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diff --git a/41923.txt b/41923.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c582d7 --- /dev/null +++ b/41923.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20138 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 6 of +12) by James George Frazer + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Golden Bough (Third Edition, Vol. 6 of 12) + +Author: James George Frazer + +Release Date: January 26, 2013 [Ebook #41923] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 6 OF 12)*** + + + + + + The Golden Bough + + A Study in Magic and Religion + + By + + James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. + + Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge + + Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool + + Vol. VI. of XII. + + Part IV: Adonis Attis Osiris. + + Vol. 2 of 2. + + New York and London + + MacMillan and Co. + + 1911 + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Chapter I. The Myth Of Osiris. +Chapter II. The Official Egyptian Calendar. +Chapter III. The Calendar of the Egyptian Farmer. + § 1. The Rise and Fall of the Nile. + § 2. Rites of Irrigation. + § 3. Rites of Sowing. + § 4. Rites of Harvest. +Chapter IV. The Official Festivals of Osiris. + § 1. The Festival at Sais. + § 2. Feasts of All Souls. + § 3. The Festival in the Month of Athyr. + § 4. The Festival in the Month of Khoiak. + § 5. The Resurrection of Osiris. + § 6. Readjustment of Egyptian Festivals. +Chapter V. The Nature of Osiris. + § 1. Osiris a Corn-God. + § 2. Osiris a Tree-Spirit. + § 3. Osiris a God of Fertility. + § 4. Osiris a God of the Dead. +Chapter VI. Isis. +Chapter VII. Osiris and the Sun. +Chapter VIII. Osiris and the Moon. +Chapter IX. The Doctrine of Lunar Sympathy. +Chapter X. The King As Osiris. +Chapter XI. The Origin of Osiris. +Chapter XII. Mother-Kin And Mother Goddesses. + § 1. Dying Gods and Mourning Goddesses. + § 2. Influence of Mother-Kin on Religion. + § 3. Mother-Kin and Mother Goddesses in the Ancient East. +Notes. + I. Moloch The King. + II. The Widowed Flamen. + § 1. The Pollution of Death. + § 2. The Marriage of the Roman Gods. + § 3. Children of Living Parents in Ritual. + III. A Charm To Protect a Town. + IV. Some Customs Of The Pelew Islanders. + § 1. Priests dressed as Women. + § 2. Prostitution of Unmarried Girls. + § 3. Custom of slaying Chiefs. +Index. +Footnotes + + + + + + + [Cover Art] + +[Transcriber's Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter +at Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.] + + + + + +CHAPTER I. THE MYTH OF OSIRIS. + + +(M1) In ancient Egypt the god whose death and resurrection were annually +celebrated with alternate sorrow and joy was Osiris, the most popular of +all Egyptian deities; and there are good grounds for classing him in one +of his aspects with Adonis and Attis as a personification of the great +yearly vicissitudes of nature, especially of the corn. But the immense +vogue which he enjoyed for many ages induced his devoted worshippers to +heap upon him the attributes and powers of many other gods; so that it is +not always easy to strip him, so to say, of his borrowed plumes and to +restore them to their proper owners. In the following pages I do not +pretend to enumerate and analyse all the alien elements which thus +gathered round the popular deity. All that I shall attempt to do is to +peel off these accretions and to exhibit the god, as far as possible, in +his primitive simplicity. The discoveries of recent years in Egypt enable +us to do so with more confidence now than when I first addressed myself to +the problem many years ago. + +(M2) The story of Osiris is told in a connected form only by Plutarch, +whose narrative has been confirmed and to some extent amplified in modern +times by the evidence of the monuments.(1) Of the monuments which +illustrate the myth or legend of Osiris the oldest are a long series of +hymns, prayers, incantations, and liturgies, which have been found +engraved in hieroglyphics on the walls, passages, and galleries of five +pyramids at Sakkara. From the place where they were discovered these +ancient religious records are known as the Pyramid Texts. They date from +the fifth and sixth dynasties, and the period of time during which they +were carved on the pyramids is believed to have been roughly a hundred and +fifty years from about the year 2625 B.C. onward. But from their contents +it appears that many of these documents were drawn up much earlier; for in +some of them there are references to works which have perished, and in +others there are political allusions which seem to show that the passages +containing them must have been composed at a time when the Northern and +Southern Kingdoms were still independent and hostile states and had not +yet coalesced into a single realm under the sway of one powerful monarch. +As the union of the kingdoms appears to have taken place about three +thousand four hundred years before our era, the whole period covered by +the composition of the Pyramid Texts probably did not fall short of a +thousand years. Thus the documents form the oldest body of religious +literature surviving to us from the ancient world, and occupy a place in +the history of Egyptian language and civilization like that which the +Vedic hymns and incantations occupy in the history of Aryan speech and +culture.(2) + +(M3) The special purpose for which these texts were engraved on the +pyramids was to ensure the eternal life and felicity of the dead kings who +slept beneath these colossal monuments. Hence the dominant note that +sounds through them all is an insistent, a passionate protest against the +reality of death: indeed the word death never occurs in the Pyramid Texts +except to be scornfully denied or to be applied to an enemy. Again and +again the indomitable assurance is repeated that the dead man did not die +but lives. "King Teti has not died the death, he has become a glorious one +in the horizon." "Ho! King Unis! Thou didst not depart dead, thou didst +depart living." "Thou hast departed that thou mightest live, thou hast not +departed that thou mightest die." "Thou diest not." "This King Pepi dies +not." "Have ye said that he would die? He dies not; this King Pepi lives +for ever." "Live! Thou shalt not die." "Thou livest, thou livest, raise +thee up." "Thou diest not, stand up, raise thee up." "O lofty one among +the Imperishable Stars, thou perishest not eternally."(3) Thus for +Egyptian kings death was swallowed up in victory; and through their tears +Egyptian mourners might ask, like Christian mourners thousands of years +afterwards, "O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?" + +(M4) Now it is significant that in these ancient documents, though the +myth or legend of Osiris is not set forth at length, it is often alluded +to as if it were a matter of common knowledge. Hence we may legitimately +infer the great antiquity of the Osirian tradition in Egypt. Indeed so +numerous are the allusions to it in the Pyramid Texts that by their help +we could reconstruct the story in its main outlines even without the +narrative of Plutarch.(4) Thus the discovery of these texts has confirmed +our belief in the accuracy and fidelity of the Greek writer, and we may +accept his account with confidence even when it records incidents or +details which have not yet been verified by a comparison with original +Egyptian sources. The tragic tale runs thus: + +(M5) Osiris was the offspring of an intrigue between the earth-god Seb +(Keb or Geb, as the name is sometimes transliterated) and the sky-goddess +Nut. The Greeks identified his parents with their own deities Cronus and +Rhea. When the sun-god Ra perceived that his wife Nut had been unfaithful +to him, he declared with a curse that she should be delivered of the child +in no month and no year. But the goddess had another lover, the god Thoth +or Hermes, as the Greeks called him, and he playing at draughts with the +moon won from her a seventy-second part(5) of every day, and having +compounded five whole days out of these parts he added them to the +Egyptian year of three hundred and sixty days. This was the mythical +origin of the five supplementary days which the Egyptians annually +inserted at the end of every year in order to establish a harmony between +lunar and solar time.(6) On these five days, regarded as outside the year +of twelve months, the curse of the sun-god did not rest, and accordingly +Osiris was born on the first of them. At his nativity a voice rang out +proclaiming that the Lord of All had come into the world. Some say that a +certain Pamyles heard a voice from the temple at Thebes bidding him +announce with a shout that a great king, the beneficent Osiris, was born. +But Osiris was not the only child of his mother. On the second of the +supplementary days she gave birth to the elder Horus, on the third to the +god Set, whom the Greeks called Typhon, on the fourth to the goddess Isis, +and on the fifth to the goddess Nephthys.(7) Afterwards Set married his +sister Nephthys, and Osiris married his sister Isis. + +(M6) Reigning as a king on earth, Osiris reclaimed the Egyptians from +savagery, gave them laws, and taught them to worship the gods. Before his +time the Egyptians had been cannibals. But Isis, the sister and wife of +Osiris, discovered wheat and barley growing wild, and Osiris introduced +the cultivation of these grains amongst his people, who forthwith +abandoned cannibalism and took kindly to a corn diet. Moreover, Osiris is +said to have been the first to gather fruit from trees, to train the vine +to poles, and to tread the grapes. Eager to communicate these beneficent +discoveries to all mankind, he committed the whole government of Egypt to +his wife Isis, and travelled over the world, diffusing the blessings of +civilization and agriculture wherever he went. In countries where a harsh +climate or niggardly soil forbade the cultivation of the vine, he taught +the inhabitants to console themselves for the want of wine by brewing beer +from barley. Loaded with the wealth that had been showered upon him by +grateful nations, he returned to Egypt, and on account of the benefits he +had conferred on mankind he was unanimously hailed and worshipped as a +deity.(8) But his brother Set (whom the Greeks called Typhon) with +seventy-two others plotted against him. Having taken the measure of his +good brother's body by stealth, the bad brother Typhon fashioned and +highly decorated a coffer of the same size, and once when they were all +drinking and making merry he brought in the coffer and jestingly promised +to give it to the one whom it should fit exactly. Well, they all tried one +after the other, but it fitted none of them. Last of all Osiris stepped +into it and lay down. On that the conspirators ran and slammed the lid +down on him, nailed it fast, soldered it with molten lead, and flung the +coffer into the Nile. This happened on the seventeenth day of the month +Athyr, when the sun is in the sign of the Scorpion, and in the +eight-and-twentieth year of the reign or the life of Osiris. When Isis +heard of it she sheared off a lock of her hair, put on mourning attire, +and wandered disconsolately up and down, seeking the body.(9) + +(M7) By the advice of the god of wisdom she took refuge in the papyrus +swamps of the Delta. Seven scorpions accompanied her in her flight. One +evening when she was weary she came to the house of a woman, who, alarmed +at the sight of the scorpions, shut the door in her face. Then one of the +scorpions crept under the door and stung the child of the woman that he +died. But when Isis heard the mother's lamentation, her heart was touched, +and she laid her hands on the child and uttered her powerful spells; so +the poison was driven out of the child and he lived. Afterwards Isis +herself gave birth to a son in the swamps. She had conceived him while she +fluttered in the form of a hawk over the corpse of her dead husband. The +infant was the younger Horus, who in his youth bore the name of +Harpocrates, that is, the child Horus. Him Buto, the goddess of the north, +hid from the wrath of his wicked uncle Set. Yet she could not guard him +from all mishap; for one day when Isis came to her little son's +hiding-place she found him stretched lifeless and rigid on the ground: a +scorpion had stung him. Then Isis prayed to the sun-god Ra for help. The +god hearkened to her and staid his bark in the sky, and sent down Thoth to +teach her the spell by which she might restore her son to life. She +uttered the words of power, and straightway the poison flowed from the +body of Horus, air passed into him, and he lived. Then Thoth ascended up +into the sky and took his place once more in the bark of the sun, and the +bright pomp passed onward jubilant.(10) + +(M8) Meantime the coffer containing the body of Osiris had floated down +the river and away out to sea, till at last it drifted ashore at Byblus, +on the coast of Syria. Here a fine _erica_-tree shot up suddenly and +enclosed the chest in its trunk. The king of the country, admiring the +growth of the tree, had it cut down and made into a pillar of his house; +but he did not know that the coffer with the dead Osiris was in it. Word +of this came to Isis and she journeyed to Byblus, and sat down by the +well, in humble guise, her face wet with tears. To none would she speak +till the king's handmaidens came, and them she greeted kindly, and braided +their hair, and breathed on them from her own divine body a wondrous +perfume. But when the queen beheld the braids of her handmaidens' hair and +smelt the sweet smell that emanated from them, she sent for the stranger +woman and took her into her house and made her the nurse of her child. But +Isis gave the babe her finger instead of her breast to suck, and at night +she began to burn all that was mortal of him away, while she herself in +the likeness of a swallow fluttered round the pillar that contained her +dead brother, twittering mournfully. But the queen spied what she was +doing and shrieked out when she saw her child in flames, and thereby she +hindered him from becoming immortal. Then the goddess revealed herself and +begged for the pillar of the roof, and they gave it her, and she cut the +coffer out of it, and fell upon it and embraced it and lamented so loud +that the younger of the king's children died of fright on the spot. But +the trunk of the tree she wrapped in fine linen, and poured ointment on +it, and gave it to the king and queen, and the wood stands in a temple of +Isis and is worshipped by the people of Byblus to this day. And Isis put +the coffer in a boat and took the eldest of the king's children with her +and sailed away. As soon as they were alone, she opened the chest, and +laying her face on the face of her brother she kissed him and wept. But +the child came behind her softly and saw what she was about, and she +turned and looked at him in anger, and the child could not bear her look +and died; but some say that it was not so, but that he fell into the sea +and was drowned. It is he whom the Egyptians sing of at their banquets +under the name of Maneros. But Isis put the coffer by and went to see her +son Horus at the city of Buto, and Typhon found the coffer as he was +hunting a boar one night by the light of a full moon.(11) And he knew the +body, and rent it into fourteen pieces, and scattered them abroad. But +Isis sailed up and down the marshes in a shallop made of papyrus, looking +for the pieces; and that is why when people sail in shallops made of +papyrus, the crocodiles do not hurt them, for they fear or respect the +goddess. And that is the reason, too, why there are many graves of Osiris +in Egypt, for she buried each limb as she found it. But others will have +it that she buried an image of him in every city, pretending it was his +body, in order that Osiris might be worshipped in many places, and that if +Typhon searched for the real grave he might not be able to find it.(12) +However, the genital member of Osiris had been eaten by the fishes, so +Isis made an image of it instead, and the image is used by the Egyptians +at their festivals to this day.(13) "Isis," writes the historian Diodorus +Siculus, "recovered all the parts of the body except the genitals; and +because she wished that her husband's grave should be unknown and honoured +by all who dwell in the land of Egypt, she resorted to the following +device. She moulded human images out of wax and spices, corresponding to +the stature of Osiris, round each one of the parts of his body. Then she +called in the priests according to their families and took an oath of them +all that they would reveal to no man the trust she was about to repose in +them. So to each of them privately she said that to them alone she +entrusted the burial of the body, and reminding them of the benefits they +had received she exhorted them to bury the body in their own land and to +honour Osiris as a god. She also besought them to dedicate one of the +animals of their country, whichever they chose, and to honour it in life +as they had formerly honoured Osiris, and when it died to grant it +obsequies like his. And because she would encourage the priests in their +own interest to bestow the aforesaid honours, she gave them a third part +of the land to be used by them in the service and worship of the gods. +Accordingly it is said that the priests, mindful of the benefits of +Osiris, desirous of gratifying the queen, and moved by the prospect of +gain, carried out all the injunctions of Isis. Wherefore to this day each +of the priests imagines that Osiris is buried in his country, and they +honour the beasts that were consecrated in the beginning, and when the +animals die the priests renew at their burial the mourning for Osiris. But +the sacred bulls, the one called Apis and the other Mnevis, were dedicated +to Osiris, and it was ordained that they should be worshipped as gods in +common by all the Egyptians; since these animals above all others had +helped the discoverers of corn in sowing the seed and procuring the +universal benefits of agriculture."(14) + +(M9) Such is the myth or legend of Osiris, as told by Greek writers and +eked out by more or less fragmentary notices or allusions in native +Egyptian literature. A long inscription in the temple at Denderah has +preserved a list of the god's graves, and other texts mention the parts of +his body which were treasured as holy relics in each of the sanctuaries. +Thus his heart was at Athribis, his backbone at Busiris, his neck at +Letopolis, and his head at Memphis. As often happens in such cases, some +of his divine limbs were miraculously multiplied. His head, for example, +was at Abydos as well as at Memphis, and his legs, which were remarkably +numerous, would have sufficed for several ordinary mortals.(15) In this +respect, however, Osiris was nothing to St. Denys, of whom no less than +seven heads, all equally genuine, are extant.(16) + +(M10) According to native Egyptian accounts, which supplement that of +Plutarch, when Isis had found the corpse of her husband Osiris, she and +her sister Nephthys sat down beside it and uttered a lament which in after +ages became the type of all Egyptian lamentations for the dead. "Come to +thy house," they wailed, "Come to thy house. O god On! come to thy house, +thou who hast no foes. O fair youth, come to thy house, that thou mayest +see me. I am thy sister, whom thou lovest; thou shalt not part from me. O +fair boy, come to thy house.... I see thee not, yet doth my heart yearn +after thee and mine eyes desire thee. Come to her who loves thee, who +loves thee, Unnefer, thou blessed one! Come to thy sister, come to thy +wife, to thy wife, thou whose heart stands still. Come to thy housewife. I +am thy sister by the same mother, thou shalt not be far from me. Gods and +men have turned their faces towards thee and weep for thee together.... I +call after thee and weep, so that my cry is heard to heaven, but thou +hearest not my voice; yet am I thy sister, whom thou didst love on earth; +thou didst love none but me, my brother! my brother!"(17) This lament for +the fair youth cut off in his prime reminds us of the laments for Adonis. +The title of Unnefer or "the Good Being" bestowed on him marks the +beneficence which tradition universally ascribed to Osiris; it was at once +his commonest title and one of his names as king.(18) + +(M11) The lamentations of the two sad sisters were not in vain. In pity +for her sorrow the sun-god Ra sent down from heaven the jackal-headed god +Anubis, who, with the aid of Isis and Nephthys, of Thoth and Horus, pieced +together the broken body of the murdered god, swathed it in linen +bandages, and observed all the other rites which the Egyptians were wont +to perform over the bodies of the departed. Then Isis fanned the cold clay +with her wings: Osiris revived, and thenceforth reigned as king over the +dead in the other world.(19) There he bore the titles of Lord of the +Underworld, Lord of Eternity, Ruler of the Dead.(20) There, too, in the +great Hall of the Two Truths, assisted by forty-two assessors, one from +each of the principal districts of Egypt, he presided as judge at the +trial of the souls of the departed, who made their solemn confession +before him, and, their heart having been weighed in the balance of +justice, received the reward of virtue in a life eternal or the +appropriate punishment of their sins.(21) The confession or rather +profession which the _Book of the Dead_ puts in the mouth of the deceased +at the judgment-bar of Osiris(22) sets the morality of the ancient +Egyptians in a very favourable light. In rendering an account of his life +the deceased solemnly protested that he had not oppressed his fellow-men, +that he had made none to weep, that he had done no murder, neither +committed fornication nor borne false witness, that he had not falsified +the balance, that he had not taken the milk from the mouths of babes, that +he had given bread to the hungry and water to the thirsty, and had clothed +the naked. In harmony with these professions are the epitaphs on Egyptian +graves, which reveal, if not the moral practice, at least the moral ideals +of those who slept beneath them. Thus, for example, a man says in his +epitaph: "I gave bread to the hungry and clothes to the naked, and ferried +across in my own boat him who could not pass the water. I was a father to +the orphan, a husband to the widow, a shelter from the wind to them that +were cold. I am one that spake good and told good. I earned my substance +in righteousness."(23) Those who had done thus in their mortal life and +had been acquitted at the Great Assize, were believed to dwell thenceforth +at ease in a land where the corn grew higher than on earth, where harvests +never failed, where trees were always green, and wives for ever young and +fair.(24) + +(M12) We are not clearly informed as to the fate which the Egyptians +supposed to befall the wicked after death. In the scenes which represent +the Last Judgment there is seen crouching beside the scales, in which the +heart of the dead is being weighed, a monstrous animal known as the "Eater +of the Dead." It has the head of a crocodile, the trunk of a lion, and the +hinder parts of a hippopotamus. Some think that the souls of those whose +hearts had been weighed in the balance and found wanting were delivered +over to this grim monster to be devoured; but this view appears to be +conjectural. "Generally the animal seems to have been placed there simply +as guardian of the entrance to the Fields of the Blessed, but sometimes it +is likened to Set. Elsewhere it is said that the judges of the dead slay +the wicked and drink their blood. In brief, here also we have conflicting +statements, and can only gather that there seems to have been no general +agreement among the dwellers in the Valley of the Nile as to the ultimate +lot of the wicked."(25) + +(M13) In the resurrection of Osiris the Egyptians saw the pledge of a life +everlasting for themselves beyond the grave. They believed that every man +would live eternally in the other world if only his surviving friends did +for his body what the gods had done for the body of Osiris. Hence the +ceremonies observed by the Egyptians over the human dead were an exact +copy of those which Anubis, Horus, and the rest had performed over the +dead god. "At every burial there was enacted a representation of the +divine mystery which had been performed of old over Osiris, when his son, +his sisters, his friends were gathered round his mangled remains and +succeeded by their spells and manipulations in converting his broken body +into the first mummy, which they afterwards reanimated and furnished with +the means of entering on a new individual life beyond the grave. The mummy +of the deceased was Osiris; the professional female mourners were his two +sisters Isis and Nephthys; Anubis, Horus, all the gods of the Osirian +legend gathered about the corpse." In this solemn drama of death and +resurrection the principal part was played by the celebrant, who +represented Horus the son of the dead and resuscitated Osiris.(26) He +formally opened the eyes and mouth of the dead man by rubbing or +pretending to rub them four times with the bleeding heart and thigh of a +sacrificed bull; after which a pretence was made of actually opening the +mouth of the mummy or of the statue with certain instruments specially +reserved for the purpose. Geese and gazelles were also sacrificed by being +decapitated; they were supposed to represent the enemies of Osiris, who +after the murder of the divine man had sought to evade the righteous +punishment of their crime but had been detected and beheaded.(27) + +(M14) Thus every dead Egyptian was identified with Osiris and bore his +name. From the Middle Kingdom onwards it was the regular practice to +address the deceased as "Osiris So-and-So," as if he were the god himself, +and to add the standing epithet "true of speech," because true speech was +characteristic of Osiris.(28) The thousands of inscribed and pictured +tombs that have been opened in the valley of the Nile prove that the +mystery of the resurrection was performed for the benefit of every dead +Egyptian;(29) as Osiris died and rose again from the dead, so all men +hoped to arise like him from death to life eternal. In an Egyptian text it +is said of the departed that "as surely as Osiris lives, so shall he live +also; as surely as Osiris did not die, so shall he not die; as surely as +Osiris is not annihilated, so shall he too not be annihilated." The dead +man, conceived to be lying, like Osiris, with mangled body, was comforted +by being told that the heavenly goddess Nut, the mother of Osiris, was +coming to gather up his poor scattered limbs and mould them with her own +hands into a form immortal and divine. "She gives thee thy head, she +brings thee thy bones, she sets thy limbs together and puts thy heart in +thy body." Thus the resurrection of the dead was conceived, like that of +Osiris, not merely as spiritual but also as bodily. "They possess their +heart, they possess their senses, they possess their mouth, they possess +their feet, they possess their arms, they possess all their limbs."(30) + +(M15) If we may trust Egyptian legend, the trials and contests of the +royal house did not cease with the restoration of Osiris to life and his +elevation to the rank of presiding deity in the world of the dead. When +Horus the younger, the son of Osiris and Isis, was grown to man's estate, +the ghost of his royal and murdered father appeared to him and urged him, +like another Hamlet, to avenge the foul unnatural murder upon his wicked +uncle. Thus encouraged, the youth attacked the miscreant. The combat was +terrific and lasted many days. Horus lost an eye in the conflict and Set +suffered a still more serious mutilation. At last Thoth parted the +combatants and healed their wounds; the eye of Horus he restored by +spitting on it. According to one account the great battle was fought on +the twenty-sixth day of the month of Thoth. Foiled in open war, the artful +uncle now took the law of his virtuous nephew. He brought a suit of +bastardy against Horus, hoping thus to rob him of his inheritance and to +get possession of it himself; nay, not content with having murdered his +good brother, the unnatural Set carried his rancour even beyond the grave +by accusing the dead Osiris of certain high crimes and misdemeanours. The +case was tried before the supreme court of the gods in the great hall at +Heliopolis. Thoth, the god of wisdom, pleaded the cause of Osiris, and the +august judges decided that "the word of Osiris was true." Moreover, they +pronounced Horus to be the true-begotten son of his father. So that prince +assumed the crown and mounted the throne of the lamented Osiris. However, +according to another and perhaps later version of the story, the victory +of Horus over his uncle was by no means so decisive, and their struggles +ended in a compromise, by which Horus reigned over the Delta, while Set +became king of the upper valley of the Nile from near Memphis to the first +cataract. Be that as it may, with the accession of Horus began for the +Egyptians the modern period of the world, for on his throne all the kings +of Egypt sat as his successors.(31) + +(M16) These legends of a contest for the throne of Egypt may perhaps +contain a reminiscence of real dynastical struggles which attended an +attempt to change the right of succession from the female to the male +line. For under a rule of female kinship the heir to the throne is either +the late king's brother, or the son of the late king's sister, while under +a rule of male kinship the heir to the throne is the late king's son. In +the legend of Osiris the rival heirs are Set and Horus, Set being the late +king's brother, and Horus the late king's son; though Horus indeed united +both claims to the crown, being the son of the king's sister as well as of +the king. A similar attempt to shift the line of succession seems to have +given rise to similar contests at Rome.(32) + +(M17) Thus according to what seems to have been the general native +tradition Osiris was a good and beloved king of Egypt, who suffered a +violent death but rose from the dead and was henceforth worshipped as a +deity. In harmony with this tradition he was regularly represented by +sculptors and painters in human and regal form as a dead king, swathed in +the wrappings of a mummy, but wearing on his head a kingly crown and +grasping in one of his hands, which were left free from the bandages, a +kingly sceptre.(33) Two cities above all others were associated with his +myth or memory. One of them was Busiris in Lower Egypt, which claimed to +possess his backbone; the other was Abydos in Upper Egypt, which gloried +in the possession of his head.(34) Encircled by the nimbus of the dead yet +living god, Abydos, originally an obscure place, became from the end of +the Old Kingdom the holiest spot in Egypt; his tomb there would seem to +have been to the Egyptians what the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at +Jerusalem is to Christians. It was the wish of every pious man that his +dead body should rest in hallowed earth near the grave of the glorified +Osiris. Few indeed were rich enough to enjoy this inestimable privilege; +for, apart from the cost of a tomb in the sacred city, the mere transport +of mummies from great distances was both difficult and expensive. Yet so +eager were many to absorb in death the blessed influence which radiated +from the holy sepulchre that they caused their surviving friends to convey +their mortal remains to Abydos, there to tarry for a short time, and then +to be brought back by river and interred in the tombs which had been made +ready for them in their native land. Others had cenotaphs built or +memorial tablets erected for themselves near the tomb of their dead and +risen Lord, that they might share with him the bliss of a joyful +resurrection.(35) + +(M18) Hence from the earliest ages of Egyptian history Abydos would seem +to have been a city of the dead rather than of the living; certainly there +is no evidence that the place was ever of any political importance.(36) No +less than nine of the most ancient kings of Egypt known to us were buried +here, for their tombs have been discovered and explored within recent +years.(37) The royal necropolis lies on the edge of the desert about a +mile and a half from the temple of Osiris.(38) Of the graves the oldest is +that of King Khent, the second or third king of the first dynasty. His +reign, which fell somewhere between three thousand four hundred and three +thousand two hundred years before our era, seems to have marked an epoch +in the history of Egypt, for under him the costume, the figure drawing, +and the hieroglyphics all assumed the character which they thenceforth +preserved to the very end of Egyptian nationality.(39) Later ages +identified him with Osiris in a more intimate sense than that in which the +divine title was lavished on every dead king and indeed on every dead man; +for his tomb was actually converted into the tomb of Osiris and as such +received in great profusion the offerings of the faithful. Somewhere +between the twenty-second and the twenty-sixth dynasty a massive bier of +grey granite was placed in the sepulchral chamber. On it, cut in high +relief, reposes a shrouded figure of the dead Osiris. He lies at full +length, with bare and upturned face. On his head is the White Crown of +Upper Egypt; in his hands, which issue from the shroud, he holds the +characteristic emblems of the god, the sceptre and the scourge. At the +four corners of the bier are perched four hawks, representing the four +children of Horus, each with their father's banner, keeping watch over the +dead god, as they kept watch over the four quarters of the world. A fifth +hawk seems to have been perched on the middle of the body of Osiris, but +it had been broken off before the tomb was discovered in recent years, for +only the bird's claws remain in position. Finely carved heads of lions, +one at each corner of the bier, with the claws to match below, complete +the impressive monument. The scene represented is unquestionably the +impregnation of Isis in the form of a hawk by the dead Osiris; the Copts +who dismantled the shrine appear to have vented their pious rage on the +figure of the hawk Isis by carrying it off or smashing it. If any doubt +could exist as to the meaning of these sculptured figures, it would be set +at rest by the ancient inscriptions attached to them. Over against the +right shoulder of the shrouded figure, who lies stretched on the bier, are +carved in hieroglyphics the words, "Osiris, the Good Being, true of +speech"; and over against the place where the missing hawk perched on the +body of the dead god is carved the symbol of Isis. Two relics of the +ancient human occupants of the tomb escaped alike the fury of the fanatics +and the avarice of the plunderers who pillaged and destroyed it. One of +the relics is a human skull, from which the lower jawbone is missing; the +other is an arm encircled by gorgeous jewelled bracelets of gold, +turquoises, amethysts, and dark purple lapis lazuli. The former may be the +head of King Khent himself; the latter is almost certainly the arm of his +queen. One of the bracelets is composed of alternate plaques of gold and +turquoise, each ornamented with the figure of a hawk perched on the top of +it.(40) The hawk was the sacred bird or crest of the earliest dynasties of +Egyptian kings. The figure of a hawk was borne before the king as a +standard on solemn occasions: the oldest capital of the country known to +us was called Hawk-town: there the kings of the first dynasty built a +temple to the hawk: there in modern times has been found a splendid golden +head of a hawk dating from the Ancient Empire; and on the life-like statue +of King Chephren of the third dynasty we see a hawk with out-spread wings +protecting the back of the monarch's head. From the earliest to the latest +times of Egyptian civilization "the Hawk" was the epithet of the king of +Egypt and of the king alone; it took the first place in the list of his +titles.(41) The sanctity of the bird may help us to understand why Isis +took the form of a hawk in order to mate with her dead husband; why the +queen of Egypt wore on her arm a bracelet adorned with golden hawks; and +why in the holy sepulchre the four sons of Horus were represented in the +likeness of hawks keeping watch over the effigy of their divine +grandfather.(42) + +(M19) The legend recorded by Plutarch which associated the dead Osiris +with Byblus in Phoenicia(43) is doubtless late and probably untrustworthy. +It may have been suggested by the resemblance which the worship of the +Egyptian Osiris bore to the worship of the Phoenician Adonis in that city. +But it is possible that the story has no deeper foundation than a verbal +misunderstanding. For Byblus is not only the name of a city, it is the +Greek word for papyrus; and as Isis is said after the death of Osiris to +have taken refuge in the papyrus swamps of the Delta, where she gave birth +to and reared her son Horus, a Greek writer may perhaps have confused the +plant with the city of the same name.(44) However that may have been, the +association of Osiris with Adonis at Byblus gave rise to a curious tale. +It is said that every year the people beyond the rivers of Ethiopia used +to write a letter to the women of Byblus informing them that the lost and +lamented Adonis was found. This letter they enclosed in an earthen pot, +which they sealed and sent floating down the river to the sea. The waves +carried the pot to Byblus, where every year it arrived at the time when +the Syrian women were weeping for their dead Lord. The pot was taken up +from the water and opened: the letter was read; and the weeping women +dried their tears, because the lost Adonis was found.(45) + + + + + +CHAPTER II. THE OFFICIAL EGYPTIAN CALENDAR. + + +(M20) A useful clue to the original nature of a god or goddess is often +furnished by the season at which his or her festival is celebrated. Thus, +if the festival falls at the new or the full moon, there is a certain +presumption that the deity thus honoured either is the moon or at least +has lunar affinities. If the festival is held at the winter or summer +solstice, we naturally surmise that the god is the sun, or at all events +that he stands in some close relation to that luminary. Again, if the +festival coincides with the time of sowing or harvest, we are inclined to +infer that the divinity is an embodiment of the earth or of the corn. +These presumptions or inferences, taken by themselves, are by no means +conclusive; but if they happen to be confirmed by other indications, the +evidence may be regarded as fairly strong. + +(M21) Unfortunately, in dealing with the Egyptian gods we are in a great +measure precluded from making use of this clue. The reason is not that the +dates of the festivals are always unknown, but that they shifted from year +to year, until after a long interval they had revolved through the whole +course of the seasons. This gradual revolution of the festal Egyptian +cycle resulted from the employment of a calendar year which neither +corresponded exactly to the solar year nor was periodically corrected by +intercalation.(46) The solar year is equivalent to about three hundred and +sixty-five and a quarter days; but the ancient Egyptians, ignoring the +quarter of a day, reckoned the year at three hundred and sixty-five days +only.(47) Thus each of their calendar years was shorter than the true +solar year by about a quarter of a day. In four years the deficiency +amounted to one whole day; in forty years it amounted to ten days; in four +hundred years it amounted to a hundred days; and so it went on increasing +until after a lapse of four times three hundred and sixty-five, or one +thousand four hundred and sixty solar years, the deficiency amounted to +three hundred and sixty-five days, or a whole Egyptian year. Hence one +thousand four hundred and sixty solar years, or their equivalent, one +thousand four hundred and sixty-one Egyptian years, formed a period or +cycle at the end of which the Egyptian festivals returned to those points +of the solar year at which they had been celebrated in the beginning.(48) +In the meantime they had been held successively on every day of the solar +year, though always on the same day of the calendar. + +(M22) Thus the official calendar was completely divorced, except at rare +and long intervals, from what may be called the natural calendar of the +shepherd, the husbandman, and the sailor--that is, from the course of the +seasons in which the times for the various labours of cattle-breeding, +tillage, and navigation are marked by the position of the sun in the sky, +the rising or setting of the stars, the fall of rain, the growth of +pasture, the ripening of the corn, the blowing of certain winds, and so +forth. Nowhere, perhaps, are the events of this natural calendar better +marked or more regular in their recurrence than in Egypt; nowhere +accordingly could their divergence from the corresponding dates of the +official calendar be more readily observed. The divergence certainly did +not escape the notice of the Egyptians themselves, and some of them +apparently attempted successfully to correct it. Thus we are told that the +Theban priests, who particularly excelled in astronomy, were acquainted +with the true length of the solar year, and harmonized the calendar with +it by intercalating a day every few, probably every four, years.(49) But +this scientific improvement was too deeply opposed to the religious +conservatism of the Egyptian nature to win general acceptance. "The +Egyptians," said Geminus, a Greek astronomer writing about 77 B.C., "are +of an opposite opinion and purpose from the Greeks. For they neither +reckon the years by the sun nor the months and days by the moon, but they +observe a peculiar system of their own. They wish, in fact, that the +sacrifices should not always be offered to the gods at the same time of +the year, but that they should pass through all the seasons of the year, +so that the summer festival should in time be celebrated in winter, in +autumn, and in spring. For that purpose they employ a year of three +hundred and sixty-five days, composed of twelve months of thirty days +each, with five supplementary days added. But they do not add the quarter +of a day for the reason I have given--namely, in order that their festivals +may revolve."(50) So attached, indeed, were the Egyptians to their old +calendar, that the kings at their consecration were led by the priest of +Isis at Memphis into the holy of holies, and there made to swear that they +would maintain the year of three hundred and sixty-five days without +intercalation.(51) + +(M23) The practical inconvenience of a calendar which marked true time +only once in about fifteen hundred years might be calmly borne by a +submissive Oriental race like the ancient Egyptians, but it naturally +proved a stumbling-block to the less patient temperament of their European +conquerors. Accordingly in the reign of King Ptolemy III. Euergetes a +decree was passed that henceforth the movable Egyptian year should be +converted into a fixed solar year by the intercalation of one day at the +end of every four years, "in order that the seasons may do their duty +perpetually according to the present constitution of the world, and that +it may not happen, through the shifting of the star by one day in four +years, that some of the public festivals which are now held in the winter +should ever be celebrated in the summer, and that other festivals now held +in the summer should hereafter be celebrated in the winter, as has +happened before, and must happen again if the year of three hundred and +sixty-five days be retained." The decree was passed in the year 239 or 238 +B.C. by the high priests, scribes, and other dignitaries of the Egyptian +church assembled in convocation at Canopus; but we cannot doubt that the +measure, though it embodied native Egyptian science, was prompted by the +king or his Macedonian advisers.(52) This sage attempt to reform the +erratic calendar was not permanently successful. The change may indeed +have been carried out during the reign of the king who instituted it, but +it was abandoned by the year 196 B.C. at latest, as we learn from the +celebrated inscription known as the Rosetta stone, in which a month of the +Macedonian calendar is equated to the corresponding month of the movable +Egyptian year.(53) And the testimony of Geminus, which I have cited, +proves that in the following century the festivals were still revolving in +the old style. + +(M24) The reform which the Macedonian king had vainly attempted to impose +upon his people was accomplished by the practical Romans when they took +over the administration of the country. The expedient by which they +effected the change was a simple one; indeed it was no other than that to +which Ptolemy Euergetes had resorted for the same purpose. They merely +intercalated one day at the end of every four years, thus equalizing +within a small fraction four calendar years to four solar years. +Henceforth the official and the natural calendars were in practical +agreement. The movable Egyptian year had been converted into the fixed +Alexandrian year, as it was called, which agreed with the Julian year in +length and in its system of intercalation, though it differed from that +year in retaining the twelve equal Egyptian months and five supplementary +days.(54) But while the new calendar received the sanction of law and +regulated the business of government, the ancient calendar was too firmly +established in popular usage to be at once displaced. Accordingly it +survived for ages side by side with its modern rival.(55) The spread of +Christianity, which required a fixed year for the due observance of its +festivals, did much to promote the adoption of the new Alexandrian style, +and by the beginning of the fifth century the ancient movable year of +Egypt appears to have been not only dead but forgotten.(56) + + + + + +CHAPTER III. THE CALENDAR OF THE EGYPTIAN FARMER. + + + + +§ 1. The Rise and Fall of the Nile. + + +(M25) If the Egyptian farmer of the olden time could thus get no help, +except at the rarest intervals, from the official or sacerdotal calendar, +he must have been compelled to observe for himself those natural signals +which marked the times for the various operations of husbandry. In all +ages of which we possess any records the Egyptians have been an +agricultural people, dependent for their subsistence on the growth of the +corn. The cereals which they cultivated were wheat, barley, and apparently +sorghum (_Holcus sorghum_, Linnaeus), the _doora_ of the modern +fellaheen.(57) Then as now the whole country, with the exception of a +fringe on the coast of the Mediterranean, was almost rainless, and owed +its immense fertility entirely to the annual inundation of the Nile, +which, regulated by an elaborate system of dams and canals, was +distributed over the fields, renewing the soil year by year with a fresh +deposit of mud washed down from the great equatorial lakes and the +mountains of Abyssinia. Hence the rise of the river has always been +watched by the inhabitants with the utmost anxiety; for if it either falls +short of or exceeds a certain height, dearth and famine are the inevitable +consequences.(58) The water begins to rise early in June, but it is not +until the latter half of July that it swells to a mighty tide. By the end +of September the inundation is at its greatest height. The country is now +submerged, and presents the appearance of a sea of turbid water, from +which the towns and villages, built on higher ground, rise like islands. +For about a month the flood remains nearly stationary, then sinks more and +more rapidly, till by December or January the river has returned to its +ordinary bed. With the approach of summer the level of the water continues +to fall. In the early days of June the Nile is reduced to half its +ordinary breadth; and Egypt, scorched by the sun, blasted by the wind that +has blown from the Sahara for many days, seems a mere continuation of the +desert. The trees are choked with a thick layer of grey dust. A few meagre +patches of vegetables, watered with difficulty, struggle painfully for +existence in the immediate neighbourhood of the villages. Some appearance +of verdure lingers beside the canals and in the hollows from which the +moisture has not wholly evaporated. The plain appears to pant in the +pitiless sunshine, bare, dusty, ash-coloured, cracked and seamed as far as +the eye can see with a network of fissures. From the middle of April till +the middle of June the land of Egypt is but half alive, waiting for the +new Nile.(59) + +(M26) For countless ages this cycle of natural events has determined the +annual labours of the Egyptian husbandman. The first work of the +agricultural year is the cutting of the dams which have hitherto prevented +the swollen river from flooding the canals and the fields. This is done, +and the pent-up waters released on their beneficent mission, in the first +half of August.(60) In November, when the inundation has subsided, wheat, +barley, and sorghum are sown. The time of harvest varies with the +district, falling about a month later in the north than in the south. In +Upper or Southern Egypt barley is reaped at the beginning of March, wheat +at the beginning of April, and sorghum about the end of that month.(61) + +(M27) It is natural to suppose that these various events of the +agricultural year were celebrated by the Egyptian farmer with some simple +religious rites designed to secure the blessing of the gods upon his +labours. These rustic ceremonies he would continue to perform year after +year at the same season, while the solemn festivals of the priests +continued to shift, with the shifting calendar, from summer through spring +to winter, and so backward through autumn to summer. The rites of the +husbandman were stable because they rested on direct observation of +nature: the rites of the priest were unstable because they were based on a +false calculation. Yet many of the priestly festivals may have been +nothing but the old rural festivals disguised in the course of ages by the +pomp of sacerdotalism and severed, by the error of the calendar, from +their roots in the natural cycle of the seasons. + + + + +§ 2. Rites of Irrigation. + + +(M28) These conjectures are confirmed by the little we know both of the +popular and of the official Egyptian religion. Thus we are told that the +Egyptians held a festival of Isis at the time when the Nile began to rise. +They believed that the goddess was then mourning for the lost Osiris, and +that the tears which dropped from her eyes swelled the impetuous tide of +the river.(62) Hence in Egyptian inscriptions Isis is spoken of as she +"who maketh the Nile to swell and overflow, who maketh the Nile to swell +in his season."(63) Similarly the Toradjas of Central Celebes imagine that +showers of rain are the tears shed by the compassionate gods in weeping +for somebody who is about to die; a shower in the morning is to them an +infallible omen of death.(64) However, an uneasy suspicion would seem to +have occurred to the Egyptians that perhaps after all the tears of the +goddess might not suffice of themselves to raise the water to the proper +level; so in the time of Rameses II. the king used on the first day of the +flood to throw into the Nile a written order commanding the river to do +its duty, and the submissive stream never failed to obey the royal +mandate.(65) Yet the ancient belief survives in a modified form to this +day. For the Nile, as we saw, begins to rise in June about the time of the +summer solstice, and the people still attribute its increased volume to a +miraculous drop which falls into the river on the night of the seventeenth +of the month. The charms and divinations which they practise on that +mystic night in order to ascertain the length of their own life and to rid +the houses of bugs may well date from a remote antiquity.(66) Now if +Osiris was in one of his aspects a god of the corn, nothing could be more +natural than that he should be mourned at midsummer. For by that time the +harvest was past, the fields were bare, the river ran low, life seemed to +be suspended, the corn-god was dead. At such a moment people who saw the +handiwork of divine beings in all the operations of nature might well +trace the swelling of the sacred stream to the tears shed by the goddess +at the death of the beneficent corn-god her husband. + +(M29) And the sign of the rising waters on earth was accompanied by a sign +in heaven. For in the early days of Egyptian history, some three or four +thousand years before the beginning of our era, the splendid star of +Sirius, the brightest of all the fixed stars, appeared at dawn in the east +just before sunrise about the time of the summer solstice, when the Nile +begins to rise.(67) The Egyptians called it Sothis, and regarded it as the +star of Isis,(68) just as the Babylonians deemed the planet Venus the star +of Astarte. To both peoples apparently the brilliant luminary in the +morning sky seemed the goddess of life and love come to mourn her departed +lover or spouse and to wake him from the dead. Hence the rising of Sirius +marked the beginning of the sacred Egyptian year,(69) and was regularly +celebrated by a festival which did not shift with the shifting official +year.(70) The first day of the first month Thoth was theoretically +supposed to date from the heliacal rising of the bright star, and in all +probability it really did so when the official or civil year of three +hundred and sixty-five days was first instituted. But the miscalculation +which has been already explained(71) had the effect of making the star to +shift its place in the calendar by one day in four years. Thus if Sirius +rose on the first of Thoth in one year, it would rise on the second of +Thoth four years afterwards, on the third of Thoth eight years afterwards, +and so on until after the lapse of a Siriac or Sothic period of fourteen +hundred and sixty solar years the first of Thoth again coincided with the +heliacal rising of Sirius.(72) This observation of the gradual +displacement of the star in the calendar has been of the utmost importance +for the progress of astronomy, since it led the Egyptians directly to the +determination of the approximately true length of the solar year and thus +laid the basis of our modern calendar; for the Julian calendar, which we +owe to Caesar, was founded on the Egyptian theory, though not on the +Egyptian practice.(73) It was therefore a fortunate moment for the world +when some pious Egyptian, thousands of years ago, identified for the first +time the bright star of Sirius with his goddess; for the identification +induced his countrymen to regard the heavenly body with an attention which +they would never have paid to it if they had known it to be nothing but a +world vastly greater than our own and separated from it by an +inconceivable, if not immeasurable, abyss of space. + +(M30) The cutting of the dams and the admission of the water into the +canals and fields is a great event in the Egyptian year. At Cairo the +operation generally takes place between the sixth and the sixteenth of +August, and till lately was attended by ceremonies which deserve to be +noticed, because they were probably handed down from antiquity. An ancient +canal, known by the name of the Khalij, formerly passed through the native +town of Cairo. Near its entrance the canal was crossed by a dam of earth, +very broad at the bottom and diminishing in breadth upwards, which used to +be constructed before or soon after the Nile began to rise. In front of +the dam, on the side of the river, was reared a truncated cone of earth +called the _'arooseh_ or "bride," on the top of which a little maize or +millet was generally sown. This "bride" was commonly washed down by the +rising tide a week or a fortnight before the cutting of the dam. Tradition +runs that the old custom was to deck a young virgin in gay apparel and +throw her into the river as a sacrifice to obtain a plentiful +inundation.(74) Certainly human sacrifices were offered for a similar +purpose by the Wajagga of German East Africa down to recent years. These +people irrigate their fields by means of skilfully constructed channels, +through which they conduct the water of the mountain brooks and rivers to +the thirsty land. They imagine that the spirits of their forefathers dwell +in the rocky basins of these rushing streams, and that they would resent +the withdrawal of the water to irrigate the fields if compensation were +not offered to them. The water-rate paid to them consisted of a child, +uncircumcised and of unblemished body, who was decked with ornaments and +bells and thrown into the river to drown, before they ventured to draw off +the water into the irrigation channel. Having thrown him in, his +executioners shewed a clean pair of heels, because they expected the river +to rise in flood at once on receipt of the water-rate.(75) In similar +circumstances the Njamus of British East Africa sacrifice a sheep before +they let the water of the stream flow into the ditch or artificial +channel. The fat, dung, and blood of the animal are sprinkled at the mouth +of the ditch and in the water; thereupon the dam is broken down and the +stream pours into the ditch. The sacrifice may only be offered by a man of +the Il Mayek clan, and for two days afterwards he wears the skin of the +beast tied round his head. No one may quarrel with this man while the +water is irrigating the crops, else the people believe that the water +would cease to flow in the ditch; more than that, if the men of the Il +Mayek clan were angry and sulked for ten days, the water would dry up +permanently for that season. Hence the Il Mayek clan enjoys great +consideration in the tribe, since the crops are thought to depend on their +good will and good offices. Ten elders assist at the sacrifice of the +sheep, though they may take no part in it. They must all be of a +particular age; and after the ceremony they may not cohabit with their +wives until harvest, and they are obliged to sleep at night in their +granaries. Curiously enough, too, while the water is irrigating the +fields, nobody may kill waterbuck, eland, oryx, zebra, rhinoceros, or +hippopotamus. Anybody caught red-handed in the act of breaking this +game-law would at once be cast out of the village.(76) + +(M31) Whether the "bride" who used to figure at the ceremony of cutting +the dam in Cairo was ever a live woman or not, the intention of the +practice appears to have been to marry the river, conceived as a male +power, to his bride the corn-land, which was soon to be fertilized by his +water. The ceremony was therefore a charm to ensure the growth of the +crops. As such it probably dated, in one form or another, from ancient +times. Dense crowds assembled to witness the cutting of the dam. The +operation was performed before sunrise, and many people spent the +preceding night on the banks of the canal or in boats lit with lamps on +the river, while fireworks were displayed and guns discharged at frequent +intervals. Before sunrise a great number of workmen began to cut the dam, +and the task was accomplished about an hour before the sun appeared on the +horizon. When only a thin ridge of earth remained, a boat with an officer +on board was propelled against it, and breaking through the slight barrier +descended with the rush of water into the canal. The Governor of Cairo +flung a purse of gold into the boat as it passed. Formerly the custom was +to throw money into the canal. The populace used to dive after it, and +several lives were generally lost in the scramble.(77) This practice also +would seem to have been ancient, for Seneca tells us that at a place +called the Veins of the Nile, not far from Philae, the priests used to +cast money and offerings of gold into the river at a festival which +apparently took place at the rising of the water.(78) At Cairo the +time-honoured ceremony came to an end in 1897, when the old canal was +filled up. An electric tramway now runs over the spot where for countless +ages crowds of worshippers or holiday-makers had annually assembled to +witness the marriage of the Nile.(79) + + + + +§ 3. Rites of Sowing. + + +(M32) The next great operation of the agricultural year in Egypt is the +sowing of the seed in November, when the water of the inundation has +retreated from the fields. With the Egyptians, as with many peoples of +antiquity, the committing of the seed to the earth assumed the character +of a solemn and mournful rite. On this subject I will let Plutarch speak +for himself. "What," he asks, "are we to make of the gloomy, joyless, and +mournful sacrifices, if it is wrong either to omit the established rites +or to confuse and disturb our conceptions of the gods by absurd +suspicions? For the Greeks also perform many rites which resemble those of +the Egyptians and are observed about the same time. Thus at the festival +of the Thesmophoria in Athens women sit on the ground and fast. And the +Boeotians open the vaults of the Sorrowful One,(80) naming that festival +sorrowful because Demeter is sorrowing for the descent of the Maiden. The +month is the month of sowing about the setting of the Pleiades.(81) The +Egyptians call it Athyr, the Athenians Pyanepsion, the Boeotians the month +of Demeter. Theopompus informs us that the western peoples consider and +call the winter Cronus, the summer Aphrodite, and the spring Persephone, +and they believe that all things are brought into being by Cronus and +Aphrodite. The Phrygians imagine that the god sleeps in winter and wakes +in summer, and accordingly they celebrate with Bacchic rites the putting +him to bed in winter and his awakening in summer. The Paphlagonians allege +that he is bound fast and shut up in winter, but that he stirs and is set +free in spring. And the season furnishes a hint that the sadness is for +the hiding of those fruits of the earth which the ancients esteemed, not +indeed gods, but great and necessary gifts bestowed by the gods in order +that men might not lead the life of savages and of wild beasts. For it was +that time of year when they saw some of the fruits vanishing and falling +from the trees, while they sowed others grudgingly and with difficulty, +scraping the earth with their hands and huddling it up again, on the +uncertain chance that what they deposited in the ground would ever ripen +and come to maturity. Thus they did in many respects like those who bury +and mourn their dead. And just as we say that a purchaser of Plato's books +purchases Plato, or that an actor who plays the comedies of Menander plays +Menander, so the men of old did not hesitate to call the gifts and +products of the gods by the names of the gods themselves, thereby +honouring and glorifying the things on account of their utility. But in +after ages simple folk in their ignorance applied to the gods statements +which only held true of the fruits of the earth, and so they came not +merely to say but actually to believe that the growth and decay of plants, +on which they subsisted,(82) were the birth and the death of gods. Thus +they fell into absurd, immoral, and confused ways of thinking, though all +the while the absurdity of the fallacy was manifest. Hence Xenophanes of +Colophon declared that if the Egyptians deemed their gods divine they +should not weep for them, and that if they wept for them they should not +deem them divine. 'For it is ridiculous,' said he, 'to lament and pray +that the fruits would be good enough to grow and ripen again in order that +they may again be eaten and lamented.' But he was wrong, for though the +lamentations are for the fruits, the prayers are addressed to the gods, as +the causes and givers of them, that they would be pleased to make fresh +fruits to spring up instead of those that perish."(83) + +(M33) In this interesting passage Plutarch expresses his belief that the +worship of the fruits of the earth was the result of a verbal +misapprehension or disease of language, as it has been called by a modern +school of mythologists, who explain the origin of myths in general on the +same easy principle of metaphors misunderstood. Primitive man, on +Plutarch's theory, firmly believed that the fruits of the earth on which +he subsisted were not themselves gods but merely the gifts of the gods, +who were the real givers of all good things. Yet at the same time men were +in the habit of bestowing on these divine products the names of their +divine creators, either out of gratitude or merely for the sake of +brevity, as when we say that a man has bought a Shakespeare or acted +Moliere, when we mean that he has bought the works of Shakespeare or acted +the plays of Moliere. This abbreviated mode of expression was +misunderstood in later times, and so people came to look upon the fruits +of the earth as themselves divine instead of as being the work of +divinities: in short, they mistook the creature for the creator. In like +manner Plutarch would explain the Egyptian worship of animals as reverence +done not so much to the beasts themselves as to the great god who displays +the divine handiwork in sentient organisms even more than in the most +beautiful and wonderful works of inanimate nature.(84) + +(M34) The comparative study of religion has proved that these theories of +Plutarch are an inversion of the truth. Fetishism, or the view that the +fruits of the earth and things in general are divine or animated by +powerful spirits, is not, as Plutarch imagined, a late corruption of a +pure and primitive theism, which regarded the gods as the creators and +givers of all good things. On the contrary, fetishism is early and theism +is late in the history of mankind. In this respect Xenophanes, whom +Plutarch attempts to correct, displayed a much truer insight into the mind +of the savage. To weep crocodile tears over the animals and plants which +he kills and eats, and to pray them to come again in order that they may +be again eaten and again lamented--this may seem absurd to us, but it is +precisely what the savage does. And from his point of view the proceeding +is not at all absurd but perfectly rational and well calculated to answer +his ends. For he sincerely believes that animals and fruits are tenanted +by spirits who can harm him if they please, and who cannot but be put to +considerable inconvenience by that destruction of their bodies which is +unfortunately inseparable from the processes of mastication and digestion. +What more natural, therefore, than that the savage should offer excuses to +the beasts and the fruits for the painful necessity he is under of +consuming them, and that he should endeavour to alleviate their pangs by +soft words and an air of respectful sympathy, in order that they may bear +him no grudge, and may in due time come again to be again eaten and again +lamented? Judged by the standard of primitive manners the attitude of the +walrus to the oysters was strictly correct:-- + + + "_'__I weep for you,__'__ the Walrus said:_ + _'__I deeply sympathize.__'_ + _With sobs and tears he sorted out_ + _Those of the largest size,_ + _Holding his pocket-handkerchief_ + _Before his streaming eyes._" + + +(M35) Many examples of such hypocritical lamentations for animals, drawn +not from the fancy of a playful writer but from the facts of savage life, +could be cited.(85) Here I shall quote the general statement of a writer +on the Indians of British Columbia, because it covers the case of +vegetable as well as of animal food. After describing the respectful +welcome accorded by the Stlatlum Indians to the first "sock-eye" salmon +which they have caught in the season, he goes on: "The significance of +these ceremonies is easy to perceive when we remember the attitude of the +Indians towards nature generally, and recall their myths relating to the +salmon, and their coming to their rivers and streams. Nothing that the +Indian of this region eats is regarded by him as mere food and nothing +more. Not a single plant, animal, or fish, or other object upon which he +feeds, is looked upon in this light, or as something he has secured for +himself by his own wit and skill. He regards it rather as something which +has been voluntarily and compassionately placed in his hands by the +goodwill and consent of the 'spirit' of the object itself, or by the +intercession and magic of his culture-heroes; to be retained and used by +him only upon the fulfilment of certain conditions. These conditions +include respect and reverent care in the killing or plucking of the animal +or plant and proper treatment of the parts he has no use for, such as the +bones, blood, and offal; and the depositing of the same in some stream or +lake, so that the object may by that means renew its life and physical +form. The practices in connection with the killing of animals and the +gathering of plants and fruits all make this quite clear, and it is only +when we bear this attitude of the savage towards nature in mind that we +can hope to rightly understand the motives and purposes of many of his +strange customs and beliefs."(86) + +(M36) We can now understand why among many peoples of antiquity, as +Plutarch tells us, the time of sowing was a time of sorrow. The laying of +the seed in the earth was a burial of the divine element, and it was +fitting that like a human burial it should be performed with gravity and +the semblance, if not the reality, of sorrow. Yet they sorrowed not +without hope, perhaps a sure and certain hope, that the seed which they +thus committed with sighs and tears to the ground would yet rise from the +dust and yield fruit a hundredfold to the reaper. "They that sow in tears +shall reap in joy. He that goeth forth and weepeth, bearing precious seed, +shall doubtless come again with rejoicing, bringing his sheaves with +him."(87) + + + + +§ 4. Rites of Harvest. + + +(M37) The Egyptian harvest, as we have seen, falls not in autumn but in +spring, in the months of March, April, and May. To the husbandman the time +of harvest, at least in a good year, must necessarily be a season of joy: +in bringing home his sheaves he is requited for his long and anxious +labours. Yet if the old Egyptian farmer felt a secret joy at reaping and +garnering the grain, it was essential that he should conceal the natural +emotion under an air of profound dejection. For was he not severing the +body of the corn-god with his sickle and trampling it to pieces under the +hoofs of his cattle on the threshing-floor?(88) Accordingly we are told +that it was an ancient custom of the Egyptian corn-reapers to beat their +breasts and lament over the first sheaf cut, while at the same time they +called upon Isis.(89) The invocation seems to have taken the form of a +melancholy chant, to which the Greeks gave the name of Maneros. Similar +plaintive strains were chanted by corn-reapers in Phoenicia and other +parts of Western Asia.(90) Probably all these doleful ditties were +lamentations for the corn-god killed by the sickles of the reapers. In +Egypt the slain deity was Osiris, and the name _Maneros_ applied to the +dirge appears to be derived from certain words meaning "Come to thy +house," which often occur in the lamentations for the dead god.(91) + +(M38) Ceremonies of the same sort have been observed by other peoples, +probably for the same purpose. Thus we are told that among all vegetables +corn (_selu_), by which is apparently meant maize, holds the first place +in the household economy and the ceremonial observance of the Cherokee +Indians, who invoke it under the name of "the Old Woman" in allusion to a +myth that it sprang from the blood of an old woman killed by her +disobedient sons. "Much ceremony accompanied the planting and tending of +the crop. Seven grains, the sacred number, were put into each hill, and +these were not afterwards thinned out. After the last working of the crop, +the priest and an assistant--generally the owner of the field--went into the +field and built a small enclosure in the centre. Then entering it, they +seated themselves upon the ground, with heads bent down, and while the +assistant kept perfect silence the priest, with rattle in hand, sang songs +of invocation to the spirit of the corn. Soon, according to the orthodox +belief, a loud rustling would be heard outside, which they would know was +caused by the 'Old Woman' bringing the corn into the field, but neither +must look up until the song was finished. This ceremony was repeated on +four successive nights, after which no one entered the field for seven +other nights, when the priest himself went in, and, if all the sacred +regulations had been properly observed, was rewarded by finding young ears +upon the stalks. The corn ceremonies could be performed by the owner of +the field himself, provided he was willing to pay a sufficient fee to the +priest in order to learn the songs and ritual. Care was always taken to +keep a clean trail from the field to the house, so that the corn might be +encouraged to stay at home and not go wandering elsewhere. Most of these +customs have now fallen into disuse excepting among the old people, by +many of whom they are still religiously observed. Another curious +ceremony, of which even the memory is now almost forgotten, was enacted +after the first working of the corn, when the owner or priest stood in +succession at each of the four corners of the field and wept and wailed +loudly. Even the priests are now unable to give a reason for this +performance, which may have been a lament for the bloody death of Selu," +the Old Woman of the Corn.(92) In these Cherokee practices the +lamentations and the invocations of the Old Woman of the Corn resemble the +ancient Egyptian customs of lamenting over the first corn cut and calling +upon Isis, herself probably in one of her aspects an Old Woman of the +Corn. Further, the Cherokee precaution of leaving a clear path from the +field to the house resembles the Egyptian invitation to Osiris, "Come to +thy house." So in the East Indies to this day people observe elaborate +ceremonies for the purpose of bringing back the Soul of the Rice from the +fields to the barn.(93) The Nandi of British East Africa perform a +ceremony in September when the eleusine grain is ripening. Every woman who +owns a plantation goes out with her daughters into the cornfields and +makes a bonfire of the branches and leaves of certain trees (the _Solanum +campylanthum_ and _Lantana salvifolia_). After that they pluck some of the +eleusine, and each of them puts one grain in her necklace, chews another +and rubs it on her forehead, throat, and breast. "No joy is shown by the +womenfolk on this occasion, and they sorrowfully cut a basketful of the +corn which they take home with them and place in the loft to dry."(94) + +(M39) Just as the Egyptians lamented at cutting the corn, so the Karok +Indians of California lament at hewing the sacred wood for the fire in the +assembly-room. The wood must be cut from a tree on the top of the highest +hill. In lopping off the boughs the Indian weeps and sobs piteously, +shedding real tears, and at the top of the tree he leaves two branches and +a top-knot, resembling a man's head and outstretched arms. Having +descended from the tree, he binds the wood in a faggot and carries it back +to the assembly-room, blubbering all the way. If he is asked why he thus +weeps at cutting and fetching the sacred fuel, he will either give no +answer or say simply that he does it for luck.(95) We may suspect that his +real motive is to appease the wrath of the tree-spirit, many of whose +limbs he has amputated, though he took care to leave him two arms and a +head. + +(M40) The conception of the corn-spirit as old and dead at harvest is very +clearly embodied in a custom observed by the Arabs of Moab. When the +harvesters have nearly finished their task and only a small corner of the +field remains to be reaped, the owner takes a handful of wheat tied up in +a sheaf. A hole is dug in the form of a grave, and two stones are set +upright, one at the head and the other at the foot, just as in an ordinary +burial. Then the sheaf of wheat is laid at the bottom of the grave, and +the sheikh pronounces these words, "The old man is dead." Earth is +afterwards thrown in to cover the sheaf, with a prayer, "May Allah bring +us back the wheat of the dead."(96) + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE OFFICIAL FESTIVALS OF OSIRIS. + + + + +§ 1. The Festival at Sais. + + +(M41) Such, then, were the principal events of the farmer's calendar in +ancient Egypt, and such the simple religious rites by which he celebrated +them. But we have still to consider the Osirian festivals of the official +calendar, so far as these are described by Greek writers or recorded on +the monuments. In examining them it is necessary to bear in mind that on +account of the movable year of the old Egyptian calendar the true or +astronomical dates of the official festivals must have varied from year to +year, at least until the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. +From that time onward, apparently, the dates of the festivals were +determined by the new calendar, and so ceased to rotate throughout the +length of the solar year. At all events Plutarch, writing about the end of +the first century, implies that they were then fixed, not movable; for +though he does not mention the Alexandrian calendar, he clearly dates the +festivals by it.(97) Moreover, the long festal calendar of Esne, an +important document of the Imperial age, is obviously based on the fixed +Alexandrian year; for it assigns the mark for New Year's Day to the day +which corresponds to the twenty-ninth of August, which was the first day +of the Alexandrian year, and its references to the rising of the Nile, the +position of the sun, and the operations of agriculture are all in harmony +with this supposition.(98) Thus we may take it as fairly certain that from +30 B.C. onwards the Egyptian festivals were stationary in the solar year. + +(M42) Herodotus tells us that the grave of Osiris was at Sais in Lower +Egypt, and that there was a lake there upon which the sufferings of the +god were displayed as a mystery by night.(99) This commemoration of the +divine passion was held once a year: the people mourned and beat their +breasts at it to testify their sorrow for the death of the god; and an +image of a cow, made of gilt wood with a golden sun between its horns, was +carried out of the chamber in which it stood the rest of the year.(100) +The cow no doubt represented Isis herself, for cows were sacred to her, +and she was regularly depicted with the horns of a cow on her head,(101) +or even as a woman with the head of a cow.(102) It is probable that the +carrying out of her cow-shaped image symbolized the goddess searching for +the dead body of Osiris; for this was the native Egyptian interpretation +of a similar ceremony observed in Plutarch's time about the winter +solstice, when the gilt cow was carried seven times round the temple.(103) +A great feature of the festival was the nocturnal illumination. People +fastened rows of oil-lamps to the outside of their houses, and the lamps +burned all night long. The custom was not confined to Sais, but was +observed throughout the whole of Egypt.(104) + +This universal illumination of the houses on one night of the year +suggests that the festival may have been a commemoration not merely of the +dead Osiris but of the dead in general, in other words, that it may have +been a night of All Souls.(105) For it is a widespread belief that the +souls of the dead revisit their old homes on one night of the year; and on +that solemn occasion people prepare for the reception of the ghosts by +laying out food for them to eat, and lighting lamps to guide them on their +dark road from and to the grave. The following instances will illustrate +the custom. + + + + +§ 2. Feasts of All Souls. + + +(M43) The Esquimaux of St. Michael and the lower Yukon River in Alaska +hold a festival of the dead every year at the end of November or the +beginning of December, as well as a greater festival at intervals of +several years. At these seasons, food, drink, and clothes are provided for +the returning ghosts in the _kashim_ or clubhouse of the village, which is +illuminated with oil lamps. Every man or woman who wishes to honour a dead +friend sets up a lamp on a stand in front of the place which the deceased +used to occupy in the clubhouse. These lamps, filled with seal oil, are +kept burning day and night till the festival is over. They are believed to +light the shades on their return to their old home and back again to the +land of the dead. If any one fails to put up a lamp in the clubhouse and +to keep it burning, the shade whom he or she desires to honour could not +find its way to the place and so would miss the feast. On the eve of the +festival the nearest male relation goes to the grave and summons the ghost +by planting there a small model of a seal spear or of a wooden dish, +according as the deceased was a man or a woman. The badges of the dead are +marked on these implements. When all is ready, the ghosts gather in the +fire-pit under the clubhouse, and ascending through the floor at the +proper moment take possession of the bodies of their namesakes, to whom +the offerings of food, drink, and clothing are made for the benefit of the +dead. Thus each shade obtains the supplies he needs in the other world. +The dead who have none to make offerings to them are believed to suffer +great destitution. Hence the Esquimaux fear to die without leaving behind +them some one who will sacrifice to their spirits, and childless people +generally adopt children lest their shades should be forgotten at the +festivals. When a person has been much disliked, his ghost is sometimes +purposely ignored, and that is deemed the severest punishment that could +be inflicted upon him. After the songs of invitation to the dead have been +sung, the givers of the feast take a small portion of food from every dish +and cast it down as an offering to the shades; then each pours a little +water on the floor so that it runs through the cracks. In this way they +believe that the spiritual essence of all the food and water is conveyed +to the souls. The remainder of the food is afterwards distributed among +the people present, who eat of it heartily. Then with songs and dances the +feast comes to an end, and the ghosts are dismissed to their own place. +Dances form a conspicuous feature of the great festival of the dead, which +is held every few years. The dancers dance not only in the clubhouse but +also at the graves and on the ice, if the deceased met their death by +drowning.(106) + +The Indians of California used to observe annual ceremonies of mourning +for the dead,(107) at some of which the souls of the departed were +represented by living persons. Ten or more men would prepare themselves to +play the part of the ghosts by fasting for several days, especially by +abstaining from flesh. Disguised with paint and soot, adorned with +feathers and grasses, they danced and sang in the village or rushed about +in the forest by night with burning torches in their hands. After a time +they presented themselves to the relations of the deceased, who looked +upon these maskers as in very truth their departed friends and received +them accordingly with an outburst of lamentation, the old women scratching +their own faces and smiting their breasts with stones in token of +mourning. These masquerades were generally held in February. During their +continuance a strict fast was observed in the village.(108) Among the +Konkaus of California the dance of the dead is always held about the end +of August and marks their New Year's Day. They collect a large quantity of +food, clothing, baskets, ornaments, and whatever else the spirits are +supposed to need in the other world. These they hang on a semicircle of +boughs or small trees, cut and set in the ground leafless. In the centre +burns a great fire, and hard by are the graves. The ceremony begins at +evening and lasts till daybreak. As darkness falls, men and women sit on +the graves and wail for the dead of the year. Then they dance round the +fire with frenzied yells and whoops, casting from time to time the +offerings into the flames. All must be consumed before the first faint +streaks of dawn glimmer in the East.(109) The Choctaws used to have a +great respect for their dead. They did not bury their bodies but laid them +on biers made of bark and supported by forked sticks about fifteen feet +high. When the worms had consumed the flesh, the skeleton was dismembered, +any remains of muscles and sinews were buried, and the bones were +deposited in a box, the skull being reddened with ochre. The box +containing the bones was then carried to the common burial ground. In the +early days of November the tribe celebrated a great festival which they +called the Festival of the Dead or of the Souls; every family then +gathered in the common burial ground, and there with weeping and +lamentation visited the boxes which contained the mouldering relics of +their dead. On returning from the graveyard they held a great banquet, +which ended the festival.(110) Some of the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico +"believe that on a certain day (in August, I think) the dead rise from +their graves and flit about the neighbouring hills, and on that day all +who have lost friends carry out quantities of corn, bread, meat, and such +other good things of this life as they can obtain, and place them in the +haunts frequented by the dead, in order that the departed spirits may once +more enjoy the comforts of this nether world. They have been encouraged in +this belief by the priests, who were in the habit of sending out and +appropriating to themselves all these things, and then making the poor +simple Indians believe that the dead had eaten them."(111) + +(M44) The Miztecs of Mexico believed that the souls of the dead came back +in the twelfth month of every year, which corresponded to our November. On +this day of All Souls the houses were decked out to welcome the spirits. +Jars of food and drink were set on a table in the principal room, and the +family went forth with torches to meet the ghosts and invite them to +enter. Then returning themselves to the house they knelt around the table, +and with eyes bent on the ground prayed the souls to accept of the +offerings and to procure the blessings of the gods upon the family. Thus +they remained on bended knees and with downcast eyes till the morning, not +daring to look at the table lest they should offend the spirits by spying +on them at their meal. With the first beams of the sun they rose, glad at +heart. The jars of food which had been presented to the dead were given to +the poor or deposited in a secret place.(112) The Indians of Santiago +Tepehuacan believe that the souls of their dead return to them on the +night of the eighteenth of October, the festival of St. Luke, and they +sweep the roads in order that the ghosts may find them clean on their +passage.(113) + +(M45) Again, the natives of Sumba, an East Indian island, celebrate a New +Year's festival, which is at the same time a festival of the dead. The +graves are in the middle of the village, and at a given moment all the +people repair to them and raise a loud weeping and wailing. Then after +indulging for a short time in the national pastimes they disperse to their +houses, and every family calls upon its dead to come back. The ghosts are +believed to hear and accept the invitation. Accordingly betel and areca +nuts are set out for them. Victims, too, are sacrificed in front of every +house, and their hearts and livers are offered with rice to the dead. +After a decent interval these portions are distributed amongst the living, +who consume them and banquet gaily on flesh and rice, a rare event in +their frugal lives. Then they play, dance, and sing to their heart's +content, and the festival which began so lugubriously ends by being the +merriest of the year. A little before daybreak the invisible guests take +their departure. All the people turn out of their houses to escort them a +little way. Holding in one hand the half of a coco-nut, which contains a +small packet of provisions for the dead, and in the other hand a piece of +smouldering wood, they march in procession, singing a drawling song to the +accompaniment of a gong and waving the lighted brands in time to the +music. So they move through the darkness till with the last words of the +song they throw away the coco-nuts and the brands in the direction of the +spirit-land, leaving the ghosts to wend their way thither, while they +themselves return to the village.(114) + +(M46) In Kiriwina, one of the Trobriand Islands, to the east of New +Guinea, the spirits of the ancestors are believed to revisit their native +village in a body once a year after the harvest has been got in. At this +time the men perform special dances, the people openly display their +valuables, spread out on platforms, and great feasts are made for the +spirits. On a certain night, when the moon is at the full, all the people +raise a great shout and so drive away the spirits to the spirit land.(115) +The Sea Dyaks of Borneo celebrate a great festival in honour of the dead +at irregular intervals, it may be one or more years after the death of a +particular person. All who have died since the last feast was held, and +have not yet been honoured by such a celebration, are remembered at this +time; hence the number of persons commemorated may be great, especially if +many years have elapsed since the last commemoration service. The +preparations last many weeks: food and drink and all other necessaries are +stored in plenty, and the whole neighbourhood for miles round is invited +to attend. On the eve of the feast the women take bamboo splints and +fashion out of them little models of various useful articles, and these +models are hung over the graves for the use of the dead in the other +world. If the feast is held in honour of a man, the things manufactured in +his behoof will take the form of a bamboo gun, a shield, a war-cap, and so +on; if it is a woman who is commemorated, little models of a loom, a +fish-basket, a winnowing-fan and such like things will be provided for her +spirit; and if it is a child for whom the rite is performed, toys of +various kinds will be made ready for the childish ghost. Finally, to stay +the appetite of ghosts who may be too sharp-set to wait for the formal +banquet in the house, a supply of victuals is very considerately placed +outside the house on which the hungry spirits may fall to without delay. +The dead arrive in a boat from the other world; for living Dyaks generally +travel by river, from which it necessarily follows that Dyak ghosts do so +likewise. The ship in which the ghostly visitors voyage to the land of the +living is not much to look at, being in appearance nothing but a tiny boat +made out of a bamboo which has been used to cook rice. Even this is not +set floating on the river but is simply thrown away under the house. Yet +through the incantations uttered by the professional wailing-woman the +bark is wafted away to the spirit world and is there converted into a +large war-canoe. Gladly the ghosts embark and sail away as soon as the +final summons comes. It always comes in the evening, for it is then that +the wailer begins to croon her mournful ditties; but the way is so long +that the spirits do not arrive in the house till the day is breaking. To +refresh them after their weary journey a bamboo full of rice-spirit awaits +them; and this they partake of by deputy, for a brave old man, who does +not fear the face of ghosts, quaffs the beverage in their stead amid the +joyful shouts of the spectators. On the morning after the feast the living +pay the last offices of respect to the dead. Monuments made of ironwood, +the little bamboo articles, and food of all kinds are set upon the graves. +In consideration of these gifts the ghosts now relinquish all claims on +their surviving relatives, and henceforth earn their own living by the +sweat of their brow. Before they take their final departure they come to +eat and drink in the house for the last time.(116) + +(M47) Thus the Dyak festival of the dead is not an annual welcome accorded +to all the souls of ancestors; it is a propitiatory ceremony designed to +secure once for all the eternal welfare of the recently departed, or at +least to prevent their ghosts from returning to infest and importune the +living. The same is perhaps the intention of the "soul departure" (_Kathi +Kasham_) festival which the Tangkul Nagas of Manipur, in Assam, celebrate +every year about the end of January. At this great feast the dead are +represented by living men, chosen on the ground of their likeness to the +departed, who are decked with ornaments and treated as if they were in +truth the deceased persons come to life again. In that character they +dance together in the large open space of the village, they are fed by the +female relations, and they go from house to house, receiving presents of +cloth. The festival lasts ten days, but the great day is the ninth. Huge +torches of pinewood are made ready to be used that evening when darkness +has fallen. The time of departure of the dead is at hand. Their living +representatives are treated to a last meal in the houses, and they +distribute farewell presents to the sorrowing kinsfolk, who have come to +bid them good-bye. When the sun has set, a procession is formed. At the +head of it march men holding aloft the flaring, sputtering torches. Then +follow the elders armed and in martial array, and behind them stalk the +representatives of the dead, with the relations of the departed crowding +and trooping about them. Slowly and mournfully the sad procession moves, +with loud lamentations, through the darkness to a spot at the north end of +the village which is overshadowed by a great tree. The light of the +torches is to guide the souls of the dead to their place of rest; the +warlike array of the elders is to guard them from the perils and dangers +of the way. At the village boundary the procession stops and the +torch-bearers throw down their torches. At the same moment the spirits of +the dead are believed to pass into the dying flambeaux and in that guise +to depart to the far country. There is therefore no further need for their +living representatives, who are accordingly stripped of all their finery +on the spot. When the people return home, each family is careful to light +a pine torch and set it burning on a stone in the house just inside the +front door; this they do as a precaution to prevent their own souls from +following the spirits of the dead to the other world. The expense of thus +despatching the dead to their long home is very great; when the head of a +family dies, debts may be incurred and rice-fields and houses sold to +defray the cost of carriage. Thus the living impoverish themselves in +order to enrich the dead.(117) + +(M48) The Oraons or Uraons of Bengal feast their dead every year on a day +in January. This ceremony is called the Great Marriage, because by it the +bones of the deceased are believed to be mysteriously reunited to each +other. The Oraons treat the bones of the dead differently according to the +dates of their death in the agricultural year. The bones of those who died +before the seeds have sprouted in the fields are burnt, and the few +charred bones which have not been reduced to ashes are gathered in an +earthen pot. With the bones in the pot are placed offerings of rice, +native gin, and money, and then they carry the urn to the river, where the +bones of their forefathers repose. But the bones of all who die after the +seeds have sprung up and before the end of harvest may not be taken to the +river, because the people believe that were that to be done the crops +would suffer. These bones are therefore put away in a pot under a stone +near the house till the harvest is over. Then on the appointed day in +January they are all collected. A banquet is given in honour of the dead, +and then both men and women form a procession to accompany the bones to +their last resting-place in the sands of the river. But first the relics +of mortality are carried from house to house in the village, and each +family pours rice and gin into the urn which contains the bones of its +dead. Then the procession sets out for the river, men and women dancing, +singing, beating drums, and weeping, while the earthen pots containing the +bones are passed from hand to hand and dance with the jigging steps of the +dancers. When they are yet some way from the spot, the bearers of the urns +run forward and bury them in the sand of the river. When the rest come up, +they all bathe and the Great Marriage is over.(118) + +(M49) In the Bilaspore district of the Central Provinces, India, "the +festival known as the Fortnight of the Manes--_Pitr Pak_--occurs about +September. It is believed that during this fortnight it is the practice of +all the departed to come and visit their relatives. The homes are +therefore cleaned, and the spaces in front of the house are plastered and +painted in order to be pleasing to those who are expected. It is believed +that the departed will return on the very date on which they went away. A +father who left on the fourth, be it the fourth of the dark half or the +light half of the moon, will return to visit his family on the fourth of +the Fortnight of the Manes. On that day cakes are prepared, and with +certain ceremony these are offered to the unseen hovering spirit. Their +implicit belief is that the spirit will partake of the essence of the +food, and that which remains--the material portion--may be eaten by members +of the family. The souls of women, it is said, will all come on the ninth +of the fortnight. On the thirteenth come those who have met with a violent +death and who lost their lives by a fall, by snake-bite, or any other +unusual cause. During the Fortnight of the Manes a woman is not supposed +to put on new bangles and a man is not permitted to shave. In short, this +is a season of sad remembrances, an annual festival for the +departed."(119) + +(M50) The Bghais, a Karen tribe of Burma, hold an annual feast for the +dead at the new moon which falls near the end of August or the beginning +of September. All the villagers who have lost relatives within the last +three years take part in it. Food and drink are set out on tables for the +ghosts, and new clothes for them are hung up in the room. All being ready, +the people beat gongs and begin to weep. Each one calls upon the relation +whom he has lost to come and eat. When the dead are thought to have +arrived, the living address them, saying, "You have come to me, you have +returned to me. It has been raining hard, and you must be wet. Dress +yourselves, clothe yourselves with these new garments, and all the +companions that are with you. Eat betel together with all that accompany +you, all your friends and associates, and the long dead. Call them all to +eat and drink." The ghosts having finished their repast, the people dry +their tears and sit down to eat what is left. More food is then prepared +and put into a basket, and at cock-crow next morning the contents of the +basket are thrown out of the house, while the living weep and call upon +their dead as before.(120) The Hkamies, a hill tribe of North Aracan, hold +an important festival every year in honour of departed spirits. It falls +after harvest and is called "the opening of the house of the dead." When a +person dies and has been burnt, the ashes are collected and placed in a +small house in the forest together with his spear or gun, which has first +been broken. These little huts are generally arranged in groups near a +village, and are sometimes large enough to be mistaken for one. After +harvest all the relations of the deceased cook various kinds of food and +take them with pots of liquor distilled from rice to the village of the +dead. There they open the doors of the houses, and having placed the food +and drink inside they shut them again. After that they weep, eat, drink, +and return home.(121) + +(M51) The great festival of the dead in Cambodia takes place on the last +day of the month Phatrabot (September-October), but ever since the moon +began to wane everybody has been busy preparing for it. In every house +cakes and sweetmeats are set out, candles burn, incense sticks smoke, and +the whole is offered to the ancestral shades with an invocation which is +thrice repeated: "O all you our ancestors who are departed, deign to come +and eat what we have prepared for you, and to bless your posterity and +make it happy." Fifteen days afterwards many little boats are made of bark +and filled with rice, cakes, small coins, smoking incense sticks, and +lighted candles. At evening these are set floating on the river, and the +souls of the dead embark in them to return to their own place. The living +now bid them farewell. "Go to the lands," they say, "go to the fields you +inhabit, to the mountains, under the stones which are your abodes. Go +away! return! In due time your sons and your grandsons will think of you. +Then you will return, you will return, you will return." The river is now +covered with twinkling points of fire. But the current soon bears them +away, and as they vanish one by one in the darkness the souls depart with +them to the far country.(122) In Tonquin, as in Sumba, the dead revisit +their kinsfolk and their old homes at the New Year. From the hour of +midnight, when the New Year begins, no one dares to shut the door of his +house for fear of excluding the ghosts, who begin to arrive at that time. +Preparations have been made to welcome and refresh them after their long +journey. Beds and mats are ready for their weary bodies to repose upon, +water to wash their dusty feet, slippers to comfort them, and canes to +support their feeble steps. Candles burn on the domestic altar, and +pastilles diffuse a fragrant odour. The people bow before the unseen +visitors and beseech them to remember and bless their descendants in the +coming year. Having discharged this pious duty they abstain from sweeping +the houses for three days lest the dust should incommode the ghosts.(123) + +(M52) In Annam one of the most important festivals of the year is the +festival of Tet, which falls on the first three days of the New Year. It +is devoted to the worship of ancestors. Everybody, even the poorest, must +provide a good meal for the souls of his dead at this time and must +himself eat and drink heartily. Some families, in order to discharge this +pious duty, run into debt for the whole year. In the houses everything is +put in order, washed, and scoured for the reception of the dear and +distinguished guests. A tall bamboo pole is set up in the front of every +house and allowed to stand there for seven days. A small basket containing +areca, betel, and leaves of gilt paper is fastened to the pole. The +erection of the pole is a sacred rite which no family omits to perform, +though why they do so few people can say. Some, however, allege that the +posts are intended to guide the ancestral spirits to their old homes. The +ceremony of the reception of the shades takes place at nightfall on the +last day of the year. The house of the head of the family is then decked +with flowers, and in the room which serves as a domestic chapel the altar +of the ancestors is surrounded with flowers, among which the lotus, the +emblem of immortality, is most conspicuous. On a table are set red +candles, perfumes, incense, sandal-wood, and plates full of bananas, +oranges, and other fruits. The relations crouch before the altar, and +kneeling at the foot of it the head of the house invokes the name of the +family which he represents. Then in solemn tones he recites an +incantation, mentioning the names of his most illustrious ancestors and +marking time with the strokes of a hammer upon a gong, while crackers are +exploded outside the room. After that, he implores the ancestral shades to +protect their descendants and invites them to a repast, which is spread +for them on a table. Round this table he walks, serving the invisible +guests with his own hands. He distributes to them smoking balls of rice in +little china saucers, and pours tea or spirits into each little cup, while +he murmurs words of invitation and compliment. When the ghosts have eaten +and drunk their fill, the head of the family returns to the altar and +salutes them for the last time. Finally, he takes leaves of yellow paper, +covered with gold and silver spangles, and throws them into a brazier +placed at the foot of the ancestral tablets. These papers represent +imaginary bars of gold and silver which the living send to the dead. +Cardboard models of houses, furniture, jewels, clothes, of everything in +short that the ghosts can need in the other world, are despatched to them +in like manner in the flames. Then the family sits down to table and +feasts on the remains of the ghostly banquet.(124) + +(M53) But in Annam it is not merely the spirits of ancestors who are thus +feasted and supplied with all the necessaries of life. The poor ghosts of +those who died without leaving descendants or whose bodies were left +unburied are not forgotten by the pious Annamites. But these spirits come +round at a different time of year from the others. The seventh month of +the year is set apart for expiatory sacrifices destined to benefit these +unhappy beings, and that is why in Annam nobody should marry or be +betrothed in that month. The great day of the month is the fifteenth, +which is called the Festival of the Souls. On that day the ghosts in +question are set free by the lord of the underworld, and they come +prowling about among the living. They are exceedingly dangerous, +especially to children. Hence in order to appease their wrath and prevent +them from entering the houses every family takes care to put out offerings +for them in the street. Before every house on that night you may see +candles lighted, paper garments of many colours, paper hats, paper boots, +paper furniture, ingots of gold and silver paper, all hanging in tempting +array from a string, while plates of food and cups of tea and rice-spirit +stand ready for the use of hungry and thirsty souls. The theory is that +the ghosts will be so busy consuming the victuals, appropriating the +deceitful riches, and trying on the paper coats, hats, and boots that they +will have neither the leisure nor the inclination to intrude upon the +domestic circle indoors. At seven o'clock in the evening fire is put to +the offerings, and the paper wardrobe, furniture, and money soon vanish +crackling in the flames. At the same moment, peeping in at a door or +window, you may see the domestic ancestral altar brilliantly illuminated. +As for the food, it is supposed to be thrown on the fire or on the ground +for the use of the ghosts, but practically it is eaten by vagabonds and +beggars, who scuffle for the booty.(125) + +(M54) In Cochinchina the ancestral spirits are similarly propitiated and +fed on the first day of the New Year. The tablets which represent them are +placed on the domestic altar, and the family prostrate themselves before +these emblems of the departed. The head of the family lights sticks of +incense on the altar and prays the shades of his forefathers to accept the +offerings and be favourable to their descendants. With great gravity he +waits upon the ghosts, passing dishes of food before the ancestral tablets +and pouring out wine and tea to slake the thirst of the spirits. When the +dead are supposed to be satisfied with the shadowy essence of the food, +the living partake of its gross material substance.(126) In Siam and Japan +also the souls of the dead revisit their families for three days in every +year, and the lamps which the Japanese kindle in multitudes on that +occasion to light the spirits on their way have procured for the festival +the name of the Feast of Lanterns. It is to be observed that in Siam, as +in Tonquin and Sumba, the return of the ghosts takes place at the New +Year.(127) + +(M55) The Chewsurs of the Caucasus believe that the souls of the departed +revisit their old homes on the Saturday night of the second week in Lent. +This gathering of the dead is called the "Assembly of Souls." The people +spare no expense to treat the unseen guests handsomely. Beer is brewed and +loaves of various shapes baked specially for the occasion.(128) The +Armenians celebrate the memory of the dead on many days of the year, +burning incense and lighting tapers in their honour. One of their customs +is to keep a "light of the dead" burning all night in the house in order +that the ghosts may be able to enter. For if the spirits find the house +dark, they spit down the chimney and depart, cursing the churlish +inmates.(129) + +(M56) Early in April every year the Dahomans of West Africa "set a table, +as they term it, and invite friends to eat with the deceased relatives, +whose spirits are supposed to move round and partake of the good things of +this life. Even my interpreter, Madi-Ki Lemon, who pretends to despise the +belief in fetish, sets a table to his ancestors, and will tell you that +his grand- or great-grandfather, Corporal Lemon, makes a meal on this +occasion which will last him till the next annual feast."(130) The Barea +and apparently the Kunama, two heathen tribes who lead a settled +agricultural life to the north of Abyssinia, celebrate every year a +festival in the month of November. It is a festival of thanksgiving for +the completion of the harvest, and at the same time a commemoration and +propitiation of the dead. Every house prepares much beer for the occasion, +and a small pot of beer is set out for each deceased member of the +household. After standing for two days in the house the beer which was +devoted to the dead is drunk by the living. At these festivals all the +people of a district meet in a special place, and there pass the time in +games and dances. Among the Barea the festive gatherings are held in a +sacred grove. We are told that "he who owes another a drubbing on this day +can pay his debt with impunity; for it is a day of peace when all feuds +are in abeyance." Wild honey may not be gathered till the festival has +been held.(131) Apparently the festival is a sort of Saturnalia, such as +is celebrated elsewhere at the end of harvest.(132) At that season there +is food and to spare for the dead as well as the living. + +(M57) Among peoples of the Aryan stock, so far back as we can trace their +history, the worship and propitiation of the dead seem to have formed a +principal element of the popular religion;(133) and like so many other +races they appear to have believed that once a year the souls of their +departed kinsfolk revisited their old homes and expected to be refreshed +with abundance of good cheer by their surviving relations. This belief +gave rise to the custom of celebrating an annual Feast of All Souls, which +has come down to us from a dateless antiquity and is still observed year +by year, with rites of primitive simplicity, in some parts of Europe. Such +a festival was held every year in spring by the old Iranians. The +celebration fell at the end of the year and lasted ten days, namely the +last five days of the last month and the five following supplementary +days, which were regularly inserted to make up a year of three hundred and +sixty-five days; for the old Iranian, like the old Egyptian, year was a +vague year of twelve months of thirty days each, with five supplementary +days added at the end for the sake of bringing it into apparent, though +not real, harmony with the sun's annual course in the sky. According to +one calculation the ten days of the festival corresponded to the last days +of February, but according to another they fell in March; in later ages +the Parsees assigned them to the time of the spring equinox. The name of +the festival was Hamaspathmaedaya.(134) From a passage in the +_Zend-Avesta_, the ancient sacred book of the Iranians, we learn that on +the ten nights of the festival the souls of the dead (the Fravashis) were +believed to go about the village asking the people to do them reverence, +to pray to them, to meditate on them, and to furnish them with meat and +clothes, while at the same time they promised that blessings should rest +on the pious householder who complied with their request.(135) The Arab +geographer Albiruni, who flourished about the year one thousand of our +era, tells us that among the Persians of his time the last five days of +the month Aban were called Farwardajan. "During this time," he says, +"people put food in the halls of the dead and drink on the roofs of the +houses, believing that the spirits of their dead during these days come +out from the places of their reward or their punishment, that they go to +the dishes laid out for them, imbibe their strength and suck their taste. +They fumigate their houses with juniper, that the dead may enjoy its +smell. The spirits of the pious men dwell among their families, children, +and relations, and occupy themselves with their affairs, although +invisible to them." He adds that there was a controversy among the +Persians as to the date of this festival of the dead, some maintaining +that the five days during which it lasted were the last five days of the +month Aban, whereas others held that they were the five supplementary days +which were inserted between the months Aban and Adhar. The dispute, he +continues, was settled by the adoption of all ten days for the celebration +of the feast.(136) + +(M58) Similar beliefs as to the annual return of the dead survive to this +day in many parts of Europe and find expression in similar customs. The +day of the dead or of All Souls, as we call it, is commonly the second of +November. Thus in Lower Brittany the souls of the departed come to visit +the living on the eve of that day. After vespers are over, the priests and +choir walk in procession, "the procession of the charnel-house," chanting +a weird dirge in the Breton tongue. Then the people go home, gather round +the fire, and talk of the departed. The housewife covers the kitchen table +with a white cloth, sets out cider, curds, and hot pancakes on it, and +retires with the family to rest. The fire on the hearth is kept up by a +huge log known as "the log of the dead" (_kef ann Anaon_). Soon doleful +voices outside in the darkness break the stillness of night. It is the +"singers of death" who go about the streets waking the sleepers by a wild +and melancholy song, in which they remind the living in their comfortable +beds to pray for the poor souls in pain. All that night the dead warm +themselves at the hearth and feast on the viands prepared for them. +Sometimes the awe-struck listeners hear the stools creaking in the +kitchen, or the dead leaves outside rustling under the ghostly +footsteps.(137) In the Vosges Mountains on All Souls' Eve the solemn sound +of the church bells invites good Christians to pray for the repose of the +dead. While the bells are ringing, it is customary in some families to +uncover the beds and open the windows, doubtless in order to let the poor +souls enter and rest. No one that evening would dare to remain deaf to the +appeal of the bells. The prayers are prolonged to a late hour of the +night. When the last _De profundis_ has been uttered, the head of the +family gently covers up the beds, sprinkles them with holy water, and +shuts the windows. In some villages fire is kept up on the hearth and a +basket of nuts is placed beside it for the use of the ghosts.(138) Again, +in some parts of Saintonge and Aunis a Candlemas candle used to be lit +before the domestic crucifix on All Souls' Day at the very hour when the +last member of the family departed this life; and some people, just as in +Tonquin, refrained from sweeping the house that day lest they should +thereby disturb the ghostly visitors.(139) + +(M59) In Bruges, Dinant, and other towns of Belgium holy candles burn all +night in the houses on the Eve of All Souls, and the bells toll till +midnight, or even till morning. People, too, often set lighted candles on +the graves. At Scherpenheuvel the houses are illuminated, and the people +walk in procession carrying lighted candles in their hands. A very common +custom in Belgium is to eat "soul-cakes" or "soul-bread" on the eve or the +day of All Souls. The eating of them is believed to benefit the dead in +some way. Perhaps originally, as among the Esquimaux of Alaska to this +day,(140) the ghosts were thought to enter into the bodies of their +relatives and so to share the victuals which the survivors consumed. +Similarly at festivals in honour of the dead in Northern India it is +customary to feed Brahmans, and the food which these holy men partake of +is believed to pass to the deceased and to refresh their languid +spirits.(141) The same idea of eating and drinking by proxy may perhaps +partly explain many other funeral feasts. Be that as it may, at Dixmude +and elsewhere in Belgium they say that you deliver a soul from Purgatory +for every cake you eat. At Antwerp they give a local colour to the +soul-cakes by baking them with plenty of saffron, the deep yellow tinge +being suggestive of the flames of Purgatory. People in Antwerp at the same +season are careful not to slam doors or windows for fear of hurting the +ghosts.(142) + +(M60) In Lechrain, a district of Southern Bavaria which extends along the +valley of the Lech from its source to near the point where the river flows +into the Danube, the two festivals of All Saints and All Souls, on the +first and second of November, have significantly fused in popular usage +into a single festival of the dead. In fact, the people pay little or no +heed to the saints and give all their thoughts to the souls of their +departed kinsfolk. The Feast of All Souls begins immediately after vespers +on All Saints' Day. Even on the eve of All Saints' Day, that is, on the +thirty-first of October, which we call Hallowe'en, the graveyard is +cleaned and every grave adorned. The decoration consists in weeding the +mounds, sprinkling a layer of charcoal on the bare earth, and marking out +patterns on it in red service-berries. The marigold, too, is still in +bloom at that season in cottage gardens, and garlands of its orange +blooms, mingled with other late flowers left by the departing summer, are +twined about the grey mossgrown tombstones. The basin of holy water is +filled with fresh water and a branch of box-wood put into it; for box-wood +in the popular mind is associated with death and the dead. On the eve of +All Souls' Day the people begin to visit the graves and to offer the +soul-cakes to the hungry souls. Next morning, before eight o'clock, +commence the vigil, the requiem, and the solemn visitation of the graves. +On that day every household offers a plate of meal, oats, and spelt on a +side-altar in the church; while in the middle of the sacred edifice a bier +is set, covered with a pall, and surrounded by lighted tapers and vessels +of holy water. The tapers burnt on that day and indeed generally in +services for the departed are red. In the evening people go, whenever they +can do so, to their native village, where their dear ones lie in the +churchyard; and there at the graves they pray for the poor souls, and +leave an offering of soul-cakes also on a side-altar in the church. The +soul-cakes are baked of dough in the shape of a coil of hair and are made +of all sizes up to three feet long. They form a perquisite of the +sexton.(143) + +(M61) The custom of baking soul-cakes, sometimes called simply "souls," on +All Souls' Day is widespread in Southern Germany and Austria;(144) +everywhere, we may assume, the cakes were originally intended for the +benefit of the hungry dead, though they are often eaten by the living. In +the Upper Palatinate people throw food into the fire on All Souls' Day for +the poor souls, set lights on the table for them, and pray on bended knees +for their repose. On the graves, too, lights are kindled, vessels of holy +water placed, and food deposited for the refreshment of the souls. All +over the Upper Palatinate on All Souls' Day it is also customary to bake +special cakes of fine bread and distribute them to the poor,(145) who eat +them perhaps as the deputies of the dead. + +(M62) The Germans of Bohemia observe All Souls' Day with much solemnity. +Each family celebrates the memory of its dead. On the eve of the day it is +customary to eat cakes and to drink cold milk for the purpose of cooling +the poor souls who are roasting in purgatory; from which it appears that +spirits feel the soothing effect of victuals consumed vicariously by their +friends on earth. The ringing of the church bells to prayer on that +evening is believed to be the signal at which the ghosts, released from +the infernal gaol, come trooping to the old familiar fire-side, there to +rest from their pangs for a single night. So in many places people fill a +lamp with butter, light it, and set it on the hearth, that with the butter +the poor ghosts may anoint the burns they have received from the +sulphureous and tormenting flames of purgatory. Next morning the chime of +the church bells, ringing to early mass, is the knell that bids the souls +return to their place of pain; but such as have completed their penance +take flight to heaven. So on the eve of All Saints' Day each family +gathers in the parlour or the kitchen, speaks softly of those they have +lost, recalls what they said and did in life, and prays for the repose of +their souls. While the prayer is being said, the children kindle little +wax lights which have been specially bought for the purpose that day. Next +morning the families go to church, where mass is celebrated for the dead; +then they wend their way to the churchyard, where they deck the graves of +their kinsfolk with flowers and wreaths and set little lights upon them. +This custom of illumining the graves and decking them with flowers on the +Eve or Day of All Souls is common all over Bohemia; it is observed in +Prague as well as in the country, by Czechs as well as by Germans. In some +Czech villages four-cornered cakes of a special sort, baked of white +wheaten meal with milk, are eaten on All Souls' Day or given to beggars +that they may pray for the dead.(146) Among the Germans of Western Bohemia +poor children go from house to house on All Souls' Day, begging for +soul-cakes, and when they receive them they pray God to bless all poor +souls. In the southern districts every farmer used to grind a great +quantity of corn against the day and to bake it into five or six hundred +little black soul-cakes which he gave away to the poor who came begging +for them.(147) + +(M63) All Souls' Day is celebrated with similar rites by the Germans of +Moravia. "The festival of the farewell to summer," says a German writer on +this subject, "was held by our heathen forefathers in the beginning of +November, and with the memory of the departed summer they united the +memory of the departed souls, and this last has survived in the Feast of +All Souls, which is everywhere observed with great piety. On the evening +of All Souls the relations of the departed assemble in the churchyards and +adorn the graves of their dear ones with flowers and lights, while the +children kindle little wax tapers, which have been bought for them, to +light the 'poor souls.' According to the popular belief, the dead go in +procession to the church about midnight, and any stout-hearted young man +can there see all the living men who will die within the year."(148) + +(M64) In the Tyrol the beliefs and customs are similar. There, too, +"soul-lights," that is, lamps filled with lard or butter are lighted and +placed on the hearth on All Souls' Eve in order that poor souls, escaped +from the fires of purgatory, may smear the melted grease on their burns +and so alleviate their pangs. Some people also leave milk and dough-nuts +for them on the table all night. The graves also are illuminated with wax +candles and decked with such a profusion of flowers that you might think +it was springtime.(149) In the Italian Tyrol it is customary to give bread +or money to the poor on All Souls' Day; in the Val di Ledro children +threaten to dirty the doors of houses if they do not get the usual dole. +Some rich people treat the poor to bean-soup on that day. Others put +pitchers full of water in the kitchen on All Souls' night that the poor +souls may slake their thirst.(150) In Baden it is still customary to deck +the graves with flowers and lights on All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day. +The lights are sometimes kindled in hollow turnips, on the sides of which +inscriptions are carved and shine out in the darkness. If any child steals +a turnip-lantern or anything else from a grave, the indignant ghost who +has been robbed appears to the thief the same night and reclaims his +stolen property. A relic of the old custom of feeding the dead survives in +the practice of giving soul-cakes to godchildren.(151) + +(M65) The Letts used to entertain and feed the souls of the dead for four +weeks from Michaelmas (September 29) to the day of St. Simon and St. Jude +(October 28). They called the season _Wellalaick_ or _Semlicka_, and +regarded it as so holy that while it lasted they would not willingly +thresh the corn, alleging that grain threshed at that time would be +useless for sowing, since the souls of the dead would not allow it to +sprout. But we may suspect that the original motive of the abstinence was +a fear lest the blows of the flails should fall upon the poor ghosts +swarming in the air. At this season the people were wont to prepare food +of all sorts for the spirits and set it on the floor of a room, which had +been well heated and swept for the purpose. Late in the evening the master +of the house went into the room, tended the fire, and called upon his dead +kinsfolk by their names to come and eat and drink. If he saw the ghosts, +he would die within the year; but if he did not see them he would outlive +it. When he thought the souls had eaten and drunk enough, he took the +staff which served as a poker and laying it on the threshold cut it in two +with an axe. At the same time he bade the spirits go their way, charging +them to keep to the roads and paths and not to tread upon the rye. If the +crops turned out ill next year, the people laid the failure at the door of +the ghosts, who fancied themselves scurvily treated and had taken their +revenge by trampling down the corn.(152) The Samagitians annually invited +the dead to come from their graves and enjoy a bath and a feast. For their +entertainment they prepared a special hut, in which they set out food and +drink, together with a seat and a napkin for every soul who had been +invited. They left the souls to revel by themselves for three days in the +hut; then they deposited the remains of the banquet on the graves and bade +the ghosts farewell. The good things, however, were usually consumed by +charcoal burners in the forest. This feast of the dead fell early in +November.(153) The Esthonians prepare a meal for their dead on All Souls' +Day, the second of November, and invite them by their names to come and +partake of it. The ghosts arrive in the early morning at the first +cock-crow, and depart at the second, being ceremoniously lighted out of +the house by the head of the family, who waves a white cloth after them +and bids them come again next year.(154) + +(M66) In some parts of the Russian Government of Olonets the inhabitants +of a village sometimes celebrate a joint festival in honour of all their +dead. Having chosen a house for the purpose, they spread three tables, one +outside the front door, one in the passage, and one in the room which is +heated by a stove. Then they go out to meet their unseen guests and usher +them into the house with these words, "Ye are tired, our own ones; take +something to eat." The ghosts accordingly refresh themselves at each table +in succession. Then the master of the house bids them warm themselves at +the stove, remarking that they must have grown cold in the damp earth. +After that the living guests sit down to eat at the tables. Towards the +end of the meal the host opens the window and lets the ghosts gently out +of it by means of the shroud in which they were lowered into the grave. As +they slide down it from the warm room into the outer air, the people tell +them, "Now it is time for you to go home, and your feet must be tired; the +way is not a little one for you to travel. Here it is softer for you. Now, +in God's name, farewell!"(155) + +(M67) Among the Votiaks of Russia every family sacrifices to its dead once +a year in the week before Palm Sunday. The sacrifice is offered in the +house about midnight. Flesh, bread, or cakes and beer are set on the +table, and on the floor beside the table stands a trough of bark with a +lighted wax candle stuck on the rim. The master of the house, having +covered his head with his hat, takes a piece of meat in his hand and says, +"Ye spirits of the long departed, guard and preserve us well. Make none of +us cripples. Send no plagues upon us. Cause the corn, the wine, and the +food to prosper with us."(156) The Votiaks of the Governments of Wjatka +and Kasan celebrate two memorial festivals of the dead every year, one in +autumn and the other in spring. On a certain day koumiss is distilled, +beer brewed, and potato scones baked in every house. All the members of a +clan, who trace their descent through women from one mythical ancestress, +assemble in a single house, generally in one which lies at the boundary of +the clan land. Here an old man moulds wax candles; and when the requisite +number is made he sticks them on the shelf of the stove, and begins to +mention the dead relations of the master of the house by name. For each of +them he crumbles a piece of bread, gives each of them a piece of pancake, +pours koumiss and beer, and puts a spoonful of soup into a trough made for +the purpose. All persons present whose parents are dead follow his +example. The dogs are then allowed to eat out of the trough. If they eat +quietly, it is a sign that the dead live at peace; if they do not eat +quietly, it argues the contrary. Then the company sit down to table and +partake of the meal. Next morning both the dead and the living refresh +themselves with a drink, and a fowl is boiled. The proceedings are the +same as on the evening before. But now they treat the souls for the last +time as a preparation for their journey, saying: "Eat, drink, and go home +to your companions. Live at peace, be gracious to us, keep our children, +guard our corn, our beasts and birds." Then the people banquet and indulge +in all sorts of improprieties. The women refrain from feasting until the +dead have taken their departure; but when the souls are gone, there is no +longer any motive for abstinence, the koumiss circulates freely among the +women, and they grow wanton. Yet at this, as at every other festival, the +men and women eat in different parts of the room.(157) + +(M68) On All Saints' Day, the first of November, shops and streets in the +Abruzzi are filled with candles, which people buy in order to kindle them +in the evening on the graves of their relations. For all the dead come to +visit their homes that night, the Eve of All Souls, and they need lights +to show them the way. For their use, too, lights are kept burning in the +houses all night. Before people go to sleep they place on the table a +lighted lamp or candle and a frugal meal of bread and water. The dead +issue from their graves and stalk in procession through every street of +the village. You can see them if you stand at a cross-road with your chin +resting on a forked stick. First pass the souls of the good, and then the +souls of the murdered and the damned. Once, they say, a man was thus +peeping at the ghastly procession. The good souls told him he had better +go home. He did not, and when he saw the tail of the procession he died of +fright.(158) + +(M69) In our own country the old belief in the annual return of the dead +long lingered in the custom of baking "soul-cakes" and eating them or +distributing them to the poor on All Souls' Day. Peasant girls used to go +from farmhouse to farmhouse on that day, singing, + + + "_Soul, soul, for a soul cake,_ + _Pray you, good mistress, a soul cake._"(159) + + +In Shropshire down to the seventeenth century it was customary on All +Souls' Day to set on the table a high heap of soul-cakes, and most +visitors to the house took one of them. The antiquary John Aubrey, who +records the custom, mentions also the appropriate verses: + + + "_A soul-cake, a soul-cake,_ + _Have mercy on all Christen soules for a soule-cake._"(160) + + +Indeed the custom of soul-cakes survived in Shropshire down to the latter +part of the nineteenth century and may not be extinct even now. "With us, +All Saints' Day is known as 'Souling Day,' and up to the present time in +many places, poor children, and sometimes men, go out 'souling': which +means that they go round to the houses of all the more well-to-do people +within reach, reciting a ditty peculiar to the day, and looking for a dole +of cakes, broken victuals, ale, apples, or money. The two latter are now +the usual rewards, but there are few old North Salopians who cannot +remember when 'soul-cakes' were made at all the farms and 'bettermost' +houses in readiness for the day, and were given to all who came for them. +We are told of liberal housewives who would provide as many as a +clothes-basket full."(161) The same custom of going out "a-souling" on All +Saints' Day or All Souls' Day used to be observed in the neighbouring +counties of Staffordshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, Herefordshire, and +Monmouthshire. In Herefordshire the soul-cakes were made of oatmeal, and +he or she who received one of them was bound to say to the giver: + + + "_God have your saul,_ + _Beens and all._"(162) + + +Thus the practice of "souling" appears to have prevailed especially in the +English counties which border on Wales. In many parts of Wales itself down +to the first half of the nineteenth century poor peasants used to go about +begging for bread on All Souls' Day. The bread bestowed on them was called +_bara ran_ or dole-bread. "This custom was a survival of the Middle Ages, +when the poor begged bread for the souls of their departed relatives and +friends."(163) However, the custom was not confined to the west of +England, for at Whitby in Yorkshire down to the early part of the +nineteenth century it was usual to make "soul mass loaves" on or about All +Souls' Day. They were small round loaves, sold by bakers at a farthing +apiece, chiefly for presents to children. In former times people used to +keep one or two of them for good luck.(164) In Aberdeenshire, also, "on +All Souls' Day, baked cakes of a particular sort are given away to those +who may chance to visit the house, where they are made. The cakes are +called 'dirge-loaf.' "(165) Even in the remote island of St. Kilda it was +customary on All Saints' Day to bake a large cake in the form of a +triangle, furrowed round; the cake must be all eaten that night.(166) + +(M70) The same mode of celebrating All Souls' Day has been transported by +Catholicism to the New World and imparted to the aborigines of that +continent. Thus in Carchi, a province of Ecuador, the Indians prepare +foods of various sorts against All Souls' Day, and when the day has come +they take some of the provisions to the church and there deposit them on +tables set out for the purpose. These good things are the perquisite of +the priest, who celebrates mass for the dead. After the service the +Indians repair to the cemetery, where with burning candles and pots of +holy water they prostrate themselves before the tombs of their relations, +while the priest or the sacristan recites prayers for the souls of the +departed. In the evening the Indians return to their houses. A table with +four lights on it is spread with food and drink, especially with such +things as the dead loved in their life. The door is left open all night, +no doubt to let the spirits of the dead enter, and the family sits up, +keeping the invisible guests company through the long hours of darkness. +From seven o'clock and onwards troops of children traverse the village and +its neighbourhood. They go from house to house ringing a bell and crying, +"We are angels, we descend from the sky, we ask for bread." The people go +to their doors and beg the children to recite a _Pater Noster_ or an _Ave +Maria_ for the dead whom they name. When the prayer has been duly said, +they give the children a little of the food from the table. All night long +this goes on, band succeeding band of children. At five o'clock in the +morning the family consumes the remainder of the food of the souls.(167) +Here the children going from door to door during the night of All Souls +appear to personate the souls of the dead who are also abroad at that +time; hence to give bread to the children is the same thing as to give +bread to the poor hungry souls. Probably the same explanation applies to +the giving of soul-cakes to children and the poor on All Souls' Day in +Europe. + +(M71) A comparison of these European customs with the similar heathen +rites can leave no room for doubt that the nominally Christian feast of +All Souls is nothing but an old pagan festival of the dead which the +Church, unable or unwilling to suppress, resolved from motives of policy +to connive at. But whence did it borrow the practice of solemnizing the +festival on that particular day, the second of November? In order to +answer this question we should observe, first, that celebrations of this +sort are often held at the beginning of a New Year,(168) and, second, that +the peoples of North-Western Europe, the Celts and the Teutons, appear to +have dated the beginning of their year from the beginning of winter, the +Celts reckoning it from the first of November(169) and the Teutons from +the first of October.(170) The difference of reckoning may be due to a +difference of climate, the home of the Teutons in Central and Northern +Europe being a region where winter sets in earlier than on the more +temperate and humid coasts of the Atlantic, the home of the Celts. These +considerations suggest that the festival of All Souls on the second of +November originated with the Celts, and spread from them to the rest of +the European peoples, who, while they preserved their old feasts of the +dead practically unchanged, may have transferred them to the second of +November. This conjecture is supported by what we know of the +ecclesiastical institution, or rather recognition, of the festival. For +that recognition was first accorded at the end of the tenth century in +France, a Celtic country, from which the Church festival gradually spread +over Europe. It was Odilo, abbot of the great Benedictine monastery of +Clugny, who initiated the change in 998 A.D. by ordering that in all the +monasteries over which he ruled, a solemn mass should be celebrated on the +second of November for all the dead who sleep in Christ. The example thus +set was followed by other religious houses, and the bishops, one after +another, introduced the new celebration into their dioceses. Thus the +festival of All Souls gradually established itself throughout Christendom, +though in fact the Church has never formally sanctioned it by a general +edict nor attached much weight to its observance. Indeed, when objections +were raised to the festival at the Reformation, the ecclesiastical +authorities seemed ready to abandon it.(171) These facts are explained +very simply by the theory that an old Celtic commemoration of the dead +lingered in France down to the end of the tenth century, and was then, as +a measure of policy and a concession to ineradicable paganism, at last +incorporated in the Catholic ritual. The consciousness of the heathen +origin of the practice would naturally prevent the supreme authorities +from insisting strongly on its observance. They appear rightly to have +regarded it as an outpost which they could surrender to the forces of +rationalism without endangering the citadel of the faith. + +(M72) Perhaps we may go a step further and explain in like manner the +origin of the feast of All Saints on the first of November. For the +analogy of similar customs elsewhere would lead us to suppose that the old +Celtic festival of the dead was held on the Celtic New Year's Day, that +is, on the first, not the second, of November. May not then the +institution of the feast of All Saints on that day have been the first +attempt of the Church to give a colour of Christianity to the ancient +heathen rite by substituting the saints for the souls of the dead as the +true object of worship? The facts of history seem to countenance this +hypothesis. For the feast of All Saints was instituted in France and +Germany by order of the Emperor Lewis the Pious in 835 A.D., that is, +about a hundred and sixty years before the introduction of the feast of +All Souls. The innovation was made by the advice of the pope, Gregory IV., +whose motive may well have been that of suppressing an old pagan custom +which was still notoriously practised in France and Germany. The idea, +however, was not a novel one, for the testimony of Bede proves that in +Britain, another Celtic country, the feast of All Saints on the first of +November was already celebrated in the eighth century.(172) We may +conjecture that this attempt to divert the devotion of the faithful from +the souls of the dead to the saints proved a failure, and that finally the +Church reluctantly decided to sanction the popular superstition by frankly +admitting a feast of All Souls into the calendar. But it could not assign +the new, or rather the old, festival to the old day, the first of +November, since that was already occupied by the feast of All Saints. +Accordingly it placed the mass for the dead on the next day, the second of +November. On this theory the feasts of All Saints and of All Souls mark +two successive efforts of the Catholic Church to eradicate an old heathen +festival of the dead. Both efforts failed. "In all Catholic countries the +day of All Souls has preserved the serious character of a festival of the +dead which no worldly gaieties are allowed to disturb. It is then the +sacred duty of the survivors to visit the graves of their loved ones in +the churchyard, to deck them with flowers and lights, and to utter a +devout prayer--a pious custom with which in cities like Paris and Vienna +even the gay and frivolous comply for the sake of appearance, if not to +satisfy an impulse of the heart."(173) + + + + +§ 3. The Festival in the Month of Athyr. + + +(M73) The foregoing evidence lends some support to the conjecture--for it +is only a conjecture--that the great festival of Osiris at Sais, with its +accompanying illumination of the houses, was a night of All Souls, when +the ghosts of the dead swarmed in the streets and revisited their old +homes, which were lit up to welcome them back again. Herodotus, who +briefly describes the festival, omits to mention its date, but we can +determine it with some probability from other sources. Thus Plutarch tells +us that Osiris was murdered on the seventeenth of the month Athyr, and +that the Egyptians accordingly observed mournful rites for four days from +the seventeenth of Athyr.(174) Now in the Alexandrian calendar, which +Plutarch used, these four days corresponded to the thirteenth, fourteenth, +fifteenth, and sixteenth of November, and this date answers exactly to the +other indications given by Plutarch, who says that at the time of the +festival the Nile was sinking, the north winds dying away, the nights +lengthening, and the leaves falling from the trees. During these four days +a gilt cow swathed in a black pall was exhibited as an image of Isis. +This, no doubt, was the image mentioned by Herodotus in his account of the +festival.(175) On the nineteenth day of the month the people went down to +the sea, the priests carrying a shrine which contained a golden casket. +Into this casket they poured fresh water, and thereupon the spectators +raised a shout that Osiris was found. After that they took some vegetable +mould, moistened it with water, mixed it with precious spices and incense, +and moulded the paste into a small moon-shaped image, which was then robed +and ornamented.(176) Thus it appears that the purpose of the ceremonies +described by Plutarch was to represent dramatically, first, the search for +the dead body of Osiris, and, second, its joyful discovery, followed by +the resurrection of the dead god who came to life again in the new image +of vegetable mould and spices. Lactantius tells us how on these occasions +the priests, with their shaven bodies, beat their breasts and lamented, +imitating the sorrowful search of Isis for her lost son Osiris, and how +afterwards their sorrow was turned to joy when the jackal-headed god +Anubis, or rather a mummer in his stead, produced a small boy, the living +representative of the god who was lost and was found.(177) Thus Lactantius +regarded Osiris as the son instead of the husband of Isis, and he makes no +mention of the image of vegetable mould. It is probable that the boy who +figured in the sacred drama played the part, not of Osiris, but of his son +Horus;(178) but as the death and resurrection of the god were celebrated +in many cities of Egypt, it is also possible that in some places the part +of the god come to life was played by a living actor instead of by an +image. Another Christian writer describes how the Egyptians, with shorn +heads, annually lamented over a buried idol of Osiris, smiting their +breasts, slashing their shoulders, ripping open their old wounds, until, +after several days of mourning, they professed to find the mangled remains +of the god, at which they rejoiced.(179) However the details of the +ceremony may have varied in different places, the pretence of finding the +god's body, and probably of restoring it to life, was a great event in the +festal year of the Egyptians. The shouts of joy which greeted it are +described or alluded to by many ancient writers.(180) + + + + +§ 4. The Festival in the Month of Khoiak. + + +(M74) The funeral rites of Osiris, as they were observed at his great +festival in the sixteen provinces of Egypt, are described in a long +inscription of the Ptolemaic period, which is engraved on the walls of the +god's temple at Denderah, the Tentyra of the Greeks, a town of Upper Egypt +situated on the western bank of the Nile about forty miles north of +Thebes.(181) Unfortunately, while the information thus furnished is +remarkably full and minute on many points, the arrangement adopted in the +inscription is so confused and the expression often so obscure that a +clear and consistent account of the ceremonies as a whole can hardly be +extracted from it. Moreover, we learn from the document that the +ceremonies varied somewhat in the several cities, the ritual of Abydos, +for example, differing from that of Busiris. Without attempting to trace +all the particularities of local usage I shall briefly indicate what seem +to have been the leading features of the festival, so far as these can be +ascertained with tolerable certainty.(182) + +(M75) The rites lasted eighteen days, from the twelfth to the thirtieth of +the month Khoiak, and set forth the nature of Osiris in his triple aspect +as dead, dismembered, and finally reconstituted by the union of his +scattered limbs. In the first of these aspects he was called Chent-Ament +(Khenti-Amenti), in the second Osiris-Sep, and in the third Sokari +(Seker).(183) Small images of the god were moulded of sand or vegetable +earth and corn, to which incense was sometimes added;(184) his face was +painted yellow and his cheek-bones green.(185) These images were cast in a +mould of pure gold, which represented the god in the form of a mummy, with +the white crown of Egypt on his head.(186) The festival opened on the +twelfth day of Khoiak with a ceremony of ploughing and sowing. Two black +cows were yoked to the plough, which was made of tamarisk wood, while the +share was of black copper. A boy scattered the seed. One end of the field +was sown with barley, the other with spelt, and the middle with flax. +During the operation the chief celebrant recited the ritual chapter of +"the sowing of the fields."(187) At Busiris on the twentieth of Khoiak +sand and barley were put in the god's "garden," which appears to have been +a sort of large flower-pot. This was done in the presence of the +cow-goddess Shenty, represented seemingly by the image of a cow made of +gilt sycamore wood with a headless human image in its inside. "Then fresh +inundation water was poured out of a golden vase over both the goddess and +the 'garden' and the barley was allowed to grow as the emblem of the +resurrection of the god after his burial in the earth, 'for the growth of +the garden is the growth of the divine substance.' "(188) On the +twenty-second of Khoiak, at the eighth hour, the images of Osiris, +attended by thirty-four images of deities, performed a mysterious voyage +in thirty-four tiny boats made of papyrus, which were illuminated by three +hundred and sixty-five lights.(189) On the twenty-fourth of Khoiak, after +sunset, the effigy of Osiris in a coffin of mulberry wood was laid in the +grave, and at the ninth hour of the night the effigy which had been made +and deposited the year before was removed and placed upon boughs of +sycamore.(190) Lastly, on the thirtieth day of Khoiak they repaired to the +holy sepulchre, a subterranean chamber over which appears to have grown a +clump of Persea-trees. Entering the vault by the western door, they laid +the coffined effigy of the dead god reverently on a bed of sand in the +chamber. So they left him to his rest, and departed from the sepulchre by +the eastern door. Thus ended the ceremonies in the month of Khoiak.(191) + + + + +§ 5. The Resurrection of Osiris. + + +(M76) In the foregoing account of the festival, drawn from the great +inscription of Denderah, the burial of Osiris figures prominently, while +his resurrection is implied rather than expressed. This defect of the +document, however, is amply compensated by a remarkable series of +bas-reliefs which accompany and illustrate the inscription. These exhibit +in a series of scenes the dead god lying swathed as a mummy on his bier, +then gradually raising himself up higher and higher, until at last he has +entirely quitted the bier and is seen erect between the guardian wings of +the faithful Isis, who stands behind him, while a male figure holds up +before his eyes the _crux ansata_, the Egyptian symbol of life.(192) The +resurrection of the god could hardly be portrayed more graphically. Even +more instructive, however, is another representation of the same event in +a chamber dedicated to Osiris in the great temple of Isis at Philae. Here +we see the dead body of Osiris with stalks of corn springing from it, +while a priest waters the stalks from a pitcher which he holds in his +hand. The accompanying inscription sets forth that "this is the form of +him whom one may not name, Osiris of the mysteries, who springs from the +returning waters."(193) Taken together, the picture and the words seem to +leave no doubt that Osiris was here conceived and represented as a +personification of the corn which springs from the fields after they have +been fertilized by the inundation. This, according to the inscription, was +the kernel of the mysteries, the innermost secret revealed to the +initiated. So in the rites of Demeter at Eleusis a reaped ear of corn was +exhibited to the worshippers as the central mystery of their +religion.(194) We can now fully understand why at the great festival of +sowing in the month of Khoiak the priests used to bury effigies of Osiris +made of earth and corn. When these effigies were taken up again at the end +of a year or of a shorter interval, the corn would be found to have +sprouted from the body of Osiris, and this sprouting of the grain would be +hailed as an omen, or rather as the cause, of the growth of the +crops.(195) The corn-god produced the corn from himself: he gave his own +body to feed the people: he died that they might live. + +(M77) And from the death and resurrection of their great god the Egyptians +drew not only their support and sustenance in this life, but also their +hope of a life eternal beyond the grave. This hope is indicated in the +clearest manner by the very remarkable effigies of Osiris which have come +to light in Egyptian cemeteries. Thus in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes +there was found the tomb of a royal fan-bearer who lived about 1500 B.C. +Among the rich contents of the tomb there was a bier on which rested a +mattress of reeds covered with three layers of linen. On the upper side of +the linen was painted a life-size figure of Osiris; and the interior of +the figure, which was waterproof, contained a mixture of vegetable mould, +barley, and a sticky fluid. The barley had sprouted and sent out shoots +two or three inches long.(196) Again, in the cemetery at Cynopolis "were +numerous burials of Osiris figures. These were made of grain wrapped up in +cloth and roughly shaped like an Osiris, and placed inside a bricked-up +recess at the side of the tomb, sometimes in small pottery coffins, +sometimes in wooden coffins in the form of a hawk-mummy, sometimes without +any coffins at all."(197) These corn-stuffed figures were bandaged like +mummies with patches of gilding here and there, as if in imitation of the +golden mould in which the similar figures of Osiris were cast at the +festival of sowing.(198) Again, effigies of Osiris, with faces of green +wax and their interior full of grain, were found buried near the +necropolis of Thebes.(199) Finally, we are told by Professor Erman that +between the legs of mummies "there sometimes lies a figure of Osiris made +of slime; it is filled with grains of corn, the sprouting of which is +intended to signify the resurrection of the god."(200) We cannot doubt +that, just as the burial of corn-stuffed images of Osiris in the earth at +the festival of sowing was designed to quicken the seed, so the burial of +similar images in the grave was meant to quicken the dead, in other words, +to ensure their spiritual immortality. + + + + +§ 6. Readjustment of Egyptian Festivals. + + +(M78) The festival of Osiris which Plutarch assigns to the month of Athyr +would seem to be identical in substance with the one which the inscription +of Denderah assigns to the following month, namely, to Khoiak. Apparently +the essence of both festivals was a dramatic representation of the death +and resurrection of the god; in both of them Isis was figured by a gilt +cow, and Osiris by an image moulded of moist vegetable earth. But if the +festivals were the same, why were they held in different months? It is +easy to suggest that different towns in Egypt celebrated the festival at +different dates. But when we remember that according to the great +inscription of Denderah, the authority of which is indisputable, the +festival fell in the month of Khoiak in every province of Egypt, we shall +be reluctant to suppose that at some one place, or even at a few places, +it was exceptionally held in the preceding month of Athyr, and that the +usually well-informed Plutarch described the exception as if it had been +the rule, of which on this supposition he must have been wholly ignorant. +More probably the discrepancy is to be explained by the great change which +came over the Egyptian calendar between the date of the inscription and +the lifetime of Plutarch. For when the inscription was drawn up in the +Ptolemaic age the festivals were dated by the old vague or movable year, +and therefore rotated gradually through the whole circle of the seasons; +whereas at the time when Plutarch wrote, about the end of the first +century, they were seemingly dated by the fixed Alexandrian year, and +accordingly had ceased to rotate.(201) + +(M79) But even if we grant that in Plutarch's day the festivals had become +stationary, still this would not explain why the old festival of Khoiak +had been transferred to Athyr. In order to understand that transference it +seems necessary to suppose that when the Egyptians gave to their months +fixed places in the solar year by accepting the Alexandrian system of +intercalation, they at the same time transferred the festivals from what +may be called their artificial to their natural dates. Under the old +system a summer festival was sometimes held in winter and a winter +festival in summer; a harvest celebration sometimes fell at the season of +sowing, and a sowing celebration at the season of harvest. People might +reconcile themselves to such anomalies so long as they knew that they were +only temporary, and that in the course of time the festivals would +necessarily return to their proper seasons. But it must have been +otherwise when they adopted a fixed instead of a movable year, and so +arrested the rotation of the festivals for ever. For they could not but be +aware that every festival would thenceforth continue to occupy for all +time that particular place in the solar year which it chanced to occupy in +the year 30 B.C., when the calendar became fixed. If in that particular +year it happened, as it might have happened, that the summer festivals +were held in winter and the winter festivals in summer, they would always +be so held in future; the absurdity and anomaly would never again be +rectified as it had been before. This consideration, which could not have +escaped intelligent men, must have suggested the advisability of +transferring the festivals from the dates at which they chanced to be +celebrated in 30 B.C. to the dates at which they ought properly to be +celebrated in the course of nature. + +(M80) Now what in the year 30 B.C. was the actual amount of discrepancy +between the accidental and the natural dates of the festivals? It was a +little more than a month. In that year Thoth, the first month of the +Egyptian calendar, happened to begin on the twenty-ninth of August,(202) +whereas according to theory it should have begun with the heliacal rising +of Sirius on the twentieth of July, that is, forty days or, roughly +speaking, a month earlier. From this it follows that in the year 30 B.C. +all the Egyptian festivals fell about a month later than their natural +dates, and they must have continued to fall a month late for ever if they +were allowed to retain those places in the calendar which they chanced to +occupy in that particular year. In these circumstances it would be a +natural and sensible thing to restore the festivals to their proper places +in the solar year by celebrating them one calendar month earlier than +before.(203) If this measure were adopted the festivals which had hitherto +been held, for example, in the third month Athyr would henceforth be held +in the second month Phaophi; the festivals which had hitherto fallen in +the fourth month Khoiak would thenceforth fall in the third month Athyr; +and so on. Thus the festal calendar would be reduced to harmony with the +seasons instead of being in more or less flagrant discord with them, as it +had generally been before, and must always have been afterwards if the +change which I have indicated had not been introduced. It is only to +credit the native astronomers and the Roman rulers of Egypt with common +sense to suppose that they actually adopted the measure. On that +supposition we can perfectly understand why the festival of sowing, which +had formerly belonged to the month of Khoiak, was transferred to Athyr. +For in the Alexandrian calendar Khoiak corresponds very nearly to +December, and Athyr to November. But in Egypt the month of November, not +the month of December, is the season of sowing. There was therefore every +reason why the great sowing festival of the corn-god Osiris should be held +in Athyr and not Khoiak, in November and not in December. In like manner +we may suppose that all the Egyptian festivals were restored to their true +places in the solar year, and that when Plutarch dates a festival both by +its calendar month and by its relation to the cycle of the seasons, he is +perfectly right in doing so, and we may accept his evidence with +confidence instead of having to accuse him of ignorantly confounding the +movable Egyptian with the fixed Alexandrian year. Accusations of ignorance +levelled at the best writers of antiquity are apt to recoil on those who +make them.(204) + + + + + +CHAPTER V. THE NATURE OF OSIRIS. + + + + +§ 1. Osiris a Corn-God. + + +(M81) The foregoing survey of the myth and ritual of Osiris may suffice to +prove that in one of his aspects the god was a personification of the +corn, which may be said to die and come to life again every year. Through +all the pomp and glamour with which in later times the priests had +invested his worship, the conception of him as the corn-god comes clearly +out in the festival of his death and resurrection, which was celebrated in +the month of Khoiak and at a later period in the month of Athyr. That +festival appears to have been essentially a festival of sowing, which +properly fell at the time when the husbandman actually committed the seed +to the earth. On that occasion an effigy of the corn-god, moulded of earth +and corn, was buried with funeral rites in the ground in order that, dying +there, he might come to life again with the new crops. The ceremony was, +in fact, a charm to ensure the growth of the corn by sympathetic magic, +and we may conjecture that as such it was practised in a simple form by +every Egyptian farmer on his fields long before it was adopted and +transfigured by the priests in the stately ritual of the temple. In the +modern, but doubtless ancient, Arab custom of burying "the Old Man," +namely, a sheaf of wheat, in the harvest-field and praying that he may +return from the dead,(205) we see the germ out of which the worship of the +corn-god Osiris was probably developed. Earth.(206) What more appropriate +parentage could be invented for the corn which springs from the ground +that has been fertilized by the water of heaven? It is true that the land +of Egypt owed its fertility directly to the Nile and not to showers; but +the inhabitants must have known or guessed that the great river in its +turn was fed by the rains which fell in the far interior. Again, the +legend that Osiris was the first to teach men the use of corn(207) would +be most naturally told of the corn-god himself. Further, the story that +his mangled remains were scattered up and down the land and buried in +different places may be a mythical way of expressing either the sowing or +the winnowing of the grain. The latter interpretation is supported by the +tale that Isis placed the severed limbs of Osiris on a corn-sieve.(208) Or +more probably the legend may be a reminiscence of a custom of slaying a +human victim, perhaps a representative of the corn-spirit, and +distributing his flesh or scattering his ashes over the fields to +fertilize them. In modern Europe the figure of Death is sometimes torn in +pieces, and the fragments are then buried in the ground to make the crops +grow well,(209) and in other parts of the world human victims are treated +in the same way.(210) With regard to the ancient Egyptians we have it on +the authority of Manetho that they used to burn red-haired men and scatter +their ashes with winnowing fans,(211) and it is highly significant that +this barbarous sacrifice was offered by the kings at the grave of +Osiris.(212) We may conjecture that the victims represented Osiris +himself, who was annually slain, dismembered, and buried in their persons +that he might quicken the seed in the earth. + +(M82) Possibly in prehistoric times the kings themselves played the part +of the god and were slain and dismembered in that character. Set as well +as Osiris is said to have been torn in pieces after a reign of eighteen +days, which was commemorated by an annual festival of the same +length.(213) According to one story Romulus, the first king of Rome, was +cut in pieces by the senators, who buried the fragments of him in the +ground;(214) and the traditional day of his death, the seventh of July, +was celebrated with certain curious rites, which were apparently connected +with the artificial fertilization of the fig.(215) Again, Greek legend +told how Pentheus, king of Thebes, and Lycurgus, king of the Thracian +Edonians, opposed the vine-god Dionysus, and how the impious monarchs were +rent in pieces, the one by the frenzied Bacchanals, the other by +horses.(216) These Greek traditions may well be distorted reminiscences of +a custom of sacrificing human beings, and especially divine kings, in the +character of Dionysus, a god who resembled Osiris in many points and was +said like him to have been torn limb from limb.(217) We are told that in +Chios men were rent in pieces as a sacrifice to Dionysus;(218) and since +they died the same death as their god, it is reasonable to suppose that +they personated him. The story that the Thracian Orpheus was similarly +torn limb from limb by the Bacchanals seems to indicate that he too +perished in the character of the god whose death he died.(219) It is +significant that the Thracian Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, is said to +have been put to death in order that the ground, which had ceased to be +fruitful, might regain its fertility.(220) In some Thracian villages at +Carnival time a custom is still annually observed, which may well be a +mitigation of an ancient practice of putting a man, perhaps a king, to +death in the character of Dionysus for the sake of the crops. A man +disguised in goatskins and fawnskins, the livery of Dionysus, is shot at +and falls down as dead. A pretence is made of flaying his body and of +mourning over him, but afterwards he comes to life again. Further, a +plough is dragged about the village and seed is scattered, while prayers +are said that the wheat, rye, and barley may be plentiful. One town +(Viza), where these customs are observed, was the capital of the old +Thracian kings. In another town (Kosti, near the Black Sea) the principal +masker is called the king. He wears goatskins or sheepskins, and is +attended by a boy who dispenses wine to the people. The king himself +carries seed, which he casts on the ground before the church, after being +invited to throw it on two bands of married and unmarried men +respectively. Finally, he is stripped of the skins and thrown into the +river.(221) + +(M83) Further, we read of a Norwegian king, Halfdan the Black, whose body +was cut up and buried in different parts of his kingdom for the sake of +ensuring the fruitfulness of the earth. He is said to have been drowned at +the age of forty through the breaking of the ice in spring. What followed +his death is thus related by the old Norse historian Snorri Sturluson: "He +had been the most prosperous (literally, blessed with abundance) of all +kings. So greatly did men value him that when the news came that he was +dead and his body removed to Hringariki and intended for burial there, the +chief men from Raumariki and Westfold and Heithmoerk came and all requested +that they might take his body with them and bury it in their various +provinces; they thought that it would bring abundance to those who +obtained it. Eventually it was settled that the body was distributed in +four places. The head was laid in a barrow at Steinn in Hringariki, and +each party took away their own share and buried it. All these barrows are +called Halfdan's barrows."(222) It should be remembered that this Halfdan +belonged to the family of the Ynglings, who traced their descent from +Frey, the great Scandinavian god of fertility.(223) Frey himself is said +to have reigned as king of Sweden at Upsala. The years of his reign were +plenteous, and the people laid the plenty to his account. So when he died, +they would not burn him, as it had been customary to do with the dead +before his time; but they resolved to preserve his body, believing that, +so long as it remained in Sweden, the land would have abundance and peace. +Therefore they reared a great mound, and put him in it, and sacrificed to +him for plenty and peace ever afterwards. And for three years after his +death they poured the tribute to him into the mound, as if he were alive; +the gold they poured in by one window, the silver by a second, and the +copper by a third.(224) + +(M84) The natives of Kiwai, an island lying off the mouth of the Fly River +in British New Guinea, tell of a certain magician named Segera, who had +sago for his totem. When his son died, the death was set down to the magic +of an enemy, and the bereaved father was so angry that by his spells he +caused the whole crop of sago in the country to fail; only in his own +garden the sago grew as luxuriantly as ever. When many had died of famine, +the people went to him and begged him to remove the spells which he had +cast on the sago palms, so that they might eat food and live. The +magician, touched with remorse and pity, went round planting a sago shoot +in every garden, and the shoots flourished, sago was plentiful once more, +and the famine came to an end. When Segera was old and ill, he told the +people that he would soon die, but that, nevertheless, he would cause +their gardens to thrive. Accordingly, he instructed them that when he was +dead they should cut him up and place pieces of his flesh in their +gardens, but his head was to be buried in his own garden. Of him it is +said that he outlived the ordinary age, and that no man knew his father, +but that he made the sago good and no one was hungry any more. Old men who +were alive a few years ago affirmed that they had known Segera in their +youth, and the general opinion of the Kiwai people seems to be that Segera +died not more than two generations ago.(225) + +(M85) Taken all together, these legends point to a widespread practice of +dismembering the body of a king or magician and burying the pieces in +different parts of the country in order to ensure the fertility of the +ground and probably also the fecundity of man and beast. Whether regarded +as the descendant of a god, as himself divine, or simply as a mighty +enchanter, the king was believed to radiate magical virtue for the good of +his subjects, quickening the seed in the earth and in the womb. This +radiation of reproductive energy did not cease with his life; hence the +people deemed it essential to preserve his body as a pledge of the +continued prosperity of the country. It would be natural to imagine that +the spot where the dead king was buried would enjoy a more than ordinary +share of his blessed influence, and accordingly disputes would almost +inevitably arise between different districts for the exclusive possession +of so powerful a talisman. These disputes could be settled and local +jealousies appeased by dividing the precious body between the rival +claimants, in order that all should benefit in equal measure by its +life-giving properties. This was certainly done in Norway with the body of +Halfdan the Black, the descendant of the harvest-god Frey; it appears to +have been done with the body of Segera, the sago-magician of Kiwai; and we +may conjecture that in prehistoric times it was done with the bodies of +Egyptian kings, who personated Osiris, the god of fertility in general and +of the corn in particular. At least such a practice would account for the +legend of the mangling of the god's body and the distribution of the +pieces throughout Egypt. + +(M86) In this connexion the story that the genital member of Osiris was +missing when Isis pieced together his mutilated body,(226) may not be +without significance. When a Zulu medicine-man wishes to make the crops +grow well, he will take the body of a man who has died in full vigour and +cut minute portions of tissue from the foot, the leg, the arm, the face, +and the nail of a single finger in order to compound a fertilizing +medicine out of them. But the most important part of the medicine consists +of the dead man's generative organs, which are removed entire. All these +pieces of the corpse are fried with herbs on a slow fire, then ground to +powder, and sown over the fields.(227) We have seen that similarly the +Egyptians scattered the ashes of human victims by means of +winnowing-fans;(228) and if my explanation of the practice is correct, it +may well have been that they, like the Zulus, attributed a special power +of reproduction to the genital organs, and therefore carefully excised +them from the body of the victim in order to impart their virtue to the +fields. I have conjectured that a similar use was made of the severed +portions of the priests of Attis.(229) + +(M87) To an ancient Egyptian, with his firm belief in a personal +immortality dependent on the integrity of the body, the prospect of +mutilation after death must have been very repugnant; and we may suppose +that the kings offered a strenuous resistance to the custom and finally +succeeded in abolishing it. They may have represented to the people that +they would attain their object better by keeping the royal corpse intact +than by frittering it away in small pieces. Their subjects apparently +acquiesced in the argument, or at all events in the conclusion; yet the +mountains of masonry beneath which the old Egyptian kings lay buried may +have been intended to guard them from the superstitious devotion of their +friends quite as much as from the hostile designs of their enemies, since +both alike must have been under a strong temptation to violate the +sanctity of the grave in order to possess themselves of bodies which were +believed to be endowed with magical virtue of the most tremendous potency. +In antiquity the safety of the state was often believed to depend on the +possession of a talisman, which sometimes consisted of the bones of a king +or hero. Hence the graves of such persons were sometimes kept secret.(230) +The violation of royal tombs by a conqueror was not a mere insult: it was +a deadly blow struck at the prosperity of the kingdom. Hence Ashurbanipal +carried off to Assyria the bones of the kings of Elam, believing that thus +he gave their shades no repose and deprived them of food and drink.(231) +The Moabites burned the bones of the king of Edom into lime.(232) +Lysimachus is said to have opened the graves of the kings of Epirus and +scattered the bones of the dead.(233) + +(M88) With savage and barbarous tribes in like manner it is not unusual to +violate the sanctity of the tomb either for the purpose of wreaking +vengeance on the dead or more commonly perhaps for the sake of gaining +possession of the bones and converting them to magical uses. Hence the +Mpongwe kings of the Gaboon region in West Africa are buried secretly lest +their heads should fall into the hands of men of another tribe, who would +make a powerful fetish out of the brains.(234) Again, in Togoland, West +Africa, the kings of the Ho tribe are buried with great secrecy in the +forest, and a false grave is made ostentatiously in the king's house. None +but his personal retainers and a single daughter know where the king's +real grave is. The intention of this secret burial is to prevent enemies +from digging up the corpse and cutting off the head.(235) "The heads of +important chiefs in the Calabar districts are usually cut off from the +body on burial and kept secretly for fear the head, and thereby the +spirit, of the dead chief, should be stolen from the town. If it were +stolen it would be not only a great advantage to its new possessor, but a +great danger to the chief's old town, because he would know all the +peculiar ju-ju relating to it. For each town has a peculiar one, kept +exceedingly secret, in addition to the general ju-jus, and this secret one +would then be in the hands of the new owners of the spirit."(236) The +graves of Basuto chiefs are kept secret lest certain more or less +imaginary witches and wizards called _Baloi_, who haunt tombs, should get +possession of the bones and work evil magic with them.(237) In the Thonga +tribe of South Africa, when a chief dies, he is buried secretly by night +in a sacred wood, and few people know the place of the grave. With some +clans of the tribe it is customary to level the mound over the grave so +that no sign whatever remains to show where the body has been buried. This +is said to be done lest enemies should exhume the corpse and cut off the +ears, the diaphragm, and other parts in order to make powerful war-charms +out of them.(238) By many tribes in Fiji "the burial-place of their chief +is kept a profound secret, lest those whom he injured during his lifetime +should revenge themselves by digging up and insulting or even eating his +body. In some places the dead chief is buried in his own house, and armed +warriors of his mother's kin keep watch night and day over his grave. +After a time his bones are taken up and carried by night to some far-away +inaccessible cave in the mountains, whose position is known only to a few +trustworthy men. Ladders are constructed to enable them to reach the cave, +and are taken down when the bones have been deposited there. Many +frightful stories are told in connection with this custom, and it is +certain that not even decomposition itself avails to baulk the last +revenge of cannibals if they can find the grave. The very bones of the +dead chief are not secure from the revenge of those whose friends he +killed during his lifetime, or whom he otherwise so exasperated by the +tyrannous exercise of his power as to fill their hearts with a deadly +hate. In one instance within my own knowledge, when the hiding-place was +discovered, the bones were taken away, scraped, and stewed down into a +horrible hell-broth."(239) When a Melanesian dies who enjoyed a reputation +for magical powers in his lifetime, his friends will sometimes hold a sham +burial and keep the real grave secret for fear that men might come and dig +up the skull and bones to make charms with them.(240) + +(M89) Beliefs and practices of this sort are by no means confined to +agricultural peoples. Among the Koniags of Alaska "in ancient times the +pursuit of the whale was accompanied by numerous superstitious observances +kept a secret by the hunters. Lieutenant Davidof states that the whalers +preserved the bodies of brave or distinguished men in secluded caves, and +before proceeding upon a whale-hunt would carry these dead bodies into a +stream and then drink of the water thus tainted. One famous whaler of +Kadiak who desired to flatter Baranof, the first chief manager of the +Russian colonies, said to him, 'When you die I shall try to steal your +body,' intending thus to express his great respect for Baranof. On the +occasion of the death of a whaler his fellows would cut the body into +pieces, each man taking one of them for the purpose of rubbing his +spear-heads therewith. These pieces were dried or otherwise preserved, and +were frequently taken into the canoes as talismans."(241) + +(M90) To return to the human victims whose ashes the Egyptians scattered +with winnowing-fans,(242) the red hair of these unfortunates was probably +significant. If I am right, the custom of sacrificing such persons was not +a mere way of wreaking a national spite on fair-haired foreigners, whom +the black-haired Egyptians of old, like the black-haired Chinese of modern +times, may have regarded as red-haired devils. For in Egypt the oxen which +were sacrificed had also to be red; a single black or white hair found on +the beast would have disqualified it for the sacrifice.(243) If, as I +conjecture, these human sacrifices were intended to promote the growth of +the crops--and the winnowing of their ashes seems to support this +view--red-haired victims were perhaps selected as best fitted to personate +the spirit of the ruddy grain. For when a god is represented by a living +person, it is natural that the human representative should be chosen on +the ground of his supposed resemblance to the divine original. Hence the +ancient Mexicans, conceiving the maize as a personal being who went +through the whole course of life between seed-time and harvest, sacrificed +new-born babes when the maize was sown, older children when it had +sprouted, and so on till it was fully ripe, when they sacrificed old +men.(244) A name for Osiris was the "crop" or "harvest";(245) and the +ancients sometimes explained him as a personification of the corn.(246) + + + + +§ 2. Osiris a Tree-Spirit. + + +(M91) But Osiris was more than a spirit of the corn; he was also a +tree-spirit, and this may perhaps have been his primitive character, since +the worship of trees is naturally older in the history of religion than +the worship of the cereals. However that may have been, to an agricultural +people like the Egyptians, who depended almost wholly on their crops, the +corn-god was naturally a far more important personage than the tree-god, +and attracted a larger share of their devotion. The character of Osiris as +a tree-spirit was represented very graphically in a ceremony described by +Firmicus Maternus.(247) A pine-tree having been cut down, the centre was +hollowed out, and with the wood thus excavated an image of Osiris was +made, which was then buried like a corpse in the hollow of the tree. It is +hard to imagine how the conception of a tree as tenanted by a personal +being could be more plainly expressed. The image of Osiris thus made was +kept for a year and then burned, exactly as was done with the image of +Attis which was attached to the pine-tree.(248) The ceremony of cutting +the tree, as described by Firmicus Maternus, appears to be alluded to by +Plutarch.(249) It was probably the ritual counterpart of the mythical +discovery of the body of Osiris enclosed in the _erica_-tree.(250) + +(M92) Now we know from the monuments that at Busiris, Memphis, and +elsewhere the great festival of Osiris closed on the thirtieth of Khoiak +with the setting up of a remarkable pillar known as the _tatu_, _tat_, +_tet_, _dad_, or _ded_. This was a column with four or five cross-bars, +like superposed capitals, at the top. The whole roughly resembled a +telegraph-post with the cross-pieces which support the wires. Sometimes on +the monuments a human form is given to the pillar by carving a grotesque +face on it, robing the lower part, crowning the top with the symbols of +Osiris, and adding two arms which hold two other characteristic emblems of +the god, the crook and the scourge or flail. On a Theban tomb the king +himself, assisted by his relations and a priest, is represented hauling at +the ropes by which the pillar is being raised, while the queen looks on +and her sixteen daughters accompany the ceremony with the music of rattles +and sistrums. Again, in the hall of the Osirian mysteries at Abydos the +King Sety I. and the goddess Isis are depicted raising the column between +them. In Egyptian theology the pillar was interpreted as the backbone of +Osiris, and whatever its meaning may have been, it was one of the holiest +symbols of the national religion. It might very well be a conventional way +of representing a tree stripped of its leaves; and if Osiris was a +tree-spirit, the bare trunk and branches might naturally be described as +his backbone. The setting up of the column would thus, as several modern +scholars believe, shadow forth the resurrection of the god, and the +importance of the occasion would explain and justify the prominent part +which the king appears to have taken in the ceremony.(251) It is to be +noted that in the myth of Osiris the _erica_-tree which shot up and +enclosed his dead body, was cut down by a king and turned by him into a +pillar of his house.(252) We can hardly doubt, therefore, that this +incident of the legend was supposed to be dramatically set forth in the +erection of the _ded_ column by the king. Like the similar custom of +cutting a pine-tree and fastening an image to it in the rites of Attis, +the ceremony may have belonged to that class of customs of which the +bringing in of the May-pole is among the most familiar. The association of +the king and queen of Egypt with the _ded_ pillar reminds us of the +association of a King and Queen of May with the May-pole.(253) The +resemblance may be more than superficial. + +(M93) In the hall of Osiris at Denderah the coffin containing the +hawk-headed mummy of the god is clearly depicted as enclosed within a +tree, apparently a conifer, the trunk and branches of which are seen above +and below the coffin.(254) The scene thus corresponds closely both to the +myth and to the ceremony described by Firmicus Maternus. In another scene +at Denderah a tree of the same sort is represented growing between the +dead and the reviving Osiris, as if on purpose to indicate that the tree +was the symbol of the divine resurrection.(255) A pine-cone often appears +on the monuments as an offering presented to Osiris, and a manuscript of +the Louvre speaks of the cedar as sprung from him.(256) The sycamore and +the tamarisk were also his trees. In inscriptions he is spoken of as +residing in them;(257) and in tombs his mother Nut is often portrayed +standing in the midst of a sycamore-tree and pouring a libation for the +benefit of the dead.(258) In one of the Pyramid Texts we read, "Hail to +thee, Sycamore, which enclosest the god";(259) and in certain temples the +statue of Osiris used to be placed for seven days upon branches of +sycamores. The explanation appended in the sacred texts declares that the +placing of the image on the tree was intended to recall the seven months +passed by Osiris in the womb of his mother Nut, the goddess of the +sycamore.(260) The rite recalls the story that Adonis was born after ten +months' gestation from a myrrh-tree.(261) Further, in a sepulchre at How +(Diospolis Parva) a tamarisk is depicted overshadowing the tomb of Osiris, +while a bird is perched among the branches with the significant legend +"the soul of Osiris,"(262) showing that the spirit of the dead god was +believed to haunt his sacred tree.(263) Again, in the series of sculptures +which illustrate the mystic history of Osiris in the great temple of Isis +at Philae, a tamarisk is figured with two men pouring water on it. The +accompanying inscription leaves no doubt, says Brugsch, that the verdure +of the earth was believed to be connected with the verdure of the tree, +and that the sculpture refers to the grave of Osiris at Philae, of which +Plutarch tells us that it was overshadowed by a _methide_ plant, taller +than any olive-tree. This sculpture, it may be observed, occurs in the +same chamber in which the god is represented as a corpse with ears of corn +springing from him.(264) In inscriptions he is referred to as "the one in +the tree," "the solitary one in the acacia," and so forth.(265) On the +monuments he sometimes appears as a mummy covered with a tree or with +plants;(266) and trees are represented growing from his grave.(267) + +(M94) It accords with the character of Osiris as a tree-spirit that his +worshippers were forbidden to injure fruit-trees, and with his character +as a god of vegetation in general that they were not allowed to stop up +wells of water, which are so important for the irrigation of hot southern +lands.(268) According to one legend, he taught men to train the vine to +poles, to prune its superfluous foliage, and to extract the juice of the +grape.(269) In the papyrus of Nebseni, written about 1550 B.C., Osiris is +depicted sitting in a shrine, from the roof of which hang clusters of +grapes;(270) and in the papyrus of the royal scribe Nekht we see the god +enthroned in front of a pool, from the banks of which a luxuriant vine, +with many bunches of grapes, grows towards the green face of the seated +deity.(271) The ivy was sacred to him, and was called his plant because it +is always green.(272) + + + + +§ 3. Osiris a God of Fertility. + + +(M95) As a god of vegetation Osiris was naturally conceived as a god of +creative energy in general, since men at a certain stage of evolution fail +to distinguish between the reproductive powers of animals and of plants. +Hence a striking feature in his worship was the coarse but expressive +symbolism by which this aspect of his nature was presented to the eye not +merely of the initiated but of the multitude. At his festival women used +to go about the villages singing songs in his praise and carrying obscene +images of him which they set in motion by means of strings.(273) The +custom was probably a charm to ensure the growth of the crops. A similar +image of him, decked with all the fruits of the earth, is said to have +stood in a temple before a figure of Isis,(274) and in the chambers +dedicated to him at Philae the dead god is portrayed lying on his bier in +an attitude which indicates in the plainest way that even in death his +generative virtue was not extinct but only suspended, ready to prove a +source of life and fertility to the world when the opportunity should +offer.(275) Hymns addressed to Osiris contain allusions to this important +side of his nature. In one of them it is said that the world waxes green +in triumph through him; and another declares, "Thou art the father and +mother of mankind, they live on thy breath, they subsist on the flesh of +thy body."(276) We may conjecture that in this paternal aspect he was +supposed, like other gods of fertility, to bless men and women with +offspring, and that the processions at his festival were intended to +promote this object as well as to quicken the seed in the ground. It would +be to misjudge ancient religion to denounce as lewd and profligate the +emblems and the ceremonies which the Egyptians employed for the purpose of +giving effect to this conception of the divine power. The ends which they +proposed to themselves in these rites were natural and laudable; only the +means they adopted to compass them were mistaken. A similar fallacy +induced the Greeks to adopt a like symbolism in their Dionysiac festivals, +and the superficial but striking resemblance thus produced between the two +religions has perhaps more than anything else misled inquirers, both +ancient and modern, into identifying worships which, though certainly akin +in nature, are perfectly distinct and independent in origin.(277) + + + + +§ 4. Osiris a God of the Dead. + + +(M96) We have seen that in one of his aspects Osiris was the ruler and +judge of the dead.(278) To a people like the Egyptians, who not only +believed in a life beyond the grave but actually spent much of their time, +labour, and money in preparing for it, this office of the god must have +appeared hardly, if at all, less important than his function of making the +earth to bring forth its fruits in due season. We may assume that in the +faith of his worshippers the two provinces of the god were intimately +connected. In laying their dead in the grave they committed them to his +keeping who could raise them from the dust to life eternal, even as he +caused the seed to spring from the ground. Of that faith the corn-stuffed +effigies of Osiris found in Egyptian tombs furnish an eloquent and +unequivocal testimony.(279) They were at once an emblem and an instrument +of resurrection. Thus from the sprouting of the grain the ancient +Egyptians drew an augury of human immortality. They are not the only +people who have built the same far-reaching hopes on the same slender +foundation. "Thou fool, that which thou sowest, thou sowest not that body +that shall be, but bare grain, it may chance of wheat, or of some other +grain: but God giveth it a body as it hath pleased him, and to every seed +his own body. So also is the resurrection of the dead. It is sown in +corruption; it is raised in incorruption: it is sown in weakness; it is +raised in power: it is sown a natural body; it is raised a spiritual +body."(280) + +(M97) A god who thus fed his people with his own broken body in this life, +and who held out to them a promise of a blissful eternity in a better +world hereafter, naturally reigned supreme in their affections. We need +not wonder, therefore, that in Egypt the worship of the other gods was +overshadowed by that of Osiris, and that while they were revered each in +his own district, he and his divine partner Isis were adored in all.(281) + + + + + +CHAPTER VI. ISIS. + + +(M98) The original meaning of the goddess Isis is still more difficult to +determine than that of her brother and husband Osiris. Her attributes and +epithets were so numerous that in the hieroglyphics she is called "the +many-named," "the thousand-named," and in Greek inscriptions "the +myriad-named."(282) The late eminent Dutch scholar C. P. Tiele confessed +candidly that "it is now impossible to tell precisely to what natural +phenomena the character of Isis at first referred." Yet he adds, +"Originally she was a goddess of fecundity."(283) Similarly Dr. Budge +writes that "Isis was the great and beneficent goddess and mother, whose +influence and love pervaded all heaven and earth and the abode of the +dead, and she was the personification of the great feminine, creative +power which conceived, and brought forth every living creature and thing, +from the gods in heaven to man on the earth, and to the insect on the +ground; what she brought forth she protected, and cared for, and fed, and +nourished, and she employed her life in using her power graciously and +successfully, not only in creating new beings but in restoring those that +were dead. She was, besides these things, the highest type of a faithful +and loving wife and mother, and it was in this capacity that the Egyptians +honoured and worshipped her most."(284) + +(M99) Thus in her character of a goddess of fecundity Isis answered to the +great mother goddesses of Asia, though she differed from them in the +chastity and fidelity of her conjugal life; for while they were unmarried +and dissolute, she had a husband and was a true wife to him as well as an +affectionate mother to their son. Hence her beautiful Madonna-like figure +reflects a more refined state of society and of morals than the coarse, +sensual, cruel figures of Astarte, Anaitis, Cybele, and the rest of that +crew. A clear trace, indeed, of an ethical standard very different from +our own lingers in her double relation of sister and wife to Osiris; but +in most other respects she is rather late than primitive, the full-blown +flower rather than the seed of a long religious development. The +attributes ascribed to her were too various to be all her own. They were +graces borrowed from many lesser deities, sweets rifled from a thousand +humbler plants to feed the honey of her superb efflorescence. Yet in her +complex nature it is perhaps still possible to detect the original nucleus +round which by a slow process of accretion the other elements gathered. +For if her brother and husband Osiris was in one of his aspects the +corn-god, as we have seen reason to believe, she must surely have been the +corn-goddess. There are at least some grounds for thinking so. For if we +may trust Diodorus Siculus, whose authority appears to have been the +Egyptian historian Manetho, the discovery of wheat and barley was +attributed to Isis, and at her festivals stalks of these grains were +carried in procession to commemorate the boon she had conferred on +men.(285) A further detail is added by Augustine. He says that Isis made +the discovery of barley at the moment when she was sacrificing to the +common ancestors of her husband and herself, all of whom had been kings, +and that she showed the newly discovered ears of barley to Osiris and his +councillor Thoth or Mercury, as Roman writers called him. That is why, +adds Augustine, they identify Isis with Ceres.(286) Further, at +harvest-time, when the Egyptian reapers had cut the first stalks, they +laid them down and beat their breasts, wailing and calling upon Isis.(287) +The custom has been already explained as a lament for the corn-spirit +slain under the sickle.(288) Amongst the epithets by which Isis is +designated in the inscriptions are "Creatress of green things," "Green +goddess, whose green colour is like unto the greenness of the earth," +"Lady of Bread," "Lady of Beer," "Lady of Abundance."(289) According to +Brugsch she is "not only the creatress of the fresh verdure of vegetation +which covers the earth, but is actually the green corn-field itself, which +is personified as a goddess."(290) This is confirmed by her epithet +_Sochit_ or _Sochet_, meaning "a corn-field," a sense which the word still +retains in Coptic.(291) The Greeks conceived of Isis as a corn-goddess, +for they identified her with Demeter.(292) In a Greek epigram she is +described as "she who has given birth to the fruits of the earth," and +"the mother of the ears of corn";(293) and in a hymn composed in her +honour she speaks of herself as "queen of the wheat-field," and is +described as "charged with the care of the fruitful furrow's wheat-rich +path."(294) Accordingly, Greek or Roman artists often represented her with +ears of corn on her head or in her hand.(295) + +(M100) Such, we may suppose, was Isis in the olden time, a rustic +Corn-Mother adored with uncouth rites by Egyptian swains. But the homely +features of the clownish goddess could hardly be traced in the refined, +the saintly form which, spiritualized by ages of religious evolution, she +presented to her worshippers of after days as the true wife, the tender +mother, the beneficent queen of nature, encircled with the nimbus of moral +purity, of immemorial and mysterious sanctity. Thus chastened and +transfigured she won many hearts far beyond the boundaries of her native +land. In that welter of religions which accompanied the decline of +national life in antiquity her worship was one of the most popular at Rome +and throughout the empire. Some of the Roman emperors themselves were +openly addicted to it.(296) And however the religion of Isis may, like any +other, have been often worn as a cloak by men and women of loose life, her +rites appear on the whole to have been honourably distinguished by a +dignity and composure, a solemnity and decorum well fitted to soothe the +troubled mind, to ease the burdened heart. They appealed therefore to +gentle spirits, and above all to women, whom the bloody and licentious +rites of other Oriental goddesses only shocked and repelled. We need not +wonder, then, that in a period of decadence, when traditional faiths were +shaken, when systems clashed, when men's minds were disquieted, when the +fabric of empire itself, once deemed eternal, began to show ominous rents +and fissures, the serene figure of Isis with her spiritual calm, her +gracious promise of immortality, should have appeared to many like a star +in a stormy sky, and should have roused in their breasts a rapture of +devotion not unlike that which was paid in the Middle Ages to the Virgin +Mary. Indeed her stately ritual, with its shaven and tonsured priests, its +matins and vespers, its tinkling music, its baptism and aspersions of holy +water, its solemn processions, its jewelled images of the Mother of God, +presented many points of similarity to the pomps and ceremonies of +Catholicism.(297) The resemblance need not be purely accidental. Ancient +Egypt may have contributed its share to the gorgeous symbolism of the +Catholic Church as well as to the pale abstractions of her theology.(298) +Certainly in art the figure of Isis suckling the infant Horus is so like +that of the Madonna and child that it has sometimes received the adoration +of ignorant Christians.(299) And to Isis in her later character of +patroness of mariners the Virgin Mary perhaps owes her beautiful epithet +of _Stella Maris_, "Star of the Sea," under which she is adored by +tempest-tossed sailors.(300) The attributes of a marine deity may have +been bestowed on Isis by the sea-faring Greeks of Alexandria. They are +quite foreign to her original character and to the habits of the +Egyptians, who had no love of the sea.(301) On this hypothesis Sirius, the +bright star of Isis, which on July mornings rises from the glassy waves of +the eastern Mediterranean, a harbinger of halcyon weather to mariners, was +the true _Stella Maris_, "the Star of the Sea." + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. OSIRIS AND THE SUN. + + +(M101) Osiris has been sometimes interpreted as the sun-god; and in modern +times this view has been held by so many distinguished writers that it +deserves a brief examination. If we inquire on what evidence Osiris has +been identified with the sun or the sun-god, it will be found on analysis +to be minute in quantity and dubious, where it is not absolutely +worthless, in quality. The diligent Jablonski, the first modern scholar to +collect and sift the testimony of classical writers on Egyptian religion, +says that it can be shown in many ways that Osiris is the sun, and that he +could produce a cloud of witnesses to prove it, but that it is needless to +do so, since no learned man is ignorant of the fact.(302) Of the writers +whom he condescends to quote, the only two who expressly identify Osiris +with the sun are Diodorus and Macrobius. The passage in Diodorus runs +thus:(303) "It is said that the aboriginal inhabitants of Egypt, looking +up to the sky, and smitten with awe and wonder at the nature of the +universe, supposed that there were two gods, eternal and primaeval, the +sun and the moon, of whom they named the sun Osiris and the moon Isis." +Even if Diodorus's authority for this statement is Manetho, as there is +some ground for believing,(304) little or no weight can be attached to it. +For it is plainly a philosophical, and therefore a late, explanation of +the first beginnings of Egyptian religion, reminding us of Kant's familiar +saying about the starry heavens and the moral law rather than of the rude +traditions of a primitive people. Jablonski's second authority, Macrobius, +is no better, but rather worse. For Macrobius was the father of that large +family of mythologists who resolve all or most gods into the sun. +According to him Mercury was the sun, Mars was the sun, Janus was the sun, +Saturn was the sun, so was Jupiter, also Nemesis, likewise Pan, and so on +through a great part of the pantheon.(305) It was natural, therefore, that +he should identify Osiris with the sun,(306) but his reasons for doing so +are exceedingly slight. He refers to the ceremonies of alternate +lamentation and joy as if they reflected the vicissitudes of the great +luminary in his course through the sky. Further, he argues that Osiris +must be the sun because an eye was one of his symbols. It is true that an +eye was a symbol of Osiris,(307) and it is also true that the sun was +often called "the eye of Horus";(308) yet the coincidence hardly suffices +to establish the identity of the two deities. The opinion that Osiris was +the sun is also mentioned, but not accepted, by Plutarch,(309) and it is +referred to by Firmicus Maternus.(310) + +(M102) Amongst modern scholars, Lepsius, in identifying Osiris with the +sun, appears to rely mainly on the passage of Diodorus already quoted. But +the monuments, he adds, also show "that down to a late time Osiris was +sometimes conceived as _Ra_. In this quality he is named _Osiris-Ra_ even +in the 'Book of the Dead,' and Isis is often called 'the royal consort of +Ra.' "(311) That Ra was both the physical sun and the sun-god is +undisputed; but with every deference for the authority of so great a +scholar as Lepsius, we may doubt whether the identification of Osiris with +Ra can be accepted as proof that Osiris was originally the sun. For the +religion of ancient Egypt(312) may be described as a confederacy of local +cults which, while maintaining against each other a certain measure of +jealous and even hostile independence, were yet constantly subjected to +the fusing and amalgamating influence of political centralization and +philosophic thought. The history of the religion appears to have largely +consisted of a struggle between these opposite forces or tendencies. On +the one side there was the conservative tendency to preserve the local +cults with all their distinctive features, fresh, sharp, and crisp as they +had been handed down from an immemorial past. On the other side there was +the progressive tendency, favoured by the gradual fusion of the people +under a powerful central government, first to dull the edge of these +provincial distinctions, and finally to break them down completely and +merge them in a single national religion. The conservative party probably +mustered in its ranks the great bulk of the people, their prejudices and +affections being warmly enlisted in favour of the local deity, with whose +temple and rites they had been familiar from childhood; and the popular +dislike of change, based on the endearing effect of old association, must +have been strongly reinforced by the less disinterested opposition of the +local clergy, whose material interests would necessarily suffer with any +decay of their shrines. On the other hand the kings, whose power and glory +rose with the political and ecclesiastical consolidation of the realm, +were the natural champions of religious unity; and their efforts would be +seconded by the refined and thoughtful minority, who could hardly fail to +be shocked by the many barbarous and revolting elements in the local +rites. As usually happens in such cases, the process of religious +unification appears to have been largely effected by discovering points of +similarity, real or imaginary, between the provincial deities, which were +thereupon declared to be only different names or manifestations of the +same god. + +(M103) Of the deities who thus acted as centres of attraction, absorbing +in themselves a multitude of minor divinities, by far the most important +was the sun-god Ra. There appear to have been few gods in Egypt who were +not at one time or other identified with him. Ammon of Thebes, Horus of +the East, Horus of Edfu, Chnum of Elephantine, Tum of Heliopolis, all were +regarded as one god, the sun. Even the water-god Sobk, in spite of his +crocodile shape, did not escape the same fate. Indeed one king, Amenophis +IV., undertook to sweep away all the old gods at a stroke and replace them +by a single god, the "great living disc of the sun."(313) In the hymns +composed in his honour, this deity is referred to as "the living disc of +the sun, besides whom there is none other." He is said to have made "the +far heaven" and "men, beasts, and birds; he strengtheneth the eyes with +his beams, and when he showeth himself, all flowers live and grow, the +meadows flourish at his upgoing and are drunken at his sight, all cattle +skip on their feet, and the birds that are in the marsh flutter for joy." +It is he "who bringeth the years, createth the months, maketh the days, +calculateth the hours, the lord of time, by whom men reckon." In his zeal +for the unity of god, the king commanded to erase the names of all other +gods from the monuments, and to destroy their images. His rage was +particularly directed against the god Ammon, whose name and likeness were +effaced wherever they were found; even the sanctity of the tomb was +violated in order to destroy the memorials of the hated deity. In some of +the halls of the great temples at Carnac, Luxor, and other places, all the +names of the gods, with a few chance exceptions, were scratched out. The +monarch even changed his own name, Amenophis, because it was compounded of +Ammon, and took instead the name of Chu-en-aten, "gleam of the sun's +disc." Thebes itself, the ancient capital of his glorious ancestors, full +of the monuments of their piety and idolatry, was no longer a fit home for +the puritan king. He deserted it, and built for himself a new capital in +Middle Egypt at the place now known as Tell-el-Amarna. Here in a few years +a city of palaces and gardens rose like an exhalation at his command, and +here the king, his dearly loved wife and children, and his complaisant +courtiers led a merry life. The grave and sombre ritual of Thebes was +discarded. The sun-god was worshipped with songs and hymns, with the music +of harps and flutes, with offerings of cakes and fruits and flowers. Blood +seldom stained his kindly altars. The king himself celebrated the offices +of religion. He preached with unction, and we may be sure that his +courtiers listened with at least an outward semblance of devotion. From +the too-faithful portraits of himself which he has bequeathed to us we can +still picture to ourselves the heretic king in the pulpit, with his tall, +lanky figure, his bandy legs, his pot-belly, his long, lean, haggard face +aglow with the fever of religious fanaticism. Yet "the doctrine," as he +loved to call it, which he proclaimed to his hearers was apparently no +stern message of renunciation in this world, of terrors in the world to +come. The thoughts of death, of judgment, and of a life beyond the grave, +which weighed like a nightmare on the minds of the Egyptians, seem to have +been banished for a time. Even the name of Osiris, the awful judge of the +dead, is not once mentioned in the graves at Tell-el-Amarna. All this +lasted only during the life of the reformer. His death was followed by a +violent reaction. The old gods were reinstated in their rank and +privileges: their names and images were restored, and new temples were +built. But all the shrines and palaces reared by the late king were thrown +down: even the sculptures that referred to him and to his god in +rock-tombs and on the sides of hills were erased or filled up with stucco: +his name appears on no later monument, and was carefully omitted from all +official lists. The new capital was abandoned, never to be inhabited +again. Its plan can still be traced in the sands of the desert. + +(M104) This attempt of King Amenophis IV. is only an extreme example of a +tendency which appears to have affected the religion of Egypt as far back +as we can trace it. Therefore, to come back to our point, in attempting to +discover the original character of any Egyptian god, no weight can be +given to the identification of him with other gods, least of all with the +sun-god Ra. Far from helping to follow up the trail, these identifications +only cross and confuse it. The best evidence for the original character of +the Egyptian gods is to be found in their ritual and myths, so far as +these are known, and in the manner in which they are portrayed on the +monuments. It is mainly on evidence drawn from these sources that I rest +my interpretation of Osiris. + +(M105) The ground upon which some modern writers seem chiefly to rely for +the identification of Osiris with the sun is that the story of his death +fits better with the solar phenomena than with any other in nature. It may +readily be admitted that the daily appearance and disappearance of the sun +might very naturally be expressed by a myth of his death and resurrection; +and writers who regard Osiris as the sun are careful to indicate that it +is the diurnal, and not the annual, course of the sun to which they +understand the myth to apply. Thus Renouf, who identified Osiris with the +sun, admitted that the Egyptian sun could not with any show of reason be +described as dead in winter.(314) But if his daily death was the theme of +the legend, why was it celebrated by an annual ceremony? This fact alone +seems fatal to the interpretation of the myth as descriptive of sunset and +sunrise. Again, though the sun may be said to die daily, in what sense can +he be said to be torn in pieces?(315) + +(M106) In the course of our inquiry it has, I trust, been made clear that +there is another natural phenomenon to which the conception of death and +resurrection is as applicable as to sunset and sunrise, and which, as a +matter of fact, has been so conceived and represented in folk-custom. That +phenomenon is the annual growth and decay of vegetation. A strong reason +for interpreting the death of Osiris as the decay of vegetation rather +than as the sunset is to be found in the general, though not unanimous, +voice of antiquity, which classed together the worship and myths of +Osiris, Adonis, Attis, Dionysus, and Demeter, as religions of essentially +the same type.(316) The consensus of ancient opinion on this subject seems +too great to be rejected as a mere fancy. So closely did the rites of +Osiris resemble those of Adonis at Byblus that some of the people of +Byblus themselves maintained that it was Osiris and not Adonis whose death +was mourned by them.(317) Such a view could certainly not have been held +if the rituals of the two gods had not been so alike as to be almost +indistinguishable. Herodotus found the similarity between the rites of +Osiris and Dionysus so great, that he thought it impossible the latter +could have arisen independently; they must, he supposed, have been +recently borrowed, with slight alterations, by the Greeks from the +Egyptians.(318) Again, Plutarch, a very keen student of comparative +religion, insists upon the detailed resemblance of the rites of Osiris to +those of Dionysus.(319) We cannot reject the evidence of such intelligent +and trustworthy witnesses on plain matters of fact which fell under their +own cognizance. Their explanations of the worships it is indeed possible +to reject, for the meaning of religious cults is often open to question; +but resemblances of ritual are matters of observation. Therefore, those +who explain Osiris as the sun are driven to the alternative of either +dismissing as mistaken the testimony of antiquity to the similarity of the +rites of Osiris, Adonis, Attis, Dionysus, and Demeter, or of interpreting +all these rites as sun-worship. No modern scholar has fairly faced and +accepted either side of this alternative. To accept the former would be to +affirm that we know the rites of these deities better than the men who +practised, or at least who witnessed them. To accept the latter would +involve a wrenching, clipping, mangling, and distorting of myth and ritual +from which even Macrobius shrank.(320) On the other hand, the view that +the essence of all these rites was the mimic death and revival of +vegetation, explains them separately and collectively in an easy and +natural way, and harmonizes with the general testimony borne by the +ancients to their substantial similarity. + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. OSIRIS AND THE MOON. + + +(M107) Before we conclude this study of Osiris it will be worth while to +consider an ancient view of his nature, which deserves more attention than +it has received in modern times. We are told by Plutarch that among the +philosophers who saw in the gods of Egypt personifications of natural +objects and forces, there were some who interpreted Osiris as the moon and +his enemy Typhon as the sun, "because the moon, with her humid and +generative light, is favourable to the propagation of animals and the +growth of plants; while the sun with his fierce fire scorches and burns up +all growing things, renders the greater part of the earth uninhabitable by +reason of his blaze, and often overpowers the moon herself."(321) Whatever +may be thought of the physical qualities here attributed to the moon, the +arguments adduced by the ancients to prove the identity of Osiris with +that luminary carry with them a weight which has at least not been +lightened by the results of modern research. An examination of them and of +other evidence pointing in the same direction will, perhaps, help to set +the original character of the Egyptian deity in a clearer light.(322) + +1. Osiris was said to have lived or reigned twenty-eight years. This might +fairly be taken as a mythical expression for a lunar month.(323) + +2. His body was reported to have been rent into fourteen pieces.(324) This +might be interpreted of the waning moon, which appears to lose a portion +of itself on each of the fourteen days that make up the second half of a +lunar month. It is expressly said that his enemy Typhon found the body of +Osiris at the full moon;(325) thus the dismemberment of the god would +begin with the waning of the moon. To primitive man it seems manifest that +the waning moon is actually dwindling, and he naturally enough explains +its diminution by supposing that the planet is being rent or broken in +pieces or eaten away. The Klamath Indians of Oregon speak of the moon as +"the one broken to pieces" with reference to its changing aspect; they +never apply such a term to the sun,(326) whose apparent change of bulk at +different seasons of the year is far too insignificant to attract the +attention of the savage, or at least to be described by him in such +forcible language. The Dacotas believe that when the moon is full, a great +many little mice begin to nibble at one side of it and do not cease till +they have eaten it all up, after which a new moon is born and grows to +maturity, only to share the fate of its countless predecessors.(327) A +similar belief is held by the Huzuls of the Carpathians, except that they +ascribe the destruction of the old moon to wolves instead of to mice.(328) + +3. At the new moon of the month Phamenoth, which was the beginning of +spring, the Egyptians celebrated what they called "the entry of Osiris +into the moon."(329) + +4. At the ceremony called "the burial of Osiris" the Egyptians made a +crescent-shaped chest "because the moon, when it approaches the sun, +assumes the form of a crescent and vanishes."(330) + +5. The bull Apis, held to be an image of the soul of Osiris,(331) was born +of a cow which was believed to have been impregnated, not in the vulgar +way by a bull, but by a divine influence emanating from the moon.(332) + +6. Once a year, at the full moon, pigs were sacrificed simultaneously to +the moon and Osiris.(333) + +7. In a hymn supposed to be addressed by Isis to Osiris, it is said that +Thoth-- + + + "_Placeth thy soul in the bark Ma-at,_ + _In that name which is thine, of __GOD MOON__._" + + +And again:-- + + + "_Thou who comest to us as a child each month,_ + _We do not cease to contemplate thee._ + _Thine emanation heightens the brilliancy_ + _Of the stars of Orion in the firmament._"(334) + + +Here then Osiris is identified with the moon in set terms. If in the same +hymn he is said to "illuminate us like Ra" (the sun), that is obviously no +reason for identifying him with the sun, but quite the contrary. For +though the moon may reasonably be compared to the sun, neither the sun nor +anything else can reasonably be compared to itself. + +8. In art Osiris is sometimes represented as a human-headed mummy grasping +in his hands his characteristic emblems and wearing on his head, instead +of the usual crown, a full moon within a crescent.(335) + +(M108) Now if in one of his aspects Osiris was originally a deity of +vegetation, we can easily enough understand why in a later and more +philosophic age he should come to be thus identified or confounded with +the moon.(336) For as soon as he begins to meditate upon the causes of +things, the early philosopher is led by certain obvious, though +fallacious, appearances to regard the moon as the ultimate cause of the +growth of plants. In the first place he associates its apparent growth and +decay with the growth and decay of sublunary things, and imagines that in +virtue of a secret sympathy the celestial phenomena really produce those +terrestrial changes which in point of fact they merely resemble. Thus +Pliny says that the moon may fairly be considered the planet of breath, +"because it saturates the earth and by its approach fills bodies, while by +its departure it empties them. Hence it is," he goes on, "that shell-fish +increase with the increase of the moon and that bloodless creatures +especially feel breath at that time; even the blood of men grows and +diminishes with the light of the moon, and leaves and herbage also feel +the same influence, since the lunar energy penetrates all things."(337) +"There is no doubt," writes Macrobius, "that the moon is the author and +framer of mortal bodies, so much so that some things expand or shrink as +it waxes or wanes."(338) Again, Aulus Gellius puts in the mouth of a +friend the remark that "the same things which grow with the waxing, do +dwindle with the waning moon," and he quotes from a commentary of +Plutarch's on Hesiod a statement that the onion is the only vegetable +which violates this great law of nature by sprouting in the wane and +withering in the increase of the moon.(339) Scottish Highlanders allege +that in the increase of the moon everything has a tendency to grow or +stick together;(340) and they call the second moon of autumn "the ripening +moon" (_Gealach an abachaidh_), because they imagine that crops ripen as +much by its light as by day.(341) + +(M109) From this supposed influence of the moon on the life of plants and +animals, men in ancient and modern times have deduced a whole code of +rules for the guidance of the husbandman, the shepherd, and others in the +conduct of their affairs. Thus an ancient writer on agriculture lays it +down as a maxim, that whatever is to be sown should be sown while the moon +is waxing, and that whatever is to be cut or gathered should be cut or +gathered while it is waning.(342) A modern treatise on superstition +describes how the superstitious man regulates all his conduct by the moon: +"Whatever he would have to grow, he sets about it when she is in her +increase; but for what he would have made less he chooses her wane."(343) +In Germany the phases of the moon are observed by superstitious people at +all the more or even less important actions of life, such as tilling the +fields, building or changing houses, marriages, hair-cutting, bleeding, +cupping, and so forth. The particular rules vary in different places, but +the principle generally followed is that whatever is done to increase +anything should be done while the moon is waxing; whatever is done to +diminish anything should be done while the moon is waning. For example, +sowing, planting, and grafting should be done in the first half of the +moon, but the felling of timber and mowing should be done in the second +half.(344) In various parts of Europe it is believed that plants, nails, +hair, and corns, cut while the moon is on the increase, will grow again +fast, but that if cut while it is on the decrease they will grow slowly or +waste away.(345) Hence persons who wish their hair to grow thick and long +should cut it in the first half of the moon.(346) On the same principle +sheep are shorn when the moon is waxing, because it is supposed that the +wool will then be longest and most enduring.(347) Some negroes of the +Gaboon think that taro and other vegetables never thrive if they are +planted after full moon, but that they grow fast and strong if they are +planted in the first quarter.(348) The Highlanders of Scotland used to +expect better crops of grain by sowing their seed in the moon's +increase.(349) On the other hand they thought that garden vegetables, such +as onions and kail, run to seed if they are sown in the increase, but that +they grow to pot-herbs if they are sown in the wane.(350) So Thomas Tusser +advised the peasant to sow peas and beans in the wane of the moon "that +they with the planet may rest and arise."(351) The Zulus welcome the first +appearance of the new moon with beating of drums and other demonstrations +of joy; but next day they abstain from all labour, "thinking that if +anything is sown on those days they can never reap the benefit +thereof."(352) But in this matter of sowing and planting a refined +distinction is sometimes drawn by French, German, and Esthonian peasants; +plants which bear fruit above ground are sown by them when the moon is +waxing, but plants which are cultivated for the sake of their roots, such +as potatoes and turnips, are sown when the moon is waning.(353) The reason +for this distinction seems to be a vague idea that the waxing moon is +coming up and the waning moon going down, and that accordingly fruits +which grow upwards should be sown in the former period, and fruits which +grow downwards in the latter. Before beginning to plant their cacao the +Pipiles of Central America exposed the finest seeds for four nights to the +moonlight,(354) but whether they did so at the waxing or waning of the +moon is not said. Even pots, it would seem, are not exempt from this great +law of nature. In Uganda "potters waited for the new moon to appear before +baking their pots; when it was some days old, they prepared their fires +and baked the vessels. No potter would bake pots when the moon was past +the full, for he believed that they would be a failure, and would be sure +to crack or break in the burning, if he did so, and that his labour +accordingly would go for nothing."(355) + +(M110) Again, the waning of the moon has been commonly recommended both in +ancient and modern times as the proper time for felling trees,(356) +apparently because it was thought fit and natural that the operation of +cutting down should be performed on earth at the time when the lunar orb +was, so to say, being cut down in the sky. In France before the Revolution +the forestry laws enjoined that trees should only be felled after the moon +had passed the full; and in French bills announcing the sale of timber you +may still read a notice that the wood was cut in the waning of the +moon.(357) So among the Shans of Burma, when a house is to be built, it is +a rule that "a lucky day should be chosen to commence the cutting of the +bamboos. The day must not only be a fortunate one for the builder, but it +must also be in the second half of the month, when the moon is waning. +Shans believe that if bamboos are cut during the first half of the month, +when the moon is waxing, they do not last well, as boring insects attack +them and they will soon become rotten. This belief is prevalent all over +the East."(358) A like belief obtains in various parts of Mexico. No +Mexican will cut timber while the moon is increasing; they say it must be +cut while the moon is waning or the wood will certainly rot.(359) In +Colombia, South America, people think that corn should only be sown and +timber felled when the moon is on the wane. They say that the waxing moon +draws the sap up through the trunk and branches, whereas the sap flows +down and leaves the wood dry during the wane of the moon.(360) But +sometimes the opposite rule is adopted, and equally forcible arguments are +urged in its defence. Thus, when the Wabondei of Eastern Africa are about +to build a house, they take care to cut the posts for it when the moon is +on the increase; for they say that posts cut when the moon is wasting away +would soon rot, whereas posts cut while the moon is waxing are very +durable.(361) The same rule is observed for the same reason in some parts +of Germany.(362) + +(M111) But the partisans of the ordinarily received opinion have sometimes +supported it by another reason, which introduces us to the second of those +fallacious appearances by which men have been led to regard the moon as +the cause of growth in plants. From observing rightly that dew falls most +thickly on cloudless nights, they inferred wrongly that it was caused by +the moon, a theory which the poet Alcman expressed in mythical form by +saying that dew was a daughter of Zeus and the moon.(363) Hence the +ancients concluded that the moon is the great source of moisture, as the +sun is the great source of heat.(364) And as the humid power of the moon +was assumed to be greater when the planet was waxing than when it was +waning, they thought that timber cut during the increase of the luminary +would be saturated with moisture, whereas timber cut in the wane would be +comparatively dry. Hence we are told that in antiquity carpenters would +reject timber felled when the moon was growing or full, because they +believed that such timber teemed with sap;(365) and in the Vosges at the +present day people allege that wood cut at the new moon does not dry.(366) +We have seen that the same reason is assigned for the same practice in +Colombia.(367) In the Hebrides peasants give the same reason for cutting +their peats when the moon is on the wane; "for they observe that if they +are cut in the increase, they continue still moist and never burn clear, +nor are they without smoke, but the contrary is daily observed of peats +cut in the decrease."(368) + +(M112) Thus misled by a double fallacy primitive philosophy comes to view +the moon as the great cause of vegetable growth, first, because the planet +seems itself to grow, and second, because it is supposed to be the source +of dew and moisture. It is no wonder, therefore, that agricultural peoples +should adore the planet which they believe to influence so profoundly the +crops on which they depend for subsistence. Accordingly we find that in +the hotter regions of America, where maize is cultivated and manioc is the +staple food, the moon was recognized as the principal object of worship, +and plantations of manioc were assigned to it as a return for the service +it rendered in the production of the crops. The worship of the moon in +preference to the sun was general among the Caribs, and, perhaps, also +among most of the other Indian tribes who cultivated maize in the tropical +forests to the east of the Andes; and the same thing has been observed, +under the same physical conditions, among the aborigines of the hottest +region of Peru, the northern valleys of Yuncapata. Here the Indians of +Pacasmayu and the neighbouring valleys revered the moon as their principal +divinity. The "house of the moon" at Pacasmayu was the chief temple of the +district; and the same sacrifices of maize-flour, of wine, and of children +which were offered by the mountaineers of the Andes to the Sun-god, were +offered by the lowlanders to the Moon-god in order that he might cause +their crops to thrive.(369) In ancient Babylonia, where the population was +essentially agricultural, the moon-god took precedence of the sun-god and +was indeed reckoned his father.(370) + +(M113) Hence it would be no matter for surprise if, after worshipping the +crops which furnished them with the means of subsistence, the ancient +Egyptians should in later times have identified the spirit of the corn +with the moon, which a false philosophy had taught them to regard as the +ultimate cause of the growth of vegetation. In this way we can understand +why in their most recent forms the myth and ritual of Osiris, the old god +of trees and corn, should bear many traces of efforts made to bring them +into a superficial conformity with the new doctrine of his lunar affinity. + + + + + +CHAPTER IX. THE DOCTRINE OF LUNAR SYMPATHY. + + +(M114) In the preceding chapter some evidence was adduced of the +sympathetic influence which the waxing or waning moon is popularly +supposed to exert on growth, especially on the growth of vegetation. But +the doctrine of lunar sympathy does not stop there; it is applied also to +the affairs of man, and various customs and rules have been deduced from +it which aim at the amelioration and even the indefinite extension of +human life. To illustrate this application of the popular theory at length +would be out of place here, but a few cases may be mentioned by way of +specimen. + +(M115) The natural fact on which all the customs in question seem to rest +is the apparent monthly increase and decrease of the moon. From this +observation men have inferred that all things simultaneously wax or wane +in sympathy with it.(371) Thus the Mentras or Mantras of the Malay +Peninsula have a tradition that in the beginning men did not die but grew +thin with the waning of the moon, and waxed fat as she neared the +full.(372) Of the Scottish Highlanders we are told that "the moon in her +increase, full growth, and in her wane are with them the emblems of a +rising, flourishing, and declining fortune. At the last period of her +revolution they carefully avoid to engage in any business of importance; +but the first and middle they seize with avidity, presaging the most +auspicious issue to their undertakings."(373) Similarly in some parts of +Germany it is commonly believed that whatever is undertaken when the moon +is on the increase succeeds well, and that the full moon brings everything +to perfection; whereas business undertaken in the wane of the moon is +doomed to failure.(374) This German belief has come down, as we might have +anticipated, from barbaric times; for Tacitus tells us that the Germans +considered the new or the full moon the most auspicious time for +business;(375) and Caesar informs us that the Germans despaired of victory +if they joined battle before the new moon.(376) The Spartans seem to have +been of the same opinion, for it was a rule with them never to march out +to war except when the moon was full. The rule prevented them from sending +troops in time to fight the Persians at Marathon,(377) and but for +Athenian valour this paltry superstition might have turned the scale of +battle and decided the destiny of Greece, if not of Europe, for centuries. +The Athenians themselves paid dear for a similar scruple: an eclipse of +the moon cost them the loss of a gallant fleet and army before Syracuse, +and practically sealed the fate of Athens, for she never recovered from +the blow.(378) So heavy is the sacrifice which superstition demands of its +votaries. In this respect the Greeks were on a level with the negroes of +the Sudan, among whom, if a march has been decided upon during the last +quarter of the moon, the departure is always deferred until the first day +of the new moon. No chief would dare to undertake an expedition and lead +out his warriors before the appearance of the crescent. Merchants and +private persons observe the same rule on their journeys.(379) In like +manner the Mandingoes of Senegambia pay great attention to the changes of +the moon, and think it very unlucky to begin a journey or any other work +of consequence in the last quarter.(380) + +It is especially the appearance of the new moon, with its promise of +growth and increase, which is greeted with ceremonies intended to renew +and invigorate, by means of sympathetic magic, the life of man. Observers, +ignorant of savage superstition, have commonly misinterpreted such customs +as worship or adoration paid to the moon. In point of fact the ceremonies +of new moon are probably in many cases rather magical than religious. The +Indians of the Ucayali River in Peru hail the appearance of the new moon +with great joy. They make long speeches to her, accompanied with vehement +gesticulations, imploring her protection and begging that she will be so +good as to invigorate their bodies.(381) On the day when the new moon +first appeared, it was a custom with the Indians of San Juan Capistrano, +in California, to call together all the young men for the purpose of its +celebration. "_Correr la luna!_" shouted one of the old men, "Come, my +boys, the moon! the moon!" Immediately the young men began to run about in +a disorderly fashion as if they were distracted, while the old men danced +in a circle, saying, "As the moon dieth, and cometh to life again, so we +also having to die will again live."(382) An old traveller tells us that +at the appearance of every new moon the negroes of the Congo clapped their +hands and cried out, sometimes falling on their knees, "So may I renew my +life as thou art renewed." But if the sky happened to be clouded, they did +nothing, alleging that the planet had lost its virtue.(383) A somewhat +similar custom prevails among the Ovambo of South-Western Africa. On the +first moonlight night of the new moon, young and old, their bodies smeared +with white earth, perhaps in imitation of the planet's silvery light, +dance to the moon and address to it wishes which they feel sure will be +granted.(384) We may conjecture that among these wishes is a prayer for a +renewal of life. When a Masai sees the new moon he throws a twig or stone +at it with his left hand, and says, "Give me long life," or "Give me +strength"; and when a pregnant woman sees the new moon she milks some milk +into a small gourd, which she covers with green grass. Then she pours the +milk away in the direction of the moon and says, "Moon, give me my child +safely."(385) Among the Wagogo of German East Africa, at sight of the new +moon some people break a stick in pieces, spit on the pieces, and throw +them towards the moon, saying, "Let all illness go to the west, where the +sun sets."(386) Among the Boloki of the Upper Congo there is much shouting +and gesticulation on the appearance of a new moon. Those who have enjoyed +good health pray that it may be continued, and those who have been sick +ascribe their illness to the coming of the luminary and beg her to take +away bad health and give them good health instead.(387) The Esthonians +think that all the misfortunes which might befall a man in the course of a +month may be forestalled and shifted to the moon, if a man will only say +to the new moon, "Good morrow, new moon. I must grow young, you must grow +old. My eyes must grow bright, yours must grow dark. I must grow light as +a bird, you must grow heavy as iron."(388) On the fifteenth day of the +moon, that is, at the time when the luminary has begun to wane, the +Coreans take round pieces of paper, either red or white, which represent +the moon, and having fixed them perpendicularly on split sticks they place +them on the tops of the houses. Then persons who have been forewarned by +fortune-tellers of impending evil pray to the moon to remove it from +them.(389) + +(M116) In India people attempt to absorb the vital influence of the moon +by drinking water in which the luminary is reflected. Thus the Mohammedans +of Oude fill a silver basin with water and hold it so that the orb of the +full moon is mirrored in it. The person to be benefited must look +steadfastly at the moon in the basin, then shut his eyes and drink the +water at one gulp. Doctors recommend the draught as a remedy for nervous +disorders and palpitation of the heart. Somewhat similar customs prevail +among the Hindoos of Northern India. At the full moon of the month of Kuar +(September-October) people lay out food on the house-tops, and when it has +absorbed the rays of the moon they distribute it among their relations, +who are supposed to lengthen their life by eating of the food which has +thus been saturated with moonshine. Patients are often made to look at the +moon reflected in melted butter, oil, or milk as a cure for leprosy and +the like diseases.(390) + +(M117) Naturally enough the genial influence of moonshine is often +supposed to be particularly beneficial to children; for will not the +waxing moon help them to wax in strength and stature? Hence in the island +of Kiriwina, one of the Trobriands Group to the east of New Guinea, a +mother always lifts up or presents her child to the first full moon after +its birth in order that it may grow fast and talk soon.(391) So among the +Baganda of Central Africa it was customary for each mother to take her +child out at the first new moon after its birth, and to point out the moon +to the infant; this was thought to make the child grow healthy and +strong.(392) Among the Thonga of South Africa the presentation of the baby +to the moon does not take place until the mother has resumed her monthly +periods, which usually happens in the third month after the birth. When +the new moon appears, the mother takes a torch or a burning brand from the +fire and goes to the ash-heap behind the hut. She is followed by the +grandmother carrying the child. At the ash-heap the mother throws the +burning stick towards the moon, while the grandmother tosses the baby into +the air, saying, "This is your moon!" The child squalls and rolls over on +the ash-heap. Then the mother snatches up the infant and nurses it; so +they go home.(393) + +(M118) The Guarayos Indians, who inhabit the gloomy tropical forests of +Eastern Bolivia, lift up their children in the air at new moon in order +that they may grow.(394) Among the Apinagos Indians, on the Tocantins +River in Brazil, the French traveller Castelnau witnessed a remarkable +dance by moonlight. The Indians danced in two long ranks which faced each +other, the women on one side, the men on the other. Between the two ranks +of dancers blazed a great fire. The men were painted in brilliant colours, +and for the most part wore white or red skull-caps made of maize-flour and +resin. Their dancing was very monotonous and consisted of a jerky movement +of the body, while the dancer advanced first one leg and then the other. +This dance they accompanied with a melancholy song, striking the ground +with their weapons. Opposite them the women, naked and unpainted, stood in +a single rank, their bodies bent slightly forward, their knees pressed +together, their arms swinging in measured time, now forward, now backward, +so as to join hands. A remarkable figure in the dance was a personage +painted scarlet all over, who held in his hand a rattle composed of a +gourd full of pebbles. From time to time he leaped across the great fire +which burned between the men and the women. Then he would run rapidly in +front of the women, stopping now and then before one or other and +performing a series of strange gambols, while he shook his rattle +violently. Sometimes he would sink with one knee to the ground, and then +suddenly throw himself backward. Altogether the agility and endurance +which he displayed were remarkable. This dance lasted for hours. When a +woman was tired out she withdrew, and her place was taken by another; but +the same men danced the monotonous dance all night. Towards midnight the +moon attained the zenith and flooded the scene with her bright rays. A +change now took place in the dance. A long line of men and women advanced +to the fire between the ranks of the dancers. Each of them held one end of +a hammock in which lay a new-born infant, whose squalls could be heard. +These babes were now to be presented by their parents to the moon. On +reaching the end of the line each couple swung the hammock, accompanying +the movement by a chant, which all the Indians sang in chorus. The song +seemed to consist of three words, repeated over and over again. Soon a +shrill voice was heard, and a hideous old hag, like a skeleton, appeared +with her arms raised above her head. She went round and round the assembly +several times, then disappeared in silence. While she was present, the +scarlet dancer with the rattle bounded about more furiously than ever, +stopping only for a moment while he passed in front of the line of women. +His body was contracted and bent towards them, and described an undulatory +movement like that of a worm writhing. He shook his rattle violently, as +if he would fain kindle in the women the fire which burned in himself. +Then rising abruptly he would resume his wild career. During this time the +loud voice of an orator was heard from the village repeating a curious +name without cessation. Then the speaker approached slowly, carrying on +his back some gorgeous bunches of brilliant feathers and under his arm a +stone axe. Behind him walked a young woman bearing an infant in a loose +girdle at her waist; the child was wrapped in a mat, which protected it +against the chill night air. The couple paced slowly for a minute or two, +and then vanished without speaking a word. At the same moment the curious +name which the orator had shouted was taken up by the whole assembly and +repeated by them again and again. This scene in its turn lasted a long +time, but ceased suddenly with the setting of the moon. The French +traveller who witnessed it fell asleep, and when he awoke all was calm +once more: there was nothing to recall the infernal dances of the +night.(395) + +(M119) In explanation of these dances Castelnau merely observes that the +Apinagos, like many other South American Indians, pay a superstitious +respect to the moon. We may suppose that the ceremonious presentation of +the infants to the moon was intended to ensure their life and growth. The +names solemnly chanted by the whole assembly were probably those which the +parents publicly bestowed on their children. As to the scarlet dancer who +leaped across the fire, we may conjecture that he personated the moon, and +that his strange antics in front of the women were designed to impart to +them the fertilizing virtue of the luminary, and perhaps to facilitate +their delivery. + +(M120) Among the Baganda of Central Africa there is general rejoicing when +the new moon appears, and no work is done for seven days. When the +crescent is first visible at evening, mothers take out their babies and +hold them at arms' length, saying, "I want my child to keep in health till +the moon wanes." At the same time a ceremony is performed which may be +intended to ensure the king's life and health throughout the ensuing +month. It is a custom with the Baganda to preserve the king's navel-string +with great care during his life. The precious object is called the "Twin" +of the king, as if it were his double; and the ghost of the royal +afterbirth is believed to be attached to it. Enclosed in a pot, which is +wrapt in bark cloths, the navel-string is kept in a temple specially built +for it near the king's enclosure, and a great minister of state acts as +its guardian and priest. Every new moon, at evening, he carries it in +state, wrapped in bark cloths, to the king, who takes it into his hands, +examines it, and returns it to the minister. The keeper of the +navel-string then goes back with it to the house and sets it in the +doorway, where it remains all night. Next morning it is taken from its +wrappings and again placed in the doorway until the evening, when it is +once more swathed in bark cloths and restored to its usual place.(396) +Apparently the navel-string is conceived as a vital portion, a sort of +external soul, of the king; and the attentions bestowed on it at the new +moon may be supposed to refresh and invigorate it, thereby refreshing and +invigorating the king's life. + +(M121) The Armenians appear to think that the moon exercises a baleful +influence on little children. To avert that influence a mother will show +the moon to her child and say, "Thine uncle, thine uncle." For the same +purpose the father and mother will mount to the roof of the house at new +moon on a Wednesday or Friday. The father then puts the child on a shovel +and gives it to the mother, saying, "If it is thine, take it to thee. But +if it is mine, rear it and give it to me back." The mother then takes the +child and the shovel, and returns them to the father in like manner.(397) +A similar opinion as to the noxious influence of moonshine on children was +apparently held by the ancient Greeks; for Greek nurses took great care +never to show their infants to the moon.(398) Some Brazilian Indians in +like manner guard babies against the moon, believing that it would make +them ill. Immediately after delivery mothers will hide themselves and +their infants in the thickest parts of the forest in order that the +moonlight may not fall on them.(399) It would be easy to understand why +the waning moon should be deemed injurious to children; they might be +supposed to peak and pine with its dwindling light. Thus in Angus it is +thought that if a child be weaned during the waning of the moon, it will +decay all the time that the moon continues to wane.(400) But it is less +easy to see why the same deleterious influence on children should be +ascribed to moonlight in general. + +(M122) There are many other ways in which people have sought to turn lunar +sympathy to practical account. Clearly the increase of the moon is the +time to increase your goods, and the decrease of the moon is the time to +diminish your ills. Acting on this imaginary law of nature many persons in +Europe show their money to the new moon or turn it in their pockets at +that season, in the belief that the money will grow with the growth of the +planet; sometimes, by way of additional precaution, they spit on the coin +at the same time.(401) "Both Christians and Moslems in Syria turn their +silver money in their pockets at the new moon for luck; and two persons +meeting under the new moon will each take out a silver coin and embrace, +saying, 'May you begin and end; and may it be a good month to us.' "(402) +Conversely the waning of the moon is the most natural time to get rid of +bodily ailments. In Brittany they think that warts vary with the phases of +the moon, growing as it waxes and vanishing away as it wanes.(403) +Accordingly, they say in Germany that if you would rid yourself of warts +you should treat them when the moon is on the decrease.(404) And a German +cure for toothache, earache, headache, and so forth, is to look towards +the waning moon and say, "As the moon decreases, so may my pains decrease +also."(405) However, some Germans reverse the rule. They say, for example, +that if you are afflicted with a wen, you should face the waxing moon, lay +your finger on the wen, and say thrice, "What I see waxes; what I touch, +let it vanish away." After each of these two sentences you should cross +yourself thrice. Then go home without speaking to any one, and repeat +three paternosters behind the kitchen door.(406) The Huzuls of the +Carpathians recommend a somewhat similar, and no doubt equally +efficacious, cure for waterbrash. They say that at new moon the patient +should run thrice round the house and then say to the moon, "Moon, moon, +where wast thou?" "Behind the mountain." "What hast thou eaten there?" +"Horse flesh." "Why hast thou brought me nothing?" "Because I forgot." +"May the waterbrash forget to burn me!"(407) Thus a curative virtue +appears to be attributed by some people to the waning and by others to the +waxing moon. There is perhaps just as much, or as little, to be said for +the one attribution as for the other. + + + + + +CHAPTER X. THE KING AS OSIRIS. + + +(M123) In the foregoing discussion we found reason to believe that the +Semitic Adonis and the Phrygian Attis were at one time personated in the +flesh by kings, princes, or priests who played the part of the god for a +time and then either died a violent death in the divine character or had +to redeem their life in one way or another, whether by performing a +make-believe sacrifice at some expense of pain and danger to themselves, +or by delegating the duty to a substitute.(408) Further, we conjectured +that in Egypt the part of Osiris may have been played by the king +himself.(409) It remains to adduce some positive evidence of this +personation. + +(M124) A great festival called the Sed was celebrated by the Egyptians +with much solemnity at intervals of thirty years. Various portions of the +ritual are represented on the ancient monuments of Hieraconpolis and +Abydos and in the oldest decorated temple of Egypt known to us, that of +Usirniri at Busiris, which dates from the fifth dynasty. It appears that +the ceremonies were as old as the Egyptian civilization, and that they +continued to be observed till the end of the Roman period.(410) The reason +for holding them at intervals of thirty years is uncertain, but we can +hardly doubt that the period was determined by astronomical +considerations. According to one view, it was based on the observation of +Saturn's period of revolution round the sun, which is, roughly speaking, +thirty years, or, more exactly, twenty-nine years and one hundred and +seventy-four days.(411) According to another view, the thirty years' +period had reference to Sirius, the star of Isis. We have seen that on +account of the vague character of the old Egyptian year the heliacal +rising of Sirius shifted its place gradually through every month of the +calendar.(412) In one hundred and twenty years the star thus passed +through one whole month of thirty days. To speak more precisely, it rose +on the first of the month during the first four years of the period: it +rose on the second of the month in the second four years, on the third of +the month in the third four years; and so on successively, till in the +last four years of the hundred and twenty years it rose on the last day of +the month. As the Egyptians watched the annual summer rising of the star +with attention and associated it with the most popular of their goddesses, +it would be natural that its passage from one month to another, at +intervals of one hundred and twenty years, should be the occasion of a +great festival, and that the long period of one hundred and twenty years +should be divided into four minor periods of thirty years respectively, +each celebrated by a minor festival.(413) If this theory of the Sed +festivals is correct, we should expect to find that every fourth +celebration was distinguished from the rest by a higher degree of +solemnity, since it marked the completion of a twelfth part of the star's +journey through the twelve months. Now it appears that in point of fact +every fourth Sed festival was marked off from its fellows by the adjective +_tep_ or "chief," and that these "chief" celebrations fell as a rule in +the years when Sirius rose on the first of the month.(414) These facts +confirm the view that the Sed festival was closely connected with the star +Sirius, and through it with Isis. + +(M125) However, we are here concerned rather with the meaning and the +rites of the festival than with the reasons for holding it once every +thirty years. The intention of the festival seems to have been to procure +for the king a new lease of life, a renovation of his divine energies, a +rejuvenescence. In the inscriptions of Abydos we read, after an account of +the rites, the following address to the king: "Thou dost recommence thy +renewal, thou art granted to flourish again like the infant god Moon, thou +dost grow young again, and that from season to season, like Nun at the +beginning of time, thou art born again in renewing the Sed festivals. All +life comes to thy nostril, and thou art king of the whole earth for +ever."(415) In short, on these occasions it appears to have been supposed +that the king was in a manner born again. + +(M126) But how was the new birth effected? Apparently the essence of the +rites consisted in identifying the king with Osiris; for just as Osiris +had died and risen again from the dead, so the king might be thought to +die and to live again with the god whom he personated. The ceremony would +thus be for the king a death as well as a rebirth. Accordingly in pictures +of the Sed festival on the monuments we see the king posing as the dead +Osiris. He sits in a shrine like a god, holding in his hands the crook and +flail of Osiris: he is wrapped in tight bandages like the mummified +Osiris; indeed, there is nothing but his name to prove that he is not +Osiris himself. This enthronement of the king in the attitude of the dead +god seems to have been the principal event of the festival.(416) Further, +the queen and the king's daughters figured prominently in the +ceremonies.(417) A discharge of arrows formed part of the rites;(418) and +in some sculptures at Carnac the queen is portrayed shooting arrows +towards the four quarters of the world, while the king does the same with +rings.(419) The oldest illustration of the festival is on the mace of +Narmer, which is believed to date from 5500 B.C. Here we see the king +seated as Osiris in a shrine at the top of nine steps. Beside the shrine +stand fan-bearers, and in front of it is a figure in a palanquin, which, +according to an inscription in another representation of the scene, +appears to be the royal child. An enclosure of curtains hung on poles +surrounds the dancing-ground, where three men are performing a sacred +dance. A procession of standards is depicted beside the enclosure; it is +headed by the standard of the jackal-god Up-uat, the "opener of ways" for +the dead.(420) Similarly on a seal of King Zer, or rather Khent, one of +the early kings of the first dynasty, the monarch appears as Osiris with +the standard of the jackal-god before him. In front of him, too, is the +ostrich feather on which "the dead king was supposed to ascend into +heaven. Here, then, the king, identified with Osiris, king of the dead, +has before him the jackal-god, who leads the dead, and the ostrich +feather, which symbolizes his reception into the sky."(421) There are even +grounds for thinking that in order to complete the mimic death of the king +at the Sed festival an effigy of him, clad in the costume of Osiris, was +solemnly buried in a cenotaph.(422) + +(M127) According to Professor Flinders Petrie, "the conclusion may be +drawn thus. In the savage age of prehistoric times, the Egyptians, like +many other African and Indian peoples, killed their priest-king at stated +intervals, in order that the ruler should, with unimpaired life and +health, be enabled to maintain the kingdom in its highest condition. The +royal daughters were present in order that they might be married to his +successor. The jackal-god went before him, to open the way to the unseen +world; and the ostrich feather received and bore away the king's soul in +the breeze that blew it out of sight. This was the celebration of the +'end,' the _sed_ feast. The king thus became the dead king, patron of all +those who had died in his reign, who were his subjects here and hereafter. +He was thus one with Osiris, the king of the dead. This fierce custom +became changed, as in other lands, by appointing a deputy king to die in +his stead; which idea survived in the Coptic Abu Nerus, with his tall +crown of Upper Egypt, false beard, and sceptre. After the death of the +deputy, the real king renewed his life and reign. Henceforward this became +the greatest of the royal festivals, the apotheosis of the king during his +life, after which he became Osiris upon earth and the patron of the dead +in the underworld."(423) + +(M128) A similar theory of the Sed festival is maintained by another +eminent Egyptologist, M. Alexandre Moret. He says: "In most of the temples +of Egypt, of all periods, pictures set forth for us the principal scenes +of a solemn festival called 'festival of the tail,' the Sed festival. It +consisted essentially in a representation of the ritual death of the king +followed by his rebirth. In this case the king is identified with Osiris, +the god who in historical times is the hero of the sacred drama of +humanity, he who guides us through the three stages of life, death, and +rebirth in the other world. Hence, clad in the funeral costume of Osiris, +with the tight-fitting garment clinging to him like a shroud, Pharaoh is +conducted to the tomb; and from it he returns rejuvenated and reborn like +Osiris emerging from the dead. How was this fiction carried out? how was +this miracle performed? By the sacrifice of human or animal victims. On +behalf of the king a priest lay down in the skin of the animal victim: he +assumed the posture characteristic of an embryo in its mother's womb: when +he came forth from the skin he was deemed to be reborn; and Pharaoh, for +whom this rite was celebrated, was himself reborn, or to adopt the +Egyptian expression, 'he renewed his births.' And in testimony of the due +performance of the rites the king girt his loins with the tail, a +compendious representative of the skin of the sacrificed beast, whence the +name of 'the festival of the tail.' + +"How are we to explain the rule that at a certain point of his reign every +Pharaoh must undergo this ritual death followed by fictitious rebirth? Is +it simply a renewal of the initiation into the Osirian mysteries? or does +the festival present some more special features? The ill-defined part +played by the royal children in these rites seems to me to indicate that +the Sed festival represents other episodes which refer to the transmission +of the regal office. At the dawn of civilization in Egypt the people were +perhaps familiar with the alternative either of putting their king to +death in his full vigour in order that his power should be transmitted +intact to his successor, or of attempting to rejuvenate him and to 'renew +his life.' The latter measure was an invention of the Pharaohs. How could +it be carried out more effectively than by identifying themselves with +Osiris, by applying to themselves the process of resurrection, the funeral +rites by which Isis, according to the priests, had magically saved her +husband from death? Perhaps the fictitious death of the king may be +regarded as a mitigation of the primitive murder of the divine king, a +transition from a barbarous reality to symbolism."(424) + +(M129) Whether this interpretation of the Sed festival be accepted in all +its details or not, one thing seems quite certain: on these solemn +occasions the god Osiris was personated by the king of Egypt himself. That +is the point with which we are here chiefly concerned. + + + + + +CHAPTER XI. THE ORIGIN OF OSIRIS. + + +(M130) Thus far we have discussed the character of Osiris as he is +presented to us in the art and literature of Egypt and in the testimonies +of Greek writers; and we have found that judged by these indications he +was in the main a god of vegetation and of the dead. But we have still to +ask, how did the conception of such a composite deity originate? Did it +arise simply through observation of the great annual fluctuations of the +seasons and a desire to explain them? Was it a result of brooding over the +mystery of external nature? Was it the attempt of a rude philosophy to +lift the veil and explore the hidden springs that set the vast machine in +motion? That man at a very early stage of his long history meditated on +these things and evolved certain crude theories which partially satisfied +his craving after knowledge is certain; from such meditations of +Babylonian and Phrygian sages appear to have sprung the pathetic figures +of Adonis and Attis; and from such meditations of Egyptian sages may have +sprung the tragic figure of Osiris. + +(M131) Yet a broad distinction seems to sever the myth and worship of +Osiris from the kindred myths and worships of Adonis and Attis. For while +Adonis and Attis were minor divinities in the religion of Western Asia, +completely overshadowed by the greater deities of their respective +pantheons, the solemn figure of Osiris towered in solitary grandeur over +all the welter of Egyptian gods, like a pyramid of his native land lit up +by the last rays of the setting sun when all below it is in shadow. And +whereas legend generally represented Adonis and Attis as simple swains, +mere herdsmen or hunters whom the fatal love of a goddess had elevated +above their homely sphere into a brief and melancholy pre-eminence, Osiris +uniformly appears in tradition as a great and beneficent king. In life, he +ruled over his people, beloved and revered for the benefits he conferred +on them and on the world; in death he reigned in their hearts and memories +as lord of the dead, the awful judge at whose bar every man must one day +stand to give an account of the deeds done in the body and to receive the +final award. In the faith of the Egyptians the cruel death and blessed +resurrection of Osiris occupied the same place as the death and +resurrection of Christ hold in the faith of Christians. As Osiris died and +rose again from the dead, so they hoped through him and in his dear name +to wake triumphant from the sleep of death to a blissful eternity. That +was their sheet-anchor in life's stormy sea; that was the hope which +supported and consoled millions of Egyptian men and women for a period of +time far longer than that during which Christianity has now existed on +earth. In the long history of religion no two divine figures resemble each +other more closely in the fervour of personal devotion which they have +kindled and in the high hopes which they have inspired than Osiris and +Christ. The sad figure of Buddha indeed has been as deeply loved and +revered by countless millions; but he had no glad tidings of immortality +for men, nothing but the promise of a final release from the burden of +mortality. + +(M132) And if Osiris and Christ have been the centres of the like +enthusiastic devotion, may not the secret of their influence have been +similar? If Christ lived the life and died the death of a man on earth, +may not Osiris have done so likewise? The immense and enduring popularity +of his worship speaks in favour of the supposition; for all the other +great religious or semi-religious systems which have won for themselves a +permanent place in the affections of mankind, have been founded by +individual great men, who by their personal life and example exerted a +power of attraction such as no cold abstractions, no pale products of the +collective wisdom or folly could ever exert on the minds and hearts of +humanity. Thus it was with Buddhism, with Confucianism, with Christianity, +and with Mohammedanism; and thus it may well have been with the religion +of Osiris. Certainly we shall do less violence to the evidence if we +accept the unanimous tradition of ancient Egypt on this point than if we +resolve the figure of Osiris into a myth pure and simple. And when we +consider that from the earliest to the latest times Egyptian kings were +worshipped as gods both in life and in death, there appears to be nothing +extravagant or improbable in the view that one of them by his personal +qualities excited a larger measure of devotion than usual during his life +and was remembered with fonder affection and deeper reverence after his +death; till in time his beloved memory, dimmed, transfigured, and +encircled with a halo of glory by the mists of time, grew into the +dominant religion of his people. At least this theory is reasonable enough +to deserve a serious consideration. If we accept it, we may suppose that +the mythical elements, which legend undoubtedly ascribed to Osiris, were +later accretions which gathered about his memory like ivy about a ruin. +There is no improbability in such a supposition; on the contrary, all +analogy is in its favour, for nothing is more certain than that myths grow +like weeds round the great historical figures of the past. + +(M133) In recent years the historical reality of Osiris as a king who once +lived and reigned in Egypt has been maintained by more than one learned +scholar;(425) and without venturing to pronounce a decided opinion on so +obscure and difficult a question, I think it worth while, following the +example of Dr. Wallis Budge, to indicate certain modern African analogies +which tend to confirm the view that beneath the mythical wrappings of +Osiris there lay the mummy of a dead man. At all events the analogies +which I shall cite suffice to prove that the custom of worshipping dead +kings has not been confined to Egypt, but has been apparently widespread +throughout Africa, though the evidence now at our disposal only enables us +to detect the observance of the custom at a few points of the great +continent. But even if the resemblance in this respect between ancient +Egypt and modern Africa should be regarded as established, it would not +justify us in inferring an ethnical affinity between the fair or ruddy +Egyptians and the black aboriginal races who occupy almost the whole of +Africa except a comparatively narrow fringe on the northern sea-board. +Scholars are still divided on the question of the original home and racial +relationship of the ancient Egyptians. It has been held on the one hand +that they belong to an indigenous white race which has been always in +possession of the Mediterranean coasts of Africa; and on the other hand it +has been supposed that they are akin to the Semites in blood as well as in +language, and that they entered Africa from the East, whether by gradual +infiltration or on a sudden wave of conquest like the Arabs in the decline +of the Roman empire.(426) On either view a great gulf divided them from +the swarthy natives of the Sudan, with whom they were always in contact on +their southern border; and though a certain admixture may have taken place +through marriage between the two races, it seems unsafe to assume that the +religious and political resemblances which can be traced between them are +based on any closer relationship than the general similarity in structure +and functions of the human mind. + +(M134) In a former part of this work we saw that the Shilluks, a pastoral +and partially agricultural people of the White Nile, worship the spirits +of their dead kings.(427) The graves of the deceased monarchs form indeed +the national or tribal temples; and as each king is interred at the +village where he was born and where his afterbirth is buried, these +grave-shrines are scattered over the country. Each of them usually +comprises a small group of round huts, resembling the common houses of the +people, the whole being enclosed by a fence; one of the huts is built over +the grave, the others are occupied by the guardians of the shrine, who at +first are generally the widows or old men-servants of the deceased king. +When these women or retainers die, they are succeeded in office by their +descendants, for the tombs are maintained in perpetuity, so that the +number of temples and of gods is always on the increase. Cattle are +dedicated to these royal shrines and animals sacrificed at them. For +example, when the millet crop threatens to fail or a murrain breaks out +among the beasts, one of the dead kings will appear to somebody in a dream +and demand a sacrifice. The dream is reported to the king, and he +immediately orders a bullock and a cow to be sent to the grave of the dead +king who appeared in a vision of the night to the sleeper. This is done; +the bullock is killed and the cow added to the sacred herd of the shrine. +It is customary, also, though not necessary, at harvest to offer some of +the new millet at the temple-tombs of the kings; and sick people send +animals to be sacrificed there on their behalf. Special regard is paid to +trees that grow near the graves of the kings; and the spirits of the +departed monarchs are believed to appear from time to time in the form of +certain animals. One of them, for example, always takes the shape of a +certain insect, which seems to be the larva of the _Mantidae_. When a +Shilluk finds one of these insects, he will take it up in his hands and +deposit it reverentially at the shrine. Other kings manifest themselves as +a certain species of white birds; others assume the form of giraffes. When +one of these long-legged and long-necked creatures comes stalking up +fearlessly to a village where there is a king's grave, the people know +that the king's soul is in the animal, and the attendants at the royal +tomb testify their joy at the appearance of their master by sacrificing a +sheep or even a bullock. + +(M135) But of all the dead kings none is revered so deeply or occupies so +large a place in the minds of the people as Nyakang, the traditional +founder of the dynasty and the ancestor of all the kings who have reigned +after him to the present day. Of these kings the Shilluks have preserved +the memory and the genealogy; twenty-six seem to have sat on the throne +since Nyakang, but the period of time covered by their reigns is much +shorter than it would have been under conditions such as now prevail in +Europe; for down to the time when their country came under British rule it +was the regular custom of the Shilluks to put their kings to death as soon +as they showed serious symptoms of bodily or mental decay. The custom was +based on "the conviction that the king must not be allowed to become ill +or senile, lest with his diminishing vigour the cattle should sicken and +fail to bear their increase, the crops should rot in the fields, and man, +stricken with disease, should die in ever-increasing numbers."(428) It is +said that Nyakang, like Romulus, disappeared in a great storm, which +scattered all the people about him; in their absence the king took a +cloth, tied it tightly round his neck, and strangled himself. According to +one account, that is the death which all his successors on the throne have +died;(429) but while tradition appears to be unanimous as to the custom of +regicide, it varies as to the precise mode in which the kings were +relieved of their office and of life. But still the people are convinced +that Nyakang did not really die but only vanished mysteriously away like +the wind. When a missionary asked the Shilluks as to the manner of +Nyakang's death, they were filled with amazement at his ignorance and +stoutly maintained that he never died, for were he to die all the Shilluks +would die also.(430) The graves of this deified king are shown in various +parts of the country. + +(M136) From time to time the spirit of Nyakang manifests itself to his +people in the form of an animal. Any creature of regal port or surpassing +beauty may serve as his temporary incarnation. Such among wild animals are +lions, crocodiles, little yellow snakes that crawl about men's houses, the +finest sorts of antelopes, flamingoes with their rose-pink and scarlet +plumage, and butterflies of all sorts with their brilliant and varied +hues. An unusually fine head of cattle is also recognized as the abode of +the great king's soul; for example he once appeared in the shape of a +white bull, whereupon the living king commanded special sacrifices to be +offered in honour of his deified predecessor. When a bird in which the +royal spirit is known to be lodged lights on a tree, that tree becomes +sacred to Nyakang; beads and cloths are hung on its boughs, sacrifices and +prayers are offered below it. Once when the Turks unknowingly felled such +a tree, fear and horror fell on the Shilluks who beheld the sacrilege. +They filled the air with lamentations and killed an ox to appease their +insulted ancestor.(431) Particular regard is also paid to trees that grow +near the graves of Nyakang, though they are not regularly worshipped.(432) +In one place two gigantic baobab trees are pointed out as marking the spot +where Nyakang once stood, and sacrifices are now offered under their +spreading shade.(433) + +(M137) There seems to be no doubt that in spite of the mythical elements +which have gathered round his memory, Nyakang was a real man, who led the +Shilluks to their present home on the Nile either from the west or from +the south; for on this point tradition varies. "The first and most +important ancestor, who is everywhere revered, is Nyakang, the first +Shilluk king. He always receives the honourable titles of Father (_uo_), +Ancestor (_qua_), King (_red_) or Kings (_ror_), Ancestors, and Great Man +Above (_cal duong mal_) to distinguish him from the other great men on +earth. Nyakang, as we know, was an historical personage; he led the +Shilluks to the land which they now occupy; he helped them to victory, +made them great and warlike, regulated marriage and law, distributed the +country among them, divided it into districts, and in order to increase +the dependence of the people on him and to show them his power, became +their greatest benefactor by giving himself out as the bestower of +rain."(434) Yet Nyakang is now universally revered by the people as a +demi-god; indeed for all practical purposes his worship quite eclipses +that of the supreme god Juok, the creator, who, having ordered the world, +committed it to the care of ancestral spirits and demons, and now, +dwelling aloft, concerns himself no further with human affairs. Hence men +pay little heed to their creator and seldom take his name into their lips +except in a few conventional forms of salutation at meeting and parting +like our "Good-bye." Far otherwise is it with Nyakang. He "is the ancestor +of the Shilluk nation and the founder of the Shilluk dynasty. He is +worshipped, sacrifices and prayers are offered to him; he may be said to +be lifted to the rank of a demi-god, though they never forget that he has +been a real man. He is expressly designated as 'little' in comparison with +God." Yet "in the political, religious and personal life Nyakang takes a +far more important place than Juok. Nyakang is the national hero, of whom +each Shilluk feels proud, who is praised in innumerable popular songs and +sayings; he is not only a superior being, but also a man. He is the +sublime model for every true Shilluk; everything they value most in their +national and private life has its origin in him: their kingdom and their +fighting as well as cattle-breeding and farming. While Nyakang is their +good father, who only does them good, Juok is the great, uncontrollable +power, which is to be propitiated, in order to avoid his inflictions of +evil."(435) Indeed "the whole working religion of the Shilluk is a cult of +Nyakang, the semi-divine ancestor of their kings, in each of whom his +spirit is immanent."(436) The transmission of the divine or semi-divine +spirit of Nyakang to the reigning monarch appears to take place at the +king's installation and to be effected by means of a rude wooden effigy of +Nyakang, in which the spirit of that deified man is perhaps supposed to be +immanent. But however the spiritual transmission may be carried out, "the +fundamental idea of the cult of the Shilluk divine kings is the immanence +in each of the spirit of Nyakang."(437) Thus the Shilluk kings are +encircled with a certain halo of divinity because they are thought to be +animated by the divine spirit of their ancestor, the founder of the +dynasty. + +(M138) The universal belief of the Shilluks in the former humanity of +Nyakang is strongly confirmed by the exact parallelism which prevails +between his worship and that of the dead kings his successors. Like them +he is worshipped at his tomb; but unlike them he has not one tomb only, +but ten scattered over the country. Each of these tombs is called "the +grave of Nyakang," though the people well know that nobody is buried +there. Like the grave-shrines of the other kings, those of Nyakang consist +of a small group of circular huts of the ordinary pattern enclosed by a +fence. Only children under puberty and the few old people whose duty it is +to take care of the shrines may enter these sacred enclosures. The rites +performed at them resemble those observed at the shrines of the kings. Two +great ceremonies are annually performed at the shrines of Nyakang: one is +observed before the beginning of the rainy season in order to ensure a due +supply of rain; the other is a thanksgiving at harvest, when porridge made +from the new grain is poured out on the threshold of Nyakang's hut and +smeared on the outer walls of the building. Even before the millet is +reaped the people cut some of the ripening ears and thrust them into the +thatch of the sacred hut. Thus it would seem that the Shilluks believe +themselves to be dependent on the favour of Nyakang for the rain and the +crops. "As the giver of rain, Nyakang is the first and greatest benefactor +of the people. In that country rain is everything, without rain there is +nothing. The Shilluk does not trouble his head about artificial +irrigation, he waits for the rain. If the rain falls, then the millet +grows, the cows thrive, man has food and can dance and marry; for that is +the ideal of the Shilluks."(438) Sick people also bring or send sheep as +an offering to the nearest shrine of Nyakang in order that they may be +healed of their sickness. The attendants of the sanctuary slaughter the +animal, consume its flesh, and give the sufferer the benefit of their +prayers.(439) + +(M139) The example of Nyakang seems to show that under favourable +circumstances the worship of a dead king may develop into the dominant +religion of a people. There is, therefore, no intrinsic improbability in +the view that in ancient Egypt the religion of Osiris originated in that +way. Certainly some curious resemblances can be traced between the dead +Nyakang and the dead Osiris. Both died violent and mysterious deaths: the +graves of both were pointed out in many parts of the country: both were +deemed the great sources of fertility for the whole land: and both were +associated with certain sacred trees and animals, particularly with bulls. +And just as Egyptian kings identified themselves both in life and in death +with their deified predecessor Osiris, so Shilluk kings are still believed +to be animated by the spirit of their deified predecessor Nyakang and to +share his divinity. + +(M140) Another African people who regularly worship, or rather used to +worship, the spirits of their dead kings are the Baganda. Their country +Uganda lies at the very source of the Nile, where the great river issues +from Lake Victoria Nyanza. Among them the ghosts of dead kings were placed +on an equality with the gods and received the same honour and worship; +they foretold events which concerned the State, and they advised the +living king, warning him when war was likely to break out. The king +consulted them periodically, visiting first one and then another of the +temples in which the mortal remains of his predecessors were preserved +with religious care. But the temple (_malolo_) of a king contained only +his lower jawbone and his navel-string (_mulongo_); his body was buried +elsewhere.(440) For curiously enough the Baganda believed that the part of +the body to which the ghost of a dead man adheres above all others is the +lower jawbone; wherever that portion of his person may be carried, the +ghost, in the opinion of these people, will follow it, even to the ends of +the earth, and will be perfectly content to remain with it so long as the +jawbone is honoured.(441) Hence the jawbones of all the kings of Uganda +from the earliest times to the present day have been preserved with the +utmost care, each of them being deposited, along with the stump of the +monarch's navel-string, in a temple specially dedicated to the worship of +the king's ghost; for it is believed that the ghosts of the deceased +monarchs would quarrel if they shared the same temple, the question of +precedence being one which it would be very difficult for them to adjust +to their mutual satisfaction.(442) All the temples of the dead kings stand +in the district called Busiro, which means the place of the graves, +because the tombs as well as the temples of the departed potentates are +situated within its boundaries. The supervision of the temples and of the +estates attached to them was a duty incumbent on the _Mugema_ or earl of +Busiro, one of the few hereditary chiefs in the country. His principal +office was that of Prime Minister (_Katikiro_) to the dead kings.(443) + +(M141) When a king dies, his body is sent to Busiro and there embalmed. +Then it is laid to rest in a large round house, which has been built for +its reception on the top of a hill. This is the king's tomb. It is a +conical structure supported by a central post, with a thatched roof +reaching down to the ground. Round the hut a high strong fence of reeds is +erected, and an outer fence encircles the whole at some distance lower +down the hill. Here the body is placed on a bedstead; the sepulchral +chamber is filled with bark cloths till it can hold no more, the mainpost +is cut down, and the door of the tomb closed, so that no one can enter it +again. When that was done, the wives of the late king used to be brought, +with their arms pinioned, and placed at intervals round the outer wall of +the tomb, where they were clubbed to death. Hundreds of men were also +killed in the space between the two fences, that their ghosts might wait +on the ghost of the dead king in the other world. None of their bodies +were buried; they were left to rot where they fell. Then the gates in the +fences were closed; and three chiefs with their men guarded the dead +bodies from the wild beasts and the vultures. But the hut in which the +king's body reposed was never repaired; it was allowed to moulder and fall +into decay.(444) + +(M142) Five months later the jawbone of the royal corpse was removed in +order to be fashioned into an effigy or representative of the dead king. +For this purpose three chiefs entered the tomb, not through the door, but +by cutting a hole through the wall, and having severed the head from the +body they brought it out, carefully filling up the hole in the wall behind +them, replacing the thatch, and securing the gates in the fence. When the +jawbone had been removed by a chief of the Civet clan, the skull was sent +back to Busiro and buried with honour near the mouldering tomb. In +contrast to the neglect of the tomb where the royal body lay, the place +where the skull was buried was kept in good repair and guarded by some of +the old princesses and widows. As for the jawbone, it was put in an +ant-hill and left there till the ants had eaten away all the flesh. Then, +after it had been washed in beer and milk, it was decorated with +cowry-shells and placed in a wooden vessel; this vessel was next wrapt in +bark cloths till it assumed a conical shape, about two and a half feet +high by a foot and a half broad at the base. This conical packet, +decorated on the outside with beads, was treated as an image of the +deceased king or rather as if it were the king himself in life, for it was +called simply "The King." Beside it was placed the stump of the king's +navel-string, similarly wrapt in bark cloths and decorated, though not +made up into a conical shape.(445) The reason for preserving both the +jawbone and the navel-string was that the ghost of the king was supposed +to attach itself to his jawbone, and the ghost of his double to his +navel-string. For in the belief of the Baganda every person has a double, +namely, the afterbirth or placenta, which is born immediately after him +and is regarded by the people as a second child. Now that double has a +ghost of its own, which adheres to the navel-string; and if the person is +to remain healthy, it is essential that the ghost of his double should be +carefully preserved. Hence every Baganda man and woman keeps his or her +navel-string wrapt up in bark cloth as a treasure of great price on which +his health and prosperity are dependent; the precious little bundle is +called his Twin (_mulongo_), because it contains the ghost of his double, +the afterbirth. If that is deemed necessary for everybody, much more is it +deemed essential for the welfare of the king; hence during his life the +stump of his navel-string is kept, as we saw,(446) by one of the principal +ministers of state and is inspected by the king himself every month. And +when his majesty has departed this life, the unity of his spirit +imperatively demands that his own ghost and the ghost of his double should +be kept together in the same place; that is why the jawbone and the +navel-string of every dead king are carefully preserved in the same +temple, because the two ghosts adhere respectively to these two parts of +his person, and it would be unreasonable and indeed cruel to divide +them.(447) + +(M143) The two ghosts having been thus safely lodged in the two precious +parcels, the next thing was to install them in the temple, where they were +to enter on their career of beneficent activity. A site having been +chosen, the whole country supplied the labour necessary for building the +temple; and ministers were appointed to wait upon the dead king. The +officers of state who had held important posts during his life retained +their titles and continued to discharge their duties towards their old +master in death. Accordingly houses were built for them near the temple. +The dowager queen also took up her residence at the entrance to the temple +enclosure, and became its principal guardian. Many also of the king's +widows of lower rank were drafted off to live inside the enclosure and +keep watch over it. When the queen or any of these widows died, her place +was supplied by another princess or a woman of the same clan; for the +temple was maintained in perpetuity. However, when the reigning king died, +the temple of his predecessor lost much of its importance, though it was +still kept up in a less magnificent style; indeed no temple of a dead king +was allowed to disappear altogether.(448) Of all the attendants at the +temple the most important probably was the prophet or medium (_mandwa_), +whose business it was from time to time to be inspired by the ghost of the +deceased monarch and to give oracles in his name. To this holy office he +dedicated himself by drinking a draught of beer and a draught of milk out +of the dead king's skull.(449) + +(M144) The temple consecrated to the worship of a king regularly stood on +a hill. The site was generally chosen by the king in his life, but +sometimes his choice was set aside by his successor, who gave orders to +build the temple in another place.(450) The structure was a large conical +or bee-hive-shaped hut of the ordinary pattern, divided internally into +two chambers, an outer and an inner. Any person might enter the outer +chamber, but the inner was sacred and no profane person might set foot in +it; for there the holy relics of the dead king, his jawbone and his +navel-string, were kept for safety in a cell dug in the floor, and there, +in close attendance on them, the king's ghost was believed to dwell. In +front of the partition which screened this Holy of Holies from the gaze of +the multitude there stood a throne, covered with lion and leopard skins +and fenced off from the rest of the sacred edifice by a glittering rail of +brass spears, shields, and knives. A forest of poles, supporting the roof, +formed a series of aisles in perfect line, and at the end of the central +nave appeared, like the altar of a Christian church, the throne in all its +glory. When the king's ghost held a reception, the holy relics, the +jawbone and the navel-string, each in its decorated wrappings, were +brought forth and set on the throne; and every person who entered the +temple bowed to the ground and greeted the jawbone in an awestruck voice, +for he regarded it as the king in person. Solemn music played during the +reception, the drums rolling and the women chanting, while they clapped +their hands to the rhythm of the songs. Sometimes the dead king spoke to +the congregation by the voice of his prophet. That was a great event. When +the oracle was about to be given to the expectant throng, the prophet +stepped up to the throne, and addressing the spirit informed him of the +business in hand. Then he smoked one or two pipes, and the fumes bringing +on the prophetic fit, he began to rave and to speak in the very voice and +with the characteristic turns of speech of the departed monarch, for the +king's spirit was now in him. This message from the world beyond the grave +was naturally received with rapt attention. Gradually the fit of +inspiration passed: the voice of the prophet resumed its natural tones: +the spirit had departed from him and returned to its abode in the inner +room. Such a solemn audience used to be announced beforehand by the +beating of the drums in the early morning, and the worshippers brought +with them to the temple offerings of food for the dead king, as if he were +still alive.(451) + +(M145) But the greatest day of all was when the reigning king visited the +temple of his father. This he did as a rule only once during his reign. +Nor did the people approve of the visits being repeated, for each visit +was the signal for the death of many. Yet, attracted by a painful +curiosity, crowds assembled, followed the monarch to the temple, and +thronged to see the great ceremony of the meeting between the king and the +ghost of his royal father. The sacred relics were displayed: an old man +explained them to the monarch and placed them in his hands: the prophet, +inspired by the dead king's spirit, revealed to the living king his +destiny. The interview over, the king was carried back to his house. It +was on the return journey that he always gave, suddenly and without +warning, the signal of death. Obedient to his orders the guards rushed +upon the crowd, captured hundreds of spectators, pinioned them, marched +them back to the temple, and slaughtered them within the precincts, that +their ghosts might wait on the ghost of the dead king.(452) But though the +king rarely visited his father's ghost at the temple, he had a private +chapel for the ghost within the vast enclosure of the royal residence; and +here he often paid his devotions to the august spirit, of whom he stood +greatly in awe. He took his wives with him to sing the departed monarch's +praise, and he constantly made offerings at the shrine. Thither, too, +would come the prophet to suck words of wisdom from the venerable ghost +and to impart them to the king, who thus walked in the counsel of his +glorified father.(453) + +(M146) In Kiziba, a district of Central Africa on the western side of Lake +Victoria Nyanza, the souls of dead kings become ruling spirits; temples +are built in their honour and priests appointed to serve them. The people +are composed of two different races, the Bairu, who are aboriginals, and +the Bahima, who are immigrants from the north. The royal family belongs to +the Bahima stock. In his lifetime the king's person is sacred; and all his +actions, property, and so forth are described by special terms +appropriated to that purpose. The people are divided into totemic clans: +the totems (_muziro_) are mostly animals or parts of animals: no man may +kill or eat his totem animal, nor marry a woman who has the same totem as +himself. The royal family seems to have serpents for their totem; after +death the king's soul lives in a serpent, while his body is buried in the +hut where he died. The people revere a supreme god named Rugaba, who is +believed to have created man and cattle; but they know little about him, +and though they occasionally pray to him, particularly in the case of a +difficult birth, he has no priests and receives no sacrifices. The +business of the priests is to act as intermediaries, not between God and +man, but between men and the spirits. The spirits are believed to have +been formerly kings of the world. The highest of them is a certain Wamara, +who rules over the souls of the dead, and who would seem to have been a +great king in his life. Temples are built for him; they are like the +houses of men, but only half as large. A perpetual holy fire is kept up in +each temple, and the priest passes the night in it. He receives white +sheep or goats as victims, and generally acts also as a diviner or +physician. When a man is very ill, he thinks that Wamara, the lord of the +spirits of the dead, is summoning him to the far country; so he sends a +sacrifice to Wamara's priest, who prays to the spirit to let the sick man +live yet a while.(454) This great spirit of an ancient king, who now rules +over the dead, resembles the Egyptian Osiris. + +(M147) The Bantu tribes who inhabit the great tableland of Northern +Rhodesia revere a supreme being whom they call Leza, but their ideas about +him are hazy. Thunder, lightning, earthquakes, rain, and other natural +phenomena are grouped together under his name as manifestations of his +power. Among the more progressive tribes, such as the Awemba and the +Wabisa, the great god is thought to take some interest in human affairs; +and though they do not pray to him, they nevertheless invoke him by his +names of praise, which set forth his attributes as the protector and judge +of mankind. It is he, too, who receives the souls of the departed. "Yet, +as far as the dominant Wemba tribe is concerned, the cult of Leza is +outside their ordinary religion. There is no direct access to him by +prayer or by sacrifices, which are made to Mulenga and the other great +tribal and ancestral spirits instead. For upon such animism is founded the +whole fabric of Wemba religion."(455) The ancestral spirits whom the +Awemba and all other tribes of this region worship may be divided into two +main classes. First come the spirits of departed chiefs, who are publicly +worshipped by the whole tribe; and second come the spirits of near +relations who are worshipped privately by each head of a family.(456) +"Among the Awemba there is no special shrine for these purely family +spirits, who are worshipped inside the hut, and to whom family sacrifice +of a sheep, a goat, or a fowl is made, the spirit receiving the blood +spilt on the ground, while all the members of the family partake of the +flesh together. For a religious Wemba man the cult of the spirit of his +nearest relations (of his grandparents, or of his deceased father, mother, +elder brother, or maternal uncle) is considered quite sufficient. Out of +these spirit relatives a man will worship one whom he considers as his +special familiar, for various reasons. For instance, the diviner may have +told him that his last illness was caused because he had not respected the +spirit of his uncle; accordingly he will be careful in future to adopt his +uncle as his tutelary spirit. As a mark of such respect he may devote a +cow or a goat to one of the spirits of his ancestors. Holding the fowl, +for instance, in his hands, he will dedicate it, asking the spirit to come +and abide in it, upon which the fowl is let go, and is afterwards called +by the name of the spirit. If the necessities, however, of the larder +demand that it should be killed, another animal is taken, and the spirit +is asked to accept it as a substitute! Before beginning any special task, +such as hoeing a new garden, or going on a journey, Wemba men invoke their +tutelary spirits to be with them and to assist their efforts, in short +ejaculatory prayers usually couched in a set formula. Among many of the +tribes in the North Luangwa district longer formal prayers are still made +to all the deceased ancestors of the clan at the time of harvest, asking +them to protect the crops and to drive away illnesses and evil spirits +from the family, which honours them with libations of beer and offerings +of the first-fruits."(457) + +(M148) Thus among these tribes, who all belong to the great Bantu family, +the public worship which a whole tribe pays to the souls of its dead +chiefs is probably nothing but an extension of the private worship which +every family pays privately to the souls of its dead members. And just as +the members of his family whom a man worships privately are not mythical +beings conjured up by imagination out of a distant past, but were once +real men like himself whom he knew in life, it may be his father, or +uncle, or elder brother, so we may be sure that in like manner the dead +chiefs revered by the whole tribe are not creations of the mythical fancy, +but were once real men of flesh and blood, who ruled over the tribe, and +whose memory has been more or less faithfully preserved by tradition. In +this respect the tribes of Northern Rhodesia are typical of all the tribes +of that great Bantu family which occupies nearly the whole southern half +of Africa, from the great equatorial lakes to the Cape of Good Hope. The +main practical religion of all these numerous and widespread peoples +appears to be the worship of their ancestors. + +(M149) To adduce in full the evidence which points to this conclusion +would lead us too far from our present subject; it must suffice to cite a +few typical statements of competent authorities which refer to different +tribes of the Bantu stock. Speaking with special reference to the tribes +of South-Eastern Africa, the Rev. James Macdonald tells us that "the +religion of the Bantu, which they not only profess but really regulate +their conduct by, is based on the belief that the spirits of their +ancestors interfere constantly in their affairs. Every man worships his +own ancestors and offers sacrifices to avert their wrath. The clan +worships the spirits of the ancestors of its chiefs, and the tribe +worships the spirits of the ancestors of the paramount chief."(458) "The +religion of the Bantu was based upon the supposition of the existence of +spirits that could interfere with the affairs of this world. These spirits +were those of their ancestors and their deceased chiefs, the greatest of +whom had control over lightning. When the spirits became offended or +hungry they sent a plague or disaster until sacrifices were offered and +their wrath or hunger was appeased. The head of a family of commoners on +such an occasion killed an animal, and all ate of the meat, as the hungry +ghost was supposed to be satisfied with the smell."(459) For example, in +the year 1891 the son of a chief of the Pondomisi tribe was arrested for +an assault and sent for trial before a colonial court. It chanced to be a +season of intense heat and severe drought, and the Pondomisi tribe +attributed these calamities to the wrath of a dead chief named Gwanya, +very famous in his lifetime, whose body, fastened to a log, had been +buried under a heap of stones in a deep pool of the Lina river. This +redoubtable chieftain was the seventh ancestor in the direct line of the +man who had committed the assault; and he warmly resented the indignity +which the whites had done to a noble scion of his house by consigning him +to durance vile. To appease the natural indignation of the ghost, the +tribesmen killed cattle on the banks of the pool which contained his +grave, and threw the flesh into the water along with new dishes full of +beer. The prisoner, however, was convicted of the assault and sentenced by +the ruthless magistrate, who was no respecter of ghosts, to pay a fine. +But the tribe clubbed together and paid the fine for him; and a few days +later rain fell in plenty. The mollified ghost had opened the celestial +sluices.(460) + +(M150) Another writer, describing the religion of the South African +Bantus, tells us that "the ancestral spirits love the very things they +loved before they passed through the flesh; they cherish the same desires +and have the same antipathies. The living cannot add to the number of the +wives of ancestral spirits; but they can kill cattle in their honour and +keep their praise and memory alive on earth. Above all things, they can +give them beef and beer. And if the living do not give them sufficient of +these things the spirits are supposed to give the people a bad time: they +send drought, and sickness, and famine, until people kill cattle in their +honour. When men are alive they love to be praised and flattered, fed and +attended to; after death they want the very same things, for death does +not change personality.... In time of drought, or sickness, or great +trouble, there would be great searchings of heart as to which ancestor had +been neglected, for the trouble would be supposed to be caused by the +neglected ancestor. Most of the people would get the subject on their +nerves (at least, as far as a Kafir could get anything on the leather +strings which do duty for nerves), and some one would be sure to have a +vivid dream in which an ancestor would complain that the people had not +praised him half enough of late. So an ox would be killed, either by the +head-man of the kraal or by a diviner. Then the man would say over the ox +as it was being killed, 'Cry out, ox of So-and-So; listen to us, +So-and-So; this is your ox; we praise you by all your laud-giving names, +and tell of all your deeds; do not be angry with us any more; do you not +see that this is your ox? Do not accuse us of neglecting you; when, +forsooth, have we ceased to praise you and offer you meat and beer? Take +note, then, that here is another ox we are offering to you.' When the ox +is dead some of the meat is mixed with herbs and medicines and placed in a +hut with a bowlful of blood. This meat is placed in the part of the hut +where the man loved to sit while he was alive, and some one is told off to +guard the sacrifice. The meat is left for a night, or longer, and the +spirits are supposed to come and enjoy the smell, or drink the serum which +oozes from the meat, and to inhale the smell of the beer. The priest or +diviner will then sprinkle the people and the huts with medicine made from +the contents of the stomach of the ox. He places a little on a sherd; when +this is dry he burns it and calls on the spirits to smell the incense. +After the meat has been left for a certain time it is taken out and +cooked, and eaten by the men near the cattle kraal in public.... If the +trouble does not vanish after this ceremony the people get angry and say +to the spirits, 'When have we ceased to kill cattle for you, and when have +we ever refused to praise you by your praise-names? Why, then, do you +treat us so shabbily? If you do not behave better we shall utterly forget +your names, and then what will you do when there is no one to praise you? +You will have to go and live on grasshoppers. If you do not mend your ways +we shall forget you. What use is it that we kill oxen for you and praise +you? You do not give us rain or crops, or cause our cattle to bear well; +you show no gratitude in return for all we do for you. We shall utterly +disown you. We shall tell the people that, as for us, we have no ancestral +spirits, and this will be to your shame. We are disgusted with +you.' "(461) Thus the sweet savour of beef and beer does not suffice to +content Caffre ghosts; they share the love of praise and flattery with +many gods of higher rank. + +(M151) Among the Basutos, an important Bantu people of South Africa, "each +family is supposed to be under the direct influence and protection of its +ancestors; but the tribe, taken as a whole, acknowledges for its national +gods the ancestors of the reigning sovereign. Thus, the Basutos address +their prayers to Monaheng and Motlumi, from whom their chiefs are +descended. The Baharutsis and the Barolongs invoke Tobege and his wife +Mampa. Mampa makes known the will of her husband, announcing each of her +revelations by these words, '_O re! O re!_' 'He has said! he has said!' +They make a distinction between the ancient and modern divinities. The +latter are considered inferior in power, but more accessible; hence this +formula, which is often used: 'New gods! entreat the ancient gods for us!' +In all countries spirits are more the objects of fear than of love. A deep +feeling of terror generally accompanies the idea that the dead dispose of +the lot of the living. The ancients spoke much of incensed shades. If they +sacrificed to the manes, it was generally in order to appease them. These +ideas perfectly correspond to those of the Basutos. They conjure rather +than pray; although they seek to gain favours, they think more of averting +chastisement. Their predominating idea as to their ancestors is, that they +are continually endeavouring to draw them to themselves. Every disease is +attributed to them; thus medicine among these people is almost entirely a +religious affair. The first thing is to discover, by means of the +_litaola_ (divining bones), under the influence of what _molimo_ the +patient is supposed to be. Is it an ancestor on the father's side or the +mother's? According as fate decides, the paternal or maternal uncle will +offer the purifying sacrifice, but rarely the father or brother. This +sacrifice alone can render efficacious the medicines prescribed by the +_ngaka_ (doctor).... As soon as a person is dead he takes his place among +the family gods. His remains are deposited in the cattle-pen. An ox is +immolated over his grave: this is the first oblation made to the new +divinity, and at the same time an act of intercession in his favour, +serving to ensure his happy reception in the subterranean regions. All +those present aid in sprinkling the grave, and repeat the following +prayer: 'Repose in peace with the gods; give us tranquil nights.' "(462) + +(M152) Similarly among the Thonga, another Bantu tribe of South Africa, +"any man, who has departed this earthly life, becomes a _shikwembu_, a +god";(463) "when an old decrepit man or woman dies, he at once becomes a +god: he has entered the domain of infinity."(464) In this tribe "the +spirits of the ancestors are the main objects of religious worship. They +form the principal category of spirits."(465) "On the one hand, the +ancestor-gods are truly gods, endowed with the attributes of divinity; +whilst, on the other, they seem to be nothing but mere human beings, +exactly on the same level as their worshippers."(466) There are two great +classes of these ancestor-gods, to wit, "those of the family, and those of +the country, the latter being those of the reigning family. They do not +differ as regards their nature. In national calamities those of the +country are invoked, whilst, for purely family matters, those of the +family are called upon. Moreover, each family has two sets of gods, those +on the father's side and those on the mother's, those of _kweru_ and those +of _bakokwana_. They are equal in dignity. Both can be invoked, and the +divinatory bones are always asked to which the offering must be made. It +seems, however, as if the gods on the mother's side were more +tender-hearted and more popular than those on the father's. The reason for +this is, perhaps, that relations are easier with the family of the mother +than with that of the father. It is also just possible that it is a relic +of the matriarchal period, when the ancestors of the mother only were +known, and consequently invoked. At any rate, the part played by +_batukulu_ [uterine] nephews in the offerings shows that they are the true +representatives of the gods, not of those of their father, but of their +mother."(467) Among the Thonga "the belief in the continuation of life +after death is universal, being at the base of the ancestrolatry, which is +the religion of the tribe."(468) "How real is the ancestrolatry, the +religion of the Thonga, of, in fact, all the South African Bantus! How +frequent and manifold are its manifestations! This is the first, and the +most perceptible set of their religious intuitions, and any European, who +has stayed in their villages, learnt their language, and tried to +understand their customs, has had the opportunity of familiarizing himself +with this religion."(469) + +(M153) Among the Basutos and Bechuanas, who also belong to the great Bantu +family, the sacrificial ritual is not highly developed. "Only in great +misfortunes which affect the whole people or the royal family, a black ox +is slaughtered; for in such cases they always think that the angry spirits +of the departed are the cause of all the suffering. '_Re amogioa ki +badimo_,' say the people, 'the spirits are robbing us.' The ox is led to +the chiefs grave; there they pray, 'Lord, we are come to call upon thee, +we who are thy children; make not our hearts troubled; take not, Lord, +that which is ours.' The old chief is honoured and praised in songs, he is +invoked by all his praise-names, the ox is killed and its flesh eaten, but +the blood and the contents of the stomach are poured on the grave, and +there the bones of the sacrificed animal are also deposited."(470) + +(M154) The Zulus, another great Bantu tribe of South Africa, believe in +the existence of a being whom they call Unkulunkulu, which means "the +Old-Old-one, the most ancient man." They say that "it is he who was the +first man; he broke off in the beginning. We do not know his wife; and the +ancients do not tell us that he had a wife."(471) This Old-Old-one or +Great-Great-one "is represented as having made all things--men, cattle, +water, fire, the mountains, and whatever else is seen. He is also said to +have appointed their names. Creation was effected by splitting a reed, +when the first man and other things issued from the cleft."(472) Further, +the Zulus and other Caffre tribes of Natal "believe that, when a person +dies, his _i-hloze_ or _isi-tute_ survives. These words are translated +'spirit,' and there seems no objection to the rendering. They refer to +something manifestly distinguished from the body, and the nature of which +the prophets endeavour to explain by saying that it is identical with the +shadow. The residence of the _ama-hloze_, or spirits, seems to be beneath; +the practice of breaking a man's assagais, before they are buried with +him, shows that he is believed to return to earth through the grave; while +it appears to be generally thought that, if the earth were removed from +the grave, the ghost would return and frighten his descendants. When +spirits have entered the future state, they are believed to possess great +power; prosperity is ascribed to their favour, and misfortune to their +anger; they are elevated in fact to the rank of deities, and (except where +the Great-Great is worshipped concurrently with them) they are the only +objects of a Kafir's adoration. Their attention (or providence) is limited +to their own relatives--a father caring for the family, and a chief for the +tribe, which they respectively left behind them. They are believed to +occupy the same relative position as they did in the body, the departed +spirit of a chief being sometimes invoked to compel a man's ancestors to +bless him."(473) + +(M155) "To these shades of the dead, especially to the ghosts of their +great men, as Jama, Senzangakona, and Chaka, their former kings, they look +for help, and offer sacrifices; that is, slaughter cattle to them, and +offer a sort of prayer, in time of danger and distress.... When they are +sick, they slaughter cattle to the shades, and say, 'Father, look on me, +that this disease may cease from me. Let me have health on the earth, and +live a long time.' They carry the meat into the house, and shut it up +there, saying, 'Let the paternal shades eat, so shall they know that the +offering was made for them, and grant us great wealth, so that both we and +our children may prosper.' In the cattle-fold they talk a long time, +praising the ghosts; they take the contents of the stomach, and strew it +upon all the fold. Again they take it, and strew it within the houses, +saying, 'Hail, friend! Thou of such a place, grant us a blessing, +beholding what we have done. You see this distress; may you remove it, +since we have given you our animal. We know not what more you want, +whether you still require anything more or not.' They say, 'May you grant +us grain, that it may be abundant, that we may eat, of course, and not be +in need of anything, since now we have given you what you want.' They say, +'Yes, for a long time have you preserved me in all my going. Behold, you +see, I have just come to have a kraal. This kraal was built by yourself, +father; and now why do you consent to diminish your own kraal? Build on us +as you have begun, let it be large, that your offspring, still here above, +may increase, increasing in knowledge of you, whence cometh great power.' +Sometimes they make beer for the ghosts, and leave a little in the pot, +saying, 'It will be eaten by the ghosts that they may grant an abundant +harvest again, that we may not have a famine.' If one is on the point of +being injured by anything, he says, 'I was preserved by our divinity, +which was still watching over me.' Perhaps he slaughters a goat in honour +of the same, and puts the gall on his head; and when the goat cries out +for pain of being killed, he says, 'Yes, then, there is your animal, let +it cry, that ye may hear, ye our gods who have preserved me; I myself am +desirous of living on thus a long time here on the earth; why then do you +call me to account, since I think I am all right in respect to you? And +while I live, I put my trust in you, our paternal and maternal +gods.' "(474) + +(M156) "Black people," say the Zulus, "do not worship all Amatongo +indifferently, that is, all the dead of their tribe. Speaking generally, +the head of each house is worshipped by the children of that house; for +they do not know the ancients who are dead, nor their laud-giving names, +nor their names. But their father whom they knew is the head by whom they +begin and end in their prayer, for they know him best, and his love for +his children; they remember his kindness to them whilst he was living; +they compare his treatment of them whilst he was living, support +themselves by it, and say, 'He will still treat us in the same way now he +is dead. We do not know why he should regard others besides us; he will +regard us only.' So it is then although they worship the many Amatongo of +their tribe, making a great fence around them for their protection; yet +their father is far before all others when they worship the Amatongo. +Their father is a great treasure to them even when he is dead. And those +of his children who are already grown up know him thoroughly, his +gentleness, and his bravery. And if there is illness in the village, the +eldest son lauds him with the laud-giving names which he gained when +fighting with the enemy, and at the same time lauds all the other +Amatongo; the son reproves the father, saying, 'We for our parts may just +die. Who are you looking after? Let us die all of us, that we may see into +whose house you will enter.(475) You will eat grasshoppers; you will no +longer be invited to go anywhere, if you destroy your own village.' After +that, because they have worshipped him, they take courage saying, 'He has +heard; he will come and treat our diseases, and they will cease.' Such +then is the faith which children have in the Itongo [ancestral spirit] +which is their father. And if there is a chief wife of a village, who has +given birth to children, and if her husband is not dead, her Itongo is +much reverenced by her husband and all the children. And that chief wife +becomes an Itongo which takes great care of the village. But it is the +father especially that is the head of the village."(476) Thus among the +Zulus it is the spirits of those who have just died, especially the +spirits of fathers and mothers, who are most revered and worshipped. The +spirits of the more remote dead are forgotten. + +(M157) When the missionaries inquired into the religious ideas of the +Herero, a Bantu tribe of German South-West Africa, they heard much of a +certain Mukuru, whom at first they took to be the great god of heaven and +earth. Accordingly they adopted Mukuru as the native name for the +Christian God, and set out on their mission to preach the glad tidings of +Mukuru and his divine Son to the poor benighted heathen. But their first +experiences were disconcerting. Again and again when they arrived in a +village and announced their intention to the chief, they were brought up +very short by that great man, who told them with an air of astonishment +that he himself was Mukuru. For example, Messrs. Buettner and Irle paid a +visit to an old chief named Tjenda and remonstrated with him on the +impropriety of which he had been guilty in giving a baptized girl in +marriage to a native gentleman whose domestic arrangements were framed on +the polygamous patriarchal pattern. "Mukuru will punish you for that," +said Mr. Buettner. "What?" roared the chief. "Who's Mukuru? Why, I am +Mukuru in my own tribe," and he bundled the two missionaries out of the +village. A repetition of these painful incidents at last impressed on the +minds of the missionaries the conviction that Mukuru was not God at all +but merely the head of a family, an ancestor, whether alive or dead.(477) +They ascertained at the same time that the Herero recognize a good god who +dwells in heaven and bears the name of Ndjambi Karunga. But they do not +worship him nor bring him offerings, because he is so kind that he hurts +nobody, and therefore they need not fear him. "Rather they share the +opinion of the other Bantu tribes that Ndjambi, the good Creator, has +withdrawn to heaven and left the government on earth to the demons."(478) +"It is true that the Herero are acquainted with punishment for what is +bad. But that punishment they ascribe to Mukuru or their ancestors. It is +their ancestors (_Ovakuru_(479)) whom they must fear; it is they who are +angry and can bring danger and misfortune on a man. So it is intelligible +that the whole of their worship turns, not on Ndjambi Karunga, but on +their ancestors. It is in order to win and keep their favour, to avert +their displeasure and wrath, in short to propitiate them, that the Herero +bring their many offerings; they do so not out of gratitude, but out of +fear, not out of love, but out of terror. Their religion is a worship of +ancestors with here and there touches of fetishism."(480) "Thus among the +Herero, as among all Bantu tribes, there exists a religious dualism: they +know the highest, the true God, but they worship their ancestors."(481) +And among the worshipful ancestors "the old dead chiefs of every tribe +take the first place. The son of a great dead chief and the whole tribe +worship that old father as their god. But the remote ancestors of that +chief they do not worship, indeed they hardly know them by name and can no +longer point to their graves."(482) Thus with the Herero, as with the +Zulus, it is the recent and well-remembered dead who are chiefly or +exclusively worshipped; as the souls of the departed recede further and +further into the past their memory perishes, and the nimbus of +supernatural glory which encircled it for a time fades gradually away. + +(M158) The religion of the Ovambo, another Bantu tribe of German +South-West Africa, is similar. They also recognize a great being named +Kalunga, who created the world and man, but they neither fear nor worship +him. A far greater part is played in the religion of the Ovambo by their +belief in spirits, and amongst the worshipful spirits a conspicuous place +is assigned to the souls of the dead. Every man leaves behind him at death +a spirit, which continues to exist on earth and can influence the living; +for example, it may enter into their bodies and thereby cause all sorts of +sickness. However, the souls of ordinary dead men can exert their +influence only on members of their own families; the souls of dead chiefs, +on the other hand, have power over the rain, which they can either give or +withhold. To these powerful spirits a portion of the new corn is offered +at harvest as a thank-offering for their forbearance in not visiting the +people with sickness, and above all for their bounty in sending down the +fertilizing showers on the crops. The souls of dead magicians are +particularly dreaded; and to prevent the multiplication of these dangerous +spirits it is customary to dismember their bodies, severing the arms and +legs from the trunk and cutting the tongue out of the mouth. If these +precautions are taken immediately after death, the soul of the dead man +cannot become a dangerous ghost; the mutilation of his body has +practically disarmed his spirit.(483) + +(M159) The Wahehe, a Bantu tribe of German East Africa, believe in a great +invisible spirit named Nguruhi, who created the world and rules both human +destiny and the elements. He it is who makes the rain to fall, the sun to +shine, the wind to blow, the thunder to roll, and the crops to grow. "This +god is accordingly conceived as all-powerful, yet with the limitation that +he only exercises a general power of direction over the world, especially +human fate, while the _masoka_, the spirits of the dead, wield a permanent +and very considerable influence on the course of particular events. +Nguruhi is lord also of all the spirits of the dead (_masoka_), but his +relation to them has not been further thought out. With this Supreme Being +the people hold no intercourse by means of prayer, sacrifice, or in any +other way. He stands remote from the religious life of the Wahehe and +really serves only as an explanation of all those things and events which +are otherwise inexplicable. All religious intercourse, all worship centres +alone on the spirits of the dead. Hence if we speak of a religion of the +Wahehe, it must be described as a pure worship of ancestors."(484) The +human soul quits the body at death and at once becomes an ancestral spirit +(_m'soka_), invisible and endowed with complete liberty of motion. Even +the youngest children have souls which rank among the ancestral spirits at +death. Hence the great multitude of the dead comprises spirits of all +ages, from the infant one day old to the grey-haired patriarch. They are +good or bad according as they were good or bad in life, and their social +position also is unchanged. He who was powerful in life is powerful also +in death; he who was a nobody among men is a nobody also among the +spirits. Hence the ghost of a great man can do more for the living than +the ghost of a common man; and the ghost of a man can do more than the +ghost of a woman. Yet even the meanest ghost has power over the greatest +living man, who can only defend himself by appealing for help to stronger +ancestral spirits. Thus while the Supreme Being exercises a general +superintendence over affairs, the real administration is in the hands of +the ancestral spirits. While he, for example, regulates the weather as a +whole, it is the ghosts who cause each particular shower to fall or the +sun to break out in glory from the clouds. If he sends plagues on the +whole people or stays the ravages of disease, it is the ghosts who make +each individual sick or sound. These powerful spirits exert themselves +especially to help their descendants, though they do not hesitate to +plague their own kith and kin if they think themselves neglected. They +flit freely through the air and perch on trees, mountains, and so forth, +but they lodge by preference at their graves, and you are always sure of +finding them there, if you wish to consult them.(485) That is why in the +country of the Wahehe the only places of sacrifice are the graves; temples +and altars are unknown.(486) However, it is only the bodies of +considerable persons that are buried; the corpses of common folk are +simply thrown away in the bush;(487) so that the number of graves and +consequently of sacrificial places is strictly limited. The spirits of the +dead appear to the living most commonly in dreams to give them information +or warning, but oftener to chide and torment them. So the sleeper wakes in +a fright and consults a diviner, who directs him what he must do in order +to appease the angry ghost. Following the directions of his spiritual +adviser the man sacrifices an ox, or it may be only a sheep or a fowl, at +the tomb of one of his ancestors, prays to the ghost, and having scattered +a few morsels of the victim's flesh on the grave, and spat a mouthful of +beer upon it, retires with his family to feast on the remainder of the +carcase. Such sacrifices to the dead are offered on occasion of sickness, +the lack of male heirs, a threatened war, an intended journey, in short, +before any important undertaking of which the issue is doubtful; and, they +are accompanied by prayers for health, victory, good harvests, and so +forth.(488) + +(M160) Once more, the Bahima, a Bantu people of Ankole, in Central Africa, +believe in a supreme god Lugaba, who dwells in the sky and created man and +beast; but "this supreme being is not worshipped nor are offerings made to +him; he has no sacred place. Although they talk freely about him, and +acknowledge him to be their great benefactor, they accept all his gifts as +a matter of course, and make him no offering in return.... One must not, +therefore, conclude that the Bahima are an irreligious people; like most +of the Bantu tribes their religion consists chiefly in dealing with ghosts +of departed relatives, and in standing well with them; from the king to +the humblest peasant the ghosts call for daily consideration and constant +offerings, whilst the deities are only sought in case of great trials or +national calamities."(489) + +(M161) To return, now, to the worship of dead chiefs or kings among the +Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia. The spirits of dead chiefs had +priestesses to wait upon them, who were called the "wives of the +departed." These were elderly women who led a celibate life and swept the +huts dedicated to the ghosts of the chiefs. The aid of these dead +potentates was invoked in time of war and in seasons of drought, and +special offerings were brought to their shrines at harvest.(490) Among the +Awemba, who form the aristocracy of the country,(491) when a diviner +announced that a drought was caused by the spirits of dead chiefs or kings +buried at Mwaruli, a bull would be sent to be sacrificed to the souls of +the deceased rulers; or if the drought was severe, a human victim would be +despatched, and the high priest would keep him caged in a stoutly woven +fish-basket, until the preparations for the sacrifice were complete.(492) +Among the Yombe no one might eat of the first-fruits of the crops until +the living chief had sacrificed a bull before the tomb of his grandfather, +and had deposited pots of fresh beer and porridge, made from the +first-fruits, in front of the shrine. The ground about the tomb was then +carefully weeded, and the blood of the sacrificial victim sprinkled on the +freshly turned up soil and on the rafters of the little hut. After +thanking the ghost of his grandfather for the harvest, and begging him to +partake of the first-fruits, the chief and his train withdrew to feast on +the carcase and the fresh porridge and beer at the village.(493) When the +head chief or king of the Awemba had resolved to make war on a distant +enemy, he and the older men of the tribe would pray daily for victory to +the spirits of the dead kings, his predecessors. The day before the army +was to set forth, the great war-drum boomed out and the warriors flocked +together from the outlying districts under their respective captains. In +the dusk of the evening the king and the elderly women, who passed for the +wives of the dead kings and tended their shrines at the capital, went and +prayed at these shrines that the souls of the departed monarchs would keep +the war-path free from foes and lead the king in a straight course to the +enemy's stockade. These solemn prayers the king led in person, and the +women beat their bare breasts as they joined in the earnest appeal. Next +morning the whole army was marshalled in front of the ghost-huts of the +dead kings: the living king danced a war-dance before his ancestors, while +his chief wife sprinkled him with holy flour; and all prostrated +themselves in supplication before the shrines.(494) + +(M162) Among these tribes of Northern Rhodesia the spirits of dead chiefs +or kings sometimes take possession of the bodies of live men or women and +prophesy through their mouths. When the spirit of a dead chief comes over +a man, he begins to roar like a lion, whereupon the women gather together +and beat the drums, shouting that the chief has come to visit the village. +The man thus temporarily inspired will prophesy of future wars or +impending attacks by lions. While the inspiration lasts, he may eat +nothing cooked by fire, but only unfermented dough. However, the spirit of +a departed chief takes possession of women oftener than of men. "These +women assert that they are possessed by the soul of some dead chief, and +when they feel the divine afflatus, whiten their faces to attract +attention, and anoint themselves with flour, which has a religious and +sanctifying potency. One of their number beats a drum, and the others +dance, singing at the same time a weird song, with curious intervals. +Finally, when they have arrived at the requisite pitch of religious +exaltation, the possessed woman falls to the ground, and bursts forth into +a low and almost inarticulate chant, which has a most uncanny effect. All +are silent at once, and the _bashing'anga_ (medicine-men) gather round to +interpret the voice of the spirit."(495) Sometimes the spirits of departed +chiefs are reincarnated in animals, which are then revered as the abodes +of the dead rulers. Thus the paramount chief of the Amambwe is incarnated +after death in the form of a young lion, while Bisa and Wiwa chiefs come +back in the shape of pythons. In one of the rest-houses near Fife a tame +python waxed fat on the offerings of fowls and sour beer which the +Winamwanga presented to it in the fond belief that it housed the spirit of +one of their dead chiefs. One day unfortunately for himself the reptile +deity ventured to dispute the possession of the rest-house with a German +cattle-dealer who was passing by; a discharge of shot settled the dispute +in favour of the cattle-dealer, and the worshippers of the deity beheld +him no more.(496) + +(M163) Another Bantu people who worship the spirits of their dead kings +are the Barotse or Marotse of the Upper Zambesi. The Barotse believe in a +supreme god, the creator of all things, whom they call Niambe. He lives in +the sun, and by his marriage with the moon begat the world, the animals, +and last of all men. But the cunning and ferocity of his creature man +terrified the beneficent creator, so that he fled from earth and escaped +up the thread of a spider's web to heaven. There he still retains a +certain power to interfere in human affairs, and that is why men sometimes +pray and sacrifice to him. For example, the worshipper salutes the rising +sun and offers him a vessel of water, no doubt to quench the thirst of the +deity on his hot journey across the sky. Again, when a long drought has +prevailed, a black ox is sacrificed to Niambe "as a symbol of the clouds +big with the longed-for rain." And before they sow the fields, the women +pile the seeds and their digging hoes in a heap, and pray to the god that +he would render their labour fruitful.(497) + +(M164) Yet while they acknowledge the divine supremacy of Niambe, the +Barotse address their prayers most frequently to the inferior deities, the +_ditino_, who are the deified kings of the country. The tombs of the +departed monarchs may be seen near the villages which they inhabited in +life. Each tomb stands in a grove of beautiful trees and is encircled by a +tall palisade of pointed stakes, covered with fine mats, like the palisade +which surrounds the royal residence of a living king. Such an enclosure is +sacred; the people are forbidden to enter it lest they should disturb the +ghost of him who sleeps below. But the inhabitants of the nearest village +are charged with the duty of keeping the tomb and the enclosure in good +order, repairing the palisade, and replacing the mats when they are worn +out. Once a month, at the new moon, the women sweep not only the grave and +the enclosure but the whole village. The guardian of the tomb is at the +same time a priest; he acts as intermediary between the god and the people +who come to pray to the deity. He bears the title of Ngomboti; he alone +has the right to enter the sacred enclosure; the profane multitude must +stand at a respectful distance. Even the king himself, when he comes to +consult one of his ancestors, is forbidden to set foot on the holy ground. +In presence of the god, or, as they call him, the Master of the Tomb, the +monarch must bear himself like a slave in the presence of his lord. He +kneels down near the entrance, claps his hands, and gives the royal +salute; and from within the enclosure the priest solemnly returns the +salute, just as the king himself, when he holds his court, returns the +salute of his subjects. Then the suppliant, whether king or commoner, +makes his petition to the deity and deposits his offering; for no man may +pray to the god with empty hands. Inside the enclosure, close to the +entrance, is a hole which is supposed to serve as a channel of +communication with the spirit of the deified king. In it the offerings are +placed. Often they consist of milk which is poured into the hole; and the +faster it drains away, the more favourably inclined is the god thought to +be to the petitioner. More solid offerings, such as flesh, clothes, and +glass beads, become the property of the priest after they have been +allowed to lie for a decent time beside the sacred aperture of the tomb. +The spirits of dead kings are thus consulted on matters of public concern +as well as by private individuals touching their own affairs. If a war is +to be waged, if a plague is raging among the people or a murrain among the +cattle, if the land is parched with drought, in short, if any danger +threatens or any calamity has afflicted the country, recourse is had to +these local gods, dwelling each in his shady grove, not far from the +abodes of the living. They are near, but the great god in heaven is far +away. What wonder, therefore, that their help is often sought while he is +neglected? They are national heroes as well as gods; their history is +remembered; men tell of the doughty deeds they did in their lifetime; why +should they not be able to succour their votaries now that they have put +on immortality? All over the country these temple-tombs may be seen. They +serve as historical monuments to recall to the people the names of their +former kings and the annals of their country. One of the most popular of +the royal shrines is near Senanga at the southern end of the great plain +of the Barotse. Voyagers who go down the Zambesi do not fail to pay their +devotions at the shrine, that the god of the place may make their voyage +to prosper and may guard the frail canoe from shipwreck in the rush and +roar of the rapids; and when they return in safety they repair again to +the sacred spot to deposit a thank-offering for the protection of the +deity.(498) + +(M165) The foregoing examples suffice to prove that the worship of dead +chiefs and kings has been an important, perhaps we may even say, the most +important element in the religion of many African tribes. Regarded from +the native point of view nothing could be more natural. The king rules +over his people in life; and since all these tribes entertain a firm and +unquestioning belief not only in the existence but in the power of the +spirits of the dead, they necessarily conclude that of all the departed +spirits none can be so potent for good or evil, none therefore need to be +propitiated so earnestly by prayer and sacrifice, as the souls of dead +kings. Thus while every family worships privately the spirits of its own +ancestors, the whole tribe worships publicly the spirits of its departed +monarchs, paying to each of these invisible potentates, whose reality they +never dream of doubting, a homage of precisely the same sort as that which +they render to his living successor on the throne. Such a religion of the +dead is by no means incompatible with the recognition of higher spiritual +powers who may have an origin quite independent of the worship of +ancestors. We have seen in point of fact that many tribes, whose practical +religion is concentrated chiefly on their dead, nevertheless acknowledge +the existence of a supreme god, the creator of man and of all things, whom +they do not regard as a glorified ghost. The Baganda, the most progressive +and advanced of all the Bantu tribes, had a whole pantheon of gods whom +they sharply distinguished from the worshipful spirits of their +forefathers. + +(M166) Yet in spite of this distinction we may suspect that in many cases +the seeming line of division between gods and worshipful ghosts is +deceptive; and that the magic touch of time, which distorts and magnifies +the past, especially among peoples who see it only through the haze of +oral tradition, has glorified and transfigured many a dead man into a +deity. This at all events seems to have been the history of some of the +Baganda gods. On this subject our best authority says that "the principal +gods appear to have been at one time human beings, noted for their skill +and bravery, who were afterwards deified by the people and invested with +supernatural powers."(499) "Mukasa held the highest rank among the gods of +Uganda. He was a benign god; he never asked for the life of any human +being, but animals were sacrificed to him at the yearly festivals, and +also at other times when the king, or a leading chief, wished to consult +him. He had nothing to do with war, but sought to heal the bodies and +minds of men. He was the god of plenty; he gave the people an increase of +food, cattle, and children. From the legends still current it seems to be +almost certain that he was a human being who, because of his benevolence, +came to be regarded as a god.... The legends about Mukasa are of great +interest; they show how the human element has been lost in the divine, how +the natural has been effaced by the supernatural, until, in the minds of +the common people, only the supernatural remains."(500) + +(M167) If we cannot prove that the great god Mukasa himself was once a +man, we have very tangible evidence that his brother the war-god Kibuka +was so. For like the dead kings of Uganda, Kibuka was worshipped in a +great conical hut resembling the huts which living people inhabit: like +them, his spirit was supposed to enter from time to time into the body of +his priest and to give oracles through him; and like them he was +represented in his temple by his personal relics, his jawbone and his +navel-string, which were rescued from the ruins of his temple and now rest +in the Ethnological Museum at Cambridge. In face of this complete +parallelism between the god and the kings whose personal existence is not +open to question, it seems difficult to doubt that Kibuka was once like +them a real man, and that he spoke with the jawbone and made bodily use of +the other corporeal organs which were preserved in his temple.(501) + +(M168) These analogies lend some support to the theory that in ancient +Egypt, where the kings were worshipped by their people both in life and +death, Osiris may have been originally nothing but one of these deified +monarchs whose worship gradually eclipsed that of all the rest and ended +by rivalling or even surpassing that of the great sun-god himself. We have +seen that at Abydos, one of the principal centres of his worship, the tomb +of Osiris was identified with the tomb of King Khent, one of the earliest +monarchs of the first Egyptian dynasty, and that in this tomb were found a +woman's richly jewelled arm and a human skull lacking the lower jawbone, +which may well be the head of the king himself and the arm of his queen. +The carved monument of Osiris which was found in the sepulchral chamber +appears indeed to be a work of late Egyptian art, but it may have replaced +an earlier sarcophagus. Certainly we may reasonably suppose that the +identification of the tomb of Osiris with the tomb of King Khent was very +ancient; for though the priests may have renewed the sculptured effigy of +the dead god, they would hardly dare to shift the site of the Holy +Sepulchre.(502) Now the sepulchre is distant about a mile and a half from +the temple in which Osiris was worshipped as a god. There is thus a +curious coincidence, if there is nothing more, between the worship of +Osiris and the worship of the dead kings of Uganda. As a dead king of +Uganda was worshipped in a temple, while his headless body reposed at some +distance in a royal tomb, and his head, without the lower jawbone, was +buried by itself near the grave, so Osiris was worshipped in a temple not +far from the royal tomb which tradition identified with his grave. Perhaps +after all tradition was right. It is possible, though it would be very +rash to affirm, that Osiris was no other than the historical King Khent of +the first dynasty;(503) that the skull found in the tomb is the skull of +Osiris himself; and that while it reposed in the grave the missing jawbone +was preserved, like the jawbone of a dead king of Uganda, as a holy and +perhaps oracular relic in the neighbouring temple. If that were so, we +should be almost driven to conclude that the bejewelled woman's arm found +in the tomb of Osiris is the arm of Isis. + +(M169) In support of the conclusion that the myth and religion of Osiris +grew up round the revered memory of a dead man we may quote the words in +which the historian of European morals describes the necessity under which +the popular imagination labours of embodying its cherished ideals in +living persons. He is referring to the dawn of the age of chivalry, when +in the morning twilight the heroic figure of Charlemagne rose like a +bright star above the political horizon, to be thenceforth encircled by a +halo of romance like the nimbus that shone round the head of Osiris. "In +order that the tendencies I have described should acquire their full +force, it was necessary that they should be represented or illustrated in +some great personage, who, by the splendour and the beauty of his career, +could fascinate the imaginations of men. It is much easier to govern great +masses of men through their imagination than through their reason. Moral +principles rarely act powerfully upon the world, except by way of example +or ideals. When the course of events has been to glorify the ascetic or +monarchical or military spirit, a great saint, or sovereign, or soldier +will arise, who will concentrate in one dazzling focus the blind +tendencies of his time, kindle the enthusiasm and fascinate the +imagination of the people. But for the prevailing tendency, the great man +would not have arisen, or would not have exercised his great influence. +But for the great man, whose career appealed vividly to the imagination, +the prevailing tendency would never have acquired its full +intensity."(504) + +(M170) Whether the parallel thus suggested between Charlemagne, the +mediaeval ideal of a Christian knight, and Osiris, the ancient Egyptian +ideal of a just and beneficent monarch, holds good or not, it is now +impossible to determine. For while Charlemagne stands near enough to allow +us clearly to discern his historical reality, Osiris is so remote that we +can no longer discriminate with any certitude between the elements of +history and fable which appear to have blended in his traditional +character. I am content to indicate bare possibilities: dogmatism on such +points would be in the highest degree rash and unbecoming. Whether Osiris +and Isis were from first to last purely imaginary beings, the ideal +creations of a primitive philosophy, or whether they were originally a +real man and woman about whom after death the myth-making fancy wove its +gossamer rainbow-tinted web, is a question to which I am not bold enough +to give a decided answer. + + + + + +CHAPTER XII. MOTHER-KIN AND MOTHER GODDESSES. + + + + +§ 1. Dying Gods and Mourning Goddesses. + + +(M171) We have now concluded our inquiry into the nature and worship of +the three Oriental deities Adonis, Attis, and Osiris. The substantial +similarity of their mythical character justifies us in treating of them +together. All three apparently embodied the powers of fertility in general +and of vegetation in particular. All three were believed to have died and +risen again from the dead; and the divine death and resurrection of all +three were dramatically represented at annual festivals, which their +worshippers celebrated with alternate transports of sorrow and joy, of +weeping and exultation. The natural phenomena thus mythically conceived +and mythically represented were the great changes of the seasons, +especially the most striking and impressive of all, the decay and revival +of vegetation; and the intention of the sacred dramas was to refresh and +strengthen, by sympathetic magic, the failing energies of nature, in order +that the trees should bear fruit, that the corn should ripen, that men and +animals should reproduce their kinds. + +(M172) But the three gods did not stand by themselves. The mythical +personification of nature, of which all three were in at least one aspect +the products, required that each of them should be coupled with a goddess, +and in each case it appears that originally the goddess was a more +powerful and important personage than the god. At all events it is always +the god rather than the goddess who comes to a sad end, and whose death is +annually mourned. Thus, whereas Osiris was slain by Typhon, his divine +spouse Isis survived and brought him to life again. This feature of the +myth seems to indicate that in the beginning Isis was, what Astarte and +Cybele always continued to be, the stronger divinity of the pair. Now the +superiority thus assigned to the goddess over the god is most naturally +explained as the result of a social system in which maternity counted for +more than paternity, descent being traced and property handed down through +women rather than through men. At all events this explanation cannot be +deemed intrinsically improbable if we can show that the supposed cause has +produced the very same effect among existing peoples, about whose +institutions we possess accurate information. This I will now endeavour to +do. + + + + +§ 2. Influence of Mother-Kin on Religion. + + +(M173) The social system which traces descent and transmits property +through the mother alone may be called mother-kin, while the converse +system which traces descent and transmits property through the father +alone may be called father-kin.(505) A good example of the influence which +mother-kin may exert on religion is furnished by the Khasis of Assam, +whose customs and beliefs have lately been carefully recorded by a British +officer specially charged with the study of the native races of the +province.(506) Like the ancient Egyptians and the Semites of Syria and +Mesopotamia, the Khasis live in settled villages and maintain themselves +chiefly by the cultivation of the ground; yet "their social organization +presents one of the most perfect examples still surviving of matriarchal +institutions, carried out with a logic and thoroughness which, to those +accustomed to regard the status and authority of the father as the +foundation of society, are exceedingly remarkable. Not only is the mother +the head and source, and only bond of union, of the family: in the most +primitive part of the hills, the Synteng country, she is the only owner of +real property, and through her alone is inheritance transmitted.(507) The +father has no kinship with his children, who belong to their mother's +clan; what he earns goes to his own matriarchal stock, and at his death +his bones are deposited in the cromlech of his mother's kin. In Jowai he +neither lives nor eats in his wife's house, but visits it only after dark. +In the veneration of ancestors, which is the foundation of the tribal +piety, the primal ancestress (_Ka Iawbei_) and her brother are the only +persons regarded. The flat memorial stones set up to perpetuate the memory +of the dead are called after the woman who represents the clan (_maw +kynthei_), and the standing stones ranged behind them are dedicated to the +male kinsmen on the mother's side. In harmony with this scheme of ancestor +worship, the other spirits to whom propitiation is offered are mainly +female, though here male personages also figure. The powers of sickness +and death are all female, and these are those most frequently worshipped. +The two protectors of the household are goddesses, though with them is +also revered the first father of the clan, _U Thawlang_. Priestesses +assist at all sacrifices, and the male officiants are only their deputies; +in one important state, Khyrim, the High Priestess and actual head of the +State is a woman, who combines in her person sacerdotal and regal +functions."(508) Thus amongst the Khasis of the present day the +superiority of the goddess to the god, and especially of the revered +ancestress to the revered ancestor, is based directly on the social system +which traces descent and transmits property through women only. It is not +unreasonable therefore to suppose that in Western Asia the superiority of +the Mother Goddess to the Father God originated in the same archaic system +of mother-kin. + +(M174) Another instance of the same cause producing the same effect may be +drawn from the institutions of the Pelew Islanders, which have been +described by an accurate observer long resident in the islands. These +people, who form a branch of the Micronesian stock, are divided into a +series of exogamous families or clans with descent in the female +line,(509) so that, as usually happens under such a system, a man's heirs +are not his own children but the children of his sister or of his maternal +aunt.(510) Every family or clan traces its descent from a woman, the +common mother of the whole kin,(511) and accordingly the members of the +clan worship a goddess, not a god.(512) These families or clans, with +female descent and a worship of goddesses rather than of gods, are grouped +together in villages, each village comprising about a score of clans and +forming with its lands a petty independent state.(513) Every such +village-state has its special deity or deities, generally a god and a +goddess. But these political deities of the villages are said to be +directly derived from the domestic deities of the families or clans,(514) +from which it seems to follow that among these people gods are +historically later than goddesses and have been developed out of +them.(515) The late origin of the gods as compared with the goddesses is +further indicated by the nature of their names.(516) + +(M175) This preference for goddesses over gods in the clans of the Pelew +Islanders has been explained, no doubt rightly, by the high importance of +women in the social system of the people.(517) For the existence of the +clan depends entirely on the life of the women, not at all upon the life +of the men. If the women survive, it is no matter though every man of the +clan should perish; for the women will, as usual, marry men of another +clan, and their offspring will inherit their mother's clan, thereby +prolonging its existence. Whereas if the women of the clan all die out, +the clan necessarily becomes extinct, even though every man of it should +survive; for the men must, as usual, marry women of another clan, and +their offspring will inherit their mothers' clan, not the clan of their +fathers, which accordingly, with the death of the fathers, is wiped out +from the community. Hence in these islands women bear the titles of +_Adhalal a pelu_, "Mothers of the Land," and _Adhalal a blay_, "Mothers of +the Clan," and they are said to enjoy complete equality with the men in +every respect.(518) Indeed, in one passage our principal authority speaks +of "the predominance of feminine influence in the social condition of the +people," and asserts without qualification that the women are politically +and socially superior to the men.(519) The eldest women of the clan +exercise, he tells us, the most decisive influence on the conduct of its +affairs, and the headman does nothing without full consultation with them, +a consultation which in the great houses extends to affairs of state and +foreign politics.(520) Nay, these elder women are even esteemed and +treated as equal to the deities in their lifetime.(521) + +(M176) But the high position which women thus take in Pelew society is not +a result of mother-kin only. It has an industrial as well as a kinship +basis. For the Pelew Islanders subsist mainly on the produce of their taro +fields, and the cultivation of this, their staple food, is the business of +the women alone. "This cardinal branch of Pelew agriculture, which is of +paramount importance for the subsistence of the people, is left entirely +in the hands of the women. This fact may have contributed materially to +the predominance of female influence in the social condition of the +people. The women do not merely bestow life on the people, they also do +that which is most essential for the preservation of life, and therefore +they are called _Adhalal a pelu_, the 'Mothers of the Land,' and are +politically and socially superior to men. Only their offspring enjoy the +privilege of membership of the state (the children of the men are, +strictly speaking, strangers destitute of rights), and the oldest women of +the families are esteemed and treated as equal to deities even in their +lifetime, and they exercise a decisive influence on the conduct of affairs +of state. No chief would venture to come to a decision without first +consulting with the _Adhalal a blay_, the 'Mothers of the Family.' From +this point of view it is impossible to regard the assignment of the taro +cultivation to women as a consequence of their subordinate position in +society: the women themselves do not so regard it. The richest woman of +the village looks with pride on her taro patch, and although she has +female followers enough to allow her merely to superintend the work +without taking part in it, she nevertheless prefers to lay aside her fine +apron and to betake herself to the deep mire, clad in a small apron that +hardly hides her nakedness, with a little mat on her back to protect her +from the burning heat of the sun, and with a shade of banana leaves for +her eyes. There, dripping with sweat in the burning sun and coated with +mud to the hips and over the elbows, she toils to set the younger women a +good example. Moreover, as in every other occupation, the _kaliths_, the +gods, must also be invoked, and who could be better fitted for the +discharge of so important a duty than the Mother of the House?"(522) It +seems clear that in any agricultural people who, like the Pelew Islanders, +retain mother-kin and depute the labours of husbandry to women, the +conception of a great Mother Goddess, the divine source of all fertility, +might easily originate. Perhaps the same social and industrial conditions +may have combined to develop the great Mother Goddesses of Western Asia +and Egypt. + +(M177) But in the Pelew Islands women have yet another road to power. For +some of them are reputed to be the wives of gods, and act as their +oracular mouthpieces. Such prophetesses are called _Amlaheys_, and no +surprise is felt when one of them is brought to bed. Her child passes for +the offspring of the god, her divine husband, and goes about with his hair +hanging loose in token of his superhuman parentage. It is thought that no +mortal man would dare to intrigue with one of these human wives of a god, +since the jealous deity would surely visit the rash culprit with deadly +sickness and a lingering decline.(523) But in these islands men as well as +women are often possessed by a deity and speak in his name. Under his +inspiration they mimic, often with great histrionic skill, the particular +appearance and manner which are believed to be characteristic of the +indwelling divinity. These inspired men (_Korongs_) usually enjoy great +consideration and exert a powerful influence over the whole community. +They always acquire wealth in the exercise of their profession. When they +are not themselves chiefs, they are treated as chiefs or even preferred to +them. In not a few places the deity whom they personate is also the +political head of the land; and in that case his inspired priest, however +humble his origin, ranks as a spiritual king and rules over all the +chiefs. Indeed we are told that, with the physical and intellectual decay +of the race, the power of the priests is more and more in the ascendant +and threatens, if unchecked, to develop before long into an absolute +theocracy which will swallow up every other form of government.(524) + +(M178) Thus the present, or at least the recent, state of society and +religion in the Pelew Islands presents some interesting parallels to the +social and religious condition of Western Asia and Egypt in early days, if +the conclusions reached in this work are correct. In both regions we see a +society based on mother-kin developing a religion in which goddesses of +the clan originally occupied the foremost place, though in later times, as +the clans coalesced into states, the old goddesses have been rivalled and +to some extent supplanted by the new male gods of the enlarged pantheon. +But in the religion of the Pelew Islanders, as in that of the Khasis and +the ancient Egyptians, the balance of power has never wholly shifted from +the female to the male line, because society has never passed from +mother-kin to father-kin. And in the Pelew Islands as in the ancient East +we see the tide of political power running strongly in the direction of +theocracy, the people resigning the conduct of affairs into the hands of +men who claimed to rule them in the name of the gods. In the Pelew Islands +such men might have developed into divine kings like those of Babylon and +Egypt, if the natural course of evolution had not been cut short by the +intervention of Europe.(525) + +(M179) The evidence of the Khasis and the Pelew Islanders, two peoples +very remote and very different from each other, suffices to prove that the +influence which mother-kin may exert on religion is real and deep. But in +order to dissipate misapprehensions, which appear to be rife on this +subject, it may be well to remind or inform the reader that the ancient +and widespread custom of tracing descent and inheriting property through +the mother alone does not by any means imply that the government of the +tribes which observe the custom is in the hands of women; in short, it +should always be borne in mind that mother-kin does not mean mother-rule. +On the contrary, the practice of mother-kin prevails most extensively +amongst the lowest savages, with whom woman, instead of being the ruler of +man, is always his drudge and often little better than his slave. Indeed, +so far is the system from implying any social superiority of women that it +probably took its rise from what we should regard as their deepest +degradation, to wit, from a state of society in which the relations of the +sexes were so loose and vague that children could not be fathered on any +particular man.(526) + +(M180) When we pass from the purely savage state to that higher plane of +culture in which the accumulation of property, and especially of landed +property, has become a powerful instrument of social and political +influence, we naturally find that wherever the ancient preference for the +female line of descent has been retained, it tends to increase the +importance and enhance the dignity of woman; and her aggrandizement is +most marked in princely families, where she either herself holds royal +authority as well as private property, or at least transmits them both to +her consort or her children. But this social advance of women has never +been carried so far as to place men as a whole in a position of political +subordination to them. Even where the system of mother-kin in regard to +descent and property has prevailed most fully, the actual government has +generally, if not invariably, remained in the hands of men. Exceptions +have no doubt occurred; women have occasionally arisen who by sheer force +of character have swayed for a time the destinies of their people. But +such exceptions are rare and their effects transitory; they do not affect +the truth of the general rule that human society has been governed in the +past and, human nature remaining the same, is likely to be governed in the +future, mainly by masculine force and masculine intelligence. + +(M181) To this rule the Khasis, with their elaborate system of mother-kin, +form no exception. For among them, while landed property is both +transmitted through women and held by women alone, political power is +transmitted indeed through women, but is held by men; in other words, the +Khasi tribes are, with a single exception, governed by kings, not by +queens. And even in the one tribe, which is nominally ruled by women, the +real power is delegated by the reigning queen or High Priestess to her +son, her nephew, or a more distant male relation. In all the other tribes +the kingship may be held by a woman only on the failure of all male heirs +in the female line.(527) So far is mother-kin from implying mother-rule. A +Khasi king inherits power in right of his mother, but he exercises it in +his own. Similarly the Pelew Islanders, in spite of their system of +mother-kin, are governed by chiefs, not by chieftainesses. It is true that +there are chieftainesses, and that they indirectly exercise much +influence; but their direct authority is limited to the affairs of women, +especially to the administration of the women's clubs or associations, +which answer to the clubs or associations of the men.(528) And to take +another example, the Melanesians, like the Khasis and the Pelew Islanders, +have the system of mother-kin, being similarly divided into exogamous +clans with descent in the female line; "but it must be understood that the +mother is in no way the head of the family. The house of the family is the +father's, the garden is his, the rule and government are his."(529) + +(M182) We may safely assume that the practice has been the same among all +the many peoples who have retained the ancient system of mother-kin under +a monarchical constitution. In Africa, for example, the chieftainship or +kingship often descends in the female line, but it is men, not women, who +inherit it.(530) The theory of a gynaecocracy is in truth a dream of +visionaries and pedants. And equally chimerical is the idea that the +predominance of goddesses under a system of mother-kin like that of the +Khasis is a creation of the female mind. If women ever created gods, they +would be more likely to give them masculine than feminine features. In +point of fact the great religious ideals which have permanently impressed +themselves on the world seem always to have been a product of the male +imagination. Men make gods and women worship them. The combination of +ancestor-worship with mother-kin furnishes a simple and sufficient +explanation of the superiority of goddesses over gods in a state of +society where these conditions prevail. Men naturally assign the first +place in their devotions to the ancestress from whom they trace their +descent. We need not resort to a fantastic hypothesis of the preponderance +of the feminine fancy in order to account for the facts. + +(M183) The theory that under a system of mother-kin the women rule the men +and set up goddesses for them to worship is indeed so improbable in +itself, and so contrary to experience, that it scarcely deserves the +serious attention which it appears to have received.(531) But when we have +brushed aside these cobwebs, as we must do, we are still left face to face +with the solid fact of the wide prevalence of mother-kin, that is, of a +social system which traces descent and transmits property through women +and not through men. That a social system so widely spread and so deeply +rooted should have affected the religion of the peoples who practise it, +may reasonably be inferred, especially when we remember that in primitive +communities the social relations of the gods commonly reflect the social +relations of their worshippers. How the system of mother-kin may mould +religious ideas and customs, creating goddesses and assigning at least a +nominal superiority to priestesses over priests, is shown with perfect +lucidity by the example of the Khasis, and hardly less clearly by the +example of the Pelew Islanders. It cannot therefore be rash to hold that +what the system has certainly done for these peoples, it may well have +done for many more. But unfortunately through lack of documentary evidence +we are seldom able to trace its influence so clearly. + + + + +§ 3. Mother-Kin and Mother Goddesses in the Ancient East. + + +(M184) While the combination of mother-kin in society with a preference +for goddesses in religion is to be found as a matter of fact among the +Khasis and Pelew Islanders of to-day, the former prevalence of mother-kin +in the lands where the great goddesses Astarte and Cybele were worshipped +is a matter of inference only. In later times father-kin had certainly +displaced mother-kin among the Semitic worshippers of Astarte, and +probably the same change had taken place among the Phrygian worshippers of +Cybele. Yet the older custom lingered in Lycia down to the historical +period;(532) and we may conjecture that in former times it was widely +spread through Asia Minor. The secluded situation and rugged mountains of +Lycia favoured the survival of a native language and of native +institutions long after these had disappeared from the wide plains and +fertile valleys which lay on the highroads of war and commerce. Lycia was +to Asia Minor what the highlands of Wales and of Scotland have been to +Britain, the last entrenchments where the old race stood at bay. And even +among the Semites of antiquity, though father-kin finally prevailed in +matters of descent and property, traces of an older system of mother-kin, +with its looser sexual relations, appear to have long survived in the +sphere of religion. At all events one of the most learned and acute of +Semitic scholars adduced what he regarded as evidence sufficient to prove +"that in old Arabian religion gods and goddesses often occurred in pairs, +the goddess being the greater, so that the god cannot be her Baal, that +the goddess is often a mother without being a wife, and the god her son, +and that the progress of things was towards changing goddesses into gods +or lowering them beneath the male deity."(533) + +(M185) In Egypt the archaic system of mother-kin, with its preference for +women over men in matters of property and inheritance, lasted down to +Roman times, and it was traditionally based on the example of Isis, who +had avenged her husband's murder and had continued to reign after his +decease, conferring benefits on mankind. "For these reasons," says +Diodorus Siculus, "it was appointed that the queen should enjoy greater +power and honour than the king, and that among private people the wife +should rule over her husband, in the marriage contract the husband +agreeing to obey his wife in all things."(534) A corollary of the superior +position thus conceded to women in Egypt was that the obligation of +maintaining parents in their old age rested on the daughters, not on the +sons, of the family.(535) + +(M186) The same legal superiority of women over men accounts for the most +remarkable feature in the social system of the ancient Egyptians, to wit, +the marriage of full brothers with full sisters. That marriage, which to +us seems strange and unnatural, was by no means a whim of the reigning +Ptolemies; on the contrary, these Macedonian conquerors appear, with +characteristic prudence, to have borrowed the custom from their Egyptian +predecessors for the express purpose of conciliating native prejudice. In +the eyes of the Egyptians "marriage between brother and sister was the +best of marriages, and it acquired an ineffable degree of sanctity when +the brother and sister who contracted it were themselves born of a brother +and sister, who had in their turn also sprung from a union of the same +sort."(536) Nor did the principle apply only to gods and kings. The common +people acted on it in their daily life. They regarded marriages between +brothers and sisters as the most natural and reasonable of all.(537) The +evidence of legal documents, including marriage contracts, tends to prove +that such unions were the rule, not the exception, in ancient Egypt, and +that they continued to form the majority of marriages long after the +Romans had obtained a firm footing in the country. As we cannot suppose +that Roman influence was used to promote a custom which must have been +abhorrent to Roman instincts, we may safely assume that the proportion of +brother and sister marriages in Egypt had been still greater in the days +when the country was free.(538) + +(M187) It would doubtless be a mistake to treat these marriages as a relic +of savagery, as a survival of a tribal communism which knew no bar to the +intercourse of the sexes. For such a theory would not explain why union +with a sister was not only allowed, but preferred to all others. The true +motive of that preference was most probably the wish of brothers to obtain +for their own use the family property, which belonged of right to their +sisters, and which otherwise they would have seen in the enjoyment of +strangers, the husbands of their sisters. This is the system which in +Ceylon is known as _beena_ marriage. Under it the daughter, not the son, +is the heir. She stays at home, and her husband comes and lives with her +in the house; but her brother goes away and dwells in his wife's home, +inheriting nothing from his parents.(539) Such a system could not fail in +time to prove irksome. Men would be loth to quit the old home, resign the +ancestral property to a stranger, and go out to seek their fortune +empty-handed in the world. The remedy was obvious. A man had nothing to do +but to marry his sister himself instead of handing her over to another. +Having done so he stayed at home and enjoyed the family estate in virtue +of his marriage with the heiress. This simple and perfectly effective +expedient for keeping the property in the family most probably explains +the custom of brother and sister marriage in Egypt.(540) + +(M188) Thus the union of Osiris with his sister Isis was not a freak of +the story-teller's fancy: it reflected a social custom which was itself +based on practical considerations of the most solid kind. When we reflect +that this practice of mother-kin as opposed to father-kin survived down to +the latest times of antiquity, not in an obscure and barbarous tribe, but +in a nation whose immemorial civilization was its glory and the wonder of +the world, we may without being extravagant suppose that a similar +practice formerly prevailed in Syria and Phrygia, and that it accounts for +the superiority of the goddess over the god in the divine partnerships of +Adonis and Astarte, of Attis and Cybele. But the ancient system both of +society and of religion had undergone far more change in these countries +than in Egypt, where to the last the main outlines of the old structure +could be traced in the national institutions to which the Egyptians clung +with a passionate, a fanatical devotion. Mother-kin, the divinity of kings +and queens, a sense of the original connexion of the gods with +nature--these things outlived the Persian, the Macedonian, the Roman +conquest, and only perished under the more powerful solvent of +Christianity. But the old order did not vanish at once with the official +establishment of the new religion. In the age of Constantine the Greeks of +Egypt still attributed the rise of the Nile to Serapis, the later form of +Osiris, alleging that the inundation could not take place if the standard +cubit, which was used to measure it, were not deposited according to +custom in the temple of the god. The emperor ordered the cubit to be +transferred to a church; and next year, to the general surprise, the river +rose just as usual.(541) Even at a later time Athanasius himself had to +confess with sorrow and indignation that under his own eyes the Egyptians +still annually mourned the death of Osiris.(542) The end came with the +destruction of the great Serapeum at Alexandria, the last stronghold of +the heathen in Egypt. It perished in a furious and bloody sedition, in +which Christians and pagans seem to have vied with each other in mutual +atrocities. After its fall the temples were levelled with the ground or +converted into churches, and the images of the old gods went to the +melting-pot to be converted into base uses for the rabble of +Alexandria.(543) + +(M189) The singular tenacity with which the Egyptian people maintained +their traditional beliefs and customs for thousands of years sprang no +doubt from the stubborn conservatism of the national character. Yet that +conservatism was itself in great measure an effect of geographical and +climatic conditions and of the ways of life which they favoured. +Surrounded on every side by deserts or almost harbourless seas, the +Egyptians occupied a position of great natural strength which for long +ages together protected them from invasion and allowed their native habits +to set and harden, undisturbed by the subversive influence of foreign +conquest. The wonderful regularity of nature in Egypt also conduced to a +corresponding stability in the minds of the people. Year in, year out, the +immutable succession of the seasons brought with it the same unvarying +round of agricultural toil. What the fathers had done, the sons did in the +same manner at the same season, and so it went on from generation to +generation. This monotonous routine is common indeed to all purely +agricultural communities, and everywhere tends to beget in the husbandman +a settled phlegmatic habit of mind very different from the mobility, the +alertness, the pliability of character which the hazards and uncertainties +of commerce and the sea foster in the merchant and the sailor. The +saturnine temperament of the farmer is as naturally averse to change as +the more mercurial spirit of the trader and the seaman is predisposed to +it. But the stereotyping of ideas and of customs was carried further in +Egypt than in most lands devoted to husbandry by reason of the greater +uniformity of the Egyptian seasons and the more complete isolation of the +country. + +(M190) The general effect of these causes was to create a type of national +character which presented many points of resemblance to that of the +Chinese. In both we see the same inflexible strength of will, the same +astonishing industry, the same strange blend of humanity and savagery, the +same obstinate adherence to tradition, the same pride of race and of +ancient civilization, the same contempt for foreigners as for upstarts and +barbarians, the same patient outward submission to an alien rule combined +with an unshakeable inward devotion to native ideals. It was this +conservative temper of the people, bred in great measure of the physical +nature of their land, which, so to say, embalmed the memory of Osiris long +after the corresponding figures of Adonis and Attis had suffered decay. +For while Egypt enjoyed profound repose, the tides of war and conquest, of +traffic and commerce, had for centuries rolled over Western Asia, the +native home of Adonis and Attis; and if the shock of nationalities in this +great meeting-ground of East and West was favourable to the rise of new +faiths and new moralities, it was in the same measure unfavourable to the +preservation of the old. + + + + + +NOTES. + + + + +I. Moloch The King. + + +(M191) I cannot leave the evidence for the sacred character of Jewish +kings(544) without mentioning a suggestion which was made to me by my +friend and teacher the Rev. Professor R. H. Kennett. He thinks that +Moloch, to whom first-born children were burnt by their parents in the +valley of Hinnom, outside the walls of Jerusalem,(545) may have been +originally the human king regarded as an incarnate deity. Certainly the +name of Moloch, or rather Molech (for so it is always written in the +Massoretic text(546)), is merely a slightly disguised form of _melech_, +the ordinary Hebrew word for "king," the scribes having apparently given +the dreadful word the vowels of bosheth, "shameful thing."(547) But it +seems clear that in historical times the Jews who offered these sacrifices +identified Molech, not with the human king, but with Jehovah, though the +prophets protested against the custom as an outrage on the divine +majesty.(548) + +(M192) If, however, these sacrifices were originally offered to or in +behalf of the human king, it is possible that they were intended to +prolong his life and strengthen his hands for the performance of those +magical functions which he was expected to discharge for the good of his +people. The old kings of Sweden answered with their heads for the +fertility of the ground,(549) and we read that one of them, Aun or On by +name, sacrificed nine of his sons to Odin at Upsala in order that his own +life might be spared. After the sacrifice of his second son he received +from the god an oracle that he should live as long as he gave him one of +his sons every tenth year. When he had thus sacrificed seven sons, the +ruthless father still lived, but was so feeble that he could no longer +walk and had to be carried in a chair. Then he offered up his eighth son +and lived ten years more, bedridden. After that he sacrificed his ninth +son, and lived ten years more, drinking out of a horn like a weaned child. +He now wished to sacrifice his last remaining son to Odin, but the Swedes +would not let him, so he died and was buried in a mound at Upsala.(550) In +this Swedish tradition the king's children seem to have been looked upon +as substitutes offered to the god in place of their father, and apparently +this was also the current explanation of the slaughter of the first-born +in the later times of Israel.(551) On that view the sacrifices were +vicarious, and therefore purely religious, being intended to propitiate a +stern and exacting deity. Similarly we read that when Amestris, wife of +Xerxes, was grown old, she sacrificed on her behalf twice seven noble +children to the earth god by burying them alive.(552) If the story is +true--and it rests on the authority of Herodotus, a nearly contemporary +witness--we may surmise that the aged queen acted thus with an eye to the +future rather than to the past; she hoped that the grim god of the +nether-world would accept the young victims in her stead, and let her live +for many years. The same idea of vicarious suffering comes out in a +tradition told of a certain Hova king of Madagascar, who bore the sonorous +name of Andriamasinavalona. When he had grown sickly and feeble, the +oracle was consulted as to the best way of restoring him to health. "The +following result was the consequence of the directions of the oracle. A +speech was first delivered to the people, offering great honours and +rewards to the family of any individual who would freely offer himself to +be sacrificed, in order to the king's recovery. The people shuddered at +the idea, and ran away in different directions. One man, however, +presented himself for the purpose, and his offer was accepted. The +sacrificer girded up his loins, sharpened his knife, and bound the victim. +After which, he was laid down with his head towards the east, upon a mat +spread for the purpose, according to the custom with animals on such +occasions, when the priest appeared, to proceed with all solemnity in +slaughtering the victim by cutting his throat. A quantity of red liquid, +however, which had been prepared from a native dye, was spilled in the +ceremony; and, to the amazement of those who looked on, blood seemed to be +flowing all around. The man, as might be supposed, was unhurt; but the +king rewarded him and his descendants with the perpetual privilege of +exemption from capital punishment for any violation of the laws. The +descendants of the man to this day form a particular class, called _Tay +maty manota_, which may be translated, 'Not dead, though transgressing.' +Instances frequently occur, of individuals of this class appropriating +bullocks, rice, and other things belonging to the sovereign, as if they +were their own, and escaping merely with a reprimand, while a common +person would have to suffer death, or be reduced to slavery."(553) + +(M193) Sometimes, however, the practices intended to prolong the king's +life seem to rest on a theory of nutrition rather than of substitution; in +other words, the life of the victims, instead of being offered vicariously +to a god, is apparently supposed to pass directly into the body of the +sacrificer, thus refreshing his failing strength and prolonging his +existence. So regarded, the custom is magical rather than religious in +character, since the desired effect is thought to follow directly without +the intervention of a deity. At all events, it can be shown that +sacrifices of this sort have been offered to prolong the life of kings in +other parts of the world. Thus in regard to some of the negroes who +inhabit the delta of the Niger we read that: "A custom which formerly was +practised by the Ibani, and is still prevalent among all the interior +tribes, consists in prolonging the life of a king or ancestral +representative by the daily, or possibly weekly, sacrifice of a chicken +and egg. Every morning, as soon as the patriarch has risen from his bed, +the sacrificial articles are procured either by his mother, head wife, or +eldest daughter, and given to the priest, who receives them on the open +space in front of the house. When this has been reported to the patriarch, +he comes outside and, sitting down, joins in the ceremony. Taking the +chicken in his hand, the priest first of all touches the patriarch's face +with it, and afterwards passes it over the whole of his body. He then cuts +its throat and allows the blood to drop on the ground. Mixing the blood +and the earth into a paste, he rubs it on the old man's forehead and +breast, and this is not to be washed off under any circumstances until the +evening. The chicken and the egg, also a piece of white cloth, are now +tied on to a stick, which, if a stream is in the near vicinity, is planted +in the ground at the water-side. During the carriage of these articles to +the place in question, all the wives and many members of the household +accompany the priest, invoking the deity as they go to prolong their +father's life. This is done in the firm conviction that through the +sacrifice of each chicken his life will be accordingly prolonged."(554) + +(M194) The ceremony thus described is, like so many other rites, a +combination of magic and religion; for whereas the prayers to the god are +religious, the passing of the victim over the king's body and the smearing +of him with its blood are magical, being plainly intended to convey to him +directly, without the mediation of any deity, the life of the fowl. In the +following instances the practices for prolonging the king's life seem to +be purely magical. Among the Zulus, at one of the annual feasts of +first-fruits, a bull is killed by a particular regiment. In slaughtering +the beast they may not use spears or sticks, but must break its neck or +choke it with their bare hands. "It is then burned, and the strength of +the bull is supposed to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his +life."(555) Again, in an early Portuguese historian we read of a Caffre +king of East Africa that "it is related of this Monomotapa that he has a +house where he commands bodies of men who have died at the hands of the +law to be hung up, and where thus hanging all the humidity of their bodies +falls into vases placed underneath, and when all has dropped from them and +they shrink and dry up he commands them to be taken down and buried, and +with the fat and moisture in the vases they say he makes ointments with +which he anoints himself in order to enjoy long life--which is his +belief--and also to be proof against receiving harm from sorcerers."(556) + +(M195) The Baganda of Central Africa used to kill men on various occasions +for the purpose of prolonging the king's life; in all cases it would seem +to be thought that the life of the murdered man was in some mysterious +fashion transferred to the king, so that the monarch received thereby a +fresh accession of vital energy. For example, whenever a particular royal +drum had a new skin put on it, not only was a cow killed to furnish the +skin and its blood run into the drum, but a man was beheaded and the +spouting blood from the severed neck was allowed to gush into the drum, +"so that, when the drum was beaten, it was supposed to add fresh life and +vigour to the king from the life of the slain man."(557) Again, at the +coronation of a new king, a royal chamberlain was chosen to take charge of +the king's inner court and to guard his wives. From the royal presence the +chamberlain was conducted, along with eight captives, to one of the human +shambles; there he was blindfolded while seven of the men were clubbed to +death, only the dull thud and crashing sound telling him of what was +taking place. But when the seven had been thus despatched, the bandages +were removed from the chamberlain's eyes and he witnessed the death of the +eighth. As each man was killed, his belly was ripped open and his bowels +pulled out and hung round the chamberlain's neck. These deaths were said +to add to the King's vigour and to make the chamberlain strong and +faithful.(558) Nor were these the only human sacrifices offered at a +king's coronation for the purpose of strengthening the new monarch. When +the king had reigned two or three months, he was expected to hunt first a +leopard and then a bushbuck. On the night after the hunt of the bushbuck, +one of the ministers of State caught a man and brought him before the king +in the dark; the king speared him slightly, then the man was strangled and +the body thrown into a papyrus swamp, that it might never be found again. +Another ceremony performed about this time to confirm the king in his +kingdom was to catch a man, bind him, and bring him before the king, who +wounded him slightly with a spear. Then the man was put to death. These +men were killed to invigorate the king.(559) + +(M196) When a king of Uganda had reigned some time, apparently several +years, a ceremony was performed for the sake of prolonging his life. For +this purpose the king paid a visit--a fatal visit--to a chief of the +Lung-fish clan, who bore the title of Nankere and resided in the district +of Busiro, where the tombs and temples of the kings were situated. When +the time for the ceremony had been appointed, the chief chose one of his +own sons, who was to die that the king might live. If the chief had no +son, a near relation was compelled to serve as a substitute. The hapless +youth was fed and clothed and treated in all respects like a prince, and +taken to live in a particular house near the place where the king was to +lodge for the ceremony. When the destined victim had been feasted and +guarded for a month, the king set out on his progress from the capital. On +the way he stopped at the temple of the great god Mukasa; there he changed +his garments, leaving behind him in the temple those which he had been +wearing. Also he left behind him all his anklets, and did not put on any +fresh ones, for he was shortly to receive new anklets of a remarkable +kind. When the king arrived at his destination, the chief met him, and the +two exchanged a gourd of beer. At this interview the king's mother was +present to see her son for the last time; for from that moment the two +were never allowed to look upon each other again. The chief addressed the +king's mother informing her of this final separation; then turning to the +king he said, "You are now of age; go and live longer than your +forefathers." Then the chief's son was introduced. The chief took him by +the hand and presented him to the king, who passed him on to the +body-guard; they led him outside and killed him by beating him with their +clenched fists. The muscles from the back of the body of the murdered +youth were removed and made into two anklets for the king, and a strip of +skin cut from the corpse was made into a whip, which was kept in the royal +enclosure for special feasts. The dead body was thrown on waste land and +guarded against wild beasts, but not buried.(560) + +(M197) When that ceremony was over, the king departed to go to another +chief in Busiro; but on the way thither he stopped at a place called Baka +and sat down under a great tree to play a game of spinning fruit-stones. +It is a children's game, but it was no child's play to the man who ran to +fetch the fruit-stones for the king to play with; for he was caught and +speared to death on the spot for the purpose of prolonging the king's +life. After the game had been played the king with his train passed on and +lodged with a certain princess till the anklets made from the muscles of +the chief's murdered son were ready for him to wear; it was the princess +who had to superintend the making of these royal ornaments.(561) + +(M198) When all these ceremonies were over, the king made a great feast. +At this feast a priest went about carrying under his mantle the whip that +had been made from the skin of the murdered young man. As he passed +through the crowd of merrymakers, he would flick a man here and there with +the whip, and it was believed that the man on whom the lash lighted would +be childless and might die, unless he made an offering of either nine or +ninety cowrie shells to the priest who had struck him. Naturally he +hastened to procure the shells and take them to the striker, who, on +receiving them, struck the man on the shoulder with his hand, thus +restoring to him the generative powers of which the blow of the whip had +deprived him. At the end of the feast the drummers removed all the drums +but one, which they left as if they had forgotten it. Somebody in the +crowd would notice the apparent oversight and run after the drummers with +the drum, saying, "You have left one behind." The thanks he received was +that he was caught and killed and the bones of his upper arm made into +drumsticks for that particular drum. The drum was never afterwards brought +out during the whole of the king's reign, but was kept covered up till the +time came to bring it out on the corresponding feast of his successor. Yet +from time to time the priest, who had flicked the revellers with the whip +of human skin, would dress himself up in a mantle of cow-hide from neck to +foot, and concealing the drumstick of human bones under his robe would go +into the king's presence, and suddenly whipping out the bones from his +bosom would brandish them in the king's face. Then he would as suddenly +hide them again, but only to repeat the manoeuvre. After that he retired +and restored the bones to their usual place. They were decorated with +cowrie shells and little bells, which jingled as he shook them at the +king.(562) + +(M199) The precise meaning of these latter ceremonies is obscure; but we +may suppose that just as the human blood poured into a drum was thought to +pass into the king's veins in the booming notes of the drum, so the +clicking of the human bones and the jingling of their bells were supposed +to infuse into the royal person the vigour of the murdered man. The +purpose of flicking commoners with the whip made of human skin is even +more obscure; but we may conjecture that the life or virility of every man +struck with the whip was supposed to be transmitted in some way to the +king, who thus recruited his vital, and especially his reproductive, +energies at this solemn feast. If I am right in my interpretation, all +these Baganda modes of strengthening the king and prolonging his life +belonged to the nutritive rather than to the vicarious type of sacrifice, +from which it will follow that they were magical rather than religious in +character. + +(M200) The same thing may perhaps be said of the wholesale massacres which +used to be perpetrated when a king of Uganda was ill. At these times the +priests informed the royal patient that persons marked by a certain +physical peculiarity, such as a cast of the eye, a particular gait, or a +distinctive colouring, must be put to death. Accordingly the king sent out +his catchpoles, who waylaid such persons in the roads and dragged them to +the royal enclosure, where they were kept until the tale of victims +prescribed by the priest was complete. Before they were led away to one of +the eight places of execution, which were regularly appointed for this +purpose in different parts of the kingdom, the victims had to drink +medicated beer with the king out of a special pot, in order that he might +have power over their ghosts, lest they should afterwards come back to +torment him. They were killed, sometimes by being speared to death, +sometimes by being hacked to pieces, sometimes by being burned alive. +Contrary to the usual custom of the Baganda, the bodies, or what remained +of the bodies, of these unfortunates were always left unburied on the +place of execution.(563) In what way precisely the sick king was supposed +to benefit by these massacres of his subjects does not appear, but we may +surmise that somehow the victims were believed to give their lives for him +or to him. + +(M201) Thus it is possible that in Israel also the sacrifices of children +to Moloch were in like manner intended to prolong the life of the human +king (_melech_) either by serving as substitutes for him or by recruiting +his failing energies with their vigorous young life. But it is equally +possible, and perhaps more probable, that the sacrifice of the first-born +children was only a particular application of the ancient law which +devoted to the deity the first-born of every womb, whether of cattle or of +human beings.(564) + + + + +II. The Widowed Flamen. + + + +§ 1. The Pollution of Death. + + +(M202) A different explanation of the rule which obliged the Flamen Dialis +to resign the priesthood on the death of his wife(565) has been suggested +by my friend Dr. L. R. Farnell. He supposes that such a bereavement would +render the Flamen ceremonially impure, and therefore unfit to hold +office.(566) It is true that the ceremonial pollution caused by death +commonly disqualifies a man for the discharge of sacred functions, but as +a rule the disqualification is only temporary and can be removed by +seclusion and the observance of purificatory rites, the length of the +seclusion and the nature of the purification varying with the degree of +relationship in which the living stand to the dead. Thus, for example, if +one of the sacred eunuchs at Hierapolis-Bambyce saw the dead body of a +stranger, he was unclean for that day and might not enter the sanctuary of +the goddess; but next day after purifying himself he was free to enter. +But if the corpse happened to be that of a relation he was unclean for +thirty days and had to shave his head before he might set foot within the +holy precinct.(567) Again, in the Greek island of Ceos persons who had +offered the annual sacrifices to their departed friends were unclean for +two days afterwards and might not enter a sanctuary; they had to purify +themselves with water.(568) Similarly no one might go into the shrine of +Men Tyrannus for ten days after being in contact with the dead.(569) Once +more, at Stratonicea in Caria a chorus of thirty noble boys, clad in white +and holding branches in their hands, used to sing a hymn daily in honour +of Zeus and Hecate; but if one of them were sick or had suffered a +domestic bereavement, he was for the time being excused, not permanently +excluded, from the performance of his sacred duties.(570) On the analogy +of these and similar cases we should expect to find the widowed Flamen +temporarily debarred from the exercise of his office, not permanently +relieved of it. + +(M203) However, in support of Dr. Farnell's view I would cite an Indian +parallel which was pointed out to me by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers. Among the +Todas of the Neilgherry Hills in Southern India the priestly dairyman +(_palol_) is a sacred personage, and his life, like that of the Flamen +Dialis, is hedged in by many taboos. Now when a death occurs in his clan, +the dairyman may not attend any of the funeral ceremonies unless he gives +up office, but he may be re-elected after the second funeral ceremonies +have been completed. In the interval his place must be taken by a man of +another clan. Some eighteen or nineteen years ago a man named Karkievan +resigned the office of dairyman when his wife died, but two years later he +was re-elected and has held office ever since. There have meantime been +many deaths in his clan, but he has not attended a funeral, and has not +therefore had to resign his post again. Apparently in old times a more +stringent rule prevailed, and the dairyman was obliged to vacate office +whenever a death occurred in his clan. For, according to tradition, the +clan of Keadrol was divided into its two existing divisions for the +express purpose of ensuring that there might still be men to undertake the +office of dairyman when a death occurred in the clan, the men of the one +division taking office whenever there was a death in the other.(571) + +At first sight this case may seem exactly parallel to the case of the +Flamen Dialis and the Flaminica on Dr. Farnell's theory; for here there +can be no doubt whatever that it is the pollution of death which +disqualifies the sacred dairyman from holding office, since, if he only +avoids that pollution by not attending the funeral, he is allowed at the +present day to retain his post. On this analogy we might suppose that it +was not so much the death of his wife as the attendance at her funeral +which compelled the Flamen Dialis to resign, especially as we know that he +was expressly forbidden to touch a dead body or to enter the place where +corpses were burned.(572) + +(M204) But a closer inspection of the facts proves that the analogy breaks +down at some important points. For though the Flamen Dialis was forbidden +to touch a dead body or to enter a place where corpses were burned, he was +permitted to attend a funeral;(573) so that there could hardly be any +objection to his attending the funeral of his wife. This permission +clearly tells against the view that it was the mere pollution of death +which obliged him to resign office when his wife died. Further, and this +is a point of fundamental difference between the two cases, whereas the +Flamen Dialis was bound to be married, and married too by a rite of +special solemnity,(574) there is no such obligation on the sacred dairyman +of the Todas; indeed, if he is married, he is bound to live apart from his +wife during his term of office.(575) Surely the obligation laid on the +Flamen Dialis to be married of itself implies that with the death of his +wife he necessarily ceased to hold office: there is no need to search for +another reason in the pollution of death which, as I have just shown, does +not seem to square with the permission granted to the Flamen to attend a +funeral. That this is indeed the true explanation of the rule in question +is strongly suggested by the further and apparently parallel rule which +forbade the Flamen to divorce his wife; nothing but death might part +them.(576) Now the rule which enjoined that a Flamen must be married, and +the rule which forbade him to divorce his wife, have obviously nothing to +do with the pollution of death, yet they can hardly be separated from the +other rule that with the death of his wife he vacated office. All three +rules are explained in the most natural way on the hypothesis which I have +adopted, namely, that this married priest and priestess had to perform in +common certain rites which the husband could not perform without his wife. +The same obvious solution of the problem was suggested long ago by +Plutarch, who, after asking why the Flamen Dialis had to lay down office +on the death of his wife, says, amongst other things, that "perhaps it is +because she performs sacred rites along with him (for many of the rites +may not be performed without the presence of a married woman), and to +marry another wife immediately on the death of the first would hardly be +possible or decent."(577) This simple explanation of the rule seems quite +sufficient, and it would clearly hold good whether I am right or wrong in +further supposing that the human husband and wife in this case represented +a divine husband and wife, a god and goddess, to wit Jupiter and Juno, or +rather Dianus (Janus) and Diana;(578) and that supposition in its turn +might still hold good even if I were wrong in further conjecturing that of +this divine pair the goddess (Juno or rather Diana) was originally the +more important partner. + +(M205) However it is to be explained, the Roman rule which forbade the +Flamen Dialis to be a widower has its parallel among the Kotas, a tribe +who, like the Todas, inhabit the Neilgherry Hills of Southern India. For +the higher Kota priests are not allowed to be widowers; if a priest's wife +dies while he is in office, his appointment lapses. At the same time +priests "should avoid pollution, and may not attend a Toda or Badaga +funeral, or approach the seclusion hut set apart for Kota women."(579) +Jewish priests were specially permitted to contract the pollution of death +for near relations, among whom father, mother, son, daughter, and +unmarried sister are particularly enumerated; but they were forbidden to +contract the pollution for strangers. However, among the relations for +whom a priest might thus defile himself a wife is not mentioned.(580) + + + +§ 2. The Marriage of the Roman Gods. + + +(M206) The theory that the Flamen Dialis and his wife personated a divine +couple, whether Jupiter and Juno or Dianus (Janus) and Diana, supposes a +married relation between the god and goddess, and so far it would +certainly be untenable if Dr. Farnell were right in assuming, on the +authority of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, that the Roman gods were celibate.(581) +On that subject, however, Varro, the most learned of Roman antiquaries, +was of a contrary opinion. He not only spoke particularly of Juno as the +wife of Jupiter,(582) but he also affirmed generally, in the most +unambiguous language, that the old Roman gods were married, and in saying +so he referred not to the religion of his own day, which had been modified +by Greek influence, but to the religion of the ancient Romans, his +ancestors.(583) Seneca ridiculed the marriage of the Roman gods, citing as +examples the marriages of Mars and Bellona, of Vulcan and Venus, of +Neptune and Salacia, and adding sarcastically that some of the goddesses +were spinsters or widows, such as Populonia, Fulgora, and Rumina, whose +faded charms or unamiable character had failed to attract a suitor.(584) + +(M207) Again, the learned Servius, whose commentary on Virgil is a gold +mine of Roman religious lore, informs us that the pontiffs celebrated the +marriage of the infernal deity Orcus with very great solemnity;(585) and +for this statement he would seem to have had the authority of the +pontifical books themselves, for he refers to them in the same connexion +only a few lines before. As it is in the highest degree unlikely that the +pontiffs would solemnize any foreign rites, we may safely assume that the +marriage of Orcus was not borrowed from Greek mythology, but was a genuine +old Roman ceremony, and this is all the more probable because Servius, our +authority for the custom, has recorded some curious and obviously ancient +taboos which were observed at the marriage and in the ritual of Ceres, the +goddess who seems to have been joined in wedlock to Orcus. One of these +taboos forbade the use of wine, the other forbade persons to name their +father or daughter.(586) + +(M208) Further, the learned Roman antiquary Aulus Gellius quotes from "the +books of the priests of the Roman people" (the highest possible authority +on the subject) and from "many ancient speeches" a list of old Roman +deities, in which there seem to be at least five pairs of males and +females.(587) More than that he proves conclusively by quotations from +Plautus, the annalist Cn. Gellius, and Licinius Imbrex that these old +writers certainly regarded one at least of the pairs (Mars and Nerio) as +husband and wife;(588) and we have good ancient evidence for viewing in +the same light three others of the pairs. Thus the old annalist and +antiquarian L. Cincius Alimentus, who fought against Hannibal and was +captured by him, affirmed in his work on the Roman calendar that Maia was +the wife of Vulcan;(589) and as there was a Flamen of Vulcan, who +sacrificed to Maia on May Day,(590) it is reasonable to suppose that he +was assisted in the ceremony by a Flaminica, his wife, just as on my +hypothesis the Flamen Dialis was assisted by his wife the Flaminica. +Another old Roman historian, L. Calpurnius Piso, who wrote in the second +century B.C., said that the name of Vulcan's wife was not Maia but +Majestas.(591) In saying so he may have intended to correct what he +believed to be a mistake of his predecessor L. Cincius. Again, that +Salacia was the wife of Neptune is perhaps implied by Varro,(592) and is +positively affirmed by Seneca, Augustine, and Servius.(593) Again, Ennius +appears to have regarded Hora as the wife of Quirinus, for in the first +book of his Annals he declared his devotion to that divine pair.(594) In +fact, of the five pairs of male and female deities cited by Aulus Gellius +from the priestly books and ancient speeches the only one as to which we +have not independent evidence that it consisted of a husband and wife is +Saturn and Lua; and in regard to Lua we know that she was spoken of as a +mother,(595) which renders it not improbable that she was also a wife. +However, according to some very respectable authorities the wife of Saturn +was not Lua, but Ops,(596) so that we have two independent lines of proof +that Saturn was supposed to be married. + +Lastly, the epithets "father" and "mother" which the Romans bestowed on +many of their deities(597) are most naturally understood to imply +paternity and maternity; and if the implication is admitted, the inference +appears to be inevitable that these divine beings were supposed to +exercise sexual functions, whether in lawful marriage or in unlawful +concubinage. As to Jupiter in particular his paternity is positively +attested by Latin inscriptions, one of them very old, which describe +Fortuna Primigenia, the great goddess of Praeneste, as his daughter.(598) +Again, the rustic deity Faunus, one of the oldest and most popular gods of +Italy,(599) was represented by tradition in the character of a husband and +a father; one of the epithets applied to him expressed in a coarse way his +generative powers.(600) Fauna or the Good Goddess (_Bona Dea_), another of +the oldest native Italian deities, was variously called his wife or his +daughter, and he is said to have assumed the form of a snake in order to +cohabit with her.(601) Again, the most famous of all Roman myths +represented the founder of Rome himself, Romulus and his twin brother +Remus, as begotten by the god Mars on a Vestal Virgin;(602) and every +Roman who accepted the tradition thereby acknowledged the fatherhood of +the god in the physical, not in a figurative, sense of the word. If the +story of the birth of Romulus and Remus should be dismissed as a late +product of the mythical fancy working under Greek influence, the same +objection can hardly be urged against the story of the birth of another +Roman king, Servius Tullius, who is said to have been a son of the +fire-god and a slave woman; his mother conceived him beside the royal +hearth, where she was impregnated by a flame that shot out from the fire +in the shape of the male organ of generation.(603) It would scarcely be +possible to express the physical fatherhood of the fire-god in more +unambiguous terms. Now a precisely similar story was told of the birth of +Romulus himself;(604) and we may suspect that this was an older form of +the story than the legend which fathered the twins on Mars. Similarly, +Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste, passed for a son of the fire-god +Vulcan. It was said that his mother was impregnated by a spark which +leaped from the fire and struck her as she sat by the hearth. In later +life, when Caeculus boasted of his divine parentage to a crowd, and they +refused to believe him, he prayed to his father to give the unbelievers a +sign, and straightway a lambent flame surrounded the whole multitude. The +proof was conclusive, and henceforth Caeculus passed for a true son of the +fire-god.(605) Such tales of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god on +mortal women appear to be genuine old Italian myths, which may well go +back far beyond the foundation of Rome to the common fountain of Aryan +mythology; for the marriage customs observed by various branches of the +Aryan family point clearly to a belief in the power of fire to impregnate +women.(606) + +(M209) On the whole, if we follow the authority of the ancients +themselves, we seem bound to conclude that the Roman gods, like those of +many other early peoples, were believed to be married and to beget +children. It is true that, compared with the full-blooded gods of Greece, +the deities of Rome appear to us shadowy creatures, pale abstractions +garbed in little that can vie with the gorgeous pall of myth and story +which Grecian fancy threw around its divine creations. Yet the few +specimens of Roman mythology which have survived the wreck of +antiquity(607) justify us in believing that they are but fragments of far +more copious traditions which have perished. At all events the comparative +aridity and barrenness of the Roman religious imagination is no reason for +setting aside the positive testimony of learned Roman writers as to a +point of fundamental importance in their own religion about which they +could hardly be mistaken. It should never be forgotten that on this +subject the ancients had access to many sources of information which are +no longer open to us, and for a modern scholar to reject their evidence in +favour of a personal impression derived from a necessarily imperfect +knowledge of the facts seems scarcely consistent with sound principles of +history and criticism.(608) + + + +§ 3. Children of Living Parents in Ritual. + + +(M210) But Dr. Farnell adduces another argument in support of his view +that it was the pollution of death which obliged the widowed Flamen Dialis +to resign the priesthood. He points to what he considers the analogy of +the rule of Greek ritual which required that certain sacred offices should +be discharged only by a boy whose parents were both alive.(609) This rule +he would explain in like manner by supposing that the death of one or both +of his parents would render a boy ceremonially impure and therefore unfit +to perform religious functions. Dr. Farnell might have apparently +strengthened his case by observing that the Flamen Dialis and the +Flaminica Dialis were themselves assisted in their office, the one by a +boy, the other by a girl, both of whose parents must be alive.(610) At +first sight this fits in perfectly with his theory: the Flamen, the +Flaminica, and their youthful ministers were all rendered incapable of +performing their sacred duties by the taint or corruption of death. + +(M211) But a closer scrutiny of the argument reveals a flaw. It proves too +much. For observe that in these Greek and Roman offices held by boys and +girls the disqualification caused by the death of a parent is necessarily +lifelong, since the bereavement is irreparable. Accordingly, if Dr. +Farnell's theory is right, the ceremonial pollution which is the cause of +the disqualification must also be lifelong; in other words, every orphan +is ceremoniously unclean for life and thereby excluded for ever from the +discharge of sacred duties. So sweeping a rule would at a stroke exclude a +large, if not the larger, part of the population of any country from the +offices of religion, and lay them permanently under all those burdensome +restrictions which the pollution of death entails among many nations; for +obviously a large, if not the larger, part of the population of any +country at any time has lost one or both of its parents by death. No +people, so far as I know, has ever carried the theory of the ceremonial +pollution of death to this extremity in practice. And even if it were +supposed that the taint wore off or evaporated with time from common folk +so as to let them go about their common duties in everyday life, would it +not still cleave to priests? If it incapacitated the Flamen's minister, +would it not incapacitate the Flamen himself? In other words, would not +the Flamen Dialis be obliged to vacate office on the death of his father +or mother? There is no hint in ancient writers that he had to do so. And +while it is generally unsafe to argue from the silence of our authorities, +I think that we may do so in this case without being rash; for Plutarch +not only mentions but discusses the rule which obliged the Flamen Dialis +to resign office on the death of his wife,(611) and if he had known of a +parallel rule which compelled him to retire on the death of a parent, he +would surely have mentioned it. But if the ceremonial pollution which +would certainly be caused by the death of a parent did not compel the +Flamen Dialis to vacate office, we may safely conclude that neither did +the similar pollution caused by the death of his wife. Thus the argument +adduced by Dr. Farnell in favour of his view proves on analysis to tell +strongly against it. + +(M212) But if the rule which excluded orphans from certain sacred offices +cannot with any probability be explained on the theory of their ceremonial +pollution, it may be worth while to inquire whether another and better +explanation of the rule cannot be found. For that purpose I shall collect +all the cases of it known to me. The collection is doubtless far from +complete: I only offer it as a starting-point for research. + +(M213) At the time of the vintage, which in Greece falls in October, +Athenian boys chosen from every tribe assembled at the sanctuary of +Dionysus, the god of the vine. There, branches of vines laden with ripe +grapes were given to them, and holding them in their hands they raced to +the sanctuary of Athena Sciras. The winner received and drained a cup +containing a mixture of olive-oil, wine, honey, cheese, and barley-groats. +It was necessary that both the parents of each of these boy-runners should +be alive.(612) At the same festival, and perhaps on the same day, an +Athenian boy, whose parents must both be alive, carried in procession a +branch of olive wreathed with white and purple wool and decked with fruits +of many kinds, while a chorus sang that the branch bore figs, fat loaves, +honey, oil, and wine. Thus they went in procession to a temple of Apollo, +at the door of which the boy deposited the holy bough. The ceremony is +said to have been instituted by the Athenians in obedience to an oracle +for the purpose of supplicating the help of the god in a season of +dearth.(613) Similar boughs similarly laden with fruits and loaves were +hung up on the doors of every Athenian house and allowed to remain there a +year, at the end of which they were replaced by fresh ones. While the +branch was being fastened to the door, a boy whose parents were both alive +recited the same verses about the branch bearing figs, fat loaves, honey, +oil, and wine. This custom also is said to have been instituted for the +sake of putting an end to a dearth.(614) The people of Magnesia on the +Maeander vowed a bull every year to Zeus, the Saviour of the City, in the +month of Cronion, at the beginning of sowing, and after maintaining the +animal at the public expense throughout the winter they sacrificed it, +apparently at harvest-time, in the following summer. Nine boys and nine +girls, whose fathers and mothers were all living, took part in the +religious services of the consecration and the sacrifice of the bull. At +the consecration public prayers were offered for the safety of the city +and the land, for the safety of the citizens and their wives and children, +for the safety of all that dwelt in the city and the land, for peace and +wealth and abundance of corn and all other fruits, and for the cattle. A +herald led the prayers, and the priest and priestess, the boys and girls, +the high officers and magistrates, all joined in these solemn petitions +for the welfare of their country.(615) Among the Karo-Bataks of Central +Sumatra the threshing of the rice is the occasion of various ceremonies, +and in these a prominent part is played by a girl, whose father and mother +must be both alive. Her special duty is to take care of the sheaf of rice +in which the soul of the rice is believed to reside. This sheaf usually +consists of the first rice cut and bound in the field; it is treated +exactly like a person.(616) + +(M214) The rites thus far described, in which boys and girls of living +parents took part, were clearly ceremonies intended specially to ensure +the fertility of the soil. This is indicated not merely by the nature of +the rites and of the prayers or verses which accompanied them, but also by +the seasons at which they were observed; for these were the vintage, the +harvest-home, and the beginning of sowing. We may therefore compare a +custom practised by the Roman Brethren of the Ploughed Fields (_Fratres +Arvales_), a college of priests whose business it was to perform the rites +deemed necessary for the growth of the corn. As a badge of office they +wore wreaths of corn-ears, and paid their devotions to an antique goddess +of fertility, the Dea Dia. Her home was in a grove of ancient evergreen +oaks and laurels out in the Campagna, five miles from Rome. Hither every +year in the month of May, when the fields were ripe or ripening to the +sickle, reaped ears of the new corn were brought and hallowed by the +Brethren with quaint rites, that a blessing might rest on the coming +harvest. The first or preliminary consecration of the ears, however, took +place, not in the grove, but in the house of the Master of the Brethren at +Rome. Here the Brethren were waited upon by four free-born boys, the +children of living fathers and mothers. While the Brethren reclined on +couches, the boys were allowed to sit on chairs and partake of the feast, +and when it was over they carried the rest of the now hallowed corn and +laid it on the altar.(617) + +(M215) In these and all other rites intended to ensure the fertility of +the ground, of cattle, or of human beings, the employment of children of +living parents seems to be intelligible on the principle of sympathetic +magic; for such children might be deemed fuller of life than orphans, +either because they "flourished on both sides," as the Greeks put it, or +because the very survival of their parents might be taken as a proof that +the stock of which the children came was vigorous and therefore able to +impart of its superabundant energy to others. + +(M216) But the rites in which the children of living parents are required +to officiate do not always aim at promoting the growth of the crops. At +Olympia the olive-branches which formed the victors' crowns had to be cut +from a sacred tree with a golden sickle by a lad whose father and mother +must be both alive.(618) The tree was a wild olive growing within the holy +precinct, at the west end of the temple of Zeus. It bore the name of the +Olive of the Fair Crown, and near it was an altar to the Nymphs of the +Fair Crowns.(619) At Delphi every eighth year a sacred drama or +miracle-play was acted which drew crowds of spectators from all parts of +Greece. It set forth the slaying of the Dragon by Apollo. The principal +part was sustained by a lad, the son of living parents, who seems to have +personated the god himself. In an open space the likeness of a lordly +palace, erected for the occasion, represented the Dragon's den. It was +attacked and burned by the lad, aided by women who carried blazing +torches. When the Dragon had received his deadly wound, the lad, still +acting the part of the god, fled far away to be purged of the guilt of +blood in the beautiful Vale of Tempe, where the Peneus flows in a deep +wooded gorge between the snowy peaks of Olympus and Ossa, its smooth and +silent tide shadowed by overhanging trees and tall white cliffs. In places +these great crags rise abruptly from the stream and approach each other so +near that only a narrow strip of sky is visible overhead; but where they +recede a little, the meadows at their foot are verdant with evergreen +shrubs, among which Apollo's own laurel may still be seen. In antiquity +the god himself, stained with the Dragon's blood, is said to have come, a +haggard footsore wayfarer, to this wild secluded glen and there plucked +branches from one of the laurels that grew in its green thickets beside +the rippling river. Some of them he used to twine a wreath for his brows, +one of them he carried in his hand, doubtless in order that, guarded by +the sacred plant, he might escape the hobgoblins which dogged his steps. +So the boy, his human representative, did the same, and brought back to +Delphi wreaths of laurel from the same tree to be awarded to the victors +in the Pythian games. Hence the whole festival of the Slaying of the +Dragon at Delphi went by the name of the Festival of Crowning.(620) From +this it appears that at Delphi as well as at Olympia the boughs which were +used to crown the victors had to be cut from a sacred tree by a boy whose +parents must be both alive. + +(M217) At Thebes a festival called the Laurel-bearing was held once in +every eight years, when branches of laurel were carried in procession to +the temple of Apollo. The principal part in the procession was taken by a +boy who held a laurel bough and bore the title of the Laurel-bearer: he +seems to have personated the god himself. His hair hung down on his +shoulders, and he wore a golden crown, a bright-coloured robe, and shoes +of a special shape: both his parents must be alive.(621) We may suppose +that the golden crown which he wore was fashioned in the shape of laurel +leaves and replaced a wreath of real laurel. Thus the boy with the laurel +wreath on his head and the laurel bough in his hand would resemble the +traditional equipment of Apollo when he purified himself for the slaughter +of the dragon. We may conjecture that at Thebes the Laurel-bearer +originally personated not Apollo but the local hero Cadmus, who slew the +dragon and had like Apollo to purify himself for the slaughter. The +conjecture is confirmed by vase-paintings which represent Cadmus crowned +with laurel preparing to attack the dragon or actually in combat with the +monster, while goddesses bend over him holding out wreaths of laurel as +the meed of victory.(622) On this hypothesis the octennial Delphic +Festival of Crowning and the octennial Theban Festival of Laurel-bearing +were closely akin: in both the prominent part played by the laurel was +purificatory or expiatory.(623) Thus at Olympia, Delphi, and Thebes a boy +whose parents were both alive was entrusted with the duty of cutting or +wearing a sacred wreath at a great festival which recurred at intervals of +several years.(624) + +(M218) Why a boy of living parents should be chosen for such an office is +not at first sight clear; the reason might be more obvious if we +understood the ideas in which the custom of wearing wreaths and crowns had +its origin. Probably in many cases wreaths and crowns were amulets before +they were ornaments; in other words, their first intention may have been +not so much to adorn the head as to protect it from harm by surrounding it +with a plant, a metal, or any other thing which was supposed to possess +the magical virtue of banning baleful influences. Thus the Arabs of Moab +will put a circlet of copper on the head of a man who is suffering from +headache, for they believe that this will banish the pain; and if the pain +is in an arm or a leg, they will treat the ailing limb in like manner. +They think that red beads hung before the eyes of children who are +afflicted with ophthalmia will rid them of the malady, and that a red +ribbon tied to the foot will prevent it from stumbling on a stony +path.(625) Again, the Melanesians of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain +often deck their dusky bodies with flowers, leaves, and scented herbs not +only at festivals but on other occasions which to the European might seem +inappropriate for such gay ornaments. But in truth the bright blossoms and +verdant foliage are not intended to decorate the wearer but to endow him +with certain magical virtues, which are supposed to inhere in the flowers +and leaves. Thus one man may be seen strutting about with a wreath of +greenery which passes round his neck and droops over his shoulders, back, +and breast. He is not a mere dandy, but a lover who hopes that the wreath +will work as a charm on a woman's heart. Again, another may be observed +with a bunch of the red dracaena leaves knotted round his neck and the +long stalk hanging down his back. He is a soldier, and these leaves are +supposed to make him invulnerable. But if the lover should fail to win the +affections of his swarthy mistress, if the warrior should be wounded in +battle, it never occurs to either of them to question the magical virtue +of the charm; they ascribe the failure either to the more potent charm of +another magician or to some oversight on their own part.(626) On the +theory that wreaths and garlands serve as amulets to protect the wearer +against the powers of evil we can understand not only why in antiquity +sacred persons such as priests and kings wore crowns, but also why dead +bodies, sacrificial victims, and in certain circumstances even inanimate +objects such as the implements of sacrifice, the doors of houses, and so +forth, were decorated or rather guarded by wreaths.(627) Further, on this +hypothesis we may perhaps perceive why children of living parents were +specially chosen to cut or wear sacred wreaths. Since such children were +apparently supposed to be endowed with a more than common share of vital +energy, they might be deemed peculiarly fitted to make or wear amulets +which were designed to protect the wearer from injury and death: the +current of life which circulated in their own veins overflowed, as it +were, and reinforced the magic virtue of the wreath. For the same reason +such children would naturally be chosen to personate gods, as they +seemingly were at Delphi and Thebes. + +(M219) At Ephesus, if we may trust the evidence of the Greek +romance-writer, Heliodorus, a boy and girl of living parents used to hold +for a year the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis respectively. When their +period of office was nearly expired, they led a sacred embassy to Delos, +the birthplace of the divine brother and sister, where they superintended +the musical and athletic contests and laid down the priesthood.(628) At +Rome no girl might be chosen a Vestal Virgin unless both her father and +mother were living;(629) yet there is no evidence or probability that a +Vestal vacated office on the death of a parent; indeed she generally held +office for life.(630) This alone may suffice to prove that the custom of +entrusting certain sacred duties to children of living parents was not +based on any notion that orphans as such were ceremonially unclean. Again, +the dancing priests of Mars, the Salii, must be sons of living +parents;(631) but as in the case of the Vestals this condition probably +only applied at the date of their election, for they seem like the Vestals +to have held office for life. At all events we read of a lively old +gentleman who still skipped and capered about as a dancing priest with an +agility which threw the efforts of his younger colleagues into the +shade.(632) Again, at the public games in Rome boys of living parents had +to escort the images of the gods in their sacred cars, and it was a dire +omen if one of them relaxed his hold on the holy cart or let a strap slip +from his fingers.(633) And when the stout Roman heart was shaken by the +appalling news that somebody had been struck by lightning, that the sky +had somewhere been suddenly overcast, or that a she-mule had been safely +delivered of a colt, boys and girls whose fathers and mothers were still +alive used to be sought out and employed to help in expiating the terrific +prodigy.(634) Again, when the Capitol had been sacked and burned by the +disorderly troops of Vitellius, solemn preparations were made to rebuild +it. The whole area was enclosed by a cordon of fillets and wreaths. Then +soldiers chosen for their auspicious names entered within the barriers +holding branches of lucky trees in their hands; and afterwards the Vestal +Virgins, aided by boys and girls of living parents, washed the foundations +with water drawn from springs and rivers.(635) In this ceremony the choice +of such children seems to be based on the same idea as the choice of such +water; for as running water is deemed to be especially alive,(636) so the +vital current might be thought to flow without interruption in the +children of living parents but to stagnate in orphans. Hence the children +of living parents rather than orphans would naturally be chosen to pour +the living water over the foundations, and so to lend something of their +own vitality or endurance to a building that was designed to last for +ever. + +(M220) On the same principle we can easily understand why the children of +living parents should be especially chosen to perform certain offices at +marriage. The motive of such a choice may be a wish to ensure by +sympathetic magic the life of the newly wedded pair and of their +offspring. Thus at Roman marriages the bride was escorted to her new home +by three boys whose parents were all living. Two of the boys held her, and +the third carried a torch of buckthorn or hawthorn in front of her,(637) +probably for the purpose of averting the powers of evil; for buckthorn or +hawthorn was credited with this magical virtue.(638) At marriages in +ancient Athens a boy whose parents were both living used to wear a wreath +of thorns and acorns and to carry about a winnowing-fan full of loaves, +crying, "I have escaped the bad, I have found the better."(639) In modern +Greece on the Sunday before a marriage the bridegroom sends to the bride +the wedding cake by the hands of a boy, both of whose parents must be +living. The messenger takes great care not to stumble or to injure the +cake, for to do either would be a very bad omen. He may not enter the +bride's house till she has taken the cake from him. For this purpose he +lays it down on the threshold of the door, and then both of them, the boy +and the bride, rush at it and try to seize the greater part of the cake. +And when cattle are being slaughtered for the marriage festivities, the +first beast killed for the bride's house must be killed by a youth whose +parents are both alive. Further, a son of living parents must solemnly +fetch the water with which the bridegroom's head is ceremonially washed by +women before marriage. And on the day after the marriage bride and +bridegroom go in procession to the well or spring from which they are +henceforth to fetch their water. The bride greets the spring, drinks of +the water from the hollow of her hand, and throws money and food into it. +Then follows a dance, accompanied by a song, round about the spring. +Lastly, a lad whose parents are both living draws water from the spring in +a special vessel and carries it to the house of the bridal pair without +speaking a word: this "unspoken water," as it is called, is regarded as +peculiarly holy and wholesome. When the young couple return from the +spring, they fill their mouths with the "unspoken water" and try to spirt +it on each other inside the door of the house.(640) In Albania, when women +are baking cakes for a wedding, the first to put hand to the dough must be +a maiden whose parents are both alive and who has brothers, the more the +better; for only such a girl is deemed lucky. And when the bride has +dismounted from her horse at the bridegroom's door, a small boy whose +parents are both alive (for only such a boy is thought to bring luck) is +passed thrice backwards and forwards under the horse's belly, as if he +would girdle the beast.(641) Among the South Slavs of Bulgaria a little +child whose father and mother are both alive helps to bake the two bridal +cakes, pouring water and salt on the meal and stirring the mixture with a +spurtle of a special shape; then a girl lifts the child in her arms, and +the little one touches the roof-beam thrice with the spurtle, saying, +"Boys and girls." And when the bride's hair is to be dressed for the +wedding day, the work of combing and plaiting it must be begun by a child +of living parents.(642) Among the Eesa and Gadabursi, two Somali tribes, +on the morning after a marriage "the bride's female relations bring +presents of milk, and are accompanied by a young male child whose parents +are living. The child drinks some of the milk before any one else tastes +it; and after him the bridegroom, if his parents are living; but if one or +both of his parents are dead, and those of the bride living, she drinks +after the child. By doing this they believe that if the newly-married +woman bears a child the father will be alive at the time."(643) A slightly +different application of the same principle appears in the old Hindoo rule +that when a bride reached the house of her husband, she should be made to +descend from the chariot by women of good character whose husbands and +sons were living, and that afterwards these women should seat the bride on +a bull's hide, while her husband recited the verse, "Here ye cows, bring +forth calves."(644) Here the ceremony of seating the young wife on a +bull's hide seems plainly intended to make her fruitful through the +generative virtue of the bull; while the attendance of women, whose +husbands and sons are living, is no doubt a device for ensuring, by +sympathetic magic, the life both of the bride's husband and of her future +offspring. + +(M221) In the Somali custom just described the part played by the child of +living parents is unambiguous and helps to throw light on the obscurer +cases which precede. Such a child is clearly supposed to impart the virtue +of longevity to the milk of which it partakes, and so to transmit it to +the newly married pair who afterwards drink of the milk. Similarly, we may +suppose that in all marriage rites at least, if not in religious rites +generally, the employment of children of living parents is intended to +diffuse by sympathy the blessings of life and longevity among all who +participate in the ceremonies. This intention seems to underlie the use +which the Malagasy make of the children of living parents in ritual. Thus, +when a child is a week old, it is dressed up in the finest clothes that +can be got, and is then carried out of the house by some person whose +parents are both still living; afterwards it is brought back to the +mother. In the act of being carried out and in, the infant must be twice +carefully lifted over the fire, which is placed near the door. If the +child is a boy, the axe, knife, and spear of the family, together with any +building tools that may be in the house, are taken out of it at the same +time. "The implements are perhaps used chiefly as emblems of the +occupations in which it is expected the infant will engage when it arrives +at maturer years; and the whole may be regarded as expressing the hopes +cherished of his activity, wealth, and enjoyments."(645) On such an +occasion the service of a person whose parents are both alive seems +naturally calculated to promote the longevity of the infant. For a like +reason, probably, the holy water used at the Malagasy ceremony of +circumcision is drawn from a pool by a person whose parents are both still +living.(646) The same idea may explain a funeral custom observed by the +Sihanaka of Madagascar. After a burial the family of the deceased, with +their near relatives and dependents, meet in the house from which the +corpse was lately removed "to drink rum and to undergo a purifying and +preserving baptism called _fafy ranom-boahangy_. Leaves of the lemon or +lime tree, and the stalks of two kinds of grass, are gathered and placed +in a vessel with water. A person, both of whose parents are living, is +chosen to perform the rite, and this 'holy water' is then sprinkled upon +the walls of the house and upon all assembled within them, and finally +around the house outside."(647) Here a person whose parents are both +living appears to be credited with a more than common share of life and +longevity; from which it naturally follows that he is better fitted than +any one else to perform a ceremony intended to avert the danger of death +from the household. + +(M222) The notion that a child of living parents is endowed with a higher +degree of vitality than an orphan probably explains all the cases of the +employment of such a child in ritual, whether the particular rite is +designed to ensure the fertility of the ground or the fruitfulness of +women, or to avert the danger of death and other calamities. Yet it might +be a mistake to suppose that this notion is always clearly apprehended by +the persons who practise the customs. In their minds the definite +conception of superabundant and overflowing vitality may easily dissolve +into a vague idea that the child of living parents is luckier than other +folk. No more than this seems to be at the bottom of the Masai rule that +when the warriors wish to select a chief, they must choose "a man whose +parents are still living, who owns cattle and has never killed anybody, +whose parents are not blind, and who himself has not a discoloured +eye."(648) And nothing more is needed to explain the ancient Greek custom +which assigned the duty of drawing lots from an urn to a boy under puberty +whose father and mother were both in life.(649) At Athens it would appear +that registers of these boys were kept, perhaps in order that the lads +might discharge, as occasion arose, those offices of religion which +required the service of such auspicious youths.(650) The atrocious tyrant +Heliogabalus, one of the worst monsters who ever disgraced the human form, +caused search to be made throughout Italy for noble and handsome boys +whose parents were both alive, and he sacrificed them to his barbarous +gods, torturing them first and grabbling among their entrails afterwards +for omens. He seems to have thought that such victims would be peculiarly +acceptable to the Syrian deities whom he worshipped; so he encouraged the +torturers and butchers at their work, and thanked the gods for enabling +him to ferret out "their friends."(651) + + + + +III. A Charm To Protect a Town. + + +(M223) The tradition that a Lydian king tried to make the citadel of +Sardes impregnable by carrying round it a lion(652) may perhaps be +illustrated by a South African custom. When the Bechuanas are about to +found a new town, they observe an elaborate ritual. They choose a bull +from the herd, sew up its eyelids with sinew, and then allow the blinded +animal to wander at will for four days. On the fifth day they track it +down and sacrifice it at sunset on the spot where it happens to be +standing. The carcase is then roasted whole and divided among the people. +Ritual requires that every particle of the flesh should be consumed on the +spot. When the sacrificial meal is over, the medicine-men take the hide +and mark it with appropriate medicines, the composition of which is a +professional secret. Then with one long spiral cut they convert the whole +hide into a single thong. Having done so they cut up the thong into +lengths of about two feet and despatch messengers in all directions to peg +down one of those strips in each of the paths leading to the new town. +"After this," it is said, "if a foreigner approaches the new town to +destroy it with his charms, he will find that the town has prepared itself +for his coming."(653) Thus it would seem that the pastoral Bechuanas +attempt to place a new town under the protection of one of their sacred +cattle(654) by distributing pieces of its hide at all points where an +enemy could approach it, just as the Lydian king thought to place the +citadel of his capital under the protection of the lion-god by carrying +the animal round the boundaries. + +(M224) Further, the Bechuana custom may throw light on a widespread legend +which relates how a wily settler in a new country bought from the natives +as much land as could be covered with a hide, and how he then proceeded to +cut the hide into thongs and to claim as much land as could be enclosed by +the thongs. It was thus, according to the Hottentots, that the first +European settlers obtained a footing in South Africa.(655) But the most +familiar example of such stories is the tradition that Dido procured the +site of Carthage in this fashion, and that the place hence received the +name of Byrsa or "hide."(656) Similar tales occur in the legendary history +of Saxons and Danes,(657) and they meet us in India, Siberia, Burma, +Cambodia, Java, and Bali.(658) The wide diffusion of such stories confirms +the conjecture of Jacob Grimm that in them we have a reminiscence of a +mode of land measurement which was once actually in use, and of which the +designation is still retained in the English _hide_.(659) The Bechuana +custom suggests that the mode of measuring by a hide may have originated +in a practice of encompassing a piece of land with thongs cut from the +hide of a sacrificial victim in order to place the ground under the +guardianship of the sacred animal. + +(M225) But why do the Bechuanas sew up the eyelids of the bull which is to +be used for this purpose? The answer appears to be given by the ceremonies +which the same people observe when they are going out to war. On that +occasion a woman rushes up to the army with her eyes shut and shakes a +winnowing-fan, while she cries out, "The army is not seen! The army is not +seen!" And a medicine-man at the same time sprinkles medicine over the +spears, crying out in like manner, "The army is not seen! The army is not +seen!" After that they seize a bull, sew up its eyelids with a hair of its +tail, and drive it for some distance along the road which the army is to +take. When it has preceded the army a little way, the bull is sacrificed, +roasted whole, and eaten by the warriors. All the flesh must be consumed +on the spot. Such parts as cannot be eaten are burnt with fire. Only the +contents of the stomach are carefully preserved as a charm which is to +lead the warriors to victory. Chosen men carry the precious guts in front +of the army, and it is deemed most important that no one should precede +them. When they stop, the army stops, and it will not resume the march +till it sees that the men with the bull's guts have gone forward.(660) The +meaning of these ceremonies is explained by the cries of the woman and the +priest, "The army is not seen! The army is not seen!" Clearly it is +desirable that the army should not be perceived by the enemies until it is +upon them. Accordingly on the principles of homoeopathic magic the +Bechuanas apparently imagine that they can make themselves invisible by +eating of the flesh of a blind bull, blindness and invisibility being to +their simple minds the same thing. For the same reason the bowels of the +blind ox are carried in front of the army to hide its advance from hostile +eyes. In like manner the custom of sacrificing and eating a blind ox on +the place where a new town is to be built may be intended to render the +town invisible to enemies. At all events the Bawenda, a South African +people who belong to the same Bantu stock as the Bechuanas, take great +pains to conceal their kraals from passers-by. The kraals are built in the +forest or bush, and the long winding footpaths which lead to them are +often kept open only by the support of a single pole here and there. +Indeed the paths are so low and narrow that it is very difficult to bring +a horse into such a village. In time of war the poles are removed and the +thorny creepers fall down, forming a natural screen or bulwark which the +enemy can neither penetrate nor destroy by fire. The kraals are also +surrounded by walls of undressed stones with a filling of soil; and to +hide them still better from the view of the enemy the tops of the walls +are sown with Indian corn or planted with tobacco. Hence travellers +passing through the country seldom come across a Bawenda kraal. To see +where the Bawenda dwell you must climb to the tops of mountains and look +down on the roofs of their round huts peeping out of the surrounding green +like clusters of mushrooms in the woods.(661) The object which the Bawenda +attain by these perfectly rational means, the Bechuanas seek to compass by +the sacrifice and consumption of a blind bull. + +(M226) This explanation of the use of a blinded ox in sacrifice is +confirmed by the reasons alleged by a Caffre for the observance of a +somewhat similar custom in purificatory ceremonies after a battle. On +these occasions the Bechuanas and other Caffre tribes of South Africa kill +a black ox and cut out the tip of its tongue, an eye, a piece of the +ham-string, and a piece of the principal sinew of the shoulder. These +parts are fried with certain herbs and rubbed into the joints of the +warriors. By cutting out the tongue of the ox they think to prevent the +enemy from wagging his tongue against them; by severing the sinews of the +ox they hope to cause the enemy's sinews to fail him in the battle; and by +removing the eye of the ox they imagine that they prevent the enemy from +casting a covetous eye on their cattle.(662) + + + + +IV. Some Customs Of The Pelew Islanders. + + +We have seen that the state of society and religion among the Pelew +Islanders in modern times presents several points of similarity to the +condition of the peoples about the Eastern Mediterranean in +antiquity.(663) Here I propose briefly to call attention to certain other +customs of the Pelew Islanders which may serve to illustrate some of the +institutions discussed in this volume. + + + +§ 1. Priests dressed as Women. + + +(M227) In the Pelew Islands it often happens that a goddess chooses a man, +not a woman, for her minister and inspired mouthpiece. When that is so, +the favoured man is thenceforth regarded and treated as a woman. He wears +female attire, he carries a piece of gold on his neck, he labours like a +woman in the taro fields, and he plays his new part so well that he earns +the hearty contempt of his fellows.(664) The pretended change of sex under +the inspiration of a female spirit perhaps explains a custom widely spread +among savages, in accordance with which some men dress as women and act as +women through life. These unsexed creatures often, perhaps generally, +profess the arts of sorcery and healing, they communicate with spirits, +and are regarded sometimes with awe and sometimes with contempt, as beings +of a higher or lower order than common folk. Often they are dedicated and +trained to their vocation from childhood. Effeminate sorcerers or priests +of this sort are found among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo,(665) the Bugis of +South Celebes,(666) the Patagonians of South America,(667) and the +Aleutians and many Indian tribes of North America.(668) In the island of +Rambree, off the coast of Aracan, a set of vagabond "conjurors," who +dressed and lived as women, used to dance round a tall pole, invoking the +aid of their favourite idol on the occasion of any calamity.(669) Male +members of the Vallabha sect in India often seek to win the favour of the +god Krishna, whom they specially revere, by wearing their hair long and +assimilating themselves to women; even their spiritual chiefs, the +so-called Maharajas, sometimes simulate the appearance of women when they +lead the worship of their followers.(670) In Madagascar we hear of +effeminate men who wore female attire and acted as women, thinking thereby +to do God service.(671) In the kingdom of Congo there was a sacrificial +priest who commonly dressed as a woman and gloried in the title of the +Grandmother. The post of Grandmother must have been much coveted, for the +incumbent might not be put to death, whatever crimes or rascalities he +committed; and to do him justice he appears commonly to have taken full +advantage of this benefit of clergy. When he died, his fortunate successor +dissected the body of the deceased Grandmother, extracting his heart and +other vital organs, and amputating his fingers and toes, which he kept as +priceless relics, and sold as sovereign remedies for all the ills that +flesh is heir to.(672) + +(M228) We may conjecture that in many of these cases the call to this +strange form of the religious life came in the shape of a dream or vision, +in which the dreamer or visionary imagined himself to be a woman or to be +possessed by a female spirit; for with many savage races the disordered +fancies of sleep or ecstasy are accepted as oracular admonitions which it +would be perilous to disregard. At all events we are told that a dream or +a revelation of some sort was the reason which in North America these +men-women commonly alleged for the life they led; it had been thus brought +home to them, they said, that their medicine or their salvation lay in +living as women, and when once they had got this notion into their head +nothing could drive it out again. Many an Indian father attempted by +persuasion, by bribes, by violence, to deter his son from obeying the +mysterious call, but all to no purpose.(673) Among the Sauks, an Indian +tribe of North America, these effeminate beings were always despised, but +sometimes they were pitied "as labouring under an unfortunate destiny +which they cannot avoid, being supposed to be impelled to this course by a +vision from the female spirit that resides in the moon."(674) Similarly +the Omahas, another Indian tribe of North America, "believe that the +unfortunate beings, called _Min-qu-ga_, are mysterious or sacred because +they have been affected by the Moon Being. When a young Omaha fasted for +the first time on reaching puberty, it was thought that the Moon Being +appeared to him, holding in one hand a bow and arrows and in the other a +pack strap, such as the Indian women use. When the youth tried to grasp +the bow and arrows the Moon Being crossed his hands very quickly, and if +the youth was not very careful he seized the pack strap instead of the bow +and arrows, thereby fixing his lot in after life. In such a case he could +not help acting the woman, speaking, dressing, and working just as Indian +women used to do."(675) Among the Ibans or Sea Dyaks of Borneo the highest +class of sorcerers or medicine-men (_manangs_) are those who are believed +to have been transformed into women. Such a man is therefore called a +"changed medicine-man" (_manang bali_) on account of his supposed change +of sex. The call to transform himself into a woman is said to come as a +supernatural command thrice repeated in dreams; to disregard the command +would mean death. Accordingly he makes a feast, sacrifices a pig or two to +avert evil consequences from the tribe, and then assumes the garb of a +woman. Thenceforth he is treated as a woman and occupies himself in +feminine pursuits. His chief aim is to copy female manners and habits as +accurately as possible. He is employed for the same purposes as an +ordinary medicine-man and his methods are similar, but he is paid much +higher fees and is often called in when others have been unable to effect +a cure.(676) Similarly among the Chukchees of North-Eastern Asia there are +shamans or medicine-men who assimilate themselves as far as possible to +women, and who are believed to be called to this vocation by spirits in a +dream. The call usually comes at the critical age of early youth when the +shamanistic inspiration, as it is called, first manifests itself. But the +call is much dreaded by the youthful adepts, and some of them prefer death +to obedience. There are, however, various stages or degrees of +transformation. In the first stage the man apes a woman only in the manner +of braiding and arranging the hair of his head. In the second he dons +female attire; in the third stage he adopts as far as possible the life +and characteristics of the female sex. A young man who is undergoing this +final transformation abandons all masculine occupations and manners. He +throws away the rifle and the lance, the lasso of the reindeer herdsman, +and the harpoon of the seal-hunter, and betakes himself to the needle and +the skin-scraper instead. He learns the use of them quickly, because the +spirits are helping him all the time. Even his pronunciation changes from +the male to the female mode. At the same time his body alters, if not in +outward appearance, at least in its faculties and forces. He loses +masculine strength, fleetness of foot, endurance in wrestling, and falls +into the debility and helplessness of a woman. Even his mental character +undergoes a change. His old brute courage and fighting spirit are gone; he +grows shy and bashful before strangers, fond of small talk and of dandling +little children. In short he becomes a woman with the appearance of a man, +and as a woman he is often taken to wife by another man, with whom he +leads a regular married life. Extraordinary powers are attributed to such +transformed shamans. They are supposed to enjoy the special protection of +spirits who play the part of supernatural husbands to them. Hence they are +much dreaded even by their colleagues in the profession who remain mere +men; hence, too, they excel in all branches of magic, including +ventriloquism.(677) Among the Teso of Central Africa medicine-men often +dress as women and wear feminine ornaments, such as heavy chains of beads +and shells round their heads and necks.(678) + +(M229) And just as a man inspired by a goddess may adopt female attire, so +conversely a woman inspired by a god may adopt male costume. In Uganda the +great god Mukasa, the deity of the Victoria Nyanza Lake and of abundance, +imparted his oracles through a woman, who in ordinary life dressed like +the rest of her sex in a bark cloth wrapped round the body and fastened +with a girdle, so as to leave the arms and shoulders bare; but when she +prophesied under the inspiration of the god, she wore two bark cloths +knotted in masculine style over her shoulders and crossing each other on +her breast and back.(679) When once the god had chosen her, she retained +office for life; she might not marry or converse with any man except one +particular priest, who was always present when she was possessed by the +deity.(680) + +(M230) Perhaps this assumed change of sex under the inspiration of a +goddess may give the key to the legends of the effeminate Sardanapalus and +the effeminate Hercules,(681) as well as to the practice of the effeminate +priests of Cybele and the Syrian goddess. In all such cases the pretended +transformation of a man into a woman would be intelligible if we supposed +that the womanish priest or king thought himself animated by a female +spirit, whose sex, accordingly, he felt bound to imitate. Certainly the +eunuch priests of Cybele seem to have bereft themselves of their manhood +under the supposed inspiration of the Great Goddess.(682) The priest of +Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who dressed as a woman when he offered +sacrifice, is said to have done so in imitation of Hercules who disguised +himself as a woman to escape the pursuit of his enemies.(683) So the +Lydian Hercules wore female attire when he served for three years as the +purchased slave of the imperious Omphale, Queen of Lydia.(684) If we +suppose that Queen Omphale, like Queen Semiramis, was nothing but the +great Asiatic goddess,(685) or one of her Avatars, it becomes probable +that the story of the womanish Hercules of Lydia preserves a reminiscence +of a line or college of effeminate priests who, like the eunuch priests of +the Syrian goddess, dressed as women in imitation of their goddess and +were supposed to be inspired by her. The probability is increased by the +practice of the priests of Hercules at Antimachia, in Cos, who, as we have +just seen, actually wore female attire when they were engaged in their +sacred duties. Similarly at the vernal mysteries of Hercules in Rome the +men were draped in the garments of women;(686) and in some of the rites +and processions of Dionysus also men wore female attire.(687) In legend +and art there are clear traces of an effeminate Dionysus, who perhaps +figured in a strange ceremony for the artificial fertilization of the +fig.(688) Among the Nahanarvals, an ancient German tribe, a priest garbed +as a woman presided over a sacred grove.(689) These and similar +practices(690) need not necessarily have any connexion with the social +system of mother-kin. Wherever a goddess is revered and the theory of +inspiration is held, a man may be thought to be possessed by a female +spirit, whether society be organized on mother-kin or on father-kin. Still +the chances of such a transformation of sex will be greater under +mother-kin than under father-kin if, as we have found reason to believe, a +system of mother-kin is more favourable to the development and +multiplication of goddesses than of gods. It is therefore, perhaps, no +mere accident that we meet with these effeminate priests in regions like +the Pelew Islands and Western Asia, where the system of mother-kin either +actually prevails or has at least left traces of it behind in tradition +and custom. Such traces, for example, are to be found in Lydia and +Cos,(691) in both of which the effeminate Hercules had his home. + +(M231) But the religious or superstitious interchange of dress between men +and women is an obscure and complex problem, and it is unlikely that any +single solution would apply to all the cases. Probably the custom has been +practised from many different motives. For example, the practice of +dressing boys as girls has certainly been sometimes adopted to avert the +Evil Eye;(692) and it is possible that the custom of changing garments at +marriage, the bridegroom disguising himself as a woman, or the bride +disguising herself as a man, may have been resorted to for the same +purpose. Thus in Cos, where the priest of Hercules wore female attire, the +bridegroom was in like manner dressed as a woman when he received his +bride.(693) Spartan brides had their hair shaved, and were clad in men's +clothes and booted on their wedding night.(694) Argive brides wore false +beards when they slept with their husbands for the first time.(695) In +Southern Celebes a bridegroom at a certain point of the long and elaborate +marriage ceremonies puts on the garments which his bride has just put +off.(696) Among the Jews of Egypt in the Middle Ages the bride led the +wedding dance with a helmet on her head and a sword in her hand, while the +bridegroom adorned himself as a woman and put on female attire.(697) At a +Brahman marriage in Southern India "the bride is dressed up as a boy, and +another girl is dressed up to represent the bride. They are taken in +procession through the street, and, on returning, the pseudo-bridegroom is +made to speak to the real bridegroom in somewhat insolent tones, and some +mock play is indulged in. The real bridegroom is addressed as if he was +the syce (groom) or gumasta (clerk) of the pseudo-bridegroom, and is +sometimes treated as a thief, and judgment passed on him by the +latter."(698) Among the Bharias of the Central Provinces of India "the +bridegroom puts on women's ornaments and carries with him an iron +nut-cutter or dagger to keep off evil spirits."(699) Similarly among the +Khangars, a low Hindustani caste of the same region, "the bridegroom is +dressed in a yellow gown and overcloth, with trousers of red chintz, red +shoes, and a marriage crown of date-palm leaves. He has the silver +ornaments usually worn by women on his neck, as the _khang-wari_ or silver +ring and the _hamel_ or necklace of rupees. In order to avert the evil eye +he carries a dagger or nut-cracker, and a smudge of lampblack is made on +his forehead to disfigure him and thus avert the evil eye, which, it is +thought, would otherwise be too probably attracted by his exquisitely +beautiful appearance in his wedding garments."(700) These examples render +it highly probable that, like the dagger or nut-cracker which he holds in +his hand, the woman's ornaments which he wears are intended to protect the +bridegroom against demons or the evil eye at this critical moment of his +life, the protection apparently consisting in a disguise which enables him +to elude the unwelcome attentions of malignant beings.(701) + +(M232) A similar explanation probably accounts for the similar exchange of +costume between other persons than the bride and bridegroom at marriage. +For example, after a Bharia wedding, "the girl's mother gets the dress of +the boy's father and puts it on, together with a false beard and +moustaches, and dances holding a wooden ladle in one hand and a packet of +ashes in the other. Every time she approaches the bridegroom's father on +her rounds she spills some of the ashes over him and occasionally gives +him a crack on the head with her ladle, these actions being accompanied by +bursts of laughter from the party and frenzied playing by the musicians. +When the party reach the bridegroom's house on their return, his mother +and the other women come out, and burn a little mustard and human hair in +a lamp, the unpleasant smell emitted by these articles being considered +potent to drive away evil spirits."(702) Again, after a Khangar wedding +the father of the bridegroom, dressed in women's clothes, dances with the +mother of the bride, while the two throw turmeric mixed with water on each +other.(703) Similarly after a wedding of the Bharbhunjas, another +Hindustani caste of the Central Provinces, the bridegroom's father dances +before the family in women's clothes which have been supplied by the +bride's father.(704) Such disguises and dances may be intended either to +protect the disguised dancer himself against the evil eye or perhaps +rather to guard the principal personages of the ceremony, the bride and +bridegroom, by diverting the attention of demons from them to the +guiser.(705) However, when at marriage the bride alone assumes the costume +and appearance of the other sex, the motive for the disguise may perhaps +be a notion that on the principle of homoeopathic magic she thereby +ensures the birth of a male heir. Similarly in Sweden there is a popular +superstition that "on the night preceding her nuptials the bride should +have a baby-boy to sleep with her, in which case her first-born will be a +son";(706) and among the Kabyles, when a bride dismounts from her mule at +her husband's house, a young lad leaps into the saddle before she touches +the ground, in order that her first child may be a boy.(707) + +(M233) Be that as it may, there is no doubt that the assumption of woman's +dress is sometimes intended to disguise a man for the purpose of deceiving +a demon. Thus among the Boloki or Bangala on the Upper Congo a man was +long afflicted with an internal malady. When all other remedies had +failed, a witch-doctor informed the sufferer that the cause of his trouble +was an evil spirit, and that the best thing he could do was to go far away +where the devil could not get at him, and to remain there till he had +recovered his health. The patient followed the prescription. At dead of +night he left his house, taking only two of his wives with him and telling +no one of his destination, lest the demon should hear it and follow him. +So he went far away from his town, donned a woman's dress, and speaking in +a woman's voice he pretended to be other than he was, in order that the +devil should not be able to find him at his new address. Strange to say, +these sage measures failed to effect a cure, and wearying of exile he at +last returned home, where he continued to dress and speak as a woman.(708) +Again, the Kuki-Lushai of Assam believe that if a man kills an enemy or a +wild beast, the ghost of the dead man or animal will haunt him and drive +him mad. The only way of averting this catastrophe is to dress up as a +woman and pretend to be one. For example, a man who had shot a tiger and +was in fear of being haunted by the animal's ghost, dressed himself up in +a woman's petticoat and cloth, wore ivory earrings, and wound a mottled +cloth round his head like a turban. Then smoking a woman's pipe, carrying +a little basket, and spinning a cotton spindle, he paraded the village +followed by a crowd roaring and shrieking with laughter, while he +preserved the gravity of a judge, for a single smile would have been +fatal. To guard against the possibility of unseasonable mirth, he carried +a porcupine in his arms, and if ever, tickled beyond the pitch of +endurance, he burst into a guffaw, the crowd said, "It was the porcupine +that laughed." All this was done to mortify the pride of the tiger's ghost +by leading him to believe that he had been shot by a woman.(709) + +(M234) The same dread of attracting the attention of dangerous spirits at +critical times perhaps explains the custom observed by some East African +tribes of wearing the costume of the opposite sex at circumcision. Thus, +when Masai boys have been circumcised they dress as women, wearing +earrings in their ears and long garments that reach to the ground. They +also whiten their swarthy faces with chalk. This costume they retain till +their wounds are healed, whereupon they are shaved and assume the skins +and ornaments of warriors.(710) Among the Nandi, a tribe of British East +Africa, before boys are circumcised they receive a visit from young girls, +who give them some of their own garments and ornaments. These the boys put +on and wear till the operation of circumcision is over, when they exchange +the girls' clothes for the garments of women, which, together with +necklaces, are provided for them by their mothers; and these women's +garments the newly circumcised lads must continue to wear for months +afterwards. Girls are also circumcised among the Nandi, and before they +submit to the operation they attire themselves in men's garments and carry +clubs in their hands.(711) + +(M235) If such interchange of costume between men and women is intended to +disguise the wearers against demons, we may compare the practice of the +Lycian men, who regularly wore women's dress in mourning;(712) for this +might be intended to conceal them from the ghost, just as perhaps for a +similar reason some peoples of antiquity used to descend into pits and +remain there for several days, shunning the light of the sun, whenever a +death had taken place in the family.(713) A similar desire to deceive +spirits may perhaps explain a device to which the Loeboes, a primitive +tribe of Sumatra, resort when they wish to obtain male or female +offspring. If parents have several sons and desire that the next child +shall be a girl, they dress the boys as girls, cut their hair after the +girlish fashion, and hang necklaces round their necks. On the contrary, +when they have many daughters and wish to have a son, they dress the girls +up as boys.(714) + +(M236) On the whole we conclude that the custom of men dressing as women +and of women dressing as men has been practised from a variety of +superstitious motives, among which the principal would seem to be the wish +to please certain powerful spirits or to deceive others. + + + +§ 2. Prostitution of Unmarried Girls. + + +(M237) Like many peoples of Western Asia in antiquity, the Pelew Islanders +systematically prostitute their unmarried girls for hire. Hence, just as +in Lydia and Cyprus of old, the damsels are a source of income to their +family, and women wait impatiently for the time when their young daughters +will be able to help the household by their earnings. Indeed the mother +regularly anticipates the time by depriving the girl of her virginity with +her own hands.(715) Hence the theory that the prostitution of unmarried +girls is a device to destroy their virginity without risk to their +husbands is just as inapplicable to the Pelew Islanders as we have seen it +to be to the peoples of Western Asia in antiquity. When a Pelew girl has +thus been prepared for her vocation by her mother, she sells her favours +to all the men of her village who can pay for them and who do not belong +to her own exogamous clan; but she never grants her favours to the same +man twice. Accordingly in every village of the Pelew Islands it may be +taken as certain that the men and women know each other carnally, except +that members of the same clan are debarred from each other by the rule of +exogamy.(716) Thus a well-marked form of sexual communism, limited only by +the exogamous prohibitions which attach to the clans, prevails among these +people. Nor is this communism restricted to the inhabitants of the same +village, for the girls of each village are regularly sent away to serve as +prostitutes (_armengols_) in another village. There they live with the men +of one of the many clubs or associations (_kaldebekels_) in the clubhouse +(_blay_), attending to the house, consorting freely with the men, and +receiving pay for their services. A girl leading this life in the +clubhouse of another village is well treated by the men: a wrong done to +her is a wrong done to the whole club; and in her own village her value is +increased, not diminished, by the time she thus spends as a prostitute in +a neighbouring community. After her period of service is over she may +marry either in the village where she has served or in her own. Sometimes +many or all of the young women of a village go together to act as +prostitutes (_armengols_) in a neighbouring village, and for this they are +well paid by the community which receives them. The money so earned is +divided among the chiefs of the village to which the damsels belong. Such +a joint expedition of the unmarried girls of a village is called a +_blolobol_. But the young women never act as _armengols_ in any clubhouse +of their own village.(717) + +(M238) Thus, while the Pelew custom of prostituting the unmarried girls to +all the men of their own village, but not of their own clan, is a form of +sexual communism practised within a local group, the custom of +prostituting them to men of other villages is a form of sexual communism +practised between members of different local groups; it is a kind of +group-marriage. These customs of the Pelew Islanders therefore support by +analogy the hypothesis that among the ancient peoples of Western Asia also +the systematic prostitution of unmarried women may have been derived from +an earlier period of sexual communism.(718) + +(M239) A somewhat similar custom prevails in Yap, one of the western group +of the Caroline Islands, situated to the north of the Pelew group. In each +of the men's clubhouses "are kept three or four unmarried girls or +_Mespil_, whose business it is to minister to the pleasures of the men of +the particular clan or brotherhood to which the building belongs. As with +the Kroomen on the Gold Coast, each man, married or single, takes his turn +by rotation in the rites through which each girl must pass before she is +deemed ripe for marriage. The natives say it is an ordeal or preliminary +trial to fit them for the cares and burden of maternity. She is rarely a +girl of the same village, and, of course, must be sprung from a different +sept. Whenever she wishes to become a _Langin_ or respectable married +woman, she may, and is thought none the less of for her frailties as a +_Mespil_.... But I believe this self-immolation before marriage is +confined to the daughters of the inferior chiefs and commons. The supply +of _Mespil_ is generally kept up by the purchase of slave girls from the +neighbouring districts."(719) According to another account a _mespil_ +"must always be stolen, by force or cunning, from a district at some +distance from that wherein her captors reside. After she has been fairly, +or unfairly, captured and installed in her new home, she loses no shade of +respect among her own people; on the contrary, have not her beauty and her +worth received the highest proof of her exalted perfection, in the +devotion, not of one, but of a whole community of lovers?"(720) However, +though the girl is nominally stolen from another district, the matter is +almost always arranged privately with the local chief, who consents to +wink hard at the theft in consideration of a good round sum of shell money +and stone money, which serves "to salve the wounds of a disrupted family +and dispel all thoughts of a bloody retaliation. Nevertheless, the whole +proceeding is still carried out with the greatest possible secrecy and +stealth."(721) + + + +§ 3. Custom of slaying Chiefs. + + +(M240) In the Pelew Islands when the chief of a clan has reigned too long +or has made himself unpopular, the heir has a formal right to put him to +death, though for reasons which will appear this right is only exercised +in some of the principal clans. The practice of regicide, if that word may +be extended to the assassination of chiefs, is in these islands a national +institution regulated by exact rules, and every high chief must lay his +account with it. Indeed so well recognized is the custom that when the +heir-apparent, who under the system of mother-kin must be a brother, a +nephew, or a cousin on the mother's side, proves himself precocious and +energetic, the people say, "The cousin is a grown man. The chief's +_tobolbel_ is nigh at hand."(722) + +(M241) In such cases the plot of death is commonly so well hushed up that +it seldom miscarries. The first care of the conspirators is to discover +where the doomed man keeps his money. For this purpose an old woman will +sleep for some nights in the house and make inquiries quietly, till like a +sleuth-hound she has nosed the hoard. Then the conspirators come, and the +candidate for the chieftainship despatches his predecessor either with his +own hand or by the hand of a young cousin. Having done the deed he takes +possession of the official residence, and applies to the widow of the +deceased the form of persuasion technically known as _meleket_. This +consists of putting a noose round her neck, and drawing it tighter and +tighter till she consents to give up her late husband's money. After that +the murderer and his friends have nothing further to do for the present, +but to remain quietly in the house and allow events to take their usual +course. + +(M242) Meantime the chiefs assemble in the council-house, and the loud +droning notes of the triton-shell, which answers the purpose of a tocsin, +summon the whole population to arms. The warriors muster, and surrounding +the house where the conspirators are ensconced they shower spears and +stones at it, as if to inflict condign punishment on the assassins. But +this is a mere blind, a sham, a legal fiction, intended perhaps to throw +dust in the eyes of the ghost and make him think that his death is being +avenged. In point of fact the warriors take good care to direct their +missiles at the roof or walls of the house, for if they threw them at the +windows they might perhaps hurt the murderer. After this formality has +been satisfactorily performed, the regicide steps out of the house and +engages in the genial task of paying the death duties to the various +chiefs assembled. When he has observed this indispensable ceremony, the +law is satisfied: all constitutional forms have been carried out: the +assassin is now the legitimate successor of his victim and reigns in his +stead without any further trouble. + +(M243) But if he has omitted to massacre his predecessor and has allowed +him to die a natural death, he suffers for his negligence by being +compelled to observe a long series of complicated and irksome formalities +before he can make good his succession in the eyes of the law. For in that +case the title of chief has to be formally withdrawn from the dead man and +conferred on his successor by a curious ceremony, which includes the +presentation of a coco-nut and a taro plant to the new chief. Moreover, at +first he may not enter the chief's house, but has to be shut up in a tiny +hut for thirty or forty days during all the time of mourning, and even +when that is over he may not come out till he has received and paid for a +human head brought him by the people of a friendly state. After that he +still may not go to the sea-shore until more formalities have been fully +observed. These comprise a very costly fishing expedition, which is +conducted by the inhabitants of another district and lasts for weeks. At +the end of it a net full of fish is brought to the chief's house, and the +people of the neighbouring communities are summoned by the blast of +trumpets. As soon as the stranger fishermen have been publicly paid for +their services, a relative of the new chief steps across the net and +solemnly splits a coco-nut in two with an old-fashioned knife made of a +Tridacna shell, while at the same time he bans all the evils that might +befall his kinsman. Then, without looking at the nut, he throws the pieces +on the ground, and if they fall so that the two halves lie with the +opening upwards, it is an omen that the chief will live long. The pieces +of the nut are then tied together and taken to the house of another chief, +the friend of the new ruler, and there they are kept in token that the +ceremony has been duly performed. Thereupon the fish are divided among the +people, the strangers receiving half. This completes the legal ceremonies +of accession, and the new chief may now go about freely. But these tedious +formalities and others which I pass over are dispensed with when the new +chief has proved his title by slaying his predecessor. In that case the +procedure is much simplified, but on the other hand the death duties are +so very heavy that only rich men can afford to indulge in the luxury of +regicide. Hence in the Pelew Islands of to-day, or at least of yesterday, +the old-fashioned mode of succession by slaughter is now restricted to a +few families of the bluest blood and the longest purses.(723) + +(M244) If this account of the existing or recent usage of the Pelew +Islanders sheds little light on the motives for putting chiefs to death, +it well illustrates the business-like precision with which such a custom +may be carried out, and the public indifference, if not approval, with +which it may be regarded as an ordinary incident of constitutional +government. So far, therefore, the Pelew custom bears out the view that a +systematic practice of regicide, however strange and revolting it may seem +to us, is perfectly compatible with a state of society in which human +conduct and human life are estimated by a standard very different from +ours. If we would understand the early history of institutions, we must +learn to detach ourselves from the prepossessions of our own time and +country, and to place ourselves as far as possible at the standpoint of +men in distant lands and distant ages. + + + + + +INDEX. + + +Aban, a Persian month, ii. 68 + +Abd-Hadad, priestly king of Hierapolis, i. 163 _n._ 3 + +Aberdeenshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. 79 _sq._ + +Abi-baal, i. 51 _n._ 4 + +Abi-el, i. 51 _n._ 4 + +Abi-jah, King, his family, i. 51 _n._ 2; + "father of Jehovah," 51 _n._ 4 + +Abi-melech, "father of a king," i. 51 _n._ 4 + +Abi-milk (Abi-melech), king of Tyre, i. 16 _n._ 5 + +Abimelech massacres his seventy brothers, i. 51 _n._ 2 + +Abipones, of South America, their worship of the Pleiades, i. 258 _n._ 2 + +Abraham, his attempted sacrifice of Isaac, ii. 219 _n._ 1 + +Abruzzi, gossips of St. John in the, i. 245 _n._ 2; + marvellous properties attributed to water on St. John's Night in the, + 246; + Easter ceremonies in the, 256; + the feast of All Souls in the, ii. 77 _sq._; + rules as to sowing seed and cutting timber in the, 133 _n._ 3 + +Abu Rabah, resort of childless wives in Palestine, i. 78, 79 + +Abydos, head of Osiris at, ii. 11; + the favourite burial-place of the Egyptians, 18 _sq._; + specially associated with Osiris, 18, 197; + tombs of the ancient Egyptian kings at, 19; + the ritual of, 86; + hall of the Osirian mysteries at, 108; + representations of the Sed festival at, 151; + inscriptions at, 153; + temple of Osiris at, 198 + +Acacia, Osiris in the, ii. 111 + +Achaia, subject to earthquakes, i. 202 + +Acharaca, cave of Pluto at, i. 205 _sq._ + +Acilisena, temple of Anaitis at, i. 38 + +Adad, Syrian king, i. 15; + Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder and lightning, 163 + +Adana in Cilicia, i. 169 _n._ 3 + +Addison, Joseph, on the grotto _dei cani_ at Naples, i. 205 _n._ 1 + +Adhar, a Persian month, ii. 68 + +Adom-melech or Uri-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14, 17 + +_Adon_, a Semitic title, i. 6 _sq._, 16 _sq._, 20, 49 _n._ 7 + +Adonai, title of Jehovah, i. 6 _sq._ + +Adoni, "my lord," Semitic title, i. 7; + names compounded with, 17 + +Adoni-bezek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17 + +Adoni-jah, elder brother of King Solomon, i. 51 _n._ 2 + +Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem, i. 17 + +Adonis, myth of, i. 3 _sqq._; + Greek worship of, 6; + in Greek mythology, 10 _sqq._; + in Syria, 13 _sqq._; + monuments of, 29; + in Cyprus, 31 _sqq._, 49; + identified with Osiris, 32; + mourning for, at Byblus, 38; + said to be the fruit of incest, 43; + his mother Myrrha, 43; + son of Theias, 43 _n._ 4, 55 _n._ 4; + the son of Cinyras, 49; + the title of the sons of Phoenician kings in Cyprus, 49; + his violent death, 55; + music in the worship of, 55; + sacred prostitution in the worship of, 57; + inspired prophets in worship of, 76; + human representatives of, perhaps burnt, 110; + doves burned in honour of, 147; + personated by priestly kings, 223; + the ritual of, 223 _sqq._; + his death and resurrection represented in his rites, 224 _sq._; + festivals of, 224 _sqq._; + flutes played in the laments for, 225 _n._ 3; + the ascension of, 225; + images of, thrown into the sea or springs, 225, 227 _n._ 3, 236; + born from a myrrh-tree, 227, ii. 110; + bewailed by Argive women, i. 227 _n._; + analogy of his rites to Indian and European ceremonies, 227; + his death and resurrection interpreted as representations of the decay + and revival of vegetation, 227 _sqq._; + interpreted as the sun, 228; + interpreted by the ancients as the god of the reaped and sprouting corn, + 229; + as a corn-spirit, 230 _sqq._; + hunger the root of the worship of, 231; + perhaps originally a personification of wild vegetation, especially + grass and trees, 233; + the gardens of, 236 _sqq._; + rain-charm in the rites of, 237; + resemblance of his rites to the festival of Easter, 254 _sqq._, 306; + worshipped at Bethlehem, 257 _sqq._; + and the planet Venus as the Morning Star, 258 _sq._; + sometimes identified with Attis, 263; + swine not eaten by worshippers of, 265; + rites of, among the Greeks, 298; + lamented by women at Byblus, ii. 23 + +Adonis and Aphrodite, i. 11 _sq._, 29, 280; + their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224 + +---- and Attis identified with Dionysus, ii. 127 _n._ + +---- and Osiris, similarity between their rites, ii. 127 + +----, Attis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201 + +----, the river, its valley, i. 28 _sqq._; + annual discoloration of the, 30, 225 + +Aedepsus, hot springs of Hercules at, i. 211 _sq._ + +Aedesius, Sextilius Agesilaus, dedicates altar to Attis, i. 275 _n._ 1 + +Aegipan and Hermes, i. 157 + +Aelian, on impregnation of Judean maid by serpent, i. 81 + +Aeneas and Dido, i. 114 _n._ 1 + +Aeschylus, on Typhon, i. 156 + +Aesculapius, in relation to serpents, i. 80 _sq._; + reputed father of Aratus, 80 _sq._; + his shrines at Sicyon and Titane, 81; + his dispute with Hercules, 209 _sq._ + +Aeson and Medea, i. 181 _n._ 1 + +_Aetna_, Latin poem, i. 221 _n._ 4 + +Africa, serpents as reincarnations of the dead in, i. 82 _sqq._; + infant burial in, 91 _sq._; + reincarnation of the dead in, 91 _sq._; + annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 66; + worship of dead kings and chiefs in, 160 _sqq._; + supreme gods in, 165, 173 _sq._, 174, 186, with _n._ 5, 187 _n._ 1, 188 + _sq._, 190; + worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of, 174 _sqq._; + inheritance of the kingship under mother-kin in, 211 + +----, North, custom of bathing at Midsummer among the Mohammedan peoples of, + i. 249 + +----, West, sacred men and women in, i. 65 _sqq._; + human sacrifices in, ii. 99 _n._ 2 + +Afterbirth or placenta regarded as a person's double or twin, ii. 169 + _sq._ + See _also_ Placenta + +Afterbirths buried in banana groves, i. 93; + regarded as twins of the children, 93; + Shilluk kings interred where their afterbirths are buried, ii. 162 + +Agbasia, West African god, i. 79 + +Agdestis, a man-monster in the myth of Attis, i. 269 + +Agesipolis, King of Sparta, his conduct in an earthquake, i. 196 + +Agraulus, daughter of Cecrops, worshipped at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145, + 146 + +Agricultural peoples worship the moon, ii. 138 _sq._ + +Agriculture, religious objections to, i. 88 _sqq._; + in the hands of women in the Pelew Islands, ii. 206 _sq._; + its tendency to produce a conservative character, 217 _sq._ + +Ahts of Vancouver Island regard the moon as the husband of the sun, ii. + 139 _n._ 1 + +Airi, a deity of North-West India, i. 170 + +Aiyar, N. Subramhanya, on Indian dancing-girls, i. 63 _sqq._ + +Ajax and Teucer, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 _sq._, 161 + +Akhetaton (Tell-el-Amarna), the capital of Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1 + +Akikuyu of British East Africa, their worship of snakes, i. 67 _sq._; + their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, 82, 85 + +Alaska, the Esquimaux of, ii. 51; + the Koniags of, 106 + +Albania, marriage custom in, ii. 246 + +Albanians of the Caucasus, their worship of the moon, i. 73 + +Albinoes the offspring of the moon, i. 91 + +Albiruni, Arab geographer, on the Persian festival of the dead, ii. 68 + +Alcman on dew, ii. 137 + +Aleutians, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. 254 + +Alexander Severus, at festival of Attis, i. 273 + +Alexander the Great expels a king of Paphos, i. 42; + his fabulous birth, 81; + assumes costumes of deities, 165; + sacrifices to Megarsian Athena, 169 _n._ 3 + +Alexandria, festival of Adonis at, i. 224; + the Serapeum at, ii. 119 _n._, 217 + +Alexandrian calendar, used by Plutarch, ii. 84 + +---- year, the fixed, ii. 28, 92; + Plutarch's use of the, 49 + +All Saints, feast of, perhaps substituted for an old pagan festival of the + dead, ii. 82 _sq._ + +All Souls, feast of, ii. 51 _sqq._; + originally a pagan festival of the dead, 81; + instituted by Odilo, abbot of Clugny, 82 + +Allatu, Babylonian goddess, i. 9 + +Allifae in Samnium, baths of Hercules at, i. 213 _n._ 2 + +Almo, procession to the river, in the rites of Attis, i. 273. + +Almond causes virgin to conceive, i. 263; + the father of all things, 263 _sq._ + +Alyattes, king of Lydia, i. 133 _n._ 1 + +Alynomus, king of Paphos, i. 43 + +Amambwe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, its head chief reincarnated + in a lion, ii. 193 + +Amasis, king of Egypt, his body burnt by Cambyses, i. 176 _n._ 2 + +Amathus, in Cyprus, Adonis and Melcarth at, i. 32, 117; + statue of lion-slaying god found at, 117 + +Amatongo, ancestral spirits (Zulu term), i. 74 _n._ 4, ii. 184 + +Ambabai, an Indian goddess, i. 243 + +Ambala District, Punjaub, i. 94 + +Amelineau, E., discovers the tomb of King Khent, ii. 21 _n._ 1 + +Amenophis IV., king of Egypt, his attempt to abolish all gods but the + sun-god, ii. 123 _sqq._ + +America, reincarnation of the dead in, i. 91; + the moon worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical, ii. 138 + +Amestris, wife of Xerxes, her sacrifice of children, ii. 220 _sq._ + +Ammon, Milcom, the god of, i. 19 + +Ammon (the Egyptian) at Thebes, his human wives, i. 72; + of Thebes identified with the sun, ii. 123; + rage of King Amenophis IV. against the god, 124 + +Amoor, Gilyaks of the, i. 278 _n._ 2 + +Amorites, their law as to fornication, i. 37 _sq._ + +Amsanctus, the valley of, i. 204 _sq._ + +Amulets, crowns and wreaths as, ii. 242 _sq._ + +Amyclae, in the vale of Sparta, i. 313, 314, 315 + +Amyclas, father of Hyacinth, i. 313 + +Anacreon, on Cinyras, i. 55 + +Anacyndaraxes, father of Sardanapalus, i. 172 + +Anaitis, sacred prostitution in the worship of, i. 38 + +_Anassa_, "Queen," title of goddess, i. 35 _n._ 2 + +Anazarba or Anazarbus, in Cilicia, i. 167 _n._ 1 + +Ancestor-worship among the Khasis of Assam, ii. 203; + combined with mother-kin tends to a predominance of goddesses over gods + in religion, 211 _sq._ + +Ancestors, propitiation of deceased, i. 46; + the worship of, the main practical religion of the Bantu tribes, ii. 176 + _sqq._ + +Ancestral spirits on shoulders of medicine-men, i. 74 _n._ 4; + incarnate in serpents, 82 _sqq._; + in the form of animals, 83; + worshipped by the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. 174 _sqq._; + prayers to, 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._, 183 _sq._; + sacrifices to, 175, 178 _s.q._, 180, 181 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 190; + on the father's and on the mother's side, the two distinguished, 180, + 181. + _See also_ Dead + +Anchiale in Cilicia, i. 144; monument of Sardanapalus at, 172 + +Andania in Messenia, sacred men and women at, i. 76 _n._ 3 + +Andriamasinavalona, a Hova king, vicarious sacrifice for, ii. 221 + +Anemone, the scarlet, sprung from the blood of Adonis, i. 226 + +Angel, the Destroying, over Jerusalem, i. 24 + +Angus, belief as to the weaning of children in, ii. 148 + +Anhalt, custom at sowing in, i. 239 + +Animals sacrificed by being hanged, i. 289 _sq._, 292; + and plants, edible, savage lamentations for, ii. 43 _sq._; + dead kings and chiefs incarnate in, 162, 163 _sq._, 173, 193; + sacrificed to prolong the life of kings, 222 + +Anje-a, a mythical being who brings children to women, i. 103 + +Anklets made of human sinews worn by king of Uganda, ii. 224 _sq._ + +Ankole, in Central Africa, the Bahima of, ii. 190 + +Anna, sister of Dido, i. 114 _n._ 1 + +Annam, offerings to the dead in spring in, i. 235 _n._ 1; + annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 62 _sqq._ + +Annual death and resurrection of gods, i. 6 + +Anointing as a ceremony of consecration, i. 21 _n._ 2 and 3, 68, 74 + +---- sacred stones, custom of, i. 36 + +Antelopes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 163 + +_Anthesteria_, festival of the dead at Athens, i. 234 _sq._ + +Antigonus, King, i. 212 + +Antimachia in Cos, priest of Hercules at, ii. 258 + +Antioch, destroyed by an earthquake, i. 222 _n._ 1; + festival of Adonis at, 227, 257 _sq._ + +Antiochus, Greek calendar of, i. 303 _n._ 3 + +Antwerp, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 + +Anubis, Egyptian jackal-headed god, ii. 15, 18 _n._ 3, 22 _n._ 2; + finds the body of Osiris, 85 + +Apameia, worship of Poseidon at, i. 195 + +Aphaca in Syria, sanctuary of Astarte at, i. 28, 259; + meteor as signal for festival at, 259 + +Aphrodite, her sacred doves, i. 33, 147; + sanctuary of, at Paphos, 33 _sqq._; + the month of, 145; + her blood dyes white roses red, 226; + name applied to summer, ii. 41 + +---- and Adonis, i. 11 _sq._, 29, 280; + their marriage celebrated at Alexandria, 224 + +---- and Cinyras, i. 48 _sq._ + +---- and Pygmalion, i. 49 _sq._ + +---- of the Lebanon, the mourning, i. 29 _sq._ + +Apinagos Indians of Brazil, their dances and presentation of children to + the moon, ii. 145 _sqq._ + +Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. 11, 119 _n._; + mourning for the death of, i. 225; + held to be an image of the soul of Osiris, ii. 130 + +Apollo, the friend of Cinyras, i. 54; + music in the worship of, 54 _sq._; + reputed father of Augustus, 81; + the Catalonian, 147 _n._ 3; + his musical contest with Marsyas, 288; + purified at Tempe, ii. 240 + +---- and Artemis, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. 243 _sq._ + +---- and Marsyas, i. 55 + +---- at Delphi, sacrifices of Croesus to, i. 180 _n._ 1; + and the Dragon at Delphi, ii. 240 + +---- of the Golden Sword, i. 176 + +---- the Four-handed, ii. 250 _n._ 2 + +Apotheosis by being burnt alive, i. 179 _sq._ + +Appian, on the costume of a priest of Isis, ii. 85 _n._ 3 + +Apples forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 _n._ 7 + +Apuleius, on the worship of Isis, ii. 119 _n._ + +Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226 + +Arabic writer on the mourning for Ta-uz (Tammuz) in Harran, i. 230 + +Arabs resort to the springs of Callirrhoe in Moab, i. 215 _sq._ + +---- of Moab, their custom at harvest, ii. 48, 96; + their remedies for ailments, 242 + +Aratus of Sicyon, deemed a son of Aesculapius, i. 81 + +Araucanian Indians of South America eat fruit of Araucanian pine, i. 278 + _n._ 2 + +Araunah, the threshing-floor of, i. 24 + +Arcadians sacrifice to thunder and lightning, i. 157 + +Archigallus, high-priest of Attis, i. 268, 279; + prophesies, 271 _n._ + +Arctic origin, alleged, of the Aryans, i. 229 _n._ 1 + +Arenna or Arinna, i. 136 _n._ 1; + the sun-goddess of, 136 + +Arensdorf, custom at sowing in, i. 239 + +Argaeus, Mount, in Cappadocia, i. 190 _sq._ + +Argive brides wore false beards, ii. 260 + +---- women bewail Adonis, i. 227 _n._ + +Aristomenes, Messenian hero, his fabulous birth, i. 81 + +Aristophanes, on the Spartan envoy, i. 196 _n._ 4; + on Hercules as patron of hot springs, 209 + +Aristotelian philosophy, revival of the, i. 301 + +Aristotle on the political institutions of Cyprus, i. 49 _n._ 7; + on earthquakes, 211 _n._ 3 + +_Armengols_, in the Pelew Islands, ii. 265 + +Armenia, sacred prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58 + +Armenians, their festivals of the dead, ii. 65 _sq._; + their opinion of the baleful influence of the moon on children, 148 + +Arrian on Attis, i. 282 + +Artemis at Perga, i. 35; + name given by Greeks to Asiatic Mother Goddesses, 169 + +---- and Apollo, their priesthood at Ephesus, ii. 243 + +---- of Ephesus served by eunuch priests, i. 269 + +---- the Hanged, i. 291 + +----, Laphrian, at Patrae, i. 126 _n._ 2 + +----, Perasian, at Castabala, i. 115, 167 _sqq._ + +----, Sarpedonian, in Cilicia, i. 167, 171 + +---- Tauropolis, i. 275 _n._ 1 + +----, the Tauric, human sacrifices to the, i. 115 + +Artemision, a Greek month, ii. 239 _n._ 1 + +Arunta of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the + dead, i. 99, 100 + +Arval Brethren, their wreaths of corn, i. 44 _n._; + a Roman college of priests, ii. 239 + +Aryan family, marriage customs of the, ii. 235 + +Aryans, their alleged Arctic origin, i. 229 _n._ 1; + annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 67 _sqq._ + +Aryenis, daughter of Alyattes, i. 133 _n._ 1 + +Ascalon, the goddess Derceto at, i. 34 _n._ 3 + +Ascension of Adonis, i. 225 + +Ashantee, human sacrifices at earthquakes in, i. 201; + kings of, their human sacrifices, ii. 97 _n._ 7 + +_Asherim_, sacred poles, i. 18, 18 _n._ 2, 107, 108 + +Ashes of human victims scattered by winnowing-fans, ii. 97, 106 + +Ashtoreth (Astarte), i. 18 _n._ 2 _See_ Astarte + +Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, i. 144; + confused with the legendary Sardanapalus, 173 _sq._; + carries off the bones of the kings of Elam, ii. 103 + +Ashvin, an Indian month, i. 243 + +Asia Minor, priestly dynasties of, i. 140 _sq._; + subject to volcanic forces, 190; + subject to earthquakes, 202 + +Asiatic goddesses of fertility served by eunuch priests, i. 269 _sq._ + +Asopus, the river, i. 81 + +"A-souling," custom of, in England, ii. 79 + +Aspalis, a form of Artemis, i. 292 + +Assam, the Khasis of, i. 46, ii. 202 _sqq._; + the Tangkul Nagas of, ii. 57 _sqq._ + +Assumption of the Virgin and the festival of Diana, i. 308, 309 + +Assyrian cavalry, i. 25 _n._ 3 + +Assyrians in Cilicia, i. 173 + +Astarte at Byblus, i. 13 _sq._; + and the _asherim_, 18; + kings as priests of, 26; + at Paphos, 33 _sqq._; + doves sacred to, 147; + identified with the planet Venus, 258; + of the Syrian Hierapolis served by eunuch priests, 269 _sq._; + called by Lucian the Assyrian Hera, 280 _n._ 5; + the Heavenly Goddess, 303; + the planet Venus her star, ii. 35 + +---- Aphrodite, i. 304 _n._ + +Asteria, mother of the Tyrian Hercules (Melcarth), i. 112 + +Astyages, king of the Medes, i. 133 _n._ 1 + +_Asvattha_ tree, i. 82 + +Atargatis, Syrian goddess, i. 34 _n._ 3, 137; + worshipped at Hierapolis-Bambyce, 162 _sq._; + derivation of the name, 162; + her husband-god, 162 _sq._ + +Ates, a Phrygian, i. 286 + +Athamas, the dynasty of, i. 287 + +Athanasius, on the mourning for Osiris, ii. 217 + +'Atheh, Cilician goddess, i. 162 + +Athena, temple of, at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145; + and hot springs, 209, 210 + +----, Magarsian, a Cilician goddess, i. 169 _n._ 3 + +---- Sciras, sanctuary of, ii. 238 + +Athenian boys, race of, at the vintage, ii. 238; + boy carrying an olive-branch in procession, 238 + +Athenians, their superstition as to an eclipse of the moon, ii. 141 + +Athens, sacred serpent at, i. 87; + the Commemoration of the Dead at, 234; + sacrifice of an ox at, 296 _sq._; + marriage custom at, ii. 245 + +Athribis, heart of Osiris at, ii. 11 + +Athyr, Egyptian month, ii. 8, 41, 49 _n._ 1; + Osiris murdered on the seventeenth day of, 8, 84; + festival of Osiris in the month of, 84 _sqq._, 91 + +Atonga, tribe of Lake Nyassa, their theory of earthquakes, i. 199 + +Attica, summer festival of Adonis in, i. 226 + +Attis, priests of Cybele called, i. 140; + sometimes identified with Adonis, 263; + myth and ritual of, 263 _sqq._; + beloved by Cybele, 263, 282; + legends of his death, 264; + his legend at Pessinus, 264; + his self-mutilation, 264 _sq._; + and the pine-tree, 264, 265, 267, 271, 277 _sq._, 285, ii. 98 _n._ 5; + his eunuch priests, i. 265, 266; + festival of his death and resurrection in March, 267 _sqq._, 272 _sq._, + 307 _sq._; + violets sprung from the blood of, 267; + the mourning for, 272; + bath of bull's blood in the rites of, 274 _sqq._; + mysteries of, 274 _sq._; + as a god of vegetation, 277 _sqq._, 279; + as the Father God, 281 _sqq._; + identified with Zeus, 282; + as a sky-god, 282 _sqq._; + emasculation of, suggested explanation of myth, 283; + his star-spangled cap, 284; + identified with Phrygian moon-god Men Tyrannus, 284; + human representatives of, 285 _sqq._; + title borne by priests of Cybele, 285, 287 + +----, Adonis, Osiris, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201 + +Atys, son of Croesus, his death, i. 286; + early king of Lydia, 286 + +Aubrey, John, on soul-cakes, ii. 78 + +Augustine on the effeminate priests of the Great Mother, i. 298; + on the heathen origin of Christmas, 305; + on the discovery of corn by Isis, ii. 116; + on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, 233 + +Augustodunum (Autun), worship of Cybele at, i. 279 + +Augustus reputed a son of Apollo, i. 81 + +Aulus Gellius on the influence of the moon, ii. 132 + +Aun, or On, King of Sweden, sacrifices his sons to Odin, ii. 220 + +Aunis, feast of All Souls in, ii. 69 _sq._ + +Aurelia Aemilia, a sacred harlot, i. 38 + +Aurohuacas, Indians of Colombia, i. 23 _n._ 2 + +Aust, E., on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. 236 _n._ 1 + +Australia, belief as to the reincarnation of the dead in, i. 99 _sqq._ + +Australian aborigines, their preparation for marriage, i. 60; + their belief in conception without sexual intercourse, 99 _sqq._; + their cuttings for the dead, 268 + +Austria, leaping over Midsummer fires in, i. 251 + +"Awakening of Hercules," festival at Tyre, i. 111 + +Awemba, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. 174; + their worship of ancestral spirits, 175; + their prayers to dead kings before going to war, 191 _sq._ + +Axe, emblem of Hittite god of thundering sky, i. 134; + as divine emblem, 163; + symbol of Asiatic thunder-god, 183 + +----, double-headed, symbol of Sandan, i. 127; + carried by Lydian kings, 182; + a palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty, 182; + figured on coins, 183 _n._ + +Ba-bwende, a tribe of the Congo, i. 271 _n._ + +Ba-sundi, a tribe of the Congo, i. 271 _n._ + +Baal, Semitic god, i. 15, 16; + royal names compounded with, 16; + as the god of fertility, 26 _sq._; + conceived as god who fertilizes land by subterranean water, 159 + +---- and Sandan at Tarsus, i. 142 _sq._, 161 + +---- of the Lebanon, i. 32 + +---- of Tarsus, i. 117 _sqq._, 162 _sq._ + +Baalath or Astarte, i. 26, 34 + +---- and Baal, i. 27 + +---- Gebal, i. 14 + +Baalbec, i. 28; + sacred prostitution at, 37; + image of Hadad at, 163 + +Baalim, firstlings and first-fruits offered to the, i. 27; + called lovers, 75 _n._ + +Babylon, early kings of, worshipped as gods, i. 15; + worship of Mylitta at, 36; + religious prostitution at, 58; + human wives of Marduk at, 71; + sanctuary of Serapis at, ii. 119 _n._ + +Babylonia, worship of Tammuz in, i. 6 _sqq._; + the moon-god took precedence of the sun-god in ancient, ii. 138 _sq._ + +Babylonian hymns to Tammuz, i. 9 + +Bacchanals tear Pentheus in pieces, ii. 98 + +Bacchic orgies suppressed by Roman government, i. 301 _n._ 2 + +Bacchylides as to Croesus on the pyre, i. 175 _sq._ + +Backbone of Osiris represented by the _ded_ pillar, ii. 108 _sq._ + +Baden, feast of All Souls in, ii. 74 + +Baethgen, F., on goddess 'Hatheh, i. 162 _n._ 2 + +Baganda, their worship of the python, i. 86; + rebirth of the dead among the, 92 _sq._; + their theory of earthquakes, 199; + their presentation of infants to the new moon, ii. 144, 145; + ceremony observed by the king at new moon, 147; + their worship of dead kings, 167 _sqq._; + their veneration for the ghosts of dead relations, 191 _n._ 1; + their pantheon, 196; + human sacrifices offered to prolong the life of their kings, 223 _sqq._ + +Bagishu (Bageshu) of Mount Elgon, reincarnation of the dead among the, i. + 92 + +Bagobos of the Philippine Islands, their theory of earthquakes, i. 200; + of Mindanao, their custom of hanging and spearing human victims, 290 + _sq._ + +Baharutsis, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. 179 + +Bahima, their belief as to dead kings and chiefs, i. 83 _n._ 1 + +---- of Ankole in Central Africa, their worship of the dead, ii. 190 _sq._; + their belief in a supreme god Lugaba, 190 + +---- of Kiziba, ii. 173 + +Baigas, Dravidian tribe of India, their objection to agriculture, i. 89 + +Bailly, French astronomer, on the Arctic origin of the rites of Adonis, i. + 229 + +Bairu, the, of Kiziba, ii. 173 + +Baku, on the Caspian, perpetual fires at, i. 192 + +Balinese, their conduct in an earthquake, i. 198 + +_Baloi_, witches and wizards, ii. 104 + +Banana, women impregnated by the flower of the, i. 93 + +Bangalas of the Congo, rebirth of dead among the, i. 92. _See also_ Boloki + +Bantu tribes, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. + 82 _sqq._; + their worship of ancestral spirits, ii. 174 _sqq._; + their main practical religion a worship of ancestors, 176 _sqq._; + their worship of the dead, 176 _sqq._, 191 _sqq._ + +Banyoro, their worship of serpents, i. 86 _n._ 1 + +Baptism of bull's blood in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 _sqq._ + +Bar-rekub, king of Samal, i. 15 _sq._ + +Baralongs, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. 179 + +Barea and Kunama, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66 + +Barley forced for festival, i. 240, 241, 242, 244, 251 _sq._ + +---- and wheat discovered by Isis, ii. 116 + +Barotse, a Bantu tribe of the Zambesi, their belief in a supreme god + Niambe, ii. 193; + their worship of dead kings, 194 _sq._ + +Barren women resort to graves in order to get children, i. 90; + entice souls of dead children to them, 94 + +Barrenness of women cured by passing through holed stone, i. 36, with _n._ + 4; + removed by serpent, 86; + children murdered as a remedy for, 95 + +Barrows of Halfdan, ii. 100 + +Barsom, bundle of twigs used by Parsee priests, i. 191 _n._ 2 + +Barth, H., on sculptures at BoghazKeui, i. 133 _n._ 1 + +Basil, pots of, on St. John's Day in Sicily, i. 245 + +Basuto chiefs buried secretly, ii. 104 + +Basutos, worship of the dead among the, ii. 179 _sq._ + +Bataks of Sumatra, their theory of earthquakes, i. 199 _sq._ + +Batara-guru, the Batak creator, i. 199 _sq._ + +Bath in river at the rites of Cybele, i. 273, 274 _n._; + of bull's blood in the rites of Attis, 274 _sqq._; + of image of Cybele perhaps a rain-charm, 280 + +---- of Aphrodite, i. 280 + +---- of Demeter, i. 280 + +---- of Hera in the river Burrha, i. 280; + in the spring of Canathus, 280 + +Bathing on St. John's Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), i. 246 _sqq._; + pagan origin of the custom, 249 + +Baths of Hercules, i. 212 + +---- of Solomon in Moab, i. 215 + +Batoo Bedano, an earthquake god, i. 202 + +Battle, purificatory ceremonies after a, ii. 251 _sq._ + +---- of the gods and giants, i. 157 + +Baudissin, W. W. Graf von, on Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 _n._ 1; + on Adonis as the personification of the spring vegetation, 228 _n._ 6; + on summer festival of Adonis, 232 _n._ + +Bavaria, gardens of Adonis in, i. 244 + +Bawenda, the, of South Africa, the positions of their villages hidden, ii. + 251 + +Bearded Venus, in Cyprus, i. 165, ii. 259 _n._ 3 + +Beaufort, F., on perpetual flame in Lycia, i. 222 _n._ + +Bechuana ritual at founding a new town, ii. 249 + +Bechuanas, their sacrifice of a blind bull on various occasions, ii. 249, + 250 _sq._ + +Bede, on the feast of All Saints, ii. 83 + +Beech, M. W. H., on serpent-worship, i. 85 + +_Beena_ marriage in Ceylon, ii. 215 + +Begbie, General, i. 62 _n._ + +Bel or Marduk at Babylon, i. 71 + +Belgium, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 + +Bellerophon and Pegasus, i. 302 _n._ 4 + +Bellona and Mars, ii. 231 + +Ben-hadad, king of Damascus, i. 15 + +Bendall, Professor C., i. 229 _n._ 1 + +Benefit of clergy, i. 68 + +Bengal, the Oraons and Mundas of, i. 46, 240 + +Benin, human victims crucified at, i. 294 _n._ 3 + +Bent, J. Theodore, discovers ruins of Olba, i. 151; + identifies site of Hieropolis-Castabala, 168 _n._ 1 + +Berecynthia, title of Cybele, i. 279 _n._ 4 + +Berenice and Ptolemy, annual festival in their honour, ii. 35 _n._ 1 + +Bes, Egyptian god, i. 118 _n._ 1 + +Bethlehem, worship of Adonis at, i. 257 _sqq._; + fertility of the neighbourhood, 257 _n._ 3; + the Star of, 259 + +Betsileo of Madagascar, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the + dead, i. 83 + +Bghais, a Karen tribe of Burma, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 60 + _sq._ + +Bhadon, Indian month, i. 243 + +Bharbhunjas, of the Central Provinces, India, marriage custom of the, ii. + 262 + +Bharias, of the Central Provinces, India, exchange of costume between men + and women at marriage among the, ii. 260 _sq._ + +Bhujariya, festival in the Central Provinces of India, i. 242 + +Bilaspore, infant burial in, i. 94 _sq._; + annual festival of the dead in, ii. 60 + +Bion on the scarlet anemone, i. 226 _n._ 1 + +Bird, soul of a tree in a, ii. 111 _n._ 1 + +---- called "the soul of Osiris," ii. 110 + +Birds burnt in honour of Artemis, i. 126 _n._ 2; + white, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162 + +Birks, Rev. E. B., on harvest custom at Orwell, i. 237 _n._ 4 + +Birth, new, through blood in rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._; + of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. 153, 155 _sq._ + +Birthday of the Sun, the twenty-fifth of December, i. 303 _sqq._ + +Bisa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. 193 + +Bishnois of the Punjaub, infant burial among the, i. 94 + +Bithynians invoke Attis, i. 282 + +Black-snake clan, i. 100 + +_Blay_, men's clubhouse in the Pelew Islands, ii. 265 + +Blekinge, province of Sweden, Midsummer custom in, i. 251 + +Blind bull sacrificed at the foundation of a town, ii. 249; + sacrificed before an army going to war, 250 + +Blood, bath of bull's, in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sqq._; + remission of sins through the shedding of, 299; + used in expiation for homicide, 299 _n._ 2; + of pig used in exorcism and purification, 299 _n._ 2; + not to be shed in certain sacrifices, ii. 222 _n._ 2 + +Blood, the Day of, in the festival of Attis, i. 268, 285 + +Blowing of Trumpets in the festival of Attis, i. 268 + +Blue Spring, the, at Syracuse, i. 213 _n._ 1 + +Boar, Attis killed by a, i. 264 + +Bocage of Normandy, rule as to the clipping of wool in the, ii. 134 _n._ 3 + +Bodies of the dead, magical uses made of the, ii. 100 _sqq._; + guarded against mutilation, 103; + thought to be endowed with magical powers, 103, 104 _sq._ + +Bodroum in Cilicia, ruins of, i. 167 + +Boghaz-Keui, Hittite capital, excavations of H. Winckler at, i. 125 _n._; + situation and remains, 128 _sqq._; + the gods of, 128 _sqq._; + rock-hewn sculptures at, 129 _sqq._ + +Bohemia, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250; + feast of All Souls in, ii. 72 _sq._ + +Bolivia, the Chiriguanos Indians of, ii. 143 _n._ 4, 145 + +Boloki, or Bangala, of the Upper Congo, their ceremonies at the new moon, + ii. 143; + attempt to deceive spirit of disease among the, 262 + +Bones of the dead used in rain-making ceremonies, i. 22; + of dead kings carried off or destroyed by enemies, ii. 103 _sq._ + +----, fossil, source of myths about giants, i. 157 _sq._ + +Bonfire on St. John's Eve, dances round it, i. 245 + +_Book of the Dead_, ii. 13 + +Bor, the ancient Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 _n._ 1 + +Borneo, custom of head-hunting in, i. 294 _sqq._; + effeminate sorcerers in, ii. 253, 256 + +Bosanquet, Professor R. C., on the Four-handed Apollo, ii. 250 _n._ 2 + +Bosman, W., on serpent-worship, i. 67 + +Bouche, Abbe, on West African priestesses, i. 66 _n._ 3, 69 + +Boys of living parents in ritual, ii. 236 _sqq._; + dressed as girls to avert the Evil Eye, 260; + marriage customs to ensure the birth of, 262 + +Brahman marriage in Southern India, bride dressed as a boy at, ii. 260 + +Brazil, the Apinagos Indians of, ii. 145 _sqq._ + +Brazilian Indians, their belief in the noxious influence of the moon on + children, ii. 148 + +Bread, fast from, in mourning for Attis, i. 272 + +Breasted, Professor J. H., on the eye of Horus, ii. 121 _n._ 3; + on Amenophis IV., 123 _n._ 1; + on the Sed festival, 156 _n._ 1 + +Breath not to defile sacred flame, i. 191 + +Brethren of the Ploughed Fields (_Fratres Arvales_), a Roman college of + priests, ii. 239. + _See also_ Arval Brethren + +"Bride" of the Nile, ii. 38 + +---- and Bridegroom at Midsummer in Sweden, i. 251 + +Bridegroom disfigured in order to avert the evil eye, ii. 261 + +British Columbia, the Indians of, respect the animals and plants which + they eat, ii. 44 + +Brittany, feast of All Souls in, ii. 69; + belief as to warts and the moon in, 149 + +Bromo, volcano in Java, worshipped, i. 220 _sq._ + +Brother of a god, i. 51; + dead elder, worshipped, ii. 175 + +Brothers and sisters, marriages of, in royal families, i. 44; + in ancient Egypt, ii. 214 _sqq._; + their intention to keep the property in the family, 215 _sq._ + +Brown, A. R., on the beliefs of the West Australian aborigines as to the + causes of childbirth, i. 104 _sqq._ + +Brown, Dr. George, on snakes as reincarnations of chiefs, i. 84 + +Bruges, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 + +Brugsch, H., on Egyptian names for a year, ii. 26 _n._ 1; + on the Sothic period, 37 _n._; + on the grave of Osiris at Philae, 111; + on Isis as a personified corn-field, 117 + +Buddha and Buddhism, ii. 159 + +Buddhism, spiritual declension of, i. 310 _sq._ + +Budge, Dr. E. A. Wallis, on goddess Net, i. 282 _n._; + on an Egyptian funeral rite, ii. 15 _n._ 2; + on Isis, 115 _sq._; + on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2; + on the solar theory of Osiris, 131 _n._ 3; + on the historical reality of Osiris, 160 _n._ 1; + on Khenti-Amenti, 198 _n._ 2 + +Buduna tribe of West Australia, their beliefs as to the birth of children, + i. 104 _sq._ + +Bugis of South Celebes, effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, ii. 253 + _sq._ + +Bulgaria, marriage customs in, ii. 246 + +Bull as emblem of generative force, i. 123; + worshipped by the Hittites, 123, 132; + emblem of Hittite thunder-god, 134 _sqq._; + Hittite god standing on a, 135; + as emblem of a thunder-god, 136; + as symbol of thunder and fertility, 163 _sq._; + the emblem of the Father God, 164; + worshipped at Euyuk, 164; + testicles of, used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276; + sacrificed at Egyptian funeral, ii. 15; + white, soul of dead king incarnate in a, 164; + sacrificed to prolong the life of a king, 222; + sacrificed to Zeus, the Saviour of the City, 238; + blinded and sacrificed at the foundation of a town, 249 + +Bull's blood, bath of, in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._ + +---- hide cut in strips and pegged down round the site of a new town, ii. + 249; + bride seated on a, 246 + +---- skin, body of the dead placed in a, ii. 15 _n._ 2 + +Bulls, husband-god at Hierapolis seated on, i. 163 + +---- sacrificed at caves of Pluto, i. 206; + sacrificed to Persephone, 213 _n._ 1; + sacrificed to dead chiefs, ii. 191 + +Burial at cross-roads, i. 93 _n._ 1 + +---- of infants to ensure their rebirth, i. 91, 93 _sqq._; + at Gezer, 108 _sq._; + of Osiris in his rites, ii. 88 + +Burma, the Bghais of, ii. 60 + +Burmese, their conduct during an earthquake, i. 201 + +Burne, Miss C. S., and Miss G. F. Jackson on "Souling Day" in Shropshire, + ii. 78 _sq._ + +Burning of Melcarth, i. 110 _sqq._; + of Sandan, 117 _sqq._; + of Cilician gods, 170 _sq._; + of Sardanapalus, 172 _sqq._; + of Croesus, 174 _sqq._; + of a god, 188 _sq._ + +Burnings for dead kings of Judah, i. 177 _sq._; + for dead Jewish Rabbis at Meiron, 178 + +Burns, Robert, on John Barleycorn, i. 230 _sq._ + +Burnt alive, apotheosis by being, i. 179 _sq._ + +---- Land of Lydia, i. 193 _sq._ + +Burrha, river, Hera's bath in the, i. 280 + +Buru, East Indian island, use of oil as a charm in, i. 21 _n._ 2 + +Busiris, backbone of Osiris at, ii. 11; + specially associated with Osiris, 18; + the ritual of, 86; + rites of Osiris at, 87 _sq._; + festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak at, 108; + temple of Usirniri at, 151 + +Busiro, the district containing the graves and temples of the kings of + Uganda, ii. 168, 169, 224 + +Bustard totem, i. 104 + +Buto, city in Egypt, ii. 10 + +Butterflies, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 164 + +Byblus, Adonis at, i. 13 _sqq._; + the kings of, 14 _sqq._; + mourning for Adonis at, 38; + religious prostitution at, 58; + inspired prophets at, 75 _sq._; + festival of Adonis at, 225; + Osiris and Isis at, ii. 9; + the queen of, 9; + Osiris associated with, 22 _sq._, 127; + its relation to Egypt, 127 _n._ 1 + +Byrsa, origin of the name, ii. 250 + +Cadmus turned into a snake, i. 86 _sq._; + perhaps personated by the Laurel-bearer at Thebes, ii. 241 + +----, Mount, i. 207 + +Cadys, a Lydian, i. 183 + +Caeculus, son of the fire-god Vulcan, ii. 235 + +Caesar introduces the Julian calendar, ii. 37; + as to German observation of the moon, 141 + +Caffre purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. 251 _sq._ + +Cairo, ceremony of cutting the dams at, ii. 38, 39 _sq._ + +Calabar district, heads of chiefs buried secretly in the, ii. 104 + +Calabria, Easter custom in, i. 254 + +Calauria, Poseidon worshipped in, i. 203 _n._ 2 + +Calendar, the natural, ii. 25 + +----, the Alexandrian, used by Plutarch, ii. 84 + +----, the Coptic, ii. 6 _n._ 3 + +----, the Egyptian, ii. 24 _sqq._; + date of its introduction, 36 _n._ 2 + +---- of the Egyptian farmer, ii. 30 _sqq._ + +---- of Esne, ii. 49 _sq._ + +---- of the Indians of Yucatan, ii. 28 _n._ + +----, the Julian, ii. 93 _n._ 1 + +---- of the ancient Mexicans, its mode of intercalation, ii. 28 _n._ 3 + +---- of Philocalus, i. 303 _n._ 2, 304 _n._ 3, ii. 95 _n._ 1 + +Calendars, the Roman Rustic, ii. 95 _n._ 1 + +California, the Karok Indians of, ii. 47; + the Indians of, their annual festivals of the dead, 52 _sq._ + +Californian Indians eat pine nuts, i. 278 _n._ 2; + their notion that the owl is the guardian of the "California big tree," + ii. 111 _n._ 1 + +Callaway, Rev. Henry, on the worship of the dead among the Zulus, ii. 184 + _sq._ + +Callirrhoe, the springs of, in Moab, i. 214 _sqq._ + +Calpurnius Piso, L., on the wife of Vulcan, ii. 232 _sq._ + +Calycadnus River, in Cilicia, i. 167 _n._ 2 + +Camasene and Janus, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +Cambodia, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 61 _sq._ + +Cambridge, personal relics of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, + preserved at, ii. 197 + +Cambyses, king of Persia, his treatment of Amasis, i. 176 _n._ 2 + +Cameroon negroes, expiation for homicide among the, i. 299 _n._ 2 + +Camul, custom as to hospitality in, i. 39 _n._ 3 + +Canaanite kings of Jerusalem, i. 17 + +Canathus, Hera's annual bath in the spring of, i. 280 + +Candaules, king of Lydia, i. 182, 183 + +Canicular year, a Sothic period, ii. 36 _n._ 2 + +Canopic decree, ii. 34 _n._ 1, 37 _n._, 88 _n._ 2 + +Canopus, the decree of, ii. 27 + +Capaneus and Evadne, i. 177 _n._ 3 + +Cape Bedford in Queensland, belief of the natives as to the birth of + children, i. 102 + +Capital punishment among some peoples originally a sacrifice, i. 290 _n._ + 2 + +Capitol at Rome, ceremonies at the rebuilding of the, ii. 244 + +Cappadocia, volcanic region of, i. 189 _sqq._; + fire-worship in, 191 _sq._ + +Car Nicobar, exorcism in, i. 299 _n._ 2 + +Carchemish, Hittite capital on Euphrates, i. 123, 137 _n._ 2, 138 _n._ + +Carchi, a province of Ecuador, All Souls' Day in, ii. 80 + +Caria, Zeus Labrandeus in, i. 182; + poisonous vapours in, 205 _sq._ + +Carians, their mourning for Osiris, ii. 86 _n._ 1 + +Caribs worshipped the moon in preference to the sun, ii. 138 + +Carlyle, Thomas, on the execution of the astronomer Bailly, i. 229 _n._ 1 + +Carna and Janus, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +Carnae, temples at, ii. 124; + the sculptures at, 154 + +Carnival at Rome in the rites of Attis, i. 273 + +---- custom in Thracian villages, ii. 99 _sq._ + +Carpini, de Plano, on funeral customs of the Mongols, i. 293 + +Carthage, legend and worship of Dido at, i. 113 _sq._; + Hamilcar worshipped at, 116; + the _suffetes_ of, 116 _n._ 1; + rites of Cybele at, 274 _n._; + the effeminate priests of the Great Mother at, 298; + legend as to the foundation of, ii. 250 + +Casalis, E., on serpent-worship, i. 84; + on the worship of the dead among the Basutos, ii. 179 _sq._ + +Castabala in Cappadocia, i. 168 + +---- in Cilicia, worship of Perasian Artemis at, i. 115, 167 _sqq._ + +Castelnau, F. de, on the reverence of the Apinagos for the moon, ii. 146 + _sq._ + +Castiglione a Casauria, in the Abruzzi, Midsummer custom at, i. 246 + +Castor's tune, i. 196 _n._ 3 + +Castration of Cronus and Uranus, i. 283; + of sky-god, suggested explanation of, 283; + of priests, suggested explanation of, 283 _sq._ + +Catafalque burnt at funeral of king of Siam, i. 179 + +Catania in Sicily, the vineyards of, i. 194; + gardens of Adonis at, 245 + +Catholic Church, the ritual of the, i. 54; + ceremonies on Good Friday in the, 254, 255 _sq._ + +Cato, i. 43 + +Catullus on self-mutilation of a priest of Attis, i. 270 + +Caucasus, the Albanians of the, i. 73; + the Chewsurs of the, ii. 65 + +Cauldron, the magical, which makes the old young again, i. 181 + +Caverns of Demeter, i. 88 + +Caves, limestone, i. 152; + in Semitic religion, 169 _n._ 3 + +Cecrops, father of Agraulus, i. 145 + +Cedar forests of Cilicia, i. 149, 150 _n._ 1 + +---- sprung from the body of Osiris, ii. 110 + +---- -tree god, Osiris interpreted as a, ii. 109 _n._ 1 + +Celaenae, skin of Marsyas shown at, i. 288 + +Celebes, conduct of the inhabitants in an earthquake, i. 200 + +----, Central, the Toradjas of, ii. 33 + +----, Southern, marriage custom in, ii. 260 + +Celenderis in Cilicia, i. 41 + +Celtic year reckoned from November 1st, ii. 81 + +Censorinus, on the date of the rising of Sirius, ii. 34 _n._ 1 + +Central Provinces of India, gardens of Adonis in the, i. 242 _sq._ + +Ceos, the rising of Sirius observed in, ii. 35 _n._ 1; + rule as to the pollution of death in, 227 + +Cereals cultivated in ancient Egypt, ii. 30 + +Ceremonies, magical, for the regulation of the seasons, i. 3 _sqq._ + +Ceres married to Orcus, ii. 231 + +Ceylon, _beena_ marriage in, ii. 215 + +Chadwick, Professor H. M., ii. 81 _n._ 3; + on the dismemberment of Halfdan the Black, 100 _n._ 2; + on a priest dressed as a woman, 259 _n._ 2 + +Change in date of Egyptian festivals with the adoption of the fixed + Alexandrian year, ii. 92 _sqq._ + +Chants, plaintive, of corn-reapers in antiquity, ii. 45 _sq._ + +Charlemagne compared to Osiris, ii. 199 + +Charm, to protect a town, ii. 249 _sqq._ + +Charon, places of, i. 204, 205 + +_Charonia_, places of Charon, i. 204 + +Chastity, ceremonial, i. 43; + ordeal of, 115 _n._ 2 + +Chent-Ament (Khenti-Amenti), title of Osiris, ii. 87 + +Chephren, King of Egypt, his statue, ii. 21 _sq._ + +Cherokee Indians, their myth of the Old Woman of the corn, ii. 46 _sq._; + their lamentations after "the first working of the corn," 47 + +Cheshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. 79 + +Chewsurs of the Caucasus, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 65 + +Cheyne, T. K., on lament for kings of Judah, i. 20 _n._ 2 + +Chief, ancestral, reincarnate in snakes, i. 84 + +Chiefs in the Pelew Islands, custom of slaying, ii. 266 _sqq._ + +----, dead, worshipped, ii. 175, 176, 177, 179, 181 _sq._, 187; + thought to control the rain, 188; + human sacrifices to, 191; + spirits of, prophesy through living men and women, 192 _sq._ + +"Child-stones," where souls of dead await rebirth, i. 100 + +Childbirth, primitive ignorance of the causes of, i. 106 _sq._ + +Childless women expect offspring from St. George, i. 78; + resort to Baths of Solomon, 78; + receive offspring from serpent, 86; + resort to graves in order to secure offspring, 96; + resort to hot springs in Syria, 213 _sqq._ + +Children bestowed by saints, i. 78 _sq._; + given by serpent, 86; + murdered that their souls may be reborn in barren women, 95; + sacrificed to volcano in Siao, 219; + sacrificed at irrigation channels, ii. 38; + sacrificed by the Mexicans for the maize, 107; + presented to the moon, 144 _sqq._ + +---- of God, i. 68 + +---- of living parents in ritual, ii. 236 _sqq._; + apparently thought to be endowed with more vitality than others, 247 + _sq._ + +Chili, earthquakes in, i. 202 + +Chimaera, Mount, in Lycia, perpetual fire on, i. 221 + +China, funeral of emperor of, i. 294 + +Chinese author on disturbance of earth-spirits by agriculture, i. 89 + +---- character compared to that of the ancient Egyptians, ii. 218 + +Chios, men sacrificed to Dionysus in, ii. 98 _sq._ + +Chiriguanos Indians of Bolivia, their address to the sun, ii. 143 _n._ 4 + +Chiriqui, volcano, i. 181 + +Chittim (Citium) in Cyprus, i. 31 + +Chnum of Elephantine identified with the sun, ii. 123 + +Choctaws, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 53 _sq._ + +Christ crucified on March 25th, tradition, i. 306 + +Christian, F. W., on the prostitution of unmarried girls in Yap, ii. 265 + _sq._ + +Christian festivals displace heathen festivals, i. 308 + +Christianity and paganism, their resemblances explained as diabolical + counterfeits, i. 302, 309 _sq._ + +Christians and pagans, their controversy as to Easter, i. 309 _sq._ + +Christmas, festival of, borrowed from the Mithraic religion, i. 302 + _sqq._; + the heathen origin of, 305 + +Chu-en-aten, name assumed by King Amenophis IV., ii. 124 + +Chukchees of North-Eastern Asia, effeminate sorcerers among the, ii. 256 + _sq._ + +Cicero at Cybistra, i. 122 _n._ 3; + corresponds with Cilician king, 145 _n._ 2 + +Cilicia, male deity of, assimilated to Zeus, i. 118 _sq._; + kings of, their affinity to Sandan, 144; + the Assyrians in, 173 + +----, Western or Rugged, described, i. 148 _sqq._; + fossils of, 152 _sq._ + +Cilician deity assimilated to Zeus, i. 144 _sqq._, 148, 152 + +---- Gates, pass of the, i. 120 + +---- goddesses, i. 161 _sqq._ + +---- gods, the burning of, i. 170 _sq._ + +---- pirates, i. 149 _sq._ + +---- priests, names of, i. 144 + +Cincius Alimentus, L., on Maia as the wife of Vulcan, ii. 232 + +Cinyrads, dynasty of the, i. 41 _sqq._ + +Cinyras, the father of Adonis, i. 13, 14, 49; + king of Byblus, 27; + founds sanctuary of Astarte, 28; + said to have instituted religious prostitution, 41, 50; + his daughters, 41, 50; + his riches, 42; + his incest, 43; + wooed by Aphrodite, 48 _sq._; + meaning of the name, 52; + the friend of Apollo, 54; + legends of his death, 55 + +Ciotat in Provence, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248 + +Circumcision, exchange of dress between men and women at, ii. 263 + +Citium (Chittim), in Cyprus, i. 31, 50 + +Civilization, ancient, undermined by Oriental religions and other causes, + i. 299 _sqq._ + +Claudianus, Lucius Minius, i. 164 + +Claudius, the Emperor, and the rites of Attis, i. 266 + +Claudius Gothicus, the Emperor, i. 266 _n._ 2 + +Clavigero, on the Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._ + +Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and serpents, i. 87 + +Cleon of Magnesia at Gades, i. 113 + +Climatic and geographical conditions, their effect on national character, + ii. 217 + +Clymenus, king of Arcadia, his incest, i. 44 _n._ 1 + +Cnossus in Crete, prehistoric palace at, i. 34 + +Cochinchina, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 65 + +Cock as emblem of a priest of Attis, i. 279 + +Codrington, Dr. R. H., on mother-kin in Melanesia, ii. 211 + +Coimbatore, dancing-girls at, i. 62 + +Coincidence between the Christian and the heathen festivals of the divine + death and resurrection, i. 308 _sq._ + +Cologne, Petrarch at, on St. John's Eve, i. 247 _sq._ + +Colombia, rule as to the felling of timber in, ii. 136 + +Comana, in Cappadocia, i. 136 _n._ 1 + +---- in Pontus, worship of goddess Ma at, i. 39; + swine not allowed to enter, 265 _n._ 1 + +----, the two cities, i. 168 _n._ 6 + +Commemoration of the Dead at Athens, i. 234 + +Commodus, conspiracy against, i. 273; + addicted to the worship of Isis, ii. 118 + +Communal rights over women, i. 40, 61 _n._ + +Compromise of Christianity with paganism, parallel with Buddhism, i. 310 + _sqq._ + +Conception, supposed, without sexual intercourse, i. 91, 93 _n._ 2, 264; + in women supposed to be caused by food, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105. + _See also_ Impregnation + +Conceptional animals and plants as causes of pregnancy in women, i. 97 + _sq._, 104 _sq._ + +Concubines, human, of the god Ammon, i. 72 + +Conder, C. R., on "holy men" in Syria, i. 77 _n._ 4; + on turning money at the new moon, ii. 149 _n._ 2 + +Condylea in Arcadia, sacred grove of Artemis at, i. 291 + +Cone, image of Astarte, i. 14 + +Cones as emblems of a goddess, i. 34 _sqq._; + votive, found in Babylonia, 35 _n._ 5 + +Confession of the dead, the Egyptian, ii. 13 _sq._ + +Confucianism, ii. 160 + +Congo, burial of infants on the, i. 91; + priest dressed as a woman on the, ii. 254 _sq._ + +Conibos Indians of the Ucayali River, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198 + +Conical stone as divine emblem, i. 165, 166 + +Constantine destroys temple of Astarte, i. 28; + suppresses sacred prostitution, 37; + removes standard cubit from the Serapeum, ii. 216 _sq._ + +Consus and Ops, ii. 233 _n._ 6 + +Contest for the throne of Egypt, traditions of a, ii. 17 _sq._ + +Cook, A. B., i. 49 _n._ 6; + on name of priest of Corycian Zeus, 155 _n._ 1; + on the death of Romulus, ii. 98 _n._ 2; + on the festival of Laurel-bearing at Thebes, 241 _n._ 3; + on traces of mother-kin in the myth and ritual of Hercules, 259 _n._ 4 + +Coomassie, in Ashantee, i. 201 + +Copenhagen, bathing on St. John's Eve at, i. 248 + +Coptic calendar, ii. 6 _n._ 3 + +Corea, dance of eunuchs in, i. 270 _n._ 2 + +Coreans, their ceremony on the fifteenth day of the moon, ii. 143 + +Corn sprouting from the dead body of Osiris, ii. 89; + water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._ + +---- and grapes, symbols of the god of Tarsus, i. 119, 143; + of the god of Ibreez, 121; + figured with double-headed axe on Lydian coin, 183 + +---- and vine, emblems of the gods of Tarsus and Ibreez, i. 160 _sq._ + +---- -god, Adonis as a, i. 230 _sqq._; + Attis as a, 279; + mourned at midsummer, ii. 34; + Osiris as a, 89 _sqq._, 96 _sqq._ + +---- -reaping in Egypt, Palestine, and Greece, date of the, i. 231 _n._ 3 + +---- -sieve, severed limbs of Osiris placed on a, ii. 97 + +---- -spirit, Tammuz or Adonis as a, i. 230 _sqq._; + propitiation of the, perhaps fused with a worship of the dead, 233 + _sqq._; + represented as a dead old man, ii. 48, 96; + represented by human victims, 97, 106 _sq._ + +---- -stuffed effigies of Osiris buried with the dead as a symbol of + resurrection, ii. 90 _sq._, 114 + +---- -wreaths as first-fruits, i. 43; + worn by Arval Brethren, i. 44 _n._ + +Coronation, human sacrifices to prolong a king's life at his, ii. 223 + +Corycian cave, priests of Zeus at the, i. 145; + the god of the, 152 _sqq._; + described, 153 _sq._; + saffron at the, 187; + name perhaps derived from crocus, 187 + +Corycus in Cilicia, ruins of, i. 153 + +Cos, traces of mother-kin in, ii. 259; + Sacred Marriage in, 259 _n._ 4; + bridegroom dressed as woman in, 260 + +Cosenza in Calabria, Easter custom at, i. 254 + +Cotys, king of Lydia, i. 187 + +Cow, image of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 50, 84; + Isis represented with the head of a, 50; + thought to be impregnated by moonshine, 130 _sq._ + +---- goddess Shenty, ii. 88 + +Cows sacred to Isis, ii. 50 + +Creation of the world thought to be annually repeated, i. 284 + +Crescent-shaped chest in the rites of Osiris, ii. 85, 130 + +Crests of the Cilician pirates, i. 149 + +Crete, sacred trees and pillars in, i. 107 _n._ 2 + +Crimea, the Taurians of the, i. 294 + +Crocodile-shaped hero, i. 139 _n._ 1 + +Croesus, king of Lydia, captures Pteria, i. 128; + the burning of, 174 sqq., 179; + his burnt offerings to Apollo at Delphi, 180 _n._ 1; + dedicates golden lion at Delphi, 184; + his son Atys, 286 + +Cronion, a Greek month, ii. 238. + +Cronus, identified with Phoenician El, i. 166; + castrates his father Uranus and is castrated by his son Zeus, 283; + name applied to winter, ii. 41 + +Crook and scourge or flail, the emblems of Osiris, ii. 108, 153, compare + 20 + +Crooke, W., on sacred dancing-girls, i. 65 _n._ 1; + on Mohammedan saints, 78 _n._ 2; + on infant burial, 93 _sq._; + on the custom of the False Bride, ii. 262 _n._ 2 + +Crops dependent on serpent-god, i. 67; + human victims sacrificed for the, 290 _sq._ + +Cross-roads, burial at, i. 93 _n._ 1 + +Crown-wearer, priest of Hercules at Tarsus, i. 143 + +Crowns as amulets, ii. 242 _sq._; + laid aside in mourning, etc., 243 _n._ 2 + +---- of Egypt, the White and the Red, ii. 21 _n._ 1 + +Crucifixion of Christ, tradition as to the date of, i. 306 + +---- of human victims at Benin, i. 294 _n._ 3; + gentile, at the spring equinox, 307 _n._ + +_Crux ansata_, the Egyptian symbol of life, ii. 89 + +Cubit, the standard, kept in the temple of Serapis, ii. 217 + +Cultivation of staple food in the hands of women (Pelew Islands), ii. 206 + _sq._ + +Cumont, Professor Franz, on the _taurobolium_, i. 275 _n._ 1; + on the Nativity of the Sun, 303 _n._ 3; + as to the parallel between Easter and the rites of Attis, 310 _n._ 1 + +Customs of the Pelew Islanders, ii. 253 _sqq._, 266 _sqq._ + +Cuthar, father of Adonis, i. 13 _n._ 2 + +Cuttings for the dead, i. 268 + +Cyaxares, king of the Medes, i. 133 _n._, 174 + +Cybele, the image of, i. 35 _n._ 3; + her cymbals and tambourines, 54; + her lions and turreted crown, 137; + priests of, called Attis, 140; + the Mother of the Gods, 263; + her love for Attis, 263, 282; + her worship adopted by the Romans, 265; + sacrifice of virility to image of, 268; + subterranean chambers of, 268; + orgiastic rites of, 278; + a goddess of fertility, 279; + worshipped in Gaul, 279; + fasts observed by the worshippers of, 280; + a friend of Marsyas, 288; + effeminate priests of, ii. 257, 258 + +Cybistra in Cappadocia, i. 120, 122, 124 + +Cymbal, drinking out of a, i. 274 + +Cymbals in religious music, i. 52, 54 + +---- and tambourines in worship of Cybele, i. 54 + +Cynopolis, the cemetery of, ii. 90 + +Cypriote syllabary, i. 49 _n._ 7 + +Cyprus, Phoenicians in, i. 31 _sq._; + Adonis in, 31 _sqq._; + sacred prostitution in, 36, 50, 59; + Melcarth worshipped in, 117; + human sacrifices in, 145 _sq._; + the bearded Venus in, ii. 259 _n._ 3 + +Cyril of Alexandria on the festival of Adonis at Alexandria, i. 224 _n._ 2 + +Cyrus and Croesus, i. 174 _sqq._ + +Cyzicus, worship of the Placianian Mother at, i. 274 _n._ + +Dacia, hot springs in, i. 213 + +Dacotas, their theory of the waning moon, ii. 130 + +_Dad_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar + +Dahomans, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66 + +Dahomey, kings of, their human sacrifices, ii. 97 _n._ 7. + +Dairyman, sacred, of the Todas, his custom as to the pollution of death, + ii. 228; + bound to live apart from his wife, 229 + +Dalisandos in Isauria, inscriptions at, ii. 213 _n._ 1 + +Damascus, Aramean kings of, i. 15 + +Damasen, a giant, i. 186 + +Damatrius, a Greek month, ii. 49 _n._ 1 + +Dams in Egypt, the cutting of the, ii. 31 _sq._, 37 _sq._, 39 _sq._ + +Dance of eunuchs in Corea, i. 270 _n._ 2; + on the Congo, 271 _n._; + of hermaphrodites in Pegu, 271 _n._; + sacred, at the Sed festival, ii. 154; + of king before the ghosts of his ancestor, 192 + +Dances, religious, i. 61, 65, 68; + at festivals of the dead, ii. 52, 53, 55, 58, 59; + at the new moon, 142 + +Dancing-girls in India, harlots and wives of the gods, i. 61 _sqq._ + +Danh-gbi, python-god, i. 66 + +Darmesteter, James, on the Fravashis, ii. 67 _n._ 2; + his theory as to the date of the _Gathas_, ii. 84 _n._ + +_Dasi_, dancing-girl, i. 63 + +Dastarkon in Cappadocia, i. 147 _n._ 3 + +Dates forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 + +Daughter of a god, i. 51 + +David, King, in relation to the old kings of Jerusalem, i. 18 _sq._; + his conquest of Ammon, 19; + his taking of a census, 24; + as a harper, 52, 53, 54 + +---- and Goliath, i. 19 _n._ 2 + +---- and Saul, i. 21 + +Davis, Mr. R. F., on harvest custom in Nottinghamshire, i. 238 _n._ + +Day of Blood in rites of Attis, i. 268, 285 + +De Plano Carpini, on the funeral customs of the Mongols, i. 293 + +Dea Dia, a Roman goddess of fertility, ii. 239 + +Dead, Festival of the, in Java, i. 220; + worship of the, perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, + 233 _sqq._; + cuttings for the, 268; + Osiris king and judge of the, ii. 13 _sq._; + the Egyptian, identified with Osiris, 16; + annual festivals of the, 51 _sqq._; + the spirits of the, personated by living men, 52, 53, 58; + magical uses made of their bodies, 100 _sqq._; + worship of the, among the Bantu tribes of Africa, 176 _sqq._ + _See also_ Ancestral spirits + +----, reincarnation of the, i. 82 _sqq._; + in America, 91; + in Africa, 91 _sq._ + +---- kings and chiefs worshipped in Africa, ii. 160 _sqq._; + sacrifices offered to, 162, 166 _sq._; + incarnate in animals, 162, 163 _sq._, 173; + consulted as oracles, 167, 171, 172, 195; + human sacrifices to, 173; + worshipped by the Barotse, 194 _sq._ + +---- men believed to beget children, i. 91, 264 + +---- Sea, i. 23 + +Death in the fire as an apotheosis, i. 179 _sq._; + the pollution of, ii. 227 _sqq._ + +---- and resurrection, annual, of gods, i. 6; + of Adonis represented in his rites, 224 _sq._; + coincidence between the pagan and the Christian festival of the divine, + 308; + of Osiris dramatically represented in his rites, ii. 85 _sq._; + of Osiris interpreted as the decay and growth of vegetation, 126 _sqq._ + +December, the twenty-fifth of, reckoned the winter solstice, and the + birthday of the Sun, i. 303 _sqq._ + +Decline of the civic virtues under the influence of Oriental religions, i. + 300 _sq._ + +_Ded_ or _tet_ pillar, the backbone of Osiris, ii. 108 _sq._ + +Dedicated men and women in Africa, i. 65 _sqq._ + +Dedication of girls to the service of a temple, i. 61 _sqq._; + of children to gods, 79 + +Dee, river, holed stone in the, i. 36 _n._ 4 + +Defoe, Daniel, on the Angel of the Plague, i. 24 _n._ 2 + +Delos, sacred embassy to, ii. 244 + +Delphi, Apollo and the Dragon at, ii. 240 + +_Delphinium Ajacis_, i. 314 _n._ 1 + +Demeter, her sacred caverns, i. 88; + sacred vaults of, 278; + sorrowing for the descent of the Maiden, ii. 41; + the month of, 41; + mysteries of, at Eleusis, 90; + at the well, 111 _n._ 6; + identified with Isis, 117 + +---- and ears of corn, i. 166 + +---- and Poseidon, i. 280 + +---- and the king's son at Eleusis, i. 180 + +Denderah, inscriptions at, ii. 11, 86 _sqq._, 89, 91, 130 _n._; + the hall of Osiris at, 110 + +Derceto, goddess at Ascalon, i. 34 _n._ 3 + +Dervishes revered in Syria, i. 77 _n._ 4; + of Asia Minor, 170 + +Deucalion at Hierapolis, i. 162 _n._ 2 + +Deuteronomic redactor, i. 26 _n._ 1 + +Deuteronomy, publication of, i. 18 _n._ 3 + +Deutsch-Zepling in Transylvania, rule as to sowing in, ii. 133 _n._ 3 + +_Devadasi_, dancing-girl, i. 63 _sq._ + +_Devaratial_, dancing-girl, i. 63 + +Dew, bathing in the, on Midsummer Eve or Day, i. 246 _sq._, 248; + a daughter of Zeus and the moon, ii. 137 + +Diabolical counterfeits, resemblances of paganism to Christianity + explained as, i. 302, 309 _sq._ + +Diana, a Mother Goddess, i. 45; + her sanctuary at Nemi, 45 + +Dianus and Diana, i. 27, 45 + +Dido flees from Tyre, i. 50; + her traditional death in the fire, 114; + worshipped at Carthage, 114; + meaning of the name, 114 _n._ 1; + an Avatar of Astarte, 177; + how she procured the site of Carthage, ii. 250 + +Dinant, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 + +_Dinkard_, a Pahlavi work, ii. 68 _n._ 2 + +Dinkas, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82 + _sq._; + pour milk on graves, 87 + +Dio Chrysostom, on the people of Tarsus, i. 118; + on pyre at Tarsus, 126 _n._ 1 + +Diodorus Siculus, on worship of Poseidon in Peloponnese, i. 203; + on the burial of Osiris, ii. 10 _sq._; + on the rise of the Nile, 31 _n._ 1; + on the date of harvest in Egypt, 32 _n._ 2; + on Osiris as a sun-god, 120; + on the predominance of women over men in ancient Egypt, 214 + +Diomede, human sacrifices to, i. 145 + +Dionysus in form of bull, i. 123; + with vine and ploughman on a coin, 166; + ancient interpretation of, 194, 213; + death, resurrection, and ascension of, 302 _n._ 4; + torn in pieces, ii. 98; + human sacrifices to, in Chios, 98 _sq._; + his coarse symbolism, 113; + identified with Osiris, 113; + race of boys at vintage from his sanctuary, 238; + men dressed as women in the rites of, 258; + the effeminate, 259 + +Diospolis Parva (How), monument of Osiris at, ii. 110 + +Diphilus, king of Cyprus, i. 146 + +Disc, winged, as divine emblem, i. 132 + +Discoloration, annual, of the river Adonis, i. 30, 225 + +Discovery of the body of Osiris, ii. 85 _sq._ + +Disease of language the supposed source of myths, ii. 42 + +Disguises to avert the evil eye, ii. 262; + to deceive dangerous spirits, 262 _sq._, 263 _sq._ + +Dismemberment of Osiris, suggested explanations of the, ii. 97; + of Halfdan the Black, king of Norway, 100, 102; + of Segera, a magician of Kiwai, 101; + of kings and magicians, and use of their severed limbs to fertilize the + country, 101 _sq._; + of the bodies of the dead to prevent their souls from becoming dangerous + ghosts, 188 + +_Ditino_, deified dead kings, ii. 194 + +Divination at Midsummer, i. 252 _sq._ + +Divining bones, ii. 180, 181 + +Divinities of the volcano Kirauea, i. 217 + +Divinity of Semitic kings, i. 15 _sqq._; + of Lydian kings, 182 _sqq._ + +Dixmude, in Belgium, feast of All Souls at, ii. 70 + +Dobrizhoffer, M., on the respect of the Abipones for the Pleiades, i. 258 + _n._ 2 + +Doctrine of lunar sympathy, ii. 140 _sqq._ + +_Dod_, "beloved," i. 19 _n._ 2, 20 _n._ 2 + +Dog-star. _See_ Sirius + +Doliche in Commagene, i. 136 + +Domaszewski, Professor A., on the rites of Attis at Rome, i. 266 _n._ 2 + +Dorasques of Panama, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201 + +Dos Santos, J., Portuguese historian, on the method adopted by a Caffre + king to prolong his life, ii. 222 _sq._ + +Double, the afterbirth or placenta, regarded as a person's double, ii. 169 + _sq._ + +---- -headed axe, symbol of Sandan, i. 127; + carried by Lydian kings, 182; + a palladium of the Heraclid sovereignty, 182; + figured on coins, 183 _n._ + +---- -headed eagle, Hittite emblem, i. 133 _n._ + +Doutte, Edmond, on sacred prostitution in Morocco, i. 39 _n._ 3 + +Doves burnt in honour of Adonis, i. 126 _n._ 2, 147 + +----, sacred, of Aphrodite, i. 33; + or Astarte, 147 + +Dowries earned by prostitution, i. 38, 59 + +Dragon slain by Cadmus at Thebes, ii. 241 + +---- and Apollo, at Delphi, ii. 240 + +Drama, sacred, of the death and resurrection of Osiris, ii. 85 _sq._ + +Dramas, magical, for the regulation of the seasons, i. 4 _sq._ + +Dramatic representation of the resurrection of Osiris in his rites, ii. 85 + +Dreams, revelations given to sick people by Pluto and Persephone in, i. + 205; + spirits of the dead appear to the living in, ii. 162, 190; + as causes of attempted transformation of men into women, 255 _sqq._ + +Drenching last corn cut with water as a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._ + +Drinking out of a king's skull in order to be inspired by his spirit, ii. + 171 + +Drought, kings answerable for, i. 21 _sq._ + +Drum, eating out of a, i. 274 + +Drums, human sacrifice for royal, ii. 223, 225 + +Duchesne, Mgr. L., on the origin of Christmas, i. 305 _n._ 4; + on the date of the Crucifixion, 307 + +Dyaks of Sarawak, their custom of head-hunting, i. 295 _sq._ + +Ea, Babylonian god, i. 9 + +Eagle to carry soul to heaven, i. 126 _sq._; + double-headed, Hittite emblem, 133 _n._ + +Ears of corn, emblem of Demeter, i. 166 + +Earth as the Great Mother, i. 27 + +---- and sky, myth of their violent separation, i. 283 + +----, the goddess, mother of Typhon, i. 156 + +Earth-goddess annually married to Sun-god, i. 47 _sq._; + disturbed by the operations of husbandry, 88 _sqq._; + married to Sky-god, 282, with _n._ 2 + +---- -spirits disturbed by agriculture, i. 89 + +Earthquake god, i. 194 _sqq._ + +Earthquakes, attempts to stop, i. 196 _sqq._ + +East, mother-kin and Mother Goddesses in the ancient, ii. 212 _sqq._ + +Easter, gardens of Adonis at, in Sicily, i. 253 _sq._; + resemblance of the festival of, to the rites of Adonis, 254 _sqq._, 306; + the festival of, assimilated to the spring festival of Attis, 306 + _sqq._; + controversy between Christians and pagans as to the origin of, 309 _sq._ + +"Eater of the Dead," fabulous Egyptian monster, ii. 14 + +Eclipse of the moon, Athenian superstition as to an, ii. 141 + +Eden, the tree of life in, i. 186 _n._ 4 + +Edom, the kings of, i. 15; + their bones burned by the Moabites, ii. 104 + +Edonians in Thrace, Lycurgus king of the, ii. 98, 99 + +Eesa, a Somali tribe, ii. 246 + +Effect of geographical and climatic conditions on national character, ii. + 217 + +Effeminate sorcerers or priests, order of, ii. 253 _sqq._ + +Effigies of Osiris, stuffed with corn, buried with the dead as a symbol of + resurrection, ii. 90 _sq._, 114 + +Egypt, wives of Ammon in, i. 72; + date of the corn-reaping in, 231 _n._ 3; + the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303; + in early June, ii. 31; + mother-kin in ancient, 213 _sqq._ + +Egyptian astronomers acquainted with the true length of the solar year, + ii. 26, 27, 37 _n._ + +---- calendar, the official, ii. 24 _sqq._; + date of its introduction, 36 _n._ 2 + +---- ceremony at the winter solstice, ii. 50 + +---- dead identified with Osiris, ii. 16 + +---- farmer, calendar of the, ii. 30 _sqq._; + his festivals, ii. 32 _sqq._ + +---- festivals, their dates shifting, ii. 24 _sq._, 92 _sqq._; + readjustment of, 91 _sqq._ + +---- funeral rites a copy of those performed over Osiris, ii. 15 + +---- hope of immortality centred in Osiris, ii. 15 _sq._, 114, 159 + +---- kings worshipped as gods, i. 52; + the most ancient, buried at Abydos, ii. 19; + their oath not to correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, 26; + perhaps formerly slain in the character of Osiris, 97 _sq._, 102; + as Osiris, 151 _sqq._; + renew their life by identifying themselves with the dead and risen + Osiris, 153 _sq._; + born again at the Sed festival, 153, 155 _sq._; + perhaps formerly put to death to prevent their bodily and mental decay, + 154 _sq._, 156 + +Egyptian language akin to the Semitic, ii. 161 + +---- months, table of, ii. 37 _n._ + +---- myth of the separation of earth and sky, i. 283 _n._ 3 + +---- people, the conservatism of their character, ii. 217 _sq._; + compared to the Chinese, 218 + +---- reapers, their lamentations and invocations of Isis, i. 232, ii. 45, + 117 + +---- religion, the development of, ii. 122 _sqq._; + dominated by Osiris, 158 _sq._ + +---- standard resembling a placenta, ii. 156 _n._ 1 + +---- year vague, not corrected by intercalation, ii. 24 _sq._; + the sacred, began with the rising of Sirius, 35 + +Egyptians sacrifice red-haired men, ii. 97, 106; + the ancient, question of their ethnical affinity, 161 + +Ekoi of Southern Nigeria, their custom of mutilating men and women at + festivals, i. 270 _n._ 2 + +El, Phoenician god, i. 13, 16 _n._ 1; + identified with Cronus, 166 + +El-Bugat, festival of mourning for Tammuz in Harran, i. 230 + +Elam, the kings of, their bones carried off by Ashurbanipal, ii. 103 _sq._ + +Eleusis, Demeter and the king's son at, i. 180; + sacrifice of oxen at, 292 _n._ 3; + mysteries of Demeter at, ii. 90 + +Eli, the sons of, i. 76 + +Elisha prophesies to music, i. 53, 54; + finds water in the desert, 53, 75 + +Ellis, A. B., on sacred prostitution in West Africa, i. 65 _sq._, 69 + _sq._; + on tattoo marks of priests, 74 _n._ 4; + on an ordeal of chastity, 115 + +Emesa, sun-god Heliogabalus at, i. 35 + +Empedocles leaps into the crater of Etna, i. 181 + +Emperor of China, funeral of an, i. 294 + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} distinguished from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, i. 316 _n._ 1 + +Enemy, charms to disable an, ii. 252 + +England, harvest custom in, i. 237; + the feast of All Souls in, ii. 78 _sq._ + +Ennius, on Hora and Quirinus, ii. 233 + +"Entry of Osiris into the moon," ii. 130 + +Enylus, king of Byblus, i. 15 _n._ + +Ephesus, Artemis of, i. 269; + Hecate at, 291; + the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis at, ii. 243 _sq._ + +Epidaurus, Aesculapius at, i. 80 + +Epiphany, the sixth of January, i. 305 + +Epirus, the kings of, their bones scattered by Lysimachus, ii. 104 + +Equinox, the vernal, resurrection of Attis at the, i. 273, 307 _sq._; + date of the Crucifixion assigned to the spring equinox, 307; + tradition that the world was created at the spring equinox, 307 + +Erechtheum, sacred serpent in the, i. 87 + +Erechtheus, king of Athens, his incest with his daughter, i. 44 _n._ 1; + his sacred serpent, 87 + +Eregli (the ancient Cybistra) in Cappadocia, i. 120, 122 + +Eresh-Kigal, Babylonian goddess, i. 9 + +_Erica_-tree, Osiris in the, ii. 9, 108, 109 + +Eriphyle, the necklace of, i. 32 _n._ 2 + +Erman, Professor A., on Anubis at Abydos, ii. 18 _n._ 3; + on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, 91; + on the development of Egyptian religion, 122 _n._ 2 + +_Erme_ or _Nenneri_, gardens of Adonis in Sardinia, i. 244 + +Eshmun, Phoenician deity, i. 111 _n._ 6 + +Esne, the festal calendar of, ii. 49 _sq._ + +Esquimaux of Alaska, their annual festival of the dead, i. 51 _sq._ + +Esthonian peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. 135 + +Esthonians, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. 143 + +Eternal life, initiate born again to, in the rites of Cybele and Attis, i. + 274 _sq._ + +Etesian winds, i. 35 _n._ 1 + +Etna, Mount, Typhon buried under, i. 156, 157; + the death of Empedocles on, 181; + the ashes of, 194; + offerings thrown into the craters of, 221 + +Euboea subject to earthquakes, i. 211; + date of threshing in, 232 _n._; + harvest custom in, 238 + +Eudoxus, on the Egyptian festivals, ii. 35 _n._ 2 + +Eunuch, priests of the Mother Goddess, i. 206; + in the service of Asiatic goddesses of fertility, 269 _sq._; + in various lands, 270 _n._ 2; + of Attis tattooed with pattern of ivy, 278; + of Cybele, ii. 258 + +Eunuchs, dances of, i. 270 _n._ 2, 271 _n._; + dedicated to a goddess in India, 271 _n._; + sacred, at Hierapolis-Bambyce, their rule as to the pollution of death, + ii. 272 + +Euripides on the death of Pentheus, ii. 98 _n._ 5 + +Europe, custom of showing money to the new moon in, ii. 148 _sq._ + +Eusebius on sacred prostitution, i. 37 _n._ 2, 73 _n._ 1 + +Euyuk in Cappadocia, Hittite palace at, i. 123, 132, 133 _n._; + bull worshipped at, 164 + +Evadne and Capaneus, i. 177 _n._ 3 + +Evil Eye, boys dressed as girls to avert the, ii. 260; + bridegroom disfigured in order to avert the, 261; + disguises to avert the, 262 + +Ewe farmers fear to wound the Earth goddess, i. 90 + +---- people of Togo-land, their belief in the marriage of Sky with Earth, i. + 282 _n._ 2 + +---- speaking peoples of the Slave Coast, sacred prostitution among the, i. + 65 _sq._; + worship pythons, 83 _n._ 1 + +Exchange of dress between men and women in rites, ii. 259 _n._ 3; + at marriage, 260 _sqq._; + at circumcision, 263 + +Exogamous clans in the Pelew Islands, ii. 204 + +Exorcism by means of music, i. 54 _sq._ + +Expiation for homicide, i. 299 _n._ 2; + Roman, for prodigies, ii. 244 + +Eye as a symbol of Osiris, ii. 121; + of sacrificial ox cut out, 251 _sq._ + +---- of Horus, ii. 17, 121 with _n._ 3 + +----, the Evil, boys dressed as girls to avert the, ii. 260; + bridegroom disfigured in order to avert, 261 + +Eyes of the dead, Egyptian ceremony of opening the, ii. 15 + +Ezekiel on the mourning for Tammuz, i. 11, 17, 20; + on the Assyrian cavalry, 25 _n._ 3; + on the king of Tyre, 114 + +False Bride, custom of the ii. 262 _n._ 2 + +Farnell, Dr. L. R., on Greek religious music, i. 55 _n._ 1 and 3; + on religious prostitution in Western Asia, 57 _n._ 1, 58 _n._ 2; + on the position of women in ancient religion, ii. 212 _n._ 1; + on the Flamen Dialis, 227; + on the children of living parents in ritual, 236 _sq._; + on the festival of Laurel-bearing at Thebes, 242 _n._; + on eunuch priests of Cybele, 258 _n._ 1 + +Farwardajan, a Persian festival of the dead, ii. 68 + +Fast from bread in mourning for Attis, i. 272 + +Fasts observed by the worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280; + of Isis and Cybele, 302 _n._ 4 + +Father named after his son, i. 51 _n._ 4; + of a god, 51, 52; + dead, worshipped, ii. 175, 184 _sq._; + the head of the family under a system of mother-kin, 211 + +---- -deity of the Hittites, the god of the thundering sky, i. 134 _sqq._ + +---- God, his emblem the bull, i. 164; + Attis as the, 281 _sqq._; + often less important than Mother Goddess, 282 + +---- -kin at Rome, i. 41 + +----, Mother, and Son divinities represented at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 _sqq._ + +Father Sky fertilizes Mother Earth, i. 282 + +---- and mother, names for, i. 281; + as epithets of Roman gods and goddesses, ii. 233 _sqq._ + +Fatherhood of God, the physical, i. 80 _sq._ + +Fauna, rustic Roman goddess, her relationship to Faunus, ii. 234 + +Faunus, old Roman god, his relationship to Fauna or the Good Goddess, ii. + 234 + +Feast of All Saints on November 1st, perhaps substituted for an old pagan + festival of the dead, ii. 82 _sq._; + instituted by Lewis the Pious, 83 + +---- of All Souls, ii. 51 _sqq._; + the Christian, originally a pagan festival of the dead, 81 + +---- of the Golden Flower at Sardes, i. 187 + +---- of Lanterns in Japan, ii. 65 + +Feet first, children born, custom observed at their graves, i. 93 + +Felkin, R. W. and C. T. Wilson, on the worship of the dead kings of + Uganda, ii. 173 _n._ 2 + +Fellows, Ch., on flowers in Caria, i. 187 _n._ 6 + +Female kinship, rule of descent of the throne under, ii. 18. + _See also_ Mother-kin + +Fertility of ground thought to be promoted by prostitution, i. 39; + promoted by marriage of women to serpent, 67; + goddesses of, served by eunuch priests, 269 _sq._; + Osiris as a god of, ii. 112 _sq._ + +Fertilization of the fig, artificial, ii. 98 + +Festival of "the awakening of Hercules" at Tyre, i. 111; + of the Dead in Java, 220; + of Flowers (_Anthesteria_), 234 _sq._; + of Joy (_Hilaria_) in the rites of Attis, 273; + of Sais, ii. 49 _sqq._; + of Crowning at Delphi, 241 + +Festivals of the Egyptian farmer, ii. 32 _sqq._; + of Osiris, the official, 49 _sqq._; + Egyptian readjustment of, 91 _sqq._ + +Fetishism early in human history, ii. 43 + +"Field of the giants," i. 158 + +Fig, artificial fertilization of the, at Rome in July, ii. 98, 259 + +Fiji, chiefs buried secretly in, ii. 105 + +Fijian god of fruit-trees, i. 90 + +---- Lent, i. 90 + +Fijians, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201 + +Financial oppression, Roman, i. 301 _n._ 2 + +Finlay, George, on Roman financial oppression, i. 301 _n._ 2 + +Fire, purification by, i. 115 _n._ 1, 179 _sqq._; + Persian reverence for, 174 _sq._; + death in the, as an apotheosis, 179 _sq._; + supposed able to impregnate women, ii. 235 + +Fire, perpetual, in Zoroastrian religion, i. 191; + worshipped, 191 _sqq._; + in the temples of dead kings, ii. 174 + +---- -god, the father of Romulus, Servius Tullius, and Caeculus, ii. 235 + +---- -walk of the king of Tyre, i. 114 _sq._; + of priestesses at Castabala, 168 + +---- -worship in Cappadocia, i. 191 _sq._ + +Firmicus Maternus, on the mourning for Osiris, ii. 86; + on use of a pine-tree in the rites of Osiris, 108 + +First-born, Semitic sacrifice of the, i. 110; + the sacrifice of, at Jerusalem, ii. 219 _sq._ + +---- -fruits offered to the Baalim, i. 27; + offered to the Mother of the Gods, 280 _n._ 1; + offered to dead chiefs, ii. 191 + +Firstlings offered to the Baalim, i. 27 + +Fish, soul of dead in, i. 95 _sq._ + +Fison, Rev. Lorimer, on Fijian god of earthquakes, i. 202 _n._; + on secret burial of chiefs in Fiji, ii. 105 + +Flail or scourge, an emblem of Osiris, ii. 108, 153; + for collecting incense, 109 _n._ 1 + +Flamen forbidden to divorce his wife, ii. 229; + of Vulcan, 232 + +---- Dialis, the widowed, ii. 227 _sqq._; + forbidden to touch a dead body, but allowed to attend a funeral, 228; + bound to be married, 229 + +---- Dialis and Flaminica, i. 45 _sq._; + assisted by boy and girl of living parents, ii. 236 + +Flamingoes, soul of a dead king incarnate in, ii. 163 + +Flaminica and her husband the Flamen Dialis, i. 45 _sq._, ii. 236 + +Flax, omens from the growth of, i. 244 + +Flower of the banana, women impregnated by the, i. 93 + +"---- of Zeus," i. 186, 187 + +Flowers and leaves as talismans, ii. 242 _sq._ + +Flute, skill of Marsyas on the, i. 288 + +---- music, its exciting influence, i. 54 + +---- -players dressed as women at Rome, ii. 259 _n._ 3 + +Flutes played in the laments for Tammuz, i. 9; + for Adonis, 225 _n._ 3 + +Food, virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain, i. 96; + as a cause of conception in women, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105 + +Foreigners as kings, i. 16 _n._ + +Fortuna Primigenia, goddess of Praeneste, daughter of Jupiter, ii. 234 + +Fortune of the city on coins of Tarsus, i. 164; + the guardian of cities, 164 + +Fossil bones in limestone caves, i. 152 _sq._; + a source of myths about giants, 157 _sq._ + +Foucart, P., identifies Dionysus with Osiris, ii. 113 _n._ 3 + +Four-handed Apollo, ii. 250 _n._ 2 + +Fowler, W. Warde, on the celibacy of the Roman gods, ii. 230, 232 _n._ 1, + 234 _n._, 236 _n._ 1 + +Fra Angelico, his influence on Catholicism, i. 54 _n._ 1 + +France, harvest custom in, i. 237; + timber felled in the wane of the moon in, ii. 136 + +_Fratres Arvales_, ii. 239 + +Fravashis, the souls of the dead in the Iranian religion, ii. 67 _n._ 2, + 68 + +French peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. 133 + _n._ 3, 135 + +Frey, the Scandinavian god of fertility, ii. 100 _sq._ + +Frigento, Valley of Amsanctus near, i. 204 + +Frodsham, Dr., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 103 + _n._ 3 + +Fruit-trees, worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure, ii. 111 + +Fulgora, a Roman goddess, ii. 231 + +Funeral custom in Madagascar, ii. 247 + +---- pyre of Roman emperor, i. 126 _sq._ + +---- rites of the Egyptians a copy of those performed over Osiris, ii. 15; + of Osiris, described in the inscription of Denderah, 86 _sqq._ + +Furies, their snakes, i. 88 _n._ 1 + +Furness, W. H., on the prostitution of unmarried girls in Yap, ii. 266 + +Gaboon, Mpongwe kings of the, ii. 104; + negroes of the, regulate their planting by the moon, ii. 134 + +Gad, Semitic god of fortune, i. 164, 165 + +Gadabursi, a Somali tribe, ii. 246 + +Gades (Cadiz), worship of Hercules (Melcarth), at, i. 112 _sq._; + temple of Melcarth at, ii. 258 _n._ 5 + +Galelareese of Halmahera, as to human sacrifices to volcanoes, i. 220 + +Gallas, their worship of serpents, i. 86 _n._ 1 + +Galli, the emasculated priests of Attis, i. 266, 283 + +Galton, Sir Francis, on the vale of the Adonis, i. 29 + +Game with fruit-stones played by kings of Uganda, ii. 224 + +---- law of the Njamus, ii. 39 + +Garden of Osiris, ii. 87 _sq._ + +Gardens of Adonis, i. 236 _sqq._; + charms to promote the growth of vegetation, 236 _sq._, 239; + in India, 239 _sqq._; + in Bavaria, 244; + in Sardinia, 244 _sq._; + in Sicily, 245; + at Easter, 253 _sq._ + +Gardens of God, i. 123, 159 + +Gardner, Professor E. A. on date of the corn-reaping in Greece, i. 232 + _n._ + +Garstang, Professor J., on sculptures at Ibreez, i. 122 _n._ 1, 123 _n._ + 2; + on Hittite sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 133 _n._, 135 _n._; + on Arenna, 136 _n._ 1; + on Syrian god Hadad, 163 _n._ 3 + +_Gathas_, a part of the _Zend-Avesta_, ii. 84 _n._ + +Gaul, worship of Cybele in, i. 279 + +Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain, conduct of the natives in an earthquake, + i. 201; + the Melanesians of the, ii. 242 _sq._ + +Gazelles sacrificed at Egyptian funerals, ii. 15 + +Gebal, Semitic name of Byblus, i. 13 _n._ 3 + +Geese sacrificed at Egyptian funerals, ii. 15 + +Gellius, Aulus, his list of old Roman deities, ii. 232 + +Gellius, Cnaeus, on Mars and Nerio, ii. 232 + +Geminus, Greek astronomer, on the vague Egyptian year, ii. 26 + +Genital organs of Osiris, tradition as to the, ii. 10, 102; + of dead man used to fertilize the fields, 102 _sq._ + +_Genius_, Roman, symbolized by a serpent, i. 86 + +Geographical and climatic conditions, their effect on national character, + ii. 217 + +German peasants regulate their sowing and planting by the moon, ii. 135 + +Germans, the ancient, their regard for the phases of the moon, ii. 141 + +Germany, harvest custom in, i. 237; + leaping over Midsummer fires in, 251; + feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 _sqq._; + popular superstition as to the influence of the moon in, 133, 140 _sq._, + 149 + +Gezer, Canaanitish city, excavations at, i. 108 + +Gezo, King, i. 68 + +Ghineh, monument of Adonis at, i. 29 + +Ghost of afterbirth thought to adhere to navel-string, ii. 169 _sq._ + +Ghosts thought to impregnate women, i. 93; + of the dead personated by living men, ii. 52, 53, 58 + +Giants, myths of, based on discovery of fossil bones, i. 157 _sq._ + +---- and gods, their battle, i. 157 + +Giaour-Kalesi, Hittite sculptures at, i. 138 _n._ + +Gilbert Islands, sacred stones in the, i. 108 _n._ 1 + +Gill, Captain W., on a tribe in China governed by a woman, ii. 211 _n._ 3 + +Gilyaks of the Amoor eat nutlets of stone-pine, i. 278 _n._ 2 + +Ginzel, Professor F. K., on the rise of the Nile, ii. 31 _n._ 1 + +Giraffes, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162 + +Glaucus, son of Minos, restored to life, i. 186 _n._ 4 + +Goat sacrificed by being hanged, i. 292 + +God, children of, i. 68; + sons of, 78 _sqq._; + the physical fatherhood of, 80 _sq._; + gardens of, 123, 159 + +----, the burning of a, i. 188 _sq._; + the hanged, 288 _sqq._ + +---- of earthquakes, i. 194 _sqq._ + +Godavari District, Southern India, i. 95 + +Goddess, identified with priestess, i. 219; + superiority of the, in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. 201 _sq._ + +Goddesses, Cilician, i. 161 _sqq._; + place infant sons of kings on fire to render them immortal, 180; + of fertility served by eunuch priests, 269 _sq._; + their superiority over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, ii. + 202 _sqq._; + the development of, favoured by mother-kin, 259 + +Gods, annual death and resurrection of, i. 6; + personated by priests, 45, 46 _sqq._; + married to sisters, 316; + their human wives, ii. 207; + made by men and worshipped by women, 211 + +---- and giants, the battle of, i. 157 + +Gold Coast of West Africa, the Tshi-speaking peoples of the, i. 69 + +Golden Flower, the Feast of the, i. 185 + +---- Sea, the, i. 150 + +Golgi in Cyprus, i. 35 + +Goliath and David, i. 19 _n._ 2 + +Gonds, ceremony of bringing back souls of the dead among the, i. 95 _sq._ + +Good Friday, effigies and sepulchres of Christ on, i. 254 _sqq._ + +---- Goddess (_Bona Dea_), her relationship to Faunus, ii. 234 + +Goowoong Awoo, volcano, children sacrificed to, i. 219 + +Gordias and Midas, names of Phrygian kings, i. 286 + +Gordon, E. M., on infant burial, i. 94 _sq._; + on the festival of the dead in Bilaspore, ii. 60 + +Gouri, an Indian goddess of fertility, i. 241 _sq._ + +Gournia in Crete, prehistoric shrine at, i. 88 _n._ 1 + +Grandmother, title of an African priest, ii. 255 + +---- Earth thought to cause earthquakes, i. 198 + +Grandparents, dead, worshipped, ii. 175 + +Grapes as divine emblem, i. 165 + +Grave of Osiris, ii. 10 _sq._; + human victims sacrificed at the, 97 + +---- shrines of Shilluk kings, ii. 161 _sq._; + of dead kings, 194 _sq._ + +Graves, milk offered at, i. 87; + childless women resort to, in order to ensure offspring, 96; + illuminated on All Souls' Day, ii. 72 _sq._, 74; + the only places of sacrifice in the country of the Wahehe, 190 + +---- of kings, chiefs, and magicians kept secret, ii. 103 _sqq._; + human sacrifices at, 168 + +"Great burnings" for kings of Judah, i. 177 _sq._ + +---- Marriage, annual festival of the dead among the Oraons of Bengal, ii. + 59 + +---- men, history not to be explained without the influence of, i. 311 _n._ + 2; + great religious systems founded by, ii. 159 _sq._; + their influence on the popular imagination, 199 + +---- Mother, popularity of her worship in the Roman empire, i. 298 _sq._ + +---- religious systems founded by individual great men, ii. 159 _sq._; + religious ideals a product of the male imagination, 211 + +Greece, date of the corn-reaping in, i. 232 _n._; + modern, marriage customs in, ii. 245 _sq._ + +Greek belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 86 _sq._ + +---- Church, ceremonies on Good Friday in the, i. 254 + +---- feast of All Souls in May, ii. 78 _n._ 1 + +---- gods, discrimination of their characters, i. 119 + +---- mythology, Adonis in, i. 10 _sqq._ + +---- notion as to birth from trees and rocks, i. 107 _n._ 1; + of the noxious influence of moonshine on children, ii. 148 + +---- purification for homicide, i. 299 _n._ 2 + +---- use of music in religion, i. 54 _sq._ + +---- writers on the worship of Adonis, i. 223 _sq._ + +Gregory IV. and the feast of All Saints, ii. 83 + +Grenfell, B. P., and A. S. Hunt on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. 90 + _sq._ + +Grimm, Jacob, on hide-measured lands, ii. 250 + +Grotto of the Sibyl, at Marsala, i. 247 + +Growth and decay of all things associated with the waxing and waning of + the moon, ii. 132 _sqq._, 140 _sqq._ + +Guarayos Indians of Bolivia, their presentation of children to the moon, + ii. 145 + +Guardian spirits in the form of animals, i. 83; + in serpents, 83, 86 + +Guaycurus of Brazil, men dressed as women among the, ii. 254 _n._ 2 + +Guevo Upas, the Valley of Poison, in Java, i. 203 _sq._ + +Gujrat District, Punjaub, i. 94 + +Gurdon, Major P. R. T., on the Khasis of Assam, ii. 202, 203 _n._ 1, 210 + _n._ 1 + +Gwanya, a worshipful dead chief, ii. 177 + +Gyges, king of Lydia, dedicates double-headed axe to Zeus, i. 182 + +Gynaecocracy a dream, ii. 211 + +Hadad, chief male deity of the Syrians, i. 15, 16 _n._ 1; + Syrian god of thunder and fertility, 163 + +Hadadrimmon, i. 164 _n._ 1; + the mourning of or for, 15 _n._ 4 + +Haddon, A. C., on worship of animal-shaped heroes, i. 139 _n._ 1 + +Hadrian, human sacrifice suppressed in reign of, i. 146 + +Hair, sacrifice of women's, i. 38; + offered to goddess of volcano, 218; + of head shaved in mourning for dead gods, 225; + to be cut when the moon is waxing, ii. 133 _sq._ + +Halasarna in Cos, rites of Apollo and + +Hercules at, ii. 259 + +Halfdan, the Black, King of Norway, dismembered after death, ii. 100 + +Halicarnassus, worship of Pergaean Artemis at, i. 35 _n._ 2 + +Hall of the Two Truths, the judgment hall in the other world, ii. 13 + +Halmahera, the Galelareese of, i. 220 + +Hamaspathmaedaya, old Iranian festival of the dead, ii. 67 + +Hamilcar, his self-sacrifice at the battle of Himera, i. 115 _sq._; + worshipped at Carthage, 116; + burns himself, 176; + worshipped after death, 180 + +Hamilton, Alexander, on dance of hermaphrodites in Pegu, i. 271 _n._ + +Hamilton, Professor G. L., i. 57 _n._ 1 + +Hammurabi, the code of, i. 71 _n._ 3, 72 _n._ 1 + +Handel, the harmonies of, i. 54 + +Hanged god, the, i. 288 _sqq._ + +Hanging as a mode of sacrifice, i. 289 _sqq._ + +Hannah, the prayer of, i. 79 + +Hannibal, his prayers to Melcarth, i. 113; + his retirement from Italy, 265 + +Hanway, J., on worship of perpetual fires at Baku, i. 192 + +Harmonia, the necklace of, i. 32 _n._ 2; + turned into a snake, 86 _sq._ + +Harold the Fair-haired, ii. 100 _n._ 2 + +Harp, the music of the, in religion, i. 52 _sqq._ + +Harpalyce, her incest with her father, i. 44 _n._ 1 + +Harpocrates, the younger Horus, ii. 8, 9 _n._ + +Harran, mourning of women for Tammuz in, i. 230 + +Harrison, Miss J. E., on the hyacinth (_Delphinium Ajacis_), i. 314 _n._ 1 + +Hartland, E. S., on the reincarnation of the dead, i. 91 _n._ 3; + on primitive paternity, 106 _n._ 1 + +Harvest, rites of, ii. 45 _sqq._; + annual festival of the dead after, 61; + new corn offered to dead kings or chiefs at, 162, 166, 188; + prayers to the spirits of ancestors at, 175 _sq._; + sacrifices to dead chiefs at, 191 + +---- in Egypt, the date of, ii. 32 + +---- custom of throwing water on the last corn cut as a rain-charm, i. 237 + _sq._; + of the Arabs of Moab, ii. 48, 96 + +Hathor, Egyptian goddess, ii. 9 _n._ + +Hattusil, king of the Hittites, i. 135 + +_Havamal_, how Odin learned the magic runes in the, i. 290 + +Hawaii, the volcano of Kirauea in, i. 216 _sqq._ + +Hawes, Mrs., on date of the corn-reaping in Crete, i. 232 _n._ + +Hawk, Isis in the form of a, ii. 8; + the sacred bird of the earliest Egyptian dynasties, 21 _sq._; + epithet regularly applied to the king of Egypt, 22 + +---- -town (Hieraconpolis) in Egypt, ii. 21 _sq._ + +Hawks carved on the bier of Osiris, ii. 20 + +Hazael, king of Damascus, i. 15 + +"Head-Feast" among the Dyaks of Borneo, i. 295 _sq._ + +---- -hunting in Borneo, i. 294 _sqq._ + +Heads of dead chiefs cut off and buried secretly, ii. 104 + +----, human, thought to promote the fertility of the ground and of women, i. + 294 _sqq._; + used as guardians by Taurians and tribes of Borneo, 294 _sqq._ + +Heathen festivals displaced by Christian, i. 308 + +---- origin of Midsummer festival (festival of St. John), i. 249 _sq._ + +Heavenly Virgin or Goddess, mother of the Sun, i. 303 + +Hebrew kings, traces of their divinity, i. 20 _sqq._ + +---- names ending in _-el_ or _-iah_, i. 79 _n._ 3 + +---- prophecy, the distinctive character of, i. 75 + +Hebrew prophets, their resemblance to those of Africa, i. 74 _sq._ + +Hebrides, peats cut in the wane of the moon in the, ii. 137 _sq._ + +Hecaerge, an epithet of Artemis, i. 292 + +Hecate at Ephesus, i. 291; + sometimes identified with Artemis, 292 _n._ + +---- and Zeus worshipped at Stratonicea, ii. 227 + +Hecatombeus, a Greek month, i. 314 + +Hehn, V., on derivation of name Corycian, i. 187 _n._ 6 + +Helen of the Tree, worshipped in Rhodes, i. 292 + +Heliacal rising of Sirius, ii. 152 + +Helice, in Achaia, destroyed by earthquake, i. 203; + Poseidon worshipped at, 203 _n._ 2 + +Heliodorus, on the priesthood of Apollo and Artemis at Ephesus, ii. 243 + _sq._ + +Heliogabalus, sun-god at Emesa, i. 35; + his sacrifice of children of living parents, ii. 248 + +Heliopolis (Baalbec), in Syria, i. 163 _n._ 2; + sacred prostitution at, 37, 58 + +Heliopolis (the Egyptian), trial of the dead Osiris before the gods at, + ii. 17 + +Hepding, H., on Attis, i. 263 _n._ 1; + on Catullus's poem _Attis_, 270 _n._ 2; + on the bath of Cybele's image, 280 + +Hephaestus and hot springs, i. 209 + +Heqet, Egyptian frog-goddess, ii. 9 _n._ + +Hera's marriage with Zeus, i. 280 + +Heraclids, Lydian dynasty of the, i. 182, 184; + perhaps Hittite, 185 + +Hercules identified with Melcarth, i. 16, 111; + slain by Typhon and revived by Iolaus, 111; + burnt on Mount Oeta, 111, 116, 211; + worshipped at Gades, 112 _sq._; + women excluded from sacrifices to, 113 _n._ 1; + identified with Sandan, 125, 143, 161; + burns himself, 176; + worshipped after death, 180; + the itch of, 209; + his dispute with Aesculapius, 209 _sq._; + the patron of hot springs, 209 _sqq._; + altar of, at Thermopylae, 210; + the effeminate, ii. 257, 258, 259; + priest of, dressed as a woman, 258; + vernal mysteries of, at Rome, 258; + sacrifices to, at Rome, 258 _n._ 5 + +---- and the lion, i. 184 + +---- and Omphale, i. 182, ii. 258 + +---- and Sardanapalus, i. 172 _sqq._ + +----, the Lydian, identical with the Cilician Hercules, i. 182, 184, 185 + +---- with the lion's scalp, Greek type of, i. 117 _sq._ + +Hereditary deities, i. 51 + +Herefordshire, soul-cakes in, ii. 79 + +Herero, a Bantu tribe of German South-West Africa, the worship of the dead + among the, ii. 185 _sqq._ + +Hermaphrodite son of Sky and Earth, i. 282 _n._ + +Hermaphrodites, dance of, i. 271 _n._ + +Hermes and Aegipan, i. 157 + +Hermesianax, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4 + +Hermus, river, i. 185, 186 + +Herod resorts to the springs of Callirrhoe, i. 214 + +Herodes Atticus, his benefaction at Thermopylae, i. 210 + +Herodotus on sanctuary of Aphrodite at Paphos, i. 34; + on religious prostitution, 58; + on wife of Bel, 71; + on Cyrus and Croesus, 174; + on the sacrifices of Croesus to Apollo, 180 _n._ 1; + on so-called monument of Sesostris, 185; + on the festival of Osiris at Sais, ii. 50; + on the mourning for Osiris, 86; + identifies Osiris with Dionysus, 113 _n._ 2; + on the similarity between the rites of Osiris and Dionysus, 127; + on human sacrifices offered by the wife of Xerxes, 221 + +Heroes worshipped in form of animals, i. 139 _n._ 1 + +Hertz, W., on religious prostitution, i. 57 _n._ 1, 59 _n._ 4 + +Hesse, custom at ploughing in, i. 239 + +_Hest_, the Egyptian name for Isis, ii. 50 _n._ 4, 115 _n._ 1 + +Hettingen in Baden, custom at sowing at, i. 239 + +Hezekiah, King, his reformation, i. 25, 107; + date of his reign, 25 _n._ 4 + +Hibeh papyri, ii. 35 _n._ 1, 51 _n._ 1 + +Hide-measured lands, legends as to, ii. 249 _sq._ + +Hieraconpolis in Egypt, ii. 22 _n._ 1; + representations of the Sed festival at, 151 + +Hierapolis, the Syrian, festival of the Pyre or Torch at, i. 146; + sacred doves at, 147; + great sanctuary of Astarte at, 269; + eunuch priests of Astarte at, 269 _sq._ + +----, in the valley of the Maeander, cave of Pluto at, i. 206; + hot springs at, 206 _sqq._ + +---- and _Hieropolis_, distinction between, i. 168 _n._ 2 + +---- -Bambyce, Atargatis the goddess of, i. 137, 162; + mysterious golden image at, 162 _n._ 2; + rules as to the pollution of death at, ii. 227 + +Hieroglyphics, Hittite, i. 124, 125 _n._ + +High-priest of Syrian goddess, i. 143 _n._ 1 + +---- Priestess, head of the State, ii. 203 + +Highlanders, Scottish, on the influence of the moon, ii. 132, 134, 140 + +_Hilaria_, Festival of Joy in the rites of Attis, i. 273 + +Hill, G. F., on image of Artemis at Perga, i. 35 _n._ 2; + on legend of coins of Tarsus, 126 _n._ 2; + on goddess 'Atheh, 162; + on coins of Mallus, 165 _n._ 6 + +Hill Tout, C., on respect shown by the Indians of British Columbia for the + animals and plants which they eat, ii. 44 + +Himalayan districts of North-Western India, gardens of Adonis in the, i. + 242 + +Himera, the battle of, i. 115; + hot springs of, 213 _n._ 1 + +Hindoo burial of infants, i. 94; + marriage custom, old, ii. 246; + worship of perpetual fire, i. 192 + +Hindoos of Northern India, their mode of drinking moonshine, ii. 144 + +Hinnom, the Valley of, i. 178; + sacrifice of first-born children in, ii. 219 + +Hippodamia, her incest with her father, i. 44 _n._ 1 + +Hirpini, valley of Amsanctus in the land of the, i. 204 + +Hissar District, Punjaub, i. 94 + +History not to be explained without the influence of great men, i. 311 + _n._ 2 + +Hittite, correct form of the national name Chatti or Hatti, i. 133 _n._ + +---- costume, i. 129 _sq._, 131 + +---- deity named Tark or Tarku, i. 147 + +---- god of thunder, i. 134, 163 + +---- gods at Tarsus and Sardes, 185 + +---- hieroglyphics, i. 124, 125 _n._ + +---- inscription on Mount Argaeus, i. 190 _n._ 1 + +---- priest or king, his costume, i. 131 _sq._, 133 _n._ + +---- sculptures at Carchemish, i. 38 _n._, 123; + at Ibreez, 121 _sqq._; + at Bor (Tyana), 122 _n._ 1; + at Euyuk, 123; + at Boghaz-Keui, 128 _sqq._; + at Babylon, 134; + at Zenjirli, 134; + at Giaour-Kalesi, 138 _n._; + at Kara-Bel, 138 _n._; + at Marash, 173; + in Lydia, 185 + +---- seals of treaty, i. 136, 142 _n._ 1, 145 _n._ 2 + +---- Sun-goddess, i. 133 _n._ + +---- treaty with Egypt, i. 135 _sq._ + +Hittites worship the bull, i. 123, 132; + their empire, language, etc., 124 _sq._; + traces of mother-kin among the, 141 _sq._ + +Hkamies of North Aracan, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 61 + +Ho tribe of Togoland, their kings buried secretly, ii. 104 + +Hofmayr, W., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. 164, 166 + +Hogarth, D. G., on relics of paganism at Paphos, i. 36; + on the Corycian cave, 155 _n._; + on Roman remains at Tarsus, 172 _n._ 1 + +Hogs sacrificed to goddess of volcano, i. 218 _sq._ + +Hollis, A. C., on serpent-worship of the Akikuyu, i. 67 _sq._; + on serpent-worship, 84 _sq._ + +"Holy men" in Syria, i. 77 _sq._ + +Hommel, Professor F., on the Hittite deity Tarku, i. 147 _n._ 3 + +Honey and milk offered to snakes, i. 85 + +Honey-cakes offered to serpent, i. 87 + +Hope of immortality, the Egyptian, centred in Osiris, ii. 15 _sq._, 90 + _sq._, 114, 159 + +Hopladamus, a giant, i. 157 _n._ 2 + +Hora and Quirinus, ii. 233 + +Horkos, the Greek god of oaths, ii. 231 _n._ 5 + +Horned cap worn by priest or god, i. 123; + of Hittite god, 134 + +---- god, Hittite and Greek, i. 123 + +---- lion, i. 127 + +Horns, as a religious emblem, i. 34; + worn by gods, 163 _sq._ + +---- of a cow worn by Isis, ii. 50 + +Horses sacrificed for the use of the dead, i. 293 _sq._; + Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, torn in pieces by, ii. 98 + +Horus, the four sons of, in the likeness of hawks, ii. 22; + decapitates his mother Isis, 88; + the eye of, 121 with _n._ 3 + +---- of Edfu identified with the sun, ii. 123 + +---- the elder, ii. 6 + +---- the younger, son of Isis and the dead Osiris, ii. 8, 15; + accused by Set of being a bastard, 17; + his combat with Set, 17; + his eye destroyed by Set and restored by Thoth, 17; + reigns over the Delta, 17 + +Hose, Ch., and McDougall, W., on head-hunting in Borneo, i. 295 _n._ 1 + +Hosea on religious prostitution, i. 58; + on the Baalim, 75 _n._; + on the prophet as a madman, 77 + +Hot springs, worship of, i. 206 _sqq._; + Hercules the patron of, 209 _sqq._; + resorted to by childless women in Syria, 213 _sqq._ + +Huligamma, Indian goddess, eunuchs dedicated to her, i. 271 _n._ + +Human representatives of Attis, i. 285 _sqq._ + +---- sacrifice, substitutes for, i. 146 _sq._, 285, 289, ii. 99, 221 + +---- sacrifices in worship of the moon, i. 73; + to the Tauric Artemis, 115; + to Diomede at Salamis, 145; + offered at earthquakes, 201; + offered at irrigation channels, ii. 38; + of the kings of Ashantee and Dahomey, 97 _n._ 7; + offered to Dionysus, 98 _sq._; + offered by the Mexicans for the maize, 107; + at the graves of the kings of Uganda, 168; + to dead kings, 173; + to dead chiefs, 191; + to prolong the life of kings, 220 _sq._, 223 _sqq._ + +Human victims thrown into volcanoes, i. 219 _sq._; + uses made of their skins, 293; + as representatives of the corn-spirit, ii. 97, 106 _sq._; + killed with hoes, spades, and rakes, 99 _n._ 2 + +Hunger the root of the worship of Adonis, i. 231 + +Hurons, their burial of infants, i. 91 + +Huzuls of the Carpathians, their theory of the waning moon, ii. 130; + their cure for water-brash, 149 _sq._ + +Hyacinth, son of Amyclas, killed by Apollo, i. 313; + his flower, 313 _sq._; + his tomb and festival, 314 _sq._; + an aboriginal deity, 315 _sq._; + his sister Polyboea, 316; + perhaps a deified king of Amyclae, i. 316 _sq._ + +Hyacinthia, the festival of Hyacinth, i. 314 _sq._ + +Hyacinthius, a Greek month, i. 315 _n._ + +Hybristica, an Argive festival, ii. 259 _n._ 3 + +Hygieia, the goddess, i. 88 _n._ 1 + +Hymns to Tammuz, i. 9; + to the sun-god, ii. 123 _sq._ + +Hyria in Cilicia, i. 41 + +Ibani of the Niger delta, their sacrifices to prolong the lives of kings + and others, ii. 222 + +Ibans or Sea Dyaks, their worship of serpents, i. 83. + _See_ Sea Dyaks + +Ibn Batuta, Arab traveller, on funeral of emperor of China, i. 293 _sq._ + +Ibreez in Southern Cappadocia, i. 119 _sqq._; + village of, 120 _sq._; + Hittite sculptures at, 121 _sqq._ + +----, the god of, i. 119 _sqq._; + his horned cap, 164 + +Idalium in Cyprus, i. 50; + bilingual inscription of, 49 _n._ 7; + Melcarth worshipped at, 117 + +Ideals of humanity, two different, the heroic and the saintly, i. 300; + great religious, a product of the male imagination, ii. 211 + +Ideler, L., on the date of the introduction of the fixed Alexandrian year, + ii. 28 _n._ 1; + on the Sothic period, 37 _n._ + +Ignorance of paternity, primitive, i. 106 _sq._ + +Il Mayek clan of the Njamus, their supposed power over irrigation water + and the crops, ii. 39 + +Ilium, animals sacrificed by hanging at, i. 292 + +Illumination, nocturnal, at festival of Osiris, ii. 50 _sq._; + of graves on All Souls' Day, 72 _sq._, 74 + +Ilpirra of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the + dead, i. 99 + +Images of Osiris made of vegetable mould, ii. 85, 87, 90 _sq._, 91 + +Immortality, Egyptian hope of, centred in Osiris, ii. 15 sq., 90 _sq._, + 114, 159 + +Impregnation of women by serpents, i. 80 _sqq._; + by the dead, 91; + by ghosts, 93; + by the flower of the banana, 93; + supposed, through eating food, 96, 102, 103, 104, 105; + by fire, ii. 235. + _See also_ Conception + +---- of Isis by the dead Osiris, ii. 8, 20 + +---- without sexual intercourse, belief in, i. 96 _sqq._ + +Incense burnt at the rites of Adonis, i. 228; + burnt in honour of the Queen of Heaven, 228; + collected by a flail, ii. 109 _n._ 1 + +Incest with a daughter in royal families, reported cases of, i. 43 _sq._ + +Inconsistency of common thought, i. 4 + +Increase of the moon the time for increasing money, ii. 148 _sq._ + +India, sacred women (dancing-girls) in, i. 61 _sqq._; + impregnation of women by stone serpents in, 81 _sq._; + burial of infants in, 93 _sq._; + gardens of Adonis in, 239 _sqq._; + eunuchs dedicated to a goddess in, 271 _n._; + drinking moonlight as a medicine in, ii. 142 + +Indian ceremonies analogous to the rites of Adonis, i. 227 + +---- prophet, his objections to agriculture, i. 88 _sq._ + +Indians of tropical America represent the rain-god weeping, ii. 33 _n._ 3; + of California, their annual festivals of the dead, 52 _sq._; + of Brazil attend to the moon more than to the sun, 138 _n._; + of San Juan Capistrano, their ceremony at the new moon, 142; + of the Ucayali River in Peru, their greeting to the new moon, 142; + of North America, effeminate sorcerers among the, 254, 255 _sq._ + +Infant sons of kings placed by goddesses on fire, i. 180 + +Infants buried so as to ensure their rebirth, i. 91, 93 _sqq._; + burial of, at Gezer, 108 _sq._ + +Influence of great men on the popular imagination, ii. 199; + of mother-kin on religion, 202 _sqq._ + +Ingarda tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, + i. 104 + +Ingleborough in Yorkshire, i. 152 + +Inheritance of property under mother-kin, rules of, ii. 203 _n._ 1 + +Injibandi tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of + children, i. 105 + +Insect, soul of dead in, i. 95 _sq._, ii. 162 + +Insensibility to pain as a sign of inspiration, i. 169 _sq._ + +Inspiration, insensibility to pain as sign of, i. 169 _sq._; + savage theory of, i. 299 + +----, prophetic, under the influence of music, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._, 74; + through the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. 171, 172, 192 _sq._ + +Inspired men and women in the Pelew Islands, ii. 207 _sq._ + +Intercalation introduced to correct the vague Egyptian year, ii. 26, 27, + 28; + in the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._ 3 + +_Inuus_, epithet applied to Faunus, ii. 234 _n._ 3 + +Invisible, charm to make an army, ii. 251 + +Iolaus, friend of Hercules, i. 111 + +Iranian year, the old, ii. 67 + +Iranians, the old, their annual festival of the dead (Fravashis), ii. 67 + _sq._ + +Ireland, sacred oaks in, i. 37 _n._ 2 + +Irle, J., on the religion of the Herero, ii. 186 _sq._ + +Iron not allowed to touch Atys, i. 286 _n._ 5 + +Irrigation in ancient Egypt, ii. 31 _sq._; + rites of, in Egypt, 33 _sqq._; + sacrifices offered in connexion with, 38 _sq._ + +Isa or Parvati, an Indian goddess, i. 241 + +Isaac, Abraham's attempted sacrifice of, ii. 219 _n._ 1 + +Isaiah, on the king's pyre in Tophet, i. 177, 178; + possible allusion to gardens of Adonis in, 236 _n._ 1; + on dew, 247 _n._ 1 + +Ishtar, great Babylonian goddess, i. 8, 20 _n._ 2; + in relation to Tammuz, 8 _sq._ + +---- (Astarte) and Mylitta, i. 36, 37 _n._ 1 + +Isis, sister and wife of Osiris, ii. 6 _sq._; + date of the festival of, 26 _n._ 2, 33; + as a cow or a woman with the head of a cow, i. 50, ii. 50, 85, 88 _n._ + 1, 91; + invoked by Egyptian reapers, i. 232, ii. 45, 117; + in the form of a hawk, 8, 20; + in the papyrus swamps, 8; + in the form of a swallow, 9; + at Byblus, 9 _sq._; + at the well, 9, 111 _n._ 6; + her search for the body of Osiris, 10, 50, 85; + recovers and buries the body of Osiris, 10 _sq._; + mourns Osiris, 12; + restores Osiris to life, 13; + her tears supposed to swell the Nile, 33; + her priest wears a jackal's mask, 85 _n._ 3; + decapitated by her son Horus, 88 _n._ 1; + her temple at Philae, 89, 111; + her many names, 115; + sister and wife of Osiris, 116; + a corn-goddess, 116 _sq._; + her discovery of wheat and barley, 116; + identified with Ceres, 117; + identified with Demeter, 117; + as the ideal wife and mother, 117 _sq._; + refinement and spiritualization of, 117 _sq._; + popularity of her worship in the Roman empire, 118; + her resemblance to the Virgin Mary, 118 _sq._; + Sirius her star, 34 _sq._, 152 + +Isis and the king's son at Byblus, i. 180; + and the scorpions, ii. 8 + +Iswara or Mahadeva, an Indian god, i. 241, 242 + +Italian myths of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god, ii. 235 + +Italy, hot springs in, i. 213; + divination at Midsummer in, 254 + +Itch of Hercules, i. 209 + +Itongo, an ancestral spirit (Zulu term, singular of Amatongo), ii. 184 + _n._ 2, 185 + +Ivy, sacred to Attis, i. 278; + sacred to Osiris, ii. 112 + +Jablonski, P. E., on Osiris as a sun-god, ii. 120 + +Jackal-god Up-uat, ii. 154 + +Jackal's mask worn by priest of Isis, 11, 85 _n._ 3 + +Jamblichus on insensibility to pain as sign of inspiration, i. 169; + on the purifying virtue of fire, 181 + +January, the sixth of, reckoned in the East the Nativity of Christ, i. 304 + +Janus in Roman mythology, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +---- -like deity on coins, i. 165 + +Japan, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 65 + +Jars, children buried in, i. 109 _n._ 1 + +Jason and Medea, i. 181 _n._ 1 + +Jastrow, Professor M., on the festival of Tammuz, i. 10 _n._ 1; + on the character of Tammuz, 230 _n._ + +Java, conduct of natives in an earthquake, i. 202 _n._ 1; + the Valley of Poison in, 203 _sq._; + worship of volcanoes in, 220 _sq._ + +Jawbone, the ghost of the dead thought to adhere to the, ii. 167 _sq._ + +---- and navel-string of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, ii. 197 + +Jawbones, lower, of dead kings of Uganda preserved and worshipped, ii. 167 + _sq._, 169 _sq._, 171 _sq._; + the ghosts of the kings supposed to attach to their jawbones, 169 + +Jayi or Jawara, festival in Upper India, i. 242 + +_Jebel Hissar_, Olba, i. 151 + +Jehovah in relation to thunder, i. 22 _n._ 3; + in relation to rain, 23 _n._ 1 + +Jensen, P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 137 _n._ 4; + on Hittite inscription, 145 _n._ 2; + on the Syrian god Hadad, 163 _n._ 3 + +Jeremiah, on the prophet as a madman, i. 77; + on birth from stocks and stones, 107 + +Jericho, death of Herod at, i. 214 + +Jerome, on the date of the month Tammuz, i. 10 _n._ 1; + on the worship of Adonis at Bethlehem, 257 + +Jerusalem, mourning for Tammuz at, i. 11, 17, 20; + the Canaanite kings of, 17; + the returned captives at, 23; + the Destroying Angel over, 24; + besieged by Sennacherib, 25; + the religious orchestra at, 52; + "great burnings" for the kings at, 177 _sq._; + the king's pyre at, 177 _sq._; + Church of the Holy Sepulchre at, Good Friday ceremonies in the, 255 + _n._; + the sacrifice of first-born children at, ii. 219 + +Jewish priests, their rule as to the pollution of death, ii. 230 + +Jews of Egypt, costume of bride and bridegroom among the, ii. 260 + +Joannes Lydus, on Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 266 _n._ 2 + +John Barleycorn, i. 230 _sq._ + +Johns, Dr. C. H. W., on Babylonian votaries, i. 71 _n._ 3 and 5 + +Johnston, Sir H. H., on eunuch priests on the Congo, i. 271 _n._ + +Josephus, on worship of kings of Damascus, i. 15; + on the Tyropoeon, 178 + +Josiah, reforms of king, i. 17 _n._ 5, 18 _n._ 3, 25, 107 + +Jualamukhi in the Himalayas, perpetual fires, i. 192 + +Judah, laments for dead kings of, i. 20 + +Judean maid impregnated by serpent, i. 81 + +Julian, the emperor, his entrance into Antioch, i. 227, 258; + on the Mother of the Gods, 299 _n._ 3; + restores the standard cubit to the Serapeum, ii. 217 _n._ 1 + +Julian calendar introduced by Caesar, ii. 37, 93 _n._ 1 + +---- year, ii. 28 + +Juno, the Flaminica Dialis sacred to, ii. 230 _n._ 2; + the wife of Jupiter, 231 + +Junod, Henri A., on the worship of the dead among the Thonga, ii. 180 + _sq._ + +Juok, the supreme god and creator of the Shilluks, ii. 165 + +Jupiter, the husband of Juno, ii. 231; + the father of Fortuna Primigenia, 234 + +Jupiter and Juturna, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +---- Dolichenus, i. 136 + +Justice and Injustice in Aristophanes, i. 209 + +Justin Martyr on the resemblances of paganism to Christianity, i. 302 _n._ + 4 + +Juturna in Roman mythology, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +Kabyles, marriage custom of the, to ensure the birth of a boy, ii. 262 + +Kadesh, a Semitic goddess, i. 137 _n._ 2 + +Kai of German New Guinea, their belief in conception without sexual + intercourse, i. 96 _sq._ + +Kaikolans, a Tamil caste, i. 62 + +Kaitish of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the + dead, i. 99 + +Kalat el Hosn, in Syria, i. 78 + +_Kalids_, _kaliths_, deities in the Pelew Islands, ii. 204 _n._ 4, 207 + +Kalunga, the supreme god of the Ovambo, ii. 188 + +Kangra District, Punjaub, i. 94 + +Kantavu, a Fijian island, i. 201 + +Kanytelideis, in Cilicia, i. 158 + +Kara-Bel, in Lydia, Hittite sculpture at, i. 138 _n._, 185 + +Kariera tribe of West Australia, their beliefs as to the birth of + children, i. 105 + +Karma-tree, ceremony of the Mundas over a, i. 240 + +Karo-Bataks, of Sumatra, their custom as to the first sheaf of rice at + harvest, ii. 239 + +Karok Indians of California, their lamentations at hewing sacred wood, ii. + 47 _sq._ + +Karunga, the supreme god of the Herero, ii. 186, 187 _n._ 1 + +_Katikiro_, Baganda term for prime minister, ii. 168 + +Kayans, their reasons for taking human heads, i. 294 _sq._ + +Keadrol, a Toda clan, ii. 228 + +Keb (Geb or Seb), Egyptian earth-god, father of Osiris, i. 6, 283 _n._ 3 + +_Kedeshim_, sacred men, i. 38 _n._, 59, 72, 76, 107; + at Jerusalem, 17 _sq._; + in relation to prophets, 76 + +_Kedeshoth_, sacred women, i. 59, 72, 107 + +Kemosh, god of Moab, i. 15 + +Kennett, Professor R. H., on David and Goliath, i. 19 _n._ 2; + on Elisha in the wilderness, 53 _n._ 1; + on _kedeshim_, 73 _n._ 1; + on the sacrifice of first-born children at Jerusalem, ii. 219 + +Kent's Hole, near Torquay, fossil bones in, i. 153 + +Keysser, Ch., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 96 + _sq._ + +Khalij, old canal at Cairo, ii. 38 + +Khangars of the Central Provinces, India, bridegroom and his father + dressed as women at a marriage among the, ii. 261 + +Khasi tribes governed by kings, not queens, ii. 210 + +Khasis of Assam, their system of mother-kin, i. 46, ii. 202 _sq._; + goddesses predominate over gods in their religion, 203 _sq._; + rules as to the succession to the kingship among the, 210 _n._ 1 + +Khent, early king of Egypt, ii. 154; + his reign, 19 _sq._; + his tomb at Abydos, 19 _sqq._; + his tomb identified with that of Osiris, 20, 197 + +Khenti-Amenti, title of Osiris, ii. 87, 198 _n._ 2 + +Khoiak, festival of Osiris in the month of, ii. 86 _sqq._, 108 _sq._ + +Khyrim State, in Assam, i. 46; + governed by a High Priestess, ii. 203 + +Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda, a dead man, ii. 197; + his personal relics preserved at Cambridge, 197 + +Kidd, Dudley, on the worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantus of + South Africa, ii. 177 _sqq._ + +King, J. E., on infant burial, i. 91 _n._ 3 + +King, a masker at Carnival called the, ii. 99 + +---- of Tyre, his walk on stones of fire, i. 114 _sq._; + of Uganda, his navel-string preserved and inspected every new moon, ii. + 147 _sq._ + +Kings as priests, i. 42; + as lovers of a goddess, 49 _sq._; + held responsible for the weather and the crops, 183; + marry their sisters, 316; + slaughter human victims with their own hands, ii. 97 _n._ 7; + torn in pieces, traditions of, 97 _sq._; + human sacrifices to prolong the life of, 220 _sq._, 223 _sqq._ + +---- and magicians dismembered and their bodies buried in different parts of + the country to fertilize it, ii. 101 _sq._ + +----, dead, reincarnate in lions, i. 83 _n._ 1; + worshipped in Africa, 160 _sqq._; + sacrifices offered to, 162, 166 _sq._; + incarnate in animals, 162, 163 _sq._, 173; + consulted as oracles, 167, 171, 172, 195; + human sacrifices to, 173; + worshipped by the Barotse, 194 _sq._ + +----, divinity of Semitic, i. 15 _sqq._; + divinity of Lydian, 182 _sqq._ + +---- of Egypt worshipped as gods, i. 52; + buried at Abydos, ii. 19; + perhaps formerly slain in the character of Osiris, 97 _sq._, 102; + as Osiris, 151 _sqq._; + renew their life by identifying themselves with the dead and risen + Osiris, 153 _sq._; + born again at the Sed festival, 153, 156 _sq._; + perhaps formerly put to death to prevent their bodily and mental decay, + 154 _sq._, 156 + +Kings, Hebrew, traces of divinity ascribed to, i. 20 _sqq._ + +----, Shilluk, put to death before their strength fails, ii. 163 + +---- of Sweden answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. 220; + their sons sacrificed, 51 + +Kingship at Rome a plebeian institution, i. 45; + under mother-kin, rules as to succession to the, ii. 210 _n._ 1; + in Africa under mother-kin inherited by men, not women, 211 + +Kingsley, Miss Mary H., on secret burial of chief's head, ii. 104 + +_Kinnor_, a lyre, i. 52 + +Kirauea, volcano in Hawaii, i. 216 _sq._; + divinities of, 217; + offerings to, 217 _sqq._ + +Kiriwina, one of the Trobriand Islands, annual festival of the dead in, i. + 56; + snakes as reincarnations of the dead in, 84; + presentation of children to the full moon in, ii. 144 + +Kiwai, an island off New Guinea, magic for the growth of sago in, ii. 101 + +Kiziba, a district of Central Africa, dead kings worshipped in, ii. 173 + _sq._; + totemism in, 173 + +Klamath Indians of Oregon, their theory of the waning moon, ii. 130 + +Kocchs of North-Eastern India, succession to husband's property among the, + ii. 215 _n._ 2 + +Kois of Southern India, infant burial among the, i. 95 + +Komatis of Mysore, their worship of serpents, i. 81 _sq._ + +Koniags of Alaska, their magical uses of the bodies of the dead, ii. 106 + +Konkaus of California, their dance of the dead, ii. 53 + +_Kosio_, a dedicated person, i. 65, 66, 68 + +Kosti, in Thrace, carnival custom at, ii. 99 _sq._ + +Kotas, a tribe of Southern India, their priests not allowed to be + widowers, ii. 230 + +Kretschmer, Professor P., on native population of Cyprus, i. 145 _n._ 3; + on Cybele and Attis, 287 _n._ 2 + +Krishna, Hindoo god, ii. 254 + +Kuar, an Indian month, ii. 144 + +Kubary, J., on the system of mother-kin among the Pelew Islanders, ii. 204 + _sqq._ + +Kuinda, Cilician fortress, i. 144 _n._ 1 + +Kuki-Lushai, men dressed as women to deceive dangerous ghosts or spirits + among the, ii. 263 + +Kuklia, Old Paphos, i. 33, 36 + +Kundi in Cilicia, i. 144 + +Kupalo, figure of, passed across fire at Midsummer, i. 250 _sq._; + a deity of vegetation, 253 + +Kupole's festival at Midsummer in Prussia, i. 253 + +Labraunda in Caria, i. 182 _n._ 4 + +_Labrys_, Lydian word for axe, i. 182 + +Laconia, subject to earthquakes, i. 203 _n._ 2 + +Lactantius, on the rites of Osiris, ii. 85 + +Lagash in Babylonia, i. 35 _n._ 5 + +Lago di Naftia in Sicily, i. 221 _n._ 4 + +Lagrange, Father M. J., on the mourning for Adonis as a harvest rite, i. + 231 + +Laguna, Pueblo village of New Mexico, ii. 54 _n._ 2 + +Lakhubai, an Indian goddess, i. 243 + +Lakor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198 + +Lamas River in Cilicia, i. 149, 150 + +Lamentations of Egyptian reapers, i. 232, ii. 45; + of the savage for the animals and plants which he eats, 43 _sq._; + of Cherokee Indians "after the first working of the crop," 47; + of the Karok Indians at cutting sacred wood, 47 _sq._ + +Laments for Tammuz, i. 9 _sq._; + for dead kings of Judah, 20; + for Osiris, ii. 12 + +Lampblack used to avert the evil eye, ii. 261 + +Lamps lighted to show the dead the way, ii. 51 _sq._; + for the use of ghosts at the feast of All Souls, 72, 73 + +Lancashire, All Souls' Day in, ii. 79 + +Landen, the battle of, i. 234 + +Lane, E. W., on the rise of the Nile, ii. 31 _n._ 1 + +_Lantana salvifolia_, ii. 47 + +Lanterns, the feast of, in Japan, ii. 65 + +Lanzone, R. V., on the rites of Osiris, ii. 87 _n._ 5 + +Larnax Lapethus in Cyprus, Melcarth worshipped at, i. 117 + +Larrekiya, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without + cohabitation, i. 103 + +Lateran Museum, statue of Attis in the, i. 279 + +Latham, R. G., on succession to husband's property among the Kocchs, ii. + 215 _n._ 2 + +Laurel, gold wreath of, worn by priest of Hercules, i. 143; + in Greek purificatory rites, ii. 240 _sq._ + +---- -bearing, a festival at Thebes, in Boeotia, ii. 241 + +Leake, W. M., on flowers in Asia Minor, i. 187 _n._ 6 + +Leaping over Midsummer fires to make hemp or flax grow tall, i. 251 + +Leaves and flowers as talismans, ii. 242 _sq._ + +Lebanon, the forests of Mount, i. 14; + Aphrodite of the, 30; + Baal of the, 32; + the charm of the, 235 + +Lech, a tributary of the Danube, ii. 70 + +Lechrain, feast of All Souls in, ii. 70 _sq._ + +Lecky, W. E. H., on the influence of great men on the popular imagination, + ii. 199 + +Legend of the foundation of Carthage and similar tales, ii. 249 _sq._ + +Lehmann-Haupt, C. F., on the historical Semiramis, i. 177 _n._ 1 + +Lent, the Indian and Fijian, i. 90 + +Leo the Great, as to the celebration of Christmas, i. 305 + +Leonard, Major A. G., on sacrifices to prolong the lives of kings and + others, ii. 222 + +Leprosy, king of Israel expected to heal, i. 23 _sq._ + +Lepsius, R., his identification of Osiris with the sun, ii. 121 _sq._ + +Leti, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198 + +Letopolis, neck of Osiris at, ii. 11 + +Letts, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 74 _sq._ + +Lewis the Pious, institutes the feast of All Saints, ii. 83 + +Leza, supreme being recognized by the Bantu tribes of Northern Rhodesia, + ii. 174 + +Licinius Imbrex, on Mars and Nerio, ii. 232 + +Lightning thought by Caffres to be caused by the ghost of a powerful + chief, ii. 177 with _n._ 1; + no lamentations allowed for persons killed by, 177 _n._ 1; + +"Lights of the dead" to enable the ghosts to enter houses, ii. 65 + +----, three hundred and sixty-five, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 88 + +Lion, deity standing on a, i. 123 _n._ 2, 127; + the emblem of the Mother Goddess, 164; + as emblem of Hercules and the Heraclids, 182, 184; + carried round acropolis of Sardes, 184, ii. 249 + +---- -god at Boghaz-Keui, the mystery of the, i. 139 _sq._; + of Lydia, 184 + +---- -slaying god, statue of, i. 117 + +Lions, dead kings reincarnate in, i. 83 _n._ 1, ii. 163; + carved, at gate, i. 128; + as emblems of the great Asiatic Mother-goddess, 137; + deities seated on, 162; + spirits of dead chiefs reincarnated in, ii. 193 + +Living parents, children of, in ritual, ii. 236 _sqq._ + +Loeboes, a tribe of Sumatra, exchange of costume between boys and girls + among the, ii. 264 + +Loryma in Caria, Adonis worshipped at, i. 227 _n._ + +Lots, Greek custom as to the drawing of, ii. 248 + +Lovers, term applied to the Baalim, i. 75 _n._ + +Low, Hugh, on Dyak treatment of heads of slain enemies, i. 295 + +Lua and Saturn, ii. 233 + +Luangwa, district of Northern Rhodesia, prayers to dead ancestors in, ii. + 175 _sq._ + +Lucian, on religious prostitution, i. 58; + on image of goddess at Hierapolis-Bambyce, 137 _n._ 2; + on the death of Peregrinus, 181; + on dispute between Hercules and Aesculapius, 209 _sq._; + on the ascension of Adonis, 225 _n._ 3 + +Lugaba, the supreme god of the Bahima, ii. 190 + +Lunar sympathy, the doctrine of, ii. 140 _sqq._ + +Lung-fish clan among the Baganda, ii. 224 + +Luritcha of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the + dead, i. 99 + +Lushais, men dressed as women, women dressed as men, among the, ii. 255 + _n._ 1 + +Luxor, temples at, ii. 124 + +Lyall, Sir Charles J., on the system of mother-kin among the Khasis, ii. + 202 _sq._ + +Lycaonian plain, i. 123 + +Lycia, flowers in, i. 187 _n._ 6; + Mount Chimaera in, 221; + mother-kin in, ii. 212 _sq._ + +Lycian language, question of its affinity, ii. 213 _n._ 1 + +---- men dressed as women in mourning, ii. 264 + +Lycurgus, king of the Edonians, rent in pieces by horses, ii. 98, 99 + +Lycus, valley of the, i. 207 + +Lydia, prostitution of girls before marriage in, i. 38, 58; + the lion-god of, 184; + the Burnt Land of, 193 _sq._; + traces of mother-kin in, ii. 259 + +Lydian kings, their divinity, i. 182 _sqq._; + held responsible for the weather and the crops, 183 + +Lyell, Sir Charles, on hot springs, i. 213 _n._ 4; + on volcanic phenomena in Syria and Palestine, 222 _n._ 1 + +Lyre as instrument of religious music, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._; + the instrument of Apollo, 288 + +Lysimachus scatters the bones of the kings of Epirus, ii. 104 + +Ma, goddess of Comana in Pontus, i. 39, 265 _n._ 1 + +Macalister, Professor R. A. Stewart, on infant burial at Gezer, i. 109 + _n._ 1 + +Macdonald, Rev. James, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. + 176 + +Mace of Narmer, representation of the Sed festival on the, ii. 154 + +McLennan, J. F., on brother and sister marriages, i. 44 _n._ 2, ii. 216 + _n._ 1 + +Macrobius, on the mourning Aphrodite, i. 30; + on the Egyptian year, ii. 28 _n._ 3; + on Osiris as a sun-god, 121; + his solar theory of the gods, 121, 128; + on the influence of the moon, 132 + +Madagascar, vicarious sacrifice for a king in, ii. 221; + men dressed as women in, 254 + +Madonna and Isis, ii. 119 + +Maeander, the valley of the, subject to earthquakes, i. 194; + sanctuaries of Pluto in the valley of the, 205, 206 + +Mafuie, the Samoan god of earthquakes, i. 200 + +Magarsus in Cilicia, i. 169 _n._ 3 + +Magic and religion, combination of, i. 4 + +Magical ceremonies for the regulation of the seasons, i. 3 _sqq._ + +---- dramas for the regulation of the seasons, i. 4 _sq._ + +---- uses made of the bodies of the dead, ii. 100 _sqq._ + +Magnesia, on the Maeander, worship of Zeus at, ii. 238 + +Mahadeo and Parvati, Indian deities, i. 242, 251 + +Mahadeva, Indian god, i. 241 + +Mahdi, an ancient, i. 74 + +Mahratta, dancing-girls in, i. 62 + +Maia or Majestas, the wife of Vulcan, ii. 232 _sq._ + +Maiau, hero in form of crocodile, i. 139 _n._ 1 + +Maiden, the (Persephone), the descent of, ii. 41 + +Malagasy use of children of living parents in ritual, ii. 247 + +Malay Peninsula, the Mentras or Mantras of the, ii. 140 + +Mallus in Cilicia, deities on coins of, i. 165 _sq._ + +Malta, bilingual inscription of, i. 16; + Phoenician temples of, 35 + +Mamre, sacred oak or terebinth at, i. 37 _n._ 2 + +Mandingoes of Senegambia, their attention to the phases of the moon, ii. + 141 + +Maneros, chant of Egyptian reapers, ii. 45, 46 + +Manes, first king of Lydia, i. 186 _n._ 5 + +Manetho, on the Egyptian burnt-sacrifice of red-haired men, ii. 97; + on Isis as the discoverer of corn, 116; + quoted by Diodorus Siculus, 120 + +Manichaeans, their theory of earthquakes, i. 197 + +Manichaeus, the heretic, his death, i. 294 _n._ 3 + +Manipur, the Tangkul Nagas of, ii. 57 _sq._ + +Mantinea, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 _n._ 2 + +Maori priest catches the soul of a tree, ii. 111 _n._ 1 + +Marash, Hittite monuments at, i. 173 + +March, festival of Attis in, i. 267 + +----, the twenty-fifth of, tradition that Christ was crucified on, i. 306 + +Marduk, human wives of, at Babylon, i. 71 + +Mariette-Pacha, A., on the burial of Osiris, ii. 89 _n._ + +Marigolds used to adorn tombstones on All Souls' Day, ii. 71 + +Marks, bodily, of prophets, i. 74 + +Marriage as an infringement of old communal rights, i. 40; + of the Sun and Earth, 47 _sq._; + of women to serpent-god, 66 _sqq._; + of Adonis and Aphrodite celebrated at Alexandria, 224; + of Sky and Earth, 282 with _n._ 2; + of the Roman gods, ii. 230 _sqq._; + exchange of dress between men and women at, 260 _sqq._ + +----, sacred, of priest and priestess as representatives of deities, i. 46 + _sqq._; + represented in the rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 140; + in Cos, ii. 259 _n._ 4 + +---- customs of the Aryan family, ii. 235; + use of children of living parents in, 245 _sqq._; + to ensure the birth of boys, 262 + +Marriages of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt, ii. 214 _sqq._; + their intention to keep the property in the family, 215 _sq._ + +Mars, the father of Romulus and Remus, ii. 235 + +---- and Bellona, ii. 231 + +---- and Nerio, ii. 232 + +Marsala in Sicily, Midsummer customs at, i. 247 + +Marseilles, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 _sq._ + +Marshall, Mr. A. S. F., on the felling of timber in Mexico, ii. 136 _n._ 3 + +Marsyas, his musical contest with Apollo and his death, i. 288 _sq._; + perhaps a double of Attis, 289 + +---- and Apollo, i. 55 + +----, the river, i. 289 + +Martin, M., on the cutting of peat in the Hebrides, ii. 138 + +Masai, of East Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the + dead, i. 82, 84; + their ceremonies at the new moon, ii. 142 _sq._ + +---- boys wear female costume at circumcision, ii. 263 + +---- rule as to the choice of a chief, ii. 248 + +Masnes, a giant, i. 186 + +_Masoka_, the spirits of the dead, ii. 188 _sq._ + +Maspero, Sir Gaston, edits the Pyramid Texts, ii. 4 _n._ 1; + on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2 + +Masquerade at the Carnival in Thrace, ii. 99 _sq._ + +Masquerades at festivals of the dead, ii. 53 + +Massacres for sick kings of Uganda, ii. 226 + +Massaya, volcano in Nicaragua, human victims sacrificed to, i. 219 + +_Massebah_ (plural _masseboth_), sacred stone or pillar, i. 107, 108 + +Maternal uncle in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 _n._ 1 + +Maternity and paternity of the Roman deities, ii. 233 _sqq._ + +"Matriarchate," i. 46 + +Maui, Fijian god of earthquakes, i. 202 _n._ + +Maundrell, H., on the discoloration of the river Adonis, i. 225 _n._ 4 + +Maury, A., on the Easter ceremonies compared with those of Adonis, i. 257 + _n._ 1 + +Maximus Tyrius, on conical image at Paphos, i. 35 _n._ + +May, modern Greek feast of All Souls in May, ii. 78 _n._ 1 + +---- Day, ceremony at Meiron in Galilee on the eve of, i. 178 + +---- -pole or Midsummer-tree in Sweden and Bohemia, i. 250 + +Medea and her magic cauldron, i. 180 _sq._ + +Medicine-men of Zulus, i. 74 _n._ 4; + of Wiimbaio, 75 _n._ 4 + +Mefitis, Italian goddess of mephitic vapours, i. 204, 205 + +Megalopolis, battle of gods and giants in plain of, i. 157 + +Megassares, king of Hyria, i. 41 + +Meiners, C., on purification by blood, i. 299 _n._ 2 + +Meiron, in Galilee, burnings for dead Jewish Rabbis at, i. 178 _sq._ + +Mela's description of the Corycian cave, i. 155 _n._, 156 + +Melanesia, belief in conception without sexual intercourse in, i. 97 _sq._ + +Melanesian magicians buried secretly, ii. 105 + +Melanesians, mother-kin among the, ii. 211; + of New Britain, their use of flowers and leaves as talismans, 242 _sq._ + +Melcarth, the god of Tyre, identified with Hercules, i. 16, 111; + worshipped at Amathus in Cyprus, 32, 117; + the burning of, 110 _sqq._; + worshipped at Gades, 112 _sq._, ii. 258 _n._ 5 + +Melchizedek, king of Salem, i. 17 + +_Melech_ and Moloch, ii. 219 _sq._ + +Meles, king of Lydia, banished because of a dearth, i. 183; + causes lion to be carried round acropolis, 184 + +Melicertes, a form of Melcarth, i. 113 + +Melite in Phthia, i. 291 + +Melito on the father of Adonis, i. 13 _n._ 2 + +Memnonium at Thebes, ii. 35 _n._ + +Memorial stones, ii. 203 + +Memphis, head of Osiris at, ii. 11; + oath of the kings of Egypt at, 24; + festival of Osiris in the month of Khoiak at, 108; + Apis the sacred bull of, 119 _n._; + the sanctuary of Serapis at, 119 _n._ + +Men, make gods, ii. 211; + dressed as women at marriage, 262 _sqq._; + dressed as women to deceive dangerous spirits, 262 _sq._; + dressed as women at circumcision, 263 + +---- and women inspired by the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. 171, + 172, 192 _sq._ + +---- "of God," prophets, i. 76 + +Men Tyrannus, Phrygian moon-god, i. 284; + custom as to pollution of death at his shrine, ii. 227 + +Mentras or Mantras of the Malay Peninsula, their tradition as to primitive + man, ii. 140 + +Mephitic vapours, worship of, i. 203 _sqq._ + +Mercurial temperament of merchants and sailors, ii. 218 + +Mesha, king of Moab, i. 15; + sacrifices his first-born, 110 + +Messiah, "the Anointed One," i. 21 + +Meteor as signal for festival, i. 259 + +Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, i. 41 + +_Methide_ plant growing over grave of Osiris, ii. 111 + +Mexican calendar, its mode of intercalation, ii. 28 _n._ 3 + +Mexicans, their human sacrifices for the maize, ii. 107 + +Mexico, rule as to the felling of timber in, ii. 136 + +Meyer, Professor Eduard, on prophecy in Canaan, i. 75 _n._ 5; + on the Hittite language, 125 _n._; + on costume of Hittite priest or king, 133 _n._, 141 _n._ 1; + on the rock-hewn sculptures of Boghaz-Keui, 133 _n._; + on Anubis at Abydos, ii. 18 _n._ 3; + on the hawk as an Egyptian emblem, 22 _n._ 1; + on the date of the introduction of the Egyptian calendar, 36 _n._ 2; + on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2; + on the relation of Byblus to Egypt, 127 _n._ 1; + on the Lycian language, 213 _n._ 1 + +Michael Angelo, the Pieta of, i. 257 + +Michaelmas, 29th September, ii. 74 + +Midas, the tomb of, i. 286 + +---- and Gordias, names of Phrygian kings, i. 286 + +Midsummer, old heathen festival of, in Europe and the East, i. 249 _sq._; + divination at, 252 _sq._ + +---- bathing, pagan origin of the custom, i. 249 + +---- Bride and Bridegroom in Sweden, i. 251 + +---- Day or Eve, custom of bathing on, i. 246 _sqq._ + +---- fires and couples in relation to vegetation, i. 250 _sq._; + leaping over the fires to make flax or hemp grow tall, 251 + +Milcom, the god of Ammon, i. 19 + +Milk, serpents fed with, i. 84 _sqq._, 87; + offered at graves, 87 + +Mill, women mourning for Tammuz eat nothing ground in a mill, i. 230 + +Milne, Mrs. Leslie, on the Shans, ii. 136 + +Milton on the laments for Tammuz, i. 226 _n._ + +Minoan age of Greece, i. 34 + +Minucius Felix on the rites of Osiris, ii. 85 _n._ 3 + +Miraculous births of gods and heroes, i. 107 + +"Mistress of Turquoise," goddess at Sinai, i. 35 + +Mitani, ancient people of Northern Mesopotamia, i. 135 _n._ + +Mithra, Persian deity, popularity of his worship in the Roman Empire, i. + 301 _sq._; + identified with the Unconquered Sun, 304 + +Mithraic religion a rival to Christianity, i. 302; + festival of Christmas borrowed from it, 302 _sqq._ + +Miztecs of Mexico, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 54 _sq._ + +Mnevis, sacred Egyptian bull, ii. 11 + +Moa, theory of earthquakes in, i. 198 + +Moab, Mesha, king of, i. 15; + the wilderness of, 52 _sq._; + the springs of Callirrhoe in, 214 _sqq._ + +----, Arabs of, their custom at harvest, ii. 48, 96; + their remedies for ailments, 242 + +Moabite stone, the inscription on the, i. 15 _n._ 3, 20 _n._ 2, 163 _n._ 3 + +Moabites burn the bones of the kings of Edom, ii. 104 + +Models in cardboard offered to the dead instead of the things themselves, + ii. 63 _sq._ + +Mohammedan peoples of North Africa, their custom of bathing at Midsummer, + i. 249 + +---- saints as givers of children, i. 78 _n._ 2 + +Mohammedanism, ii. 160 + +Mohammedans of Oude, their mode of drinking moonshine, ii. 144 + +Moire, sister of Tylon, i. 186 + +Moloch, meaning of the name, i. 15; + sacrifices of first-born children to, 178; + the king, ii. 219 _sqq._ + +---- and _Melech_, ii. 219 _sq._ + +Mommsen, Th., on the date of the festival of Osiris at Rome, ii. 95 _n._ 1 + +Mongols, funeral customs of the, i. 293 + +Monmouthshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. 79 + +Monomotapa, a Caffre king, his way of prolonging his life, ii. 222 _sq._ + +Montanists, their view as to the date of Creation, i. 307 _n._ 2 + +Months, the Egyptian, table of, ii. 37 _n._ + +Moon, human victims sacrificed to the, i. 73; + albinoes thought to be the offspring of the, 91; + popularly regarded as the cause of growth and decay, ii. 132, 138; + practical rules based on a theory of the influence of the, 132 _sqq._, + 140 _sqq._; + popularly regarded as the source of moisture, 137 _sq._; + worshipped by the agricultural Indians of tropical America, 138 _sq._; + viewed as the husband of the sun, 139 _n._; + Athenian superstition as to an eclipse of the, 141; + children presented to the, 144 _sqq._; + thought to have a harmful influence on children, 148 + +----, the new, ceremonies at, ii. 141 _sqq._; + dances at, 142; + custom of showing money to, or turning it in the pocket, 148 _sq._ + +----, the waning, theories to explain, ii. 130; + thought to be broken or eaten up, 130 + +---- Being of the Omahas, ii. 256 + +----, the infant god, ii. 131, 153 + +---- -god conceived as masculine, i. 73; + inspiration by the, 73; + in ancient Babylonia, ii. 138 _sq._ + +Moonshine drunk as a medicine in India, ii. 144; + thought to be beneficial to children, ii. 144 + +Moooi, Tongan god who causes earthquakes, i. 201 + +Moore, G. F., on the burnt sacrifice of children, ii. 219 _n._ 1 + +Moravia, the feast of All Souls in, ii. 73 + +Moret, Alexandre, on Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1; + on the Sed festival, 155 _sq._ + +Mori, a district of Central Celebes, belief of the natives as to a spirit + in the moon, ii. 139 _n._ + +Moriah, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Zion, ii. 219 _n._ 1 + +Morning Star, appearance of, perhaps the signal for the festival of + Adonis, i. 258 _sq._ + +Morocco, custom of prostitution in an Arab tribe in, i. 39 _n._ 3 + +Morrison, Rev. C. W., on belief of Australian aborigines as to childbirth, + i. 103 _n._ 3 + +Mostene in Lydia, double-headed axe at, i. 183 _n._ + +Mota, belief as to conception in women in, i. 97 _sq._ + +"Mother" and "Father" as epithets applied to Roman goddesses and gods, ii. + 233 _sqq._ + +----, dead, worshipped, ii. 175, 185 + +---- Earth, festival in her honour in Bengal, i. 90; + fertilized by Father Sky, myth of, 282 + +---- Goddess of Western Asia, sacred prostitution in the worship of the, i. + 36; + lions as her emblems, 137, 164; + her eunuch priests, 206; + of Phrygia conceived as a Virgin Mother, 281 + +---- -kin, succession in royal houses with, i. 44; + trace of, at Rome and Nemi, 45; + among the Khasis of Assam, 46, ii. 202 _sqq._; + among the Hittites, traces of, i. 141 _sq._; + and Mother Goddesses, ii. 201 _sqq._, 212 _sqq._; + and father-kin, 202, 261 _n._ 3; + favours the superiority of goddesses over gods in religion, 202 _sqq._, + 211 _sq._; + its influence on religion, 202 _sqq._; + among the Pelew Islanders, 204 _sqq._; + does not imply that government is in the hands of women, 208 _sqq._; + among the Melanesians, 211; + in Africa, 211; + in Lycia, 212 _sq._; + in ancient Egypt, 213 _sqq._; + traces of, in Lydia and Cos, 259; + favours the development of goddesses, 259. + _See also_ Female kinship + +---- of a god, i. 51, 52 + +---- of the gods, first-fruits offered to the, i. 280 _n._ 1; + popularity of her worship in the Roman Empire, 298 _sq._ + +---- Plastene on Mount Sipylus, i. 185 + +"Mother's Air," a tune on the flute, i. 288 + +"Mothers of the Clan" in the Pelew Islands, ii. 205, 206 + +Motlav, belief as to conception in women in, i. 98 + +Mournful character of the rites of sowing, ii. 40 _sqq._ + +Mourning for Attis, i. 272; + for the corn-god at midsummer, ii. 34 + +---- costume of men in Lycia, ii. 264; + perhaps a mode of deceiving the ghost, 264 + +Mouth of the dead, Egyptian ceremony of opening the, ii. 15 + +Moylar, male children of sacred prostitutes, i. 63 + +Mpongwe kings of the Gaboon, buried secretly, ii. 104 + +_Mugema_, the earl of Busiro, ii. 168 + +Mukasa, the chief god of the Baganda, probably a dead man, ii. 196 _sq._; + gives oracles through a woman, 257 + +_Mukuru_, an ancestor (plural _Ovakuru_, ancestors), ii. 185 _sq._ + +Mueller, Professor W. Max, on Hittite name for god, i. 148 _n._ + +Mundas of Bengal, gardens of Adonis among the, i. 240 + +Mungarai, Australian tribe, their belief in the reincarnation of the dead, + i. 101 + +Murder of children to secure their rebirth in barren women, i. 95 + +Murli, female devotee, i. 62 + +Music as a means of prophetic inspiration, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._, 74; + in exorcism, 54 _sq._; + and religion, 53 _sq._ + +Musquakie Indians, infant burial among the, i. 91 _n._ 3 + +Mutilation of dead bodies of kings, chiefs, and magicians, ii. 103 _sqq._; + to prevent their souls from becoming dangerous ghosts, 188 + +Mycenae, royal graves at, i. 33, 34 + +Mycenaean age of Greece, i. 34 + +Mylasa in Caria, i. 182 _n._ 4 + +Mylitta, Babylonian goddess, sacred prostitution in her worship, i. 36, 37 + _n._ 1 + +Myrrh or Myrrha, the mother of Adonis, i. 43, 227 _sq._ + +---- -tree, Adonis born of a, i. 227, ii. 110 + +Mysore, sacred women in, i. 62 _n._; + the Komatis of, 81 _sq._ + +Mysteries of Sabazius, i. 90 _n._ 4; + of Attis, 274 _sq._ + +Myth and ritual of Attis, i. 263 _sqq._ + +Myths supposed to originate in verbal misapprehensions or a disease of + language, ii. 42 + +----, Italian, of kings or heroes begotten by the fire-god, ii. 235 + +Naaburg, in Bavaria, custom at sowing at, i. 239 + +"Naaman, wounds of the," Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226 + +Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, i. 174 + +_Naga_, serpent god, i. 81 + +Naga-padoha, the agent of earthquakes, i. 200 + +Nahanarvals, a German tribe, priest dressed as a woman among the, ii. 259 + +Nahr Ibrahim, the river Adonis, i. 14, 28 + +Namal tribe of West Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, + i. 105 + +Names, royal, signifying relation to deity, i. 15 _sqq._; + Semitic personal, indicating relationship to a deity, 51; + Hebrew, ending in _-el_ or _-iah_, 79 _n._ 3 + +Nana, the mother of Attis, i. 263, 269, 281 + +Nandi, the, of British East Africa, their belief in serpents as + reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 85; + their ceremony at the ripening of the eleusine grain, ii. 47; + boys dressed as women and girls dressed as men at circumcision among + the, 263 + +Nanjundayya, H. V., on serpent worship in Mysore, i. 81 _sq._ + +Naples, grotto _del cani_ at, i. 205 _n._ 1; + custom of bathing on St. John's Eve at, 246 + +Narmer, the mace of, ii. 154 + +National character partly an effect of geographical and climatic + conditions, ii. 217 + +Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice, i. 303 _sqq._ + +Natural calendar of the husbandman, shepherd, and sailor, ii. 25 + +Nature of Osiris, ii. 96 _sqq._ + +Navel-string of the king of Uganda preserved and inspected every new moon, + ii. 147 _sq._ + +Navel-strings of dead kings of Uganda preserved, ii. 167, 168, 171; + ghosts of afterbirths thought to adhere to, 169 _sq._; + preserved by the Baganda as their twins and as containing the ghosts of + their afterbirths, 169 _sq._ + +Ndjambi, Njambi, Njame, Zambi, Nyambe, etc., name of the supreme god among + various tribes of Africa, ii. 186, with note 5 + +---- Karunga, the supreme god of the Herero, ii. 186 + +Nebseni, the papyrus of, ii. 112 + +Neith or Net, an Egyptian goddess, i. 282 _n._, ii. 51 _n._ 1 + +Nekht, the papyrus of, ii. 112 + +Nemi, Dianus and Diana at, i. 45 + +Nephthys, Egyptian goddess, sister of Osiris and Isis, ii. 6; + mourns Osiris, 12 + +Neptune and Salacia, ii. 231, 233 + +Nerio and Mars, ii. 232 + +New birth through blood in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._; + savage theory of, 299; + of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. 153, 155 _sq._ + +---- Britain, theory of earthquakes in, i. 201 + +---- Guinea, German, the Kai of, i. 96; + the Tami of, 198 + +---- Mexico, the Pueblo Indians of, ii. 54 + +---- moon, ceremonies at the, ii. 141 _sqq._ + +---- World, bathing on St. John's Day in the, i. 249; + All Souls' Day in the, ii. 80 + +---- Year's Day, festival of the dead on, ii. 53, 55, 62, 65 + +---- Zealand, Rotomahana in, i. 207, 209 _n._ + +Newberry, Professor P. E., on Osiris as a cedar-tree god, ii. 109 _n._ 1 + +Newman, J. H., on music, i. 53 _sq._ + +Ngai, God, i. 68 + +Ngoni, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82 + +Nguruhi, the supreme god of the Wahehe, ii. 188 _sq._ + +Niambe, the supreme god of the Barotse, ii. 193 + +Nias, conduct of the natives of, in an earthquake, i. 201 _sq._; + head-hunting in, 296 _n._ 1 + +Nicaragua, Indians of, sacrifice human victims to volcanoes, i. 219 + +Nietzold, J., on the marriage of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt, + ii. 216 _n._ 1 + +Nigmann, E., on the religion of the Wahehe, ii. 188 _sq._ + +Nikunau, one of the Gilbert Islands, sacred stones in, i. 108 _n._ 1 + +Nile, the rise and fall of the, ii. 30 _sqq._; + rises at the summer solstice in June, 31 _n._ 1, 33; + commanded by the King of Egypt to rise, 33; + thought to be swollen by the tears of Isis, 33; + gold and silver thrown into the river at its rising, 40; + the rise of, attributed to Serapis, 216 _sq._ + +----, the "Bride" of the, ii. 38 + +Nilsson, Professor M. P., on custom of sacred prostitution, i. 37 _n._ 2, + 57 _n._ 1, 58 _n._ 2; + on the sacrifice of a bull to Zeus, ii. 239 _n._ 1 + +Nineveh, the end of, i. 174 + +Njamus, the, of British East Africa, their sacrifices at irrigation + channels, ii. 38 _sq._ + +Normandy, rolling in dew on St. John's Day in, i. 248 + +Northern Territory, Australia, beliefs as to the birth of children in the, + i. 103 _sq._ + +Nottinghamshire, harvest custom in, i. 238 _n._ + +November, festivals of the dead in, ii. 51, 54, 69 _sqq._; + the month of sowing in Egypt, 94 + +Novitiate of priests and priestesses, i. 66, 68 + +Nullakun tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. + 101 + +Nut, Egyptian sky-goddess, mother of Osiris, i. 283 _n._ 3, ii. 6, 16; + in a sycamore tree, 110 + +Nutlets of pines used as food, i. 278 _n._ 2 + +Nutritive and vicarious types of sacrifice, ii. 226 + +Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings, worshipped as the god of his + people, ii. 162 _sqq._; + incarnate in various animals, 163 _sq._; + his mysterious disappearance, 163; + his graves, 163, 166; + historical reality of, 164, 166 _sq._; + his relation to the creator Juok, 164 _sq._; + compared to Osiris, 167 + +Nymphs of the Fair Crowns at Olympia, ii. 240 + +Nysa, in the valley of the Maeander, i. 205, 206 _n._ 1; + sacrifice of bull at, 292 _n._ 3 + +Nyuak, L., on guardian spirits of Sea Dyaks, i. 83 + +Oak or terebinth, sacred at Mamre, i. 37 _n._ 2 + +Oath of Egyptian kings not to correct the vague Egyptian year by + intercalation, ii. 26 + +Obelisk, image of Astarte, i. 14 + +Obelisks, sacred, at Gezer, i. 108 + +Obscene images of Osiris, ii. 112 + +Octennial cycle, old, in Greece, ii. 242 _n._ + +October, the first of, a great Saxon festival, ii. 81 _n._ 3 + +Odilo, abbot of Clugny, institutes feast of All Souls, ii. 82 + +Odin, hanged on a tree, i. 290; + human victims dedicated by hanging to, 290; + king's sons sacrificed to, ii. 220 + +Oenomaus, king of Pisa, his incest with his daughter, i. 44 _n._ 1 + +Oeta, Mount, Hercules burnt on, i. 111, 116, 211 + +Offerings to dead kings, ii. 194 + +Oil, holy, poured on king's head, i. 21; + +poured on sacred stones, 36; + as vehicle of inspiration, 74 + +Olba, priestly kings of, i. 143 _sqq._, 161; + the name of, 148; + the ruins of, 151 _sq._ + +Old Woman of the corn, mythical being of the Cherokee Indians, ii. 46 + _sq._ + +Olive of the Fair Crown at Olympia, ii. 240 + +---- -branches carried in procession and hung over doors at Athens, ii. 238 + +Olo Ngadjoe, the, of Borneo, i. 91 + +Olonets, Russian Government of, festival of the dead in, ii. 75 + +Olympia, the quack Peregrinus burns himself at, i. 181; + the cutting of the olive-branches to form the victors' crowns at, ii. + 240 + +Olympic festival based on an octennial cycle, ii. 242 _n._ 1 + +Olympus, Mount, in Cyprus, i. 32 + +Omahas, Indian tribe of North America, effeminate men among the, ii. 255 + _sq._ + +Omonga, a rice-spirit who lives in the moon, ii. 139 _n._ + +Omphale and Hercules, i. 182, ii. 258 + +On, King of Sweden. _See_ Aun. + +Oodeypoor, in Rajputana, gardens of Adonis at, i. 241 _sq._ + +Opening the eyes and mouth of the dead, Egyptian funeral rite, ii. 15 + +Operations of husbandry regulated by observation of the moon, ii. 133 + _sqq._ + +Ops, the wife of Saturn, ii. 233; + in relation to Consus, 233 _n._ 6 + +Oracles given by the spirits of dead kings, ii. 167, 171, 172 + +Oraons of Bengal, their annual marriage of the Sun and Earth, i. 46 + _sqq._; + gardens of Adonis among the, 240; + their annual festival of the dead, ii. 59 + +Orcus, Roman god of the lower world, his marriage celebrated by the + pontiffs, ii. 231 + +Ordeal of chastity, i. 115 _n._ 2 + +Orestes at Castabala, i. 115 + +Orgiastic rites of Cybele, i. 278 + +Oriental mind untrammelled by logic, i. 4 _n._ 1 + +---- religions in the West, i. 298 _sqq._; + their influence in undermining ancient civilization, 299 _sqq._; + importance attached to the salvation of the individual soul in, 300 + +Origen, on the refusal of Christians to fight, i. 301 _n._ 1 + +Origin of Osiris, ii. 158 _sqq._ + +Orion, appearance of the constellation, a signal for sowing, i. 290 _sq._ + +Orpheus, prophet and musician, i. 55; + the legend of his death, ii. 99 + +Orwell in Cambridgeshire, harvest custom at, i. 237 _n._ 4 + +Oschophoria, vintage festival at Athens, ii. 258 _n._ 6 + +Osirian mysteries, the hall of the, at Abydos, ii. 108 + +Osiris identified with Adonis and Attis, i. 32, ii. 127 _n._; + myth of, ii. 3 _sqq._; + his birth, 6; + introduces the cultivation of corn and the vine, 7, 97, 112; + his violent death, 7 _sq._; + at Byblus, 9 _sq._, 22 _sq._, 127; + his body rent in pieces, 10; + the graves of, 10 _sq._; + his dead body sought and found by Isis, 10, 50, 85; + tradition as to his genital organs, 10, 102; + mourned by Isis and Nephthys, 12; + invited to come to his house, 12, 47; + restored to life by Isis, 13; + king and judge of the dead, 13 _sq._; + his body the first mummy, 15; + the funeral rites performed over his body the model of all funeral rites + in Egypt, 15; + all the Egyptian dead identified with, 16; + his trial and acquittal in the court of the gods, 17; + represented in art as a royal mummy, 18; + specially associated with Busiris and Abydos, 18; + his tomb at Abydos, 18 _sq._, 197 _sq._; + official festivals of, 49 _sqq._; + his sufferings displayed in a mystery at night, 50; + his festival in the month of Athyr, 84 _sqq._; + dramatic representation of his resurrection in his rites, 85; + his images made of vegetable mould, 85, 87, 90 _sq._, 91; + the funeral rites of, described in the inscription of Denderah, 86 + _sqq._; + his festival in the month of Khoiak, 86 _sqq._, 108 _sq._; + his "garden," 87 _sq._; + ploughing and sowing in the rites of, 87, 90, 96; + the burial of, in his rites, 88; + the holy sepulchre of, under Persea-trees, 88; + represented with corn sprouting from his dead body, 89; + his resurrection depicted on the monuments, 89 _sq._; + as a corn-god, 89 _sqq._, 96 _sqq._; + corn-stuffed effigies of, buried with the dead as a symbol of + resurrection, 90 _sq._, 114; + date of the celebration of his resurrection at Rome, 95 _n._ 1; + the nature of, 96 _sqq._; + his severed limbs placed on a corn-sieve, 97; + human victims sacrificed by kings at the grave of, 97; + suggested explanations of his dismemberment, 97; + sometimes explained by the ancients as a personification of the corn, + 107; + as a tree-spirit, 107 _sqq._; + his image made out of a pine-tree, 108; + his emblems the crook and scourge or flail, 108, 153, compare 20; + his backbone represented by the _ded_ pillar, 108 _sq._; + interpreted as a cedar-tree god, 109 _n._ 1; + his soul in a bird, 110; + represented as a mummy enclosed in a tree, 110, 111; + obscene images of, 112; + as a god of fertility, 112 _sq._; + identified with Dionysus, 113, 126 _n._ 3; + a god of the dead, 113 _sq._; + universal popularity of his worship, 114; + interpreted by some as the sun, 120 _sqq._, reasons for rejecting this + interpretation, 122 _sqq._; + his death and resurrection interpreted as the decay and growth of + vegetation, 126 _sqq._; + his body broken into fourteen parts, 129; + interpreted as the moon by some of the ancients, 129; + reigned twenty-eight years, 129; + his soul thought to be imaged in the sacred bull Apis, 130; + identified with the moon in hymns, 131; + represented wearing on his head a full moon within a crescent, 131; + distinction of his myth and worship from those of Adonis and Attis, 158 + _sq._; + his dominant position in Egyptian religion, 158 _sq._; + the origin of, 158 _sqq._; + his historical reality asserted in recent years, 160 _n._ 1; + his temple at Abydos, 198; + his title Khenti-Amenti, 198 _n._ 2; + compared to Charlemagne, 199; + the question of his historical reality left open, 199 _sq._; + his death still mourned in the time of Athanasius, 217; + his old type better preserved than those of Adonis and Attis, 218 + +Osiris, Adonis, Attis, their mythical similarity, i. 6, ii. 201 + +---- and Adonis, similarity between their rites, ii. 127 + +---- and Dionysus, similarity between their rites, ii. 127 + +---- and the moon, ii. 129 _sqq._ + +"---- of the mysteries," ii. 89 + +---- -Sep, title of Osiris, ii. 87 + +Ostrich-feather, king of Egypt supposed to ascend to heaven on an, ii. + 154, 155 + +Otho, the emperor, addicted to the worship of Isis, ii. 118 _n._ 1 + +Oulad Abdi, Arab tribe of Morocco, i. 39 _n._ 3 + +Oura, ancient name of Olba, i. 148, 152 + +Ourwira, theory of earthquakes in, i. 199 + +Ovambo, the, of German South-West Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, + ii. 142; + the worship of the dead among the, 188 + +Ovid, on the story of Pygmalion, i. 49 _n._ 4 + +Owl regarded as the guardian spirit of a tree, ii. 111 _n._ 1 + +Ox substituted for human victim in sacrifice, i. 146; + embodying corn-spirit sacrificed at Athens, 296 _sq._; + black, used in purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. 251 _sq._ + +Ozieri, in Sardinia, St. John's festival at, i. 244 + +Pacasmayu, the temple of the moon at, ii. 138 + +Padmavati, an Indian goddess, i. 243 + +Pagan origin of the Midsummer festival (festival of St. John), i. 249 + _sq._ + +Paganism and Christianity, their resemblances explained as diabolic + counterfeits, i. 302, 309 _sq._ + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, a boy whose parents are both alive, ii. 236 _n._ 2 + +Palatinate, the Upper, the feast of All Souls in, ii. 72 + +Palestine, religious prostitution in, i. 58; + date of the corn-reaping in, 232 _n._ + +Palestinian Aphrodite, i. 304 _n._ + +Palestrina, the harmonies of, i. 54 + +Pampa del Sacramento, Peru, earthquakes in, i. 198 + +Pampas, bones of extinct animals in the, i. 158 + +Pamyles, an Egyptian, ii. 6 + +Pandharpur, in the Bombay Presidency, i. 243 + +Panaghia Aphroditessa at Paphos, i. 36 + +Panku, a being who causes earthquakes, i. 198 + +Papas, a name for Attis, i. 281, 282 + +Paphlagonian belief that the god is bound fast in winter, ii. 41 + +Paphos in Cyprus, i. 32 _sqq._; + sanctuary of Aphrodite at, 32 _sqq._; + founded by Cinyras, 41 + +Papyrus of Nebseni, ii. 112; + of Nekht, 112 + +---- swamps, Isis in the, ii. 8 + +Parilia and the festival of St. George, i. 308 + +Parr, Thomas, i. 56 + +Parvati or Isa, an Indian goddess, i. 241, 242 + +Pasicyprus, king of Citium, i. 50 _n._ 2 + +Patagonia, funeral customs of Indians of, i. 294 + +Patagonians, effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, ii. 254 + +Paternity, primitive ignorance of, i. 106 _sq._; + unknown in primitive savagery, 282 + +---- and maternity of the Roman deities, ii. 233 _sqq._ + +Paton, W. R., on modern Greek feast of All Souls in May, ii. 78 _n._ 1 + +Patrae, Laphrian Artemis at, i. 126 _n._ 2 + +Pausanias on the necklace of Harmonia, i. 32 _n._ 2; + on bones of superhuman size, 157 _n._ 2; + on offerings to Etna, 221 _n._ 4; + on the Hanged Artemis, 291 _n._ 2 + +Payne, E. J., on the origin of moon-worship, ii. 138 _n._ 2 + +Pegasus and Bellerophon, i. 302 _n._ 4 + +Pegu, dance of hermaphrodites in, i. 271 _n._ + +Peking, Ibn Batuta at, i. 289 + +Pele, goddess of the volcano Kilauea in Hawaii, i. 217 _sqq._ + +Pelew Islanders, their system of mother-kin, ii. 204 _sqq._; + predominance of goddesses over gods among them, 204 _sqq._; + customs of the, 253 _sqq._ + +---- Islands and the ancient East, parallel between, ii. 208; + prostitution of unmarried girls in, 264 _sq._; + custom of slaying chiefs in the, 266 _sqq._ + +Pelion, Mount, sacrifices offered on the top of, at the rising of Sirius, + ii. 36 _n._ + +Peloponnese, worship of Poseidon in, i. 203 + +Pelops restored to life, i. 181 + +Peneus, the river, at Tempe, ii. 240 + +Pennefather River in Queensland, belief of the natives as to the birth of + children, i. 103 + +Pentheus, king of Thebes, rent in pieces by Bacchanals, ii. 98 + +Peoples of the Aryan stock, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 67 + _sqq._ + +Pepi the First, ii. 5; + his pyramid, 4 _n._ 1 + +Perasia, Artemis, at Castabala, i. 167 _sqq._ + +Peregrinus, his death in the fire, i. 181 + +Perga in Pamphylia, Artemis at, i. 35 + +Periander, tyrant of Corinth, his burnt sacrifice to his dead wife, i. 179 + +Perigord, rolling in dew on St. John's Day in, i. 248 + +Peritius, month of, i. 111 + +Perpetual holy fire in temples of dead kings, ii. 174 + +---- fires worshipped, i. 191 _sqq._ + +Perrot, G., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 138 _n._ + +Persea-trees in the rites of Osiris, ii. 87 _n._ 5; + growing over the tomb of Osiris, 88 + +Persephone, name applied to spring, ii. 41 + +---- and Aphrodite, their contest for Adonis, i. 11 _sq._ + +---- and Pluto, temple of, i. 205 + +Perseus, the virgin birth of, i. 302 _n._ 4 + +Persian reverence for fire, i. 174 _sq._ + +---- festival of the dead, ii. 68 + +Persian fire-worship and priests, 191 + +Personation of gods by priests, i. 45, 46 _sqq._ + +Peru, earthquakes in, i. 202; + sacrifice of sons in, ii. 220 _n._ 4 + +Peruvian Indians, their theory of earthquakes, i. 201 + +Pescara River, in the Abruzzi, i. 246 + +Pescina in the Abruzzi, Midsummer custom at, i. 246 + +Pessinus, image of Cybele at, i. 35 _n._ 3; + priests called Attis at, 140; + local legend of Attis at, 264; + image of the Mother of the Gods at, 265; + people of, abstain from swine, 265; + high-priest of Cybele at, 285 + +Petrarch at Cologne on St. John's Eve, i. 247 _sq._ + +Petrie, Professor W. M. Flinders, on the date of the corn-reaping in Egypt + and Palestine, i. 231 _n._ 3; + on the Sed festival, ii. 151 _n._ 3, 152 _n._ 3, 154 _sq._; + on the marriage of brothers with sisters in Egypt, 216 _n._ 1 + +Petrified cascades of Hierapolis, i. 207 + +Petroff, Ivan, on a custom of the Koniags of Alaska, ii. 106 + +Phamenoth, an Egyptian month, ii. 49 _n._ 1, 130 + +Phaophi, an Egyptian month, ii. 49 _n._ 1, 94 + +Pharnace, daughter of Megassares, i. 41 + +Phatrabot, a Cambodian month, ii. 61 + +Phidias, his influence on Greek religion, i. 54 _n._ 1 + +Philadelphia, subject to earthquakes, i. 194 _sq._ + +Philae, Egyptian relief at, ii. 50 _n._ 5; + mystic representation of Osiris in the temple of Isis at, 89; + sculptures in the temple of Isis at, 111; + the grave of Osiris at, 111; + the dead Osiris in the sculptures at, 112 + +Philo of Alexandria on the date of the corn-reaping, i. 231 _n._ 3 + +Philocalus, calendar of, i. 303 _n._ 2, 304 _n._ 3, 307 _n._, ii. 95 _n._ + 1 + +Philosophy, school of, at Tarsus, i. 118 + +Philostephanus, Greek historian, i. 49 _n._ 4 + +Phoenician temples in Malta, i. 35; + sacred prostitution in, 37 + +---- kings in Cyprus, i. 49 + +Phoenicians in Cyprus, i. 31 _sq._ + +Phrygia, Attis a deity of, i. 263; + festival of Cybele in, 274 _n._; + indigenous race of, 287 + +Phrygian belief that the god sleeps in winter, ii. 41 + +---- cap of Attis, i. 279 + +---- cosmogony, i. 263 _sq._ + +---- kings named Midas and Gordias, i. 286 + +Phrygian moon-god, i. 73 + +---- priests named Attis, i. 285, 287 + +Phrygians, invaders from Europe, i. 287 + +_Pieta_ of Michael Angelo, i. 257 + +Pig's blood used in exorcism and purification, i. 299 _n._ 2 + +Pigs sacrificed annually to the moon and Osiris, ii. 131. + _See also_ Swine + +Pillars as a religious emblem, i. 34; + sacred, in Crete, 107 _n._ 2 + +Pindar on the music of the lyre, i. 55; + on Typhon, 156 + +Pine-cones symbols of fertility, i. 278; + thrown into vaults of Demeter, 278; + on the monuments of Osiris, ii. 110 + +---- seeds or nutlets used as food, i. 278 + +---- -tree in the myth and ritual of Attis, i. 264, 265, 267, 271, 277 + _sq._, 285, ii. 98 _n._ 5 + Marsyas hung on a, i. 288; + in relation to human sacrifices, ii. 98 _n._ 5; + Pentheus on the, 98 _n._ 5; + in the rites of Osiris, 108 + +Pipiles of Central America expose their seeds to moonlight, ii. 135 + +Piraeus, processions in honour of Adonis at, i. 227 _n._ + +Pirates, the Cilician, i. 149 _sq._ + +_Pitr Pak_, the Fortnight of the Manes, ii. 60 + +Pitre, G., on Good Friday ceremonies in Sicily, i. 255 _sq._ + +Placenta, Egyptian standard resembling a, ii. 156 _n._ 1 + _See also_ Afterbirth. + +Placianian Mother, a form of Cybele, worshipped at Cyzicus, i. 274 _n._ + +Plastene, Mother, on Mount Sipylus, i. 185 + +Plato, on gardens of Adonis, i. 236 _n._ 1 + +Plautus on Mars and Nerio, ii. 232 + +Pleiades worshipped by the Abipones, i. 258 _n._ 2; + the setting of, the time of sowing, ii. 41 + +Pliny, on the date of harvest in Egypt, ii. 32 _n._ 2; + on the influence of the moon, 132; + on the grafting of trees, 133 _n._ 3; + on the time for felling timber, 136 _n._ + +Plotinus, the death of, i. 87 + +Ploughing, Prussian custom at, i. 238; + and sowing, ceremony of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 87 + +Ploughmen and sowers drenched with water as a rain-charm, i. 238 _sq._ + +Plutarch on the double-headed axe of Zeus Labrandeus, i. 182; + on the myth of Osiris, ii. 3, 5 _sqq._; + on Harpocrates, 9 _n._; + on Osiris at Byblus, 22 _sq._; + on the rise of the Nile, 31 _n._ 1; + on the mournful character of the rites of sowing, 40 _sqq._; + his use of the Alexandrian year, 49, 84; + on an Egyptian ceremony at the winter solstice, 50 _n._ 4; + on the date of the death of Osiris, 84; + on the festival of Osiris in the month of Athyr, 91 _sq._; + on the dating of Egyptian festivals, 94 _sq._; + on the rites of Osiris, 108; + on the grave of Osiris, 111; + on the similarity between the rites of Osiris and Dionysus, 127; + on the Flamen Dialis, 229 _sq._; + on the Flaminica Dialis, 230 _n._ 2 + +Pluto, the breath of, i. 204, 205; + places or sanctuaries of, 204 _sqq._; + cave and temple of, at Acharaca, 205 + +_Plutonia_, places of Pluto, i. 204 + +Pollution of death, ii. 227 _sqq._ + +Polo, Marco, on custom of people of Camul, i. 39 _n._ 3 + +Polyboea, sister of Hyacinth, i. 314, 316; + identified with Artemis or Persephone, 315 + +Polyidus, a seer, i. 186 _n._ 4 + +Polynesian myth of the separation of earth and sky, i. 283 + +Pomegranate causes virgin to conceive, i. 263, 269 + +Pomegranates forbidden to worshippers of Cybele and Attis, i. 280 _n._ 7 + +Pomona and Vertumnus, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +Pompey the Great, i. 27 + +Pondomisi, a Bantu tribe of South Africa, ii. 177 + +Pontiffs, the Roman, their mismanagement of the Julian calendar, ii. 93 + _n._ 1; + celebrated the marriage of Orcus, 231 + +Pontus, sacred prostitution in, i. 39, 58 + +Populonia, a Roman goddess, ii. 231 + +Port Darwin, Australia, i. 103 + +Porta Capena at Rome, i. 273 + +Poseidon the Establisher or Securer, i. 195 _sq._; + the earthquake god, 195, 202 _sq._ + +---- and Demeter, i. 280 + +Possession of priest or priestess by a divine spirit, i. 66, 68 _sq._, 72 + _sqq._; + by the spirits of dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._ + +Potniae in Boeotia, priest of Dionysus killed at, ii. 99 _n._ 1 + +Pots of Basil on St. John's Day in Sicily, i. 245 + +Potter in Southern India, custom observed by a, i. 191 _n._ 2 + +Potters in Uganda bake their pots when the moon is waxing, ii. 135 + +Praeneste, Fortuna Primigenia, goddess of, ii. 234; + founded by Caeculus, 235 + +Prague, the feast of All Souls in, ii. 73 + +Prayers to dead ancestors, ii. 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._, 183 _sq._; + to dead kings, 192 + +Pregnancy, causes of, unknown, i. 92 _sq._, 106 _sq._; + Australian beliefs as to the causes of, 99 _sqq._ + +Priestess identified with goddess, i. 219; + head of the State under a system of mother-kin, ii. 203 + +Priestesses more important than priests, i. 45, 46 + +Priesthood vacated on death of priest's wife, i. 45; + of Hercules at Tarsus, 143 + +Priestly dynasties of Asia Minor, i. 140 _sq._ + +---- king and queen personating god and goddess, i. 45 + +---- kings, i. 42, 43; + of Olba, 143 _sqq._, 161; + Adonis personated by, 223 _sqq._ + +Priests personate gods, i. 45, 46 _sqq._; + tattoo-marks of, 74 _n._ 4; + not allowed to be widowers, ii. 227 _sqq._; + the Jewish, their rule as to the pollution of death, 230; + dressed as women, 253 _sqq._ + +---- of Astarte, kings as, i. 26 + +---- of Attis, the emasculated, i. 265, 266 + +---- of Zeus at the Corycian cave, i. 145, 155 + +Procession to the Almo in the rites of Attis, i. 273 + +Processions carved on rocks at Boghaz-Keui, i. 129 _sqq._; + in honour of Adonis, 224 _sq._, 227 _n._, 236 _n._ 1 + +Procreation, savage ignorance of the causes of, i. 106 _sq._ + +Procris, her incest with her father Erechtheus, i. 44 + +Profligacy of human sexes supposed to quicken the earth, i. 48 + +Property, rules as to the inheritance of, under mother-kin, ii. 203 _n._ + 1; + landed, combined with mother-kin tends to increase the social importance + of women, 209 + +Prophecy, Hebrew, distinctive character of, i. 75 + +Prophet regarded as madman, i. 77 + +Prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._; + inspired by gods, 207 + +Prophetic inspiration under the influence of music, i. 52 _sq._, 54 _sq._, + 74; + through the spirits of dead kings and chiefs, ii. 171, 172, 192 _sq._ + +---- marks on body, i. 74 + +---- water drunk on St. John's Eve, i. 247 + +Prophets in relation to _kedeshim_, i. 76; + or mediums inspired by the ghosts of dead kings, ii. 171, 172 + +----, Hebrew, their resemblance to those of Africa, i. 74 _sq._ + +Prophets of Israel, their religious and moral reform, i. 24 _sq._ + +Propitiation of deceased ancestors, i. 46 + +Prostitution, sacred, before marriage, in Western Asia, i. 36 _sqq._; + suggested origin of, 39 _sqq._; + in Western Asia, alternative theory of, 57 _sqq._; + in India, 61 _sqq._; + in Africa, 65 _sqq._ + +---- of unmarried girls in the Pelew Islands, ii. 264 _sq._; + in Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, 265 _sq._ + +Provence, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 248 + +Prussia, customs at ploughing and harvest in, i. 238; + divination at Midsummer in, 252 _sq._ + +Pteria, captured by Croesus, i. 128 + +Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, i. 43 + +Ptolemy and Berenice, annual festival in honour of, ii. 35 _n._ 1 + +Ptolemy I. and Serapis, ii. 119 _n._ + +Ptolemy III. Euergetes, his attempt to correct the vague Egyptian year by + intercalation, ii. 27 + +Ptolemy V. on the Rosetta Stone, ii. 152 _n._ + +Ptolemy Soter, i. 264 _n._ 4 + +Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 54 + +Pumi-yathon, king of Citium and Idalium, i. 50 + +Punjaub, belief in the reincarnation of infants in the, i. 94 + +Puppet substituted for human victim, i. 219 _sq._ + +Purification by fire, i. 115 _n._ 1, 179 _sqq._; + by pig's blood, 299 _n._ 2; + of Apollo at Tempe, ii. 240 _sq._ + +Purificatory ceremonies after a battle, ii. 251 _sq._ + +Pyanepsion, an Athenian month, ii. 41 + +Pygmalion, king of Citium and Idalium in Cyprus, i. 50 + +----, king of Cyprus, i. 41, 49 + +----, king of Tyre, i. 50 + +---- and Aphrodite, i. 49 _sq._ + +Pymaton of Citium, i. 50 _n._ 2 + +Pyramid Texts, ii. 4 _sqq._, 9 _n._; + intended to ensure the life of dead Egyptian kings, 4 _sq._; + Osiris and the sycamore in the, 110; + the mention of Khenti-Amenti in the, 198 _n._ 2 + +Pyramus, river in Cilicia, i. 165, 167, 173 + +Pyre at festivals of Hercules, i. 116; + at Tarsus, 126; + of dead kings at Jerusalem, 177 _sq._ + +---- or Torch, name of great festival at the Syrian Hierapolis, i. 146 + +Pythian games, their period, ii. 242 _n._ 1 + +Python worshipped by the Baganda, i. 86 + +---- -god, human wives of the, i. 66 + +Pythons worshipped in West Africa, i. 83 _n._ 1; + dead chiefs reincarnated in, ii. 193 + +"Quail-hunt," legend on coins of Tarsus, i. 126 _n._ 2 + +Quails sacrificed to Hercules (Melcarth), i. 111 _sq._; + migration of, 112 + +Quatuordecimans of Phrygia celebrate the Crucifixion on March 25th, i. 307 + _n._ + +Queen of Egypt the wife of Ammon, i. 72 + +---- of Heaven, i. 303 _n._ 5; + incense burnt in honour of the, 228 + +Queensland, aborigines of, their beliefs as to the birth of children, i. + 102 _sq._ + +Quirinus and Hora, ii. 233 + +Ra, the Egyptian sun-god, ii. 6, 8, 12; + identified with many originally independent local deities, 122 _sqq._ + +Rabbah, captured by David, i. 19 + +Rabbis, burnings for dead Jewish, i. 178 _sq._ + +Rain procured by bones of the dead, i. 22; + excessive, ascribed to wrath of God, 22 _sq._; + instrumental in rebirth of dead infants, 95; + regarded as the tears of gods, ii. 33; + thought to be controlled by the souls of dead chiefs, 188 + +---- -charm in rites of Adonis, i. 237; + by throwing water on the last corn cut, 237 _sq._ + +---- -god represented with tears running from his eyes, ii. 33 _n._ 3 + +Rainbow totem, i. 101 + +Rainless summer on the Mediterranean, i. 159 _sq._ + +Rajaraja, king, i. 61 + +Rajputana, gardens of Adonis in, i. 241 _sq._ + +Rambree, sorcerers dressed as women in the island of, ii. 254 + +Rameses II., his treaty with the Hittites, i. 135 _sq._; + his order to the Nile, ii. 33 + +Ramman, Babylonian and Assyrian god of thunder, i. 163 _sq._ + +Rams, testicles of, in the rites of Attis, i. 269 + +Ramsay, Sir W. M., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 134 _n._ 1, + 137 _n._ 4; + on priest-dynasts of Asia Minor, 140 _n._ 2; + on the god Tark, 147 _n._ 3; + on the name Olba, 148 _n._ 1; + on _Hierapolis_ and _Hieropolis_, 168 _n._ 2; + on Attis and Men, 284 _n._ 5; + on cruel death of the human representative of a god in Phrygia, 285 + _sq._ + +Raoul-Rochette on Asiatic deities with lions, i. 138 _n._; + on the burning of doves to Adonis, 147 _n._ 1; + on apotheosis by death in the fire, 180 _n._ 1 + +Ratumaimbulu, Fijian god of fruit-trees, i. 90 + +Readjustment of Egyptian festivals, ii. 91 _sqq._ + +Reapers, Egyptian, their lamentations, i. 232, ii. 45; + invoke Isis, 117 + +Rebirth of infants, means taken to ensure the, i. 91, 93 _sqq._; + of the dead, precautions taken to prevent, 92 _sq._; + of Egyptian kings at the Sed festival, ii. 153, 155 _sq._ + +Red the colour of Lower Egypt, ii. 21 _n._ 1 + +---- -haired men burnt by Egyptians, ii. 97, 106 + +Reform, the prophetic, in Israel, i. 24 _sq._ + +Reformations of Hezekiah and Josiah, i. 25 + +Rehoboam, King, his family, i. 51 _n._ 2 + +Reincarnation of the dead, i. 82 _sqq._; + in America, 91; + in Australia, 99 _sqq._ + +Rekub-el, Syrian god, i. 16 + +Relations, spirits of near dead, worshipped, i. 175, 176; + at death become gods, ii. 180 + +Religion, volcanic, i. 188 _sqq._; + how influenced by mother-kin, ii. 202 _sqq._ + +---- and magic, combination of, i. 4; + and music, 53 _sq._ + +Religious ideals a product of the male imagination, ii. 211 + +---- systems, great permanent, founded by great men, ii. 159 _sq._ + +Remission of sins through the shedding of blood, i. 299 + +Remus, the birth of, ii. 235 + +Renan, E., on Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 _n._ 1; + his excavations at Byblus, 14 _n._ 1; + on Adom-melech, 17; + on the vale of the Adonis, 29 _n._; + on the burnings for the kings of Judah, 178 _n._ 1; + on the discoloration of the river Adonis, 225 _n._ 4; + on the worship of Adonis, 235 + +Renouf, Sir P. le Page, on Osiris as the sun, ii. 126 + +Resemblance of the rites of Adonis to the festival of Easter, i. 254 + _sqq._, 306 + +Resemblances of paganism to Christianity explained as diabolic + counterfeits, i. 302, 309 _sq._ + +Reshef, Semitic god, i. 16 _n._ 1 + +Resurrection of the dead conceived on the pattern of the resurrection of + Osiris, ii. 15 _sq._ + +---- of Attis at the vernal equinox, i. 272 _sq._, 307 _sq._ + +---- of Hercules (Melcarth), i. 111 _sq._ + +---- of Osiris dramatically represented in his rites, ii. 85; + depicted on the monuments, 89 _sq._; + date of its celebration at Rome, 95 _n._ 1; + symbolized by the setting up of the _ded_ pillar, 109 + +Resurrection of Tylon, i. 186 _sq._ + +Rhine, bathing in the, on St. John's Eve, i. 248 + +Rhodes described by Strabo, i. 195 _n._ 3; + worship of Helen in, 292 + +Rhodesia, Northern, the Bantu tribes of, their worship of ancestral + spirits, ii. 174 _sqq._; + their worship of dead chiefs or kings, 191 _sqq._ + +Rhodians, the Venetians of antiquity, i. 195 + +Rice, the soul of the, in the first sheaf cut, ii. 239 + +Ridgeway, Professor W., on the marriage of brothers with sisters, ii. 216 + _n._ 1 + +Rites of irrigation in Egypt, ii. 33 _sqq._; + of sowing, 40 _sqq._; + of harvest, 45 _sqq._ + +Ritual, children of living parents in, ii. 236 _sqq._; + of the Bechuanas at founding a new town, 249 + +---- of Adonis, i. 223 _sqq._ + +Rivers as the seat of worship of deities, i. 160; + bathing in, at Midsummer, 246, 248, 249; + gods worshipped beside, 289 + +Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., as to Melanesian theory of conception in women, i. + 97 _sq._; + on the sacred dairyman of the Todas, ii. 228 + +Rizpah and her sons, i. 22 + +Robinson, Edward, on the vale of the Adonis, i. 29 _n._ + +Roccacaramanico, in the Abruzzi, Easter ceremonies at, i. 256 _n._ 2 + +Rock-hewn sculptures at Ibreez, i. 121 _sq._; + at Boghaz-Keui, 129 _sqq._ + +Rockhill, W. Woodville, on dance of eunuchs in Corea, i. 270 _n._ 2 + +Rohde, E., on purification by blood, i. 299 _n._ 2; + on Hyacinth, 315 + +Roman deities called "Father" and "Mother," ii. 233 _sqq._ + +---- emperor, funeral pyre of, i. 126 _sq._ + +---- expiation for prodigies, ii. 244 + +---- financial oppression, i. 301 _n._ 2 + +---- _genius_ symbolized by a serpent, i. 86 + +---- gods, the marriage of the, ii. 230 _sqq._; + compared to Greek gods, 235 + +---- law, revival of, i. 301 + +---- marriage custom, ii. 245 + +---- mythology, fragments of, ii. 235, with _n._ 6 + +Romans adopt the worship of the Phrygian Mother of the Gods, i. 265; + correct the vague Egyptian year by intercalation, ii. 27 _sq._ + +Rome, high-priest of Cybele at, i. 285; + the celebration of the resurrection of Osiris at, ii. 95 _n._ 1 + +Romulus cut in pieces, ii. 98; + the birth of, 235 + +Roper River, in Australia, i. 101 + +Roscoe, Rev. John, on serpent-worship, i. 86 _n._ 1; + on the rebirth of the dead, 92 _sq._; + on potters in Uganda, ii. 135; + on the religion of the Bahima, 190 _sq._; + on the worship of the dead among the Baganda, 196; + on Mukasa, the chief god of the Baganda, 196 _sq._; + on massacres for sick kings of Uganda, 226 + +Rose, the white, dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226 + +Rosetta stone, the inscription, ii. 27, 152 _n._ + +Roth, W. E., on belief in conception without sexual intercourse, i. 103 + _n._ 2 + +Rotomahana in New Zealand, pink terraces at, i. 207, 209 _n._ + +Rugaba, supreme god in Kiziba, ii. 173 + +Rules of life based on a theory of lunar influence, ii. 132 _sqq._, 140 + _sqq._ + +Rumina, a Roman goddess, ii. 231 + +Runes, how Odin learned the magic, i. 290 + +Russia, annual festivals of the dead in, ii. 75 _sqq._ + +Russian Midsummer custom, i. 250 _sq._ + +Rustic Calendars, the Roman, ii. 95 _n._ 1 + +Sabazius, mysteries of, i. 90 _n._ 4 + +Sacrament in the rites of Attis, i. 274 _sq._ + +Sacred harlots in Asia Minor, i. 141 + +---- marriage of priest and priestess as representing god and goddess, i. 46 + _sqq._; + represented in the rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, 140; + in Cos, ii. 259 _n._ 4 + +"---- men" (_kedeshim_), at Jerusalem, i. 17 _sq._; + and women, 57 _sqq._; + in West Africa, 65 _sqq._; + in Western Asia, 72 _sqq._; + at Andania, 76 _n._ 3 + +---- prostitution, i. 36 _sqq._; + suggested origin of, 39 _sqq._; + in Western Asia, alternative theory of, 55 _sqq._; + in India, 61 _sqq._; + in West Africa, 65 _sqq._ + +---- slaves, i. 73, 79 + +---- stocks and stones among the Semites, i. 107 _sqq._ + +---- women in India, i. 61 _sqq._; + in West Africa, 65 _sqq._; + in Western Asia, 70 _sqq._; + at Andania, 76 _n._ 3 + +Sacrifice of virginity, i. 60; + of virility in the rites of Attis and Astarte, 268 _sq._, 270 _sq._; + other cases of, 270 _n._ 2; + nutritive and vicarious types of, ii. 226 + +Sacrifices to earthquake god, i. 201, 202; + to volcanoes, 218 _sqq._; + to the dead distinguished from sacrifices to the gods, 316 _n._ 1; + offered at the rising of Sirius, ii. 36 _n._; + offered in connexion with irrigation, 38 _sq._; + to dead kings, 101, 162, 166 _sq._; + to ancestral spirits, 175, 178 _sq._, 180, 181 _sq._, 183 _sq._, 190; + of animals to prolong the life of kings, 221; + without shedding of blood, 222 _n._ 2 + +Sacrifices, human, offered at earthquakes, i. 201; + offered to Dionysus, ii. 98 _sq._; + at the graves of the kings of Uganda, 168; + to dead kings, 173; + to dead chiefs, 191; + to prolong the life of kings, 220 _sq._, 223 _sqq._ + +Sadyattes, son of Cadys, viceroy of Lydia, i. 183 + +Saffron at the Corycian cave, i. 154, 187 + +Sago, magic for the growth of, ii. 101 + +Sahagun, B. de, on the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._ + +St. Denys, his seven heads, ii. 12 + +St. George in Syria, reputed to bestow offspring on women, i. 78, 79, 90; + festival of, and the Parilia, 308, 309 + +St. John, Sweethearts of, in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._ + +St. John, Spenser, on reasons for head-hunting in Sarawak, i. 296 + +St. John's Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), custom of bathing on, i. 246 + _sqq._ + +---- Midsummer festival in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._ + +---- wort gathered at Midsummer, i. 252 _sq._ + +St. Kilda, All Saints' Day in, ii. 80 + +St. Luke, the festival of, on October 18th, ii. 55 + +Saint-Maries, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 + +S. Martinus Dumiensis, on the date of the Crucifixion in Gaul, i. 307 _n._ + +St. Michael in Alaska, ii. 51 + +St. Simon and St. Jude's day, October 28th, ii. 74 + +St. Vitus, festival of, i. 252 + +Saintonge, feast of All Souls in, ii. 69 + +Saints as the givers of children to women, i. 78 _sq._, 91, 109 + +Sais, the festival of, ii. 49 _sqq._ + +Sakkara, pyramids at, ii. 4 + +_Sal_ tree, festival of the flower of the, i. 47 + +Salacia and Neptune, ii. 231, 233 + +Salamis in Cyprus, human sacrifices at, i. 145; + dynasty of Teucrids at, 145 + +Salem, Melchizedek, king of, i. 17 + +Salii, priests of Mars, rule as to their election, ii. 244 + +Salono, a Hindoo festival, i. 243 _n._ 1 + +Salvation of the individual soul, importance attached to, in Oriental + religions, i. 300 + +Samagitians, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 75 + +Samal, in North-Western Syria, i. 16 + +Samaria, the fall of, i. 25 + +Samoa, conduct of the inhabitants in an earthquake, i. 200 + +Samuel consulted about asses, i. 75; + meaning of the name, 79 + +---- and Saul, i. 22 + +San Juan Capistrano, the Indians of, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. + 142 + +Sanda-Sarme, a Cilician king, i. 144 + +Sandacus, a Syrian, i. 41 + +Sandan of Tarsus, i. 124 _sqq._; + the burning of, 117 _sqq._, 126; + identified with Hercules, 125, 143, 161; + monument of, at Tarsus, 126 _n._ 2 + +---- (Sandon, Sandes), Cappadocian and Cilician god of fertility, i. 125 + +---- and Baal at Tarsus, i. 142 _sq._, 161 + +Sandon, or Sandan, name of the Lydian and Cilician Hercules, i. 182, 184, + 185; + a Cilician name, 182 + +Sandu'arri, a Cilician king, i. 144 + +Santa Felicita, successor of Mefitis, i. 205 + +Santiago Tepehuacan, Indians of, their custom at sowing, i. 239; + their annual festival of the dead, ii. 55 + +Santorin, island of, its volcanic activity, i. 195 + +Sappho on the mourning for Adonis, i. 6 _n._ 2 + +Saracus, last king of Assyria, i. 174 + +Sarawak, head-hunting in, i. 295 _sq._ + +Sardanapalus, monument of, at Tarsus, i. 126 _n._ 2; + his monument at Anchiale, 172; + the burning of, 172 _sqq._; + the effeminate, ii. 257 + +---- and Hercules, i. 172 _sqq._ + +Sardes, captured by Cyrus, i. 174; + lion carried round acropolis of, i. 184, ii. 249 + +Sardinia, gardens of Adonis in, i. 244 _sq._ + +Sargal, in India, gardens of Adonis at, i. 243 + +Sarpedonian Artemis, i. 167, 171 + +Sasabonsun, earthquake god of Ashantee, i. 201 + +Saturn, the husband of Ops, ii. 233 + +---- and Lua, ii. 233 + +Saturn's period of revolution round the sun, ii. 151 _sq._ + +Saturnine temperament of the farmer, ii. 218 + +Sauks, an Indian tribe of North America, effeminate sorcerers among the, + ii. 255 + +Saul, burial of, i. 177 _n._ 4 + +---- and David, i. 21 + +Saul's madness soothed by music, i. 53, 54 + +Savages lament for the animals and plants which they eat, ii. 43 _sq._ + +Sawan, Indian month, i. 242 + +Saxons of Transylvania, harvest custom of the, i. 238 + +Sayce, A. H., on kings of Edom, i. 16; + on name of David, 19 _n._ 2 + +Schaefer, H., on the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, ii. 198 _n._ 1 + +Schlanow, in Brandenburg, custom at sowing at, i. 238 _sq._ + +Schloss, Mr. Francis S., on the rule as to the felling of timber in + Colombia, ii. 136 _n._ 4 + +Schwegler, A., on the death of Romulus, ii. 98 _n._ 2 + +Scipio, his fabulous birth, i. 81 + +Scorpions, Isis and the, ii. 8 + +Scotland, harvest custom in, i. 237 + +Scottish Highlanders on the influence of the moon, ii. 132, 134, 140 + +Scythian king, human beings and horses sacrificed at his grave, i. 293 + +Scythians, their belief in immortality, i. 294; + their treatment of dead enemies, 294 _n._ 3 + +Sea, custom of bathing in the, on St. John's Day or Eve, i. 246, 248 + +---- Dyaks or Ibans of Borneo, their worship of serpents, i. 83; + their festivals of the dead, ii. 56 _sq._; + effeminate priests or sorcerers among the, 253, 256 + +---- Dyaks of Sarawak, their reasons for taking human heads, i. 295 _sq._ + +Season of festival a clue to the nature of a deity, ii. 24 + +Seasons, magical and religious theories of the, i. 3 _sq._ + +Seb (Keb or Geb), Egyptian earth-god, i. 283 _n._ 3, ii. 6 + +Secret graves of kings, chiefs, and magicians, ii. 103 _sqq._ + +Sed festival in Egypt, ii. 151 _sqq._; + its date perhaps connected with the heliacal rising of Sirius, 152 + _sq._; + apparently intended to renew the king's life by identifying him with the + dead and risen Osiris, 153 _sq._ + +Segera, a sago magician of Kiwai, dismembered after death, ii. 101, 102 + +Seker (Sokari), title of Osiris, ii. 87 + +Seler, Professor E., on the ancient Mexican calendar, ii. 28 _n._ + +Seleucus, a grammarian, i. 146 _n._ 1 + +---- Nicator, king, i. 151 + +---- the Theologian, i. 146 _n._ 1 + +Self-mutilation of Attis and his priests, i. 265 + +Seligmann, Dr. C. G., on the five supplementary Egyptian days, ii. 6 _n._ + 3; + on the divinity of Shilluk kings, 161 _n._ 2; + on custom of putting Shilluk kings to death, 163 + +Selwanga, python-god of Baganda, i. 86 + +Semiramis at Hierapolis, i. 162 _n._ 2; + as a form of Ishtar (Astarte), 176 _sq._; + said to have burnt herself, 176 _sq._; + the mythical, a form of the great Asiatic goddess, ii. 258 + +Semites, agricultural, worship Baal as the giver of fertility, i. 26 + _sq._; + sacred stocks and stones among the, 107 _sqq._; + traces of mother-kin among the, ii. 213 + +Semitic gods, uniformity of their type, i. 119 + +---- kings, the divinity of, i. 15 _sqq._; + as hereditary deities, 51 + +---- language, Egyptian language akin to the, ii. 161 _n._ 1 + +---- personal names indicating relationship to a deity, i. 51 + +---- worship of Tammuz and Adonis, i. 6 _sqq._ + +_Semlicka_, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. 74 + +Seneca, on the offerings of Egyptian priests to the Nile, ii. 40; + on the marriage of the Roman gods, 231; + on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, 233 + +Senegal and Niger region of West Africa, belief as to conception without + sexual intercourse in, i. 93 _n._ 2; + myth of marriage of Sky and Earth in the, 282 _n._ 2 + +Senegambia, the Mandingoes of, ii. 141 + +Sennacherib, his siege of Jerusalem, i. 25; + said to have built Tarsus, 173 _n._ 4 + +Separation of Earth and Sky, myth of the, i. 283 + +Serapeum at Alexandria, ii. 119 _n._; + its destruction, 217 + +Serapis, the later form of Osiris, ii. 119 _n._; + the rise of the Nile attributed to, 216 _sq._; + the standard cubit kept in his temple, 217 + +Serpent as the giver of children, i. 86; + at rites of initiation, 90 _n._ 4 + +---- -god married to human wives, i. 66 _sqq._; + thought to control the crops, 67 + +Serpents reputed the fathers of human beings, i. 80 _sqq._; + as embodiments of Aesculapius, 80 _sq._; + worshipped in Mysore, 81 _sq._; + as reincarnations of the dead, 82 _sqq._; + fed with milk, 84 _sqq._, 87; + thought to have knowledge of life-giving plants, 186; + souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 163, 173 + +Servius, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4; + on the marriage of Orcus, ii. 231; + on Salacia as the wife of Neptune, 233 + +---- Tullius, begotten by the fire-god, ii. 235 + +Sesostris, so-called monument of, i. 185 + +Set, or Typhon, brother of Osiris, ii. 6; + murders Osiris, 7 _sq._; + accuses Osiris before the gods, 17; + brings a suit of bastardy against Horus, 17; + his combat with Horus, 17; + reigns over Upper Egypt, 17; + torn in pieces, 98. + _See also_ Typhon + +Sety I., King of Egypt, ii. 108 + +Shamash, Babylonian sun-god, his human wives, i. 71 + +---- Semitic god, i. 16 _n._ 1 + +Shamashshumukin, King of Babylon, burns himself, i. 173 _sq._, 176 + +Shammuramat, Assyrian queen, i. 177 _n._ 1 + +Shans of Burma, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198; + cut bamboos for building in the wane of the moon, ii. 136 + +Shark-shaped hero, i. 139 _n._ 1 + +Sheaf, the first cut, ii. 239 + +Sheep to be shorn when the moon is waxing, ii. 134; + to be shorn in the waning of the moon, 134 _n._ 3 + +_Sheitan dere_, the Devil's Glen, in Cilicia, i. 150 + +Shenty, Egyptian cow-goddess, ii. 88 + +Shifting dates of Egyptian festivals, ii. 24 _sq._ + +Shilluk kings put to death before their strength fails, ii. 163 + +Shilluks, their worship of dead kings, ii. 161 _sq._; + their worship of Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings, 162 _sqq._ + +Shoulders of medicine-men especially sensitive, i. 74 _n._ 4 + +Shouting as a means of stopping earthquakes, i. 197 _sqq._ + +Shropshire, feast of All Souls in, ii. 78 + +Shu, Egyptian god of light, i. 283 _n._ 3 + +Shuswap Indians of British Columbia eat nutlets of pines, i. 278 _n._ 2 + +Siam, catafalque burnt at funeral of king of, i. 179; + annual festival of the dead in, ii. 65 + +Siao, children sacrificed to volcano in, i. 219 + +Sibitti-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14 + +Sibyl, the Grotto of the, at Marsala, i. 247 + +Sibylline Books, i. 265 + +Sicily, Syrian prophet in, i. 74; + fossil bones in, 157; + hot springs in, 213; + gardens of Adonis in, 245, 253 _sq._; + divination at Midsummer in, 254; + Good Friday ceremonies in, 255 _sq._ + +Sick people resort to cave of Pluto, i. 205 _sq._ + +Sicyon, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81 + +Sidon, kings of, as priests of Astarte, i. 26 + +_Siem_, king, among the Khasis of Assam, ii. 210 _n._ 1 + +Sigai, hero in form of shark, i. 139 _n._ 1 + +Sihanaka, the, of Madagascar, funeral custom of the, ii. 246 + +Sinai, "Mistress of Turquoise" at, i. 35 + +Sinews of sacrificial ox cut, ii. 252 + +Sins, the remission of, through the shedding of blood, i. 299 + +Sinsharishkun, last king of Assyria, i. 174 + +Sipylus, Mother Plastene on Mount, i. 185 + +Siriac or Sothic period, ii. 36 + +Sirius (the Dog-star), observed by Egyptian astronomers, ii. 27; + called Sothis by the Egyptians, 34; + date of its rising in ancient Egypt, 34; + heliacal rising of, on July 20th, 34 _n._ 1, 93; + its rising marked the beginning of the sacred Egyptian year, 35; + its rising observed in Ceos, 35 _n._ 1; + sacrifices offered at its rising on the top of Mount Pelion, 36 _n._ + +---- the star of Isis, ii. 34, 119; + in connexion with the Sed festival, 152 _sq._ + +Sis in Cilicia, i. 144 + +Sister of a god, i. 51 + +Sisters, kings marry their, i. 316 + +Sizu in Cilicia, i. 144 + +Skin, bathing in dew at Midsummer as remedy for diseases of the, i. 247, + 248; + of ox stuffed and set up, 296 _sq._; + body of Egyptian dead placed in a bull's, ii. 15 _n._ 2; + of sacrificial victim used in the rite of the new birth, 155 _sq._ + +Skinner, Principal J., on the burnt sacrifice of children, ii. 219 + +Skins of human victims, uses made of, i. 293; + of horses stuffed and set up at graves, 293, 294 + +Skull, drinking out of a king's, in order to be inspired by his spirit, + ii. 171 + +Sky conceived by the Egyptians as a cow, i. 283 _n._ 3 + +---- and earth, myth of their violent separation, i. 283 + +---- -god, Attis as a, i. 282 _sqq._; + married to Earth-goddess, 282, with _n._ 2; + mutilation of the, 283 + +Slaughter of prisoners often a sacrifice to the gods, i. 290 _n._ 2 + +Slave Coast of West Africa, sacred men and women on the, i. 65, 68; + Ewe-speaking peoples of the, 83 _n._ 1 + +Slaves, sacred, in Western Asia, i. 39 _n._ 1 + +Slaying of the Dragon by Apollo at Delphi, ii. 240 _sq._ + +Sleep of the god in winter, ii. 41 + +Smell, evil, used to avert demons, ii. 261 + +Smeroe, Mount, volcano in Java, i. 221 + +Smith, George Adam, on fertility of Bethlehem, i. 257 _n._ 3 + +Smith, W. Robertson, on the date of the month Tammuz, i. 10 _n._ 1; + on anointing as consecration, 21 _n._ 3; + on Baal as god of fertility, 26 _sq._; + on caves in Semitic religion, 169 _n._ 3; + on Tophet, 177 _n._ 4; + on the predominance of goddesses over gods in early Semitic religion, + ii. 213; + on the sacrifice of children to Moloch, 220 _n._ 1 + +Smoking as a mode of inducing inspiration, ii. 172 + +Snake-entwined goddess found at Gournia, i. 88 + +Snakes as fathers of human beings, i. 82; + fed with milk, 84 _sqq._ + _See also_ Serpents + +Snorri Sturluson, on the dismemberment of Halfdan the Black, ii. 100 + +Sobk, a crocodile-shaped Egyptian god, identified with the sun, ii. 123 + +_Sochit_ or _Sochet_, epithet of Isis, ii. 117 + +Society, ancient, built on the principle of the subordination of the + individual to the community, i. 300 + +Socrates (church historian) on sacred prostitution, i. 37 _n._ 2 + +Soederblom, N., on an attempted reform of the old Iranian religion, ii. 83 + _n._ 2 + +Sodom and Gomorrah, the destruction of, i. 222 _n._ 1 + +Soerakarta, district of Java, conduct of natives in an earthquake, i. 202 + _n._ 1 + +Sokari (Seker), a title of Osiris, ii. 87 + +_Sol invictus_, i. 304 _n._ 1 + +_Solanum campylanthum_, ii. 47 + +Solomon, King, puts Adoni-jah to death, i. 51 _n._ 2 + +----, the Baths of, i. 78; + in Moab, 215 _sq._ + +Solstice, the summer, the Nile rises at the, ii. 31 _n._ 1, 33 + +----, the winter, reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303; + Egyptian ceremony at, ii. 50 + +Somali, marriage custom of the, ii. 246, 247 + +Son of a god, i. 51 + +Sons of God, i. 78 _sqq._ + +Sophocles on the burning of Hercules, i. 111 + +Sorcerers or priests, order of effeminate, ii. 253 _sqq._ + +Sorrowful One, the vaults of the, ii. 41 + +Sothic or Siriac period, ii. 36 + +Sothis, Egyptian name for the star Sirius, ii. 34. + _See_ Sirius + +Soul of a tree in a bird, ii. 111 _n._ 1; + of the rice in the first sheaf cut, 239 + +"---- of Osiris," a bird, ii. 110 + +---- -cakes eaten at the feast of All Souls in Europe, ii. 70, 71 _sq._, 73, + 78 _sqq._ + +"Souling," custom of, on All Souls' Day in England, ii. 79 + +"---- Day" in Shropshire, ii. 78 + +Souls of the dead, reincarnation of the, i. 91 _sqq._; + brought back among the Gonds, 95 _sq._ + +----, feasts of All, ii. 51 _sqq._ + +South Slavs, devices of women to obtain offspring, i. 96; + marriage customs of, ii. 246 + +Sowers and ploughmen drenched with water as a rain-charm, i. 238 _sq._ + +Sowing, Prussian custom at, i. 238 _sq._; + rites of, ii. 40 _sqq._ + +---- and ploughing, ceremony of, in the rites of Osiris, ii. 87, 90, 96; + and planting, regulated by the phases of the moon, 133 _sqq._ + +Sozomenus, church historian, on sacred prostitution, i. 37 + +Spain, bathing on St. John's Eve in, i. 248 + +Sparta destroyed by an earthquake, i. 196 _n._ 4 + +Spartans, their attempt to stop an earthquake, i. 196 + +---- their flute-band, i. 196 + +---- their uniform red, i. 196 + +---- at Thermopylae, i. 197 _n._ 1 + +---- their regard for the full moon, ii. 141 + +---- their brides dressed as men on the wedding night, ii. 260 + +Spencer, Baldwin, on reincarnation of the dead, i. 100 _n._ 3 + +Spencer, B., and Gillen, F. J., on Australian belief in conception without + sexual intercourse, i. 99 + +Spermus, king of Lydia, i. 183 + +Spieth, J., on the Ewe peoples, i. 70 _n._ 2 + +Spirit animals supposed to enter women and be born from them, i. 97 _sq._ + +---- -children left by ancestors, i. 100 _sq._ + +Spirits supposed to consort with women, i. 91; + of ancestors in the form of animals, 83; + of forefathers thought to dwell in rivers, ii. 38 + +---- of dead chiefs worshipped by the whole tribe, ii. 175, 176, 177, 179, + 181 _sq._, 187; + thought to control the rain, 188; + prophesy through living men and women, 192 _sq._; + reincarnated in animals, 193. + _See also_ Ancestral spirits + +Spring called Persephone, ii. 41 + +Springs, worship of hot, i. 206 _sqq._; + bathing in, at Midsummer, 246, 247, 248, 249 + +Staffordshire, All Souls' Day in, ii. 79 + +Standard, Egyptian, resembling a placenta, ii. 156 _n._ 1 + +Stanikas, male children of sacred prostitutes, i. 63 + +Star of Bethlehem, i. 259 + +---- of Salvation, i. 258 + +---- -spangled cap of Attis, i. 284 + +Steinn in Hringariki, barrow of Halfdan at, ii. 100 + +_Stella Maris_, an epithet of the Virgin Mary, ii. 119 + +Stengel, P., on sacrificial ritual of Eleusis, i. 292 _n._ 3 + +Stlatlum Indians of British Columbia respect the animals and plants which + they eat, ii. 44 + +Stocks, sacred, among the Semites, i. 107 _sqq._ + +Stones, holed, custom of passing through, i. 36; + to commemorate the dead, ii. 203 + +----, sacred, anointed, i. 36; + among the Semites, 107 _sqq._; + among the Khasis, 108 _n._ 1 + +Strabo, on the concubines of Ammon, i. 72; + on Albanian moon-god, 73 _n._ 4; + on Castabala, 168 _n._ 6; + his description of the Burnt Land of Lydia, 193; + on the frequency of earthquakes at Philadelphia, 195; + his description of Rhodes, 195 _n._ 3; + on Nysa, 206 _n._ 1; + on the priests of Pessinus, 286 + +Stratonicea in Caria, eunuch priest at, i. 270 _n._ 2; + rule as to the pollution of death at, ii. 227 _sq._ + +String music in religion, i. 54 + +Su-Mu, a tribe of Southern China, said to be governed by a woman, ii. 211 + _n._ 2 + +Subordination of the individual to the community, the principle of ancient + society, i. 300 + +Substitutes for human sacrifices, i. 146 _sq._, 219 _sq._, 285, 289, ii. + 99, 221 + +Succession to the crown under mother-kin (female kinship), i. 44, ii. 18, + 210 _n._ 1 + +Sudan, the negroes of, their regard for the phases of the moon, ii. 141 + +Sudanese, their conduct in an earthquake, i. 198 + +_Suffetes_ of Carthage, i. 116 + +Sugar-bag totem, i. 101 + +Suicides, custom observed at graves of, i. 93; + ghosts of, feared, 292 _n._ 3 + +Suk, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 85 + +Sulla at Aedepsus, i. 212 + +Sumatra, the Bataks of, i. 199, ii. 239; + the Loeboes of, 264 + +Sumba, East Indian island, annual festival of the New Year and of the dead + in, ii. 55 _sq._ + +Sumerians, their origin and civilization, i. 7 _sq._ + +Summer on the Mediterranean rainless, i. 159 _sq._ + +---- called Aphrodite, ii. 41 + +---- festival of Adonis, i. 226, 232 _n._ + +Sun, temple of the, at Baalbec, i. 163; + Adonis interpreted as the, 228; + the Nativity of the, at the winter solstice, 303 _sqq._; + Osiris interpreted as the, ii. 120 _sqq._; + called "the eye of Horus," 121; + worshipped in Egypt, 122, 123 _sqq._; + the power of regeneration ascribed to the, 143 _n._ 4; + salutations to the rising, 193 + +---- and earth, annual marriage of, i. 47 _sq._ + +---- -god annually married to Earth-goddess, i. 47 _sq._; + the Egyptian, ii. 123 _sqq._; + hymns to the, 123 _sq._ + +---- -goddess of the Hittites, i. 133 _n._ + +---- the Unconquered, Mithra identified with, i. 304 + +Superiority of the goddess in the myths of Adonis, Attis, Osiris, ii. 201 + _sq._; + of goddesses over gods in societies organized on mother-kin, 202 _sqq._; + legal, of women over men in ancient Egypt, 214 + +Supplementary days, five, in the Egyptian year, ii. 6; + in the ancient Mexican year, 28 _n._ 3; + in the old Iranian year, 67, 68 + +Supreme gods in Africa, ii. 165, 173 _sq._, 174, 186, with note 5, 187 + _n._ 1, 188 _sq._, 190 + +_Swastika_, i. 122 _n._ 1 + +Sweden, May-pole or Midsummer-tree in, i. 250; + Midsummer bride and bridegroom in, 251; + kings of, answerable for the fertility of the ground, ii. 220; + marriage custom in, to ensure the birth of a boy, 262 + +"Sweethearts of St. John" in Sardinia, i. 244 _sq._ + +Swine not eaten by people of Pessinus, i. 265; + not eaten by worshippers of Adonis, 265; + not allowed to enter Comana in Pontus, 265. + _See also_ Pigs + +Sword, girls married to a, i. 61 + +Sycamore, effigy of Osiris placed on boughs of, ii. 88, 110; + sacred to Osiris, 110 + +Syene (Assuan), inscriptions at, ii. 35 _n._ 1 + +Symbolism, coarse, of Osiris and Dionysus, ii. 112, 113 + +Symmachus, on the festival of the Great Mother, i. 298 + +Syracuse, the Blue Spring at, i. 213 _n._ 1 + +Syria, Adonis in, i. 13 _sqq._; + "holy men" in, 77 _sq._; + hot springs resorted to by childless women in, 213 _sqq._; + subject to earthquakes, 222 _n._ 1; + the Nativity of the Sun at the winter solstice in, 303; + turning money at the new moon in, ii. 149 + +Syrian god Hadad, i. 15 + +---- peasants believe that women can conceive without sexual intercourse, i. + 91 + +---- women apply to saints for offspring, i. 109 + +---- writer on the reasons for assigning Christmas to the twenty-fifth of + December, i. 304 _sq._ + +Ta-uz (Tammuz), mourned by Syrian women in Harran, i. 230 + +Taanach, burial of children in jars at, i. 109 _n._ 1 + +Tacitus as to German observation of the moon, ii. 141 + +Taenarum in Laconia, Poseidon worshipped at, i. 203 _n._ 2 + +Talaga Bodas, volcano in Java, i. 204 + +Talbot, P. Amaury, on self-mutilation, i. 270 _n._ 1 + +Talismans, crowns and wreaths as, ii. 242 _sq._ + +Tamarisk, sacred to Osiris, ii. 110 _sq._ + +Tami, the, of German New Guinea, their theory of earthquakes, i. 198 + +Tamil temples, dancing-girls in, i. 61 + +Tamirads, diviners, i. 42 + +Tammuz, i. 6 _sqq._; + equivalent to Adonis, 6 _n._ 1; + his worship of Sumerian origin, 7 _sq._; + meaning of the name, 8; + "true son of the deep water," 8, 246; + laments for, 9 _sq._; + the month of, 10 _n._ 1, 230; + mourned for at Jerusalem, 11, 17, 20; + as a corn-spirit, 230; + his bones ground in a mill and scattered to the wind, 230 + +---- and Ishtar, i. 8 _sq._ + +Tangkul Nagas of Assam, their annual festival of the dead, ii. 57 _sqq._ + +Tanjore, dancing-girls at, i. 61 + +Tantalus murders his son Pelops, i. 181 + +Tark, Tarku, Trok, Troku, syllables in names of Cilician priests, i. 144; + perhaps the name of a Hittite deity, 147; + perhaps the name of the god of Olba, 148, 165 + +Tarkimos, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145 + +Tarkondimotos, name of two Cilician kings, i. 145 _n._ 2 + +Tarkuaris, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145; + priestly king of Olba, 145 + +Tarkudimme or Tarkuwassimi, name on Hittite seal, i. 145 _n._ 2 + +Tarkumbios, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145 + +Tarsus, climate and fertility of, i. 118; + school of philosophy at, 118; + Sandan and Baal at, 142 _sq._, 161; + priesthood of Hercules at, 143; + Fortune of the City on coins of, 164; + divine triad at, 171 + +----, the Baal of, i. 117 _sqq._, 162 _sq._ + +----, Sandan of, i. 124 _sqq._ + +_Tat_ or _tatu_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar + +Tate, H. R., on serpent-worship, i. 85 + +Tattoo-marks of priests, i. 74 _n._ 4 + +Taurians of the Crimea, their use of the heads of prisoners, i. 294 + +_Taurobolium_ in the rites of Cybele, i. 274 _sqq._; + or _Tauropolium_, 275 _n._ 1 + +Taurus mountains, i. 120 + +Tears of Isis thought to swell the Nile, ii. 33; + rain thought to be the tears of gods, 33 + +Tegea, tombstones at, i. 87 + +Telamon, father of Teucer, i. 145 + +Tell-el-Amarna letters, i. 16 _n._ 5, 21 _n._ 2, 135 _n._; + the new capital of King Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1, 124, 125 + +Tell Ta'annek (Taanach), burial of children in jars at, i. 109 _n._ 1 + +Tempe, the Vale of, ii. 240 + +Temple-tombs of kings, ii. 161 _sq._, 167 _sq._, 170 _sqq._, 174, 194 + _sq._ + +Temples of dead kings, ii. 161 _sq._, 167 _sq._, 170 _sqq._, 194 _sq._ + +Tenggereese of Java sacrifice to volcano, i. 220 + +Tentyra (Denderah), temple of Osiris at, ii. 86 + +Ternate, the sultan of, his sacrifice of human victims to a volcano, i. + 220 + +Tertullian on the fasts of Isis and Cybele, i. 302 _n._ 4; + on the date of the Crucifixion, 306 _n._ 5 + +Teshub or Teshup, name of Hittite god, i. 135 _n._, 148 _n._ + +Teso, the, of Central Africa, medicine-men dressed as women among the, ii. + 257 + +Testicles of rams in the rites of Attis, i. 269 _n._; + of bull used in rites of Cybele and Attis, 276 + +Tet, New Year festival in Annam, ii. 62 + +_Tet_ pillar. _See_ _Ded_ pillar + +Teti, king of Egypt, ii. 5 + +Teucer, said to have instituted human sacrifice, i. 146 + +---- and Ajax, names of priestly kings of Olba, i. 144 _sq._, 148, 161 + +Teucer, son of Tarkuaris, priestly king of Olba, i. 151, 157 + +----, son of Telamon, founds Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145 + +----, son of Zenophanes, high-priest of Olbian Zeus, i. 151 + +Teucrids, dynasty at Salamis in Cyprus, i. 145 + +Teutonic year reckoned from October 1st, ii. 81 + +Thargelion, an Attic month, ii. 239 _n._ 1 + +Theal, G. McCall, on the worship of ancestors among the Bantus, ii. 176 + _sq._ + +Theban priests, their determination of the solar year, ii. 26 + +Thebes in Boeotia, stone lion at, i. 184 _n._ 3; + festival of the Laurel-bearing at, ii. 241 + +---- in Egypt, temple of Ammon at, i. 72; + the Memnonium at, ii. 35 _n._; + the Valley of the Kings at, 90 + +Theias, a Syrian king, i. 43 _n._ 4; + father of Adonis, 55 _n._ 4 + +Theism late in human history, ii. 41 + +Theocracy in the Pelew Islands, tendency to, ii. 208 + +Theopompus on the names of the seasons, ii. 41 + +Thera, worship of the Mother of the Gods in, i. 280 _n._ 1 + +Thermopylae, the Spartans at, i. 197 _n._ 1; + the hot springs of, 210 _sqq._ + +Thesmophoria, i. 43 _n._ 4; + sacrifice to serpents at the, 88; + pine-cones at the, 278; + fast of the women at the, ii. 40 _sq._ + +Thetis and her infant son, i. 180 + +Thirty years, the Sed festival held nominally at intervals of, ii. 151 + +Thonga, Bantu tribe of South Africa, their belief in serpents as + reincarnations of the dead, i. 82; + their presentation of infants to the moon, ii. 144 _sq._; + worship of the dead among the, 180 _sq._ + +---- chiefs buried secretly, ii. 104 _sq._ + +Thongs, legends as to new settlements enclosed by, ii. 249 _sq._ + +Thoth, Egyptian god of wisdom, ii. 7, 17; + teaches Isis a spell to restore the dead to life, 8; + restores the eye of Horus, 17 + +Thoth, the first month of the Egyptian year, ii. 36, 93 _sqq._ + +Thracian villages, custom at Carnival in, ii. 99 _sq._ + +Threshing corn by oxen, ii. 45 + +Threshold, burial of infants under the, i. 93 _sq._ + +Thucydides on military music, i. 196 _n._ 3; + on the sailing of the fleet for Syracuse, 226 _n._ 4 + +{~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} distinguished from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, i. 316 _n._ 1 + +Thunder and lightning, sacrifices to, i. 157; + the Syrian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Hittite god of, 163 _sq._ + +---- -god of the Hittites, with a bull and an axe as his emblems, i. 134 + _sqq._ + +---- totem, i. 101 + +Thunderbolt, as emblem of Hittite god, i. 134, 136; + as divine emblem, 163 + +---- and ears of corn, emblem of god Hadad, i. 163 + +Thurston, Edgar, on dancing-girls in India, i. 62 + +Thyatira, hero Tyrimnus at, i. 183 _n._ + +Thymbria, sanctuary of Charon at, i. 205 + +Tiberius, the Emperor, persecuted the Egyptian religion, ii. 95 _n._ 1 + +Tibullus, on the rising of Sirius, ii. 34 _n._ 1 + +Tiele, C. P., on rock-hewn sculptures at Boghaz-Keui, i. 140 _n._ 1; + on the death of Saracus, 174 _n._ 2; + on Isis, ii. 115; + on the nature of Osiris, 126 _n._ 2 + +Tiger's ghost, deceiving a, ii. 263 + +Tiglath-Pileser III., king of Assyria, i. 14, 16, 163 _n._ 3 + +Tii, Egyptian queen, mother of Amenophis IV., ii. 123 _n._ 1 + +Tille, A., on beginning of Teutonic winter, ii. 81 _n._ 3 + +Timber felled in the waning of the moon, ii. 133, 135 _sq._, 137 + +Timor, theory of earthquakes in, i. 197 + +Timotheus, on the death of Attis, i. 264 _n._ 4 + +Tiru-kalli-kundram, dancing-girls at, i. 61 + +Titane, shrine of Aesculapius at, i. 81 + +_Tobolbel_, in the Pelew Islands, ii. 266 + +Tod, J., on rites of goddess Gouri, i. 241 _sq._ + +Todas of the Neilgherry Hills, custom as to the pollution of death + observed by sacred dairyman among the, ii. 228 + +Togo-land, West Africa, the Ewe people of, i. 282 _n._ 2; + the Ho tribe of, ii. 104 + +Tomb of Midas, i. 286; + of Hyacinth, 314 + +Tombs of the kings of Uganda, ii. 168 _sq._; + of kings sacred, 194 _sq._ + +Tongans, their theory of an earthquake, i. 200 _sq._ + +Tongue of sacrificial ox cut out, ii. 251 _sq._ + +Tonquin, annual festival of the dead in, ii. 62 + +Tophet, at Jerusalem, i. 177 + +Toradjas of Central Celebes, their theory of rain, ii. 33 + +Torres Straits Islands, worship of animal-shaped heroes in the, i. 139 + _n._ 1; + death-dances in the, ii. 53 _n._ 2 + +Totemism in Kiziba, ii. 173, 174 _n._ 1 + +Toulon, Midsummer custom at, i. 248 _sq._ + +Town, charm to protect a, ii. 249 _sqq._ + +Tozer, H. F., on Mount Argaeus, i. 191 + +Traditions of kings torn in pieces, ii. 97 _sq._ + +Tralles in Lydia, i. 38 + +Transference of Egyptian festivals from one month to the preceding month, + ii. 92 _sqq._ + +Transformation of men into women, attempted, in obedience to dreams, ii. + 255 _sqq._; + of women into men, attempted, 255 _n._ 1 + +Transition from mother-kin to father-kin, ii. 261 _n._ 3 + +Transylvania, harvest customs among the Roumanians and Saxons of, i. 237 + _sq._ + +Travancore, dancing-girls in, i. 63 _sqq._ + +Treason, old English punishment of, i. 290 _n._ 2 + +Tree decked with bracelets, anklets, etc., i. 240; + soul of a, in a bird, ii. 111 _n._ 1 + +---- of life in Eden, i. 186 _n._ 4 + +---- -bearers (_Dendrophori_) in the worship of Cybele and Attis, i. 266 + _n._ 2, 267 + +---- -spirit, Osiris as a, ii. 107 _sqq._ + +Trees, spirit-children awaiting birth in, i. 100; + sacrificial victims hung on, 146; + represented on the monuments of Osiris, ii. 110 _sq._; + felled in the waning of the moon, 133, 135 _sq._, 137; + growing near the graves of dead kings revered, 162, 164 + +---- and rocks, Greek belief as to birth from, i. 107 _n._ 1 + +Triad, divine, at Tarsus, i. 171 + +Trident, emblem of Hittite thunder-god, i. 134, 135; + emblem of Indian deity, 170 + +Tristram, H. B., on date of the corn-reaping in Palestine, i. 232 _n._ + +Trobriands, the, i. 84 + +Trokoarbasis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145 + +Trokombigremis, priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 145 + +"True of speech," epithet of Osiris, ii. 21 + +Trumpets, blowing of, in the rites of Attis, i. 268 + +Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold Coast, dedicated men and women among + the, i. 69 _sq._; + ordeal of chastity among the, 115 _n._ 2; + their annual festival of the dead, ii. 66 _n._ 2 + +_Tubilustrium_ at Rome, i. 268 _n._ 1 + +Tulava, sacred prostitution in, i. 63 + +Tully River, in Queensland, belief of the natives as to conception without + sexual intercourse, i. 102 + +Tum of Heliopolis, an Egyptian sun-god, ii. 123 + +Turner, George, on sacred stones, i. 108 _n._ 1 + +"Turquoise, Mistress of," at Sinai, i. 53 + +Tusayan Indians, their custom at planting, i. 239 + +Tuscany, volcanic district of, i. 208 _n._ 1 + +Tusser, Thomas, on planting peas and beans, ii. 134 + +Twin, the navel-string of the King of Uganda called his Twin, ii. 147 + +Twins, precautions taken by women at the graves of, i. 93 _n._ 1 + +Two-headed deity, i. 165 _sq._ + +Tyana, Hittite monument at, i. 122 _n._ 1 + +Tybi, an Egyptian month, ii. 93 _n._ 2 + +Tylon or Tylus, a Lydian hero, i. 183; + his death and resurrection, 186 _sq._ + +Tylor, Sir Edward B., on fossil bones as a source of myths, i. 157 _sq._; + on names for father and mother, 281 + +Typhon slays Hercules, i. 111; + Corycian cave of, 155 _sq._; + his battle with the gods, 193, 194 + +---- and Zeus, battle of, i. 156 _sq._ + +----, or Set, the brother of Osiris, ii. 6; + murders Osiris, 7 _sq._; + and mangles his body, 10; + interpreted as the sun, 129. + _See also_ Set + +Tyre, Melcarth at, i. 16; + burning of Melcarth at, 110 _sq._; + festival of "the awakening of Hercules" at, 111; + king of, his walk on stones of fire, 114 _sq._ + +----, kings of, their divinity, i. 16; + as priests of Astarte, 26 + +Tyrimnus, axe-bearing hero at Thyatira, i. 183 _n._ + +Tyrol, feast of All Souls in the, ii. 73 _sq._ + +Tyropoeon, ravine at Jerusalem, i. 178 + +Ucayali River, the Conibos of the, i. 198; + their greetings to the new moon, ii. 142 + +Uganda, the country of the Baganda, ii. 167; + temples of the dead kings of, 167, 168 _sq._, 170 _sqq._; + human sacrifices offered to prolong the lives of the kings of, 223 + _sqq._ + _See also_ Baganda + +Uncle, dead, worshipped, ii. 175 + +----, maternal, in marriage ceremonies in India, i. 62 _n._ 1 + +Uncleanness caused by contact with the dead, ii. 227 _sqq._ + +Unconquered Sun, Mithra identified with the, i. 304 + +Unis, king of Egypt, ii. 5 + +Unkulunkulu, "the Old-Old-one," the first man in the traditions of the + Zulus, ii. 182 + +Unnefer, "the Good Being," a title of Osiris, ii. 12 + +"Unspoken water" in marriage rites, ii. 245 _sq._ + +Upsala, human sacrifices in the holy grove at, i. 289 _sq._, ii. 220; + the reign of Frey at, 100 + +Up-uat, Egyptian jackal-god, ii. 154 + +Uranus castrated by Cronus, i. 283 + +Uri-melech or Adom-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14 + +Usirniri, temple of, at Busiris, ii. 151 + +Valesius, on the standard Egyptian cubit, ii. 217 _n._ 1 + +Vallabha, an Indian sect, men assimilated to women in the, ii. 254 + +Valley of Hinnom, sacrifices to Moloch, in the, i. 178 + +---- of the Kings at Thebes, ii. 90 + +---- of Poison, in Java, i. 203 _sq._ + +Vancouver Island, the Ahts of, ii. 139 _n._ 1 + +Vapours, worship of mephitic, i. 203 _sqq._ + +Varro, on the marriage of the Roman gods, ii. 230 _sq._, 236 _n._ 1; + his derivation of _Dialis_ from Jove, 230 _n._ 2; + on Salacia, 233; + on Fauna or the Good Goddess, 234 _n._ 4 + +Vase-painting of Croesus on the pyre, i. 176 + +Vatican, worship of Cybele and Attis on the site of the, i. 275 _sq._ + +Vegetable and animal life associated in primitive mind, i. 5 + +Vegetation, mythical theory of the growth and decay of, i. 3 _sqq._; + annual decay and revival of, represented dramatically in the rites of + Adonis, 227 _sqq._; + gardens of Adonis charms to promote the growth of, 236 _sq._, 239; + Midsummer fires and couples in relation to, 250 _sq._; + Attis as a god of, 277 _sqq._; + Osiris as a god of, ii. 112, 126, 131, 158 + +"Veins of the Nile," near Philae, ii. 40 + +Venus, the planet, identified with Astarte, i. 258, ii. 35 + +---- and Vulcan, ii. 231 + +Venus, the bearded, in Cyprus, ii. 259 _n._ 3 + +Vernal festival of Adonis, i. 226 + +Verrall, A. W., on the _Anthesteria_, i. 235 _n._ 1 + +Vertumnus and Pomona, ii. 235 _n._ 6 + +Vestal Virgin, mother of Romulus and Remus, ii. 235 + +---- Virgins, rule as to their election, ii. 244 + +Vicarious sacrifices for kings, ii. 220 _sq._ + +Vicarious and nutritive types of sacrifice, ii. 226 + +Victims, sacrificial, hung on trees, i. 146 + +Victoria Nyanza Lake, Mukasa the god of the, ii. 257 + +Victory, temple of, on the Palatine Hill at Rome, i. 265 + +Viehe, Rev. G., on the worship of the dead among the Herero, ii. 187 _n._ + 1 + +Vine, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. 7, 112 + +Vintage festival, Oschophoria, at Athens, ii. 258 _n._ 6 + +---- rites at Athens, ii. 238 + +Violets sprung from the blood of Attis, i. 267 + +Virbius or Dianus at Nemi, i. 45 + +Virgin, the Heavenly, mother of the Sun, i. 303 + +---- birth of Perseus, i. 302 _n._ 4 + +---- Mary and Isis, ii. 118 _sq._ + +---- Mother, the Phrygian Mother Goddess as a, i. 281 + +---- mothers, tales of, i. 264; + of gods and heroes, 107 + +Virginity, sacrifice of, i. 60; + recovered by bathing in a spring, 280 + +Virgins supposed to conceive through eating certain food, i. 96 + +Virility, sacrifice of, in the rites of Attis and Astarte, i. 268 _sq._, + 270 _sq._; + other cases of, 270 _n._ 2 + +Vitrolles, bathing at Midsummer at, i. 248 + +Viza, in Thrace, Carnival custom at, ii. 91 + +Volcanic region of Cappadocia, i. 189 _sqq._ + +---- religion, i. 188 _sqq._ + +Volcanoes, the worship of, i. 216 _sqq._; + human victims thrown into, 219 _sq._ + +Vosges, the Upper, rule as to the shearing of sheep in, ii. 134 _n._ 3 + +---- Mountains, feast of All Souls in the, ii. 69 + +Votiaks of Russia, annual festivals of the dead among the, ii. 76 _sq._ + +Voyage in boats of papyrus in the rites of Osiris, ii. 88 + +Vulcan, the fire-god, father of Caeculus, ii. 235 + +----, the husband of Maia or Majestas, ii. 232 _sq._; + his Flamen, 232 + +---- and Venus, ii. 231 + +Wabisa, Bantu tribe of Rhodesia, ii. 174 + +Wabondei, of Eastern Africa, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of + the dead, i. 82; + their rule as to the cutting of posts for building, ii. 137 + +Wachsmuth, C., on Easter ceremonies in the Greek Church, i. 254 + +Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, their ceremony at the new moon, ii. + 143 + +Wahehe, a Bantu tribe of German East Africa, the worship of the dead among + the, ii. 188 _sqq._; + their belief in a supreme god Nguruhe, 188 _sq._ + +Wailing of women for Adonis, i. 224 + +Wajagga of German East Africa, their way of appeasing ghosts of suicides, + i. 292 _n._ 3; + their human sacrifices at irrigation, ii. 38 + +Wales, All Souls' Day in, ii. 79 + +Wallachia, harvest custom in, i. 237 + +Wamara, a worshipful dead king, ii. 174 + +Waning of the moon, theories to account for the, ii. 130; + time for felling timber, 135 _sqq._ + +War, sacrifice of a blind bull before going to, ii. 250 _sq._ + +---- -dance of king before the ghosts of his ancestors, ii. 192 + +Warner, Mr., on Caffre ideas about lightning, ii. 177 _n._ 1 + +Warramunga of Central Australia, their belief in the reincarnation of the + dead, i. 100; + their tradition of purification by fire, 180 _n._ 2 + +Warts supposed to be affected by the moon, ii. 149 + +Water thrown on the last corn cut, a rain-charm, i. 237 _sq._; + marvellous properties attributed to, at Midsummer (the festival of St. + John), 246 _sqq._; + prophetic, drunk on St. John's Eve, 247 + +---- of Life, i. 9 + +Waterbrash, a Huzul cure for, ii. 149 _sq._ + +Wave accompanying earthquake, i. 202 _sq._ + +Weaning of children, belief as to the, in Angus, ii. 148 + +Weavers, caste of, i. 62 + +Weeks, Rev. J. H., on inconsistency of savage thought, i. 5 _n._; + on the names for the supreme god among many tribes of Africa, ii. 186 + _n._ 5 + +_Wellalaick_, festival of the dead among the Letts, ii. 74 + +Wen-Ammon, Egyptian traveller, i. 14, 75 _sq._ + +West, Oriental religions in the, i. 298 _sqq._ + +Westermann, D., on the worship of Nyakang among the Shilluks, ii. 165 + +Whalers, their bodies cut up and used as charms, ii. 106 + +Wheat forced for festival, i. 243, 244, 251 _sq._, 253 + +---- and barley, the cultivation of, introduced by Osiris, ii. 7; + discovered by Isis, 116 + +Whip made of human skin used in ceremonies for the prolongation of the + king's life, ii. 224, 225 + +Whitby, All Souls' Day at, ii. 79 + +White, Rev. G. E., on dervishes of Asia Minor, i. 170 + +White, Miss Rachel Evelyn (Mrs. Wedd), on the position of women in ancient + Egypt, ii. 214 _n._ 1, 216 _n._ 1 + +White the colour of Upper Egypt, ii. 21 _n._ 1 + +---- birds, souls of dead kings incarnate in, ii. 162 + +---- bull, soul of a dead king incarnate in a, ii. 164 + +---- Crown of Upper Egypt, ii. 20, 21 _n._ 1; + worn by Osiris, 87 + +---- roses dyed red by the blood of Aphrodite, i. 226 + +Whydah, King of, his worship of serpents, i. 67; + serpents fed at, 86 _n._ 1 + +Wicked after death, fate of the, in Egyptian religion, ii. 14 + +Widow-burning in Greece, i. 177 _n._ 3 + +Widowed Flamen, the, ii. 227 _sqq._ + +Wiedemann, Professor A., on Wen-Ammon, i. 76 _n._ 1; + on the Egyptian name of Isis, ii. 50 _n._ 4 + +Wigtownshire, harvest custom in, i. 237 _n._ 4 + +Wiimbaio tribe of South-Eastern Australia, their medicine-men, i. 75 _n._ + 4 + +Wilkinson, Sir J. G., on corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris, ii. 91 _n._ 3 + +Wilson, C. T., and R. W. Felkin, on the worship of the dead kings of + Uganda, ii. 173 _n._ 2 + +Winckler, H., his excavations at Boghaz-Keui, i. 125 _n._, 135 _n._ + +Winged deities, i. 165 _sq._ + +---- disc as divine emblem, i. 132 + +Winnowing-fans, ashes of human victims scattered by, ii. 97, 106 + +Winter called Cronus, ii. 41 + +---- sleep of the god, ii. 41 + +---- solstice reckoned the Nativity of the Sun, i. 303; + Egyptian ceremony at the, ii. 50 + +Wissowa, Professor G., on introduction of Phrygian rites at Rome, i. 267 + _n._; + on Orcus, ii. 231 _n._ 5; + on Ops and Consus, 233 _n._ 6; + on the marriage of the Roman gods, 236 _n._ 1 + +Wives of dead kings sacrificed at their tombs, ii. 168 + +Wives, human, of gods, i. 61 _sqq._, ii. 207; + in Western Asia and Egypt, 70 _sqq._ + +Wiwa chiefs reincarnated in pythons, ii. 193 + +Wogait, Australian tribe, their belief in conception without cohabitation, + i. 103 + +Woman feeding serpent in Greek art, i. 87 _sq._; + as inspired prophetess of a god, ii. 257 + +Woman's dress assumed by men to deceive dangerous spirits, ii. 262 _sq._ + +Women pass through holed stones as cure for barrenness, i. 36, with _n._ + 4; + impregnated by dead saints, 78 _sq._; + impregnated by serpents, 80 _sqq._; + fear to be impregnated by ghosts, 93; + impregnated by the flower of the banana, 93; + excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 113 _n._ 1; + their high importance in the social system of the Pelew Islanders, ii. + 205 _sqq._; + the cultivation of the staple food in the hands of women (Pelew + Islands), 206 _sq._; + their social importance increased by the combined influence of + mother-kin and landed property, 209; + their legal superiority to men in ancient Egypt, 214; + impregnated by fire, 235; + priests dressed as, 253 _sqq._; + dressed as men, 255 _n._ 1, 257; + excluded from sacrifices to Hercules, 258 _n._ 5; + dressed as men at marriage, 262 _sqq._; + dressed as men at circumcision, 263. + _See also_ Barrenness, Childless, _and_ Sacred Women + +---- as prophetesses inspired by dead chiefs, ii. 192 _sq._; + inspired by gods, 207 + +----, living, regarded as the wives of dead kings, ii. 191, 192; + reputed the wives of gods, 207 + +Women's hair, sacrifice of, i. 38 + +_Wororu_, man supposed to cause conception in women without sexual + intercourse, i. 105 + +Worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of Africa, ii. 174 + _sqq._; + among the Khasis of Assam, 203 + +---- of the dead perhaps fused with the propitiation of the corn-spirit, i. + 233 _sqq._; + among the Bantu tribes, ii. 174 _sqq._ + +---- of dead kings and chiefs in Africa, ii. 160 _sqq._; + among the Barotse, 194 _sq._; + an important element in African religion, 195 _sq._ + +---- of hot springs, i. 206 _sqq._ + +---- of mephitic vapours, i. 203 _sqq._ + +---- of volcanoes, i. 216 _sqq._ + +Worshippers of Osiris forbidden to injure fruit-trees and to stop up + wells, ii. 111 + +"Wounds between the arms" of Hebrew prophets, i. 74 _n._ 4 + +"---- of the Naaman," Arab name for the scarlet anemone, i. 226 + +Wreaths as amulets, ii. 242 _sq._ + +Wuensch, R., on the _Anthesteria_, i. 235 _n._ 1; + on modern survivals of festivals of Adonis, 246; + on Easter ceremonies in the Greek church, 254 _n._ + +Wyse, W., ii. 35 _n._ 1, 51 _n._ 1 + +Xenophanes of Colophon on the Egyptian rites of mourning for gods, ii. 42, + 43 + +Yam, island of Torres Straits, heroes worshipped in animal forms in, i. + 139 _n._ 1 + +Yap, one of the Caroline Islands, prostitution of unmarried girls in, ii. + 265 _sq._ + +Yarilo, a personification of vegetation, i. 253 + +Year, length of the solar, determined by the Theban priests, ii. 26 + +----, the fixed Alexandrian, ii. 28, 49, 92 + +----, the Celtic, reckoned from November 1st, ii. 81 + +----, the Egyptian, a vague year, not corrected by intercalation, ii. 24 + _sq._ + +---- of God, a Sothic period, ii. 36 _n._ 2; + began with the rising of Sirius, 35 + +----, the old Iranian, ii. 67 + +----, the Julian, ii. 28 + +----, the Teutonic, reckoned from October 1st, ii. 81 + +Yehar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14 + +Yehaw-melech, king of Byblus, i. 14 + +Ynglings, a Norse family, descended from Frey, ii. 100 + +Yombe, a Bantu tribe of Northern Rhodesia, their sacrifice of first-fruits + to the dead, ii. 191 + +Youth restored by the witch Medea, i. 180 _sq._ + +Yucatan, calendar of the Indians of, ii. 28 _n._ + +Yukon River in Alaska, ii. 51 + +Yungman tribe of Australia, their belief as to the birth of children, i. + 101 + +Yuruks, pastoral people of Cilicia, i. 150 _n._ 1 + +Zambesi, the Barotse of the, ii. 193 + +Zas, name of priest of Corycian Zeus, i. 155 + +Zechariah, on the mourning of or for Hadadrimmon, i. 15 _n._ 4; + on wounds of prophet, 74 _n._ 4 + +Zekar-baal, king of Byblus, i. 14 + +_Zend-Avesta_, on the Fravashis, ii. 67 _sq._ + +Zenjirli in Syria, Hittite sculptures at, i. 134; + statue of horned god at, 163 + +Zer, old Egyptian king, his true Horus name Khent, ii. 20 _n._ 1, 154. + _See_ Khent + +Zerka, river in Moab, i. 215 _n._ 1 + +Zeus, god of Tarsus assimilated to, i. 119, 143; + Cilician deity assimilated to, 144 _sqq._, 148, 152; + the flower of, 186, 187; + identified with Attis, 282; + castrates his father Cronus, 283; + the father of dew, ii. 137; + the Saviour of the City, at Magnesia on the Maeander, 238 + +----, Corycian, priests of, i. 145, 155; + temple of, 155 + +---- and Hecate at Stratonicea in Caria, i. 270 _n._ 2, 227 + +----, Labrandeus, the Carian, i. 182 + +----, Olbian, ruins of his temple at Olba, i. 151; + his cave or chasm, 158 _sq._; + his priest Teucer, 159; + a god of fertility, 159 _sqq._ + +----, Olybrian, i. 167 _n._ 1 + +---- Papas, i. 281 _n._ 2 + +Zeus and Typhon, battle of, i. 156 _sq._, 160 + +Zimmern, H., on Mylitta, i. 37 _n._ 1 + +Zimri, king of Israel, burns himself, i. 174 _n._ 2, 176 + +Zion, Mount, traditionally identified with Mount Moriah, ii. 219 _n._ 1 + +Zoroastrian fire-worship in Cappadocia, i. 191 + +Zulu medicine-men or diviners, i. 74 _n._ 4, 75; + their charm to fertilize fields, ii. 102 _sq._ + +Zulus, their belief in serpents as reincarnations of the dead, i. 82, 84; + their observation of the moon, ii. 134 _sq._; + the worship of the dead among the, 182 _sqq._; + their sacrifice of a bull to prolong the life of the king, 222 + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + M1 Osiris the Egyptian counterpart of Adonis and Attis. + M2 The myth of Osiris. The Pyramid Texts. + + 1 See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12-20; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di + Mitologia Egizia_ (Turin, 1881-1884), vol. ii. pp. 692 _sqq._; A. + Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_ (Tuebingen, + N.D.), pp. 365-369; _id._, _Die aegyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, + 1909), pp. 38 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_ + (Muenster i. W. 1890), pp. 109 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the + Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp. 207 _sqq._; G. Maspero, + _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 172 + _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_ (London, + 1904), ii. 123 _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ + (London, 1911), i. 1 _sqq._ + + 2 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient + Egypt_ (London, 1912), pp. vii. _sq._, 77 _sqq._, 84 _sqq._, 91 + _sqq._ Compare _id._, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, + 1908), p. 68; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 116 + _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ + (London, 1911), i. 100 _sqq._ The first series of the texts was + discovered in 1880 when Mariette's workmen penetrated into the + pyramid of King Pepi the First. Till then it had been thought by + modern scholars that the pyramids were destitute of inscriptions. + The first to edit the Pyramid Texts was Sir Gaston Maspero. + + M3 The Pyramid Texts intended to ensure the blissful immortality of + Egyptian kings. + + 3 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient + Egypt_, pp. 91 _sq._ Among the earlier works referred to in the + Pyramid Texts are "the chapter of those who ascend" and "the chapter + of those who raise themselves up" (J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ p. + 85). From their titles these works would seem to have recorded a + belief in the resurrection and ascension of the dead. + + M4 The story of Osiris in the Pyramid Texts. + + 4 This has been done by Professor J. H. Breasted in his _Development + of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 18 _sqq._ + + M5 Osiris a son of the earth-god and the sky-goddess. + + 5 In Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12, we must clearly read {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} with Scaliger and Wyttenbach for the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} of the + MSS. + + 6 Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann's note; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. + 94 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, + pp. 468 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de + l'Orient Classique_, i. 208 _sq._ + + 7 The birth of the five deities on the five supplementary days is + mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 13. 4) as well as by Plutarch + (_Isis et Osiris_, 12). The memory of the five supplementary days + seems to survive in the modern Coptic calendar of Egypt. The days + from the first to the sixth of Amshir (February) are called "the + days outside the year" and they are deemed unlucky. "Any child + begotten during these days will infallibly be misshapen or + abnormally tall or short. This also applies to animals so that + cattle and mares are not covered during these days; moreover, some + say (though others deny) that neither sowing nor planting should be + undertaken." However, these unlucky days are not the true + intercalary days of the Coptic calendar, which occur in the second + week of September at the end of the Coptic year. See C. G. + Seligmann, "Ancient Egyptian Beliefs in Modern Egypt," _Essays and + Studies presented to William Ridgeway_ (Cambridge, 1913), p. 456. As + to the unluckiness of intercalary days in general, see _The + Scapegoat_, pp. 339 _sqq._ + + M6 Osiris introduces the cultivation of corn and of the vine. His + violent death. Isis searches for his body. + + 8 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13; Diodorus Siculus, i. 14, 17, 20; + Tibullus, i. 7. 29 _sqq._ + + 9 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13 _sq._ + + M7 She takes refuge in the papyrus swamps. Isis and her infant son + Horus. + + 10 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 366; + _id._, _Die aegyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), p. 40; A. + Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), pp. + 213 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 487 + _sq._, ii. 206-211; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_ + (London, 1911), i. 92-96, ii. 84, 274-276. These incidents of the + scorpions are not related by Plutarch but are known to us from + Egyptian sources. The barbarous legend of the begetting of Horus by + the dead Osiris is told in unambiguous language in the Pyramid + Texts, and it is illustrated by a monument which represents the two + sister goddesses hovering in the likeness of hawks over the god, + while Hathor sits at his head and the Frog-goddess Heqet squats in + the form of a huge frog at his feet. See J. H. Breasted, + _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 28, with + note 2; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, + i. 280. Harpocrates is in Egyptian _Her-pe-khred_, "Horus the child" + (A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 223). + Plutarch, who appears to distinguish him from Horus, says that + Harpocrates was begotten by the dead Osiris on Isis, and that he was + born untimely and was weak in his lower limbs (_Isis et Osiris_, + 19). Elsewhere he tells us that Harpocrates "was born, incomplete + and youthful, about the winter solstice along with the early flowers + and blossoms" (_Isis et Osiris_, 65). + + M8 The body of Osiris floats to Byblus, where it is recovered by Isis. + The body of Osiris dismembered by Typhon, and the pieces recovered + by Isis. Diodorus Siculus on the burial of Osiris. + + 11 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8, 18. + + 12 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. + + 13 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18. Compare Hippolytus, _Refutatio + omnium haeresium_, v. 7, p. 142, ed. L. Duncker and F. G. + Schneidewin (Goettingen, 1859). + + 14 Diodorus Siculus, i. 21. 5-11; compare _id._, iv. 6. 3; Strabo, + xvii. 1. 23, p. 803. + + M9 The various members of Osiris treasured as relics in various parts + of Egypt. + + 15 H. Brugsch, "Das Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra," _Zeitschrift fuer + aegyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, xix. (1881) pp. 77 _sqq._; + V. Loret, "Les fetes d'Osiris au mois de Khoiak," _Recueil de + Travaux relatifs a la Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et + Assyriennes_, iii. (1882) pp. 43 _sqq._; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario + di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 697 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots + zweites Buch_ (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 584 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion + der alten Aegypter_, p. 115; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient + Egyptians_, pp. 215 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches + Leben im Altertum_, pp. 367 _sq._ + + 16 J. Rendel Harris, _The Annotators of the Codex Bezae_ (London, + 1901), p. 104, note 2, referring to Dulaure. + + M10 Osiris mourned by Isis and Nephthys. + + 17 A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_2 (Berlin, 1909), pp. 39 _sq._; + E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 59 + _sqq._ + + 18 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 211. + + M11 Being brought to life again, Osiris reigns as king and judge of the + dead in the other world. The confession of the dead. + + 19 A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 39 _sq._; G. Maspero, + _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 176; E. A. + Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 140, 262; _id._, + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 70-75, 80-82. On Osiris + as king of the dead see Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 79. + + 20 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), + pp. 8, 17, 18. + + 21 On Osiris as judge of the dead see A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der + alten Aegypter_, pp. 131 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient + Egyptians_, pp. 248 _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des + Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 187 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, + _The Book of the Dead_2 (London, 1909), i. pp. liii. _sqq._; _id._, + _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 141 _sqq._; _id._, _Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 305 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die aegyptische + Religion_,2 pp. 116 _sqq._ + +_ 22 The Book of the Dead_, ch. cxxv. (vol. ii. pp. 355 _sqq._ of + Budge's translation; P. Pierret, _Le Livre des Morts_, Paris, 1882, + pp. 369 _sqq._); R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, + pp. 788 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_, pp. + 132-134; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 249 _sqq._; + G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + i. 188-191; A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 117-121; E. A. + Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 337 _sqq._; + J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient + Egypt_, pp. 297 _sqq._ + + 23 A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 p. 121. Compare A. Wiedemann, + _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_, pp. 134 _sq._; _id._, _Religion of + the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 253. + + 24 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 254; E. A. + Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 305 _sqq._; + G. Maspero, _op. cit._ i. 194 _sq._; A. Erman, _Die aegyptische + Religion_,2 pp. 121 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 97 _sq._, 100 _sqq._; E. Lefebure, "Le + Paradis Egyptien," _Sphinx_, iii. (Upsala, 1900) pp. 191 _sqq._ + + M12 The fate of the wicked. + + 25 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 249. Compare + A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 117, 121; E. A. Wallis + Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 317, 328. + + M13 In the resurrection of Osiris the Egyptians saw a pledge of their + own immortality. + + 26 G. Maspero, "Le rituel du sacrifice funeraire," _Etudes de + Mythologie et d'Archeologie Egyptiennes_ (Paris, 1893-1912), i. 291 + _sq._ + + 27 G. Maspero, _op. cit._ pp. 300-316. Compare A. Wiedemann, _Die + Religion der alten Aegypter_, pp. 123 _sqq._; _id._, _Religion of the + Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 234 _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Book of + the Dead_2 (London, 1909), i. pp. iiii. _sqq._; _id._, _The Gods of + the Egyptians_, ii. 126, 140 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, i. 66 _sqq._, 101 _sq._, 176, 305, 399 _sq._; A. + Moret, _Du Caractere religieux de la Royaute Pharaonique_ (Paris, + 1902), p. 312; _id._, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and + London, 1912), pp. 91 _sqq._; _id._, _Mysteres Egyptiens_ (Paris, + 1913), pp. 37 _sqq._ "In one of the ceremonies of the 'Opening of + the Mouth' the deceased was temporarily placed in a bull's skin, + which was probably that of one of the bulls which were offered up + during the celebration of the service. From this skin the deceased + obtained further power, and his emergence from it was the visible + symbol of his resurrection and of his entrance into everlasting life + with all the strength of Osiris and Horus" (E. A. Wallis Budge, + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 400). + + M14 Every dead Egyptian identified with Osiris. + + 28 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 416; J. + H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 149 _sq._; + Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 31. + Under the earlier dynasties only kings appear to have been + identified with Osiris. + + 29 A. Moret, _Mysteres Egyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 40. + + 30 A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 111-113. However, in later + times the body with which the dead came to life was believed to be a + spiritual, not a material body; it was called _sahu_. See E. A. + Wallis Budge, _The Book of the Dead_,2 i. pp. lvii. _sqq._; _id._, + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 123 _sq._ + + M15 Combat between Set and Horus, the brother and the son of Osiris, for + the crown of Egypt. + + 31 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19 and 55; A. Erman, _Aegypten und + aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 368; _id._, _Die aegyptische + Religion_,2 pp. 41 _sq._; A. Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten + Aegypter_, p. 114; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. + 214 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient + Classique_, i. 176-178; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, i. 62 _sq._, 64, 89 _sqq._, 309 _sqq._ + + M16 The legend of their contest may be a reminiscence of dynastic + struggles. + +_ 32 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 290 _sqq._ + + M17 Osiris represented as a king in tradition and art. The tomb of + Osiris at Abydos. + + 33 A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 217. For + details see E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, i. 30 _sqq._ + + 34 J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), + p. 61; _id._, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient + Egypt_, p. 38; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, i. 37, 67, 81, 210, 212, 214, 290, ii. 1, 2, 8-13, + 82-85; A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 21, 23, 110; A. + Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 289; Ed. Meyer, + _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 70, 96, 97. It appears to be + now generally held that the original seat of the worship of Osiris + was at Busiris, but that at Abydos the god found a second home, + which in time eclipsed the old one in glory. According to Professors + Ed. Meyer and A. Erman, the god whom Osiris displaced at Abydos was + Anubis. + + 35 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches + Leben im Altertum_, p. 417; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient + Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 148 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des + Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 209; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 68 _sq._, ii. 3. + + M18 The tombs of the old kings at Abydos. The tomb of King Khent + identified with the tomb of Osiris. The sculptured effigy of Osiris. + The hawk the crest of the earliest dynasties. + + 36 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 125. + + 37 J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 43, 50 _sq._ + The excavations were begun by E. Amelineau and continued by W. M. + Flinders Petrie (Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. + 119). See E. Amelineau, _Le Tombeau d'Osiris_ (Paris, 1899); W. M. + Flinders Petrie, _The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_, Part + ii. (London, 1901). The excavations of the former have been + criticized by Sir Gaston Maspero (_Etudes de Mythologie et + d'Archeologie Egyptiennes_, vi. (Paris, 1912) pp. 153-182). + + 38 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 119, 124; E. A. + Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 8. The + place is now known by the Arabic name of Umm al-Ka'ab or "Mother of + Pots" on account of the large quantity of pottery that has been + found there. + + 39 Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 119, 125, 127, + 128, 129, 209. The king's Horus name has sometimes been read Zer, + but according to Professor Meyer (_op. cit._ p. 128) and Dr. Budge + (_Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 83) the true reading is + Khent (Chent). The king's personal name was perhaps Ka (Ed. Meyer, + _op. cit._ p. 128). + + 40 E. Amelineau, _Le Tombeau d'Osiris_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 107-115; W. + M. Flinders Petrie, _The Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties_, + Part ii. (London, 1901) pp. 8 _sq._, 16-19, with the frontispiece + and plates lx. lxi.; G. Maspero, _Etudes de Mythologie et + d'Archeologie Egyptiennes_ (Paris, 1893-1912), vi. 167-173; J. H. + Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 50 + _sq._, 148; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, ii. 8-10, 13, 83-85. The tomb, with its interesting + contents, was discovered and excavated by Monsieur E. Amelineau. The + masses, almost the mountains, of broken pottery, under which the + tomb was found to be buried, are probably remains of the vessels in + which pious pilgrims presented their offerings at the shrine. See E. + Amelineau, _op. cit._ pp. 85 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, _op. cit._ pp. + 51, 148. The high White Crown, worn by Osiris, was the symbol of the + king's dominion over Upper Egypt; the flat Red Crown, with a high + backpiece and a projecting spiral, was the symbol of his dominion + over Lower Egypt. On the monuments the king is sometimes represented + wearing a combination of the White and the Red Crown to symbolize + his sovereignty over both the South and the North. White was the + distinctive colour of Upper, as red was of Lower, Egypt. The + treasury of Upper Egypt was called "the White House"; the treasury + of Lower Egypt was called "the Red House." See Ed. Meyer, + _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 103 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, + _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), pp. 34 _sq._, 36, + 41. + + 41 A. Moret, _Mysteres Egyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 159-162, with + plate iii. Compare Victor Loret, "L'Egypte au temps du totemisme," + _Conferences faites au Musee Guimet, Bibliotheque de Vulgarisation_, + xix. (Paris, 1906) pp. 179-186. Both these writers regard the hawk + as the totem of the royal clan. This view is rejected by Prof. Ed. + Meyer, who, however, holds that Horus, whose emblem was the hawk, + was the oldest national god of Egypt (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 + i. 2. pp. 102-106). He prefers to suppose that the hawk, or rather + the falcon, was the emblem of a god of light because the bird flies + high in the sky (_op. cit._ p. 73; according to him the bird is not + the sparrow-hawk but the falcon, ib. p. 75). A similar view is + adopted by Professor A. Wiedemann (_Religion of the Ancient + Egyptians_, p. 26). Compare A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 + pp. 10, 11. The native Egyptian name of Hawk-town was Nechen, in + Greek it was Hieraconpolis (Ed. Meyer, _op. cit._ p. 103). Hawks + were worshipped by the inhabitants (Strabo, xvii. 1. 47, p. 817). + + 42 According to the legend the four sons of Horus were set by Anubis to + protect the burial of Osiris. They washed his dead body, they + mourned over him, and they opened his cold lips with their fingers. + But they disappeared, for Isis had caused them to grow out of a + lotus flower in a pool of water. In that position they are sometimes + represented in Egyptian art before the seated effigy of Osiris. See + A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 p. 43; E. A. Wallis Budge, + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 40, 41, 327. + + M19 The association of Osiris with Byblus. + + 43 See above, pp. 9 _sq._ + + 44 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 16 + _sq._ + + 45 Cyril of Alexandria, _In Isaiam_, lib. ii. Tomus iii. (Migne's + _Patrologia Graeca_, lxx. 441). + + M20 The date of a festival sometimes furnishes a clue to the nature of + the god. + M21 The year of the Egyptian calendar a vague or movable one. + + 46 As to the Egyptian calendar see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. + 93 _sqq._; Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient + Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 368 _sqq._; R. Lepsius, _Die + Chronologie der Aegypter_, i. (Berlin, 1849) pp. 125 _sqq._; H. + Brugsch, _Die Aegyptologie_ (Leipsic, 1891), pp. 347-366; A. Erman, + _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 468 _sq._; G. + Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. + 207-210; Ed. Meyer, "Aegyptische Chronologie," _Abhandlungen der + koenigl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, pp. 2 _sqq._; + _id._, "Nachtraege zur aegyptischen Chronologie," _Abhandlungen der + koenigl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907, pp. 3 _sqq._; + _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._; + F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen + Chronologie_, i. (Leipsic, 1906) pp. 150 _sqq._ + + 47 Herodotus, ii. 4, with A. Wiedemann's note; Geminus, _Elementa + Astronomiae_, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius (Leipsic, 1898); + Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10. + + 48 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, pp. 106 _sqq._, ed. C. Manitius. + + M22 Thus the official calendar was divorced from the natural calendar, + which is marked by the course of the seasons. + + 49 Diodorus Siculus, i. 50. 2; Strabo, xvii. i. 46, p. 816. According + to H. Brugsch (_Die Aegyptologie_, pp. 349 _sq._), the Egyptians + would seem to have denoted the movable year of the calendar and the + fixed year of the sun by different written symbols. For more + evidence that they were acquainted with a four years' period, + corrected by intercalation, see R. Lepsius, _Chronologie der + Aegypter_, i. 149 _sqq._ + + 50 Geminus, _Elementa Astronomiae_, 8, p. 106, ed. C. Manitius. The + same writer further (p. 108) describes as a popular Greek error the + opinion that the Egyptian festival of Isis coincided with the winter + solstice. In his day, he tells us, the two events were separated by + an interval of a full month, though they had coincided a hundred and + twenty years before the time he was writing. + +_ 51 Scholia in Caesaris Germanici Aratea_, p. 409, ed. Fr. Eyssenhardt, + in his edition of Martianus Capella (Leipsic, 1866). + + M23 Attempt of Ptolemy III. to reform the Egyptian calendar by + intercalation. + + 52 Copies of the decree in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek have been + found inscribed on stones in Egypt. See Ch. Michel, _Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques_ (Brussels, 1900), pp. 415 _sqq._, No. 551; + W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_ (Leipsic, + 1903-1905), vol. i. pp. 91 _sqq._, No. 56; J. P. Mahaffy, _The + Empire of the Ptolemies_ (London, 1895), pp. 205 _sqq._, 226 _sqq._ + The star mentioned in the decree is the Dog-star (Sirius). See + below, pp. 34 _sqq._ + + 53 W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. i. + pp. 140 _sqq._, No. 90, with note 25 of the editor. + + M24 Institution of the fixed Alexandrian year by the Romans. + + 54 On the Alexandrian year see L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen + und technischen Chronologie_, i. 140 _sqq._ That admirable + chronologer argued (pp. 153-161) that the innovation was introduced + not, as had been commonly supposed, in 25 B.C., but in 30 B.C., the + year in which Augustus defeated Mark Antony under the walls of + Alexandria and captured the city. However, the question seems to be + still unsettled. See F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und + technischen Chronologie_, i. 226 _sqq._, who thinks it probable that + the change was made in 26 B.C. For the purposes of this study the + precise date of the introduction of the Alexandrian year is not + material. + + 55 In demotic the fixed Alexandrian year is called "the year of the + Ionians," while the old movable year is styled "the year of the + Egyptians." Documents have been found which are dated by the day and + the month of both years. See H. Brugsch, _Die Aegyptologie_, pp. 354 + _sq._ + + 56 L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 149-152. Macrobius thought that the + Egyptians had always employed a solar year of 365-1/4 days (_Saturn._ + i. 12. 2, i. 14. 3). The ancient calendar of the Mexicans resembled + that of the Egyptians except that it was divided into eighteen + months of twenty days each (instead of twelve months of thirty days + each), with five supplementary days added at the end of the year. + These supplementary days (_nemontemi_) were deemed unlucky: nothing + was done on them: they were dedicated to no deity; and persons born + on them were considered unfortunate. See B. de Sahagun, _Histoire + generale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite par D. + Jourdanet et R. Simeon (Paris, 1880), pp. 50, 164; F. S. Clavigero, + _History of Mexico_ (London, 1807), i. 290. Unlike the Egyptian + calendar, however, the Mexican appears to have been regularly + corrected by intercalation so as to bring it into harmony with the + solar year. But as to the mode of intercalation our authorities + differ. According to the positive statement of Sahagun, one of the + earliest and best authorities, the Mexicans corrected the deficiency + of their year by intercalating one day in every fourth year, which + is precisely the correction adopted in the Alexandrian and the + Julian calendar. See B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp. 286 _sq._, where + he expressly asserts the falsehood of the view that the bissextile + year was unknown to the Mexicans. This weighty statement is + confirmed by the practice of the Indians of Yucatan. Like the + Aztecs, they reckoned a year to consist of 360 days divided into 18 + months of 20 days each, with 5 days added so as to make a total of + 365 days, but every fourth year they intercalated a day so as to + make a total of 366 days. See Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses + de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp. 202 _sqq._ On the other hand the + historian Clavigero, who lived in the eighteenth century, but used + earlier authorities, tells us that the Mexicans "did not interpose a + day every four years, but thirteen days (making use here even of + this favourite number) every fifty-two years; which produces the + same regulation of time" (_History of Mexico_, Second Edition, + London, 1807, vol. i. p. 293). However, the view that the Mexicans + corrected their year by intercalation is rejected by Professor E. + Seler. See his "Mexican Chronology," in _Bulletin 28_ of the Bureau + of American Ethnology (Washington, 1904), pp. 13 _sqq._; and on the + other side Miss Zelia Nuttall, "The Periodical Adjustments of the + Ancient Mexican Calendar," _American Anthropologist_, N.S. vi. + (1904) pp. 486-500. + + M25 In Egypt the operations of husbandry are dependent on the annual + rise and fall of the Nile. + + 57 Herodotus, ii. 36, with A. Wiedemann's note; Diodorus Siculus, i. + 14-1, i. 17. 1; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 57 _sq._, xviii. 60; Sir J. + Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ + (London, 1878), ii. 398, 399, 418, 426 _sq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten + und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 577 _sqq._; A. de Candolle, + _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ (London, 1884), pp. 354 _sq._, 369, + 381; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient + Classique_, i. 66. + + 58 Herodotus, ii. 14; Diodorus Siculus, i. 36; Strabo, xvii. 1. 3, pp. + 786-788; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 167-170; Seneca, _Natur. + Quaest._ iv. 2. 1-10; E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern + Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), pp. 17 _sq._, 495 _sqq._; A. + Erman, _op. cit._ pp. 21-25; G. Maspero, _op. cit._ i. 22 _sqq._ + However, since the Suez Canal was cut, rain has been commoner in + Lower Egypt (A. H. Sayce on Herodotus, ii. 14). + + 59 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + i. 22-26; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, + p. 23. According to Lane (_op. cit._ pp. 17 _sq._) the Nile rises in + Egypt about the summer solstice (June 21) and reaches its greatest + height by the autumnal equinox (September 22). This agrees exactly + with the statement of Diodorus Siculus (i. 36. 2). Herodotus says + (ii. 19) that the rise of the river lasted for a hundred days from + the summer solstice. Compare Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ v. 57, xviii. 167; + Seneca, _Nat. Quaest._ iv. 2. 1. According to Prof. Ginzel the Nile + does not rise in Egypt till the last week of June (_Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 154). For ancient + descriptions of Egypt in time of flood see Herodotus, ii. 97; + Diodorus Siculus, i. 36. 8 _sq._; Strabo, xvii. 1. 4, p. 788; + Aelian, _De natura animalium_, x. 43; Achilles Tatius, iv. 12; + Seneca, _Natur. Quaest._ iv. 2. 8 and 11. + + M26 Irrigation, sowing, and harvest in Egypt. + + 60 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient + Egyptians_ (London, 1878), ii. 365 _sq._; E. W. Lane, _Manners and + Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley and London, 1895), pp. 498 + _sqq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient + Classique_, i. 23 _sq._, 69. The last-mentioned writer says (p. 24) + that the dams are commonly cut between the first and sixteenth of + July, but apparently he means August. + + 61 Sir J. D. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ ii. 398 _sq._; Prof. W. M. Flinders + Petrie, cited above, vol. i. p. 231, note 3. According to Pliny + (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 60) barley was reaped in Egypt in the sixth + month from sowing, and wheat in the seventh month. Diodorus Siculus, + on the other hand, says (i. 36. 4) that the corn was reaped after + four or five months. Perhaps Pliny refers to Lower, and Diodorus to + Upper Egypt. Elsewhere Pliny affirms (_Nat. Hist._ xviii. 169) that + the corn was sown at the beginning of November, and that the reaping + began at the end of March and was completed in May. This certainly + applies better to Lower than to Upper Egypt. + + M27 The events of the agricultural year were probably celebrated with + religious rites. + M28 Mourning for Osiris at midsummer when the Nile begins to rise. + + 62 Pausanias, x. 32. 18. + + 63 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 278. + + 64 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, _De Bare'e-sprekende Toradjas van + Midden-Celebes_ (Batavia, 1912), i. 273. The more civilized Indians + of tropical America, who practised agriculture and had developed a + barbaric art, appear to have commonly represented the rain-god in + human form with tears streaming down from his eyes. See T. A. Joyce, + "The Weeping God," _Essays and Studies presented to William + Ridgeway_ (Cambridge, 1913), pp. 365-374. + + 65 This we learn from inscriptions at Silsilis. See A. Moret, _Mysteres + Egyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), p. 180. + + 66 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley + and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 495 _sq._ + + M29 Sirius regarded as the star of Isis. The rising of Sirius marked the + beginning of the sacred Egyptian year. The observation of the + gradual displacement of Sirius in the calendar led to the + determination of the true length of the solar year. + + 67 L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen + Chronologie_, i. 124 _sqq._; R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der + Aegypter_, i. 168 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen + und technischen Chronologie_, i. 190 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, "Nachtraege + zur aegyptischen Chronologie," _Abhandlungen der koenigl. Preuss. + Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), pp. 11 _sq._; + _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 28 _sq._, 99 _sqq._ The + coincidence of the rising of Sirius with the swelling of the Nile is + mentioned by Tibullus (i. 7. 21 _sq._) and Aelian (_De natura + animalium_, x. 45). In later times, as a consequence of the + precession of the equinoxes, the rising of Sirius gradually diverged + from the summer solstice, falling later and later in the solar year. + In the sixteenth and fifteenth century B.C. Sirius rose seventeen + days after the summer solstice, and at the date of the Canopic + decree (238 B.C.) it rose a whole month after the first swelling of + the Nile. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 130; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ + i. 190; Ed. Meyer, "Nachtraege zur aegyptischen Chronologie," pp. 11 + _sq._ According to Censorinus (_De die natali_, xxi. 10), Sirius + regularly rose in Egypt on the twentieth of July (Julian calendar); + and this was true of latitude 30 deg. in Egypt (the latitude nearly of + Heliopolis and Memphis) for about three thousand years of Egyptian + history. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 128-130. But the date of the + rising of the star is not the same throughout Egypt; it varies with + the latitude, and the variation within the limits of Egypt amounts + to seven days or more. Roughly speaking, Sirius rises nearly a whole + day earlier for each degree of latitude you go south. Thus, whereas + near Alexandria in the north Sirius does not rise till the + twenty-second of July, at Syene in the south it rises on the + sixteenth of July. See R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ i. 168 _sq._; F. K. + Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 182 _sq._ Now it is to be remembered that the + rising of the Nile, as well as the rising of Sirius, is observed + earlier and earlier the further south you go. The coincident + variation of the two phenomena could hardly fail to confirm the + Egyptians in their belief of a natural or supernatural connexion + between them. + + 68 Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 4; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 21, 22, 38, + 61; Porphyry, _De antro nympharum_, 24; Scholiast on Apollonius + Rhodius, ii. 517; Canopic decree, lines 36 _sq._, in W. + Dittenberger's _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. i. p. + 102, No. 56 (lines 28 _sq._ in Ch. Michel's _Recueil d'Inscriptions + Grecques_, p. 417, No. 551); R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia + Egizia_, pp. 825 _sq._ On the ceiling of the Memnonium at Thebes the + heliacal rising of Sirius is represented under the form and name of + Isis (Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient + Egyptians_, London, 1878, iii. 102). + + 69 Porphyry and the Canopic decree, _ll.cc._; Censorinus, _De die + natali_, xviii. 10, xxi. 10. In inscriptions on the temple at Syene, + the modern Assuan, Isis is called "the mistress of the beginning of + the year," the goddess "who revolves about the world, near to the + constellation of Orion, who rises in the eastern sky and passes to + the west perpetually" (R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 826). According + to some, the festival of the rising of Sirius and the beginning of + the sacred year was held on the nineteenth, not the twentieth of + July. See Ed. Meyer, "Aegyptische Chronologie," _Abhandlungen der + koenigl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1904, pp. 22 _sqq._; + _id._, "Nachtraege zur aegyptischen Chronologie," _Abhandlungen der + koenigl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907, pp. 7 _sqq._; + _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 _sqq._ + +_ 70 Eudoxi ars astronomica, qualis in charta Aegyptiaca superest_, ed. + F. Blass (Kiliae, 1887), p. 14, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}] {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}], + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. This statement of Eudoxus + or of one of his pupils is important, since it definitely proves + that, besides the shifting festivals of the shifting official year, + the Egyptians celebrated other festivals, which were dated by direct + observation of natural phenomena, namely, the annual inundation, the + rise of Sirius, and the phases of the moon. The same distinction of + the fixed from the movable festivals is indicated in one of the + Hibeh papyri, but the passage is unfortunately mutilated. See _The + Hibeh Papyri_, part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt + (London, 1906), pp. 145, 151 (pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W. + Wyse). The annual festival in honour of Ptolemy and Berenice was + fixed on the day of the rising of Sirius. See the Canopic decree, in + W. Dittenberger's _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, No. 56 + (vol. i. pp. 102 _sq._). + + The rise of Sirius was carefully observed by the islanders of Ceos, + in the Aegean. They watched for it with arms in their hands and + sacrificed on the mountains to the star, drawing from its aspect + omens of the salubrity or unhealthiness of the coming year. The + sacrifice was believed to secure the advent of the cool North winds + (the Etesian winds as the Greeks call them), which regularly begin + to blow about this time of the year, and mitigate the oppressive + heat of summer in the Aegean. See Apollonius Rhodius, _Argon._ ii. + 516-527, with the notes of the Scholiast on vv. 498, 526; + Theophrastus, _De ventis_, ii. 14; Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ + vi. 3. 29, p. 753, ed. Potter; Nonnus, _Dionys._ v. 269-279; + Hyginus, _Astronomica_, ii. 4; Cicero, _De divinatione_, i. 57. 130; + M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 6-8; C. + Neumann und J. Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ + (Breslau, 1885), pp. 96 _sqq._ On the top of Mount Pelion in + Thessaly there was a sanctuary of Zeus, where sacrifices were + offered at the rising of Sirius, in the height of the summer, by men + of rank, who were chosen by the priest and wore fresh sheep-skins. + See [Dicaearchus,] "Descriptio Graeciae," _Geographi Graeci + Minores_, ed. C. Mueller, i. 107; _Historicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_, + ed. C. Mueller, ii. 262. + + 71 Above, pp. 24 _sq._ + + 72 We know from Censorinus (_De die natali_, xxi. 10) that the first of + Thoth coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius on July 20 + (Julian calendar) in the year 139 A.D. Hence reckoning backwards by + Sothic periods of 1460 solar years we may infer that Sirius rose on + July 20th (Julian calendar) in the years 1321 B.C., 2781 B.C., and + 4241 B.C.; and accordingly that the civil or vague Egyptian year of + 365 days was instituted in one of these years. In favour of + supposing that it was instituted either in 2781 B.C. or 4241 B.C., + it may be said that in both these years the rising of Sirius nearly + coincided with the summer solstice and the rising of the Nile; + whereas in the year 1321 B.C. the summer solstice, and with it the + rising of the Nile, fell nineteen days before the rising of Sirius + and the first of Thoth. Now when we consider the close causal + connexion which the Egyptians traced between the rising of Sirius + and the rising of the Nile, it seems probable that they started the + new calendar on the first of Thoth in a year in which the two + natural phenomena coincided rather than in one in which they + diverged from each other by nineteen days. Prof. Ed. Meyer decides + in favour of the year 4241 B.C. as the date of the introduction of + the Egyptian calendar on the ground that the calendar was already + well known in the Old Kingdom. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 125 + _sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 192 _sqq._; Ed. Meyer, + "Nachtraege zur aegyptischen Chronologie," _Abhandlungen der koenigl. + Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, 1907 (Berlin, 1908), pp. 11 + _sq._; _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 28 _sqq._, 98 + _sqq._ When the fixed Alexandrian year was introduced in 30 B.C. + (see above, pp. 27 _sq._) the first of Thoth fell on August 29, + which accordingly was thenceforth reckoned the first day of the year + in the Alexandrian calendar. See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 153 _sqq._ + The period of 1460 solar or 1461 movable Egyptian years was + variously called a Sothic period (Clement of Alexandria, _Strom._ i. + 21. 136, p. 401 ed. Potter), a Canicular year (from _Canicula_, "the + Dog-star," that is, Sirius), a heliacal year, and a year of God + (Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 10). But there is no evidence + or probability that the period was recognized by the Egyptian + astronomers who instituted the movable year of 365 days. Rather, as + Ideler pointed out (_op. cit._ i. 132), it must have been a later + discovery based on continued observations of the heliacal rising of + Sirius and of its gradual displacement through the whole length of + the official calendar. Brugsch, indeed, went so far as to suppose + that the period was a discovery of astronomers of the second century + A.D., to which they were led by the coincidence of the first of + Thoth with the heliacal rising of Sirius in 139 A.D. (_Die + Aegyptologie_, p. 357). But the discovery, based as it is on a very + simple calculation (365 x 4 = 1460), could hardly fail to be made as + soon as astronomers estimated the length of the solar year at 365-1/4 + days, and that they did so at least as early as 238 B.C. is proved + conclusively by the Canopic decree. See above, pp. 25 _sq._, 27. As + to the Sothic period see further R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie der + Aegypter_, i. 165 _sqq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. 187 _sqq._ + + For the convenience of the reader I subjoin a table of the Egyptian + months, with their dates, as these fell, (1) in a year when the + first of Thoth coincided with July 20 of the Julian calendar, and + (2) in the fixed Alexandrian year. + + Egyptian Months, Sothic Year beginning July 20, Alexandrian Year. + 1 Thoth, 20 July, 29 August + 1 Phaophi, 19 August, 28 September + 1 Atbyr, 18 September, 28 October + 1 Khoiak, 18 October, 27 November + 1 Tybi, 17 November, 27 December + 1 Mechir, 17 December, 26 January + 1 Phamenoth, 16 January, 25 February + 1 Pharmuthi, 15 February, 27 March + 1 Pachon, 17 March, 26 April + 1 Payni, 16 April, 26 May + 1 Epiphi, 16 May, 25 June + 1 Mesori, 15 June, 25 July + 1 Supplementary, 15 July, 24 August + + See L. Ideler, _op. cit._ i. 143 _sq._; F. K. Ginzel, _op. cit._ i. + 200. + + 73 The Canopic decree (above, p. 27) suffices to prove that the + Egyptian astronomers, long before Caesar's time, were well + acquainted with the approximately exact length of the solar year, + although they did not use their knowledge to correct the calendar + except for a short time in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes. With + regard to Caesar's debt to the Egyptian astronomers see Dio Cassius, + xliii. 26; Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 14. 3, i. 16. 39; L. Ideler, + _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 166 + _sqq._ + + M30 Ceremonies observed in Egypt at the cutting of the dams early in + August. The Bride of the Nile. Sacrifices offered by savages at the + cutting of dams. + + 74 E. W. Lane, _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (Paisley + and London, 1895), ch. xxvi. pp. 499 _sq._ + + 75 Bruno Gutmann, "Feldbausitten und Wachstumsbraeuche der Wadschagga," + _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913) pp. 484 _sq._ + + 76 Hon. K. R. Dundas, "Notes on the tribes inhabiting the Baringo + District, East Africa Protectorate," _Journal of the Royal + Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 54. + + M31 Modern Egyptian ceremony at the cutting of the dams. + + 77 E. W. Lane, _op. cit._ pp. 500-504; Sir Auckland Colvin, _The Making + of Modern Egypt_ (London, 1906), pp. 278 _sq._ According to the + latter writer, a dressed dummy was thrown into the river at each + cutting of the dam. + + 78 Seneca, _Naturales Quaestiones_, iv. 2. 7. The cutting of the dams + is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (i. 36. 3), and the festival on + that occasion ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}) is noticed by Eudoxus (or one of his + pupils) in a passage which has already been quoted. See above, p. + 35, note 2. + + 79 Sir Auckland Colvin, _l.c._ + + M32 The sowing of the seed in November. Plutarch on the mournful + character of the rites of sowing. The sadness of autumn. + + 80 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Plutarch derives the name from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, "pain," "grief." + But the etymology is uncertain. It has lately been proposed to + derive the epithet from {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}, "nourishment." See M. P. Nilsson, + _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), p. 326. As to the vaults + ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}) of Demeter see Pausanias, ix. 8. 1; Scholiast on Lucian, + _Dial. Meretr._ ii. pp. 275 _sq._, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906). + + 81 In antiquity the Pleiades set at dawn about the end of October or + early in November. See L. Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und + technischen Chronologie_, i. 242; Aug. Mommsen, _Chronologie_ + (Leipsic, 1883), pp. 16, 27; G. F. Unger, "Zeitrechnung der Griechen + und Roemer," in Iwan Mueller's _Handbuch der klassischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, i.1 (Noerdlingen, 1886) pp. 558, 585. + + 82 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 83 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 69-71. With the sleep of the Phrygian + gods we may compare the sleep of Vishnu. The toils and anxieties of + the Indian farmer "are continuous, and his only period of + comparative rest is in the heavy rain time, when, as he says, the + god Vishnu goes to sleep, and does not wake till October is well + advanced and the time has come to begin cutting and crushing the + sugar-cane and boiling down the juice" (W. Crooke, _Natives of + Northern India_, London, 1907, p. 159). + + M33 Plutarch's view that the worship of the fruits of the earth sprang + from a verbal misunderstanding. + + 84 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 77. + + M34 His theory is an inversion of the truth: for fetishism is the + antecedent, not the corruption, of theism. Lamentations of the + savage for the animals and plants which he kills and eats. + M35 Respect shown by savages for the fruits and the animals which they + eat. + +_ 85 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 204 _sqq._ + + 86 C. Hill Tout, "Report on the Ethnology of the Stlatlum Indians of + British Columbia," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. + (1905) pp. 140 _sq._ + + M36 Thus the lamentations of the sower become intelligible. + + 87 Psalm cxxvi. 5 _sq._ Firmicus Maternus asks the Egyptians (_De + errore profanarum religionum_, ii. 7), "_Cur plangitis fruges terrae + et crescentia lugetis semina?_" + + M37 Lamentations of the Egyptian corn-reapers. + + 88 As to the Egyptian modes of reaping and threshing see Sir J. + Gardiner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ + (London, 1878), ii. 419 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches + Leben im Altertum_, pp. 572 _sqq._ + + 89 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2. + + 90 Herodotus, ii. 79; Julius Pollux, iv. 54; Pausanias, ix. 29. 7; + Athenaeus, xiv. 11 _sq._, pp. 618-620. As to these songs see + _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 214 _sqq._ + + 91 H. Brugsch, _Adonisklage und Linoslied_ (Berlin, 1852), p. 24, + corrected by A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 336. As to + the lamentations for Osiris see above, p. 12. + + M38 Similar ceremonies observed by the Cherokee Indians in the + cultivation of the corn. The Old Woman of the corn and the laments + for her death. + + 92 J. Mooney, "Myths of the Cherokee," _Nineteenth Annual Report of the + Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1900), pp. 423 _sq._ I do + not know what precisely the writer means by "the last working of the + crop" and "the first working of the corn." + +_ 93 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 180 _sqq._ + + 94 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), p. 46. + + M39 Lamentations of Indians at cutting sacred wood. + + 95 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 25. + + M40 Arab ceremony of burying "the old man" at harvest. + + 96 A. Jaussen, "Coutumes Arabes," _Revue Biblique_, 1er avril 1903, p. + 258; _id._, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris 1908), pp. + 252 _sq._ + + M41 With the adoption of the Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. the Egyptian + festivals ceased to rotate through the natural year. + + 97 Thus with regard to the Egyptian month of Athyr he tells us that the + sun was then in the sign of the Scorpion (_Isis et Osiris_, 13), + that Athyr corresponded to the Athenian month Pyanepsion and the + Boeotian month Damatrius (_op. cit._ 69), that it was the month of + sowing (_ib._), that in it the Nile sank, the earth was laid bare by + the retreat of the inundation, the leaves fell, and the nights grew + longer than the days (_op. cit._ 39). These indications agree on the + whole with the date of Athyr in the Alexandrian calendar, namely + October 28-November 26. Again, he says (_op. cit._ 43) that the + festival of the beginning of spring was held at the new moon of the + month Phamenoth, which, in the Alexandrian calendar, corresponded to + February 24-March 26. Further, he tells us that a festival was + celebrated on the 23rd of Phaophi after the autumn equinox (_op. + cit._ 52), and in the Alexandrian calendar Phaophi began on + September 28, a few days after the autumn equinox. Once more, he + observes that another festival was held after the spring equinox + (_op. cit._ 65), which implies the use of a fixed solar year. See G. + Parthey in his edition of Plutarch's _Isis et Osiris_ (Berlin, + 1850), pp. 165-169. + + 98 H. Brugsch, _Die Aegyptologie_, p. 355. + + M42 The sufferings of Osiris displayed as a mystery at Sais. The + illumination of houses throughout Egypt on the night of the festival + suggests that the rite was a Feast of All Souls. + + 99 Herodotus, ii. 170. + + 100 Herodotus, ii. 129-132. + + 101 Herodotus, ii. 41, with Prof. A. Wiedemann's note (_Herodots zweites + Buch_, pp. 187 _sqq._); Diodorus Siculus, i. 11. 4; Aelian, _De + natura animalium_, x. 27; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 19 and 39. + According to Prof. Wiedemann "the Egyptian name of the cow of Isis + was _hes-t_, and this is one of the rare cases in which the name of + the sacred animal agrees with that of the deity." _Hest_ was the + usual Egyptian form of the name which the Greeks and Romans + represented as Isis. See R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia + Egizia_, pp. 813 _sqq._ + + 102 In this form she is represented on a relief at Philae pouring a + libation in honour of the soul of Osiris. See E. A. Wallis Budge, + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 8. She is similarly + portrayed in a bronze statuette, which is now in the Louvre. See G. + Perrot et Ch. Chipiez, _Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquite_, i. + (Paris, 1882) p. 60, fig. 40. + + 103 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 52. The interpretation is accepted by + Prof. A. Wiedemann (_Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 482). + + 104 Herodotus, ii. 62. In one of the Hibeh papyri (No. 27, lines + 165-167) mention is made of the festival and of the lights which + were burned throughout the district. See _The Hibeh Papyri_, part + i., ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (London, 1906), p. 149 + (pointed out to me by Mr. W. Wyse). In the papyrus the festival is + said to have been held in honour of Athena (_i.e._ Neith), the great + goddess of Sais, who was there identified with Isis. See A. + Wiedemann, _Die Religion der alten Aegypter_, pp. 77 _sq._; _id._, + _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 140 _sq._ + + 105 In the period of the Middle Kingdom the Egyptians of Siut used to + light lamps for the dead on the last day and the first day of the + year. See A. Erman, "Zehn Vortraege aus dem mittleren Reich," + _Zeitschrift fuer aegyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, xx. (1882) + p. 164; _id._, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. + 434 _sq._ + + M43 Annual festival of the dead among the Esquimaux. The lighting of the + lamps for the dead. Annual festivals of the dead among the Indians + of California. Annual festivals of the dead among the Choctaws and + Pueblo Indians. + + 106 E. W. Nelson, "The Eskimo about Bering Strait," _Eighteenth Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. + 363 _sqq._ + + 107 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), pp. 328, 355, + 356, 384. + + 108 Kostromitonow, "Bemerkungen ueber die Indianer in Ober-Kalifornien," + in K. F. v. Baer and Gr. v. Helmersen's _Beitraege zur Kenntniss des + russischen Reiches_, i. (St. Petersburg, 1839) pp. 88 _sq._ The + natives of the western islands of Torres Straits used to hold a + great death-dance at which disguised men personated the ghosts of + the lately deceased, mimicking their characteristic gait and + gestures. Women and children were supposed to take these mummers for + real ghosts. See A. C. Haddon, in _Reports of the Cambridge + Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) + pp. 252-256; _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the + Dead_, i. 176 _sqq._ + + 109 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, pp. 437 _sq._ + + 110 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes Occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. + 95 _sq._ + + 111 T. G. S. Ten Broeck, in H. R. Schoolcraft's _Indian Tribes of the + United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 78. The Pueblo village + to which the writer particularly refers is Laguna. + + M44 Annual festival of the dead among the Miztecs of Mexico. + + 112 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisees du Mexique + et de l'Amerique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 23 _sq._; H. H. + Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), + ii. 623. Similar customs are still practised by the Indians of a + great part of Mexico and Central America (Brasseur de Bourbourg, + _op. cit._ iii. 24, note 1). + + 113 "Lettre du cure de Santiago Tepehuacan ason eveque," _Bulletin de la + Societe de Geographie_ (Paris), IIme Serie, ii. (1834) p. 179. + + M45 Annual festival of the dead in Sumba. + + 114 S. Roos, "Bijdrage tot de kennis van taal, land en volk op het + eiland Soemba," _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van + Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. (1872) pp. 63-65. + + M46 Annual festival of the dead in Kiriwina. Festival of the dead among + the Sea Dyaks of Borneo. + + 115 Rev. S. B. Fellows, quoted by George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and + Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. 237. + + 116 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ + (London, 1911), pp. 216-218. For another and briefer account of this + festival see _The Scapegoat_, p. 154. + + M47 Annual festival of the dead among the Nagas of Manipur. + + 117 Rev. Wm. Pettigrew, "Kathi Kasham, the 'Soul Departure' feast as + practised by the Tangkkul Nagas, Manipur, Assam," _Journal and + Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, N.S. vol. v. 1909 + (Calcutta, 1910), pp. 37-46; T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of + Manipur_ (London, 1911), pp. 153-158. + + M48 Annual festival of the dead among the Oraons of Bengal. + + 118 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., "Religion and Customs of the Uraons," _Memoirs + of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta, 1906), + p. 136. Compare Rev. F. Hahn, "Some Notes on the Religion and + Superstition of the Oraos," _Journal of the Asiatic Society of + Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) pp. 12 _sq._ According to + the latter writer the pots containing the relics of the dead are + buried, not in the sand of the river, but in a pit, generally + covered with huge stones, which is dug for the purpose in some field + or grove. + + M49 Annual festival of the dead in Bilaspore. + + 119 E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_ (London, 1908), p. 18. According + to Mr. W. Crooke, the Hindoo Feast of Lamps (_Diwali_) seems to have + been based on "the idea that on this night the spirits of the dead + revisit their homes, which are cleaned and lighted for their + reception." See W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of + Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 295 _sq._ + + M50 Annual festival of the dead among the Bghais and Hkamies. + + 120 Rev. F. Mason, D.D., "Physical Character of the Karens," _Journal of + the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, Part ii. pp. 29 _sq._ Lights + are not mentioned by the writer, but the festival being nocturnal we + may assume that they are used for the convenience of the living as + well as of the dead. In other respects the ceremonies are typical. + + 121 R. F. St. Andrew St. John, "A Short Account of the Hill Tribes of + North Aracan," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, ii. + (1873) p. 238. At this festival the dead are apparently not supposed + to return to the houses. + + M51 Annual festival of the dead in Cambodia. + + 122 E. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 59; A. + Leclere, _Le Buddhisme au Cambodge_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 374-376. The + departure of the souls is described only by the latter writer. + Compare E. Aymonier, "Notes sur les coutumes et croyances + superstitieuses des Cambodgiens," _Cochinchine Francaise, Excursions + et Reconnaissances_, No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), pp. 205 _sq._ + + 123 Mariny, _Relation nouvelle et curieuse des royaumes de Tunquin et de + Lao_ (Paris, 1666), pp. 251-253. + + M52 Annual festival of the dead in Annam. + + 124 Le R. P. Cadiere, "Coutumes populaires de la vallee du Nguon-So'n," + _Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient_, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) + pp. 376-379; P. d'Enjoy, "Du droit successoral en Annam," etc., + _Bulletins de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris_, Ve Serie, iv. + (1903) pp. 500-502; E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. + 372-375. + + M53 Annual festival of friendless ghosts in Annam. + + 125 E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 254 _sq._; Paul Giran, + _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), pp. 258 _sq._ According + to the latter writer the offerings to the vagrant souls are made on + the first and last days of the month, while sacrifices of a more + domestic character are performed on the fifteenth. + + M54 Annual festivals of the dead in Cochinchina, Siam and Japan. + + 126 L. E. Louvet, _La Cochinchine religieuse_ (Paris, 1885), pp. + 149-151. + +_ 127 The Scapegoat_, pp. 149 _sqq._ + + M55 Annual festivals of the dead among the Chewsurs and Armenians. + + 128 C. v. Hahn, "Religioese Anschauungen und Totengedaechtnisfeier der + Chewsuren," _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) pp. 211 _sq._ + + 129 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), pp. 23 + _sq._ + + M56 Annual festivals of the dead in Africa. + + 130 Fred. E. Forbes, _Dahomey and the Dahomans_ (London, 1851), ii. 73. + Compare John Duncan, _Travels in Western Africa_ (London, 1847), i. + 125 _sq._; A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave + Coast_ (London, 1890), p. 108. The Tshi-speaking peoples of the Gold + Coast and Ashantee celebrate an annual festival of eight days in + honour of the dead. It falls towards the end of August. The + offerings are presented to the departed at their graves. See A. B. + Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London, 1887), + pp. 227 _sq._; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchatel, 1908), + pp. 136, 138. According to the latter writer the festival is + celebrated at the time of the yam harvest. + + 131 W. Munzinger, _Ostafrikanische Studien_ (Schaffhausen, 1864), p. + 473. + +_ 132 The Scapegoat_, pp. 136 _sq._ + + M57 Annual festivals of the dead among peoples of the Aryan stock. + Annual festival of the dead (the Fravashis) among the old Iranians. + Annual festival of the dead among the Persians. + + 133 On the worship of the dead, and especially of ancestors, among Aryan + peoples, see W. Caland, _Ueber Totenverehrung bei einigen der + indo-germanischen Voelker_ (Amsterdam, 1888); O. Schrader, + _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ (Strasburg, 1901), + pp. 21 _sqq._; _id._, _s.v._ "Aryan Religion," in Dr. J. Hastings's + _Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics_, ii. (Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 16 + _sqq._ + + 134 As to the Iranian calendar see W. Geiger, _Altiranische Kultur im + Altertum_ (Erlangen, 1882), pp. 314 _sqq._; as to the Iranian + worship of the sainted dead (the Fravashis) see _id._ pp. 286 _sqq._ + As to the annual festival of the dead (Hamaspathmaedaya) see W. + Caland, _Ueber Totenverehrung bei einigen der indo-germanischen + Voelker_ (Amsterdam, 1888), pp. 64 _sq._; N. Soederblom, _Les + Fravashis_ (Paris, 1899), pp. 4 _sqq._; J. H. Moulton, _Early + Zoroastrianism_ (London, 1913), pp. 256 _sqq._ All these writers + agree that the Fravashis of the _Zend-Avesta_ were originally the + souls of the dead. See also James Darmesteter, _Zend-Avesta_, Part + ii. (Oxford, 1883) p. 179: "The Fravashi is the inner power in every + being that maintains it and makes it grow and subsist. Originally + the Fravashis were the same as the _Pitris_ of the Hindus or the + _Manes_ of the Latins, that is to say, the everlasting and deified + souls of the dead; but in course of time they gained a wider domain, + and not only men, but gods and even physical objects, like the sky + and the earth, etc., had each a Fravashi." Compare _id._, _Ormazd et + Ahriman_ (Paris, 1877), pp. 130 _sqq._; N. Soederblom, _La Vie Future + d'apres Le Mazdeisme_ (Paris, 1901), pp. 7 _sqq._ A different view + of the original nature of the Fravashis was taken by C. P. Tiele, + according to whom they were essentially guardian spirits. See C. P. + Tiele, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_ (Gotha, 1896-1903), ii. + 256 _sqq._ + +_ 135 The Zend-Avesta_, translated by James Darmesteter, Part ii. + (Oxford, 1883) pp. 192 _sq._ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. + xxiii.). + + 136 Albiruni, _The Chronology of Ancient Nations_, translated and edited + by Dr. C. Edward Sachau (London, 1879), p. 210. In the _Dinkard_, a + Pahlavi work which seems to have been composed in the first half of + the ninth century A.D., the festival is spoken of as "those ten days + which are the end of the winter and termination of the year, because + the five Gathic days, among them, are for that purpose." By "the + five Gathic days" the writer means the five supplementary days added + at the end of the twelfth month to complete the year of 365 days. + See _Pahlavi Texts_ translated by E. W. West, Part iv. (Oxford, + 1892) p. 17 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxxvii.). + + M58 Feast of All Souls in Brittany and other parts of France. + + 137 A. le Braz, _La Legende de la Morten Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1893), + pp. 280-287. Compare J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ + (Conde-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887), ii. 283 _sqq._ + + 138 L. F. Sauve, _Le folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 295 + _sq._ + + 139 J. L. M. Nogues, _Les moeurs d'autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_ + (Saintes, 1891), p. 76. As to the observance of All Souls' Day in + other parts of France see A. Meyrac, _Traditions, coutumes, legendes + et contes des Ardennes_ (Charleville, 1890), pp. 22-24; Ch. + Beauquier, _Les mois en Franche-Comte_ (Paris, 1900), pp. 123-125. + + M59 Feast of All Souls in Belgium. + + 140 Above, p. 52. + + 141 W. Crooke, _The Natives of Northern India_ (London, 1907), p. 219. + + 142 Reinsberg-Dueringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862), ii. + 236-240; _id._, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 229 _sq._ + + M60 Feast of All Souls in Lechrain. + + 143 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855), + pp. 198-200. + + M61 Soul-cakes and All Souls' Day in Southern Germany. + + 144 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Dueringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ + (Leipsic, 1863), p. 330. As to these cakes (called "souls") in + Swabia see E. Meyer, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus + Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 452, § 174; Anton Birlinger, + _Volksthuemliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1861-1862), + ii. 167 _sq._ The cakes are baked of white flour, and are of a + longish rounded shape with two small tips at each end. + + 145 Adalbert Kuhn, _Mythologische Studien_, ii. (Guetersloh, 1912) pp. 41 + _sq._, citing F. Schoenwerth, _Aus der Oberpfalz_, i. 283. + + M62 Feast of All Souls in Bohemia. + + 146 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Dueringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Boehmen_ + (Prague, N.D.), pp. 493-495. + + 147 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westboehmen_ + (Prague, 1905), p. 97. + + M63 Feast of All Souls in Moravia. + + 148 Willibald Mueller, _Beitraege zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Maehren_ + (Vienna and Olmuetz, 1893), p. 330. + + M64 Feast of All Souls in the Tyrol and Baden. + + 149 Ignaz V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Braeuche und Meiningen des Tiroler + Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), pp. 176-178. + + 150 Christian Schneller, _Maerchen und Sagen aus Waelschtirol_ (Innsbruck, + 1867), p. 238. + + 151 Elard Hugo Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben im neunzehnten Jahrhundert_ + (Strasburg, 1900), p. 601. + + M65 Annual festivals of the dead among the Letts and Samagitians. + + 152 P. Einhorn, "Historia Lettica," in _Scriptores Rerum Livonicarum_, + ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 587, 598, 630 _sq._, 645 _sq._ See + also the description of D. Fabricius in his "Livonicae Historiae + compendiosa series," _ib._ p. 441. Fabricius assigns the custom to + All Souls' Day. + + 153 J. Lasicius, "De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum," in + _Magazin herausgegeben von der lettisch-literaerischen Gesellschaft_, + xiv. 1. (Mitau, 1868), p. 92. + + 154 F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und aeussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St. + Petersburg, 1876), pp. 366 _sq._; Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten + aberglaeubische Gebraeuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, + 1854), p. 89. + + M66 Festival of the dead in Russia. + + 155 W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_2 (London, 1872), pp. + 321 _sq._ The date of the festival is not mentioned. Apparently it + is celebrated at irregular intervals. + + M67 Annual festivals of the dead among the Votiaks of Russia. + + 156 M. Buch, _Die Wotjaeken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 145. + + 157 J. Wasiljev, _Uebersicht ueber die heidnischen Gebraeuche, Aberglauben + und Religion der Wotjaeken_ (Helsingfors, 1902), pp. 34 _sq._ + (_Memoires de la Societe Finno-Ougrienne_, xviii.). As to the Votiak + clans see the same work, pp. 42-44. + + M68 Feast of All Souls in the Abruzzi. + + 158 G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), + pp. 180-182. Mr. W. R. Paton writes to me (12th December 1906): "You + do not mention the practice[s] on the modern Greek feast {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + (in May) which quite correspond. The {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} is made in every house + and put on a table laid with a white tablecloth. A glass of water + and a taper are put on the table, and all is left so for the whole + night. Our Greek maid-servant says that when she was a child she + remembers seeing the souls come and partake. Almost the same rite is + practised for the {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} made on the commemoration of particular + dead." + + M69 Soul-cakes on All-Souls' Day in England. "Souling Day" in + Shropshire. + + 159 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, + 1882-1883), i. 393. + + 160 John Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881), + p. 23. + + 161 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ + (London, 1883), p. 381. The writers record (pp. 382 _sqq._) some of + the ditties which were sung on this occasion by those who begged for + soul-cakes. + + 162 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, i. 392, 393; W. + Hone, _Year Book_ (London, N.D.), col. 1288; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, + _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 405, 406, 407, 409; J. + Harland and T. T. Wilkinson, _Lancashire Folk-lore_ (London, 1882), + p. 251; Elizabeth Mary Wright, _Rustic Speech and Folk-lore_ + (Oxford, 1913), p. 300. + + 163 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, + 1909), p. 255. See also T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular + Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 410, who, quoting Pennant as his + authority, says that the poor people who received soul-cakes prayed + God to bless the next crop of wheat. + +_ 164 County Folk-lore_, vol. ii. _North Riding of Yorkshire, York, and + the Ainsty_ (London, 1901), quoting George Young, _A History of + Whitby and Streoneshalth Abbey_ (Whitby, 1817), ii. 882. + + 165 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 410. + + 166 M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in John + Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 666. + + M70 Feast of All Souls among the Indians of Ecuador. + + 167 Dr. Rivet, "Le Christianisme et les Indiens de la Republique de + l'Equateur," _L'Anthropologie_, xvii. (1906) pp. 93 _sq._ + + M71 The nominally Christian feast of All Souls on Nov. 2 appears to be + an old Celtic festival of the dead adopted by the Church in 998 A.D. + Institution of the Feast of All Souls by the Abbot of Clugny. + + 168 See above, pp. 53, 55, 62, 65. + + 169 Sir John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. + 460, 514 _sq._; _id._, "Celtae and Galli," _Proceedings of the + British Academy, 1905-1906_ (London, N.D.), p. 78; _Balder the + Beautiful_, i. 224 _sq._ + + 170 K. Muellenhoff, _Deutsche Altertumskunde_, iv. (Berlin, 1900) pp. 379 + _sq._ The first of October seems to have been a great festival among + the Saxons and also the Samagitians. See Widukind, _Res gestae + Saxonicae_, i. 12 (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_, cxxxvii. 135); M. A. + Michov, "De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea," in S. Grynaeus's _Novus + Orbis Regionum ac Insularum veteribus incognitarum_ (Bale, 1532), p. + 520. I have to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for pointing out these + two passages to me. Mr. A. Tille prefers to date the Teutonic winter + from Martinmas, the eleventh of November. See A. Tille, _Die + Geschichte der deutschen Weihnacht_ (Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 23 _sqq._; + O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der indogermanischen Altertumskunde_ + (Strasburg, 1901), p. 395. + + 171 A. J. Binterim, _Die vorzueglichsten Denkwuerdigkeiten der + Christ-Katholischen Kirche_, v. 1 (Mayence, 1829), pp. 493 _sq._; J. + J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _Real-Encyclopaedie fuer protestantische + Theologie und Kirche_,2 i. (Leipsic, 1877), pp. 303 _sq._; W. Smith + and S. Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_ (London, + 1875-1880), i. 57 _sq._ + + M72 The feast of All Saints on Nov. 1 seems also to have displaced a + heathen festival of the dead. + + 172 A. J. Binterim, _op. cit._ v. 1, pp. 487 _sqq._; J. J. Herzog und G. + F. Plitt, _op. cit._ i. p. 303; W. Smith and S. Cheetham, + _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, i. 57. In the last of these + works a passage from the _Martyrologium Romanum Vetus_ is quoted + which states that a feast of Saints (_Festivitas Sanctorum_) on the + first of November was celebrated at Rome. But the date of this + particular Martyrology is disputed. See A. J. Binterim, _op. cit._ + v. 1, pp. 52-54. + + 173 J. J. Herzog und G. F. Plitt, _op. cit._ i. 304. A similar attempt + to reform religion by diverting the devotion of the people from the + spirits of their dead appears to have been made in antiquity by the + doctors of the Persian faith. For that faith "in its most finished + and purest form, in the _Gathas_, does not recognize the dead as + objects worthy of worship and sacrifice. But the popular beliefs + were too firmly rooted, and the Mazdeans, like the sectaries of many + other ideal and lofty forms of religion, were forced to give way. As + they could not suppress the worship and get rid of the primitive and + crude ideas involved in it, they set about the reform in another + way: they interpreted the worship in a new manner, and thus the + worship of the dead became a worship of the gods or of a god in + favour of the loved and lost ones, a pious commemoration of their + names and their virtues." See N. Soederblom, _Les Fravashis_ (Paris, + 1899), pp. 6 _sq._ The _Gathas_ form the oldest part of the + _Zend-Avesta_. James Darmesteter, indeed, in his later life startled + the learned world by a theory that the _Gathas_ were a comparatively + late work based on the teaching of Philo of Alexandria. But this + attempt of a Jew to claim for his race the inspiration of the + Persian scriptures has been coldly received by Gentile scholars. See + J. H. Moulton, _Early Zoroastrianism_ (London, 1913), pp. 8 _sqq._ + + M73 Festival of the death and resurrection of Osiris in the month of + Athyr. The finding of Osiris. + + 174 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39. As to the death of Osiris on the + seventeenth of Athyr see _ib._ 13 and 42. Plutarch's statement on + this subject is confirmed by the evidence of the papyrus Sallier + IV., a document dating from the 19th dynasty, which places the + lamentation for Osiris at Sais on the seventeenth day of Athyr. See + A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; _id._, _Die Religion + der alten Aegypter_, p. 112; _id._, _Religion of the Ancient + Egyptians_, pp. 211 _sq._ + + 175 See above, p. 50. + + 176 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 39. The words which I have translated + "vegetable mould" are {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, literally, "fruitful earth." The + composition of the image was very important, as we shall see + presently. + + 177 Lactantius, _Divin. Institut._, i. 21; _id._, _Epitome Inst. Divin._ + 23 (18, ed. Brandt and Laubmann). The description of the ceremony + which Minucius Felix gives (_Octavius_, xxii. 1) agrees closely + with, and is probably copied from, that of Lactantius. We know from + Appian (_Bell. Civ._ iv. 6. 47) that in the rites of Isis a priest + personated Anubis, wearing a dog's, or perhaps rather a jackal's, + mask on his head; for the historian tells how in the great + proscription a certain Volusius, who was on the condemned list, + escaped in the disguise of a priest of Isis, wearing a long linen + garment and the mask of a dog over his head. + + 178 The suggestion is due to Prof. A. Wiedemann (_Herodots zweites + Buch_, p. 261). + + 179 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2. Herodotus + tells (ii. 61) how the Carians cut their foreheads with knives at + the mourning for Osiris. + + 180 In addition to the writers who have been already cited see Juvenal, + viii. 29 _sq._; Athenagoras, _Supplicatio pro Christianis_, 22, pp. + 112, 114, ed. J. C. T. Otto (Jena, 1857); Tertullian, _Adversus + Marcionem_, i. 13; Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 10. + + M74 The great Osirian inscription at Denderah. + + 181 W. Smith, _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography_, ii. 1127. + + 182 For complete translations of the inscription see H. Brugsch, "Das + Osiris-Mysterium von Tentyra," _Zeitschrift fuer aegyptische Sprache + und Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 77-111; V. Loret, "Les fetes + d'Osiris au mois de Khoiak," _Recueil de Travaux relatifs a la + Philologie et a l'Archeologie Egyptiennes et Assyriennes_, iii. + (1882) pp. 43-57, iv. (1883) pp. 21-33, v. (1884) pp. 85-103. On the + document and the festivals described in it see further A. + Mariette-Pacha, _Denderah_ (Paris, 1880), pp. 334-347; J. Duemichen, + "Die dem Osiris im Denderatempel geweihten Raeume," _Zeitschrift fuer + aegyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde_, 1882, pp. 88-101; H. + Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_ (Leipsic, + 1885-1888), pp. 616-618; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia + Egizia_, pp. 725-744; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; + _id._, "Osiris vegetant," _Le Museon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 113; E. A. + Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 128 _sq._; _id._, + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 21 _sqq._; Miss Margaret + A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), pp. 27 _sq._ + + M75 The rites of Osiris in the month of Khoiak represented the god as + dead, dismembered, and then reconstituted by the union of his + scattered limbs. + + 183 R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 727. + + 184 H. Brugsch, in _Zeitschrift fuer aegyptische Sprache und + Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 80-82; A. Wiedemann, in _Le Museon_, + N.S. iv. (1903) p. 113. The corn used in the making of the images is + called barley by Brugsch and Miss M. A. Murray (_l.c._), but wheat + (_ble_) by Mr. V. Loret. + + 185 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 99, 101. + + 186 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 82 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. + 728; Miss Margaret A. Murray, _op. cit._ p. 27. + + 187 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 90 _sq._, 96 _sq._, 98; R. V. Lanzone, + _op. cit._ pp. 743 _sq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the + Egyptians_, ii. 128. According to Lanzone, the ploughing took place, + not on the first, but on the last day of the festival, namely, on + the thirtieth of Khoiak; and that certainly appears to have been the + date of the ploughing at Busiris, for the inscription directs that + there "the ploughing of the earth shall take place in the Serapeum + of _Aa-n-beh_ under the fine Persea trees on the last day of the + month Khoiak" (H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 84). + + 188 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, p. 28; H. + Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 83, 92. The headless human image in the cow + may have stood for Isis, who is said to have been decapitated by her + son Horus, and to have received from Thoth a cow's head as a + substitute. See Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 20; G. Maspero, + _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 177; Ed. + Meyer, _s.v._ "Isis," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und + roem. Mythologie_, ii. 366. + + 189 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 92 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp. + 738-740; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots zweites Buch_, p. 262; Miss M. A. + Murray, _op. cit._ p. 35. An Egyptian calendar, written at Sais + about 300 B.C., has under the date 26 Khoiak the following entry: + "Osiris goes about and the golden boat is brought forth." See _The + Hibeh Papyri_, Part i., edited by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt + (London, 1906), pp. 146, 153. In the Canopic decree "the voyage of + the sacred boat of Osiris" is said to take place on the 29th of + Khoiak from "the sanctuary in the Heracleum" to the Canopic + sanctuary. See W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones + Selectae_, No. 56 (vol. i. pp. 105, 108). Hence it would seem that + the date of this part of the festival varied somewhat in different + places or at different times. + + 190 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 99; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the + Egyptians_, ii. 129; compare Miss Margaret A. Murray, _op. cit._ p. + 28, who refers the ceremony to the twenty-fifth of Khoiak. + + 191 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ pp. 94, 99; A. Mariette-Pacha, _Denderah_, + pp. 336 _sq._; R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ p. 744. Mariette supposed + that after depositing the new image in the sepulchre they carried + out the old one of the preceding year, thus setting forth the + resurrection as well as the death of the god. But this view is + apparently not shared by Brugsch and Lanzone. + + M76 The resurrection of Osiris represented on the monuments. + + 192 A. Mariette-Bey, _Denderah_, iv. (Paris, 1873) plates 65, 66, 68, + 69, 70, 71, 72, 88, 89, 90; R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia + Egizia_, pp. 757 _sqq._, with plates cclxviii.-ccxcii.; E. A. Wallis + Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 131-138; _id._, _Osiris and + the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 31 _sqq._ + + 193 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621; R. + V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, plate cclxi.; A. + Wiedemann, "L'Osiris vegetant," _Le Museon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112; + E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 58. + According to Prof. Wiedemann, the corn springing from the god's body + is barley. Similarly in a papyrus of the Louvre (No. 3377) Osiris is + represented swathed as a mummy and lying on his back, while stalks + of corn sprout from his body. See R. V. Lanzone, _op. cit._ pp. 801 + _sq._, with plate ccciii. 2; A. Wiedemann, "L'Osiris vegetant," _Le + Museon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. 112. + + 194 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 8, p. 162 ed. L. + Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin (Goettingen, 1859). See _Spirits of the + Corn and of the Wild_, i. 38 _sq._ + + 195 Prof. A. Erman rightly assumes (_Die aegyptische Religion_,2 p. 234) + that the images made in the month of Khoiak were intended to + germinate as a symbol of the divine resurrection. + + M77 Corn-stuffed effigies of Osiris buried with the dead to ensure their + resurrection. + + 196 A. Wiedemann, "L'Osiris vegetant," _Le Museon_, N.S. iv. (1903) p. + 111; _Egyptian Exploration Fund Archaeological Report, 1898-1899_, + pp. 24 _sq._; A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and + London, 1912), p. 94, with plate xi.; _id._, _Mysteres Egyptiens_ + (Paris, 1913), p. 41. + + 197 B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, in _Egyptian Exploration Fund + Archaeological Report, 1902-1903_, p. 5. + + 198 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 28 _sq._ + + 199 Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, _A Second Series of the Manners and + Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1841), ii. 300, note §. + The writer seems to have doubted whether these effigies represented + Osiris. But the doubt has been entirely removed by subsequent + discoveries. Wilkinson's important note on the subject is omitted by + his editor, S. Birch (vol. iii. p. 375, ed. 1878). + + 200 A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 209 _sq._ + + M78 The festivals of Osiris in the months of Athyr and Khoiak seem to + have been substantially the same. + + 201 See above, pp. 24 _sq._, 27 _sq._, 49 _sq._ + + M79 The old festival of Khoiak may have been transferred to Athyr when + the Egyptians adopted the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. + M80 The transference would be intelligible if we suppose that in 30 B.C. + the dates of all the Egyptian festivals were shifted backward by + about a month in order to restore them to their natural places in + the calendar. + + 202 So it was reckoned at the time. But, strictly speaking, Thoth in + that year began on August 31. The miscalculation originated in a + blunder of the ignorant Roman pontiffs who, being charged with the + management of the new Julian calendar, at first intercalated a day + every third, instead of every fourth, year. See Solinus, + _Collectanea_, i. 45-47 (p. 15, ed. Th. Mommsen, Berlin, 1864); + Macrobius, _Saturn_, i. 14. 13 _sq._; L. Ideler, _Handbuch der + mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, i. 157-161. + + 203 Theoretically the shift should have been 40, or rather 42 days, that + being the interval between July 20 and August 29 or 31 (see the + preceding note). If that shift was actually made, the calendar date + of any festival in the old vague Egyptian year could be found by + adding 40 or 42 days to its date in the Alexandrian year. Thus if + the death of Osiris fell on the 17th of Athyr in the Alexandrian + year, it should have fallen on the 27th or 29th of Khoiak in the old + vague year; and if his resurrection fell on the 19th of Athyr in the + Alexandrian year, it should have fallen on the 29th of Khoiak or the + 1st of Tybi in the old vague year. These calculations agree nearly, + but not exactly, with the somewhat uncertain indications of the + Denderah calendar (above, p. 88), and also with the independent + evidence which we possess that the resurrection of Osiris was + celebrated on the 30th of Khoiak (below, pp. 108 _sq._). These + approximate agreements to some extent confirm my theory that, with + the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year, the dates of the + official Egyptian festivals were shifted from their accidental + places in the calendar to their proper places in the natural year. + + Since I published in the first edition of this book (1906) my theory + that with the adoption of the fixed Alexandrian year in 30 B.C. the + Egyptian festivals were shifted about a month backward in the year, + Professor Ed. Meyer has shown independent grounds for holding "that + the festivals which gave rise to the later names of the (Egyptian) + months were demonstrably held a month later in earlier ages, under + the twentieth, eighteenth, indeed partly under the twelfth dynasty; + in other words, that after the end of the New Kingdom the festivals + and the corresponding names of the months were displaced one month + backwards. It is true that this displacement can as yet be proved + for only five months; but as the names of these months and the + festivals keep their relative position towards each other, the + assumption is inevitable that the displacement affected not merely + particular festivals but the whole system equally." See Ed. Meyer, + _Nachtraege zur aegyptischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 3 _sqq._ + (_Abhandlungen der koenigl. Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften vom + Jahre 1907_). Thus it is possible that the displacement of the + festivals by a month backward in the calendar took place a good deal + earlier than I had supposed. In the uncertainty of the whole + question I leave my theory as it stood. + + 204 If the results of the foregoing inquiry be accepted, the + resurrection of Osiris was regularly celebrated in Egypt on the 15th + of November from the year 30 B.C. onward, since the 15th of November + corresponded to the 19th of Athyr (the resurrection day) in the + fixed Alexandrian year. This agrees with the indications of the + Roman Rustic Calendars, which place the resurrection (_heuresis_, + that is, the discovery of Osiris) between the 14th and the 30th of + November. Yet according to the calendar of Philocalus, the official + Roman celebration of the resurrection seems to have been held on the + 1st of November, not on the 15th. How is the discrepancy to be + explained? Th. Mommsen supposed that the festival was officially + adopted at Rome at a time when the 19th of Athyr of the vague + Egyptian year corresponded to the 31st of October or the 1st of + November of the Julian calendar, and that the Romans, overlooking + the vague or shifting character of the Egyptian year, fixed the + resurrection of Osiris permanently on the 1st of November. Now the + 19th of Athyr of the vague year corresponded to the 1st of November + in the years 32-35 A.D. and to the 31st of October in the years + 36-39; and it appears that the festival was officially adopted at + Rome some time before 65 A.D. (Lucan, _Pharsalia_, viii. 831 + _sqq._). It is unlikely that the adoption took place in the reign of + Tiberius, who died in 37 A.D.; for he is known to have persecuted + the Egyptian religion (Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 85; Suetonius, + _Tiberius_, 36; Josephus, _Antiquit. Jud._ xviii. 3. 4); hence + Mommsen concluded that the great festival of Osiris was officially + adopted at Rome in the early years of the reign of Caligula, that + is, in 37, 38, or 39 A.D. See Th. Mommsen, _Corpus Inscriptionum + Latinarum_, i.2 Pars prior (Berlin, 1893), pp. 333 _sq._; H. Dessau, + _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. p. 995, No. 8745. This + theory of Mommsen's assumes that in Egypt the festivals were still + regulated by the old vague year in the first century of our era. It + cannot, therefore, be reconciled with the conclusion reached in the + text that the Egyptian festivals ceased to be regulated by the old + vague year from 30 B.C. onward. How the difference of date between + the official Roman and the Egyptian festival of the resurrection is + to be explained, I do not pretend to say. + + M81 Osiris in one of his aspects a personification of the corn. Osiris a + child of Sky and Earth. The legend of the dismemberment of Osiris + points to the dismemberment of human beings, perhaps of the kings, + in the character of the corn-spirit. + + 205 See above, p. 48. + + 206 See above, p. 6. + + 207 See above, p. 7. + + 208 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166. + +_ 209 The Dying God_, p. 250. + +_ 210 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 236 _sqq._ + + 211 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73, compare 33. + + 212 Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. 5. The slaughter may have been performed by + the king with his own hand. On Egyptian monuments the king is often + represented in the act of slaying prisoners before a god. See A. + Moret, _Du caractere religieux de la royaute Pharaonique_ (Paris, + 1902), pp. 179, 224; E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, i. 197 _sqq._ Similarly the kings of Ashantee and + Dahomey used often themselves to cut the throats of the human + victims. See A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold + Coast_ (London, 1887), p. 162; _id._, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of + the Slave Coast_ (London, 1890), pp. 125, 129. + + M82 Roman and Greek traditions of the dismemberment of kings. Modern + Thracian pretence of killing a man, who is sometimes called a king, + for the good of the crops. + +_ 213 Scholia in Caesaris Germanici Aratea_, in F. Eyssenhardt's edition + of Martianus Capella, p. 408 (Leipsic, 1866). + + 214 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 56. 4. Compare Livy, + i. 16. 4; Florus, i. 1. 16 _sq._; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 27. Mr. A. B. + Cook was, I believe, the first to interpret the story as a + reminiscence of the sacrifice of a king. See his article "The + European Sky-God," _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) pp. 324 _sq._ However, + the acute historian A. Schwegler long ago maintained that the + tradition rested on some very ancient religious rite, which was + afterwards abolished or misunderstood, and he rightly compared the + legendary deaths of Pentheus and Orpheus (_Roemische Geschichte_, + Tuebingen, 1853-1858, vol. i. pp. 534 _sq._). See further W. Otto, + "Juno," _Philologus_, lxiv. (1905) pp. 187 _sqq._ + +_ 215 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 313 _sqq._ + + 216 Euripides, _Bacchae_, 43 _sqq._, 1043 _sqq._; Theocritus, xxvi.; + Pausanias, ii. 2. 7; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1 _sq._; + Hyginus, _Fab._ 132 and 184. The destruction of Lycurgus by horses + seems to be mentioned only by Apollodorus. As to Pentheus see + especially A. G. Bather, "The Problem of the Bacchae," _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_, xiv. (1904) pp. 244-263. + + 217 Nonnus, _Dionys._ vi. 165-205; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ + ii. 17 _sq._, p. 15 ed. Potter; Justin Martyr, _Apology_, i. 54; + Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 6; Arnobius, + _Adversus Nationes_, v. 19. According to the Clementine + _Recognitiones_, x. 24 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, i. 1434) + Dionysus was torn in pieces at Thebes, the very place of which + Pentheus was king. The description of Euripides (_Bacchae_, 1058 + _sqq._) suggests that the human victim was tied or hung to a + pine-tree before being rent to pieces. We are reminded of the effigy + of Attis which hung on the sacred pine (above, vol. i. p. 267), and + of the image of Osiris which was made out of a pine-tree and then + buried in the hollow of the trunk (below, p. 108). The pine-tree on + which Pentheus was pelted by the Bacchanals before they tore him + limb from limb is said to have been worshipped as if it were the god + himself by the Corinthians, who made two images of Dionysus out of + it (Pausanias, ii. 2. 7). The tradition points to an intimate + connexion between the tree, the god, and the human victim. + + 218 Porphyry, _De abstinentia_, ii. 55. At Potniae in Boeotia a priest + of Dionysus is said to have been killed by the drunken worshippers + (Pausanias, ix. 8. 2). He may have been sacrificed in the character + of the god. + + 219 Lucian, _De saltatione_, 51; Plato, _Symposium_, 7, p. 179 D, E; + Pausanias, ix. 30. 5; Ovid, _Metam._ xi. 1-43; O. Gruppe, _s.v._ + "Orpheus," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, iii. 1165 _sq._ That Orpheus died the death of the god + has been observed both in ancient and modern times. See E. Rohde, + _Psyche_3 (Tuebingen and Leipsic, 1903) ii. 118, note 2, quoting + Proclus on Plato; S. Reinach, "La mort d'Orphee," _Cultes, Mythes et + Religions_, ii. (1906) pp. 85 _sqq._ According to Ovid, the + Bacchanals killed him with hoes, rakes, and mattocks. Similarly in + West Africa human victims used to be killed with spades and hoes and + then buried in a field which had just been tilled (J. B. Labat, + _Relation historique de l'Ethiopie occidentale_, Paris, 1732, i. + 380). Such a mode of sacrifice points to the identification of the + human victim with the fruits of the earth. + + 220 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 5. 1. + + 221 R. M. Dawkins, "The Modern Carnival in Thrace and the Cult of + Dionysus," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxvi. (1906) pp. 191-206. + See further _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 25 _sqq._ + + M83 Norwegian tradition of the dismemberment of a king, Halfdan the + Black. Frey, the Scandinavian god of fertility, buried at Upsala. + + 222 Snorri Sturluson, _Heimskringla, Saga Halfdanar Svarta_, ch. 9. I + have to thank Professor H. M. Chadwick for referring me to this + passage and translating it for me. See also _The Stories of the + Kings of Norway (Heimskringla)_, done into English by W. Morris and + E. Magnusson (London, 1893-1905), i. 86 _sq._ Halfdan the Black was + the father of Harold the Fair-haired, king of Norway (860-933 A.D.). + Professor Chadwick tells me that, though the tradition as to the + death and mutilation of Halfdan was not committed to writing for + three hundred years, he sees no reason to doubt its truth. He also + informs me that the word translated "abundance" means literally "the + produce of the season." "Plenteous years" is the rendering of Morris + and Magnusson. + + 223 As to the descent of Halfdan and the Ynglings from Frey, see + _Heimskringla_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnusson, i. + 23-71 (_The Saga Library_, vol. iii.). With regard to Frey, the god + of fertility, both animal and vegetable, see E. H. Meyer, + _Mythologie der Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), pp. 366 _sq._; P. + Hermann, _Nordische Mythologie_ (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 206 _sqq._ + +_ 224 Heimskringla_, done into English by W. Morris and E. Magnusson, i. + 4, 22-24 (_The Saga Library_, vol. iii.). + + M84 Segera, a magician of Kiwai, said to have been cut up after death + and the pieces buried in gardens to fertilize them. + +_ 225 Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 32 _sq._, from information supplied by + Dr. C. G. Seligmann. + + M85 Apparently widespread custom of dismembering a king or magician and + burying the pieces in different parts of the kingdom. + M86 In this dismemberment a special virtue seems to have been ascribed + to the genital organs. + + 226 See above, p. 10. + + 227 Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood_ (London, 1906), p. 291. + + 228 Above, p. 97. + + 229 Above, pp. 268 _sq._ + + M87 The Egyptian kings probably opposed the custom and succeeded in + abolishing it. Precautions taken to preserve the bodies of kings + from mutilation. + + 230 See my notes on Pausanias, i. 28. 7 and viii. 47. 5 (vol. ii. pp. + 366 _sq._, vol. iv. pp. 433 _sq._). + + 231 R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_ (New York, 1901), + p. 116; C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 34 _sq._ + + 232 Amos ii. 1. + + 233 Pausanias, i. 9. 7 _sq._ + + M88 Graves of kings and chiefs in Africa kept secret. Burial-place of + chiefs in Fiji kept secret. Graves of Melanesian magicians kept + secret. + + 234 P. B. du Chaillu, _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa_ + (London, 1861), pp. 18 _sq._ + + 235 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Staemme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 107. + + 236 Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp. 449 + _sq._ In West African jargon the word ju-ju means fetish or magic. + + 237 Father Porte, "Les reminiscences d'un missionnaire du Basutoland," + _Missions Catholiques_, xxviii. (1896) pp. 311 _sq._ As to the + _Baloi_, see A. Merensky, _Beitraege zur Kenntniss Sued-Afrikas_ + (Berlin, 1875), pp. 138 _sq._; E. Gottschling, "The Bawenda," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 375. For + these two references I have to thank Mr. E. S. Hartland. + + 238 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel, + 1912-1913), i. 387 _sq._ + + 239 Lorimer Fison, "Notes on Fijian Burial Customs," _Journal of the + Anthropological Institute_, x. (1881) pp. 141 _sq._ + + 240 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 269. + + M89 Among the Koniags of Alaska the bodies of dead whalers were cut up + and used as talismans. + + 241 Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources + of Alaska_, p. 142. The account seems to be borrowed from H. J. + Holmberg, who adds that pains were taken to preserve the flesh from + decay, "because they believed that their own life depended on it." + See H. J. Holmberg, "Ueber die Voelker des russischen Amerika," _Acta + Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) p. 391. + + M90 Assimilation of human victims to the corn. + + 242 Above, p. 97. + + 243 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 31; Herodotus, ii. 38. + + 244 Herrera, quoted by A. Bastian, _Die Culturlaender des alten Amerika_ + (Berlin, 1878), ii. 639; _id._, _General History of the vast + Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. J. Stevens + (London, 1725-26), ii. 379 _sq._ (whose version of the passage is + inadequate). Compare Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations + civilisees du Mexique et de l'Amerique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-59), + i. 327, iii. 525. + + 245 E. Lefebure, _Le mythe Osirien_ (Paris, 1874-75), p. 188. + + 246 Firmicus Maternus, _De errore profanarum religionum_, 2, + "_Defensores eorum volunt addere physicam rationem, frugum semina + Osirim dicentes esse, Isim terram, Tyfonem calorem: et quia + maturatae fruges calore ad vitam hominum colliguntur et divisae a + terrae consortio separantur et rursus adpropinquante hieme + seminantur, hanc volunt esse mortem Osiridis, cum fruges recondunt, + inventionem vero, cum fruges genitali terrae fomento conceptae annua + rursus coeperint procreatione generari._" Tertullian, _Adversus + Marcionem_, i. 13, "_Sic et Osiris quod semper sepelitur et in + vivido quaeritur et cum gaudio invenitur, reciprocarum frugum et + vividorum elementorum et recidivi anni fidem argumentantur_." + Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 65, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}. Eusebius, + _Praeparatio Evangelii_, iii. 11. 31, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. Athenagoras, _Supplicatio pro Christianis_, 22, pp. 112, 114 + ed. J. C. T. Otto, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}). See also the passage + of Cornutus quoted above, vol. i. p. 229, note 2. + + M91 Osiris as a tree-spirit. His image enclosed in a pine-tree. + +_ 247 De errore profanarum religionum_, 27. + + 248 See above, vol. i. pp. 267, 277. + + 249 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 21, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + Again, _ibid._ 42, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}. + + 250 See above, p. 9. + + M92 The setting up of the _ded_ pillar at the great festival of Osiris + in the month of Khoiak. The setting up of the pillar may have been + an emblem of the god's resurrection. + + 251 As to the _tet_ or _ded_ pillar and its erection at the festival see + H. Brugsch in _Zeitschrift fuer aegyptische Sprache und + Alterthumskunde_, 1881, pp. 84, 96; _id._, _Religion und Mythologie + der alten Aegypter_, p. 618; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches + Leben im Altertum_, pp. 377 _sq._; _id._, _Die aegyptische + Religion_,2 pp. 22, 64; C. P. Tiele, _History of the Egyptian + Religion_ (London, 1882), pp. 46 _sq._; Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, + _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. + pp. 67, note 3, and 82; A. Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient + Egyptians_, pp. 289 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des + Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 130 _sq._; A. Moret, _Du + caractere religieux de la royaute Pharaonique_, p. 153, note 1; + _id._, _Mysteres Egyptiens_, pp. 12-16; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The + Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 122, 124, _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 6, 37, 48, 51 _sqq._; Miss Margaret A. + Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, pp. 27, 28; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte + des Altertums_,2 i. 2, p. 70. In a letter to me (dated 8th December, + 1910) my colleague Professor P. E. Newberry tells me that he + believes Osiris to have been originally a cedar-tree god imported + into Egypt from the Lebanon, and he regards the _ded_ pillar as a + lopped cedar-tree. The flail, as a symbol of Osiris, he believes to + be the instrument used to collect incense. A similar flail is used + by peasants in Crete to extract the ladanum gum from the shrubs. See + P. de Tournefort, _Relation d'un Voyage du Levant_ (Amsterdam, + 1718), i. 29, with the plate. For this reference I am indebted to + Professor Newberry. + + 252 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 15. See above, p. 9. + +_ 253 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 88-90. + + M93 Osiris associated with the pine, the sycamore, the tamarisk, and the + acacia. + + 254 A. Mariette-Bey, _Denderah_, iv. pl. 66. + + 255 A. Mariette-Bey, _Denderah_, iv. pl. 72. Compare E. Lefebure, _Le + mythe Osirien_, pp. 194, 196, who regards the tree as a conifer. But + it is perhaps a tamarisk. + + 256 E. Lefebure, _op. cit._ pp. 195, 197. + + 257 S. Birch, in Sir J. G. Wilkinson's _Manners and Customs of the + Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 84. + + 258 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 62-64; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The + Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 106 _sq._; G. Maspero, _Histoire + ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 185. + + 259 J. H. Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient + Egypt_ (London, 1912), p. 28. + + 260 A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and London, 1912), p. + 83. + + 261 Above, vol. i. pp. 227 _sq._ + + 262 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 349 _sq._; A. Erman, _Aegypten + und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p. 368; H. Brugsch, _Religion + und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621. + + 263 We may compare a belief of some of the Californian Indians that the + owl is the guardian spirit and deity of the "California big tree," + and that it is equally unlucky to fell the tree or to shoot the + bird. See S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. + 398. When a Maori priest desires to protect the life or soul (_hau_) + of a tree against the insidious arts of magicians, he sets a + bird-snare in the tree, and the first bird caught in the snare, or + its right wing, embodies the life or soul of the tree. Accordingly + the priest recites appropriate spells over the bird or its wing and + hides it away in the forest. After that no evil-disposed magician + can hurt the tree, since its life or soul is not in it but hidden + away in the forest. See Elsdon Best, "Spiritual Concepts of the + Maori," _Journal of the Polynesian Society_, ix. (1900) p. 195. Thus + the bird or its wing is the depository of the external soul of the + tree. Compare _Balder the Beautiful_, i. 95 _sqq._ + + 264 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _op. cit._ iii. 349 _sq._; H. Brugsch, + _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 621; R. V. Lanzone, + _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, tav. cclxiii.; Plutarch, _Isis et + Osiris_, 20. In this passage of Plutarch it has been proposed by G. + Parthey to read {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (tamarisk) for {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} (_methide_), and the + conjecture appears to be accepted by Wilkinson, _loc. cit._ + + 265 E. Lefebure, _Le mythe Osirien_, p. 191. + + 266 E. Lefebure, _op. cit._ p. 188. + + 267 R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, tav. ccciv.; G. + Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, ii. + 570, fig. + + M94 Osiris in relation to fruit-trees, wells, the vine, and ivy. + + 268 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35. One of the points in which the myths + of Isis and Demeter agree is that both goddesses in the search for + the loved and lost one are said to have sat down, sad at heart and + weary, on the edge of a well. Hence those who had been initiated at + Eleusis were forbidden to sit on a well. See Plutarch, _Isis et + Osiris_, 15; Homer, _Hymn to Demeter_, 98 _sq._; Pausanias, i. 39. + 1; Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 5. 1; Nicander, _Theriaca_, 486; + Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 20, p. 16 ed. Potter. + + 269 Tibullus, i. 7. 33-36; Diodorus Siculus, i. 17. 1, i. 20. 4. + + 270 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 38, + 39. + + 271 E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ i. 19, 45, with frontispiece. + + 272 Diodorus Siculus, i. 17. 4 _sq._ + + M95 Osiris perhaps conceived as a god of fertility in general. + + 273 Herodotus, ii. 48; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 12, 18, 36, 51; + Diodorus Siculus, i. 21. 5, i. 22. 6 _sq._, iv. 6. 3. + + 274 Hippolytus, _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 7, p. 144 ed. Duncker + and Schneidewin. + + 275 A. Mariette-Bey, _Denderah_, iv. plates 66, 68, 69, 70, 88, 89, 90. + Compare R. V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, tavv. + cclxxi., cclxxii., cclxxvi., cclxxxv., cclxxxvi., cclxxxvii., + cclxxxix., ccxc.; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, + ii. 132, 136, 137. + + 276 Miss Margaret A. Murray, _The Osireion at Abydos_, p. 27. + + 277 That the Greek Dionysus was nothing but a slightly disguised form of + the Egyptian Osiris has been held by Herodotus in ancient and by Mr. + P. Foucart in modern times. See Herodotus, ii. 49; P. Foucart, _Le + culte de Dionysos en Attique_ (Paris, 1904) (_Memoires de l'Academie + des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_, xxxvii.). + + M96 As god of the corn Osiris came to be viewed as the god of the + resurrection. + + 278 Above, pp. 13 _sq._ + + 279 Above, pp. 90 _sq._ + + 280 1 Corinthians xv. 36-38, 42-44. + + M97 Great popularity of the worship of Osiris. + + 281 Herodotus, ii. 42. Compare E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the + Egyptians_, ii. 115 _sq._, 203 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 22 _sq._ + + M98 Multifarious attributes of Isis. + + 282 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 645; W. + Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, vol. ii. p. + 433, No. 695; _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, iii. p. 1232, No. + 4941. Compare H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. + Pars i. p. 179, No. 4376 A. In Egyptian her name is _Hest_ or _Ast_, + but the derivation and meaning of the name are unknown. See A. + Wiedemann, _The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 218 _sq._ + + 283 C. P. Tiele, _History of Egyptian Religion_ (London, 1882), p. 57. + + 284 E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 203 _sq._ + + M99 How Isis resembled yet differed from the Mother Goddesses of Asia. + Isis perhaps originally a goddess of the corn. + + 285 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 1 _sq._ Eusebius (_Praeparatio Evangelii_, + iii. 3) quotes from Diodorus a long passage on the early religion of + Egypt, prefacing it with the remark that Diodorus's account of the + subject was more concise than that of Manetho. + + 286 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, viii. 27. Tertullian says that Isis + wore a wreath of the corn she had discovered (_De corona_, 7). + + 287 Diodorus Siculus, i. 14. 2. + + 288 See above, p. 45, and vol. i. p. 232. + + 289 H. Brugsch, _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 647; E. + A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, ii. 277. + + 290 H. Brugsch, _op. cit._ p. 649. Compare E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods + of the Egyptians_, ii. 216. + + 291 H. Brugsch, _loc. cit._ + + 292 Herodotus, ii. 59, 156; Diodorus Siculus, i. 13, 25, 95; + Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 1. 3; J. Tzetzes, _Schol. on + Lycophron_, 212. See further W. Drexler, _s.v._ "Isis," in W. H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 443 _sq._ + +_ 293 Anthologia Planudea_, cclxiv. 1. + +_ 294 Epigrammata Graeca ex lapidibus conlecta_, ed. G. Kaibel (Berlin, + 1878), No. 1028, pp. 437 _sq._; _Orphica_, ed. E. Abel (Leipsic and + Prague, 1885), pp. 295 _sqq._ + + 295 W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 448 _sqq._ + + M100 Refinement and spiritualization of Isis in later times: the + popularity of her worship in the Roman empire. Resemblance of Isis + to the Madonna. + + 296 Otho often celebrated, or at least attended, the rites of Isis, clad + in a linen garment (Suetonius, _Otho_, 12). Commodus did the same, + with shaven head, carrying the effigy of Anubis. See Lampridius, + _Commodus_, 9; Spartianus, _Pescennius Niger_, 6; _id._, + _Caracallus_, 9. + + 297 L. Preller, _Roemische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 373-385; + J. Marquardt, _Roemische Staatsverwaltung_ (Leipsic, 1885), iii.2 + 77-81; E. Renan, _Marc-Aurele et la fin du Monde Antique_ (Paris, + 1882), pp. 570 _sqq._; J. Reville, _La religion romaine a Rome sous + les Severes_ (Paris, 1886), pp. 54-61; G. Lafaye, _Histoire du culte + des divinites d'Alexandrie_ (Paris, 1884); E. Meyer and W. Drexler, + _s.v._ "Isis," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, ii. 360 _sqq._; S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Last + Century of the Western Empire_2 (London, 1899), pp. 79 _sq._, 85 + _sqq._; _id._, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_ (London, + 1904), pp. 560 _sqq._ The chief passage on the worship of Isis in + the West is the eleventh book of Apuleius's _Metamorphoses_. On the + reputation which the goddess enjoyed as a healer of the sick see + Diodorus Siculus, i. 25; W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 521 _sqq._ The + divine partner of Isis in later times, especially outside of Egypt, + was Serapis, that is Osiris-Apis (_Asar-Hapi_), the sacred Apis bull + of Memphis, identified after death with Osiris. His oldest sanctuary + was at Memphis (Pausanias, i. 18. 4), and there was one at Babylon + in the time of Alexander the Great (Plutarch, _Alexander_, 76; + Arrian, _Anabasis_, vii. 26). Ptolemy I. or II. built a great and + famous temple in his honour at Alexandria, where he set up an image + of the god which was commonly said to have been imported from Sinope + in Pontus. See Tacitus, _Histor._ iv. 83 _sq._; Plutarch, _Isis et + Osiris_, 27-29; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ iv. 48, p. 42 ed. + Potter. In after ages the institution of the worship of Serapis was + attributed to this Ptolemy, but all that the politic Macedonian + monarch appears to have done was to assimilate the Egyptian Osiris + to the Greek Pluto, and so to set up a god whom Egyptians and Greeks + could unite in worshipping. Serapis gradually assumed the attributes + of Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing, in addition to those of + Pluto, the Greek god of the dead. See G. Lafaye, _Histoire du culte + des divinites d'Alexandrie_, pp. 16 _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Herodots + zweites Buch_, p. 589; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the + Egyptians_, ii. 195 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 + pp. 237 _sq._ + + 298 The resemblance of Isis to the Virgin Mary has often been pointed + out. See W. Drexler, _s.v._ "Isis," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der + griech. und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 428 _sqq._ + + 299 W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 430 _sq._ + + 300 Th. Trede, _Das Heidentum in der roemischen Kirche_ (Gotha, + 1889-1891), iii. 144 _sq._ + + 301 On this later aspect of Isis see W. Drexler, _op. cit._ ii. 474 + _sqq._ + + M101 Osiris interpreted as the sun by many modern writers. + + 302 P. E. Jablonski, _Pantheon Aegyptiorum_ (Frankfort, 1750-1752), i. + 125 _sq._ + + 303 Diodorus Siculus, i. 11. 1. + + 304 See p. 116, note 2. + + 305 See Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, bk. i. + +_ 306 Saturn._ i. 21. 11. + + 307 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 10 and 51; Sir J. G. Wilkinson, _Manners + and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1878), iii. 353; R. + V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, pp. 782 _sq._; E. A. + Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 113 _sq._; J. H. + Breasted, _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, + pp. 11 _sq._ Strictly speaking, the eye was the eye of Horus, which + the dutiful son sacrificed in behalf of his father Osiris. "This act + of filial devotion, preserved to us in the Pyramid Texts, made the + already sacred Horus-eye doubly revered in the tradition and feeling + of the Egyptians. It became the symbol of all sacrifice; every gift + or offering might be called a 'Horus-eye,' especially if offered to + the dead. Excepting the sacred beetle, or scarab, it became the + commonest and the most revered symbol known to Egyptian religion, + and the myriads of eyes, wrought in blue or green glaze, or even cut + from costly stone, which fill our museum collections, and are + brought home by thousands by the modern tourist, are survivals of + this ancient story of Horus and his devotion to his father" (J. H. + Breasted, _op. cit._ p. 31). + + 308 E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 467; A. Erman, + _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 p. 8. + +_ 309 Isis et Osiris_, 52. + +_ 310 De errore profanarum religionum_, 8. + + M102 The later identification of Osiris with Ra, the sun-god, does not + prove that Osiris was originally the sun. Such identifications + sprang from attempts to unify and amalgamate the many local cults of + Egypt. + + 311 Lepsius, "Ueber den ersten aegyptischen Goetterkreis und seine + geschichtlich-mythologische Entstehung," in _Abhandlungen der + koeniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, pp. 194 + _sq._ + + 312 The view here taken of the history of Egyptian religion is based on + the sketch in Ad. Erman's _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im + Altertum_, pp. 351 _sqq._ Compare C. P. Tiele, _Geschichte der + Religion im Altertum_ (Gotha, 1896-1903), i. 79 _sq._ + + M103 Most Egyptian gods were at some time identified with the sun. + Attempt of Amenophis IV. to abolish all gods except the sun-god. + Failure of the attempt. + + 313 On this attempted revolution in religion see Lepsius, in + _Verhandlungen der koenigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, + 1851, pp. 196-201; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im + Altertum_, pp. 74 _sq._, 355-357; _id._, _Die aegyptische Religion_,2 + pp. 76-84; H. Brugsch, _History of Egypt_ (London, 1879), i. 441 + _sqq._; A. Wiedemann, _Aegyptische Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884), pp. + 396 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Religion der alten Agypter_, pp. 20-22; + _id._, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, pp. 35-43; C. P. Tiele, + _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. 84-92; G. Maspero, + _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, i. 316 + _sqq._; E. A. Wallis Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 68-84; + J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1908), + pp. 264-279; A. Moret, _Kings and Gods of Egypt_ (New York and + London, 1912), pp. 41-68. A very sympathetic account of this + remarkable religious reformer is given by Professor J. H. Breasted + (_Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. + 319-343). Amenophis IV. reigned from about 1375 to 1358 B.C. His new + capital, Akhetaton, the modern Tell-el-Amarna, was on the right bank + of the Nile, between Memphis and Thebes. The king has been described + as "of all the Pharaohs the most curious and at the same time the + most enigmatic figure." To explain his bodily and mental + peculiarities some scholars conjectured that through his mother, + Queen Tii, he might have had Semitic blood in his veins. But this + theory appears to have been refuted by the discovery in 1905 of the + tomb of Queen Tii's parents, the contents of which are of pure + Egyptian style. See A. Moret, _op. cit._ pp. 46 _sq._ + + M104 Identification with the sun is no evidence of the original character + of an Egyptian god. + M105 The solar theory of Osiris does not explain his death and + resurrection. + + 314 P. Le Page Renouf, _Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion_2 + (London, 1884), p. 113. + + 315 The late eminent scholar C. P. Tiele, who formerly interpreted + Osiris as a sun-god (_History of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 43 _sqq._), + afterwards adopted a view of his nature which approaches more nearly + to the one advocated in this book. See his _Geschichte der Religion + im Altertum_, i. 35 _sq._, 123. Professor Ed. Meyer also formerly + regarded Osiris as a sun-god; he now interprets him as a great + vegetation god, dwelling in the depths of the earth and causing the + plants and trees to spring from it. The god's symbol, the _ded_ + pillar (see above, pp. 108 _sq._), he takes to be a tree-trunk with + cross-beams. See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i. p. 67, § + 57 (first edition, 1884); _id._, i.2 2. pp. 70, 84, 87 (second + edition, 1909). Sir Gaston Maspero has also abandoned the theory + that Osiris was the sun; he now supposes that the deity originally + personified the Nile. See his _Histoire ancienne_4 (Paris, 1886), p. + 35; and his _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + i. (Paris, 1895), p. 130. Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge also formerly + interpreted Osiris as the Nile (_The Gods of the Egyptians_, i. 122, + 123), and this view was held by some ancient writers (Plutarch, + _Isis et Osiris_, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39). Compare Miss M. A. Murray, + _The Osireion at Abydos_ (London, 1904), p. 29. Dr. Budge now + explains Osiris as a deified king. See his _Osiris and the Egyptian + Resurrection_, vol. i. pp. xviii, 30 _sq._, 37, 66 _sq._, 168, 254, + 256, 290, 300, 312, 384. As to this view see below, pp. 158 _sqq._ + + M106 The death and resurrection of Osiris are more naturally explained by + the annual decay and growth of vegetation. + + 316 For the identification of Osiris with Dionysus, and of Isis with + Demeter, see Herodotus, ii. 42, 49, 59, 144, 156; Plutarch, _Isis et + Osiris_, 13, 35; Diodorus Siculus, i. 13, 25, 96, iv. 1; _Orphica_, + Hymn 42; Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. 11. 31; Servius on Virgil, + _Aen._ xi. 287; _id._, on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 166; J. Tzetzes, + _Schol. on Lycophron_, 212; {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, xxii. 2, in _Mythographi + Graeci_, ed. A. Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), p. 368; Nonnus, + _Dionys._ iv. 269 _sq._; Cornutus, _Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, + 28; Ausonius, _Epigrammata_, 29 and 30. For the identification of + Osiris with Adonis and Attis see Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; Damascius, "Vita Isodori," in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, ed. + Im. Bekker (Berlin, 1824), p. 343_a_, lines 21 _sq._; Hippolytus, + _Refutatio omnium haeresium_, v. 9. p. 168 ed. Duncker and + Schneidewin; _Orphica_, Hymn 42. For the identification of Attis, + Adonis, and Dionysus see Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, iii. 23 + (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 448); Plutarch, _Quaestiones + Conviviales_, iv. 5. 3; Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 19, + p. 16 ed. Potter. + + 317 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 7. According to Professor Ed. Meyer, the + relations of Egypt to Byblus were very ancient and close; he even + suggests that there may have been from early times an Egyptian + colony, or at all events an Egyptian military post, in the city. The + commercial importance of Byblus arose from its possession of the + fine cedar forests on the Lebanon; the timber was exported to Egypt, + where it was in great demand. See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des + Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. xix, 391 _sqq._ + + 318 Herodotus, ii. 49. + + 319 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 35. + + 320 Osiris, Attis, Adonis, and Dionysus were all resolved by him into + the sun; but he spared Demeter (Ceres), whom, however, he + interpreted as the moon. See the _Saturnalia_, bk. i. + + M107 Osiris was sometimes interpreted by the ancients as the moon. + + 321 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 41. + + 322 On Osiris as a moon-god see E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the + Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 19-22, 59, 384 _sqq._ + + 323 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 13, 42. + +_ 324 Ibid._ 18, 42. The hieroglyphic texts sometimes speak of fourteen + pieces, and sometimes of sixteen, or even eighteen. But fourteen + seems to have been the true number, because the inscriptions of + Denderah, which refer to the rites of Osiris, describe the mystic + image of the god as composed of fourteen pieces. See E. A. Wallis + Budge, _The Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. 126 _sq._; _id._, _Osiris + and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 386 _sq._ + + 325 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. + + 326 A. S. Gatschet, _The Klamath Indians of South-Western Oregon_ + (Washington, 1890), p. lxxxix. + + 327 S. R. Riggs, _Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography_ (Washington, + 1893), p. 16. + + 328 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 97. + + 329 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 43. + +_ 330 Ibid._ 43. + +_ 331 Ibid._ 20, 29. + + 332 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 43; _id._, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 1. 3. + Compare Herodotus, iii. 28; Aelian, _Nat. Anim._ xi. 10; Mela, i. 9. + 58. + + 333 Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 8. As to pigs in + relation to Osiris, see _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. + 24 _sqq._ + + 334 P. J. de Horrack, "Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys," _Records of + the Past_, ii. (London, N.D.) pp. 121 _sq._; H. Brugsch, _Religion + und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, pp. 629 _sq._; E. A. Wallis + Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 389. "Apart from + the fact that Osiris is actually called _Asar Aah_, _i.e._ 'Osiris + the Moon,' there are so many passages which prove beyond all doubt + that at one period at least Osiris was the Moon-god, that it is + difficult to understand why Diodorus stated that Osiris was the sun + and Isis the moon" (E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ i. 21). + + 335 E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 59. + + M108 The identification of Osiris with the moon appears to be based on a + comparatively late theory that all things grow and decay with the + waxing and waning of the moon. + + 336 According to C. P. Tiele (_Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, i. + 79) the conception of Osiris as the moon was late and never became + popular. This entirely accords with the view adopted in the text. + + 337 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 221. + + 338 Macrobius, _Comment. in somnium Scipionis_, i. 11. 7. + + 339 Aulus Gellius, xx. 8. For the opinions of the ancients on this + subject see further W. H. Roscher, _Ueber Selene und Verwandtes_ + (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 61 _sqq._ + + 340 John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth + Century_, edited by A. Allardyce (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. + 449. + + 341 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and + Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 306 _sq._ + + M109 Practical rules founded on this lunar theory. Supposed influence of + the phases of the moon on the operations of husbandry. + + 342 Palladius, _De re rustica_, i. 34. 8. Compare _id._ i. 6. 12; Pliny, + _Nat. Hist._ xviii. 321, "_omnia quae caeduntur, carpuntur, + tondentur innocentius decrescente luna quam crescente fiunt_"; + _Geoponica_, i. 6. 8, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 343 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, + 1882-1883), iii. 144, quoting Werenfels, _Dissertation upon + Superstition_ (London, 1748), p. 6. + + 344 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_3 (Berlin, 1869), § 65, pp. + 57 _sq._ Compare J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 (Berlin, + 1875-1878), ii. 595; Montanus, _Die deutsche Volksfeste, + Volksbraeuche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 128; M. + Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), p. 18; O. Schell, + "Einige Bemerkungen ueber den Mond im heutigen Glauben des bergischen + Volkes," _Am Ur-quell_, v. (1894) p. 173. The rule that the grafting + of trees should be done at the waxing of the moon is laid down by + Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xvii. 108). At Deutsch-Zepling in Transylvania, + by an inversion of the usual custom, seed is generally sown at the + waning of the moon (A. Heinrich, _Agrarische Sitten und Gebraeuche + unter den Sachsen Siebenbuergens_, Hermannstadt, 1880, p. 7). Some + French peasants also prefer to sow in the wane (F. Chapiseau, + _Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_, Paris, 1902, i. 291). In the + Abruzzi also sowing and grafting are commonly done when the moon is + on the wane; timber that is to be durable must be cut in January + during the moon's decrease (G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi + Abruzzesi_, Palermo, 1890, p. 43). + + 345 P. Sebillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ + (Paris, 1882), ii. 355; L. F. Sauve, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ + (Paris, 1889), p. 5; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great + Britain_, iii. 150; Holzmayer, "Osiliana," _Verhandlungen der + gelehrten Estnichen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. (1872) p. 47. + + 346 The rule is mentioned by Varro, _Rerum Rusticarum_, i. 37 (where we + should probably read "_ne decrescente tendens calvos fiam_," and + refer _istaec_ to the former member of the preceding sentence); A. + Wuttke, _l.c._; Montanus, _op. cit._ p. 128; P. Sebillot, _l.c._; E. + Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus Schwaben_ + (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 511, § 421; W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. + Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ + (Berlin, 1837), p. 283; A. Kuhn, _Maerkische Sagen und Maerchen_ + (Berlin, 1843), p. 386, § 92; L. Schandein, in _Bavaria, Landes- und + Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_ (Munich, 1860-1867), iv. 2, p. + 402; F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religioeser Brauch der Suedslaven_ + (Muenster, i. W. 1890), p. 15; E. Krause, "Aberglaeubische Kuren und + sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, xv. + (1883) p. 91; R. Wuttke, _Saechsische Volkskunde_2 (Dresden, 1901), + p. 369; C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ + (London, 1883), p. 259. The reason assigned in the text was probably + the original one in all cases, though it is not always the one + alleged now. + + 347 F. S. Krauss, _op. cit._ p. 16; Montanus, _l.c._; Varro, _Rerum + Rusticarum_, i. 37 (see above, note 2). However, the opposite rule + is observed in the Upper Vosges, where it is thought that if the + sheep are shorn at the new moon the quantity of wool will be much + less than if they were shorn in the waning of the moon (L. F. Sauve, + _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 5). In the Bocage of Normandy, + also, wool is clipped during the waning of the moon; otherwise moths + would get into it (J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, + Conde-sur-Noireau, 1883-1887, ii. 12). + + 348 Father Lejeune, "Dans la foret," _Missions Catholiques_, xxvii. + (1895) p. 272. + + 349 S. Johnson, _Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland_ (Baltimore, + 1810), p. 183. + + 350 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and + Islands of Scotland_, p. 306. + + 351 Thomas Tusser, _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_, New Edition + (London, 1812), p. 107 (under February). + + 352 Fairweather, in W. F. Owen's _Narrative of Voyages to explore the + Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar_ (London, 1833), ii. 396 + _sq._ + + 353 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_,3 § 65, p. 58; J. Lecoeur, + _loc. cit._; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebraeuche aus + Schwaben_, p. 511, § 422; Th. Siebs, "Das Saterland," _Zeitschrift + fuer Volkskunde_, iii. (1893) p. 278; Holzmayer, _op. cit._ p. 47. + + 354 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London, + 1875-1876), ii. 719 _sq._ + + 355 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 402. + + M110 The phases of the moon in relation to the felling of timber. + + 356 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 37. 4; Varro, _Rerum Rusticarum_, i. 37; + Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 190; Palladius, _De re rustica_, ii. 22, + xii. 15; Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 10. 3; Macrobius, + _Saturn._ vii. 16; A. Wuttke, _l.c._; _Bavaria, Landes- und + Volkskunde des Koenigreichs Bayern_, iv. 2, p. 402; W. Kolbe, + _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebraeuche_2 (Marburg, 1888), p. 58; L. + F. Sauve, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 5; F. Chapiseau, + _Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_, i. 291 _sq._; M. Martin, + "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J. Pinkerton's + _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 630; J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and + Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_, p. 306; G. + Amalfi, _Tradizioni ed Usi nella peninsola Sorrentina_ (Palermo, + 1890), p. 87; K. von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturvoelkern + Zentral-Brasiliens_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 559. Compare F. de Castelnau, + _Expedition dans les parties centrales de l'Amerique du Sud_ (Paris, + 1851-1852), iii. 438. Pliny, while he says that the period from the + twentieth to the thirtieth day of the lunar month was the season + generally recommended, adds that the best time of all, according to + universal opinion, was the interlunar day, between the old and the + new moon, when the planet is invisible through being in conjunction + with the sun. + + 357 J. Lecoeur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, ii. 11 _sq._ + + 358 Mrs. Leslie Milne, _Shans at Home_ (London, 1910), p. 100. + + 359 Letter of Mr. A. S. F. Marshall, dated Hacienda "La Maronna," Cd. + Porfirio Diaz, Coah., Mexico, 2nd October 1908. The writer gives + instances confirmatory of this belief. I have to thank Professor A. + C. Seward of Cambridge for kindly showing me this letter. + + 360 Letter of Mr. Francis S. Schloss to me, dated 58 New Cavendish + Street, W., 12th May 1912. Mr. Schloss adds that "as a matter of + practical observation, timber, etc., should only be felled when the + moon is waning. This has been stated to me not only by natives, but + also by English mining engineers of high repute, who have done work + in Colombia." + + 361 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p. + 125. + + 362 Montanus, _Die deutsche Volksfeste, Volksbraeuche und deutscher + Volksglaube_, p. 128. + + M111 The moon regarded as the source of moisture. + + 363 Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ iii. 10. 3; Macrobius, _Saturn._ vii. + 16. See further, W. H. Roscher, _Ueber Selene und Verwandtes_ + (Leipsic, 1890), pp. 49 _sqq._ + + 364 Plutarch and Macrobius, _ll.cc._; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 223, xx. + 1; Aristotle, _Problemata_, xxiv. 14, p. 937 B, 3 _sq._ ed. I. + Bekker (Berlin). + + 365 Macrobius and Plutarch, _ll.cc._ + + 366 L. F. Sauve, _Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_, p. 5. + + 367 Above, p. 136. + + 368 M. Martin, "Description of the Western Islands of Scotland," in J. + Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 630. + + M112 The moon, being viewed as the cause of vegetable growth, is + naturally worshipped by agricultural peoples. + + 369 E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford, + 1892) p. 495. In his remarks on the origin of moon-worship this + learned and philosophical historian has indicated (_op. cit._ i. 493 + _sqq._) the true causes which lead primitive man to trace the growth + of plants to the influence of the moon. Compare Sir E. B. Tylor, + _Primitive Culture_2 (London, 1873), i. 130. Payne suggests that the + custom of naming the months after the principal natural products + that ripen in them may have contributed to the same result. The + custom is certainly very common among savages, as I hope to show + elsewhere, but whether it has contributed to foster the fallacy in + question seems doubtful. + + The Indians of Brazil are said to pay more attention to the moon + than to the sun, regarding it as a source both of good and ill. See + J. B. von Spix und C. F. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_ (Munich, + 1823-1831), i. 379. The natives of Mori, a district of Central + Celebes, believe that the rice-spirit Omonga lives in the moon and + eats up the rice in the granary if he is not treated with due + respect. See A. C. Kruijt, "Eenige ethnografische aanteekeningen + omtrent de Toboengkoe en de Tomori," _Mededeelingen van wege het + Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 231. + + 370 E. A. Budge, _Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, on + recently-discovered inscriptions of this King_, pp. 5 _sq._; A. H. + Sayce, _Religion of the Ancient Babylonians_, p. 155; M. Jastrow, + _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 68 _sq._, 75 _sq._; L. W. + King, _Babylonian Religion and Mythology_ (London, 1899), pp. 17 + _sq._ The Ahts of Vancouver Island, a tribe of fishers and hunters, + view the moon as the husband of the sun and as a more powerful deity + than her (G. M. Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, London, + 1868, p. 206). + + M113 Thus Osiris, the old corn-god, was afterwards identified with the + moon. + M114 The doctrine of lunar sympathy. + M115 Theory that all things wax or wane with the moon. The ceremonies + observed at new moon are often magical rather than religious, being + intended to renew sympathetically the life of man. + + 371 This principle is clearly recognized and well illustrated by J. + Grimm (_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 594-596). + + 372 D. F. A. Hervey, "The Mentra Traditions," _Journal of the Straits + Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. + 190; W. W. Skeat and C. O. Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay + Peninsula_ (London, 1906), ii. 337. + + 373 Rev. J. Grant (parish minister of Kirkmichael), in Sir John + Sinclair's _Statistical Account of Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1791-1799), + xii. 457. + + 374 A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Nord-deutsche Sagen, Maerchen und + Gebraeuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 457, § 419. + + 375 Tacitus, _Germania_, 11. + + 376 Caesar, _De bello Gallico_, i. 50. + + 377 Herodotus, vi. 106; Lucian, _De astrologia_, 25; Pausanias, i. 28. + 4. + + 378 Thucydides, vii. 50. + + 379 Le capitaine Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinee_ (Paris, 1892), + ii. 116. + + 380 Mungo Park, _Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa_5 (London, + 1807), pp. 406 _sq._ + + 381 W. Smythe and F. Lowe, _Narrative of a Journey from Lima to Para_ + (London, 1836), p. 230. + + 382 Father G. Boscana, "Chinig-chinich," in _Life in California, by an + American_ [A. Robinson] (New York, 1846), pp. 298 _sq._ + + 383 Merolla, "Voyage to Congo," in J. Pinkerton's _Voyages and Travels_, + xvi. 273. + + 384 H. Schinz, _Deutsch-Suedwest-Afrika_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, N.D.), + p. 319. + + 385 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 274. + + 386 H. Cole, "Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa," _Journal of + the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 330. + + 387 John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 142. + + 388 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and + Leipsic, 1841), ii. 279. Compare Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten + aberglaeubische Gebraeuche, Weisen und Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, + 1854), pp. 142 _sq._; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 595, + note 1. The power of regeneration ascribed to the moon in these + customs is sometimes attributed to the sun. Thus it is said that the + Chiriguanos Indians of South-Eastern Bolivia often address the sun + as follows: "Thou art born and disappearest every day, only to + revive always young. Cause that it may be so with me." See A. + Thouar, _Explorations dans l'Amerique du Sud_ (Paris, 1891), p. 50. + + 389 W. Woodville Rockhill, "Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and + Superstitions of Korea," _The American Anthropologist_, iv. + (Washington, 1891), p. 185. + + M116 Attempts to eat or drink the moonlight. + + 390 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ + (Westminster, 1896), i. 14 _sq._ + + M117 The supposed influence of moonlight on children: presentation of + infants to the new moon. + + 391 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p. + 37. + + 392 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 58. + + 393 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel, + 1912-1913), i. 51. + + M118 Infants presented to the moon by the Guarayos Indians of Bolivia and + the Apinagos Indians of Brazil. + + 394 A. d'Orbigny, _Voyage dans l'Amerique Meridionale_, iii. 1re Partie + (Paris and Strasburg, 1844), p. 24. + + 395 F. de Castelnau, _Expedition dans les parties centrales de + l'Amerique du Sud_ (Paris, 1850-1851), ii. 31-34. + + M119 The presentation of infants to the moon is probably intended to make + them grow. + M120 Baganda ceremonies at new moon. + + 396 J. Roscoe, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda." _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) + pp. 63, 76; _id._, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911) pp. 235 _sq._ In the + former passage the part of the king's person which is treated with + this ceremony is said to be the placenta, not the navel-string. + + M121 Baleful influence supposed to be exercised by the moon on children. + + 397 M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. 49. + + 398 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Conviviales_, iv. 10. 3. 7. + + 399 J. B. von Spix und C. F. Ph. von Martius, _Reise in Brasilien_ + (Munich, 1823-1831), i. 381, iii. 1186. + + 400 J. Jamieson, _Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New Edition + edited by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley, 1879-1882), iii. + 300 (_s.v._ "Mone"). + + M122 Use of the moon to increase money or decrease sickness. + + 401 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), + ii. 260; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_, + ii. (Leipsic, 1906) p. 131; W. Henderson, _Folk-lore of the Northern + Counties of England_ (London, 1879), p. 114; C. S. Burne and G. F. + Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 257; W. Gregor, + _Folk-lore of the North-East of Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 151. + + 402 C. R. Conder, _Heth and Moab_ (London, 1883), p. 286. + + 403 P. Sebillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ + (Paris, 1882), ii. 355. + + 404 A. Kuhn, _Maerkische Sagen und Maerchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, § 93. + +_ 405 Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), p. 447. + + 406 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 302. Compare J. + Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 596. + + 407 R. F. Kaindl, "Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen," _Globus_, lxxvi. + (1899) p. 256. + + M123 Osiris personated by the king of Egypt. + + 408 See above, vol. i. pp. 16 _sq._, 48 _sqq._, 110, 114, 170 _sq._, 172 + _sqq._, 176 _sqq._, 179 _sqq._, 285 _sqq._, 288 _sqq._ + + 409 See above, pp. 97 _sq._, 101 _sq._ + + M124 The Sed festival celebrated in Egypt at intervals of thirty years. + + 410 A. Moret, _Du caractere religieux de la royaute Pharaonique_ (Paris, + 1902), pp. 235-238. The festival is discussed at length by M. Moret + (_op. cit._ pp. 235-273). See further R. Lepsius, _Die Chronologie + der Aegypter_, i. 161-165; Miss M. A. Murray, _The Osireion at + Abydos_, pp. 32-34; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_ + (London, 1906), pp. 176-185. In interpreting the festival I follow + Professor Flinders Petrie. That the festival occurred, theoretically + at least, at intervals of thirty years, appears to be + unquestionable; for in the Greek text of the Rosetta Stone Ptolemy + V. is called "lord of periods of thirty years," and though the + corresponding part of the hieroglyphic text is lost, the demotic + version of the words is "master of the years of the Sed festival." + See R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ pp. 161 _sq._; W. Dittenberger, _Orientis + Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae_, No. 90, line 2 (vol. i. p. 142); A. + Moret, _op. cit._ 260. However, the kings appear to have sometimes + celebrated the festival at much shorter intervals, so that the dates + of its recurrence cannot safely be used for chronological purposes. + See Ed. Meyer, _Nachtraege zur aegyptischen Chronologie_ (Berlin, + 1908), pp. 43 _sq._ (_Abhandlungen der koenigl. Akademie der + Wissenschaften vom Jahre 1907_); _id._, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 + i. 2. pp. xix. 130. + + 411 This was Letronne's theory (R. Lepsius, _op. cit._ p. 163). + + 412 See above, pp. 24 _sqq._, 34 _sqq._ + + 413 This was in substance the theory of Biot (R. Lepsius, _l.c._), and + it is the view of Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie (_Researches in + Sinai_, pp. 176 _sqq._). + + 414 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 180. + + M125 Intention of the Sed festival to renew the king's life. + + 415 A. Moret, _Du caractere religieux de la royaute Pharaonique_, pp. + 255 _sq._ + + M126 The king identified with the dead Osiris at the Sed festival. + + 416 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 181. + + 417 A. Moret, _op. cit._ p. 240; Miss M. A. Murray, _The Osireion at + Abydos_, pp. 33 _sq._, with the slip inserted at p. 33; W. Flinders + Petrie, _op. cit._ p. 184. + + 418 A. Moret, _op. cit._ p. 242. + + 419 Miss M. A. Murray, _op. cit._, slip inserted at p. 33. + + 420 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 183. + + 421 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _l.c._ As to the king's name (Khent instead + of Zer) see above, p. 20, note 1. + + 422 J. Capart, "Bulletin critique des religions de l'Egypte," _Revue de + l'Histoire des Religions_, liii. (1906) pp. 332-334. I have to thank + Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie for calling my attention to this + passage. + + M127 Professor Flinders Petrie's explanation of the Sed festival. + + 423 W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Researches in Sinai_, p. 185. As to the + Coptic mock-king see C. B. Klunzinger, _Bilder aus Oberaegypten, der + Wueste und dem Rothen Meere_ (Stuttgart, 1877), pp. 180 _sq._; _The + Dying God_, pp. 151 _sq._ For examples of human sacrifices offered + to prolong the lives of kings see below, vol. ii. pp. 219 _sqq._ + + M128 Alexandre Moret's theory that at the Sed festivals the king was + supposed to die and to be born again. + + 424 A. Moret, _Mysteres Egyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 187-190. For a + detailed account of the Egyptian evidence, monumental and + inscriptional, on which M. Moret bases his view of the king's + rebirth by deputy from the hide of a sacrificed animal, see pp. 16 + _sqq._, 72 _sqq._ of the same work. Compare his article, "Du + sacrifice en Egypte," _Revue de l'Histoire des Religions_, lvii. + (1908) pp. 93 _sqq._ In support of the view that the king of Egypt + was deemed to be born again at the Sed festival it has been pointed + out that on these solemn occasions, as we learn from the monuments, + there was carried before the king on a pole an object shaped like a + placenta, a part of the human body which many savage or barbarous + peoples regard as the twin brother or sister of the new-born child. + See C. G. Seligmann and Margaret A. Murray, "Note upon an early + Egyptian standard," _Man_, xi. (1911) pp. 165-171. The object which + these writers take to represent a human placenta is interpreted by + M. Alexandre Moret as the likeness of a human embryo. As to the + belief that the afterbirth is a twin brother or sister of the + infant, see above, vol. i. p. 93, and below, pp. 169 _sq._; _The + Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 82 _sqq._ + + Professor J. H. Breasted thinks that the Sed festival is probably + "the oldest religious feast of which any trace has been preserved in + Egypt"; he admits that on these occasions "the king assumed the + costume and insignia of Osiris, and undoubtedly impersonated him," + and further that "one of the ceremonies of this feast symbolized the + resurrection of Osiris"; but he considers that the significance of + the festival is as yet obscure. See J. H. Breasted, _Development of + Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_ (London, 1912), p. 39. + + M129 Osiris personated by the king of Egypt. + M130 How did the conception of Osiris as a god of vegetation and of the + dead originate? + M131 While Adonis and Attis were subordinate figures in their respective + pantheons, Osiris was the greatest and most popular god of Egypt. + M132 The personal devotion of the Egyptians to Osiris suggests that he + may have been a real man; for all the permanent religious or + semi-religious systems of the world have been founded by individual + great men. + M133 The historical reality of Osiris as an old king of Egypt can be + supported by modern African analogies. + + 425 It is maintained by the discoverer of the tomb of Osiris at Abydos, + Monsieur E. Amelineau, in his work _Le Tombeau d'Osiris_ (Paris, + 1899) and by Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge in his elaborate treatise + _Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection_, in which the author pays + much attention to analogies drawn from the religion and customs of + modern African tribes. + + 426 G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique_, + i. 43 _sqq._; J. H. Breasted, _History of the Ancient Egyptians_, + pp. 29 _sq._; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. pp. 41 + _sqq._ The affinity of the Egyptian language to the Semitic family + of speech seems now to be admitted even by historians who maintain + the African origin of the Egyptians. + + M134 The spirits of dead kings worshipped by the Shilluks of the White + Nile. Sacrifices to the dead kings. + +_ 427 The Dying God_, pp. 17 _sqq._ The information there given was + kindly supplied by Dr. C. G. Seligmann, who has since published it + with fuller details. See C. G. Seligmann, _The Cult of Nyakang and + the Divine Kings of the Shilluk_ (Khartoum, 1911), pp. 216-232 + (reprint from _Fourth Report of the Wellcome Tropical Research + Laboratories, Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum_); W. Hofmayr, + "Religion der Schilluk," _Anthropos_, vi. (1911) pp. 120-131; + Diedrich Westermann, _The Shilluk People, their Language and + Folk-lore_ (Berlin, preface dated 1912), pp. xxxix. _sqq._ In what + follows I have drawn on all these authorities. + + M135 Worship of Nyakang, the first of the Shilluk kings. + + 428 C. G. Seligmann, _The Cult of Nyakang_, p. 221. + + 429 D. Westermann, _The Shilluk People_, p. xlii. + + 430 D. Westermann, _l.c._ + + M136 The spirit of Nyakang supposed to manifest itself in certain + animals. + + 431 W. Hofmayr, "Religion der Schilluk," _Anthropos_, vi. (1911) pp. 123 + _sq._; C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 230; D. Westermann, _op. cit._ + p. xliii. + + 432 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ pp. 229 _sq._ + + 433 W. Hofmayr, _op. cit._ p. 125. + + M137 The deified Nyakang seems to have been a real man. Relation of + Nyakang to the creator Juok. + + 434 W. Hofmayr, _op. cit._ p. 123. This writer spells the name of the + deified king as Nykang. I have adopted Dr. Seligmann's spelling. + + 435 Diederich Westermann, _The Shilluk People, their Language and + Folklore_ (Berlin, preface dated 1912), pp. xlii, xliii. Mr. + Westermann gives the names of the demi-god and the god as Nyikang + and Jwok respectively. For the sake of uniformity I have altered + them to Nyakang and Juok, the forms adopted by Dr. C. G. Seligmann. + + 436 C. G. Seligmann, _The Cult of Nyakang and the Divine Kings of the + Shilluk_ (Khartoum, 1911), p. 220. + + 437 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 231. + + M138 The belief in the former humanity of Nyakang is confirmed by the + analogy of his worship to that of the dead Shilluk kings. + + 438 W. Hofmayr, _op. cit._ p. 125. "It must be remembered that the due + growth of the crops, _i.e._ of the most important part of the + vegetable world, depends on the well-being of the divine king" (C. + G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 229). + + 439 C. G. Seligmann, _op. cit._ p. 227. + + M139 Comparison of Nyakang with Osiris. + M140 The spirits of dead kings worshipped by the Baganda of Central + Africa. + + 440 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 283. + + 441 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 113, 282. + + 442 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 110, 282, 285. + + 443 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 104, 252 _sq._; L. F. Cunningham, + _Uganda and its People_ (London, 1905), p. 226. + + M141 Tombs of the dead kings of Uganda. + + 444 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 104-107, _id._, "Notes on the + Manners and Customs of the Baganda," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 129; _id._, "Further Notes on the + Manners and Customs of the Baganda," _ibid._, xxxii. (1902) pp. 44 + _sq._ Compare L. F. Cunningham, _Uganda and its People_ (London, + 1905), pp. 224, 226. + + M142 Ghosts of the dead kings of Uganda supposed to adhere to their lower + jawbones and their navel-strings, which are accordingly preserved in + temples dedicated to the worship of the kings. + + 445 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 109 _sq._ + + 446 Above, p. 147. + + 447 Rev. J. Roscoe, "Kibuka, the War God of the Baganda," _Man_, vii. + (1907) pp. 164 _sq._; _id._, _The Baganda_, pp. 235 _sq._ + + M143 The temples of the dead kings of Uganda. + + 448 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 110-112, 283 _sq._ + + 449 Rev. J. Roscoe, "Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) pp. 129 + _sq._; _id._, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the + Baganda," _ibid._, xxxii. (1902) p. 45. + + M144 Oracles given by the dead kings of Uganda by the mouth of an + inspired prophet. + + 450 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 283. + + 451 Rev. J. Roscoe, "Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 130; + _id._, "Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda," + _ibid._, xxxii. (1902) p. 46; _id._, _The Baganda_, pp. 283-285. + + M145 Visit paid by the living king to the temple of his dead father. + Human victims sacrificed in order that their ghosts might serve the + ghost of the dead king. + + 452 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 112, 284. + + 453 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 112. It may be worth while to + quote an early notice of the worship of the Kings of Uganda. See C. + T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan_ + (London, 1882), i. 208: "The former kings of the country appear also + to be regarded as demi-gods, and their graves are kept with + religious care, and houses are erected over them, which are under + the constant supervision of one of the principal chiefs of the + country, and where human sacrifices are also occasionally offered." + The graves here spoken of are no doubt the temples in which the + jawbones and navel-strings of the dead kings are kept and + worshipped. + + M146 The souls of dead kings worshipped in Kiziba. + + 454 Hermann Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 4-7, + 106 _sqq._, 121, 125 _sqq._, 130. Among the totems of the people are + the long-tailed monkey (_Cercopithecus_), a small species of + antelope, the locust, the hippopotamus, the buffalo, the otter, + dappled cows, and the hearts of all animals. The members of the clan + which is charged with the duty of burying the king's body have for + their totem the remains of a goat that has been killed by a leopard. + See H. Rehse, _op. cit._ pp. 5 _sq._ + + M147 The worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of Northern + Rhodesia. + + 455 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern + Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), pp. 80 _sq._ + + 456 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern + Rhodesia_, pp. 82 _sq._ + + 457 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ pp. 84 _sq._ + + M148 The worship of ancestral spirits is apparently the main practical + religion of all the Bantu tribes. + M149 The worship of ancestral spirits among the Bantu tribes of South + Africa. + + 458 Rev. James Macdonald, "Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and + Religions of South African Tribes," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 286. Compare _id._, _Light in Africa_2 + (London, 1890), p. 191. + + 459 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) pp. + 399 _sq._ With regard to the ghost who controls lightning see Mr. + Warner's notes in Col. Maclean's _Compendium of Kafir Laws and + Customs_ (Cape Town, 1866), pp. 82 _sq._: "The Kafirs have strange + notions respecting the lightning. They consider that it is governed + by the _umshologu_, or ghost, of the greatest and most renowned of + their departed chiefs; and who is emphatically styled the _inkosi_; + but they are not at all clear as to which of their ancestors is + intended by this designation. Hence they allow of no lamentation + being made for a person killed by lightning; as they say that it + would be a sign of disloyalty to lament for one whom the _inkosi_ + had sent for, and whose services he consequently needed; and it + would cause him to punish them, by making the lightning again to + descend and do them another injury." + + 460 G. McCall Theal, _op. cit._ vii. 400. + + M150 Sacrifices to the dead among the Bantu tribes of South Africa. + + 461 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 88-91. + + M151 Worship of the dead among the Basutos. + + 462 Rev. E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 248-250. + + M152 Worship of the dead among the Thonga. + + 463 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel, + 1912-1913), ii. 347. + + 464 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 385. + + 465 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 344. + + 466 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 385. + + 467 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 348 _sq._ + + 468 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 341. + + 469 H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 346. + + M153 Sacrifices to dead chiefs among the Basutos and Bechuanas. + + 470 A. Merensky, _Beitraege zur Kenntnis Sued-Afrikas_ (Berlin, 1875), p. + 130. + + M154 Worship of the dead among the Zulus. + + 471 Rev. H. Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, i. (Natal, + Springvale, etc., 1868) pp. 1 _sq._ + + 472 Rev. Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ + (London, 1857), p. 159. + + 473 Rev. J. Shooter, _op. cit._ p. 161. + + M155 Sacrifices and prayers to the dead among the Zulus. + + 474 Rev. Lewis Grout, _Zulu-land, or Life among the Zulu-Kafirs_ + (Philadelphia, N.D.), pp. 137, 143-145. + + M156 A native Zulu account of the worship of the dead. + + 475 "That is, they suggest to the Itongo [ancestral spirit, singular of + Amatongo], by whose ill-will or want of care they are afflicted, + that if they should all die in consequence, and thus his worshippers + come to an end, he would have none to worship him; and therefore for + his own sake, as well as for theirs, he had better preserve his + people, that there may be a village for him to enter, and meat of + the sacrifices for him to eat." + + 476 Rev. Henry Callaway, _The Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part + ii., _Amatongo or Ancestor Worship as existing among the Amazulu, in + their own words, with a translation into English_ (Natal, + Springvale, etc., 1869), pp. 144-146. + + M157 The worship of the dead among the Herero of German South-West + Africa. Ancestral spirits (_Ovakuru_) worshipped by the Herero. + + 477 Missionar J. Irle, _Die Herero, ein Beitrag zur Landes- Volks- und + Missionskunde_ (Guetersloh, 1906), pp. 72 _sq._ + + 478 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 73. + +_ 479 Ovakuru_, the plural form of _Mukuru_. + + 480 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 74. + + 481 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 75. The writer tells us (_l.c._) that the + Herero name for the good celestial God, whom they acknowledge but do + not worship, is common, in different forms, to almost all the Bantu + tribes. Among the Ovambo it is Kalunga; among tribes of Loango, the + Congo, Angola and Benguela it is Zambi, Njambi, Ambi, Njame, Onjame, + Ngambe, Nsambi; in the Cameroons it is Nzambi, etc. Compare John H. + Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), pp. 246 _sq._: "We + have found a vague knowledge of a Supreme Being, and a belief in + Him, very general among those tribes on the Congo with which we have + come into contact.... On the Lower Congo He is called _Nzambi_, or + by His fuller title _Nzambi a mpungu_; no satisfactory root word has + yet been found for _Nzambi_, but for _mpungu_ there are sayings and + proverbs that clearly indicate its meaning as, most of all, supreme, + highest, and _Nzambi a mpungu_ as the Being most High, or Supreme. + On the Upper Congo among the Bobangi folk the word used for the + Supreme Being is _Nyambe_; among the Lulanga people, _Nzakomba_; + among the Boloki, _Njambe_; among the Bopoto people it is + _Libanza_.... It is interesting to note that the most common name + for the Supreme Being on the Congo is also known, in one form or + another, over an extensive area of Africa reaching from 6 deg. north of + the Equator away to extreme South Africa; as, for example, among the + Ashanti it is _Onyame_, at Gaboon it is _Anyambie_, and two thousand + miles away among the Barotse folk it is _Niambe_. These are the + names that stand for a Being who is endowed with strength, wealth, + and wisdom by the natives; and He is also regarded and spoken of by + them as the principal Creator of the world, and the Maker of all + things.... But the Supreme Being is believed by the natives to have + withdrawn Himself to a great distance after performing His creative + works; that He has now little or no concern in mundane affairs; and + apparently no power over spirits and no control over the lives of + men, either to protect them from malignant spirits or to help them + by averting danger. They also consider the Supreme Being (_Nzambi_) + as being so good and kind that there is no need to appease Him by + rites, ceremonies or sacrifices. Hence they never pray to this + Supreme One, they never worship Him, or think of Him as being + interested in the doings of the world and its peoples." + + 482 J. Irle, _op. cit._ p. 77. Mr. Irle's account of the religion of the + Herero or Ovaherero is fully borne out by the testimony of earlier + missionaries among the tribe. See Rev. G. Viehe, "Some Customs of + the Ovaherero" _(South African) Folk-lore Journal_, i. (Cape Town, + 1879) pp. 64 _sq._: "The religious customs and ceremonies of the + Ovaherero are all rooted in the presumption that the deceased + continue to live, and that they have a great influence on earth, and + exercise power over the life and death of man. This influence and + power is ascribed especially to those who have been great men, and + who become _Ovakuru_ after death. The numerous religious customs and + ceremonies are a worshipping of the ancestors." Further, Mr. Viehe + reports that "the Ovaherero have a slight idea of another being + (Supreme being?) which differs greatly from the _Ovakuru_, is + superior to them, and is supposed never to have been a human being. + It is called _Karunga_.... _Karunga_ does only good; whilst the + influence of the _Ovakuru_ is more feared than wished for; and, + therefore, it is not thought necessary to bring sacrifices to + _Karunga_ to guard against his influence." He is situated so high, + and is so superior to men "that he takes little special notice of + them; and so the Ovaherero, on their part, also trouble themselves + little about this superior being" (_op. cit._ p. 67 note 1). Similar + evidence is given by another missionary as to the belief of the + Herero in a superior god Karunga and their fear and worship of + ancestral spirits. See the Rev. H. Beiderbecke, "Some Religious + Ideas and Customs of the Ovaherero" _(South African) Folk-lore + Journal_, ii. (Cape Town, 1880) pp. 88 _sqq._ + + M158 The worship of the dead among the Ovambo. + + 483 Hermann Toenjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), + pp. 193-197. + + M159 The worship of the dead among the Wahehe of German East Africa. + + 484 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 22 _sq._ The writer + does not describe the Wahehe as a Bantu tribe, but from the + characteristic prefixes which they employ to designate the tribe, + individual tribesmen, the country, and so forth (_op. cit._ p. 124) + we may infer that the people belong to the Bantu stock. + + 485 E. Nigmann, _Die Wahehe_, pp. 23 _sq._ + + 486 E. Nigmann, _op. cit._ p. 35. + + 487 E. Nigmann, _op. cit._ p. 39. + + 488 E. Nigmann, _op. cit._ pp. 24 _sqq._, 35 _sqq._ + + M160 The worship of the dead among the Bahima of Ankole, in Central + Africa. + + 489 Rev. J. Roscoe, "The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole," _Journal of the + Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 108 _sq._ The + supreme god Lugaba is no doubt the same with the supreme god Rugaba + worshipped by the Bahimas in Kiziba. See above, p. 173. With regard + to the religion of the Baganda the same authority tells us that "the + last, and possibly the most venerated, class of religious objects + were the ghosts of departed relatives. The power of ghosts for good + or evil was incalculable" (_The Baganda_, p. 273). + + M161 The worship of dead chiefs or kings among the Bantu tribes of + Northern Rhodesia. + + 490 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern + Rhodesia_, p. 83. + + 491 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ p. 11. + + 492 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ p. 292. + + 493 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ pp. 294 _sq._ + + 494 J. H. West Sheane, "Wemba Warpaths," _Journal of the African + Society_, No. xli. (October, 1911) pp. 25 _sq._ + + M162 Among these tribes the spirits of dead chiefs or kings are thought + sometimes to take bodily possession of men and women or to be + incarnate in animals. + + 495 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern + Nigeria_, p. 83. + + 496 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _op. cit._ p. 84. + + M163 Belief of the Barotse in a supreme god Niambe. + + 497 Eugene Beguin, _Les Ma-rotse_ (Lausanne and Fontaines, 1903), pp. + 118 _sq._ + + M164 The worship of dead kings among the Barotse. + + 498 Eugene Beguin, _Les Ba-rotse_, pp. 120-123. Compare _Totemism and + Exogamy_, iv. 306 _sq._ + + M165 Thus the worship of dead kings has been an important element in the + religion of many African tribes. + M166 Perhaps some African gods, who are now distinguished from ghosts, + were once dead men. + + 499 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 271. + + 500 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 290, 291. In the worship of Mukasa + "the principal ceremony was the annual festival, when the king sent + his presents to the god, to secure a blessing on the crops and on + the people for the year." (J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 298). + + M167 The human remains of Kibuka, the war-god of the Baganda. + + 501 Rev. J. Roscoe, "Kibuka, the War God of the Baganda," _Man_, vii. + (1907) pp. 161-166; _id._, _The Baganda_, pp. 301-308. Among the + personal relics of Kibuka kept in his temple were his genital + organs; these also were rescued when the Mohammedans burned down his + temple in the civil wars of 1887-1890. They are now with the rest of + the god's, or rather the man's, remains at Cambridge. + + M168 Thus it is possible that Osiris and Isis may have been a real king + and queen of Egypt, perhaps identical with King Khent and his queen. + + 502 This consideration is rightly urged by H. Schaefer as a strong + argument in favour of the antiquity of the tradition which + associated the grave of Osiris with the grave of King Khent. See H. + Schaefer, _Die Mysterien des Osiris in Abydos_ (Leipsic, 1904), pp. + 28 _sq._ + + 503 One of the commonest and oldest titles of Osiris was Chent + (Khent)-Ament or Chenti (Khenti)-Amenti, as the name is also + written. It means "Chief of those who are in the West" and refers to + the Egyptian belief that the souls of the dead go westward. See R. + V. Lanzone, _Dizionario di Mitologia Egizia_, p. 727; H. Brugsch, + _Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter_, p. 617; A. Erman, _Die + aegyptische Religion_,2 pp. 23, 103 _sq._; J. H. Breasted, + _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, pp. 38, 143 + (who spells the name Khenti-Amentiu); E. A. Wallis Budge, _Osiris + and the Egyptian Resurrection_, i. 31 _sq._, 67. "Khenti-Amenti was + one of the oldest gods of Abydos, and was certainly connected with + the dead, being probably the ancient local god of the dead of Abydos + and its neighbourhood. Now, in the Pyramid Texts, which were written + under the VIth dynasty, there are several mentions of Khenti-Amenti, + and in a large number of instances the name is preceded by that of + Osiris. It is quite clear, therefore, that the chief attributes of + the one god must have resembled those of the other, and that Osiris + Khenti-Amenti was assumed to have absorbed the powers of + Khenti-Amenti. In the representations of the two gods which are + found at Abydos there is usually no difference, at least not under + the XVIIIth and XIXth dynasties" (E. A. Wallis Budge, _op. cit._ i. + 31). However, it would be unsafe to infer that the resemblance + between the name of the god and the name of the king is more than + accidental. + + M169 Suggested parallel between Osiris and Charlemagne. + + 504 W. E. H. Lecky, _History of European Morals from Augustus to + Charlemagne_, Third Edition (London, 1877), ii. 271. + + M170 The question of the historical reality of Osiris left open. + M171 Essential similarity of Adonis, Attis, and Osiris. + M172 The superiority of the goddesses associated with Adonis, Attis, and + Osiris points to a system of mother-kin. + M173 Mother-kin and father-kin. The Khasis of Assam have mother-kin, and + among them goddesses predominate over gods and priestesses over + priests. + + 505 I have adopted the terms "mother-kin" and "father-kin" as less + ambiguous than the terms "mother-right" and "father-right," which I + formerly employed in the same sense. + +_ 506 The Khasis_, by Major P. R. T. Gurdon, I.A., Deputy Commissioner + Eastern Bengal and Assam Commission, and Superintendent of + Ethnography in Assam (London, 1907). + + 507 "The Khasi saying is, '_long jaid na ka kynthei_' (from the woman + sprang the clan). The Khasis, when reckoning descent, count from the + mother only; they speak of a family of brothers and sisters, who are + the great grandchildren of one great grandmother, as _shi kpoh_, + which, being literally translated, is one womb, _i.e._ the issue of + one womb. The man is nobody" (P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, p. 82). + "All land acquired by inheritance must follow the Khasi law of + entail, by which property descends from the mother to the youngest + daughter, and again from the latter to her youngest daughter. + Ancestral landed property must therefore be always owned by women. + The male members of the family may cultivate such lands, but they + must carry all the produce to the house of their mother, who will + divide it amongst the members of the family" (_op. cit._ p. 88). + "The rule amongst the Khasis is that the youngest daughter 'holds' + the religion, '_ka bat ka niam_.' Her house is called, '_ka iing + seng_,' and it is here that the members of the family assemble to + witness her performance of the family ceremonies. Hers is, + therefore, the largest share of the family property, because it is + she whose duty it is to perform the family ceremonies, and + propitiate the family ancestors" (_op. cit._ p. 83). + + 508 Sir C. J. Lyall, in his Introduction to _The Khasis_, by Major P. R. + T. Gurdon, pp. xxiii. _sq._ Sir C. J. Lyall himself lived for many + years among the Khasis and studied their customs. For the details of + the evidence on which his summary is based see especially pp. 63 + _sqq._, 68 _sq._, 76, 82 _sqq._, 88, 106 _sqq._, 109 _sqq._, 112 + _sq._, 121, 150, of Major Gurdon's book. As to the Khasi + priestesses, see above, vol. i. p. 46. + + M174 Again, the Pelew Islanders have mother-kin, and the deities of their + clans are all goddesses. + + 509 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_ (Berlin, 1885), + pp. 35 _sq._ The writer calls one of these kins indifferently a + _Familie_ or a _Stamm_. + + 510 J. S. Kubary, "Die Todtenbestattung auf den Pelau-Inseln," + _Original-Mittheilungen aus der ethnologischen Abtheilung der + koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin_, i. (Berlin, 1885) p. 7. + + 511 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 40. + + 512 J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 20-22. The writer says + that the family or clan gods of the Pelew Islanders are too many to + be enumerated, but he gives as a specimen a list of the family + deities of one particular district (Ngarupesang). Having done so he + observes that they are all goddesses, and he adds that "this is + explained by the importance of the woman for the clan. The deity of + the mother is inherited, that of the father is not" (_op. cit._ p. + 22). As he says nothing to indicate that the family deities of this + particular district are exceptional, we may infer, as I have done, + that the deities of all the families or clans are goddesses. Yet a + few pages previously (pp. 16 _sq._) he tells us that a village which + contains twenty families will have at least forty deities, if not + more, "for some houses may have two _kalids_ [deities], and every + house has also a goddess." This seems to imply that the families or + clans have gods as well as goddesses. The seeming discrepancy is + perhaps to be explained by another statement of the writer that "in + the family only the _kalids_ [deities] of the women count" ("_sich + geltend machen_," J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der + Pelauer_, p. 38). + + 513 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 33 _sq._, + 63; _id._, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 16. + + 514 J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 15-17, 22, 25-27. + + 515 From the passages cited in the preceding note it appears that this + was Kubary's opinion, though he has not stated it explicitly. + + 516 J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 28 _sq._ + + M175 This preference for goddesses is to be explained by the importance + of women in the social system of the Pelew Islanders. + + 517 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 38. See also + above, p. 204, note 4. + + 518 J. Kubary, _l.c._ + + 519 See the statement of Kubary quoted in the next paragraph. + + 520 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 39. + + 521 See the statement of Kubary quoted in the next paragraph. + + M176 The high position of women in the Pelew Islands has also an + industrial basis; for they alone cultivate the taro, the staple food + of the people. + + 522 J. S. Kubary, _Ethnographische Beitraege zur Kenntniss des Karolinen + Archipels_ (Leyden, 1895), p. 159. On the importance of the taro or + sweet potato as the staple food of the people, see _ib._ pp. 156 + _sq._ + + M177 Both men and women in the Pelew Islands attain to power by posing as + the inspired mouthpieces of the gods. + + 523 J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 34. + + 524 J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 30-35. The author wrote thus in the + year 1883, and his account of the Pelew religion was published in + 1888. Compare his work _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. + 81. Great changes have probably taken place in the islands since + Kubary wrote. + + M178 Parallel between the Pelew Islands of to-day and the religious and + social state of Western Asia and Egypt in antiquity. + + 525 For some other parallels between the state of society and religion + in these two regions, see Note IV. at the end of the volume. + + M179 Mother-kin does not imply that the government is in the hands of + women. + + 526 Compare E. Stephan und F. Graebner, _Neu-Mecklenburg_ (Berlin, + 1907), p. 107 note 1: "It is necessary always to repeat emphatically + that the terms father-right and mother-right indicate simply and + solely the group-membership of the individual and the systems of + relationship which that membership implies, but that they have + nothing at all to do with the higher or lower position of women. + Rather the opposite might be affirmed, namely, that woman is + generally more highly esteemed in places where father-right prevails + than in places where mother-right is the rule." + + M180 The inheritance of property, especially of landed property, through + the mother certainly tends to raise the social importance of women, + but this tendency is never carried so far as to subordinate men + politically to women. + M181 Thus while the Khasis and Pelew Islanders have mother-kin, they are + governed by men, not by women. + + 527 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_, pp. 66-71. The rule of + succession is as follows. A _Siem_, or king, "is succeeded by the + eldest of his uterine brothers; failing such brothers, by the eldest + of his sisters' sons; failing such nephews, by the eldest of the + sons of his sisters' daughters; failing such grand-nephews, by the + eldest of the sons of his mother's sisters; and, failing such first + cousins, by the eldest of his male cousins on the female side, other + than first cousins, those nearest in degree of relationship having + prior claim. If there were no heirs male, as above, he would be + succeeded by the eldest of his uterine sisters; in the absence of + such sisters, by the eldest of his sisters' daughters; failing such + nieces, by the eldest of the daughters of his sisters' daughters; + failing such grand-nieces, by the eldest of the daughters of his + mother's sisters; and failing such first cousins, by the eldest of + his female cousins on the female side, other than first cousins, + those nearest in degree of relationship having prior claim. A female + _Siem_ would be succeeded by her eldest son, and so on" (_op. cit._ + p. 71). The rule illustrates the logical precision with which the + system of mother-kin is carried out by these people even when the + intention is actually to exclude women from power. + + 528 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 35, 39 + _sq._, 73-83. See also above, pp. 204 _sq._ + + 529 R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 34. + + M182 The theory of a gynaecocracy and of the predominance of the female + imagination in religion is an idle dream. + + 530 See A. H. Post, _Afrikanische Jurisprudenz_ (Oldenburg and Leipsic, + 1887), i. 140 _sq._ Captain W. Gill reports that the Su-Mu, a + Man-Tzu tribe in Southern China numbering some three and a half + millions, is always ruled by a queen (_The River of Golden Sand_, + London, 1880, i. 365). But Capt. Gill was not nearer to the tribe + than a six days' journey; and even if his report is correct we may + suppose that the real power is exercised by men, just as it is in + the solitary Khasi tribe which is nominally governed by a woman. + + M183 But mother-kin is a solid fact, which can hardly have failed to + modify the religion of the peoples who practise it. + + 531 The theory, or at all events the latter part of it, has been + carefully examined by Dr. L. R. Farnell; and if, as I apprehend, he + rejects it, I agree with him. See his article "Sociological + Hypotheses concerning the position of Women in Ancient Religion," + _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, vii. (1904) pp. 70-94; his + _Cults of the Greek States_ (Oxford, 1896-1909), iii. 109 _sqq._; + and _The Hibbert Journal_, April 1907, p. 690. But I differ from + him, it seems, in thinking that mother-kin is favourable to the + growth of mother goddesses. + + M184 Mother-kin and mother-goddesses in Western Asia. + + 532 The Lycians traced their descent through women, not through men; and + among them it was the daughters, not the sons, who inherited the + family property. See Herodotus, i. 174; Nicolaus Damascenus, in + Stobaeus, _Florilegium_, xliv. 41 (_Fragmenta Historicorum + Graecorum_, ed. C. Mueller, iii. 461); Plutarch, _De mulierum + virtutibus_, 9. An ancient historian even asserts that the Lycians + were ruled by women ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, Heraclides + Ponticus, Frag. 15, in _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, ed. C. + Mueller, ii. 217). Inscriptions found at Dalisandos, in Isauria, seem + to prove that it was not unusual there to trace descent through the + mother even in the third or the fourth century after Christ. See Sir + W. M. Ramsay, "The Permanence of Religion at Holy Places in the + East," _The Expositor_, November 1906, p. 475. Dr. L. Messerschmidt + seems to think that the Lycians were Hittites (_The Hittites_, p. + 20). Scholars are not agreed as to the family of speech to which the + Lycian language belongs. Some think that it was an Indo-European + tongue; but this view is now abandoned by Professor Ed. Meyer + (_Geschichte des Altertums_,2 i. 2. p. 626). + + 533 W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_2 (London, + 1903), p. 306. The hypothesis of the former existence of mother-kin + among the Semites is rejected by Professor Ed. Meyer (_Geschichte + des Altertums_,2 i. 2, p. 360) and W. W. Graf Baudissin (_Adonis und + Esmun_, pp. 46 _sq._). + + M185 Mother-kin in ancient Egypt. + + 534 Diodorus Siculus, i. 27. 1 _sq._ In spite of this express testimony + to the existence of a true gynaecocracy in ancient Egypt, I am of + opinion that the alleged superiority of the queen to the king and of + the wife to her husband must have been to a great extent only + nominal. Certainly we know that it was the king and not the queen + who really governed the country; and we can hardly doubt that in + like manner it was for the most part the husband and not the wife + who really ruled the house, though unquestionably in regard to + property the law seems to have granted important rights to women + which it denied to men. On the position of women in ancient Egypt + see especially the able article of Miss Rachel Evelyn White (Mrs. + Wedd), "Women in Ptolemaic Egypt," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, + xviii. (1898) pp. 238-256. + + 535 Herodotus, ii. 35. + + M186 Marriages of brothers with sisters in ancient Egypt. + + 536 Sir Gaston Maspero, quoted by Miss R. E. White, _op. cit._ p. 244. + + 537 J. Nietzold, _Die Ehe in Aegypten zur ptolemaeisch-roemischen Zeit_ + (Leipzic, 1903), p. 12. + + 538 A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, pp. 221 + _sq._; U. Wilcken, "Arsinoitische Steuerprofessionen aus dem Jahre + 189 n. Chr.," _Sitzungsberichte der koenig. Preuss. Akademie der + Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1883, p. 903; J. Nietzold, _Die Ehe in + Aegypten zur ptolemaeisch-roemischen Zeit_, pp. 12-14. + + M187 Such marriages were based on a wish to keep the property in the + family. + + 539 J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_ (London, 1886), pp. 101 + _sqq._ Among the Kocchs of North-Eastern India "the property of the + husband is made over to the wife; when she dies it goes to her + daughters, and when he marries he lives with his wife's mother" (R. + G. Latham, _Descriptive Ethnology_, London, 1859, i. 96). + + 540 This is in substance the explanation which Miss Rachel Evelyn White + (Mrs. Wedd) gives of the Egyptian custom. See her paper, "Women in + Ptolemaic Egypt," _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xviii. (1898) p. + 265. Similarly Mr. J. Nietzold observes that "economical + considerations, especially in the case of great landowners, may + often have been the occasion of marriages with sisters, the + intention being in this way to avoid a division of the property" + (_Die Ehe in Aegypten_, p. 13). The same explanation of the custom + has been given by Prof. W. Ridgeway. See his "Supplices of + Aeschylus," in _Praelections delivered before the Senate of the + University of Cambridge_ (Cambridge, 1906), pp. 154 _sq._ I + understand from Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie that the theory has + been a commonplace with Egyptologists for many years. McLennan + explained the marriage of brothers and sisters in royal families as + an expedient for shifting the succession from the female to the male + line; but he did not extend the theory so as to explain similar + marriages among common people in Egypt, perhaps because he was not + aware of the facts. See J. F. McLennan, _The Patriarchal Theory_, + edited and completed by D. McLennan (London, 1885), p. 95. + + M188 Thus the traditional marriage of Osiris with his sister Isis + reflected a real social custom. The passing of the old world in + Egypt. + + 541 Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, i. 18 (Migne's _Patrologia + Graeca_, lxvii. 121). The learned Valesius, in his note on this + passage, informs us that the cubit was again transferred by the + Emperor Julian to the Serapeum, where it was left in peace till the + destruction of that temple. + + 542 Athanasius, _Oratio contra Gentes_, 10 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, + xxv. 24). + + 543 Socrates, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, v. 16 _sq._ (Migne's _Patrologia + Graeca_, lxvii. 604 _sq._); Sozomenus, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, + vii. 15 (Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, lxvii. 1152 _sq._). These + events took place under the Emperor Theodosius in the year 391 A.D. + + M189 Egyptian conservatism partly an effect of natural conditions and + habits of life. + M190 The old type of Osiris better preserved than those of Adonis and + Attis. + M191 Moloch perhaps the human king regarded as an incarnate deity. + + 544 See above, vol. i. pp. 17 sqq. + +_ 545 The Dying God_, pp. 168 _sqq._; G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia + Biblica_, _s.v._ "Molech." The phrase translated "make pass through + the fire to Molech" (2 Kings xxiii. 10) means properly, Professor + Kennett tells me, "make to pass over by means of fire to Molech," + where the verb has the sense of "make over to," "dedicate," + "devote," as appears from its use in Exodus xiii. 12 ("set apart," + English Version) and Ezekiel xx. 26. That the children were not made + simply to pass through the fire, but were burned in it, is shown by + a comparison of 2 Kings xvi. 3, xxiii. 10, Jeremiah xxxii. 35, with + 2 Chronicles xxviii. 3, Jeremiah vii. 31, xix. 5. As to the use of + the verb {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER AYIN~}{~HEBREW LETTER KAF~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER RESH~} in the sense of "dedicate," "devote," see G. F. + Moore, _s.v._ "Molech," _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3184; F. + Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs, _Hebrew and English Lexicon + of the Old Testament_ (Oxford, 1906), p. 718. "The testimony of both + the prophets and the laws is abundant and unambiguous that the + victims were slain and burnt as a holocaust" (G. F. Moore, in + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3184). Similarly Principal J. Skinner + translates the phrase in 2 Kings xvi. 3 by "dedicated his son by + fire," and remarks that the expression, "whatever its primary sense + may be, undoubtedly denoted actual burning" (commentary on Kings in + _The Century Bible_). The practice would seem to have been very + ancient at Jerusalem, for tradition placed the attempted + burnt-sacrifice of Isaac by his father Abraham on Mount Moriah, + which was no other than Mount Zion, the site of the king's palace + and of the temple of Jehovah. See Genesis xxii. 1-18; 2 Chronicles + iii. 1; J. Benzinger, _Hebraeische Archaeologie_ (Freiburg i. Baden + and Leipsic, 1894), pp. 45, 233; T. K. Cheyne, _s.v._ "Moriah," + _Encyclopaedia Biblica_, iii. 3200 _sq._ + + 546 Leviticus xviii. 21, xx. 2-5; 1 Kings xi. 7; 2 Kings xxiii. 10; + Jeremiah xxxii. 35. + + 547 W. Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 372, note 1. + + 548 "It is plain, from various passages of the prophets, that the + sacrifices of children among the Jews before the captivity, which + are commonly known as sacrifices to Moloch, were regarded by the + worshippers as oblations to Jehovah, under the title of king" (W. + Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,2 p. 372, referring to + Jeremiah vii. 31, xix. 5, xxxii. 35; Ezekiel xxiii. 39; Micah vi. + 7). The same view is taken by Prof. G. F. Moore, in _Encyclopaedia + Biblica_, _s.v._ "Molech," vol. iii. 3187 _sq._ + + M192 The sacrifices to Moloch may have been intended to prolong the + king's life. Vicarious sacrifices for a king or queen in Sweden, + Persia, and Madagascar. + +_ 549 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 366 _sq._ + + 550 "Ynglinga Saga," 29, in _The Heimskringla or Chronicle of the Kings + of Norway_, translated by S. Laing (London, 1844), i. 239 _sq._; H. + M. Chadwick, _The Cult of Othin_ (London, 1899), pp. 4, 27; _The + Dying God_, pp. 160 _sq._ Similarly in Peru, when a person of note + was sick, he would sometimes sacrifice his son to the idol in order + that his own life might be spared. See A. de Herrera, _The General + History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by + Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 347 _sq._ + + 551 Micah vi. 6-8. + + 552 Herodotus, vii. 114; Plutarch, _De superstitione_, 13. + + 553 W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 344 _sq._ + + M193 Other sacrifices for prolonging the king's life appear to be magical + rather than religious. Custom in the Niger delta. + + 554 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, + 1906), p. 457. + + M194 Customs observed by the Zulus and Caffres to prolong the king's + life. + + 555 D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875), p. + 91. This sacrifice may be the one described by J. Shooter, _The + Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 26. The reason for not stabbing + the animal is perhaps a wish not to lose any of the blood, but to + convey its life intact to the king. The same reason would explain + the same rule which the Baganda observed in killing a human victim + for the same purpose (see below, p. 224). + + 556 J. Dos Santos, _Eastern Ethiopia_, bk. ii. chap. 16 (G. M'Call + Theal's _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. 289). + + M195 Customs observed by the Baganda to prolong the king's life. Human + victims killed in order to invigorate the king. + + 557 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 27 _sq._ + + 558 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 200. + + 559 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 209 _sq._ + + M196 Chief's son killed to provide the king with anklets. + + 560 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 210 _sq._ + + M197 The king's game. + + 561 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 211 _sq._ I have abridged the + account of the ceremonies. + + M198 The whip of human skin. + + 562 Rev. J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ pp. 213 _sq._ + + M199 Modes in which the strength of the human victims was thought to pass + into the king. + M200 Massacres perpetrated when a king of Uganda was ill. + + 563 From information furnished by my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe. Compare + his book, _The Baganda_, pp. 331 _sqq._ + + M201 Yet the sacrifices of children to Moloch may be otherwise explained. + + 564 See _The Dying God_, pp. 166 _sqq._ + + M202 Theory that the resignation of the widowed Flamen Dialis was caused + by the pollution of death. + + 565 See above, vol. i. p. 45. + +_ 566 The Hibbert Journal_, April 1907, p. 689. + + 567 Lucian, _De dea Syria_, 53. + + 568 G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. + 725 _sqq._, Nos. 877, 878. + + 569 G. Dittenberger, _op. cit._ vol. ii. pp. 429 _sq._, No. 633. + +_ 570 Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, ed. Aug. Boeckh, etc. (Berlin, + 1828-1877), vol. ii. pp. 481 _sqq._, No. 2715, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}[{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}]{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, + where I understand {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} to mean "leave of absence." + + M203 Apparent parallel among the Todas. + + 571 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_ (London, 1906), pp. 99 _sq._ + + 572 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 24. + + M204 But on inspection the analogy breaks down. + + 573 Aulus Gellius, _l.c._: "_funus tamen exequi non est religio._" + + 574 Gaius, _Instit._ i. 112, "_quod jus etiam nostris temporibus in usu + est: nam flamines majores, id est Diales, Martiales, Quirinales, + item reges sacrorum, nisi_ (qui) _ex farreatis nati_ sunt _non + leguntur: ac ne ipsi quidem sine confarreatione sacerdotium habere + possunt_"; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 103, "_quae res ad + farreatas nuptias pertinet, quibus flaminem et flaminicam jure + pontificio in matrimonium necesse est convenire_." For a fuller + description of the rite see Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. 374. From + the testimony of Gaius it appears that not only the Flamen Dialis + but all the other principal Flamens were bound to be married. + However, the text of Gaius in this passage is somewhat uncertain. I + have quoted it from P. E. Huschke's third edition (Leipsic, 1878). + + 575 W. H. R. Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 99. According to an old account, + there was an important exception to the rule, but Dr. Rivers was not + able to verify it; he understood that during the tenure of his + office the dairyman is really celibate. + + 576 Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 23, "_Matrimonium flaminis nisi morte dirimi + jus non est_"; Festus, p. 89, ed. C. O. Mueller, _s.v._ "Flammeo"; + Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 50. Plutarch mentions as an illegal + exception that in his own time the Emperor Domitian allowed a Flamen + to divorce his wife, but the ceremony of the divorce was attended by + "many awful, strange, and gloomy rites" performed by the priests. + + 577 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 50. That the wives of Roman priests + aided their husbands in the performance of sacred rites is mentioned + by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who attributes the institution of + these joint priesthoods to Romulus (_Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 22). + + 578 The epithet Dialis, which was applied to the Flaminica as well as to + the Flamen (Aulus Gellius, x. 15. 26; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ iv. + 137), would of itself prove that husband and wife served the same + god or pair of gods; and while the word was doubtfully derived by + Varro from Jove (_De lingua Latina_, v. 84), we are expressly told + that the Flamen was the priest and the Flaminica the priestess of + that god (Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 109; Festus, p. 92, ed. C. O. + Mueller, _s.v._ "Flammeo"). There is therefore every reason to accept + the statement of Plutarch (_Quaest. Rom._ 86) that the Flaminica was + reputed to be sacred to Juno, the divine partner of Jupiter, in + spite of the objections raised by Mr. W. Warde Fowler ("Was the + Flaminica Dialis priestess of Juno?" _Classical Review_, ix. (1895) + pp. 474 _sqq._). + + M205 Customs of the Kota and Jewish priests. + + 579 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909), + iv. 10. + + 580 Leviticus, xxi. 1-3; Ezekiel, xliv. 25. + + M206 The theory that the Roman gods were celibate is contradicted by + Varro and Seneca. + +_ 581 The Hibbert Journal_, iv. (1906) p. 932. + + 582 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 67, "_Quod Jovis Juno conjux et is + caelum._" + + 583 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, iv. 32, "_Dicit etiam [scil. Varro] de + generationibus deorum magis ad poetas quam ad physicos fuisse + populos inclinatos, et ideo et sexum et generationes deorum majores + suos, id est veteres credidisse Romanos et eorum constituisse + conjugia._" + + 584 Seneca, quoted by Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vi. 10, "_Quid quod + et matrimonia, inquit, deorum jungimus, et ne pie quidem, fratrum ac + sororum? Bellonam Marti conlocamus, Vulcano Venerem, Neptuno + Salaciam. Quosdam tamen caelibes relinquimus, quasi condicio + defecerit, praesertim cum quaedam viduae sint, ut Populonia vel + Fulgora et diva Rumina; quibus non miror petitorem defuisse._" In + this passage the marriage of Venus to Vulcan is probably Greek; all + the rest is pure Roman. + + M207 The marriage of Orcus. + + 585 Servius, on Virgil, Georg. i. 344, "_Aliud est sacrum, aliud nuptias + Cereri celebrare, in quibus re vera vinum adhiberi nefas fuerat, + quae Orci nuptiae dicebantur, quas praesentia sua pontifices ingenti + solemnitate celebrabant._" + + 586 Servius, on Virgil, _Georg._ i. 344, and on _Aen._ iv. 58. As to the + prohibition of wine, compare Macrobius, _Saturn._ iii. 11. There + seems to be no doubt that Orcus was a genuine old Italian god of + death and the dead. See the evidence collected by R. Peter, _s.v._ + "Orcus," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, iii. 940 _sqq._, who says that "Orcus was obviously one + of those old Roman gods who occupied the thoughts of the people in + the most lively manner." On the other hand, Prof. G. Wissowa + supposes that Orcus is merely a borrowed form of the Greek Horkos + (_Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 p. 310). But Horkos was not a god + of death and the dead; he was simply a personified oath ({~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; see + Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 804 {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}), an abstract idea which makes no figure in Greek + mythology and religion. That such a rare and thin Greek abstraction + should through a gross misunderstanding be transformed into a highly + popular Roman god of death, who not only passed muster with the + people but was admitted by the pontiffs themselves to the national + pantheon and honoured by them with a solemn ritual, is in the last + degree improbable. + + M208 Evidence of Aulus Gellius as to the marriage of the Roman gods. + Paternity and maternity of Roman deities. + + 587 Aulus Gellius, xiii. 23 (22), 1 _sq._, "_Conprecationes deum + inmortalium, quae ritu Romano fiunt, expositae sunt in libris + sacerdotum populi Romani et in plerisque antiquis orationibus. In + his scribtum est: Luam Saturni, Salaciam Neptuni, Horam Quirini, + Virites Quirini, Maiam Volcani, Heriem Junonis, Moles Martis + Nerienemque Martis._" As to this list see Mr. W. Warde Fowler, + _Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. + 60-62; _id._, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_ + (London, 1911), pp. 150 _sqq._, 481 _sqq._ He holds (p. 485) that + the feminine names Salacia, etc., do not designate goddesses, the + wives of the gods, but that they "indicate functions or attributes + of the male deity to whom they are attached." + + 588 Aulus Gellius, xiii. 23 (22), 11-16. + + 589 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 18, "_Cingius mensem [Maium] nominatum + putat a Maia, quam Vulcani dicit uxorem, argumentoque utitur quod + flamen Vulcanalis Kalendis Maiis huic deae rem divinam facit: sed + Piso uxorem Vulcani Majestam, non Maiam, dicit vocari._" The work of + Cincius (Cingius) is mentioned by Macrobius in the same chapter (§ + 12, "_Cingius in eo libro quem de fastis reliquit_"). As to the life + and writings of this old annalist and antiquary see M. Schanz, + _Geschichte der roemischen Litteratur_,2 i. (Munich, 1898), p. 128; + G. Wissowa, Muenzer, and Cichorius, _s.v._ "Cincius," in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2555 _sqq._ All these writers + distinguish the old annalist from the antiquary, whom they take to + have been a later writer of the same name. But the distinction + appears to be purely arbitrary and destitute of any ancient + authority. + + 590 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 18. See the preceding note. + + 591 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 18. See the passage cited above, p. 232, + note 3. + + 592 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 72, "_Salacia Neptuni a salo_." This + was probably one of the cases which Varro had in his mind when he + stated that the ancient Roman gods were married. + + 593 Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 22, "_Jam utique habebat Salaciam + Neptunus uxorem_"; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ x. 76, "_Sane hanc + Veniliam quidam Salaciam accipiunt, Neptuni uxorem_." As for + Seneca's evidence see above, p. 231, note 3. + + 594 Nonius Marcellus, _De compendiosa doctrina_, p. 125, ed. L. + Quicherat (Paris, 1872), "_Hora juventutis dea. Ennius Annali[um] + lib. i. [Teque,] Quirine pater, veneror, Horamque Quirini._" + + 595 Livy, viii. 1. 6, xlv. 33. 2. + + 596 Festus, p. 186, ed. C. O. Mueller, "_Opima spolia dicuntur originem + quidem trahentia ab Ope Saturni uxore_"; _id._, p. 187, "_Opis dicta + est conjux Saturni_"; Macrobius, _Saturnal._ i. 10. 19, "_Hanc autem + deam Opem Saturni conjugem crediderunt, et ideo hoc mense Saturnalia + itemque Opalia celebrari, quod Saturnus ejusque uxor tam frugum quam + fructuum repertores esse creduntur._" Varro couples Saturn and Ops + together (_De lingua Latina_, v. 57, "_Principes in Latio Saturnus + et Ops_"; compare _id._, v. 64), but without expressly affirming + them to be husband and wife. Professor G. Wissowa, however, argues + that the male partner (he would not say husband) of Ops was not + Saturn but Consus. See G. Wissowa, "_De feriis anni Romanorum + vetustissimi observationes selectae_," reprinted in his _Gesammelte + Abhandlungen zur roemischen Religions- und Stadtgeschichte_ (Munich, + 1904), pp. 156 _sqq._ His view is accepted by Mr. W. Warde Fowler + (_Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, p. 212; _The + Religious Experience of the Roman People_, p. 482). + + 597 Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ iv. 3, "_Itaque et Jupiter a + precantibus pater vocatur, et Saturnus, et Janus, et Liber, et + ceteri deinceps, quod Lucilius in deorum consilio irridet_: + + _Ut nemo sit nostrum, quin aut pater optimus divum_ + _ Ut Neptunus pater, Liber, Saturnus pater, Mars,_ + _ Janus, Quirinus pater nomen dicatur ad unum._" + + Compare Aulus Gellius, v. 12. 5; Servius, on Virgil, _Georg._ ii. 4. + Roman goddesses who received the title of Mother were Vesta, Earth, + Ops, Matuta, and Lua. As to Mother Vesta see _The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings_, ii. 229; as to Mother Earth see H. Dessau, + _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 3950-3955, 3960; as to Mother + Ops see Varro, _De lingua Latina_, v. 64; as to Mother Matuta see L. + Preller, _Roemische Mythologie_,3 i. 322 _sqq._; G. Wissowa, + _Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 pp. 110 _sqq._; _id._, _s.v._ + "Mater Matuta," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. und roem. + Mythologie_, ii. 2462 _sqq._ I cite these passages only to prove + that the Romans commonly applied the titles "father" and "mother" to + their deities. The inference that these titles implied paternity or + maternity is my own, but in the text I have given some reasons for + thinking that the Romans themselves accepted the implication. Mr. W. + Warde Fowler, on the other hand, prefers to suppose that the titles + were employed in a merely figurative sense to "imply the dependence + of the human citizen upon his divine protector"; but he admits that + what exactly the Romans understood by _pater_ and _mater_ applied to + deities is not easy to determine (_The Religious Experience of the + Roman People_, pp. 155-157). He makes at the same time the important + observation that the Romans never, so far as he is aware, applied + the terms Father and Mother to foreign gods, but "always to _di + indigetes_, those on whom the original Roman stock looked as their + fellow-citizens and guardians." The limitation is significant and + seems more naturally explicable on my hypothesis than on that of my + learned friend. + + 598 See _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, xiv. Nos. 2862, 2863; H. + Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, Nos. 3684, 3685; R. Peter, + _s.v._ "Fortuna," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griechischen und + roemischen Mythologie_, i. 1542; G. Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der + Roemer_,2 p. 259. I have to thank my learned and candid friend Mr. W. + Warde Fowler for referring me to this good evidence of Jupiter's + paternal character. + + 599 L. Preller, _Roemische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 379. + + 600 The epithet _Inuus_ applied to Faunus was so understood by the + ancients, and this suffices to prove the conception they had of the + god's virility, whether the etymology was right or wrong. See + Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 775, "_Dicitur autem Inuus ab ineundo + passim cum omnibus animalibus._" As to the title see G. Wissowa, + _Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 p. 211, who, however, rejects the + ancient etymology and the identification of Inuus with Faunus. + + 601 Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 21-24; Lactantius, _Divin. Instit._ i. + 22; Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 314; Plutarch, _Caesar_, 9; + _id._, _Quaest. Roman._ 20. According to Varro, the goddess was the + daughter of Faunus (Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 12. 27); according to + Sextus Clodius she was his wife (Lactantius, _l.c._; compare + Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, v. 18). + + 602 Livy, i. 4. 2; Plutarch, _Romulus_, 4; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, + _Antiquit. Roman._ i. 77. + + 603 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 195 _sq._ + + 604 Plutarch, _Romulus_, 2. Plutarch's authority was Promathion in his + history of Italy. See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, + ii. 196. + + 605 Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 678. + +_ 606 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 230 _sq._ + + M209 We must conclude that the Roman gods were thought to be married and + to beget children. + + 607 Such, for example, as the loves of Vertumnus for Pomona (Ovid, + _Metam._ xiv. 623 _sqq._), of Jupiter for Juturna (Ovid, _Fasti_, + ii. 585 _sqq._), and of Janus for Carna (Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 101 + _sqq._) and for Camasene (Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 330). The + water-nymph Juturna beloved by Jupiter is said to have been the + daughter of the river Vulturnus, the wife of Janus, and the mother + of Fontus (Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_, iii. 29). Janus in + particular would seem to have been the theme of many myths, and his + claim to be a genuine Italian god has never been disputed. + + 608 The marriage of the Roman gods has been denied by E. Aust (_Die + Religion der Roemer_, Muenster i. W. 1899, pp. 19 _sq._) and Professor + G. Wissowa (_Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 pp. 26 _sq._), as well + as by Mr. W. Warde Fowler. On the other hand, the evidence for it + has been clearly and concisely stated by L. Preller, _Roemische + Mythologie_,3 i. 55-57. It is with sincere diffidence that I venture + to differ on a point of Roman religion from the eminent scholars I + have named. But without for a moment pitting my superficial + acquaintance with Roman religion against their deep learning, I + cannot but think that the single positive testimony of Varro on a + matter about which he could scarcely be ignorant ought to outweigh + the opinion of any modern scholar, however learned and able. + + M210 Rule of Greek and Roman ritual that certain offices could only be + held by boys whose parents were both alive. + +_ 609 The Hibbert Journal_, April 1907, p. 689. Such a boy was called a + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, "a boy blooming on both sides," the metaphor being + drawn from a tree which sends out branches on both sides. See Plato, + _Laws_, xi. 8, p. 927 D; Julius Pollux, iii. 25; Hesychius and + Suidas, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + 610 Festus, p. 93, ed. C. O. Mueller, _s.vv._ "Flaminius" and "Flaminia." + That certain Roman rites had to be performed by the children of + living parents is mentioned in general terms by Dionysius of + Halicarnassus (_Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 22). + + M211 But the rule which excludes orphans from certain sacred offices + cannot be based on a theory that they are ceremonially unclean + through the death of their parents. + + 611 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 50. + + M212 Examples of the exclusion of orphans from sacred offices. + M213 Boys and girls of living parents employed in Greek rites at the + vintage, harvest-home, and sowing. + + 612 Proclus, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, p. 322 A, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, + 1824); Athenaeus, xi. 92, pp. 495 _sq._; Scholiast on Nicander, + _Alexipharmaca_, 109. Only the last of these writers mentions that + the boys had to be {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. As to this and the following custom + see A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_ (Leipsic, 1898), + pp. 278 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, Antike _Wald- und Feldkulte_, pp. 214 + _sqq._ + + 613 Eustathius, on Homer, _Iliad_, xxii. 495, p. 1283; _Etymologicum + Magnum_, p. 303. 18 _sqq._, _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}; Plutarch, _Theseus_, + 22. According to a scholiast on Aristophanes (_Plutus_, 1054) the + branch might be either of olive or laurel. + + 614 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1054. + + 615 O. Kern, _Die Inschriften von Magnesia am Maeander_ (Berlin, 1900), + No. 98; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 vol. + ii. pp. 246 _sqq._, No. 553. This inscription has been well + expounded by Prof. M. P. Nilsson (_Griechische Feste_, Leipsic, + 1906, pp. 23-27). I follow him and Dittenberger in regarding the + month of Artemision, when the bull was sacrificed, as the harvest + month corresponding to the Attic Thargelion. + + 616 J. H. Neumann, "Iets over den landbouw bij de Karo-Bataks," + _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, + xlvi. (1902) p. 381. + + M214 Boys of living parents employed in the rites of the Arval Brothers. + + 617 G. Henzen, _Acta Fratrum Arvalium_ (Berlin, 1874), pp. vi. _sq._, + cix. cx. cxix. cliii. clix. clxxxvii. 12, 13, 15. As to the + evergreen oaks and laurels of the grove, see _ib._, pp. 137, 138; as + to the wreaths of corn-ears, see _ib._, pp. 26, 28; Aulus Gellius, + vii. 7. 8. That the rites performed by the Arval Brothers were + intended to make the fields bear corn is expressly stated by Varro + (_De lingua Latina_, v. 85, "_Fratres Arvales dicti sunt, qui sacra + publica faciunt propterea ut fruges ferant arva_"). On the Arval + Brothers and their rites see also L. Preller, _Roemische + Mythologie_,3 ii. 29 _sqq._; J. Marquardt, _Roemische + Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 (Leipsic, 1885) pp. 447-462; G. Wissowa, + _Religion und Kultus der Roemer_,2 pp. 561 _sqq._; J. B. Carter, + _s.v._ "Arval Brothers," in J. Hastings's _Encyclopaedia of Religion + and Ethics_, ii. (Edinburgh, 1909) pp. 7 _sqq._ + + M215 In fertility rites the employment of such children is intelligible + on the principle of sympathetic magic. + M216 Sons of living parents employed to cut the olive-wreath at Olympia + and the laurel-wreath at Tempe. + + 618 Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 60. + + 619 Pausanias, v. 15. 3. + + 620 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 12; _id._, _De defectu oraculorum_, + 15; Aelian, _Varia Historia_, iii. 1; Strabo, ix. 3. 12, p. 422. In + a note on Pausanias (ii. 7. 7, vol. iii. pp. 53 _sqq._) I have + described the festival more fully and adduced savage parallels. As + to the Vale of Tempe see W. M. Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_ + (London, 1835), iii. 390 _sqq._ The rhetoric of Livy (xliv. 6. 8) + has lashed the smooth and silent current of the Peneus into a + roaring torrent. + + M217 Sons of living parents acted as Laurel-bearers at Thebes. + + 621 Proclus, in Photius, _Bibliotheca_, ed. I. Bekker, p. 321. + + 622 O. Crusius, _s.v._ "Kadmos," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der griech. + und roem. Mythologie_, ii. 830, 838, 839. On an Etruscan mirror the + scene of Cadmus's combat with the dragon is surrounded with a wreath + of laurel (O. Crusius, _op. cit._ ii. 862). My learned friend Mr. A. + B. Cook was the first to call attention to these vase-paintings in + confirmation of my view that the Festival of the Laurel-bearing + celebrated the destruction of the dragon by Cadmus. See A. B. Cook, + "The European Sky-God," _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) p. 411, note 224; + and my note on Pausanias, ix. 10. 4 (vol. v. pp. 41 _sqq._). + + 623 I have examined both festivals more closely in a former part of this + work (_The Dying God_, pp. 78 _sqq._), and have shown grounds for + holding that the old octennial cycle in Greece, based on an attempt + to harmonize solar and lunar time, gave rise to an octennial + festival at which the mythical marriage of the sun and moon was + celebrated by the dramatic marriage of human actors, who appear + sometimes to have been the king and queen. In the Laurel-bearing at + Thebes a clear reference to the astronomical character of the + festival is contained in the emblems of the sun, moon, stars, and + days of the year which were carried in procession (Proclus, _l.c._); + and another reference to it may be detected in the legendary + marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia. Dr. L. R. Farnell supposes that the + festival of the Laurel-bearing "belongs to the maypole processions, + universal in the peasant-religion of Europe, of which the object is + to quicken the vitalizing powers of the year in the middle of spring + or at the beginning of summer" (_The Cults of the Greek States_, iv. + 285). But this explanation appears to be inconsistent with the + octennial period of the festival. + + 624 We may conjecture that the Olympic, like the Delphic and the Theban, + festival was at first octennial, though in historical times it was + quadrennial. Certainly it seems to have been based on an octennial + cycle. See the Scholiast on Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 35 (20); Aug. + Boeckh on Pindar, _Explicationes_ (Leipsic, 1821), p. 138; L. + Ideler, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_, + i. 366 _sq._; G. F. Unger, "Zeitrechnung der Griechen und Roemer," in + Iwan Mueller's _Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, i. + (Noerdlingen, 1886) pp. 605 _sq._; K. O. Mueller, _Die Dorier_2 + (Breslau, 1844), ii. 483. The Pythian games, which appear to have + been at first identical with the Delphic Festival of Crowning, were + held originally at intervals of eight instead of four years. See the + Scholiast on Pindar, _Pyth. Argum._ p. 298, ed. A. Boeckh (Leipsic, + 1819); Censorinus, _De die natali_, xviii. 6; compare Eustathius on + Homer, _Od._ iii. 267, p. 1466. 29. As to the original identity of + the Pythian games and the Festival of Crowning see Th. Schreiber, + _Apollon Pythoktonos_ (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 37 _sq._; A. B. Cook, + "The European Sky-God," _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904) pp. 404 _sq._ + + M218 If wreaths were originally amulets, we could understand why children + of living parents were chosen to cut and wear them. + + 625 Antonin Jaussen, _Coutumes des Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, + 1908), p. 382. + + 626 R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der Suedsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. + 150-152. + + 627 On the use of crowns and wreaths in classical antiquity see W. + Smith's _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_,3 i. 545 _sqq._, + _s.v._ "Corona"; E. Saglio, _s.v._ "Corona," in Ch. Daremberg et E. + Saglio's _Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines_, iii. + 1520 _sqq._ In time of mourning the ancients laid aside crowns + (Athenaeus, xv. 16, p. 675 A); and so did the king at Athens when he + tried a homicide (Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_, 57). I + mention these cases because they seem to conflict with the theory in + the text, in accordance with which crowns might be regarded as + amulets to protect the wearer against ghosts and the pollution of + blood. + + M219 Children of living parents acting as priest and priestess of Apollo + and Artemis. At Rome the Vestals and the Salii must be the children + of parents who were alive at the date of the election. Children of + living parents employed in expiatory rites at Rome. + + 628 Heliodorus, _Aethiopica_, i. 22. + + 629 Aulus Gellius, i. 12. 2. + + 630 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 67; Plutarch, + _Numa_, 10. We read of a Vestal who held office for fifty-seven + years (Tacitus, _Annals_, ii. 86). It is unlikely that the parents + of this venerable lady were both alive at the date of her decease. + + 631 Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ ii. 71. + + 632 Macrobius, _Sat._ iii. 14. 14. That the rule as to their parents + being both alive applied to the Vestals and Salii only at the time + of their entrance on office is recognized by Marquardt (_Roemische + Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 228, note 1). + + 633 Cicero, _De haruspicum responso_, 11. + + 634 Livy, xxxvii. 3; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 6. 13 _sq._; Vopiscus, + _Aurelianus_, 19 (where the words "_patrimis matrimisque pueris + carmen indicite_" are omitted from the text by H. Peter). + + 635 Tacitus, _Histor._ iv. 53. For the sack and conflagration of the + Capitol see _id._ iii. 71-75. + + 636 Flowing water in Hebrew is called "living water" ({~HEBREW LETTER MEM~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~} {~HEBREW LETTER HE~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER YOD~}{~HEBREW LETTER FINAL MEM~}). + + M220 Children of living parents employed at marriage ceremonies in + Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, and Africa. + + 637 Festus, _De verborum significatione_, ed. C. O. Mueller (Leipsic, + 1839), pp. 244, 245, _s.v._ "Patrimi et matrimi pueri." + + 638 Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 129 _sq._, 165-168. + + 639 Zenobius, _Proverb._ iii. 98; Plutarch, _Proverb._ i. 16; + Apostolius, _Proverb._ viii. 16 (_Paroemiographi Graeci_, ed. + Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 82, 323 _sq._, ii. 429); Eustathius, on + Homer, _Od._ xii. 357, p. 1726; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + 640 C. Wachsmuth, _Das alte Griechenland im neuen_ (Bonn, 1864), pp. + 83-85, 86, 87, 100 _sq._ + + 641 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 144, 146. + + 642 F. S. Krauss, _Sitte und Brauch der Sued-Slaven_ (Vienna, 1885), pp. + 438, 441. + + 643 Captain J. S. King, "Notes on the Folk-lore and some Social Customs + of the Western Somali Tribes," _The Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) + p. 124. Compare Ph. Paulitschke, _Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas, die + materielle Cultur der Danakil, Galla und Somal_ (Berlin, 1893), p. + 200. + + 644 The _Grihya-Sutras_, translated by H. Oldenberg, Part ii. (Oxford, + 1892) p. 50 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxx.). + + M221 Children of living parents apparently supposed to impart life and + longevity. Child of living parents employed in funeral rites. + + 645 Rev. William Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 151 + _sq._ + + 646 Rev. W. Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 180. + + 647 J. Pearse, "Customs connected with Death and Burial among the + Sihanaka," _The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, vol. + ii. (a reprint of the second four numbers, 1881-1884) (Antananarivo, + 1896) p. 152. + + M222 The use of children of living parents in ritual may be explained by + a notion that they are fuller of life and therefore luckier than + orphans. + + 648 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 299. + + 649 Lucian, _Hermotimus_, 57. + + 650 A fragmentary list of these youths is preserved in an Athenian + inscription of the year 91 or 90 B.C. See Ch. Michel, _Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques_, Supplement, i. (Paris, 1912) p. 104, No. + 1544. + + 651 Aelius Lampridius, _Antoninus Heliogabalus_, viii. 1 _sq._ The + historian thinks that the monster chose these victims merely for the + pleasure of rending the hearts of both the parents. + + M223 The Bechuanas use the hide of a sacrificial ox at founding a new + town. + + 652 See above, vol. i. p. 184. + + 653 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, "Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp. 303 + _sq._ + + 654 For more evidence of the sanctity of cattle among the Bechuanas see + the Rev. W. C. Willoughby, _op. cit._ pp. 301 _sqq._ + + M224 The custom may explain the legend of the foundation of Carthage and + similar tales. + + 655 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage d'Exploration au Nord-est de la + Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Esperance_ (Paris, 1842), p. 49. + + 656 Virgil, _Aen._ i. 367 _sq._, with the commentary of Servius; Justin, + xviii. 5. 9. Thongs cut from the hide of the ox sacrificed to the + four-handed Apollo were given as prizes. See Hesychius, _s.v._ + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; compare _id._, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. Whether the Greek custom was + related to those discussed in the text seems doubtful. I have to + thank my colleague and friend Professor R. C. Bosanquet for calling + my attention to these passages of Hesychius. + + 657 Saxo Grammaticus, _Historia Danica_, ix. vol. i. pp. 462 _sq._ ed. + P. E. Mueller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858) (where the hide employed is + that of a horse); J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthuemer_3 + (Goettingen, 1881), pp. 90 _sq._ Compare R. Koehler, "Sage von + Landerwerbung durch zerschnittene Haeute," _Orient und Occident_, + iii. 185-187. + + 658 Lieutenant-Colonel James Tod, _Annals and Antiquities of + Rajast'han_, ii. (London, 1832) p. 235; W. Radloff, _Proben der + Volkslitteratur der tuerkischen Staemme Sued-Sibiriens_, iv. (St. + Petersburg, 1872) p. 179; A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen + Asien_ (Berlin, 1884-1889), i. 25, iv. 367 _sq._; T. Stamford + Raffles, _History of Java_ (London, 1817), ii. 153 _sq._; R. van + Eck, "Schetsen van het eiland Bali," _Tijdschrift voor + Nederlandsch-Indie_, Feb. 1880, p. 117. The substance of all these + stories, except the first, was given by me in a note on + "Hide-measured Lands," _The Classical Review_, ii. (1888) p. 322. + + 659 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthuemer_, pp. 538 _sq._ + + M225 The ox whose hide is used is blinded in order that the new town may + be invisible to its enemies. + + 660 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, "Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana," + _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 304. + + 661 Rev. E. Gottschling, "The Bawenda, a Sketch of their History and + Customs," _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) + pp. 368 _sq._ + + M226 This explanation of the use of a blinded ox is confirmed by a Caffre + custom. + + 662 T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Relation d'un Voyage d'Exploration_, pp. + 561-565. + + 663 Above, pp. 204 _sqq._ + + M227 In the Pelew Islands a man who is inspired by a goddess wears female + attire and is treated as a woman. This pretended change of sex under + the inspiration of a female spirit may explain a widespread custom + whereby men dress and live like women. + + 664 J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer," in A. Bastian's _Allerlei aus + Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 35. + + 665 C. A. L. M. Schwaner, _Borneo_ (Amsterdam, 1853), i. 186; M. T. H. + Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_ (Zalt-Bommel, + 1870), pp. 32-35; Captain Rodney Mundy, _Narrative of Events in + Borneo and Celebes from the Journals of James Brooke, Esq., Rajah of + Sarawak_ (London, 1848), ii. 65 _sq._; Charles Brooke, _Ten Years in + Sarawak_ (London, 1866), ii. 280; H. Low, _Sarawak_ (London, 1848), + pp. 174-177; The Bishop of Labuan, "On the Wild Tribes of the + North-West Coast of Borneo," _Transactions of the Ethnological + Society of London_, N.S. ii. (1863) pp. 31 _sq._; Spenser St. John, + _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London, 1863), i. 73. In + Sarawak these men are called _manangs_, in Dutch Borneo they are + called _bazirs_ or _bassirs_. + + 666 Captain R. Mundy, _op. cit._ i. 82 _sq._; B. F. Matthes, _Over de + Bissoes of heidensche Priesters en Priesteressen der Boeginezen_ + (Amsterdam, 1872), pp. 1 _sq._ + + 667 Th. Falkner, _Description of Patagonia_ (Hereford, 1774), p. 117; J. + Hutchinson, "The Tehuelche Indians of Patagonia," _Transactions of + the Ethnological Society of London_, N.S. vii. (1869) p. 323. Among + the Guaycurus of Southern Brazil there is a class of men who dress + as women and do only women's work, such as spinning, weaving, and + making pottery. But so far as I know, they are not said to be + sorcerers or priests. See C. F. Ph. v. Martius, _Zur Ethnographie + Amerikas zumal Brasiliens_ (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 74 _sq._ + + 668 G. H. von Langsdorff, _Reise um die Welt_ (Frankfort, 1812), ii. 43; + H. J. Holmberg, "Ueber die Voelker des Russischen Amerika," _Acta + Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 400 + _sq._; W. H. Dall, _Alaska_ (London, 1870), pp. 402 _sq._; Ross Cox, + _The Columbia River_2 (London, 1832), i. 327 _sqq._; Father G. + Boscana, "Chinigchinich," in [A. Robinson's] _Life in California_ + (New York, 1846), pp. 283 _sq._; S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ + (Washington, 1877), pp. 132 _sq._; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of + the Pacific States_ (London, 1875-1876), i. 82, 92, 415, 585, 774; + Hontan, _Memoires de l'Amerique Septentrionale_ (Amsterdam, 1705), + p. 144; J. F. Lafitau, _Moeurs des Sauvages Ameriquains_ (Paris, + 1724), i. 52-54; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la Nouvelle France_ + (Paris, 1744), vi. 4 _sq._; W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source + of St. Peter's River_ (London, 1825), i. 227 _sq._, 436; George + Catlin, _North American Indians_4 (London, 1844), ii. 214 _sq._; + Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_ + (Coblentz, 1839-1841), ii. 132 _sq._; D. G. Brinton, _The Lenape and + their Legends_ (Philadelphia, 1885), pp. 109 _sq._; J. G. Mueller, + _Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen_2 (Bale, 167), pp. 44 + _sq._, 418. Among the tribes which permitted the custom were the + Illinois, Mandans, Dacotas (Sioux), Sauks, and Foxes, to the east of + the Rocky Mountains, the Yukis, Pomos, and Pitt River Indians of + California, and the Koniags of Alaska. + + 669 Lieut. W. Foley, "Journal of a Tour through the Island of Rambree," + _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, iv. (Calcutta, 1835) p. + 199. + + 670 Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_ (London, + 1883), p. 136. Compare J. A. Dubois, _Moeurs, Institutions, et + Ceremonies des Peuples de l'Inde_ (Paris, 1825), i. 439. + + 671 O. Dapper, _Description de l'Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 467. + + 672 J. B. Labat, _Relation historique de l'Ethiopie Occidentale_ (Paris, + 1732), ii. 195-199. Wherever men regularly dress as women, we may + suspect that a superstitious motive underlies the custom even though + our authorities do not mention it. The custom is thus reported among + the Italmenes of Kamtschatka (G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem + Lande Kamtschatka_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774, pp. 350 _sq._), the + Lhoosais of South-Eastern India (Capt. T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of + South-Eastern India_, London, 1870, p. 255), and the Nogay or + Mongutay of the Caucasus (J. Reinegg, _Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, + St. Petersburg, Gotha, and Hildesheim, 1796-1797, i. 270). Among the + Lhoosais or Lushais not only do men sometimes dress like women and + consort and work with them (T. H. Lewin, _l.c._), but, on the other + hand, women sometimes dress and live like men, adopting masculine + habits in all respects. When one of these unsexed women was asked + her reasons for adopting a masculine mode of life, she at first + denied that she was a woman, but finally confessed "that her + _khuavang_ was not good, and so she became a man." See the extract + from the _Pioneer Mail_ of May 1890, quoted in _The Indian + Antiquary_, xxxii. (1903) p. 413. The permanent transformation of + women into men seems to be much rarer than the converse change of + men into women. + + M228 Such transformations seem to have been often carried out in + obedience to intimations received in dreams or in ecstasy. + Transformed medicine-men among the Sea Dyaks and Chukchees. + + 673 Maximilian Prinz zu Wied, _Reise in das innere Nord-America_, ii. + 133. + + 674 W. H. Keating, _Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River_, i. + 227 _sq._ + + 675 Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, "A Study of Siouan Cults," _Eleventh Annual + Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1894), p. 378. + + 676 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_ + (London, 1911), p. 179; Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes + of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 116. + + 677 Waldemar Bogoras, _The Chukchee_ (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), + pp. 448-453 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. vii.; + _Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History_). + + 678 Rev. A. L. Kitching, _On the Backwaters of the Nile_ (London, 1912), + p. 239, with the plate. + + M229 Women inspired by a god dress as men. + + 679 For this information I have to thank my friend the Rev. J. Roscoe. + He tells me that according to tradition Mukasa used to give his + oracles by the mouth of a man, not of a woman. To wear two bark + cloths, one on each shoulder, is a privilege of royalty and of + priests. The ordinary man wears a single bark cloth knotted on one + shoulder only. With the single exception mentioned in the text, + women in Uganda never wear bark cloths fastened over the shoulders. + + 680 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 297. + + M230 The theory of inspiration by a female spirit perhaps explains the + legends of the effeminate Sardanapalus and the effeminate Hercules, + both of whom may have been thought to be possessed by the great + Asiatic goddess Astarte or her equivalent. + +_ 681 The Scapegoat_, pp. 387 _sqq._ + + 682 Catullus, lxiii. This is in substance the explanation of the custom + given by Dr. L. R. Farnell, who observes that "the mad worshipper + endeavoured thus against nature to assimilate himself more closely + to his goddess" ("Sociological hypotheses concerning the position of + women in ancient religion," _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, vii. + (1904) p. 93). The theory is not necessarily inconsistent with my + conjecture as to the magical use made of the severed parts. See + above, vol. i. pp. 268 _sq._ + + 683 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 58. + + 684 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 6. 2 _sq._; Athenaeus, xii. 11, pp. + 515 F-516 B; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 31; Joannes Lydus, _De + magistratibus_, iii. 64; Lucian, _Dialogi deorum_, xiii. 2; Ovid, + _Heroides_, ix. 55 _sqq._; Statius, _Theb._ x. 646-649. + + 685 On Semiramis in this character see above, vol. i. pp. 176 _sq._; + _The Scapegoat_, pp. 369 _sqq._ + + 686 Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 46, p. 81, ed. I. Bekker (Bonn, + 1837). Yet at Rome, by an apparent contradiction, women might not be + present at a sacrifice offered to Hercules (Propertius, v. 9. 67-70; + see further above, vol. i. p. 113, note 1), and at Gades women might + not enter the temple of Melcarth, the Tyrian Hercules (Silius + Italicus, iii. 22). There was a Greek proverb, "A woman does not go + to a temple of Hercules" (Macarius, _Cent._ iii. 11; _Paroemiographi + Graeci_, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 392, ii. 154). Roman women + did not swear by Hercules (Aulus Gellius, xi. 6). + + 687 Lucian, _Calumniae non temere credendum_, 16; Hesychius and Suidas, + _s.v._ {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}. At the Athenian vintage festival of the + Oschophoria a chorus of singers was led in procession by two young + men dressed exactly like girls; they carried branches of vines laden + with ripe clusters. The procession was said to be in honour of + Dionysus and Athena or Ariadne. See Proclus, quoted by Photius, + _Bibliotheca_, p. 322_a_, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, 1824); Plutarch, + _Theseus_, 23. + + 688 Clement of Alexandria, _Protrept._ ii. 34, pp. 29 _sq._, ed. Potter; + Arnobius, _Adversus Nationes_, v. 28; _Mythographi Graeci_, ed. A. + Westermann (Brunswick, 1843), p. 368; J. Tzetzes, _Scholia on + Lycophron_, 212. As to the special association of the fig with + Dionysus, see Athenaeus, iii. 14, p. 78. As to the artificial + fertilization of the fig, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of + Kings_, ii. 314 _sq._ On the type of the effeminate Dionysus in art + see E. Thraemer, _s.v._ "Dionysos," in W. H. Roscher's _Lexikon der + griech. und roem. Mythologie_, i. 1135 _sqq._ + + 689 Tacitus, _Germania_, 43. Perhaps, as Professor Chadwick thinks, this + priest may have succeeded to a priestess when the change from + mother-kin to father-kin took place. See H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin + of the English Nation_ (Cambridge, 1907), p. 339. + + 690 In Cyprus there was a bearded and masculine image of Venus (probably + Astarte) in female attire: according to Philochorus, the deity thus + represented was the moon, and sacrifices were offered to him or her + by men clad as women, and by women clad as men. See Macrobius, + _Saturn._ iii. 7. 2 _sq._; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ ii. 632. A + similar exchange of garments took place between Argive men and women + at the festival of the Hybristica, which fell in the month of + Hermes, either at the new moon or on the fourth of the month. See + Plutarch, _De mulierum virtutibus_, 4; Polyaenus, viii. 33. On the + thirteenth of January flute-players paraded the streets of Rome in + the garb of women (Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 55). + + 691 For traces of mother-kin in Lydia see _The Magic Art and the + Evolution of Kings_, ii. 281 _sq._ With regard to Cos we know from + inscriptions that at Halasarna all who shared in the sacred rites of + Apollo and Hercules had to register the names of their father, their + mother, and of their mother's father; from which it appears that + maternal descent was counted more important than paternal descent. + See H. Collitz und F. Bechtel, _Sammlung der griechischen + Dialekt-Inschriften_, iii. 1 (Goettingen, 1899), pp. 382-393, Nos. + 3705, 3706; G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarnum_,2 + vol. ii. pp. 396 _sqq._, No. 614; Ch. Michel, _Recueil + d'Inscriptions Grecques_, pp. 796 _sq._, No. 1003; J. Toepffer, + _Attische Genealogie_ (Berlin, 1889), pp. 192 _sq._ On traces of + mother-kin in the legend and ritual of Hercules see A. B. Cook, "Who + was the wife of Hercules?" _The Classical Review_, xx. (1906) pp. + 376 _sq._ Mr. Cook conjectures that a Sacred Marriage of Hercules + and Hera was celebrated in Cos. We know in fact from a Coan + inscription that a bed was made and a marriage celebrated beside the + image of Hercules, and it seems probable that the rite was that of a + Sacred Marriage, though some scholars interpret it merely of an + ordinary human wedding. See G. Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum + Graecarum_,2 vol. ii. pp. 577 _sqq._, No. 734; R. Dareste, B. + Haussoulier, Th. Reinach, _Recueil d'Inscriptions Juridiques + Grecques_, Deuxieme Serie (Paris, 1898), No. xxiv. B, pp. 94 _sqq._; + Fr. Back, _De Graecorum caerimoniis in quibus homines deorum vice + fungebantur_ (Berlin, 1883), pp. 14-24. + + M231 But the exchange of costume between men and women has probably been + practised also from other motives, for example, from a wish to avert + the Evil Eye. This motive seems to explain the interchange of male + and female costume between bride and bridegroom at marriage. + +_ 692 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. (1884) §§ 219, 869, 1007, 1029; _id._ + ii. (1885) §§ 344, 561, 570; _Journal of the Anthropological Society + of Bombay_, i. (1886) p. 123; _North Indian Notes and Queries_, iii. + (1893) § 99. Compare my notes, "The Youth of Achilles," _The + Classical Review_, vii. (1893) pp. 292 _sq._; and on Pausanias, i. + 22. 6 (vol. ii. p. 266). + + 693 Plutarch, _Quaestiones Graecae_, 58. + + 694 Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, 15. + + 695 Plutarch, _De mulierum virtutibus_, 4. + + 696 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The + Hague, 1875), p. 35. The marriage ceremonies here described are + especially those of princes. + + 697 Sepp, _Altbayerischer Sagenschatz_ (Munich, 1876), p. 232, referring + to Maimonides. + + 698 E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), + p. 3. The pseudo-bridegroom is apparently the bride in masculine + attire. + +_ 699 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on + Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 31. + +_ 700 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, i. _Draft Articles on + Hindustani Castes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 48. + + 701 Elsewhere I have conjectured that the wearing of female attire by + the bridegroom at marriage may mark a transition from mother-kin to + father-kin, the intention of the custom being to transfer to the + father those rights over the children which had previously been + enjoyed by the mother alone. See _Totemism_ (Edinburgh, 1887), pp. + 78 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 73. But I am now disposed to + think that the other explanation suggested in the text is the more + probable. + + M232 The same explanation may account for the interchange of male and + female costume between other persons at marriage. + +_ 702 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on + Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 31. + +_ 703 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on + Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 48. + +_ 704 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, vi. _Draft Articles on + Hindustani Castes_, Second Series (Allahabad, 1911), p. 50. + + 705 Compare W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern + India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 8, who proposes, with great + probability, to explain on a similar principle, the European + marriage custom known as the False Bride. For more instances of the + interchange of male and female costume at marriage between persons + other than the bridegroom see Capt. J. S. King, "Social Customs of + the Western Somali Tribes," _The Folk-lore Journal_, vi. (1888) p. + 122; J. P. Farler, "The Usambara Country in East Africa," + _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S. i. (1879) p. + 92; Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, + 1880), pp. 78, 80; G. A. Grierson, _Bihar Peasant Life_ (Calcutta, + 1885), p. 365; A. de Gubernatis, _Usi Nuziali in Italia_2 (Milan, + 1878), p. 190; P. Sebillot, _Coutumes Populaires de la + Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 438. + + 706 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 85. + + 707 J. Liorel, _Kabylie du Jurjura_ (Paris, N. D.), p. 406. + + M233 Women's dress assumed by men for the purpose of deceiving demons and + ghosts. + + 708 Rev. J. H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 267. + Compare _id._, "Anthropological Notes on the Bangala of the Upper + Congo River," _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl. + (1910) pp. 370 _sq._ + + 709 Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespear, "The Kuki-Lushai Clans," _Journal of + the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) pp. 380 _sq._ + + M234 Exchange of costume between the sexes at circumcision. + + 710 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), p. 298. + + 711 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 53-58. Mr. Hollis + informs me that among the Akikuyu, another tribe of British East + Africa, the custom of boys dressing as girls at or after + circumcision is also observed. + + M235 Other cases of the interchange of male and female costume. + + 712 Plutarch, _Consolatio ad Apollonium_, 22; Valerius Maximus, ii. 6. + 13. + + 713 Plutarch, _l.c._ + + 714 J. Kreemer, "De Loeboes in Mandailing," _Bijdragen tot de Taal- + Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lxvi. (1912) p. 317. + + M236 Conclusion. + M237 The systematic prostitution of unmarried girls for hire in the Pelew + Islands seems to be a form of sexual communism and of + group-marriage. + + 715 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 50 _sq._ + + 716 J. Kubary, _op. cit._ p. 51. + + 717 J. Kubary, _op. cit._ pp. 51-53, 91-98. + + M238 The custom supports by analogy the derivation of the similar Asiatic + custom from a similar state of society. + + 718 See above, vol. i. pp. 39 _sqq._ + + M239 Somewhat similar custom observed in Yap, one of the Caroline + Islands. + + 719 F. W. Christian, _The Caroline Islands_ (London, 1899), pp. 290 + _sq._ Compare W. H. Furness, _The Island of Stone Money, Uap of the + Carolines_ (Philadelphia and London, 1910), pp. 46 _sqq._ + + 720 W. H. Furness, _op. cit._ pp. 46 _sq._ + + 721 W. H. Furness, _op. cit._ pp. 49 _sq._ + + M240 In the Pelew Islands the heir to the chieftainship of a clan has a + formal right to slay his predecessor. + + 722 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, p. 43. The + writer does not translate the word _tobolbel_, but the context + sufficiently explains its meaning. + + M241 The plot of death and its execution. + M242 Ceremonies observed before the assassin is recognized as chief in + room of his victim. + M243 But the formalities which a chief has to observe at his accession + are much more complicated and tedious if he has not murdered his + predecessor. + + 723 J. Kubary, _Die socialen Einrichtungen der Pelauer_, pp. 43-45, + 75-78. + + M244 The Pelew custom shows how regicide may be regarded as an ordinary + incident of constitutional government. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GOLDEN BOUGH (THIRD EDITION, VOL. 6 OF 12)*** + + + +CREDITS + + +January 26, 2013 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by David Edwards, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. 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