ceremonies in the, 255 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sacrifice of first-born children at, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jewish priests, their rule as to the pollution of death, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jews of Egypt, costume of bride and bridegroom among the, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Joannes Lydus, on Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 266 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>John Barleycorn, i. 230 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Johns, Dr. C. H. W., on Babylonian votaries, i. 71 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3 and 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Johnston, Sir H. H., on eunuch priests on the Congo, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Josephus, on worship of kings of Damascus, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Tyropoeon, 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Josiah, reforms of king, i. 17 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5, 18 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 25, 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jualamukhi in the Himalayas, perpetual fires, i. 192</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Judah, laments for dead kings of, i. 20</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Judean maid impregnated by serpent, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julian, the emperor, his entrance into Antioch, i. 227, 258;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Mother of the Gods, 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>restores the standard cubit to the Serapeum, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Julian calendar introduced by Caesar, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— year, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Juno, the Flaminica Dialis sacred to, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the wife of Jupiter, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Junod, Henri A., on the worship of the dead among the Thonga, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Juok, the supreme god and creator of the Shilluks, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jupiter, the husband of Juno, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the father of Fortuna Primigenia, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Jupiter and Juturna, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Dolichenus, i. 136</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justice and Injustice in Aristophanes, i. 209</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Justin Martyr on the resemblances of paganism to Christianity, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Juturna in Roman mythology, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kabyles, marriage custom of the, to ensure the birth of a boy, ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kadesh, a Semitic goddess, i. 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kai of German New Guinea, their belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaikolans, a Tamil caste, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kaitish of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kalat el Hosn, in Syria, i. 78</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kalids</foreign>, <foreign rend='italic'>kaliths</foreign>, deities in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kalunga, the supreme god of the Ovambo, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kangra District, Punjaub, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kantavu, a Fijian island, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kanytelideis, in Cilicia, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kara-Bel, in Lydia, Hittite sculpture at, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kariera tribe of West Australia, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karma-tree, ceremony of the Mundas over a, i. 240</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karo-Bataks, of Sumatra, their custom as to the first sheaf of rice at harvest, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karok Indians of California, their lamentations at hewing sacred wood, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Karunga, the supreme god of the Herero, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Katikiro</foreign>, Baganda term for prime minister, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kayans, their reasons for taking human heads, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keadrol, a Toda clan, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keb (Geb or Seb), Egyptian earth-god, father of Osiris, i. 6, 283 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ḳedeshim</foreign>, sacred men, i. 38 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 59, 72, 76, 107;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Jerusalem, 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to prophets, 76</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Ḳedeshoth</foreign>, sacred women, i. 59, 72, 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kemosh, god of Moab, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kennett, Professor R. H., on David and Goliath, i. 19 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Elisha in the wilderness, 53 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on <hi rend='italic'>ḳedeshim</hi>, 73 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sacrifice of first-born children at Jerusalem, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kent's Hole, near Torquay, fossil bones in, i. 153</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Keysser, Ch., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 96 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khalij, old canal at Cairo, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='295'/><anchor id='Pg295'/> + +<lg> +<l>Khangars of the Central Provinces, India, bridegroom and his father dressed as women at a marriage among the, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khasi tribes governed by kings, not queens, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khasis of Assam, their system of mother-kin, i. 46, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>goddesses predominate over gods in their religion, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rules as to the succession to the kingship among the, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Khent'/> +<l>Khent, early king of Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his reign, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his tomb at Abydos, <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his tomb identified with that of Osiris, <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khenti-Amenti, title of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khoiak, festival of Osiris in the month of, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Khyrim State, in Assam, i. 46;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>governed by a High Priestess, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, a dead man, ii. <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his personal relics preserved at Cambridge, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kidd, Dudley, on the worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantus of South Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>King, J. E., on infant burial, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>King, a masker at Carnival called the, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Tyre, his walk on stones of fire, i. 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Uganda, his navel-string preserved and inspected every new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kings as priests, i. 42;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as lovers of a goddess, 49 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>held responsible for the weather and the crops, 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marry their sisters, 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>slaughter human victims with their own hands, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torn in pieces, traditions of, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices to prolong the life of, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and magicians dismembered and their bodies buried in different parts of the country to fertilize it, ii. <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, dead, reincarnate in lions, i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped in Africa, 160 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices offered to, 162, 166 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incarnate in animals, 162, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 173;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>consulted as oracles, 167, 171, 172, 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices to, 173;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the Barotse, 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, divinity of Semitic, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divinity of Lydian, 182 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Egypt worshipped as gods, i. 52;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>buried at Abydos, ii. <ref target='Pg019'>19</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps formerly slain in the character of Osiris, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as Osiris, <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>renew their life by identifying themselves with the dead and risen Osiris, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>born again at the Sed festival, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps formerly put to death to prevent their bodily and mental decay, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kings, Hebrew, traces of divinity ascribed to, i. 20 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Shilluk, put to death before their strength fails, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Sweden answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their sons sacrificed, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kingship at Rome a plebeian institution, i. 45;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>under mother-kin, rules as to succession to the, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa under mother-kin inherited by men, not women, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kingsley, Miss Mary H., on secret burial of chief's head, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Kinnor</hi>, a lyre, i. 52</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kirauea, volcano in Hawaii, i. 216 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divinities of, 217;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offerings to, 217 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kiriwina, one of the Trobriand Islands, annual festival of the dead in, i. 56;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>snakes as reincarnations of the dead in, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>presentation of children to the full moon in, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kiwai, an island off New Guinea, magic for the growth of sago in, ii. <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kiziba, a district of Central Africa, dead kings worshipped in, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>totemism in, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Klamath Indians of Oregon, their theory of the waning moon, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kocchs of North-Eastern India, succession to husband's property among the, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kois of Southern India, infant burial among the, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Komatis of Mysore, their worship of serpents, i. 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Koniags of Alaska, their magical uses of the bodies of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Konkaus of California, their dance of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Kosio</foreign>, a dedicated person, i. 65, 66, 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kosti, in Thrace, carnival custom at, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kotas, a tribe of Southern India, their priests not allowed to be widowers, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kretschmer, Professor P., on native population of Cyprus, i. 145 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Cybele and Attis, 287 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Krishna, Hindoo god, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kuar, an Indian month, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kubary, J., on the system of mother-kin among the Pelew Islanders, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kuinda, Cilician fortress, i. 144 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='296'/><anchor id='Pg296'/> + +<lg> +<l>Kuki-Lushai, men dressed as women to deceive dangerous ghosts or spirits among the, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kuklia, Old Paphos, i. 33, 36</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kundi in Cilicia, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kupalo, figure of, passed across fire at Midsummer, i. 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a deity of vegetation, 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Kupole's festival at Midsummer in Prussia, i. 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Labraunda in Caria, i. 182 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Labrys</foreign>, Lydian word for axe, i. 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laconia, subject to earthquakes, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lactantius, on the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lagash in Babylonia, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lago di Naftia in Sicily, i. 221 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lagrange, Father M. J., on the mourning for Adonis as a harvest rite, i. 231</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laguna, Pueblo village of New Mexico, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lakhubai, an Indian goddess, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lakor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lamas River in Cilicia, i. 149, 150</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lamentations of Egyptian reapers, i. 232, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the savage for the animals and plants which he eats, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Cherokee Indians <q>after the first working of the crop,</q> <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Karok Indians at cutting sacred wood, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laments for Tammuz, i. 9 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for dead kings of Judah, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lampblack used to avert the evil eye, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lamps lighted to show the dead the way, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for the use of ghosts at the feast of All Souls, <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lancashire, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Landen, the battle of, i. 234</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lane, E. W., on the rise of the Nile, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Lantana salvifolia</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lanterns, the feast of, in Japan, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lanzone, R. V., on the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Larnax Lapethus in Cyprus, Melcarth worshipped at, i. 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Larrekiya, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without cohabitation, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lateran Museum, statue of Attis in the, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Latham, R. G., on succession to husband's property among the Kocchs, ii. <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Laurel, gold wreath of, worn by priest of Hercules, i. 143;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Greek purificatory rites, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -bearing, a festival at Thebes, in Boeotia, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leake, W. M., on flowers in Asia Minor, i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaping over Midsummer fires to make hemp or flax grow tall, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leaves and flowers as talismans, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lebanon, the forests of Mount, i. 14;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Aphrodite of the, 30;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Baal of the, 32;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the charm of the, 235</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lech, a tributary of the Danube, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lechrain, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lecky, W. E. H., on the influence of great men on the popular imagination, ii. <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Legend of the foundation of Carthage and similar tales, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lehmann-Haupt, C. F., on the historical Semiramis, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lent, the Indian and Fijian, i. 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leo the Great, as to the celebration of Christmas, i. 305</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leonard, Major A. G., on sacrifices to prolong the lives of kings and others, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leprosy, king of Israel expected to heal, i. 23 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lepsius, R., his identification of Osiris with the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leti, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Letopolis, neck of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Letts, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lewis the Pious, institutes the feast of All Saints, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Leza, supreme being recognized by the Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Licinius Imbrex, on Mars and Nerio, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lightning thought by Caffres to be caused by the ghost of a powerful chief, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>no lamentations allowed for persons killed by, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Lights of the dead</q> to enable the ghosts to enter houses, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, three hundred and sixty-five, in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lion, deity standing on a, i. 123 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 127;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the emblem of the Mother Goddess, 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as emblem of Hercules and the Heraclids, 182, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carried round acropolis of Sardes, 184, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god at Boghaz-Keui, the mystery of the, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Lydia, 184</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -slaying god, statue of, i. 117</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lions, dead kings reincarnate in, i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>carved, at gate, i. 128;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as emblems of the great Asiatic Mother-goddess, 137;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>deities seated on, 162;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>spirits of dead chiefs reincarnated in, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='297'/><anchor id='Pg297'/> + +<lg> +<l>Living parents, children of, in ritual, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loeboes, a tribe of Sumatra, exchange of costume between boys and girls among the, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Loryma in Caria, Adonis worshipped at, i. 227 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lots, Greek custom as to the drawing of, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lovers, term applied to the Baalim, i. 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Low, Hugh, on Dyak treatment of heads of slain enemies, i. 295</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lua and Saturn, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luangwa, district of Northern Rhodesia, prayers to dead ancestors in, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lucian, on religious prostitution, i. 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on image of goddess at Hierapolis-Bambyce, 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the death of Peregrinus, 181;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on dispute between Hercules and Aesculapius, 209 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the ascension of Adonis, 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lugaba, the supreme god of the Bahima, ii. <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lunar sympathy, the doctrine of, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lung-fish clan among the Baganda, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luritcha of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lushais, men dressed as women, women dressed as men, among the, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Luxor, temples at, ii. <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lyall, Sir Charles J., on the system of mother-kin among the Khasis, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycaonian plain, i. 123</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycia, flowers in, i. 187 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Mount Chimaera in, 221;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mother-kin in, ii. <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycian language, question of its affinity, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— men dressed as women in mourning, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, rent in pieces by horses, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>, <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lycus, valley of the, i. 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lydia, prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the lion-god of, 184;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Burnt Land of, 193 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of mother-kin in, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lydian kings, their divinity, i. 182 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>held responsible for the weather and the crops, 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lyell, Sir Charles, on hot springs, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on volcanic phenomena in Syria and Palestine, 222 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lyre as instrument of religious music, i. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the instrument of Apollo, 288</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Lysimachus scatters the bones of the kings of Epirus, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ma, goddess of Comana in Pontus, i. 39, 265 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macalister, Professor R. A. Stewart, on infant burial at Gezer, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macdonald, Rev. James, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mace of Narmer, representation of the Sed festival on the, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>McLennan, J. F., on brother and sister marriages, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Macrobius, on the mourning Aphrodite, i. 30;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Egyptian year, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Osiris as a sun-god, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his solar theory of the gods, <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>, <ref target='Pg128'>128</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the influence of the moon, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madagascar, vicarious sacrifice for a king in, ii. <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>men dressed as women in, <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Madonna and Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maeander, the valley of the, subject to earthquakes, i. 194;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sanctuaries of Pluto in the valley of the, 205, 206</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mafuie, the Samoan god of earthquakes, i. 200</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magarsus in Cilicia, i. 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magic and religion, combination of, i. 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magical ceremonies for the regulation of the seasons, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— dramas for the regulation of the seasons, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— uses made of the bodies of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Magnesia, on the Maeander, worship of Zeus at, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahadeo and Parvati, Indian deities, i. 242, 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahadeva, Indian god, i. 241</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahdi, an ancient, i. 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mahratta, dancing-girls in, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maia or Majestas, the wife of Vulcan, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maiau, hero in form of crocodile, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maiden, the (Persephone), the descent of, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malagasy use of children of living parents in ritual, ii. <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malay Peninsula, the Mentras or Mantras of the, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mallus in Cilicia, deities on coins of, i. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Malta, bilingual inscription of, i. 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Phoenician temples of, 35</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mamre, sacred oak or terebinth at, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mandingoes of Senegambia, their attention to the phases of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maneros, chant of Egyptian reapers, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>, <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manes, first king of Lydia, i. 186 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manetho, on the Egyptian burnt-sacrifice of red-haired men, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Isis as +<pb n='298'/><anchor id='Pg298'/> +the discoverer of corn, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>quoted by Diodorus Siculus, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manichaeans, their theory of earthquakes, i. 197</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manichaeus, the heretic, his death, i. 294 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Manipur, the Tangkul Nagas of, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mantinea, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maori priest catches the soul of a tree, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marash, Hittite monuments at, i. 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>March, festival of Attis in, i. 267</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the twenty-fifth of, tradition that Christ was crucified on, i. 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marduk, human wives of, at Babylon, i. 71</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mariette-Pacha, A., on the burial of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marigolds used to adorn tombstones on All Souls' Day, ii. <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marks, bodily, of prophets, i. 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marriage as an infringement of old communal rights, i. 40;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Sun and Earth, 47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of women to serpent-god, 66 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Adonis and Aphrodite celebrated at Alexandria, 224;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Sky and Earth, 282 with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Roman gods, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>exchange of dress between men and women at, <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, sacred, of priest and priestess as representatives of deities, i. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in the rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Cos, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— customs of the Aryan family, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>use of children of living parents in, <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to ensure the birth of boys, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marriages of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their intention to keep the property in the family, <ref target='Pg215'>215</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mars, the father of Romulus and Remus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Bellona, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Nerio, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marsala in Sicily, Midsummer customs at, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marseilles, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marshall, Mr. A. S. F., on the felling of timber in Mexico, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Marsyas, his musical contest with Apollo and his death, i. 288 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps a double of Attis, 289</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Apollo, i. 55</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the river, i. 289</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Martin, M., on the cutting of peat in the Hebrides, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masai, of East Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their ceremonies at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— boys wear female costume at circumcision, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rule as to the choice of a chief, ii. <ref target='Pg248'>248</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masnes, a giant, i. 186</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Masoka</foreign>, the spirits of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maspero, Sir Gaston, edits the Pyramid Texts, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the nature of Osiris, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masquerade at the Carnival in Thrace, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Masquerades at festivals of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Massacres for sick kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Massaya, volcano in Nicaragua, human victims sacrificed to, i. 219</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Massebah</foreign> (plural <foreign rend='italic'>masseboth</foreign>), sacred stone or pillar, i. 107, 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maternal uncle in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maternity and paternity of the Roman deities, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Matriarchate,</q> i. 46</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maui, Fijian god of earthquakes, i. 202 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maundrell, H., on the discoloration of the river Adonis, i. 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maury, A., on the Easter ceremonies compared with those of Adonis, i. 257 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Maximus Tyrius, on conical image at Paphos, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>May, modern Greek feast of All Souls in May, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Day, ceremony at Meiron in Galilee on the eve of, i. 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -pole or Midsummer-tree in Sweden and Bohemia, i. 250</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medea and her magic cauldron, i. 180 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Medicine-men of Zulus, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Wiimbaio, 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mefitis, Italian goddess of mephitic vapours, i. 204, 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Megalopolis, battle of gods and giants in plain of, i. 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Megassares, king of Hyria, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meiners, C., on purification by blood, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meiron, in Galilee, burnings for dead Jewish Rabbis at, i. 178 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mela's description of the Corycian cave, i. 155 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 156</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melanesia, belief in conception without sexual intercourse in, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melanesian magicians buried secretly, ii. <ref target='Pg105'>105</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='299'/><anchor id='Pg299'/> + +<lg> +<l>Melanesians, mother-kin among the, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of New Britain, their use of flowers and leaves as talismans, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melcarth, the god of Tyre, identified with Hercules, i. 16, 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Amathus in Cyprus, 32, 117;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the burning of, 110 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped at Gades, 112 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melchizedek, king of Salem, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Melech</foreign> and Moloch, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meles, king of Lydia, banished because of a dearth, i. 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>causes lion to be carried round acropolis, 184</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melicertes, a form of Melcarth, i. 113</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melite in Phthia, i. 291</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Melito on the father of Adonis, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memnonium at Thebes, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memorial stones, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Memphis, head of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>oath of the kings of Egypt at, <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak at, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Apis the sacred bull of, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the sanctuary of Serapis at, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Men, make gods, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as women at marriage, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as women to deceive dangerous spirits, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as women at circumcision, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and women inspired by the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <q>of God,</q> prophets, i. 76</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Men Tyrannus, Phrygian moon-god, i. 284;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom as to pollution of death at his shrine, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mentras or Mantras of the Malay Peninsula, their tradition as to primitive man, ii. <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mephitic vapours, worship of, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mercurial temperament of merchants and sailors, ii. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mesha, king of Moab, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices his first-born, 110</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Messiah, <q>the Anointed One,</q> i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meteor as signal for festival, i. 259</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Methide</foreign> plant growing over grave of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexican calendar, its mode of intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexicans, their human sacrifices for the maize, ii. <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mexico, rule as to the felling of timber in, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Meyer, Professor Eduard, on prophecy in Canaan, i. 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Hittite language, 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on costume of Hittite priest or king, 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 141 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the rock-hewn sculptures of Boghaz-Keui, 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Anubis at Abydos, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the hawk as an Egyptian emblem, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the date of the introduction of the Egyptian calendar, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the nature of Osiris, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the relation of Byblus to Egypt, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Lycian language, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michael Angelo, the Pietà of, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Michaelmas, 29th September, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Midas, the tomb of, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Gordias, names of Phrygian kings, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Midsummer, old heathen festival of, in Europe and the East, i. 249 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at, 252 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bathing, pagan origin of the custom, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Bride and Bridegroom in Sweden, i. 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Day or Eve, custom of bathing on, i. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fires and couples in relation to vegetation, i. 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>leaping over the fires to make flax or hemp grow tall, 251</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milcom, the god of Ammon, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milk, serpents fed with, i. 84 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 87;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered at graves, 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mill, women mourning for Tammuz eat nothing ground in a mill, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milne, Mrs. Leslie, on the Shans, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Milton on the laments for Tammuz, i. 226 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minoan age of Greece, i. 34</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Minucius Felix on the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miraculous births of gods and heroes, i. 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Mistress of Turquoise,</q> goddess at Sinai, i. 35</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mitani, ancient people of Northern Mesopotamia, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mithra, Persian deity, popularity of his worship in the Roman Empire, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the Unconquered Sun, 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mithraic religion a rival to Christianity, i. 302;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Christmas borrowed from it, 302 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Miztecs of Mexico, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mnevis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. <ref target='Pg011'>11</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moa, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moab, Mesha, king of, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the wilderness of, 52 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the springs of Callirrhoe in, 214 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Arabs of, their custom at harvest, ii. <ref target='Pg048'>48</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their remedies for ailments, <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moabite stone, the inscription on the, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 20 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 163 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='300'/><anchor id='Pg300'/> + +<lg> +<l>Moabites burn the bones of the kings of Edom, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Models in cardboard offered to the dead instead of the things themselves, ii. <ref target='Pg063'>63</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohammedan peoples of North Africa, their custom of bathing at Midsummer, i. 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— saints as givers of children, i. 78 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohammedanism, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mohammedans of Oude, their mode of drinking moonshine, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moire, sister of Tylon, i. 186</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moloch, meaning of the name, i. 15;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices of first-born children to, 178;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the king, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and <foreign rend='italic'>Melech</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mommsen, Th., on the date of the festival of Osiris at Rome, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mongols, funeral customs of the, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monmouthshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Monomotapa, a Caffre king, his way of prolonging his life, ii. <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Montanists, their view as to the date of Creation, i. 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Months, the Egyptian, table of, ii. <ref target='Pg037'>37</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moon, human victims sacrificed to the, i. 73;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>albinoes thought to be the offspring of the, 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>popularly regarded as the cause of growth and decay, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>practical rules based on a theory of the influence of the, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>popularly regarded as the source of moisture, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical America, <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>viewed as the husband of the sun, <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Athenian superstition as to an eclipse of the, <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>children presented to the, <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to have a harmful influence on children, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the new, ceremonies at, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dances at, <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of showing money to, or turning it in the pocket, <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the waning, theories to explain, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be broken or eaten up, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Being of the Omahas, ii. <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the infant god, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god conceived as masculine, i. 73;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inspiration by the, 73;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Babylonia, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moonshine drunk as a medicine in India, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be beneficial to children, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Móooi, Tongan god who causes earthquakes, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moore, G. F., on the burnt sacrifice of children, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moravia, the feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moret, Alexandre, on Amenophis IV., ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Sed festival, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mori, a district of Central Celebes, belief of the natives as to a spirit in the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moriah, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Zion, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morning Star, appearance of, perhaps the signal for the festival of Adonis, i. 258 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morocco, custom of prostitution in an Arab tribe in, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Morrison, Rev. C. W., on belief of Australian aborigines as to childbirth, i. 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mostene in Lydia, double-headed axe at, i. 183 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mota, belief as to conception in women in, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Mother</q> and <q>Father</q> as epithets applied to Roman goddesses and gods, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, dead, worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Earth, festival in her honour in Bengal, i. 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fertilized by Father Sky, myth of, 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Goddess of Western Asia, sacred prostitution in the worship of the, i. 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lions as her emblems, 137, 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>her eunuch priests, 206;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Phrygia conceived as a Virgin Mother, 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -kin, succession in royal houses with, i. 44;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>trace of, at Rome and Nemi, 45;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Khasis of Assam, 46, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Hittites, traces of, i. 141 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and Mother Goddesses, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and father-kin, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref>, <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>favours the superiority of goddesses over gods in religion, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its influence on religion, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Pelew Islanders, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>does not imply that government is in the hands of women, <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Melanesians, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Lycia, <ref target='Pg212'>212</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of, in Lydia and Cos, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>favours the development of goddesses, <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Female-Kinship'>Female kinship</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of a god, i. 51, 52</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the gods, first-fruits offered to the, i. 280 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>popularity of her worship in the Roman Empire, 298 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Plastene on Mount Sipylus, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Mother's Air,</q> a tune on the flute, i. 288</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='301'/><anchor id='Pg301'/> + +<lg> +<l><q>Mothers of the Clan</q> in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref>, <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Motlav, belief as to conception in women in, i. 98</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mournful character of the rites of sowing, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mourning for Attis, i. 272;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>for the corn-god at midsummer, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— costume of men in Lycia, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps a mode of deceiving the ghost, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mouth of the dead, Egyptian ceremony of opening the, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Moylar, male children of sacred prostitutes, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mpongwe kings of the Gaboon, buried secretly, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Mugema</foreign>, the earl of Busiro, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mukasa, the chief god of the Baganda, probably a dead man, ii. <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gives oracles through a woman, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Mukuru</foreign>, an ancestor (plural <foreign rend='italic'>Ovakuru</foreign>, ancestors), ii. <ref target='Pg185'>185</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Müller, Professor W. Max, on Hittite name for god, i. 148 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mundas of Bengal, gardens of Adonis among the, i. 240</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mungarai, Australian tribe, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murder of children to secure their rebirth in barren women, i. 95</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Murli, female devotee, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Music as a means of prophetic inspiration, i. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 74;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in exorcism, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and religion, 53 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Musquakie Indians, infant burial among the, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mutilation of dead bodies of kings, chiefs, and magicians, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to prevent their souls from becoming dangerous ghosts, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mycenae, royal graves at, i. 33, 34</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mycenaean age of Greece, i. 34</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mylasa in Caria, i. 182 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mylitta, Babylonian goddess, sacred prostitution in her worship, i. 36, 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myrrh or Myrrha, the mother of Adonis, i. 43, 227 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree, Adonis born of a, i. 227, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mysore, sacred women in, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Komatis of, 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Mysteries of Sabazius, i. 90 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Attis, 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myth and ritual of Attis, i. 263 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Myths supposed to originate in verbal misapprehensions or a disease of language, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Italian, of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naaburg, in Bavaria, custom at sowing at, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Naaman, wounds of the,</q> Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, i. 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Naga</foreign>, serpent god, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naga-padoha, the agent of earthquakes, i. 200</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nahanarvals, a German tribe, priest dressed as a woman among the, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nahr Ibrahim, the river Adonis, i. 14, 28</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Namal tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Names, royal, signifying relation to deity, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Semitic personal, indicating relationship to a deity, 51;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Hebrew, ending in <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>-el</foreign> or <foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>-iah</foreign>, 79 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nana, the mother of Attis, i. 263, 269, 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nandi, the, of British East Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 85;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their ceremony at the ripening of the eleusine grain, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>boys dressed as women and girls dressed as men at circumcision among the, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nanjundayya, H. V., on serpent worship in Mysore, i. 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Naples, grotto <foreign rend='italic'>del cani</foreign> at, i. 205 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of bathing on St. John's Eve at, 246</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Narmer, the mace of, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>National character partly an effect of geographical and climatic conditions, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Natural calendar of the husbandman, shepherd, and sailor, ii. <ref target='Pg025'>25</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nature of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navel-string of the king of Uganda preserved and inspected every new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Navel-strings of dead kings of Uganda preserved, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ghosts of afterbirths thought to adhere to, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>preserved by the Baganda as their twins and as containing the ghosts of their afterbirths, <ref target='Pg169'>169</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ndjambi, Njambi, Njame, Zambi, Nyambe, etc., name of the supreme god among various tribes of Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, with note 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Karunga, the supreme god of the Herero, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nebseni, the papyrus of, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neith or Net, an Egyptian goddess, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nekht, the papyrus of, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='302'/><anchor id='Pg302'/> + +<lg> +<l>Nemi, Dianus and Diana at, i. 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nephthys, Egyptian goddess, sister of Osiris and Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourns Osiris, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Neptune and Salacia, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nerio and Mars, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>New birth through blood in the rites of Attis, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>savage theory of, 299;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Britain, theory of earthquakes in, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Guinea, German, the Kai of, i. 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Tami of, 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mexico, the Pueblo Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— moon, ceremonies at the, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— World, bathing on St. John's Day in the, i. 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>All Souls' Day in the, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Year's Day, festival of the dead on, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref>, <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref>, <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref>, <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Zealand, Rotomahana in, i. 207, 209 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Newberry, Professor P. E., on Osiris as a cedar-tree god, ii. <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Newman, J. H., on music, i. 53 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ngai, God, i. 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ngoni, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nguruhi, the supreme god of the Wahehe, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Niambe, the supreme god of the Barotse, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nias, conduct of the natives of, in an earthquake, i. 201 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>head-hunting in, 296 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nicaragua, Indians of, sacrifice human victims to volcanoes, i. 219</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nietzold, J., on the marriage of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nigmann, E., on the religion of the Wahehe, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nikunau, one of the Gilbert Islands, sacred stones in, i. 108 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nile, the rise and fall of the, ii. <ref target='Pg030'>30</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rises at the summer solstice in June, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>commanded by the King of Egypt to rise, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be swollen by the tears of Isis, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gold and silver thrown into the river at its rising, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the rise of, attributed to Serapis, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the <q>Bride</q> of the, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nilsson, Professor M. P., on custom of sacred prostitution, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 57 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 58 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sacrifice of a bull to Zeus, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nineveh, the end of, i. 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Njamus, the, of British East Africa, their sacrifices at irrigation channels, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Normandy, rolling in dew on St. John's Day in, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Northern Territory, Australia, beliefs as to the birth of children in the, i. 103 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nottinghamshire, harvest custom in, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>November, festivals of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref>, <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref>, <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the month of sowing in Egypt, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Novitiate of priests and priestesses, i. 66, 68</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nullakun tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nut, Egyptian sky-goddess, mother of Osiris, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in a sycamore tree, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nutlets of pines used as food, i. 278 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nutritive and vicarious types of sacrifice, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings, worshipped as the god of his people, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incarnate in various animals, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his mysterious disappearance, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his graves, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>historical reality of, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his relation to the creator Juok, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared to Osiris, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nymphs of the Fair Crowns at Olympia, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nysa, in the valley of the Maeander, i. 205, 206 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of bull at, 292 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Nyuak, L., on guardian spirits of Sea Dyaks, i. 83</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oak or terebinth, sacred at Mamre, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oath of Egyptian kings not to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obelisk, image of Astarte, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obelisks, sacred, at Gezer, i. 108</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Obscene images of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Octennial cycle, old, in Greece, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>October, the first of, a great Saxon festival, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Odilo, abbot of Clugny, institutes feast of All Souls, ii. <ref target='Pg082'>82</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Odin, hanged on a tree, i. 290;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human victims dedicated by hanging to, 290;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king's sons sacrificed to, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oenomaus, king of Pisa, his incest with his daughter, i. 44 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oeta, Mount, Hercules burnt on, i. 111, 116, 211</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Offerings to dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oil, holy, poured on king's head, i. 21;</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='303'/><anchor id='Pg303'/> + +<lg> +<l>poured on sacred stones, 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as vehicle of inspiration, 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olba, priestly kings of, i. 143 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the name of, 148;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the ruins of, 151 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Old Woman of the corn, mythical being of the Cherokee Indians, ii. <ref target='Pg046'>46</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olive of the Fair Crown at Olympia, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -branches carried in procession and hung over doors at Athens, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olo Ngadjoe, the, of Borneo, i. 91</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olonets, Russian Government of, festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olympia, the quack Peregrinus burns himself at, i. 181;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the cutting of the olive-branches to form the victors' crowns at, ii. 240</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olympic festival based on an octennial cycle, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Olympus, Mount, in Cyprus, i. 32</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omahas, Indian tribe of North America, effeminate men among the, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omonga, a rice-spirit who lives in the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Omphale and Hercules, i. 182, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>On, King of Sweden. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Aun'>Aun</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oodeypoor, in Rajputana, gardens of Adonis at, i. 241 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Opening the eyes and mouth of the dead, Egyptian funeral rite, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Operations of husbandry regulated by observation of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ops, the wife of Saturn, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to Consus, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oracles given by the spirits of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oraons of Bengal, their annual marriage of the Sun and Earth, i. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gardens of Adonis among the, 240;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg059'>59</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orcus, Roman god of the lower world, his marriage celebrated by the pontiffs, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ordeal of chastity, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orestes at Castabala, i. 115</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orgiastic rites of Cybele, i. 278</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oriental mind untrammelled by logic, i. 4 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— religions in the West, i. 298 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their influence in undermining ancient civilization, 299 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>importance attached to the salvation of the individual soul in, 300</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Origen, on the refusal of Christians to fight, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Origin of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orion, appearance of the constellation, a signal for sowing, i. 290 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orpheus, prophet and musician, i. 55;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the legend of his death, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Orwell in Cambridgeshire, harvest custom at, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oschophoria, vintage festival at Athens, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osirian mysteries, the hall of the, at Abydos, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osiris identified with Adonis and Attis, i. 32, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth of, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his birth, <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>introduces the cultivation of corn and the vine, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his violent death, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Byblus, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his body rent in pieces, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the graves of, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his dead body sought and found by Isis, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tradition as to his genital organs, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourned by Isis and Nephthys, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invited to come to his house, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>, <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>restored to life by Isis, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king and judge of the dead, <ref target='Pg013'>13</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his body the first mummy, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the funeral rites performed over his body the model of all funeral rites in Egypt, <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>all the Egyptian dead identified with, <ref target='Pg016'>16</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his trial and acquittal in the court of the gods, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in art as a royal mummy, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>specially associated with Busiris and Abydos, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his tomb at Abydos, <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg197'>197</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>official festivals of, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his sufferings displayed in a mystery at night, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his festival in the month of Athyr, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dramatic representation of his resurrection in his rites, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his images made of vegetable mould, <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the funeral rites of, described in the inscription of Denderah, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his festival in the month of Khoiak, <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his <q>garden,</q> <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ploughing and sowing in the rites of, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the burial of, in his rites, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the holy sepulchre of, under Persea-trees, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented with corn sprouting from his dead body, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his resurrection depicted on the monuments, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a corn-god, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>corn-stuffed effigies of, buried with the dead as a symbol of resurrection, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of the celebration of his resurrection at Rome, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the nature of, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his severed limbs placed on a corn-sieve, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human victims sacrificed by kings at the grave of, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested explanations of his dismemberment, <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sometimes explained by the ancients as a personification of the corn, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a tree-spirit, <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his image made out of a pine-tree, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his emblems the crook and scourge or flail, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, compare 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his backbone represented by the <hi rend='italic'>ded</hi> pillar, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<pb n='304'/><anchor id='Pg304'/> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted as a cedar-tree god, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his soul in a bird, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented as a mummy enclosed in a tree, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>obscene images of, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a god of fertility, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Dionysus, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a god of the dead, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>universal popularity of his worship, <ref target='Pg114'>114</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted by some as the sun, <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, reasons for rejecting this interpretation, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his death and resurrection interpreted as the decay and growth of vegetation, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his body broken into fourteen parts, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted as the moon by some of the ancients, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reigned twenty-eight years, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his soul thought to be imaged in the sacred bull Apis, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with the moon in hymns, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented wearing on his head a full moon within a crescent, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>distinction of his myth and worship from those of Adonis and Attis, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his dominant position in Egyptian religion, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the origin of, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his historical reality asserted in recent years, <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his temple at Abydos, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his title Khenti-Amenti, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared to Charlemagne, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the question of his historical reality left open, <ref target='Pg199'>199</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his death still mourned in the time of Athanasius, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his old type better preserved than those of Adonis and Attis, <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Osiris, Adonis, Attis, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Adonis, similarity between their rites, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Dionysus, similarity between their rites, ii. <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— of the mysteries,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -Sep, title of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ostrich-feather, king of Egypt supposed to ascend to heaven on an, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Otho, the emperor, addicted to the worship of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oulad Abdi, Arab tribe of Morocco, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Oura, ancient name of Olba, i. 148, 152</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ourwira, theory of earthquakes in, i. 199</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ovambo, the, of German South-West Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the worship of the dead among the, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ovid, on the story of Pygmalion, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Owl regarded as the guardian spirit of a tree, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ox substituted for human victim in sacrifice, i. 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>embodying corn-spirit sacrificed at Athens, 296 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>black, used in purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ozieri, in Sardinia, St. John's festival at, i. 244</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pacasmayu, the temple of the moon at, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Padmavati, an Indian goddess, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pagan origin of the Midsummer festival (festival of St. John), i. 249 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paganism and Christianity, their resemblances explained as diabolic counterfeits, i. 302, 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Παῖς ἀμφιθαλής, a boy whose parents are both alive, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palatinate, the Upper, the feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg072'>72</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palestine, religious prostitution in, i. 58;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of the corn-reaping in, 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palestinian Aphrodite, i. 304 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Palestrina, the harmonies of, i. 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pampa del Sacramento, Peru, earthquakes in, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pampas, bones of extinct animals in the, i. 158</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pamyles, an Egyptian, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pandharpur, in the Bombay Presidency, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Panaghia Aphroditessa at Paphos, i. 36</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Panku, a being who causes earthquakes, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papas, a name for Attis, i. 281, 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paphlagonian belief that the god is bound fast in winter, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paphos in Cyprus, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sanctuary of Aphrodite at, 32 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founded by Cinyras, 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Papyrus of Nebseni, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Nekht, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— swamps, Isis in the, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parilia and the festival of St. George, i. 308</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parr, Thomas, i. 56</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Parvati or Isa, an Indian goddess, i. 241, 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pasicyprus, king of Citium, i. 50 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patagonia, funeral customs of Indians of, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patagonians, effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paternity, primitive ignorance of, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>unknown in primitive savagery, 282</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and maternity of the Roman deities, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Paton, W. R., on modern Greek feast of All Souls in May, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Patrae, Laphrian Artemis at, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='305'/><anchor id='Pg305'/> + +<lg> +<l>Pausanias on the necklace of Harmonia, i. 32 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on bones of superhuman size, 157 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on offerings to Etna, 221 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Hanged Artemis, 291 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Payne, E. J., on the origin of moon-worship, ii. <ref target='Pg138'>138</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pegasus and Bellerophon, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pegu, dance of hermaphrodites in, i. 271 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peking, Ibn Batuta at, i. 289</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pélé, goddess of the volcano Kilauea in Hawaii, i. 217 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelew Islanders, their system of mother-kin, ii. <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>predominance of goddesses over gods among them, <ref target='Pg204'>204</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>customs of the, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Islands and the ancient East, parallel between, ii. <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prostitution of unmarried girls in, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>custom of slaying chiefs in the, <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelion, Mount, sacrifices offered on the top of, at the rising of Sirius, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peloponnese, worship of Poseidon in, i. 203</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pelops restored to life, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peneus, the river, at Tempe, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pennefather River in Queensland, belief of the natives as to the birth of children, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pentheus, king of Thebes, rent in pieces by Bacchanals, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peoples of the Aryan stock, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pepi the First, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his pyramid, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perasia, Artemis, at Castabala, i. 167 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peregrinus, his death in the fire, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perga in Pamphylia, Artemis at, i. 35</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Periander, tyrant of Corinth, his burnt sacrifice to his dead wife, i. 179</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perigord, rolling in dew on St. John's Day in, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peritius, month of, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perpetual holy fire in temples of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— fires worshipped, i. 191 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perrot, G., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persea-trees in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing over the tomb of Osiris, <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persephone, name applied to spring, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Aphrodite, their contest for Adonis, i. 11 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Pluto, temple of, i. 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Perseus, the virgin birth of, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persian reverence for fire, i. 174 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Persian fire-worship and priests, 191</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Personation of gods by priests, i. 45, 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peru, earthquakes in, i. 202;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice of sons in, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Peruvian Indians, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pescara River, in the Abruzzi, i. 246</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pescina in the Abruzzi, Midsummer custom at, i. 246</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pessinus, image of Cybele at, i. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests called Attis at, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>local legend of Attis at, 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>image of the Mother of the Gods at, 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>people of, abstain from swine, 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>high-priest of Cybele at, 285</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petrarch at Cologne on St. John's Eve, i. 247 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petrie, Professor W. M. Flinders, on the date of the corn-reaping in Egypt and Palestine, i. 231 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Sed festival, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the marriage of brothers with sisters in Egypt, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petrified cascades of Hierapolis, i. 207</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Petroff, Ivan, on a custom of the Koniags of Alaska, ii. <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phamenoth, an Egyptian month, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phaophi, an Egyptian month, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pharnace, daughter of Megassares, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phatrabot, a Cambodian month, ii. <ref target='Pg061'>61</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phidias, his influence on Greek religion, i. 54 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philadelphia, subject to earthquakes, i. 194 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philae, Egyptian relief at, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mystic representation of Osiris in the temple of Isis at, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sculptures in the temple of Isis at, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the grave of Osiris at, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the dead Osiris in the sculptures at, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philo of Alexandria on the date of the corn-reaping, i. 231 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philocalus, calendar of, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 304 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philosophy, school of, at Tarsus, i. 118</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Philostephanus, Greek historian, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phoenician temples in Malta, i. 35;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred prostitution in, 37</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings in Cyprus, i. 49</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phoenicians in Cyprus, i. 31 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phrygia, Attis a deity of, i. 263;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of Cybele in, 274 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>indigenous race of, 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phrygian belief that the god sleeps in winter, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cap of Attis, i. 279</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— cosmogony, i. 263 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings named Midas and Gordias, i. 286</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='306'/><anchor id='Pg306'/> + +<lg> +<l>Phrygian moon-god, i. 73</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— priests named Attis, i. 285, 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Phrygians, invaders from Europe, i. 287</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Pietà</foreign> of Michael Angelo, i. 257</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pig's blood used in exorcism and purification, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Pigs'/> +<l>Pigs sacrificed annually to the moon and Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Swine'>Swine</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pillars as a religious emblem, i. 34;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred, in Crete, 107 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pindar on the music of the lyre, i. 55;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Typhon, 156</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pine-cones symbols of fertility, i. 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thrown into vaults of Demeter, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the monuments of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— seeds or nutlets used as food, i. 278</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -tree in the myth and ritual of Attis, i. 264, 265, 267, 271, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 285, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Marsyas hung on a, i. 288;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in relation to human sacrifices, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Pentheus on the, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the rites of Osiris, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pipiles of Central America expose their seeds to moonlight, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Piraeus, processions in honour of Adonis at, i. 227 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pirates, the Cilician, i. 149 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Pitr Pāk</foreign>, the Fortnight of the Manes, ii. <ref target='Pg060'>60</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pitrè, G., on Good Friday ceremonies in Sicily, i. 255 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Placenta'/> +<l>Placenta, Egyptian standard resembling a, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Afterbirth'>Afterbirth</ref>.</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Placianian Mother, a form of Cybele, worshipped at Cyzicus, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plastene, Mother, on Mount Sipylus, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plato, on gardens of Adonis, i. 236 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plautus on Mars and Nerio, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pleiades worshipped by the Abipones, i. 258 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the setting of, the time of sowing, ii. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pliny, on the date of harvest in Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg032'>32</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the influence of the moon, <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the grafting of trees, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the time for felling timber, <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plotinus, the death of, i. 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ploughing, Prussian custom at, i. 238;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and sowing, ceremony of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ploughmen and sowers drenched with water as a rain-charm, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Plutarch on the double-headed axe of Zeus Labrandeus, i. 182;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the myth of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg003'>3</ref>, <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Harpocrates, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Osiris at Byblus, <ref target='Pg022'>22</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the rise of the Nile, <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the mournful character of the rites of sowing, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his use of the Alexandrian year, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on an Egyptian ceremony at the winter solstice, <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the date of the death of Osiris, <ref target='Pg084'>84</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the festival of Osiris in the month of Athyr, <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the dating of Egyptian festivals, <ref target='Pg094'>94</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the rites of Osiris, <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the grave of Osiris, <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the similarity between the rites of Osiris and Dionysus, <ref target='Pg127'>127</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Flamen Dialis, <ref target='Pg229'>229</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Flaminica Dialis, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pluto, the breath of, i. 204, 205;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>places or sanctuaries of, 204 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cave and temple of, at Acharaca, 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Plutonia</foreign>, places of Pluto, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pollution of death, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polo, Marco, on custom of people of Camul, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polyboea, sister of Hyacinth, i. 314, 316;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Artemis or Persephone, 315</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polyidus, a seer, i. 186 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Polynesian myth of the separation of earth and sky, i. 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pomegranate causes virgin to conceive, i. 263, 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pomegranates forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 7</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pomona and Vertumnus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pompey the Great, i. 27</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pondomisi, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pontiffs, the Roman, their mismanagement of the Julian calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>celebrated the marriage of Orcus, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pontus, sacred prostitution in, i. 39, 58</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Populonia, a Roman goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Port Darwin, Australia, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Porta Capena at Rome, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Poseidon the Establisher or Securer, i. 195 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the earthquake god, 195, 202 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Demeter, i. 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Possession of priest or priestess by a divine spirit, i. 66, 68 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 72 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by the spirits of dead chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Potniae in Boeotia, priest of Dionysus killed at, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pots of Basil on St. John's Day in Sicily, i. 245</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Potter in Southern India, custom observed by a, i. 191 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Potters in Uganda bake their pots when the moon is waxing, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Praeneste, Fortuna Primigenia, goddess of, ii. <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>founded by Caeculus, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prague, the feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prayers to dead ancestors, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to dead kings, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='307'/><anchor id='Pg307'/> + +<lg> +<l>Pregnancy, causes of, unknown, i. 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Australian beliefs as to the causes of, 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priestess identified with goddess, i. 219;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>head of the State under a system of mother-kin, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priestesses more important than priests, i. 45, 46</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priesthood vacated on death of priest's wife, i. 45;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Hercules at Tarsus, 143</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priestly dynasties of Asia Minor, i. 140 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— king and queen personating god and goddess, i. 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings, i. 42, 43;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Olba, 143 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Adonis personated by, 223 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Priests personate gods, i. 45, 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>tattoo-marks of, 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to be widowers, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Jewish, their rule as to the pollution of death, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as women, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Astarte, kings as, i. 26</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Attis, the emasculated, i. 265, 266</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Zeus at the Corycian cave, i. 145, 155</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Procession to the Almo in the rites of Attis, i. 273</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Processions carved on rocks at Boghaz-Keui, i. 129 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in honour of Adonis, 224 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 227 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 236 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Procreation, savage ignorance of the causes of, i. 106 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Procris, her incest with her father Erechtheus, i. 44</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Profligacy of human sexes supposed to quicken the earth, i. 48</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Property, rules as to the inheritance of, under mother-kin, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>landed, combined with mother-kin tends to increase the social importance of women, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophecy, Hebrew, distinctive character of, i. 75</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophet regarded as madman, i. 77</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inspired by gods, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophetic inspiration under the influence of music, i. 52 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 54 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 74;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>through the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— marks on body, i. 74</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— water drunk on St. John's Eve, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophets in relation to <hi rend='italic'>ḳedeshim</hi>, i. 76;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or mediums inspired by the ghosts of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref>, <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Hebrew, their resemblance to those of Africa, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prophets of Israel, their religious and moral reform, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Propitiation of deceased ancestors, i. 46</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prostitution, sacred, before marriage, in Western Asia, i. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested origin of, 39 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Western Asia, alternative theory of, 57 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Africa, 65 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of unmarried girls in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Provence, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Prussia, customs at ploughing and harvest in, i. 238;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Midsummer in, 252 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pteria, captured by Croesus, i. 128</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, i. 43</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy and Berenice, annual festival in honour of, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy I. and Serapis, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy III. Euergetes, his attempt to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy V. on the Rosetta Stone, ii. <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ptolemy Soter, i. 264 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg054'>54</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pumi-yathon, king of Citium and Idalium, i. 50</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Punjaub, belief in the reincarnation of infants in the, i. 94</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Puppet substituted for human victim, i. 219 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purification by fire, i. 115 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 179 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by pig's blood, 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Apollo at Tempe, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyanepsion, an Athenian month, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pygmalion, king of Citium and Idalium in Cyprus, i. 50</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, king of Cyprus, i. 41, 49</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, king of Tyre, i. 50</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Aphrodite, i. 49 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pymaton of Citium, i. 50 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyramid Texts, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg009'>9</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>intended to ensure the life of dead Egyptian kings, <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris and the sycamore in the, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the mention of Khenti-Amenti in the, <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyramus, river in Cilicia, i. 165, 167, 173</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pyre at festivals of Hercules, i. 116;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Tarsus, 126;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of dead kings at Jerusalem, 177 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— or Torch, name of great festival at the Syrian Hierapolis, i. 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Pythian games, their period, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Python worshipped by the Baganda, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god, human wives of the, i. 66</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='308'/><anchor id='Pg308'/> + +<lg> +<l>Pythons worshipped in West Africa, i. 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dead chiefs reincarnated in, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Quail-hunt,</q> legend on coins of Tarsus, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quails sacrificed to Hercules (Melcarth), i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>migration of, 112</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quatuordecimans of Phrygia celebrate the Crucifixion on March 25th, i. 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queen of Egypt the wife of Ammon, i. 72</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Heaven, i. 303 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>incense burnt in honour of the, 228</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Queensland, aborigines of, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. 102 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Quirinus and Hora, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>, <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with many originally independent local deities, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rabbah, captured by David, i. 19</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rabbis, burnings for dead Jewish, i. 178 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rain procured by bones of the dead, i. 22;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>excessive, ascribed to wrath of God, 22 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>instrumental in rebirth of dead infants, 95;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>regarded as the tears of gods, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to be controlled by the souls of dead chiefs, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -charm in rites of Adonis, i. 237;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>by throwing water on the last corn cut, 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god represented with tears running from his eyes, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rainbow totem, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rainless summer on the Mediterranean, i. 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rajaraja, king, i. 61</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rajputana, gardens of Adonis in, i. 241 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rambree, sorcerers dressed as women in the island of, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rameses II., his treaty with the Hittites, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his order to the Nile, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ramman, Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder, i. 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rams, testicles of, in the rites of Attis, i. 269</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ramsay, Sir W. M., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 137 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on priest-dynasts of Asia Minor, 140 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the god Tark, 147 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the name Olba, 148 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on <hi rend='italic'>Hierapolis</hi> and <hi rend='italic'>Hieropolis</hi>, 168 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Attis and Men, 284 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on cruel death of the human representative of a god in Phrygia, 285 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Raoul-Rochette on Asiatic deities with lions, i. 138 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the burning of doves to Adonis, 147 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on apotheosis by death in the fire, 180 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ratumaimbulu, Fijian god of fruit-trees, i. 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Readjustment of Egyptian festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reapers, Egyptian, their lamentations, i. 232, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>invoke Isis, <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rebirth of infants, means taken to ensure the, i. 91, 93 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the dead, precautions taken to prevent, 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref>, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Red the colour of Lower Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -haired men burnt by Egyptians, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reform, the prophetic, in Israel, i. 24 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reformations of Hezekiah and Josiah, i. 25</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rehoboam, King, his family, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reincarnation of the dead, i. 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in America, 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Australia, 99 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rekub-el, Syrian god, i. 16</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Relations, spirits of near dead, worshipped, i. 175, 176;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at death become gods, ii. <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Religion, volcanic, i. 188 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>how influenced by mother-kin, ii. <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and magic, combination of, i. 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and music, 53 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Religious ideals a product of the male imagination, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— systems, great permanent, founded by great men, ii. <ref target='Pg159'>159</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Remission of sins through the shedding of blood, i. 299</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Remus, the birth of, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Renan, E., on Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his excavations at Byblus, 14 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Adom-melech, 17;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the vale of the Adonis, 29 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the burnings for the kings of Judah, 178 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the discoloration of the river Adonis, 225 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the worship of Adonis, 235</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Renouf, Sir P. le Page, on Osiris as the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resemblance of the rites of Adonis to the festival of Easter, i. 254 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 306</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resemblances of paganism to Christianity explained as diabolic counterfeits, i. 302, 309 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Reshef, Semitic god, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resurrection of the dead conceived on the pattern of the resurrection of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Attis at the vernal equinox, i. 272 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 307 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Hercules (Melcarth), i. 111 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Osiris dramatically represented in his rites, ii. <ref target='Pg085'>85</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>depicted on the +<pb n='309'/><anchor id='Pg309'/> +monuments, <ref target='Pg089'>89</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of its celebration at Rome, <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>symbolized by the setting up of the <hi rend='italic'>ded</hi> pillar, <ref target='Pg109'>109</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Resurrection of Tylon, i. 186 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhine, bathing in the, on St. John's Eve, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhodes described by Strabo, i. 195 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of Helen in, 292</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhodesia, Northern, the Bantu tribes of, their worship of ancestral spirits, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of dead chiefs or kings, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rhodians, the Venetians of antiquity, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rice, the soul of the, in the first sheaf cut, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ridgeway, Professor W., on the marriage of brothers with sisters, ii. <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rites of irrigation in Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of sowing, <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of harvest, <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ritual, children of living parents in, ii. <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the Bechuanas at founding a new town, <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Adonis, i. 223 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivers as the seat of worship of deities, i. 160;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing in, at Midsummer, 246, 248, 249;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gods worshipped beside, 289</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., as to Melanesian theory of conception in women, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sacred dairyman of the Todas, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rizpah and her sons, i. 22</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Robinson, Edward, on the vale of the Adonis, i. 29 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roccacaramanico, in the Abruzzi, Easter ceremonies at, i. 256 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rock-hewn sculptures at Ibreez, i. 121 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Boghaz-Keui, 129 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rockhill, W. Woodville, on dance of eunuchs in Corea, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rohde, E., on purification by blood, i. 299 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Hyacinth, 315</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roman deities called <q>Father</q> and <q>Mother,</q> ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— emperor, funeral pyre of, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— expiation for prodigies, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— financial oppression, i. 301 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— <foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>genius</foreign> symbolized by a serpent, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— gods, the marriage of the, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>compared to Greek gods, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— law, revival of, i. 301</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— marriage custom, ii. <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— mythology, fragments of, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romans adopt the worship of the Phrygian Mother of the Gods, i. 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rome, high-priest of Cybele at, i. 285;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the celebration of the resurrection of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Romulus cut in pieces, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the birth of, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roper River, in Australia, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roscoe, Rev. John, on serpent-worship, i. 86 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the rebirth of the dead, 92 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on potters in Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the religion of the Bahima, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the worship of the dead among the Baganda, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Mukasa, the chief god of the Baganda, <ref target='Pg196'>196</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on massacres for sick kings of Uganda, <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rose, the white, dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rosetta stone, the inscription, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Roth, W. E., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 103 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rotomahana in New Zealand, pink terraces at, i. 207, 209 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rugaba, supreme god in Kiziba, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rules of life based on a theory of lunar influence, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rumina, a Roman goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Runes, how Odin learned the magic, i. 290</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russia, annual festivals of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Russian Midsummer custom, i. 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Rustic Calendars, the Roman, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sabazius, mysteries of, i. 90 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrament in the rites of Attis, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sacred'/> +<l>Sacred harlots in Asia Minor, i. 141</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— marriage of priest and priestess as representing god and goddess, i. 46 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented in the rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 140;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Cos, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— men</q> (<foreign lang='he' rend='italic'>kedeshim</foreign>), at Jerusalem, i. 17 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and women, 57 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in West Africa, 65 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Western Asia, 72 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Andania, 76 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— prostitution, i. 36 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>suggested origin of, 39 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Western Asia, alternative theory of, 55 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in India, 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in West Africa, 65 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— slaves, i. 73, 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— stocks and stones among the Semites, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women in India, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in West Africa, 65 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Western Asia, 70 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at Andania, 76 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifice of virginity, i. 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of virility in the rites of Attis and Astarte, 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>other cases of, 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>nutritive and vicarious types of, ii. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifices to earthquake god, i. 201, 202;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to volcanoes, 218 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to the dead distinguished from sacrifices to +<pb n='310'/><anchor id='Pg310'/> +the gods, 316 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered at the rising of Sirius, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered in connexion with irrigation, <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to dead kings, <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg166'>166</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to ancestral spirits, <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg178'>178</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg183'>183</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of animals to prolong the life of kings, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>without shedding of blood, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sacrifices, human, offered at earthquakes, i. 201;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>offered to Dionysus, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at the graves of the kings of Uganda, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to dead kings, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to dead chiefs, <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to prolong the life of kings, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sadyattes, son of Cadys, viceroy of Lydia, i. 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saffron at the Corycian cave, i. 154, 187</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sago, magic for the growth of, ii. <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sahagun, B. de, on the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Denys, his seven heads, ii. <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. George in Syria, reputed to bestow offspring on women, i. 78, 79, 90;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of, and the Parilia, 308, 309</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John, Sweethearts of, in Sardinia, i. 244 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John, Spenser, on reasons for head-hunting in Sarawak, i. 296</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. John's Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), custom of bathing on, i. 246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Midsummer festival in Sardinia, i. 244 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— wort gathered at Midsummer, i. 252 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Kilda, All Saints' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg080'>80</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Luke, the festival of, on October 18th, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saint-Maries, Midsummer custom at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>S. Martinus Dumiensis, on the date of the Crucifixion in Gaul, i. 307 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Michael in Alaska, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Simon and St. Jude's day, October 28th, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>St. Vitus, festival of, i. 252</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saintonge, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saints as the givers of children to women, i. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 91, 109</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sais, the festival of, ii. <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sakkara, pyramids at, ii. <ref target='Pg004'>4</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Sal</foreign> tree, festival of the flower of the, i. 47</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salacia and Neptune, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salamis in Cyprus, human sacrifices at, i. 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dynasty of Teucrids at, 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salem, Melchizedek, king of, i. 17</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salii, priests of Mars, rule as to their election, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salono, a Hindoo festival, i. 243 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Salvation of the individual soul, importance attached to, in Oriental religions, i. 300</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samagitians, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg075'>75</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samal, in North-Western Syria, i. 16</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samaria, the fall of, i. 25</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samoa, conduct of the inhabitants in an earthquake, i. 200</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Samuel consulted about asses, i. 75;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of the name, 79</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Saul, i. 22</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>San Juan Capistrano, the Indians of, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sanda-Sarme, a Cilician king, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sandacus, a Syrian, i. 41</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sandan of Tarsus, i. 124 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the burning of, 117 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 126;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Hercules, 125, 143, 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>monument of, at Tarsus, 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— (Sandon, Sandes), Cappadocian and Cilician god of fertility, i. 125</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Baal at Tarsus, i. 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 161</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sandon, or Sandan, name of the Lydian and Cilician Hercules, i. 182, 184, 185;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a Cilician name, 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sandu'arri, a Cilician king, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Santa Felicita, successor of Mefitis, i. 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Santiago Tepehuacan, Indians of, their custom at sowing, i. 239;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Santorin, island of, its volcanic activity, i. 195</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sappho on the mourning for Adonis, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saracus, last king of Assyria, i. 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sarawak, head-hunting in, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardanapalus, monument of, at Tarsus, i. 126 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his monument at Anchiale, 172;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the burning of, 172 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the effeminate, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Hercules, i. 172 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardes, captured by Cyrus, i. 174;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>lion carried round acropolis of, i. 184, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sardinia, gardens of Adonis in, i. 244 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sargal, in India, gardens of Adonis at, i. 243</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sarpedonian Artemis, i. 167, 171</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sasabonsun, earthquake god of Ashantee, i. 201</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturn, the husband of Ops, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Lua, ii. <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturn's period of revolution round the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saturnine temperament of the farmer, ii. <ref target='Pg218'>218</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sauks, an Indian tribe of North America, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='311'/><anchor id='Pg311'/> + +<lg> +<l>Saul, burial of, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and David, i. 21</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saul's madness soothed by music, i. 53, 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Savages lament for the animals and plants which they eat, ii. <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sâwan, Indian month, i. 242</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Saxons of Transylvania, harvest custom of the, i. 238</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sayce, A. H., on kings of Edom, i. 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on name of David, 19 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schäfer, H., on the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, ii. <ref target='Pg198'>198</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schlanow, in Brandenburg, custom at sowing at, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schloss, Mr. Francis S., on the rule as to the felling of timber in Colombia, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Schwegler, A., on the death of Romulus, ii. <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scipio, his fabulous birth, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scorpions, Isis and the, ii. <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scotland, harvest custom in, i. 237</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scottish Highlanders on the influence of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg132'>132</ref>, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>, <ref target='Pg140'>140</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scythian king, human beings and horses sacrificed at his grave, i. 293</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Scythians, their belief in immortality, i. 294;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their treatment of dead enemies, 294 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sea, custom of bathing in the, on St. John's Day or Eve, i. 246, 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sea-Dyaks'/> +<l>—— Dyaks or Ibans of Borneo, their worship of serpents, i. 83;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their festivals of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg056'>56</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref>, <ref target='Pg256'>256</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Dyaks of Sarawak, their reasons for taking human heads, i. 295 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Season of festival a clue to the nature of a deity, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seasons, magical and religious theories of the, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seb (Keb or Geb), Egyptian earth-god, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Secret graves of kings, chiefs, and magicians, ii. <ref target='Pg103'>103</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sed festival in Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its date perhaps connected with the heliacal rising of Sirius, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>apparently intended to renew the king's life by identifying him with the dead and risen Osiris, <ref target='Pg153'>153</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Segera, a sago magician of Kiwai, dismembered after death, ii. <ref target='Pg101'>101</ref>, <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seker (Sokari), title of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seler, Professor E., on the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seleucus, a grammarian, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Nicator, king, i. 151</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the Theologian, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Self-mutilation of Attis and his priests, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seligmann, Dr. C. G., on the five supplementary Egyptian days, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the divinity of Shilluk kings, <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on custom of putting Shilluk kings to death, <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Selwanga, python-god of Baganda, i. 86</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semiramis at Hierapolis, i. 162 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a form of Ishtar (Astarte), 176 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>said to have burnt herself, 176 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the mythical, a form of the great Asiatic goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semites, agricultural, worship Baal as the giver of fertility, i. 26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred stocks and stones among the, 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>traces of mother-kin among the, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Semitic gods, uniformity of their type, i. 119</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— kings, the divinity of, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as hereditary deities, 51</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— language, Egyptian language akin to the, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— personal names indicating relationship to a deity, i. 51</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— worship of Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Semlicka</foreign>, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Seneca, on the offerings of Egyptian priests to the Nile, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the marriage of the Roman gods, <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Senegal and Niger region of West Africa, belief as to conception without sexual intercourse in, i. 93 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>myth of marriage of Sky and Earth in the, 282 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Senegambia, the Mandingoes of, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sennacherib, his siege of Jerusalem, i. 25;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>said to have built Tarsus, 173 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Separation of Earth and Sky, myth of the, i. 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serapeum at Alexandria, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its destruction, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serapis, the later form of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the rise of the Nile attributed to, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the standard cubit kept in his temple, <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Serpent as the giver of children, i. 86;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>at rites of initiation, 90 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god married to human wives, i. 66 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to control the crops, 67</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Serpents'/> +<l>Serpents reputed the fathers of human beings, i. 80 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as embodiments of Aesculapius, 80 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped in Mysore, 81 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as reincarnations of the dead, 82 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fed with milk, 84 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 87;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to have knowledge +<pb n='312'/><anchor id='Pg312'/> +of life-giving plants, 186;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Servius, on the death of Attis, i. 264 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the marriage of Orcus, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Tullius, begotten by the fire-god, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sesostris, so-called monument of, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Set'/> +<l>Set, or Typhon, brother of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murders Osiris, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>accuses Osiris before the gods, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brings a suit of bastardy against Horus, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his combat with Horus, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reigns over Upper Egypt, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>torn in pieces, <ref target='Pg098'>98</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Typhon'>Typhon</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sety I., King of Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg108'>108</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shamash, Babylonian sun-god, his human wives, i. 71</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Semitic god, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shamashshumukin, King of Babylon, burns himself, i. 173 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 176</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shammuramat, Assyrian queen, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shans of Burma, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>cut bamboos for building in the wane of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg136'>136</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shark-shaped hero, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheaf, the first cut, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sheep to be shorn when the moon is waxing, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to be shorn in the waning of the moon, <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Sheitan dere</foreign>, the Devil's Glen, in Cilicia, i. 150</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shenty, Egyptian cow-goddess, ii. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shifting dates of Egyptian festivals, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shilluk kings put to death before their strength fails, ii. <ref target='Pg163'>163</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shilluks, their worship of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their worship of Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shoulders of medicine-men especially sensitive, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shouting as a means of stopping earthquakes, i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shropshire, feast of All Souls in, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shu, Egyptian god of light, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Shuswap Indians of British Columbia eat nutlets of pines, i. 278 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siam, catafalque burnt at funeral of king of, i. 179;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg065'>65</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siao, children sacrificed to volcano in, i. 219</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sibitti-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sibyl, the Grotto of the, at Marsala, i. 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sibylline Books, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sicily, Syrian prophet in, i. 74;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fossil bones in, 157;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hot springs in, 213;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gardens of Adonis in, 245, 253 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divination at Midsummer in, 254;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Good Friday ceremonies in, 255 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sick people resort to cave of Pluto, i. 205 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sicyon, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sidon, kings of, as priests of Astarte, i. 26</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Siem</foreign>, king, among the Khasis of Assam, ii. <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sigai, hero in form of shark, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sihanaka, the, of Madagascar, funeral custom of the, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sinai, <q>Mistress of Turquoise</q> at, i. 35</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sinews of sacrificial ox cut, ii. <ref target='Pg252'>252</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sins, the remission of, through the shedding of blood, i. 299</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sinsharishkun, last king of Assyria, i. 174</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sipylus, Mother Plastene on Mount, i. 185</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Siriac or Sothic period, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Sirius'/> +<l>Sirius (the Dog-star), observed by Egyptian astronomers, ii. <ref target='Pg027'>27</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called Sothis by the Egyptians, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>date of its rising in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>heliacal rising of, on July 20th, <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its rising marked the beginning of the sacred Egyptian year, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>its rising observed in Ceos, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifices offered at its rising on the top of Mount Pelion, <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the star of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>, <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in connexion with the Sed festival, <ref target='Pg152'>152</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sis in Cilicia, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sister of a god, i. 51</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sisters, kings marry their, i. 316</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sizu in Cilicia, i. 144</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skin, bathing in dew at Midsummer as remedy for diseases of the, i. 247, 248;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of ox stuffed and set up, 296 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>body of Egyptian dead placed in a bull's, ii. <ref target='Pg015'>15</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of sacrificial victim used in the rite of the new birth, <ref target='Pg155'>155</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skinner, Principal J., on the burnt sacrifice of children, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skins of human victims, uses made of, i. 293;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of horses stuffed and set up at graves, 293, 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Skull, drinking out of a king's, in order to be inspired by his spirit, ii. <ref target='Pg171'>171</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sky conceived by the Egyptians as a cow, i. 283 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and earth, myth of their violent separation, i. 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god, Attis as a, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>married to Earth-goddess, 282, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mutilation of the, 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slaughter of prisoners often a sacrifice to the gods, i. 290 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slave Coast of West Africa, sacred men and women on the, i. 65, 68;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Ewe-speaking peoples of the, 83 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Slaves, sacred, in Western Asia, i. 39 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='313'/><anchor id='Pg313'/> + +<lg> +<l>Slaying of the Dragon by Apollo at Delphi, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sleep of the god in winter, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smell, evil, used to avert demons, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smeroe, Mount, volcano in Java, i. 221</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith, George Adam, on fertility of Bethlehem, i. 257 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smith, W. Robertson, on the date of the month Tammuz, i. 10 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on anointing as consecration, 21 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Baal as god of fertility, 26 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on caves in Semitic religion, 169 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Tophet, 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the predominance of goddesses over gods in early Semitic religion, ii. <ref target='Pg213'>213</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sacrifice of children to Moloch, <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Smoking as a mode of inducing inspiration, ii. <ref target='Pg172'>172</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snake-entwined goddess found at Gournia, i. 88</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snakes as fathers of human beings, i. 82;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fed with milk, 84 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Serpents'>Serpents</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Snorri Sturluson, on the dismemberment of Halfdan the Black, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sobk, a crocodile-shaped Egyptian god, identified with the sun, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Sochit</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>Sochet</foreign>, epithet of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg117'>117</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Society, ancient, built on the principle of the subordination of the individual to the community, i. 300</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Socrates (church historian) on sacred prostitution, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Söderblom, N., on an attempted reform of the old Iranian religion, ii. <ref target='Pg083'>83</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sodom and Gomorrah, the destruction of, i. 222 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soerakarta, district of Java, conduct of natives in an earthquake, i. 202 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sokari (Seker), a title of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Sol invictus</foreign>, i. 304 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Solanum campylanthum</foreign>, ii. <ref target='Pg047'>47</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solomon, King, puts Adoni-jah to death, i. 51 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Baths of, i. 78;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Moab, 215 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Solstice, the summer, the Nile rises at the, ii. <ref target='Pg031'>31</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the winter, reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian ceremony at, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Somali, marriage custom of the, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref>, <ref target='Pg247'>247</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Son of a god, i. 51</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sons of God, i. 78 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sophocles on the burning of Hercules, i. 111</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sorcerers or priests, order of effeminate, ii. <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sorrowful One, the vaults of the, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sothic or Siriac period, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sothis, Egyptian name for the star Sirius, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Sirius'>Sirius</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Soul of a tree in a bird, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of the rice in the first sheaf cut, <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— of Osiris,</q> a bird, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -cakes eaten at the feast of All Souls in Europe, ii. <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref>, <ref target='Pg071'>71</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref>, <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Souling,</q> custom of, on All Souls' Day in England, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— Day</q> in Shropshire, ii. <ref target='Pg078'>78</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Souls of the dead, reincarnation of the, i. 91 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>brought back among the Gonds, 95 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, feasts of All, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>South Slavs, devices of women to obtain offspring, i. 96;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage customs of, ii. <ref target='Pg246'>246</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sowers and ploughmen drenched with water as a rain-charm, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sowing, Prussian custom at, i. 238 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rites of, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and ploughing, ceremony of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref>, <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref>, <ref target='Pg096'>96</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and planting, regulated by the phases of the moon, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sozomenus, church historian, on sacred prostitution, i. 37</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spain, bathing on St. John's Eve in, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sparta destroyed by an earthquake, i. 196 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spartans, their attempt to stop an earthquake, i. 196</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— their flute-band, i. 196</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— their uniform red, i. 196</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— at Thermopylae, i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— their regard for the full moon, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— their brides dressed as men on the wedding night, ii. <ref target='Pg260'>260</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spencer, Baldwin, on reincarnation of the dead, i. 100 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spencer, B., and Gillen, F. J., on Australian belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 99</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spermus, king of Lydia, i. 183</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spieth, J., on the Ewe peoples, i. 70 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirit animals supposed to enter women and be born from them, i. 97 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -children left by ancestors, i. 100 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spirits supposed to consort with women, i. 91;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of ancestors in the form of animals, 83;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of forefathers thought to dwell in rivers, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of dead chiefs worshipped by the whole tribe, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref>, <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref>, <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref>, <ref target='Pg179'>179</ref>, <ref target='Pg181'>181</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>thought to control the rain, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prophesy through living men and women, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reincarnated in animals, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Ancestral-Spirits'>Ancestral spirits</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Spring called Persephone, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='314'/><anchor id='Pg314'/> + +<lg> +<l>Springs, worship of hot, i. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>bathing in, at Midsummer, 246, 247, 248, 249</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Staffordshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Standard, Egyptian, resembling a placenta, ii. <ref target='Pg156'>156</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stanikas, male children of sacred prostitutes, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Star of Bethlehem, i. 259</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Salvation, i. 258</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spangled cap of Attis, i. 284</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Steinn in Hringariki, barrow of Halfdan at, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Stella Maris</foreign>, an epithet of the Virgin Mary, ii. <ref target='Pg119'>119</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stengel, P., on sacrificial ritual of Eleusis, i. 292 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stlatlum Indians of British Columbia respect the animals and plants which they eat, ii. <ref target='Pg044'>44</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stocks, sacred, among the Semites, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stones, holed, custom of passing through, i. 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>to commemorate the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, sacred, anointed, i. 36;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Semites, 107 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Khasis, 108 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Strabo, on the concubines of Ammon, i. 72;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Albanian moon-god, 73 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Castabala, 168 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his description of the Burnt Land of Lydia, 193;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the frequency of earthquakes at Philadelphia, 195;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his description of Rhodes, 195 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Nysa, 206 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the priests of Pessinus, 286</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Stratonicea in Caria, eunuch priest at, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rule as to the pollution of death at, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>String music in religion, i. 54</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Su-Mu, a tribe of Southern China, said to be governed by a woman, ii. <ref target='Pg211'>211</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Subordination of the individual to the community, the principle of ancient society, i. 300</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Substitutes for human sacrifices, i. 146 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 219 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 285, 289, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref>, <ref target='Pg221'>221</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Succession to the crown under mother-kin (female kinship), i. 44, ii. <ref target='Pg018'>18</ref>, <ref target='Pg210'>210</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sudan, the negroes of, their regard for the phases of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sudanese, their conduct in an earthquake, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Suffetes</foreign> of Carthage, i. 116</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sugar-bag totem, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suicides, custom observed at graves of, i. 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ghosts of, feared, 292 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Suk, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sulla at Aedepsus, i. 212</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumatra, the Bataks of, i. 199, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Loeboes of, <ref target='Pg264'>264</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumba, East Indian island, annual festival of the New Year and of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg055'>55</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sumerians, their origin and civilization, i. 7 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Summer on the Mediterranean rainless, i. 159 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— called Aphrodite, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— festival of Adonis, i. 226, 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sun, temple of the, at Baalbec, i. 163;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Adonis interpreted as the, 228;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Nativity of the, at the winter solstice, 303 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris interpreted as the, ii. <ref target='Pg120'>120</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>called <q>the eye of Horus,</q> <ref target='Pg121'>121</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worshipped in Egypt, <ref target='Pg122'>122</ref>, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the power of regeneration ascribed to the, <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>salutations to the rising, <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and earth, annual marriage of, i. 47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god annually married to Earth-goddess, i. 47 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Egyptian, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hymns to the, <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -goddess of the Hittites, i. 133 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— the Unconquered, Mithra identified with, i. 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Superiority of the goddess in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg201'>201</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of goddesses over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, <ref target='Pg202'>202</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>legal, of women over men in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Supplementary days, five, in the Egyptian year, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the ancient Mexican year, <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in the old Iranian year, <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref>, <ref target='Pg068'>68</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Supreme gods in Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref>, <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref>, with note 5, <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg190'>190</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Swastika</foreign>, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sweden, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer bride and bridegroom in, 251;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>kings of, answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marriage custom in, to ensure the birth of a boy, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Sweethearts of St. John</q> in Sardinia, i. 244 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Swine'/> +<l>Swine not eaten by people of Pessinus, i. 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not eaten by worshippers of Adonis, 265;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>not allowed to enter Comana in Pontus, 265.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Pigs'>Pigs</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sword, girls married to a, i. 61</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Sycamore, effigy of Osiris placed on boughs of, ii. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref>, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacred to Osiris, <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syene (Assuan), inscriptions at, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Symbolism, coarse, of Osiris and Dionysus, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg113'>113</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='315'/><anchor id='Pg315'/> + +<lg> +<l>Symmachus, on the festival of the Great Mother, i. 298</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syracuse, the Blue Spring at, i. 213 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syria, Adonis in, i. 13 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>holy men</q> in, 77 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>hot springs resorted to by childless women in, 213 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>subject to earthquakes, 222 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>turning money at the new moon in, ii. <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Syrian god Hadad, i. 15</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— peasants believe that women can conceive without sexual intercourse, i. 91</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— women apply to saints for offspring, i. 109</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— writer on the reasons for assigning Christmas to the twenty-fifth of December, i. 304 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tâ-uz (Tammuz), mourned by Syrian women in Harran, i. 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taanach, burial of children in jars at, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tacitus as to German observation of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg141'>141</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taenarum in Laconia, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talaga Bodas, volcano in Java, i. 204</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talbot, P. Amaury, on self-mutilation, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Talismans, crowns and wreaths as, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tamarisk, sacred to Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tami, the, of German New Guinea, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tamil temples, dancing-girls in, i. 61</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tamirads, diviners, i. 42</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tammuz, i. 6 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>equivalent to Adonis, 6 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his worship of Sumerian origin, 7 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>meaning of the name, 8;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><q>true son of the deep water,</q> 8, 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>laments for, 9 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the month of, 10 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, 230;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>mourned for at Jerusalem, 11, 17, 20;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as a corn-spirit, 230;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his bones ground in a mill and scattered to the wind, 230</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Ishtar, i. 8 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tangkul Nagas of Assam, their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg057'>57</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tanjore, dancing-girls at, i. 61</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tantalus murders his son Pelops, i. 181</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tark, Tarku, Trok, Troku, syllables in names of Cilician priests, i. 144;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps the name of a Hittite deity, 147;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>perhaps the name of the god of Olba, 148, 165</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarkimos, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarkondimotos, name of two Cilician kings, i. 145 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarkuaris, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priestly king of Olba, 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarkudimme or Tarkuwassimi, name on Hittite seal, i. 145 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarkumbios, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tarsus, climate and fertility of, i. 118;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>school of philosophy at, 118;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Sandan and Baal at, 142 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 161;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priesthood of Hercules at, 143;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Fortune of the City on coins of, 164;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>divine triad at, 171</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Baal of, i. 117 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 162 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Sandan of, i. 124 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tat</foreign> or <foreign rend='italic'>tatu</foreign> pillar. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Ded'><foreign rend='italic'>Ded</foreign> pillar</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tate, H. R., on serpent-worship, i. 85</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tattoo-marks of priests, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taurians of the Crimea, their use of the heads of prisoners, i. 294</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Taurobolium</foreign> in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>or <foreign rend='italic'>Tauropolium</foreign>, 275 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Taurus mountains, i. 120</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tears of Isis thought to swell the Nile, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>rain thought to be the tears of gods, <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tegea, tombstones at, i. 87</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Telamon, father of Teucer, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tell-el-Amarna letters, i. 16 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5, 21 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the new capital of King Amenophis IV., ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg124'>124</ref>, <ref target='Pg125'>125</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tell Ta'annek (Taanach), burial of children in jars at, i. 109 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tempe, the Vale of, ii. <ref target='Pg240'>240</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temple-tombs of kings, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Temples of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg161'>161</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tenggereese of Java sacrifice to volcano, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tentyra (Denderah), temple of Osiris at, ii. <ref target='Pg086'>86</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ternate, the sultan of, his sacrifice of human victims to a volcano, i. 220</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tertullian on the fasts of Isis and Cybele, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the date of the Crucifixion, 306 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teshub or Teshup, name of Hittite god, i. 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 148 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teso, the, of Central Africa, medicine-men dressed as women among the, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Testicles of rams in the rites of Attis, i. 269 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of bull used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Têt, New Year festival in Annam, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tet</foreign> pillar. <hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Ded'><foreign rend='italic'>Ded</foreign> pillar</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teti, king of Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teucer, said to have instituted human sacrifice, i. 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Ajax, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 148, 161</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='316'/><anchor id='Pg316'/> + +<lg> +<l>Teucer, son of Tarkuaris, priestly king of Olba, i. 151, 157</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, son of Telamon, founds Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, son of Zenophanes, high-priest of Olbian Zeus, i. 151</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teucrids, dynasty at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Teutonic year reckoned from October 1st, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thargelion, an Attic month, ii. <ref target='Pg239'>239</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theal, G. McCall, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. <ref target='Pg176'>176</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theban priests, their determination of the solar year, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thebes in Boeotia, stone lion at, i. 184 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of the Laurel-bearing at, ii. <ref target='Pg241'>241</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— in Egypt, temple of Ammon at, i. 72;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Memnonium at, ii. 35 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Valley of the Kings at, 90</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theias, a Syrian king, i. 43 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>father of Adonis, 55 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theism late in human history, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theocracy in the Pelew Islands, tendency to, ii. <ref target='Pg208'>208</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Theopompus on the names of the seasons, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thera, worship of the Mother of the Gods in, i. 280 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thermopylae, the Spartans at, i. 197 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the hot springs of, 210 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thesmophoria, i. 43 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrifice to serpents at the, 88;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>pine-cones at the, 278;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fast of the women at the, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thetis and her infant son, i. 180</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thirty years, the Sed festival held nominally at intervals of, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thonga, Bantu tribe of South Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their presentation of infants to the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg144'>144</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worship of the dead among the, <ref target='Pg180'>180</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— chiefs buried secretly, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thongs, legends as to new settlements enclosed by, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thoth, Egyptian god of wisdom, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>teaches Isis a spell to restore the dead to life, <ref target='Pg008'>8</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>restores the eye of Horus, <ref target='Pg017'>17</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thoth, the first month of the Egyptian year, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref>, <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thracian villages, custom at Carnival in, ii. <ref target='Pg099'>99</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Threshing corn by oxen, ii. <ref target='Pg045'>45</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Threshold, burial of infants under the, i. 93 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thucydides on military music, i. 196 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the sailing of the fleet for Syracuse, 226 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Θύειν distinguished from ἐναγίζειν, i. 316 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thunder and lightning, sacrifices to, i. 157;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Syrian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Hittite god of, 163 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -god of the Hittites, with a bull and an axe as his emblems, i. 134 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— totem, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thunderbolt, as emblem of Hittite god, i. 134, 136;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as divine emblem, 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and ears of corn, emblem of god Hadad, i. 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thurston, Edgar, on dancing-girls in India, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thyatira, hero Tyrimnus at, i. 183 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Thymbria, sanctuary of Charon at, i. 205</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiberius, the Emperor, persecuted the Egyptian religion, ii. <ref target='Pg095'>95</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tibullus, on the rising of Sirius, ii. <ref target='Pg034'>34</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiele, C. P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the death of Saracus, 174 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg115'>115</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the nature of Osiris, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiger's ghost, deceiving a, ii. <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiglath-Pileser III., king of Assyria, i. 14, 16, 163 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tii, Egyptian queen, mother of Amenophis IV., ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tille, A., on beginning of Teutonic winter, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timber felled in the waning of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 197</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Timotheus, on the death of Attis, i. 264 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tiru-kalli-kundram, dancing-girls at, i. 61</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Titane, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Tobolbel</foreign>, in the Pelew Islands, ii. <ref target='Pg266'>266</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tod, J., on rites of goddess Gouri, i. 241 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Todas of the Neilgherry Hills, custom as to the pollution of death observed by sacred dairyman among the, ii. <ref target='Pg228'>228</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Togo-land, West Africa, the Ewe people of, i. 282 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Ho tribe of, ii. <ref target='Pg104'>104</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tomb of Midas, i. 286;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of Hyacinth, 314</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tombs of the kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of kings sacred, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tongans, their theory of an earthquake, i. 200 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tongue of sacrificial ox cut out, ii. <ref target='Pg251'>251</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tonquin, annual festival of the dead in, ii. <ref target='Pg062'>62</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tophet, at Jerusalem, i. 177</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toradjas of Central Celebes, their theory of rain, ii. <ref target='Pg033'>33</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Torres Straits Islands, worship of animal-shaped heroes in the, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>death-dances in the, ii. <ref target='Pg053'>53</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='317'/><anchor id='Pg317'/> + +<lg> +<l>Totemism in Kiziba, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref>, <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Toulon, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Town, charm to protect a, ii. <ref target='Pg249'>249</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tozer, H. F., on Mount Argaeus, i. 191</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Traditions of kings torn in pieces, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tralles in Lydia, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transference of Egyptian festivals from one month to the preceding month, ii. <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transformation of men into women, attempted, in obedience to dreams, ii. <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of women into men, attempted, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transition from mother-kin to father-kin, ii. <ref target='Pg261'>261</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Transylvania, harvest customs among the Roumanians and Saxons of, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Travancore, dancing-girls in, i. 63 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Treason, old English punishment of, i. 290 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tree decked with bracelets, anklets, etc., i. 240;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>soul of a, in a bird, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of life in Eden, i. 186 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -bearers (<foreign rend='italic'>Dendrophori</foreign>) in the worship of Cybele and Attis, i. 266 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 267</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -spirit, Osiris as a, ii. <ref target='Pg107'>107</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trees, spirit-children awaiting birth in, i. 100;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>sacrificial victims hung on, 146;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>represented on the monuments of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg110'>110</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>felled in the waning of the moon, <ref target='Pg133'>133</ref>, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>growing near the graves of dead kings revered, <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref>, <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and rocks, Greek belief as to birth from, i. 107 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Triad, divine, at Tarsus, i. 171</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trident, emblem of Hittite thunder-god, i. 134, 135;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>emblem of Indian deity, 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tristram, H. B., on date of the corn-reaping in Palestine, i. 232 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trobriands, the, i. 84</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trokoarbasis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trokombigremis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>True of speech,</q> epithet of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Trumpets, blowing of, in the rites of Attis, i. 268</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, dedicated men and women among the, i. 69 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>ordeal of chastity among the, 115 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their annual festival of the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg066'>66</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign lang='la' rend='italic'>Tubilustrium</foreign> at Rome, i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tulava, sacred prostitution in, i. 63</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tully River, in Queensland, belief of the natives as to conception without sexual intercourse, i. 102</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tum of Heliopolis, an Egyptian sun-god, ii. <ref target='Pg123'>123</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Turner, George, on sacred stones, i. 108 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Turquoise, Mistress of,</q> at Sinai, i. 53</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tusayan Indians, their custom at planting, i. 239</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tuscany, volcanic district of, i. 208 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tusser, Thomas, on planting peas and beans, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twin, the navel-string of the King of Uganda called his Twin, ii. <ref target='Pg147'>147</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Twins, precautions taken by women at the graves of, i. 93 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Two-headed deity, i. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tybi, an Egyptian month, ii. <ref target='Pg093'>93</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tylon or Tylus, a Lydian hero, i. 183;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his death and resurrection, 186 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tylor, Sir Edward B., on fossil bones as a source of myths, i. 157 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on names for father and mother, 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<anchor id='Index-Typhon'/> +<l>Typhon slays Hercules, i. 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Corycian cave of, 155 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his battle with the gods, 193, 194</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Zeus, battle of, i. 156 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, or Set, the brother of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg006'>6</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>murders Osiris, <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>and mangles his body, <ref target='Pg010'>10</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>interpreted as the sun, <ref target='Pg129'>129</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Set'>Set</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyre, Melcarth at, i. 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>burning of Melcarth at, 110 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>festival of <q>the awakening of Hercules</q> at, 111;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>king of, his walk on stones of fire, 114 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, kings of, their divinity, i. 16;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as priests of Astarte, 26</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyrimnus, axe-bearing hero at Thyatira, i. 183 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyrol, feast of All Souls in the, ii. <ref target='Pg073'>73</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Tyropoeon, ravine at Jerusalem, i. 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ucayali River, the Conibos of the, i. 198;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their greetings to the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg142'>142</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uganda, the country of the Baganda, ii. <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temples of the dead kings of, <ref target='Pg167'>167</ref>, <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg170'>170</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human sacrifices offered to prolong the lives of the kings of, <ref target='Pg223'>223</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Baganda'>Baganda</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uncle, dead, worshipped, ii. <ref target='Pg175'>175</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, maternal, in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uncleanness caused by contact with the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unconquered Sun, Mithra identified with the, i. 304</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unis, king of Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg005'>5</ref></l> +</lg> + +<pb n='318'/><anchor id='Pg318'/> + +<lg> +<l>Unkulunkulu, <q>the Old-Old-one,</q> the first man in the traditions of the Zulus, ii. <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Unnefer, <q>the Good Being,</q> a title of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg012'>12</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Unspoken water</q> in marriage rites, ii. <ref target='Pg245'>245</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Upsala, human sacrifices in the holy grove at, i. 289 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, ii. 220;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the reign of Frey at, 100</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Up-uat, Egyptian jackal-god, ii. <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uranus castrated by Cronus, i. 283</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Uri-melech or Adom-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Usirniri, temple of, at Busiris, ii. <ref target='Pg151'>151</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valesius, on the standard Egyptian cubit, ii. <ref target='Pg217'>217</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vallabha, an Indian sect, men assimilated to women in the, ii. <ref target='Pg254'>254</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Valley of Hinnom, sacrifices to Moloch, in the, i. 178</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the Kings at Thebes, ii. <ref target='Pg090'>90</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Poison, in Java, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vancouver Island, the Ahts of, ii. <ref target='Pg139'>139</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vapours, worship of mephitic, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Varro, on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his derivation of <hi rend='italic'>Dialis</hi> from Jove, <ref target='Pg230'>230</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Salacia, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Fauna or the Good Goddess, <ref target='Pg234'>234</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vase-painting of Croesus on the pyre, i. 176</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vatican, worship of Cybele and Attis on the site of the, i. 275 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vegetable and animal life associated in primitive mind, i. 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vegetation, mythical theory of the growth and decay of, i. 3 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>annual decay and revival of, represented dramatically in the rites of Adonis, 227 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>gardens of Adonis charms to promote the growth of, 236 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 239;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Midsummer fires and couples in relation to, 250 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Attis as a god of, 277 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Osiris as a god of, ii. <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref>, <ref target='Pg126'>126</ref>, <ref target='Pg131'>131</ref>, <ref target='Pg158'>158</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Veins of the Nile,</q> near Philae, ii. <ref target='Pg040'>40</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Venus, the planet, identified with Astarte, i. 258, ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Vulcan, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Venus, the bearded, in Cyprus, ii. <ref target='Pg259'>259</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vernal festival of Adonis, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Verrall, A. W., on the <foreign rend='italic'>Anthesteria</foreign>, i. 235 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vertumnus and Pomona, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vestal Virgin, mother of Romulus and Remus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Virgins, rule as to their election, ii. <ref target='Pg244'>244</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vicarious sacrifices for kings, ii. <ref target='Pg220'>220</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vicarious and nutritive types of sacrifice, ii. <ref target='Pg226'>226</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victims, sacrificial, hung on trees, i. 146</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victoria Nyanza Lake, Mukasa the god of the, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Victory, temple of, on the Palatine Hill at Rome, i. 265</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Viehe, Rev. G., on the worship of the dead among the Herero, ii. <ref target='Pg187'>187</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vine, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>, <ref target='Pg112'>112</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vintage festival, Oschophoria, at Athens, ii. <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— rites at Athens, ii. <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Violets sprung from the blood of Attis, i. 267</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virbius or Dianus at Nemi, i. 45</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgin, the Heavenly, mother of the Sun, i. 303</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— birth of Perseus, i. 302 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mary and Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg118'>118</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mother, the Phrygian Mother Goddess as a, i. 281</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— mothers, tales of, i. 264;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>of gods and heroes, 107</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virginity, sacrifice of, i. 60;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>recovered by bathing in a spring, 280</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain food, i. 96</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Virility, sacrifice of, in the rites of Attis and Astarte, i. 268 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 270 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>other cases of, 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vitrolles, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Viza, in Thrace, Carnival custom at, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Volcanic region of Cappadocia, i. 189 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— religion, i. 188 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Volcanoes, the worship of, i. 216 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>human victims thrown into, 219 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vosges, the Upper, rule as to the shearing of sheep in, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Mountains, feast of All Souls in the, ii. <ref target='Pg069'>69</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Votiaks of Russia, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. <ref target='Pg076'>76</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Voyage in boats of papyrus in the rites of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg088'>88</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Vulcan, the fire-god, father of Caeculus, ii. <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the husband of Maia or Majestas, ii. <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his Flamen, <ref target='Pg232'>232</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Venus, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wabisa, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wabondei, of Eastern Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their rule as to the cutting of posts for building, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wachsmuth, C., on Easter ceremonies in the Greek Church, i. 254</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='319'/><anchor id='Pg319'/> + +<lg> +<l>Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. <ref target='Pg143'>143</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wahehe, a Bantu tribe of German East Africa, the worship of the dead among the, ii. <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their belief in a supreme god Nguruhe, <ref target='Pg188'>188</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wailing of women for Adonis, i. 224</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wajagga of German East Africa, their way of appeasing ghosts of suicides, i. 292 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their human sacrifices at irrigation, ii. <ref target='Pg038'>38</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wales, All Souls' Day in, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wallachia, harvest custom in, i. 237</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wamara, a worshipful dead king, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Waning of the moon, theories to account for the, ii. <ref target='Pg130'>130</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>time for felling timber, <ref target='Pg135'>135</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>War, sacrifice of a blind bull before going to, ii. <ref target='Pg250'>250</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— -dance of king before the ghosts of his ancestors, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warner, Mr., on Caffre ideas about lightning, ii. <ref target='Pg177'>177</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warramunga of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, i. 100;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their tradition of purification by fire, 180 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Warts supposed to be affected by the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>marvellous properties attributed to, at Midsummer (the festival of St. John), 246 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>prophetic, drunk on St. John's Eve, 247</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of Life, i. 9</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Waterbrash, a Huzul cure for, ii. <ref target='Pg149'>149</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wave accompanying earthquake, i. 202 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weaning of children, belief as to the, in Angus, ii. <ref target='Pg148'>148</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weavers, caste of, i. 62</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Weeks, Rev. J. H., on inconsistency of savage thought, i. 5 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the names for the supreme god among many tribes of Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg186'>186</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Wellalaick</foreign>, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. <ref target='Pg074'>74</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wen-Ammon, Egyptian traveller, i. 14, 75 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>West, Oriental religions in the, i. 298 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Westermann, D., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. <ref target='Pg165'>165</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whalers, their bodies cut up and used as charms, ii. <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wheat forced for festival, i. 243, 244, 251 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and barley, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg007'>7</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>discovered by Isis, <ref target='Pg116'>116</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whip made of human skin used in ceremonies for the prolongation of the king's life, ii. <ref target='Pg224'>224</ref>, <ref target='Pg225'>225</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whitby, All Souls' Day at, ii. <ref target='Pg079'>79</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>White, Rev. G. E., on dervishes of Asia Minor, i. 170</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>White, Miss Rachel Evelyn (Mrs. Wedd), on the position of women in ancient Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg216'>216</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>White the colour of Upper Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— birds, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. <ref target='Pg162'>162</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— bull, soul of a dead king incarnate in a, ii. <ref target='Pg164'>164</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Crown of Upper Egypt, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref>, <ref target='Pg021'>21</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>worn by Osiris, <ref target='Pg087'>87</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— roses dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Whydah, King of, his worship of serpents, i. 67;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>serpents fed at, 86 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wicked after death, fate of the, in Egyptian religion, ii. <ref target='Pg014'>14</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Widow-burning in Greece, i. 177 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Widowed Flamen, the, ii. <ref target='Pg227'>227</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wiedemann, Professor A., on Wen-Ammon, i. 76 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the Egyptian name of Isis, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wigtownshire, harvest custom in, i. 237 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wiimbaio tribe of South-Eastern Australia, their medicine-men, i. 75 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilkinson, Sir J. G., on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. <ref target='Pg091'>91</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 3</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wilson, C. T., and R. W. Felkin, on the worship of the dead kings of Uganda, ii. <ref target='Pg173'>173</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winckler, H., his excavations at Boghaz-Keui, i. 125 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>, 135 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winged deities, i. 165 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— disc as divine emblem, i. 132</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winnowing-fans, ashes of human victims scattered by, ii. <ref target='Pg097'>97</ref>, <ref target='Pg106'>106</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Winter called Cronus, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— sleep of the god, ii. <ref target='Pg041'>41</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— solstice reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Egyptian ceremony at the, ii. <ref target='Pg050'>50</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wissowa, Professor G., on introduction of Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 267 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Orcus, ii. <ref target='Pg231'>231</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Ops and Consus, <ref target='Pg233'>233</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 6;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on the marriage of the Roman gods, <ref target='Pg236'>236</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wives of dead kings sacrificed at their tombs, ii. <ref target='Pg168'>168</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wives, human, of gods, i. 61 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, ii. <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>in Western Asia and Egypt, <ref target='Pg070'>70</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wiwa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wogait, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without cohabitation, i. 103</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='320'/><anchor id='Pg320'/> + +<lg> +<l>Woman feeding serpent in Greek art, i. 87 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>as inspired prophetess of a god, ii. <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Woman's dress assumed by men to deceive dangerous spirits, ii. <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Women pass through holed stones as cure for barrenness, i. 36, with <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnated by dead saints, 78 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnated by serpents, 80 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>fear to be impregnated by ghosts, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnated by the flower of the banana, 93;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 113 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their high importance in the social system of the Pelew Islanders, ii. <ref target='Pg205'>205</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the cultivation of the staple food in the hands of women (Pelew Islands), <ref target='Pg206'>206</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their social importance increased by the combined influence of mother-kin and landed property, <ref target='Pg209'>209</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their legal superiority to men in ancient Egypt, <ref target='Pg214'>214</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>impregnated by fire, <ref target='Pg235'>235</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>priests dressed as, <ref target='Pg253'>253</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as men, <ref target='Pg255'>255</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg257'>257</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, <ref target='Pg258'>258</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 5;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as men at marriage, <ref target='Pg262'>262</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>dressed as men at circumcision, <ref target='Pg263'>263</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See also</hi> <ref target='Index-Barrenness'>Barrenness</ref>, <ref target='Index-Childless'>Childless</ref>, <hi rend='italic'>and</hi> <ref target='Index-Sacred'>Sacred Women</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— as prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>inspired by gods, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, living, regarded as the wives of dead kings, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref>, <ref target='Pg192'>192</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>reputed the wives of gods, <ref target='Pg207'>207</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Women's hair, sacrifice of, i. 38</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><foreign rend='italic'>Wororu</foreign>, man supposed to cause conception in women without sexual intercourse, i. 105</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Khasis of Assam, <ref target='Pg203'>203</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of the dead perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, i. 233 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Bantu tribes, ii. <ref target='Pg174'>174</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of dead kings and chiefs in Africa, ii. <ref target='Pg160'>160</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>among the Barotse, <ref target='Pg194'>194</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>an important element in African religion, <ref target='Pg195'>195</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of hot springs, i. 206 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of mephitic vapours, i. 203 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of volcanoes, i. 216 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure fruit-trees and to stop up wells, ii. <ref target='Pg111'>111</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>Wounds between the arms</q> of Hebrew prophets, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><q>—— of the Naaman,</q> Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wreaths as amulets, ii. <ref target='Pg242'>242</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wünsch, R., on the <foreign rend='italic'>Anthesteria</foreign>, i. 235 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on modern survivals of festivals of Adonis, 246;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on Easter ceremonies in the Greek church, 254 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Wyse, W., ii. <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Xenophanes of Colophon on the Egyptian rites of mourning for gods, ii. <ref target='Pg042'>42</ref>, <ref target='Pg043'>43</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yam, island of Torres Straits, heroes worshipped in animal forms in, i. 139 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, prostitution of unmarried girls in, ii. <ref target='Pg265'>265</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yarilo, a personification of vegetation, i. 253</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Year, length of the solar, determined by the Theban priests, ii. <ref target='Pg026'>26</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the fixed Alexandrian, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref>, <ref target='Pg049'>49</ref>, <ref target='Pg092'>92</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Celtic, reckoned from November 1st, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Egyptian, a vague year, not corrected by intercalation, ii. <ref target='Pg024'>24</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— of God, a Sothic period, ii. <ref target='Pg036'>36</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>began with the rising of Sirius, <ref target='Pg035'>35</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the old Iranian, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Julian, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, the Teutonic, reckoned from October 1st, ii. <ref target='Pg081'>81</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yehar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yehaw-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Ynglings, a Norse family, descended from Frey, ii. <ref target='Pg100'>100</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yombe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, their sacrifice of first-fruits to the dead, ii. <ref target='Pg191'>191</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Youth restored by the witch Medea, i. 180 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yucatan, calendar of the Indians of, ii. <ref target='Pg028'>28</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yukon River in Alaska, ii. <ref target='Pg051'>51</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yungman tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. 101</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Yuruks, pastoral people of Cilicia, i. 150 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zambesi, the Barotse of the, ii. <ref target='Pg193'>193</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zas, name of priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 155</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zechariah, on the mourning of or for Hadadrimmon, i. 15 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>on wounds of prophet, 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zekar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l><hi rend='italic'>Zend-Avesta</hi>, on the Fravashis, ii. <ref target='Pg067'>67</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zenjirli in Syria, Hittite sculptures at, i. 134;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>statue of horned god at, 163</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zer, old Egyptian king, his true Horus name Khent, ii. <ref target='Pg020'>20</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1, <ref target='Pg154'>154</ref>.</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'><hi rend='italic'>See</hi> <ref target='Index-Khent'>Khent</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zerka, river in Moab, i. 215 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<pb n='321'/><anchor id='Pg321'/> + +<lg> +<l>Zeus, god of Tarsus assimilated to, i. 119, 143;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>Cilician deity assimilated to, 144 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>, 148, 152;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the flower of, 186, 187;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>identified with Attis, 282;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>castrates his father Cronus, 283;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the father of dew, ii. <ref target='Pg137'>137</ref>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the Saviour of the City, at Magnesia on the Maeander, <ref target='Pg238'>238</ref></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Corycian, priests of, i. 145, 155;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>temple of, 155</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— and Hecate at Stratonicea in Caria, i. 270 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 227</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Labrandeus, the Carian, i. 182</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Olbian, ruins of his temple at Olba, i. 151;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his cave or chasm, 158 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>his priest Teucer, 159;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>a god of fertility, 159 <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>——, Olybrian, i. 167 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>—— Papas, i. 281 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zeus and Typhon, battle of, i. 156 <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>, 160</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zimmern, H., on Mylitta, i. 37 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zimri, king of Israel, burns himself, i. 174 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 2, 176</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zion, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Moriah, ii. <ref target='Pg219'>219</ref> <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 1</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zoroastrian fire-worship in Cappadocia, i. 191</l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zulu medicine-men or diviners, i. 74 <hi rend='italic'>n.</hi> 4, 75;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their charm to fertilize fields, ii. <ref target='Pg102'>102</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi></l> +</lg> + +<lg> +<l>Zulus, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 84;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their observation of the moon, ii. <ref target='Pg134'>134</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>the worship of the dead among the, <ref target='Pg182'>182</ref> <hi rend='italic'>sqq.</hi>;</l> +<l rend='margin-left: 2'>their sacrifice of a bull to prolong the life of the king, <ref target='Pg222'>222</ref></l> +</lg> + +</div> + +</body> +<back rend="page-break-before: right"> + <div id="footnotes"> + <index index="toc" /> + <index index="pdf" /> + <head>Footnotes</head> + <divGen type="footnotes"/> + </div> + <div rend="page-break-before: right"> + <divGen type="pgfooter" /> + </div> +</back> +</text> +</TEI.2> diff 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