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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42314 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 42314-h.htm or 42314-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42314/42314-h/42314-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42314/42314-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/mountrainierreco00meanuoft
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      Subscripts in chemical formulas are indicated by an
+      underscore followed by the subscripted number enclosed
+      by curly brackets (example: SiO_{2} is the formula for
+      silicon dioxide).
+
+      In Chapter XII we were unable to resolve a discrepancy
+      between H. H. McAlister and E. H. McAlister, so both
+      were retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+MOUNT RAINIER
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration]
+
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
+ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
+
+MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
+MELBOURNE
+
+THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+TORONTO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIRST PICTURE OF MOUNT RAINER.
+  Drawn by W. Alexander from a sketch by J. Sykes, 1792.
+  Engraved by J. Landseer for Vancouver's Journal.]
+
+
+MOUNT RAINIER
+
+A Record of Exploration
+
+Edited by
+
+EDMOND S. MEANY
+
+Professor of History in the University of Washington.
+President of The Mountaineers.
+Author of "Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound,"
+"History of the State of Washington," etc.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+The Macmillan Company
+1916
+
+All rights reserved
+
+Copyright, 1916,
+By the Macmillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916.
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+                      To
+
+            GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS
+
+    EARLY LOVER OF THE MOUNTAIN, THIS BOOK
+
+          IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Mount Rainier National Park is visited annually by increasing
+thousands of tourists. Many of them seek information about the
+discoveries and explorations of the mountain and its environs. Much of
+the information sought, especially that about the origin of place
+names, has never been published. The annals of discovery and
+exploration, which have been published, have often appeared in books,
+pamphlets, or periodicals not easily accessible. It is the purpose of
+this work to gather the essential portions of the desired information
+within a compact, usable form.
+
+During the summer of 1915, the mountain was for the first time
+encircled by a large company of travelers. Small parties, carrying
+their luggage and provisions on their backs, had made the trip a
+number of times. The Mountaineers Club, in 1915, conducted a party of
+one hundred, with fully equipped pack train and commissary, around the
+mountain. They camped each evening at or near the snow-line. At the
+daily campfires extracts were read from the original sources of the
+mountain's history. The interest there manifested in such records gave
+additional impulse to the preparation of this book.
+
+It is natural that the chronological order should be chosen in
+arranging the materials, beginning with the discovery and naming of
+the mountain by Captain George Vancouver of the British Navy. The
+records are then continued to the present time. There still remains to
+be done much scientific work on the glaciers, snowfields, rocks, and
+plants within the Park. It is hoped that this book may stimulate such
+field work as well as the publication of the results.
+
+The reader will notice that several writers in referring to the
+mountain use some form of the name Tacoma. The editor has not
+hesitated to publish such names as were used in the original articles
+here reproduced. In all other cases he has used the name Mount
+Rainier, approved by the United States Geographic Board.
+
+In the separate chapters it will be noticed that the height of the
+mountain has been placed at varying figures. The United States
+Geological Survey has spoken on this subject with apparent official
+finality, giving the altitude as 14,408 feet above sea level. How this
+height was determined is told in the official announcement reproduced
+in Chapter XVIII of the text, with comment thereon by F. E. Matthes,
+one of the engineers of the United States Geological Survey.
+
+The place names within the Park have been derived from such varied
+sources that it is well-nigh impossible to ascertain the origin and
+meaning of all of them. For the first time they are here (Chapter XIX)
+gathered into a complete alphabetical arrangement with as full
+information as is now available. The writer would welcome further
+facts about any of the names.
+
+In the introductory paragraphs before each chapter, the editor has
+sought to express his acknowledgment for assistance rendered by others
+in the compilation of the work. For fear some may have been omitted he
+wishes here to express gratitude for all such help and to mention
+especially Professor J. Franklin Jameson, Director of the Department
+of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, for
+his assistance in securing photostat reproductions of a number of rare
+items found in the Library of Congress.
+
+The editor also acknowledges the assistance rendered by Victor J.
+Farrar, research assistant in the University of Washington.
+
+                              EDMOND S. MEANY.
+
+  UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON,
+  Seattle, August, 1916.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER                                                 PAGE
+
+        I. THE MOUNTAIN DISCOVERED AND NAMED, 1792             1
+             By Captain George Vancouver, R.N.
+
+       II. FIRST APPROACH TO THE MOUNTAIN, 1833                6
+             By Doctor William Fraser Tolmie.
+
+      III. FIRST RECORDED TRIP THROUGH NACHES PASS, 1841      13
+             By Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson, U.S.N., of
+             the Wilkes Expedition.
+
+       IV. TACOMA AND THE INDIAN LEGEND OF HAMITCHOU          34
+             By Theodore Winthrop.
+
+        V. FIRST ATTEMPTED ASCENT, 1857                       73
+             By Lieutenant A. V. Kautz, U.S.A.
+
+       VI. FIRST SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870                      94
+             By General Hazard Stevens.
+
+      VII. INDIAN WARNING AGAINST DEMONS                     132
+             By Sluiskin, Indian Guide.
+
+     VIII. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870                    135
+             By S. F. Emmons.
+
+       IX. EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHERN SLOPES, 1881-1883    142
+             By Bailey Willis.
+
+        X. DISCOVERY OF CAMP MUIR, 1888                      150
+             By Major E. S. Ingraham.
+
+       XI. EXPLORING THE MOUNTAIN AND ITS GLACIERS, 1896     159
+             By Professor I. C. Russell.
+
+      XII. MCCLURE'S ACHIEVEMENT AND TRAGIC DEATH, 1897      183
+             By Herbert L. Bruce and Professor H. H.
+             McAlister.
+
+     XIII. FIELD NOTES ON MOUNT RAINIER, 1905                194
+             By Professor Henry Landes.
+
+      XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER                         201
+             By F. E. Matthes.
+
+       XV. THE ROCKS OF MOUNT RAINIER                        241
+             By George Otis Smith.
+
+      XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER                        254
+             By Professor Charles V. Piper.
+
+     XVII. CREATION OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK           287
+             Memorial by Scientific Societies.
+
+    XVIII. MOUNT RAINIER IS 14,408 FEET HIGH                 297
+             By the United States Geological Survey.
+
+      XIX. PLACE NAMES AND ELEVATIONS IN MOUNT RAINIER
+                   NATIONAL PARK                             302
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    First Picture of Mount Rainier. Drawn by W. Alexander,
+          from a sketch by J. Sykes, 1792. Engraved by J.
+          Landseer for Vancouver's Journal        _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                            PAGE
+
+    Captain George Vancouver, Royal Navy                       1
+
+    Doctor William Fraser Tolmie                               6
+
+    Commander Charles Wilkes, United States Navy              13
+
+    Theodore Winthrop, from the Rowse Crayon Portrait.        34
+
+    General August Valentine Kautz, United States Army.       73
+
+    General Hazard Stevens                                    94
+
+    Samuel Franklin Emmons                                   135
+
+    Bailey Willis, from Photograph taken in 1883             142
+
+    Major Edward Sturgis Ingraham                            150
+
+    Professor Israel Cook Russell                            159
+
+    Professor Edgar McClure                                  183
+
+    Professor Henry Landes                                   194
+
+    François Émile Matthes                                   201
+
+    George Otis Smith                                        241
+
+    Professor Charles Vancouver Piper                        254
+
+    Peter Rainier, Admiral of the Blue, Royal Navy           302
+
+
+
+
+MOUNT RAINIER
+
+A RECORD OF EXPLORATIONS
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER.
+  Royal Navy.]
+
+I. THE MOUNTAIN DISCOVERED AND NAMED, 1792
+
+BY CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER, R.N.
+
+
+     Captain George Vancouver, the great English navigator and
+     explorer, lived but forty years, from 1758 to 1798. He
+     entered the British navy on the _Resolution_ under Captain
+     James Cook in 1771 and was with that even more famous
+     explorer during his second and third voyages, from 1772 to
+     1780. He was placed in command of the _Discovery_ and
+     _Chatham_ in 1791 and sent to the northwest coast of America.
+     On this voyage he discovered and named Puget Sound and many
+     other geographic features on the western coast of America.
+
+     The portions of his Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific
+     Ocean, giving the record of his discovery, naming, and
+     exploration in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, are taken from
+     Volume II of the second edition, published in London in 1801,
+     pages 79, 118, and 134-138.
+
+
+[Tuesday, May 8, 1792.] The weather was serene and pleasant, and the
+country continued to exhibit, between us and the eastern snowy range,
+the same luxuriant appearance. At its northern extremity, mount Baker
+bore by compass N. 22 E.; the round snowy mountain, now forming its
+southern extremity, and which, after my friend Rear Admiral Rainier, I
+distinguished by the name of MOUNT RAINIER, bore N. [S.] 42 E.
+
+
+[Saturday, May 19, 1792.] About noon, we passed an inlet on the
+larboard or eastern shore, which seemed to stretch far to the
+northward; but, as it was out of the line of our intended pursuit of
+keeping the continental shore on board, I continued our course up the
+main inlet, which now extended as far as, from the deck, the eye could
+reach, though, from the mast-head, intervening land appeared, beyond
+which another high round mountain covered with snow was discovered,
+apparently situated several leagues to the south of mount Rainier, and
+bearing by compass S. 22 E. This I considered as a further extension
+of the eastern snowy range; but the intermediate mountains, connecting
+it with mount Rainier, were not sufficiently high to be seen at that
+distance.
+
+
+[Saturday, May 26, 1792.] Towards noon we landed on a point on the
+eastern shore, whose latitude I observed to be 47° 21', round which
+we flattered ourselves we should find the inlet take an extensive
+eastwardly course. This conjecture was supported by the appearance of
+a very abrupt division in the snowy range of mountains immediately to
+the south of mount Rainier, which was very conspicuous from the ship,
+and the main arm of the inlet appearing to stretch in that direction
+from the point we were then upon. We here dined, and although our
+repast was soon concluded, the delay was irksome, as we were
+excessively anxious to ascertain the truth, of which we were not long
+held in suspense. For having passed round the point, we found the
+inlet to terminate here in an extensive circular compact bay, whose
+waters washed the base of mount Rainier, though its elevated summit
+was yet at a very considerable distance from the shore, with which it
+was connected by several ridges of hills rising towards it with
+gradual ascent and much regularity. The forest trees, and the several
+shades of verdure that covered the hills, gradually decreased in point
+of beauty, until they became invisible; when the perpetual clothing of
+snow commenced, which seemed to form a horizontal line from north to
+south along this range of rugged mountains, from whose summit mount
+Rainier rose conspicuously, and seemed as much elevated above them as
+they were above the level of the sea; the whole producing a most
+grand, picturesque effect. The lower mountains, as they descended to
+the right and left, became gradually relieved of their frigid garment;
+and as they approached the fertile woodland region that binds the
+shores of this inlet in every direction, produced a pleasing variety.
+We now proceeded to the N. W. in which direction the inlet from hence
+extended, and afforded us some reason to believe that it communicated
+with that under the survey of our other party. This opinion was
+further corroborated by a few Indians, who had in a very civil manner
+accompanied us some time, and who gave us to understand that in the
+north western direction this inlet was very wide and extensive; this
+they expressed before we quitted our dinner station, by opening their
+arms, and making other signs that we should be led a long way by
+pursuing that route; whereas, by bending their arm, or spreading out
+their hand, and pointing to the space contained in the curve of the
+arm, or between the fore-finger and thumb, that we should find our
+progress soon stopped in the direction which led towards mount
+Rainier. The little respect which most Indians bear to truth, and
+their readiness to assert what they think is most agreeable for the
+moment, or to answer their own particular wishes and inclinations,
+induced me to place little dependance on this information, although
+they could have no motive for deceiving us.
+
+About a dozen of these friendly people had attended at our dinner, one
+part of which was a venison pasty. Two of them, expressing a desire to
+pass the line of separation drawn between us, were permitted to do so.
+They sat down by us, and ate of the bread, and fish that we gave them
+without the least hesitation; but on being offered some of the
+venison, though they saw us eat it with great relish, they could not
+be induced to taste it. They received it from us with great disgust,
+and presented it round to the rest of the party, by whom it underwent
+a very strict examination. Their conduct on this occasion left no
+doubt in our minds that they believed it to be human flesh, an
+impression which it was highly expedient should be done away. To
+satisfy them that it was the flesh of the deer, we pointed to the
+skins of the animal they had about them. In reply to this they pointed
+to each other, and made signs that could not be misunderstood, that it
+was the flesh of human beings, and threw it down in the dirt, with
+gestures of great aversion and displeasure. At length we happily
+convinced them of their mistake by shewing them a haunch we had in the
+boat, by which means they were undeceived, and some of them ate of the
+remainder of the pye with a good appetite.
+
+This behavior, whilst in some measure tending to substantiate their
+knowledge or suspicions that such barbarities have existence, led us
+to conclude, that the character given of the natives of North-West
+America does not attach to every tribe. These people have been
+represented not only as accustomed inhumanly to devour the flesh of
+their conquered enemies; but also to keep certain servants, or rather
+slaves, of their own nation, for the sole purpose of making the
+principal part of the banquet, to satisfy the unnatural savage
+gluttony of the chiefs of this country, on their visits to each other.
+Were such barbarities practiced once a month, as is stated, it would
+be natural to suppose these people, so inured, would not have shewn
+the least aversion to eating flesh of any description; on the
+contrary, it is not possible to conceive a greater degree of
+abhorrence than was manifested by these good people, until their minds
+were made perfectly easy that it was not human flesh we offered them
+to eat. This instance must necessarily exonerate at least this
+particular tribe from so barbarous a practice; and, as their affinity
+to the inhabitants of Nootka, and of the sea-coast, to the south of
+that place, in their manners and customs, admits of little difference,
+it is but charitable to hope those also, on a more minute inquiry, may
+be found not altogether deserving such a character. They are not,
+however, free from the general failing attendant on a savage life. One
+of them having taken a knife and fork to imitate our manner of eating,
+found means to secrete them under his garment; but, on his being
+detected, gave up his plunder with the utmost good humour and
+unconcern.
+
+They accompanied us from three or four miserable huts, near the place
+where we had dined, for about four miles; during which time they
+exchanged the only things they had to dispose of, their bows, arrows,
+and spears, in the most fair and honest manner, for hawk's bells,
+buttons, beads, and such useless commodities.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: DOCTOR WILLIAM FRASER TOLMIE.]
+
+II. FIRST APPROACH TO THE MOUNTAIN, 1833
+
+BY DOCTOR WILLIAM FRASER TOLMIE
+
+
+     Doctor William Fraser Tolmie was a medical officer in the
+     service of the Hudson's Bay Company. He was born at
+     Inverness, Scotland, on February 3, 1812, and died at
+     Victoria, British Columbia, on December 8, 1888. He was
+     educated at Glasgow, and when twenty years of age he joined
+     the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1833, he was located at
+     Nisqually House, Puget Sound. It was then that he made his
+     trip to the mountain. He later served at other posts in the
+     Pacific Northwest, and was raised to the rank of Chief Factor
+     in 1856. He was then placed on the board of management of the
+     great company. In 1860 he retired from the service.
+
+     In 1850 he was married to Jane, eldest daughter of Chief
+     Factor John Work. Their descendants still live at Victoria,
+     British Columbia. They, especially the son John W. Tolmie,
+     have compared this reproduction from Doctor Tolmie's diary
+     with the original manuscript to insure accuracy. So far as is
+     now known, this is the first record of a white man's close
+     approach to Mount Rainier.
+
+     It is pleasant to note that the new map of Mount Rainier
+     National Park, published by the United States Geological
+     Survey, shows the peak he climbed and the creek flowing near
+     it bearing the name of Tolmie.
+
+August 27, 1833. Obtained Mr. Herron's consent to making a botanizing
+excursion to Mt. Rainier, for which he has allowed 10 days. Have
+engaged two horses from a chief living in that quarter, who came here
+tonight, and Lachalet is to be my guide. Told the Indians I am going
+to Mt. Rainier to gather herbs of which to make medicine, part of
+which is to be sent to Britain and part retained in case intermittent
+fever should visit us when I will prescribe for the Indians.
+
+Aug. 28. A tremendous thunder storm occurred last night, succeeded by
+torrents of rain. The thunder was very loud, and the lightening
+flashing completely enlightened my apartment. Have been chatting with
+Mr. Herron about colonizing Whidby's island, a project of which he is
+at present quite full--more anon. No horses have appeared. Understand
+that the mountain is four days' journey distant--the first of which
+can only be performed on horseback. If they do not appear tomorrow I
+shall start with Lachalet on foot.
+
+Aug. 29. Prairie 8 miles N. of home. Sunset. Busy making arrangements
+for journey, and while thus occupied the guide arrived with 3 horses.
+Started about 3, mounted on a strong iron grey, my companions
+disposing of themselves on the other two horses, except one, who
+walked. We were 6 in number. I have engaged Lachalet for a blanket,
+and his nephew, Lashima, for ammunition to accompany me and Nuckalkut
+a Poyalip (whom I took for a native of Mt. Rainier) with 2 horses to
+be guide on the mountain after leaving the horse track, and Quilniash,
+his relative, a very active, strong fellow, has volunteered to
+accompany me. The Indians are all in great hopes of killing elk and
+chevriel, and Lachalet has already been selling and promising the
+grease he is to get. It is in a great measure the expectation of
+finding game that urges them to undertake the journey. Cantered slowly
+along the prairie and are now at the residence of Nuckalkut's father,
+under the shade of a lofty pine, in a grassy amphitheatre, beautifully
+interspersed and surrounded with oaks, and through the gaps in the
+circle we see the broad plain extending southwards to Nusqually. In a
+hollow immediately behind is a small lake whose surface is almost one
+sheet of waterlilies about to flower. Have supped on sallal; and at
+dusk shall turn in.
+
+Aug. 30. Sandy beach of Poyallipa River. Slept ill last night, and as
+I dozed in the morning was aroused by a stroke across the thigh from a
+large decayed branch which fell from the pine overshadowing us. A
+drizzling rain fell during most of the night. Got up about dawn, and
+finding thigh stiff and painful thought a stop put to the journey, but
+after moving about it felt easier. Started about sunrise, I mounted on
+a spirited brown mare, the rest on passable animals, except Nuckalkut,
+who bestrode a foal. Made a northeasterly course through prairie.
+Breakfasted at a small marsh on bread, sallal, dried cockels and a
+small piece of chevriel saved from the last night's repast of my
+companions (for I cannot call them attendants). The points of wood now
+became broader, and the intervening plain degenerated into prairions.
+Stopped about 1 P.M. at the abode of 3 Tekatat families, who met us
+rank and file at the door to shake hands. Their sheds were made of
+bark resting on a horizontal pole, supported at each end by tripods,
+and showed an abundance of elk's flesh dried within. Two kettles were
+filled with this, and, after smoking, my Indians made a savage repast
+on the meat and bouillion, Lachalet saying it was the Indian custom to
+eat a great deal at once and afterwards abstain for a time; he,
+however, has twice eaten since. Traded some dried meat for 4 balls and
+3 rings, and mounting, rode off in the midst of a heavy shower.
+Ascended and descended at different times several steep banks and
+passed through dense and tangled thickets, occasionally coming on a
+prairion. The soil throughout was of the same nature as that of
+Nusqually. After descending a very steep bank came to the Poyallip.
+Lashima carried the baggage across on his head. Rode to the opposite
+side through a rich alluvial plain, 3 or 4 miles in length and 3/4 to
+1 in breadth. It is covered with fern about 8 feet high in some parts.
+Passed through woods and crossed river several times. About 7 P.M.
+dismounted and the horses and accoutrements were left in a wood at
+the river's brink. Started now on foot for a house Nuckalkut knew, and
+after traversing woods and twice crossing the torrents "on the
+unsteadfast footing" of a log, arrived at the house, which was a
+deserted one, and encamped on the dry part of river's bed, along which
+our course lies tomorrow. The Poyallip flows rapidly and is about 10
+or 12 yards broad. Its banks are high and covered with lofty cedars
+and pines. The water is of a dirty white colour, being impregnated by
+white clay. Lachalet has tonight been trying to persuade me from going
+to the snow on the mountain.
+
+Aug. 31. Slept well, and in the morning two salmon were caught, on
+which we are to breakfast before starting. After breakfast Quillihaish
+stuck the gills and sound of the fish on a spit which stood before the
+fire, so that the next comer might know that salmon could be obtained
+there. Have traveled nearly the whole day through a wood of cedar and
+pine, surface very uneven, and after ascending the bed of river a
+couple of miles are now encamped about ten yards from its margin in
+the wood. Find myself very inferior to my companions in the power of
+enduring fatigue. Their pace is a smart trot which soon obliges me to
+rest. The waters of the Poyallip are still of the same colour. Can see
+a short distance up two lofty hills covered with wood. Evening cloudy
+and rainy. Showery all day.
+
+Sunday, Sept. 1. Bank of Poyallip river. It has rained all night and
+is now, 6 A.M., pouring down. Are a good deal sheltered by the trees.
+My companions are all snoozing. Shall presently arouse them and hold a
+council of war. The prospect is very discouraging. Our provisions will
+be expended today and Lachalet said he thought the river would be too
+high to be fordable in either direction. Had dried meat boiled in a
+cedar bark kettle for breakfast. I got rigged out in green blanket
+without trousers, in Indian style, and trudged on through the wood.
+Afterwood exchanged blanket with Lachalet for Ouvrie's capot, which
+has been on almost every Indian at Nusqually. However, I found it more
+convenient than the blanket. Our course lay up the river, which we
+crossed frequently. The bed is clayey in most parts. Saw the sawbill
+duck once or twice riding down on a log and fired twice,
+unsuccessfully. Have been flanked on both sides with high, pineclad
+hills for some time. A short distance above encampment snow can be
+seen. It having rained almost incessantly, have encamped under
+shelving bank which has been undermined by the river. Immense stones,
+only held in situ by dried roots, form the roof, and the floor is very
+rugged. Have supped on berries, which, when heated with stones in
+kettle, taste like lozenges. Propose tomorrow to ascend one of the
+snowy peaks above.
+
+Sept. 2. Summit of a snowy peak immediately under Rainier. Passed a
+very uncomfortable night in our troglodytic mansion. Ascended the
+river for 3 miles to where it was shut in by amphitheatre of mountains
+and could be seen bounding over a lofty precipice above. Ascended that
+which showed most snow. Our track lay at first through a dense wood of
+pine, but we afterwards emerged into an exuberantly verdant gully,
+closed on each side by lofty precipices. Followed fully to near the
+summit and found excellent berries in abundance. It contained very few
+Alpine plants. Afterwards came to a grassy mound, where the sight of
+several decayed trees induced us to encamp. After tea I set out with
+Lachalet and Nuckalkut for the summit, which was ankle deep with snow
+for 1/4 mile downwards. The summit terminated in abrupt precipice
+directed northwards and bearing N. E. from Mt. Rainier, the adjoining
+peak. The mists were at times very dense, but a puff of S. W. wind
+occasionally dispelled them. On the S. side of Poyallip is a range of
+snow-dappled mountains, and they, as well as that on the N. side,
+terminate in Mt. Rainier, a short distance to E. Collected a vasculum
+of plants at the snow, and having examined and packed them shall turn
+in. Thermometer at base, 54 deg., at summit of ascent, 47 deg.
+
+Sept. 3. Woody islet on Poyallip. It rained heavily during night, but
+about dawn the wind shifting to the N. E. dispersed the clouds and
+frost set in. Lay shivering all night and roused my swarthy companions
+twice to rekindle the fire. At sunrise, accompanied by Quilliliash,
+went to the summit and found the tempr. of the air 33 deg. The snow
+was spangled and sparkled brightly in the bright sunshine. It was
+crisp and only yielded a couple of inches to the pressure of foot in
+walking. Mt. Rainier appeared surpassingly splendid and magnificent;
+it bore, from the peak on which I stood, S. S. E., and was separated
+from it only by a narrow glen, whose sides, however, were formed by
+inaccessible precipices. Got all my bearings more correctly to-day,
+the atmosphere being clear and every object distinctly perceived. The
+river flows at first in a northerly direction from the mountain. The
+snow on the summit of the mountain adjoining Rainier on western side
+of Poyallip is continuous with that of latter, and thus the S. Western
+aspect of Rainier seemed the most accessible. By ascending the first
+mountain through a gully in its northern side, you reach the eternal
+snow of Rainier, and for a long distance afterwards the ascent is very
+gradual, but then it becomes abrupt from the sugarloaf form assumed by
+the mountain. Its eastern side is steep on its northern aspect; a few
+glaciers were seen on the conical portion; below that the mountain is
+composed of bare rock, apparently volcanic, which about 50 yards in
+breadth reaches from the snow to the valley beneath and is bounded on
+each side by bold bluff crags scantily covered with stunted pines. Its
+surface is generally smooth, but here and there raised into small
+points or knobs or arrowed with short and narrow longitudinal lines in
+which snow lay. From the snow on western border the Poyallipa arose,
+and in its course down this rock slope was fenced into the eastward by
+a regular elevation of the rock in the form of a wall or dyke, which
+at the distance I viewed it at, seemed about four feet high and four
+hundred yards in length. Two large pyramids of rock arose from the
+gentle acclivity at S. W. extremity of mountain, and around each the
+drifting snow had accumulated in large quantity, forming a basin
+apparently of great depth. Here I also perceived, peeping from their
+snowy covering, two lines of dyke similar to that already mentioned.
+
+Sept. 4. Am tonight encamped on a small eminence near the commencement
+of prairie. Had a tedious walk through the wood bordering Poyallip,
+but accomplished it in much shorter time than formerly. Evening fine.
+
+Sept. 5. Nusqually. Reached Tekatat camp in the forenoon and regaled
+on boiled elk and shallon. Pushed on ahead with Lachalet and
+Quilliliash, and arrived here in the evening, where all is well.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: COMMANDER CHARLES WILKES.
+  United States Navy.]
+
+III. FIRST RECORDED TRIP THROUGH NACHES PASS, 1841
+
+BY LIEUTENANT ROBERT E. JOHNSON, U.S.N.
+
+
+     The proper and official title of the United States Exploring
+     Expedition, 1838-1842, by common speech has been contracted
+     to the Wilkes Expedition. The commander of the expedition was
+     Charles Wilkes, who entered the United States Navy as a
+     midshipman on January 1, 1818. On July 25, 1866, he was
+     promoted to rear-admiral on the retired list. He was born at
+     New York City on April 3, 1798, and died at Washington City
+     on February 8, 1877.
+
+     He was honored in Europe and America for his scientific
+     attainments, especially in connection with the expedition
+     that now bears his name. That voyage with a squadron of
+     American naval vessels was for the purpose of increasing the
+     world's knowledge of geography and kindred sciences. They
+     reached Puget Sound in 1841 and, while making headquarters at
+     Nisqually House of the Hudson's Bay Company, Commander Wilkes
+     sent Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson in command of a party to
+     cross the Cascade Range. Search in the Navy Department
+     revealed only scant information that Lieutenant Johnson was
+     from North Carolina. The Historical Commission of that State
+     and others there have failed to find information about his
+     subsequent career.
+
+     Since he speaks of obtaining a guide, it is likely that he
+     was not the first white man to cross the Cascades, but he was
+     the first to leave us a known record. The portions of that
+     record which bear upon Mount Rainier and its environs is here
+     reproduced.
+
+     Commander Wilkes, before giving the record of his
+     subordinate, makes reference to the peak as follows: "The
+     height of Mount Rainier was obtained by measuring a base line
+     on the prairies, in which operation I was assisted by
+     Lieutenant Case, and the triangulation gave its height,
+     twelve thousand three hundred and thirty feet." (Narrative,
+     Volume IV., page 413.)
+
+     The final reports of the expedition were to appear in
+     twenty-four large volumes and eleven atlases. Several of the
+     volumes were never published, and of those completed only one
+     hundred sets were printed. The rare monographs were full of
+     information. The first part or "Narrative" in five volumes
+     was issued in several editions. The portions here reproduced
+     are taken from the edition by Lea and Blanchard,
+     Philadelphia, 1845, Volume IV., pages 418-429 and 468-470.
+
+I have before stated that Lieutenant Johnson's party was ready for
+departure on the 19th May [1841]; that it consisted of Lieutenant
+Johnson, Messrs. Pickering, Waldron, and Brackenridge, a sergeant of
+marines, and a servant. I must do justice to the exertions of this
+officer in getting ready for his journey, which he accomplished in
+less time than I anticipated, as the delays incident to setting out on
+a novel expedition, and one believed by most persons to be scarcely
+practicable in the summer season, are great and tantalizing. In making
+preparations for such a journey, the Indians were to be bargained
+with, and, as I have before had occasion to remark, are enough to tire
+the patience of Job himself. First, the Indian himself is to be sought
+out; then the horse is to be tried; next the price is to be discussed,
+then the mode of payment, and finally the potlatch: each and all are
+matters of grave consideration and delay, during which the Indians
+make a business of watching every circumstance of which they can take
+advantage. No one can be sure of closing his bargain, until the terms
+are duly arranged, the potlatch given, and the horse delivered. After
+obtaining horses, Lieutenant Johnson had the saddles, alforcas,
+saddle-cloths, saddle-trees or pack-saddles, etc., with a variety of
+lashings, to prepare. For many of these we were indebted to the
+kindness of Captain M'Niel and Mr. Anderson.[1] Others were made on
+board the ship, after a pattern lent us. One of the most important
+persons to obtain was a good guide, and hearing of one who resided at
+the Cowlitz river, by the name of Pierre Charles,[2] he was at once
+sent for; but I did not think it worth while to detain the party until
+his arrival, as he could easily overtake it. Lieutenant Johnson,
+therefore, was directed to hurry his departure, and to set out, which
+he did on the 19th May, at noon, and proceeded to the prairie about
+two miles distant, where the party encamped.
+
+There is little danger on these expeditions of having too few
+articles: the great difficulty is to avoid having too many. It turned
+out as I had anticipated. The first night passed in their tent fully
+satisfied them of this, and taught them to dispense with all other
+bedding save blankets.
+
+Mr. Anderson rode to the encampment before night, bringing the news of
+the arrival of Pierre Charles at the fort; whereupon Lieutenant
+Johnson returned to make an agreement with him and his companion. This
+was done, although, as is to be supposed, their demands were
+exorbitant, in consequence of the belief that their services were
+indispensable.
+
+Pierre Charles's companion was a young man, named Peter Bercier, (a
+connexion of Plomondon)[3] who spoke English, and all the languages of
+the country.
+
+On the morning of the 20th, they obtained an accession to their
+horses, and set out on their route towards the mountains. Although the
+possibility of crossing them was doubted, yet I felt satisfied if
+exertion and perseverance could effect the object, the officer who had
+charge of the party would succeed. This day, they made but five miles;
+after which they encamped, at the recommendation of Pierre Charles, in
+order that the horses might not be over-fatigued, and be able to get
+good pasture and water. Here a number of natives visited the camp.
+Pine trees were in large numbers, many of them upwards of one hundred
+and thirty feet in height. On the banks of a small stream, near their
+camp, were found the yellow Ranunculus, a species of Trillium, in
+thickets, with large leaves and small flowers, Lupines, and some
+specimens of a cruciferous plant.
+
+On the 21st they made an early start, and in the forenoon crossed the
+Puyallup, a stream about seventy feet wide; along which is a fine
+meadow of some extent, with clumps of alder and willow: the soil was
+of a black turfy nature. After leaving the meadow-land, they began to
+ascend along a path that was scarcely visible from being overgrown
+with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiræa, Vaccinium, and Cornus.
+
+During the day, they crossed the Stehna.[4] In the evening, after
+making sixteen miles, they encamped at the junction of the Puyallup
+with the Upthascap.[5] Near by was a hut, built of the planks of the
+Arbor Vitæ (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and the boards
+used in its structure, although split, had all the appearance of being
+sawn: many of them were three feet wide, and about fifteen feet long.
+The hut was perfectly water-tight. Its only inhabitants were two
+miserable old Indians and two boys, who were waiting here for the
+arrival of those employed in the salmon-fishery. The rivers were
+beginning to swell to an unusual size, owing to the melting of the
+snows in the mountains; and in order to cross the streams, it became
+necessary to cut down large trees, over which the packs were carried,
+while the horses swam over. These were not the only difficulties they
+had to encounter: the path was to be cut for miles through thickets of
+brushwood and fallen timber; steep precipices were to be ascended,
+with slippery sides and entangled with roots of every variety of shape
+and size, in which the horses' legs would become entangled, and before
+reaching the top be precipitated, loads and all, to the bottom. The
+horses would at times become jammed with their packs between trees,
+and were not to be disengaged without great toil, trouble, and damage
+to their burdens. In some cases, after succeeding in getting nearly to
+the top of a hill thirty or forty feet high, they would become
+exhausted and fall over backwards, making two or three somersets,
+until they reached the bottom, when their loads were again to be
+arranged.
+
+On the 22d, their route lay along the banks of the Upthascap,[6] which
+is a much wider stream than the Puyallup. A short distance up, they
+came to a fish-weir, constructed as the one heretofore described, on
+the Chickeeles,[7] though much smaller.
+
+This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitæ trees, some of which
+were found to be thirty feet in circumference at the height of four
+feet from the ground, and upwards of one hundred feet high.
+Notwithstanding the many difficulties encountered, they this day made
+about twelve miles.
+
+On the morning of the 23d, just as they were about to leave their
+camp, their men brought in a deer, which was soon skinned and packed
+away on the horses. This was the first large game they had obtained,
+having previously got only a few grouse.
+
+They had now reached the Smalocho,[8] which runs to the westward, and
+is sixty-five feet wide: its depth was found to be four and a half
+feet, which, as it was also rapid, was too great for the horses to
+ford and carry their loads. The Indians now became serviceable to
+them. Lieutenant Johnson had engaged several that were met on their
+way, and they now amounted to thirteen, who appeared for a time lively
+and contented. This, however, was but a forerunner of discontent, and
+a refusal to go any farther; but with coaxing and threatening they
+were induced to proceed.
+
+The road or way, after passing the river, was over a succession of
+deep valleys and hills, so steep that it was difficult for a horse to
+get up and over them with a load, and the fall of a horse became a
+common occurrence. They were all, however, recovered without injury,
+although one of them fell upwards of one hundred feet; yet in
+consequence of his fall having been repeatedly broken by the shrubs
+and trees, he reached the bottom without injury to himself, but with
+the loss of his load, consisting of their camp utensils, &c., which
+were swept off by the rapid current of the river.
+
+The route lay, for several days, through forests of spruce, and some
+of the trees that had fallen measured two hundred and sixty-five feet
+in length. One of these, at the height of ten feet from the roots,
+measured thirty-five feet in circumference, and at the end which had
+been broken off in its fall, it was found to be eighteen inches in
+diameter, which would make the tree little short of three hundred feet
+when it was growing. The stems of all these trees were clear of
+branches to the height of one hundred and fifty feet from the ground,
+and perfectly straight. In many cases it was impossible to see over
+the fallen trees, even when on horseback, and on these, seedlings were
+growing luxuriantly, forcing their roots through the bark and over the
+body of the trunk till they reached the ground. Many spruces were seen
+which had grown in this way; and these, though of considerable size,
+still retained the form of an arch, showing where the old tree had
+lain, and under which they occasionally rode. As may be supposed, they
+could not advance very rapidly over such ground, and Lieutenant
+Johnson remarks, that although he was frequently desirous of
+shortening the road, by taking what seemed a more direct course, he
+invariably found himself obliged to return to the Indian trail.
+
+Daylight of the 24th brought with it its troubles: it was found that
+the horses had strayed,--a disaster that the Indians took quite
+coolly, hoping it would be the cause of their return. After a
+diligent search, the horses were found in places where they had sought
+better food, although it was scanty enough even there.
+
+During the day, the route led along the Smalocho,[9] which runs nearly
+east and west; and they only left its banks when they were obliged to
+do so by various impassable barriers. This part of the country is
+composed of conical hills, which are all thickly clothed with pine
+trees of gigantic dimensions. They made nine miles this day, without
+accident; but when they encamped, they had no food for the horses
+except fern. The animals, in consequence, seemed much overcome, as did
+also the Indians, who had travelled the whole day with heavy loads.
+Lieutenant Johnson, by way of diverting the fatigue of the latter, got
+up a shooting-match for a knife, the excitement of which had the
+desired effect.
+
+The trees hereabout were chiefly the cotton-wood, maple, spruce, pine,
+and elder, and some undergrowth of raspberry, the young shoots of
+which the natives eat with great relish.
+
+On the 25th, they set out at an early hour, and found the travelling
+less rough, so that they reached the foot of La Tête[10] before noon,
+having accomplished eleven miles. Lieutenant Johnson with the sergeant
+ascended La Tête, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all the
+objects around, and made its height by barometer, two thousand seven
+hundred and ninety-eight feet: its latitude was fixed at 47° 08'
+54'' N. This mountain was entirely destitute of wood; but, having
+been burnt over, was found strewn with huge charred trunks, and the
+whole ground covered with ashes. The inclination of its sides was
+about fifty degrees.
+
+The country around seemed one continued series of hills, and like La
+Tête had suffered from the fire. According to the natives, although
+the wood on the mountains was destroyed many years since, yet it was
+still observed to be on fire, in some places, about two years ago.
+Most of the tops of the distant peaks had snow on them. To the east
+was seen the appearance of two valleys, through which the two branches
+of the Smalocho[11] flow.
+
+On descending from La Tête, the river was to be crossed: this was
+found too deep to be forded, and it consequently became necessary to
+form a bridge to transport the baggage, by cutting down trees. The
+current was found to run 6·2 miles per hour. They had been in hopes of
+reaching the Little Prairie before night, but in consequence of this
+delay, were forced to encamp before arriving there.
+
+The Indians complained much of the want of food: many of the horses
+also were exhausted for the same cause, and exhibited their scanty
+nourishment in their emaciated appearance.
+
+On the 26th, they reached the Little Prairie at an early hour, where,
+after consultation, it was determined to wait a day to recruit the
+horses, as this was the only place they could obtain food. It was also
+desirable to ascertain the practicability of passing the mountain with
+the horses, and at the same time to carry forward some of the loads,
+that the horses might have as little as possible to transport. Mr.
+Waldron and Pierre Charles were therefore sent forward with the
+Indians, having loads of fifty pounds each, to ascend the mountain,
+while Lieutenant Johnson remained with the camp to get observations.
+Dr. Pickering and Mr. Brackenridge accompanied the party of Mr.
+Waldron to the snow-line. The prairie on which they had encamped was
+about two and a half acres in extent, and another of the same size was
+found half a mile farther east.
+
+The 27th was employed by Lieutenant Johnson in determining the
+positions of this prairie, which proved to be in latitude 47° 05'
+51'' N., and longitude 120° 13' W.[12] The variation was 19° 39'
+easterly. At sunset, messengers arrived from Mr. Waldron, who had
+reached the summit at noon, and was to proceed down to the snow-line
+to encamp. The snow was found to be about ten feet deep, and the party
+crossing sank about ankle-deep, for which reason opinions varied as to
+the possibility of getting the horses over; but it was determined to
+make the trial. Lieutenant Johnson, therefore, set out, leaving a
+supply of food with an old Indian and a horse, both of whom were worn
+out, and unable to proceed.
+
+By eleven o'clock, they were met by Pierre Charles and the Indians,
+who gave some slight hopes of accomplishing the task of getting all
+over. Lieutenant Johnson determined to take only the strongest horses
+to the edge of the snow. At half-past 5 P.M., they reached the best
+practicable encampment, being a mile beyond the place where Mr.
+Waldron had encamped two days before. The snow having melted so
+rapidly, Lieutenant Johnson, taking all things into consideration,
+determined, notwithstanding the forebodings of failure held out by the
+party that had gone before, to make the attempt. It now became
+necessary to push on with as much haste as possible, on account of the
+state of their provisions; for what with the loss sustained in fording
+the river, and in consumption, they were obliged to adopt an
+allowance.
+
+On the 29th, they departed, at early dawn, in order to take advantage
+of the firmness of the snow, occasioned by the last night's frost.
+They ascended rapidly, and passed over the worst of the way, the
+horses sinking no deeper than their fetlocks. They first passed over a
+narrow ridge, and then a succession of small cones, until they reached
+the summit.
+
+Mount Rainier, from the top, bore south-southwest, apparently not more
+than ten miles distant. A profile of the mountain indicates that it
+has a terminal crater, as well as some on its flanks. The barometer
+stood at 24·950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet. There was
+another, to the north-northeast, covered with snow, and one to the
+west appeared about two hundred feet higher than the place where the
+observations were taken. This latter had suffered from fire in the
+same way as La Tête, and showed only a few patches of snow. To the
+eastward, a range of inferior height, running north and south, was in
+view, without snow.
+
+On the western ascent of this mountain, the pines were scrubby; but at
+the summit, which was a plain, about a mile in length by half a mile
+wide, they were straight and towering, about eighty feet in height,
+without any limbs or foliage, except at the top. The distance
+travelled over the top was about five miles. On descending the east
+side, the snow was much deeper and softer, but the horses managed to
+get along well, and without accident.
+
+Lieutenant Johnson, in following the party, missed the trail, and lost
+his way for three or four hours. On discovering the camp of those who
+had gone before, on the opposite side of a stream, he attempted to
+cross it on a log, in doing which his foot slipped, and he was
+precipitated into the water. Although his first thought was to save
+the chronometer from accident, it was too late, for the watch had
+stopped; it was not, however, so far injured as not to be set a-going,
+and it continued to go during the remainder of the journey: the only
+use I have been able to make of his subsequent observations, was to
+obtain the relative meridian distances between the points visited,
+without the absolute longitude. It is needless to say, that I placed
+little or no dependence on them, in constructing the map.
+
+Although the horses had, with one or two exceptions, reached the
+eastern side of the mountain, yet they, together with the Indians,
+were very much exhausted. The time had now come when the Indians,
+according to agreement, were to be paid off, and they had done much
+more than they agreed to do, having crossed the mountain twice.
+
+Finding the necessity of retaining all the blankets that had been
+brought with them, in order to buy horses, Lieutenant Johnson proposed
+to the Indians to receive an order on Nisqually, in lieu of the
+immediate delivery of the blankets. This they readily assented to, and
+also willingly gave up those that had already been paid them, on
+receiving a similar order,--thus showing a spirit of accommodation
+highly praiseworthy. Only two of them returned to Nisqually, to whom
+were entrusted the botanical specimens, and the care of the horses
+left upon the road.
+
+The banks of the small streams on the eastern side of the mountain
+were bordered with the greatest variety of trees and shrubs,
+consisting of poplars, buckthorn fifty feet high, dogwood thirty to
+forty feet high, several species of willow, alder, two species of
+maple, and occasionally a yew. The undergrowth was composed of Hazel,
+Vaccinium, Gaultheria, and a prickly species of Aralia. The herbaceous
+shrubs were Goodyera, Neottia, Viola, Claytonia, Corallorrhiza. The
+latter, however, were not in flower.
+
+The party on foot, after leaving the Little Prairie about half a mile,
+crossed the northern branch of the Smalocho,[13] which was found much
+swollen and very rapid. Two trees were cut down to form a bridge.
+After this, the walking through the forest became smooth and firm, and
+they passed on at a rapid pace. The Indians, although loaded with
+ninety pounds of baggage, kept up with the rest. At nightfall they
+encamped at the margin of the snow.
+
+On lighting their fires, they accidentally set fire to the
+moss-covered trees, and in a few moments all around them was a
+blazing mass of flame, which compelled them to change their quarters
+farther to windward. They had made eighteen miles. But few plants were
+found, the season being too early for collecting at so high an
+elevation. The ground was covered with spruce-twigs, which had
+apparently been broken off by the weight of the snow. The summit was
+passed through an open space about twenty acres in extent. This glade
+was surrounded with a dense forest of spruce trees. There was no
+danger in walking except near the young trees, which had been bent
+down by the snow, but on passing these they often broke through, and
+experienced much difficulty in extricating themselves, particularly
+the poor Indians, with their heavy burdens. The breadth of snow passed
+over was about eight miles. At three o'clock they reached the
+Spipen[14] River, where they encamped: this camp was found to be two
+thousand five hundred and forty-one feet above the level of the sea.
+The vegetation appeared to our botanical gentlemen farther advanced on
+the east side than on the west, at the same height; the Pulmonarias
+and several small annuals were more forward. There were only a few
+pine trees, and those small, seen on the west side of the ridge; and
+on the east side, there was a species of larch, the hackmatack of the
+country. While they remained at this camp, they found a Pyrola, and
+some new ferns.
+
+The country about the Spipen[14] is mountainous and woody, with a
+narrow strip of meadow-land along its banks. Mr. Waldron had, on
+arriving at the camp, sent Lachemere, one of the Indians, down the
+river to an Indian chief, in order to procure horses. Those that
+remained after providing for the baggage, were consequently assigned
+each to two or three individuals to ride and tye on their route.
+
+On the 30th, they proceeded down the Spipen, making a journey of
+eighteen miles, and passed another branch of the river, the junction
+of which augmented its size very considerably. Its banks, too, became
+perpendicular and rocky, with a current flowing between them at the
+rate of six or seven miles an hour. After the junction, the stream was
+about one hundred feet broad, and its course was east-southeast.
+
+The vegetation on the east side of the mountains was decidedly more
+advanced than that to the west, and several very interesting species
+of plants were met with by the botanists, on the banks of the streams:
+among them were Pæonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium, Pentstemon,
+Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositæ, and a very handsome
+flowering shrub, Purshia tridentata.
+
+On the 31st, they continued their route over a rough country, in some
+places almost impassable for a horse from its steepness, and in others
+so marshy as to require much caution to prevent being mired.
+
+During the morning, they met two Indians, who informed them that the
+chief of the Yakima tribe was a short distance in advance, waiting to
+meet them, and that he had several horses. At noon they reached a
+small prairie on the banks of the river, where old Tidias, the chief,
+was seen seated in state to receive Lieutenant Johnson; but this
+ceremony was unavoidably broken in upon by the necessity of getting
+the meridian observations. The chief, however, advanced towards him
+with every mark of friendship, giving the party a hearty welcome. In
+person he was tall, straight, and thin, a little bald, with long black
+hair hanging down his back, carefully tied with a worsted rag. He was
+grave, but dignified and graceful. When they had been seated, and
+after smoking a couple of pipes in silence, he intimated that he was
+ready for a talk, which then followed, relative to the rivers and face
+of the country; but little information was obtained that could be
+depended upon.
+
+This tribe subsist chiefly upon salmon and the cammass-root: game is
+very scarce, and the beaver have all disappeared. The cammass-root is
+pounded and made into a sort of cake, which is not unpleasant, having
+a sweetish taste, but it is very dry, although some of the party took
+a fancy to it.
+
+Tidias had with him an old man almost blind, who claimed much respect,
+and two young men, whose dress of buckskin, profusely ornamented with
+beads, was much admired by the party. During the talk, the old chief
+expressed himself delighted to see the white men, and spoke of his own
+importance, his immense territory, etc., in a style of boasting, to
+which the Indians are very much addicted. He said that he was desirous
+of affording all the accommodation he could to the party. But although
+he had eight or ten fine horses with him, he would not agree to part
+with them, as they were all his favourites. He was presented with a
+variety of articles, in return for which he gave the party a few dried
+salmon.
+
+Towards evening, old Tidias took leave of them, saying that it was not
+proper for an Indian to encamp in the same place with a white man, and
+with a promise that he would have horses by ten o'clock the next day;
+but he had a game to play by procrastinating, in which he thoroughly
+succeeded.
+
+In the morning they reached the Indian camp below, but no horses had
+arrived. It was far, they said, to Tidias's house; a man could not go
+thither and return in the same day; no horses or salmon could be
+brought; no one could be permitted to go. Lieutenant Johnson was then
+told that the road he had to follow was a "hungry" road. At last the
+Indian was induced by high offers to exchange good horses for a great
+number of bad ones, and finally consented to part with two more. On
+quitting him they became thoroughly aware that all the difficulties
+were owing, not to any indisposition to sell, but were created for the
+purpose of inducing high prices to be given.
+
+The party now branched off at right angles to their former route,
+Lieutenant Johnson heartily sick and tired of his friend Tidias and
+his people. Two more of the Indians here left them. The country they
+entered, after passing a ridge about six hundred feet high, was quite
+of a different aspect, forming long sloping hills, covered with a
+scanty growth of pines. Many dry beds of rivulets were passed, and the
+soil of the hills produced nothing but a long thin grass. There are,
+however, some small valleys where the growth of grass is luxuriant,
+the pines are larger, and the scenery assumed a park-like appearance.
+
+From the summit of one of the hills, a sketch of Mount Rainier, and of
+the intervening range, was obtained.
+
+On the top of the ridge they fell in with a number of Spipen Indians,
+who were engaged in digging the cammass and other roots. The latter
+were those of an umbelliferous plant, oblong, tuberous, and in taste
+resembling a parsnip. The process used to prepare them for bread, is
+to bake them in a well-heated oven of stones; when they are taken out
+they are dried, and then pounded between two stones till the mass
+becomes as fine as corn meal, when it is kneaded into cakes and dried
+in the sun. These roots are the principal vegetable food of the
+Indians throughout Middle Oregon. The women are frequently seen, to
+the number of twenty or thirty, with baskets suspended from the neck,
+and a pointed stick in their hand, digging these roots, and so
+intently engaged in the search for them, as to pay no attention
+whatever to a passer-by. When these roots are properly dried, they are
+stored away for the winter's consumption. This day they made only
+fifteen miles, in a northern direction.
+
+On the 2d of June, they reached the Yakima, after having crossed a
+small stream. The Yakima was too deep for the horses to ford with
+their packs, and they now for the first time used their balsas of
+India-rubber cloth, which were found to answer the purpose of
+floating the loads across the stream.
+
+This river is one hundred and fifty feet wide, and pursues an
+east-southeast course, with a velocity of more than four miles an
+hour. At this place were found twenty migrating Indians, who have
+their permanent residence on the banks lower down.
+
+The chief, Kamaiyah, was the son-in-law of old Tidias, and one of the
+most handsome and perfectly-formed Indians they had met with. He was
+found to be gruff and surly in his manners, which was thought to be
+owing to his wish to appear dignified. These Indians were living in
+temporary huts, consisting of mats spread on poles. Among them was
+seen quite a pretty girl, dressed in a shirt and trousers, with
+moccasins of skin very much ornamented with fringe and beads. They had
+a number of fine horses, but could not be induced to part with any of
+them.
+
+Lieutenant Johnson had now succeeded in purchasing venison and salmon,
+and the party again had full allowance.
+
+On the 3d, they continued their route to the northward, over gradually
+rising ground, and Lieutenant Johnson having succeeded in purchasing
+three more horses, only three of the party were now without them, so
+that the riding and tye system was not quite so often resorted to as
+before. On this plain was seen a number of curlews, some grouse, and a
+large species of hare. They encamped again near the snow, and found
+their altitude greater than any yet reached, the barometer standing at
+24·750 in.: five thousand two hundred and three feet. They had again
+reached the spruces and lost the pine, which was only found on the
+hill-sides and plains.
+
+At 4 A.M. on the morning of the 4th of June, the thermometer stood at
+28°. They on that day continued their route up the mountain and across
+its summit, which was here and there covered with patches of snow. I
+regret to record another accident to the instruments. The sergeant, to
+whom the barometer was intrusted by Lieutenant Johnson, in putting up
+the instrument this morning, carelessly broke it; and thus ended the
+barometrical experiments in the most interesting portion of the route.
+
+It is difficult to account for the scarcity of snow on a much higher
+elevation than they had before reached, and under circumstances which
+would appear to have warranted a contrary expectation. Dr. Pickering
+was induced to believe that this change in the climate is owing to the
+open nature of the surrounding country; its being devoid of dense
+forests, with but a few scattered trees and no under-brush; and the
+vicinity to elevated plains, and the ridge being of a less broken
+character.
+
+The early part of the day was cold, with showers of sleet. On the
+crest of the mountain they passed over swampy ground, with but a few
+patches of spruces: after passing which, they began to descend very
+regularly towards the Columbia, which they reached early in the
+afternoon, about three miles below the Pischous River.[15] The
+Columbia at this place is a rapid stream, but the scenery differs
+entirely from that of other rivers: its banks are altogether devoid of
+any fertile alluvial flats; destitute even of scattered trees; there
+is no freshness in the little vegetation on its borders; the sterile
+sands in fact reach to its very brink, and it is scarcely to be
+believed until its banks are reached that a mighty river is rolling
+its waters past these arid wastes.
+
+     [The record of the journey to Fort Colville is omitted, to be
+     resumed when the party returning draws near the environs of
+     Mount Rainier. The portion omitted extends from page 430 to
+     468 in the original publication.]
+
+The party now pursued the route up the river, and in two hours reached
+the Yakima, up whose valley they passed, encamping after making
+twenty-five miles. The country was rolling, and might be termed sandy
+and barren.
+
+Mount St. Helen's,[16] with its snow-capped top, was seen at a great
+distance to the west.
+
+On the 5th, they continued their route, and at midday were overtaken
+by an Indian, with a note informing them of the arrival of Mr. Drayton
+at Wallawalla with the brigade. This was quick travelling for news in
+Oregon; for so slow is it usually carried, that our party were the
+first to bring the news of the arrival and operations of the squadron
+in Oregon. This intelligence had not previously reached Wallawalla,
+although it is considered to be on the direct post-route to the
+interior, notwithstanding we had been in the country nearly two
+months. The news of the murder of Mr. Black, in New Caledonia, was
+nearly a year in reaching some points on the coast.
+
+This was one of the warmest days they had experienced, and the
+thermometer under the shade of a canopy stood at 108°. At a short
+distance from the place where they stopped was a small hut, composed
+of a few branches and reeds, which was thought to be barely sufficient
+to contain a sheep; yet under it were four generations of human
+beings, all females, seated in a posture, which, to whites, would have
+been impracticable. They had just procured their subsistence for the
+day, and their meal consisted of the berries of the dogwood. The scene
+was not calculated to impress one very favourably with savage life.
+The oldest of these had the cartilage of the nose pierced, but the
+others had not; leading to the conclusion that the practice had been
+discontinued for some years in the nation, who still, however, retain
+the name.
+
+The country exhibited little appearance of vegetation; the herbage
+was quite dried up, and from appearances was likely to continue so
+throughout the season. The prevailing vegetation consisted of bushes
+of wormwood, stinted in growth, and unyielding.
+
+After making thirty-three miles, they encamped among loose sand, one
+hundred feet above the water of the river. Many rattlesnakes were
+found in this vicinity.
+
+Owing to the quantities of mosquitoes, combined with the fear of
+snakes, the party obtained little or no rest, and were all glad to
+mount their horses and proceed on their way.
+
+In the early part of the day, they arrived at the junction of the
+Spipen with the Yakima: previous to this they crossed another branch,
+coming in from the southwest; the waters of the latter were very
+turbid, of a dark-brown colour, and it was conjectured that it had its
+source at or near Mount Rainier. Along its banks was seen a range of
+basaltic columns. The Yakima was crossed during the day in canoes, the
+river not being yet fordable.
+
+The country, which had for some days exhibited the appearance of the
+Tillandsia districts of Peru, had now begun to acquire a tinge of
+green, and some scattered pine trees had become visible. Some small
+oaks were passed, which appeared of a local character. This night they
+again had a number of rattlesnakes in their camp.
+
+On the 8th, the valley had narrowed, and the banks becoming more
+perpendicular, they had a great many difficulties to encounter. They
+stopped at the camp of old Tidias, whom, it will be recollected, they
+had encountered after crossing the mountains, and from whom they
+obtained some horses. They soon afterwards arrived at the path where
+they had turned off to the north. The river had fallen very much
+during their absence, and there was a marked difference in the season,
+the vegetation being much more backward than in the parts they had
+recently visited. The berries were just beginning to ripen, while in
+the plains, not twenty miles distant, they were already over. Old
+Tidias determined to accompany them to Nisqually, taking with him his
+son, and lending them several horses. The Spipen, up which they
+passed, was now hemmed in by mountain ridges, occasionally leaving
+small portions of level ground. They encamped at the place they had
+occupied on the 30th of May.
+
+The vegetation, since they had passed this place, had so much advanced
+that they had difficulty in recognising it again. The wet prairies
+were overgrown with rank grass, from one to two feet in height. After
+a short rest at the foot of the mountain, they began its ascent, and
+reached the crest of the ridge in about three hours. On every side
+they found a low growth of shrubs, which they had not suspected when
+it was covered with snow, and causing the summit to differ essentially
+from the broad ridge they had crossed between the Yakima and Pischous
+rivers. They encamped for the night on the edge of a wet prairie,
+which afforded pasturage for their horses.
+
+The next day they passed through several similar prairies, and
+descended the western slope of the mountain, where they found more
+patches of snow than on the east side. This was just the reverse of
+what they had found on their previous passage; the season, too, was
+evidently much less advanced. This circumstance was supposed to be
+owing to the denser forest on the west, as well as the absence of
+elevated plains.
+
+They encamped the same night at the little prairie before spoken of,
+at the foot of the western slope. Before reaching it, they met a party
+of men and women carrying a sick chief over the mountain, who was
+evidently dying. It was affecting to see him stretching forth his hand
+to them as they passed, as if desiring to be friends with all before
+he died. He died the same night.
+
+The two next days it rained almost constantly, but they found the road
+much less difficult to travel than before, and the streams were
+fordable, which enabled them to make more rapid progress.
+
+On the 13th, they passed the Smalocho, and on the 15th reached
+Nisqually, all well; having performed a journey of about one thousand
+miles without any material accident, except those that have been
+related as having occurred to the instruments. They traversed a route
+which white men had never before taken, thus enabling us to become
+acquainted with a portion of the country about which all had before
+been conjecture. They had also made a large addition to our collection
+of plants.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: THEODORE WINTHROP.
+  From the Rowse crayon portrait.]
+
+IV. TACOMA AND THE INDIAN LEGEND OF HAMITCHOU
+
+BY THEODORE WINTHROP
+
+
+     Theodore Winthrop was a descendant of the famous Governor
+     John Winthrop, of Massachusetts. He was born at New Haven,
+     Connecticut, on September 22, 1828, and lost his life early
+     in the Civil War near Great Bethel, Virginia, on June 10,
+     1861. His death was deeply mourned as of one who had given
+     great promise of success in the field of literature.
+
+     His book, _The Canoe and the Saddle_, has appeared in many
+     editions. It tells of his visit to Puget Sound and across the
+     Cascade Mountains in 1853. In that volume he declares that
+     the Indians called the mountain, Tacoma. So far as is known
+     to the editor, that is the first place that that name for the
+     mountain appeared in print.
+
+     In addition to this interesting fact, the book is a charming
+     piece of literature, and will endure as one of the classics
+     on the Pacific Northwest. The portions here reproduced relate
+     to the mountain. They are taken from an early edition of the
+     book published by the John W. Lovell Company of New York. The
+     edition carries no date, but the copyright notice is by
+     Ticknor and Fields, 1862. The parts used are from pages
+     43-45, and 123-176.
+
+     The author's niece, Elizabeth Winthrop Johnson, of Pasadena,
+     California, kindly furnished a photograph of Rowse's portrait
+     of her famous uncle.
+
+     The large and beautiful glacier sweeping from the northeast
+     summit past the western slope of Steamboat Prow now bears the
+     name of Winthrop Glacier.
+
+We had rounded a point, and opened Puyallop Bay, a breadth of
+sheltered calmness, when I, lifting sleepy eyelids for a dreamy stare
+about, was suddenly aware of a vast white shadow in the water. What
+cloud, piled massive on the horizon, could cast an image so sharp in
+outline, so full of vigorous detail of surface? No cloud, as my
+stare, no longer dreamy, presently discovered,--no cloud, but a cloud
+compeller. It was a giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming
+to fill the aërial spheres as its image displaced the blue deeps of
+tranquil water. The smoky haze of an Oregon August hid all the length
+of its lesser ridges, and left this mighty summit based upon uplifting
+dimness. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the unearthly
+regions of clear blue noonday sky. The shore line drew a cincture of
+pines across the broad base, where it faded unreal into the mist. The
+same dark girth separated the peak from its reflection, over which my
+canoe was now pressing, and sending wavering swells to shatter the
+beautiful vision before it.
+
+Kingly and alone stood this majesty, without any visible comrade or
+consort, though far to the north and the south its brethren and
+sisters dominated their realms, each in isolated sovereignty, rising
+above the pine-darkened sierra of the Cascade Mountains,--above the
+stern chasm where the Columbia, Achilles of rivers, sweeps,
+short-lived and jubilant, to the sea,--above the lovely vales of the
+Willamette and Umpqua. Of all the peaks from California to Frazer's
+River, this one before me was royalest. Mount Regnier Christians have
+dubbed it, in stupid nomenclature perpetuating the name of somebody or
+nobody. More melodiously the siwashes call it Tacoma,--a generic term
+also applied to all snow peaks. Whatever keen crests and crags there
+may be in its rock anatomy of basalt, snow covers softly with its
+bends and sweeping curves. Tacoma, under its ermine, is a crushed
+volcanic dome, or an ancient volcano fallen in, and perhaps as yet not
+wholly lifeless. The domes of snow are stateliest. There may be more
+of feminine beauty in the cones, and more of masculine force and
+hardihood in the rough pyramids, but the great domes are calmer and
+more divine, and, even if they have failed to attain absolute
+dignified grace of finish, and are riven and broken down, they still
+demand our sympathy for giant power, if only partially victor. Each
+form--the dome, the cone, and the pyramid--has its type among the
+great snow peaks of the Cascades.
+
+     [Chapter VII, beginning at page 123 of the original
+     publication, is entitled "Tacoma."]
+
+Up and down go the fortunes of men, now benignant, now malignant.
+_Ante meridiem_ of our lives, we are rising characters. Our full noon
+comes, and we are borne with plaudits on the shoulders of a grateful
+populace. _Post meridiem_, we are ostracized, if not more rudely
+mobbed. At twilight, we are perhaps recalled, and set on the throne of
+Nestor.
+
+Such slow changes in esteem are for men of some import and of settled
+character. Loolowcan suffered under a more rapidly fluctuating public
+opinion. At the camp of the road-makers, he had passed through a
+period of neglect,--almost of ignominy. My hosts had prejudices
+against redskins; they treated the son of Owhhigh with no
+consideration; and he became depressed and slinking in manner under
+the influence of their ostracism. No sooner had we disappeared from
+the range of Boston eyes than Loolowcan resumed his leadership and his
+control. I was very secondary now, and followed him humbly enough up
+the heights we had reached. Here were all the old difficulties
+increased, because they were no longer met on a level. We were to
+climb the main ridge,--the mountain of La Tête,--abandoning the
+valley, assaulting the summits. And here, as Owhhigh had prophesied in
+his harangue at Nisqually, the horse's mane must be firmly grasped by
+the climber. Poor, panting, weary nags! may it be true, the promise of
+Loolowcan, that not far away is abundant fodder! But where can aught,
+save firs with ostrich digestion, grow on these rough, forest-clad
+shoulders?
+
+So I clambered on till near noon.
+
+I had been following thus for many hours the blind path, harsh,
+darksome, and utterly lonely, urging on with no outlook, encountering
+no landmark,--at last, as I stormed a ragged crest, gaining a height
+that overtopped the firs, and, halting there for panting moments,
+glanced to see if I had achieved mastery as well as position,--as I
+looked somewhat wearily and drearily across the solemn surges of
+forest, suddenly above their sombre green appeared Tacoma. Large and
+neighbor it stood, so near that every jewel of its snow-fields seemed
+to send me a separate ray; yet not so near but that I could with one
+look take in its whole image, from clear-cut edge to edge.
+
+All around it the dark evergreens rose like a ruff; above them the
+mountain splendors swelled statelier for the contrast. Sunlight of
+noon was so refulgent upon the crown, and lay so thick and dazzling in
+nooks and chasms, that the eye sought repose of gentler lights, and
+found it in shadowed nooks and clefts, where, sunlight entering not,
+delicate mist, an emanation from the blue sky, had fallen, and lay
+sheltered and tremulous, a mild substitute for the stronger glory. The
+blue haze so wavered and trembled into sunlight, and sunbeams shot
+glimmering over snowy brinks so like a constant avalanche, that I
+might doubt whether this movement and waver and glimmer, this blending
+of mist with noontide flame, were not a drifting smoke and cloud of
+yellow sulphurous vapor floating over some slowly chilling crater far
+down in the red crevices.
+
+But if the giant fires had ever burned under that cold summit, they
+had long since gone out. The dome that swelled up passionately had
+crusted over and then fallen in upon itself, not vigorous enough with
+internal life to bear up in smooth proportion. Where it broke into
+ruin was no doubt a desolate waste, stern, craggy, and riven, but such
+drear results of Titanic convulsion the gentle snows hid from view.
+
+No foot of man had ever trampled those pure snows. It was a virginal
+mountain, distant from the possibility of human approach and human
+inquisitiveness as a marble goddess is from human love.
+
+Yet there was nothing unsympathetic in its isolation, or despotic in
+its distant majesty. But this serene loftiness was no home for any
+deity of those that men create. Only the thought of eternal peace
+arose from this heaven-upbearing monument like incense, and,
+overflowing, filled the world with deep and holy calm.
+
+Wherever the mountain turned its cheek toward the sun, many fair and
+smiling dimples appeared, and along soft curves of snow, lines of
+shadow drew tracery fair as the blue veins on a child's temple.
+Without the infinite sweetness and charm of this kindly changefulness
+of form and color, there might have been oppressive awe in the
+presence of this transcendent glory against the solemn blue of noon.
+Grace played over the surface of majesty, as a drift of rose-leaves
+wavers in the air before a summer shower, or as a wreath of rosy mist
+flits before the grandeur of a storm. Loveliness was sprinkled like a
+boon of blossoms upon sublimity.
+
+Our lives forever demand and need visual images that can be symbols to
+us of the grandeur or the sweetness of repose. There are some faces
+that arise dreamy in our memories, and look us into calmness in our
+frantic moods. Fair and happy is a life that need not call upon its
+vague memorial dreams for such attuning influence, but can turn to a
+present reality, and ask tranquillity at the shrine of a household
+goddess. The noble works of nature, and mountains most of all,
+
+                "have power to make
+    Our noisy years seem moments in the being
+    Of the eternal silence."
+
+And, studying the light and the majesty of Tacoma, there passed from
+it and entered into my being, to dwell there evermore by the side of
+many such, a thought and an image of solemn beauty, which I could
+thenceforth evoke whenever in the world I must have peace or die. For
+such emotion years of pilgrimage were worthily spent. If mortal can
+gain the thoughts of immortality, is not his earthly destiny achieved?
+For, when we have so studied the visible poem, and so fixed it deep in
+the very substance of our minds, there is forever with us not merely a
+perpetual possession of delight, but a watchful monitor that will not
+let our thoughts be long unfit for the pure companionship of beauty.
+For whenever a man is false to the light that is in him, and accepts
+meaner joys, or chooses the easy indulgence that meaner passions give,
+then every fair landscape in all his horizon dims, and all its
+grandeurs fade and dwindle away, the glory vanishes, and he looks,
+like one lost, upon his world, late so lovely and sinless.
+
+While I was studying Tacoma, and learning its fine lesson, it in turn
+might contemplate its own image far away on the waters of Whulge,
+where streams from its own snows, gushing seaward to buffet in the
+boundless deep, might rejoice in a last look at their parent ere they
+swept out of Puyallop Bay. Other large privilege of view it had. It
+could see what I could not,--Tacoma the Less, Mt. Adams, meritorious
+but clumsy; it could reflect sunbeams gracefully across a breadth of
+forest to St. Helen's, the vestal virgin, who still kept her flame
+kindled, and proved her watchfulness ever and anon. Continuing its
+panoramic studies, Tacoma could trace the chasm of the Columbia by
+silver circles here and there,--could see every peak, chimney, or
+unopened vent, from Kulshan to Shasta Butte. The Blue Mountains
+eastward were within its scope, and westward the faint-blue levels of
+the Pacific. Another region, worthy of any mountain's beholding,
+Tacoma sees, somewhat vague and dim in distance: it sees the sweet
+Arcadian valley of the Willamette, charming with meadow, park, and
+grove. In no older world where men have, in all their happiest moods,
+recreated themselves for generations in taming earth to orderly
+beauty, have they achieved a fairer garden than Nature's simple labor
+of love has made there, giving to rough pioneers the blessings and the
+possible education of refined and finished landscape, in the presence
+of landscape strong, savage, and majestic.
+
+All this Tacoma beholds, as I can but briefly hint; and as one who is
+a seer himself becomes a tower of light and illumination to the world,
+so Tacoma, so every brother seer of his among the lofty snow-peaks,
+stands to educate, by his inevitable presence, every dweller
+thereabouts. Our race has never yet come into contact with great
+mountains as companions of daily life, nor felt that daily development
+of the finer and more comprehensive senses which these signal facts of
+nature compel. That is an influence of the future. The Oregon people,
+in a climate where being is bliss,--where every breath is a draught of
+vivid life,--these Oregon people, carrying to a new and grander New
+England of the West a fuller growth of the American Idea, under whose
+teaching the man of lowest ambitions must still have some little
+indestructible respect for himself, and the brute of most tyrannical
+aspirations some little respect for others; carrying the civilization
+of history where it will not suffer by the example of Europe,--with
+such material, that Western society, when it crystallizes, will
+elaborate new systems of thought and life. It is unphilosophical to
+suppose that a strong race, developing under the best, largest, and
+calmest conditions of nature, will not achieve a destiny.
+
+Up to Tacoma, or into some such solitude of nature, imaginative men
+must go, as Moses went up to Sinai, that the divine afflatus may stir
+within them. The siwashes appreciate, according to their capacity, the
+inspiration of lonely grandeur, and go upon the mountains, starving
+and alone, that they may become seers, enchanters, magicians,
+diviners,--what in conventional lingo is called "big medicine." For
+though the Indians here have not peopled these thrones of their world
+with the creatures of an anthropomorphic mythology, they yet deem them
+the abode of Tamanoüs. Tamanoüs is a vague and half-personified type
+of the unknown, of the mysterious forces of nature; and there is also
+an indefinite multitude of undefined emanations, each one a tamanoüs
+with a small t, which are busy and impish in complicating existence,
+or equally active and spritely in unravelling it. Each Indian of this
+region patronizes his own personal tamanoüs, as men of the more
+eastern tribes keep a private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimôn.
+To supply this want, Tamanoüs with a big T undergoes an avatar, and
+incarnates himself into a salmon, a beaver, a clam, or into some
+inanimate object, such as a canoe, a paddle, a fir-tree, a flint, or
+into some elemental essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanoüs
+thus individualized becomes the "guide, philosopher, and friend" of
+every siwash, conscious that otherwise he might stray and be lost in
+the unknown realms of Tamanoüs.
+
+Hamitchou, a frowzy ancient of the Squallyamish, told to Dr. Tolmie
+and me, at Nisqually, a legend of Tamanoüs and Tacoma, which, being
+interpreted, runs as follows:--
+
+    Hamitchou's Legend
+
+"Avarice, O Boston tyee," quoth Hamitchou, studying me with dusky
+eyes, "is a mighty passion. Now, be it known unto thee that we Indians
+anciently used not metals nor the money of you blanketeers. Our
+circulating medium was shells,--wampum you would name it. Of all
+wampum, the most precious is Hiaqua. Hiaqua comes from the far north.
+It is a small, perforated shell, not unlike a very opaque quill
+toothpick, tapering from the middle, and cut square at both ends. We
+string it in many strands, and hang it around the neck of one we
+love,--namely, each man his own neck. We also buy with it what our
+hearts desire. He who has most hiaqua is best and wisest and happiest
+of all the northern Haida and of all the people of Whulge. The
+mountain horsemen value it; and braves of the terrible Blackfeet have
+been known, in the good old days, to come over and offer a horse or a
+wife for a bunch of fifty hiaqua.
+
+"Now, once upon a time there dwelt where this fort of Nisqually now
+stands a wise old man of the Squallyamish. He was a great fisherman
+and a great hunter; and the wiser he grew, much the wiser he thought
+himself. When he had grown very wise, he used to stay apart from every
+other siwash. Companionable salmon-boilings round a common pot had no
+charms for him. 'Feasting was wasteful,' he said, 'and revellers would
+come to want.' And when they verified his prophecy, and were full of
+hunger and empty of salmon, he came out of his hermitage, and had
+salmon to sell.
+
+"Hiaqua was the pay he always demanded; and as he was a very wise old
+man, and knew all the tide-ways of Whulge, and all the enticing
+ripples and placid spots of repose in every river where fish might
+dash or delay, he was sure to have salmon when others wanted, and thus
+bagged largely of its precious equivalent, hiaqua.
+
+"Not only a mighty fisher was the sage, but a mighty hunter, and elk,
+the greatest animal of the woods, was the game he loved. Well had he
+studied every trail where elk leave the print of their hoofs, and
+where, tossing their heads, they bend the tender twigs. Well had he
+searched through the broad forest, and found the long-haired prairies
+where elk feed luxuriously; and there, from behind palisade fir-trees,
+he had launched the fatal arrow. Sometimes, also, he lay beside a pool
+of sweetest water, revealed to him by gemmy reflections of sunshine
+gleaming through the woods, until at noon the elk came down, to find
+death awaiting him as he stooped and drank. Or beside the same
+fountain the old man watched at night, drowsily starting at every
+crackling branch, until, when the moon was high, and her illumination
+declared the pearly water, elk dashed forth incautious into the glade,
+and met their midnight destiny.
+
+"Elk-meat, too, he sold to his tribe. This brought him pelf, but, alas
+for his greed, the pelf came slowly. Waters and woods were rich in
+game. All the Squallyamish were hunters and fishers, though none so
+skilled as he. They were rarely in absolute want, and, when they came
+to him for supplies, they were far too poor in hiaqua.
+
+"So the old man thought deeply, and communed with his wisdom, and,
+while he waited for fish or beast, he took advice within himself from
+his demon,--he talked with Tamanoüs. And always the question was, 'How
+may I put hiaqua in my purse?'
+
+"Tamanoüs never revealed to him that far to the north, beyond the
+waters of Whulge, are tribes with their under lip pierced with a
+fishbone, among whom hiaqua is plenty as salmonberries are in the
+woods what time in mid-summer salmon fin it along the reaches of
+Whulge.
+
+"But the more Tamanoüs did not reveal to him these mysteries of
+nature, the more he kept dreamily prying into his own mind,
+endeavoring to devise some scheme by which he might discover a
+treasure-trove of the beloved shell. His life seemed wasted in the
+patient, frugal industry, which only brought slow, meagre gains. He
+wanted the splendid elation of vast wealth and the excitement of
+sudden wealth. His own peculiar tamanoüs was the elk. Elk was also
+his totem, the cognizance of his freemasonry with those of his own
+family, and their family friends in other tribes. Elk, therefore, were
+every way identified with his life; and he hunted them farther and
+farther up through the forests on the flanks of Tacoma, hoping that
+some day his tamanoüs would speak in the dying groan of one of them,
+and gasp out the secret of the mines of hiaqua, his heart's desire.
+
+"Tacoma was so white and glittering, that it seemed to stare at him
+very terribly and mockingly, and to know his shameful avarice, and how
+it led him to take from starving women their cherished lip and nose
+jewels of hiaqua, and to give them in return only tough scraps of
+dried elk-meat and salmon. When men are shabby, mean, and grasping,
+they feel reproached for their grovelling lives by the unearthliness
+of nature's beautiful objects, and they hate flowers, and sunsets,
+mountains, and the quiet stars of heaven.
+
+"Nevertheless," continued Hamitchou, "this wise old fool of my legend
+went on stalking elk along the sides of Tacoma, ever dreaming of
+wealth. And at last, as he was hunting near the snows one day, one
+very clear and beautiful day of late summer, when sunlight was
+magically disclosing far distances, and making all nature
+supernaturally visible and proximate, Tamanoüs began to work in the
+soul of the miser.
+
+"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanoüs in the strange, ringing, dull,
+silent thunder-tones of a demon voice. 'Dare you go to the caves where
+my treasures are hid?'
+
+"'I dare,' said the miser.
+
+"He did not know that his lips had syllabled a reply. He did not even
+hear his own words. But all the place had become suddenly vocal with
+echoes. The great rock against which he leaned crashed forth, 'I
+dare.' Then all along through the forest, dashing from tree to tree
+and lost at last among the murmuring of breeze-shaken leaves, went
+careering his answer, taken up and repeated scornfully, 'I dare.' And
+after a silence, while the daring one trembled and would gladly have
+ventured to shout, for the companionship of his own voice, there came
+across from the vast snow wall of Tacoma a tone like the muffled,
+threatening plunge of an avalanche into a chasm, 'I dare.'
+
+"'You dare,' said Tamanoüs, enveloping him with a dread sense of an
+unseen, supernatural presence; 'you pray for wealth of hiaqua.
+Listen!'
+
+"This injunction was hardly needed; the miser was listening with dull
+eyes kindled and starting. He was listening with every rusty hair
+separating from its unkempt mattedness, and outstanding upright, a
+caricature of an aureole.
+
+"'Listen,' said Tamanoüs, in the noonday hush. And then Tamanoüs
+vouchsafed at last the great secret of the hiaqua mines, while in
+terror near to death the miser heard, and every word of guidance
+toward the hidden treasure of the mountains seared itself into his
+soul ineffaceably.
+
+"Silence came again more terrible now than the voice of
+Tamanoüs,--silence under the shadow of the great cliff,--silence
+deepening down the forest vistas,--silence filling the void up to the
+snows of Tacoma. All life and motion seemed paralyzed. At last
+Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, the wise bird, foe to magic, sang cheerily
+overhead. Her song seemed to refresh again the honest laws of nature.
+The buzz of life stirred everywhere again, and the inspired miser rose
+and hastened home to prepare for his work.
+
+"When Tamanoüs has put a great thought in a man's brain, has whispered
+him a great discovery within his power, or hinted at a great crime,
+that spiteful demon does not likewise suggest the means of
+accomplishment.
+
+"The miser, therefore, must call upon his own skill to devise proper
+tools, and upon his own judgment to fix upon the most fitting time
+for carrying out his quest. Sending his squaw out to the kamas
+prairie, under pretence that now was the season for her to gather
+their winter store of that sickish-sweet esculent root, and that she
+might not have her squaw's curiosity aroused by seeing him at strange
+work, he began his preparations. He took a pair of enormous elk-horns,
+and fashioned from each horn a two-pronged pick or spade, by removing
+all the antlers except the two topmost. He packed a good supply of
+kippered salmon, and filled his pouch with kinni kinnick for smoking
+in his black stone pipe. With his bow and arrows and his two elk-horn
+picks wrapped in buckskin hung at his back, he started just before
+sunset, as if for a long hunt. His old, faithful, maltreated,
+blanketless, vermilionless squaw, returning with baskets full of
+kamas, saw him disappearing moodily down the trail.
+
+"All that night, all the day following, he moved on noiselessly by
+paths he knew. He hastened on, unnoticing outward objects, as one with
+a controlling purpose hastens. Elk and deer, bounding through the
+trees, passed him, but he tarried not. At night he camped just below
+the snows of Tacoma. He was weary, weary, and chill night-airs blowing
+down from the summit almost froze him. He dared not take his
+fire-sticks, and, placing one perpendicular upon a little hollow on
+the flat side of the other, twirl the upright stick rapidly between
+his palms until the charred spot kindled and lighted his 'tipsoo,' his
+dry, tindery wool of inner bark. A fire, gleaming high upon the
+mountain-side, might be a beacon to draw thither any night-wandering
+savage to watch in ambush, and learn the path toward the mines of
+hiaqua. So he drowsed chilly and fireless, awakened often by dread
+sounds of crashing and rumbling among the chasms of Tacoma. He
+desponded bitterly, almost ready to abandon his quest, almost doubting
+whether he had in truth received a revelation, whether his interview
+with Tamanoüs had not been a dream, and finally whether all the hiaqua
+in the world was worth this toil and anxiety. Fortunate is the sage
+who at such a point turns back and buys his experience without worse
+befalling him.
+
+"Past midnight he suddenly was startled from his drowse, and sat bolt
+upright in terror. A light. Was there another searcher in the forest,
+and a bolder than he? That flame just glimmering over the tree-tops,
+was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanoüs been revealing to
+another the great secret? No, smiled the miser, his eyes fairly open,
+and discovering that the new light was the moon. He had been waiting
+for her illumination of paths heretofore untrodden by mortal. She did
+not show her full, round jolly face, but turned it askance as if she
+hardly liked to be implicated in this night's transaction.
+
+"However, it was light he wanted, not sympathy, and he started up at
+once to climb over the dim snows. The surface was packed by the
+night's frost, and his moccasins gave him firm hold; yet he travelled
+but slowly, and could not always save himself from a _glissade_
+backwards, and a bruise upon some projecting knob or crag. Sometimes,
+upright fronts of ice diverted him for long circuits, or a broken wall
+of cold cliff arose, which he must surmount painfully. Once or twice
+he stuck fast in a crevice, and hardly drew himself out by placing his
+bundle of picks across the crack. As he plodded and floundered thus
+deviously and toilsomely upward, at last the wasted moon gan pale
+overhead, and under foot the snow grew rosy with coming dawn. The dim
+world about the mountain's base displayed something of its vast
+detail. He could see, more positively than by moonlight, the
+far-reaching arteries of mist marking the organism of Whulge beneath;
+and what had been but a black chaos now revealed itself into the
+Alpine forest whence he had come.
+
+"But he troubled himself little with staring about; up he looked, for
+the summit was at hand. To win that summit was wellnigh the attainment
+of his hopes, if Tamanoüs were true; and that, with the flush of
+morning ardor upon him, he could not doubt. There, in a spot Tamanoüs
+had revealed to him, was hiaqua,--hiaqua that should make him the
+richest and greatest of all the Squallyamish.
+
+"The chill before sunrise was upon him as he reached the last curve of
+the dome. Sunrise and he struck the summit together. Together sunrise
+and he looked over the glacis. They saw within a great hollow all
+covered with the whitest of snow, save at the centre, where a black
+lake lay deep in a well of purple rock.
+
+"At the eastern end of this lake was a small, irregular plain of snow,
+marked by three stones like monuments. Towards these the miser sprang
+rapidly, with full sunshine streaming after him over the snows.
+
+"The first monument he examined with keen looks. It was tall as a
+giant man, and its top was fashioned into the grotesque likeness of a
+salmon's head. He turned from this to inspect the second. It was of
+similar height, but bore at its apex an object in shape like the
+regular flame of a torch. As he approached, he presently discovered
+that this was an image of the kamas-bulb in stone. These two
+semblances of prime necessities of Indian life delayed him but an
+instant, and he hastened on to the third monument, which stood apart
+on a perfect level. The third stone was capped by something he almost
+feared to behold, lest it should prove other than his hopes. Every
+word of Tamanoüs had thus far proved veritable; but might there not be
+a bitter deceit at the last? The miser trembled.
+
+"Yes, Tamanoüs was trustworthy. The third monument was as the old man
+anticipated. It was a stone elk's head, such as it appears in earliest
+summer, when the antlers are sprouting lustily under their rough
+jacket of velvet.
+
+"You remember, Boston tyee," continued Hamitchou, "that Elk was the
+old man's tamanoüs, the incarnation for him of the universal Tamanoüs.
+He therefore was right joyous at this good omen of protection; and his
+heart grew big and swollen with hope, as the black salmon-berry swells
+in a swamp in June. He threw down his 'ikta'; every impediment he laid
+down upon the snow; and, unwrapping his two picks of elk-horn, he took
+the stoutest, and began to dig in the frozen snow at the foot of the
+elk-head monument.
+
+"No sooner had he struck the first blow than he heard behind him a
+sudden puff, such as a seal makes when it comes to the surface to
+breathe. Turning round much startled, he saw a huge otter just
+clambering up over the edge of the lake. The otter paused, and struck
+on the snow with his tail, whereupon another otter and another
+appeared, until, following their leader in slow and solemn file, were
+twelve other otters, marching toward the miser. The twelve approached,
+and drew up in a circle around him. Each was twice as large as any
+otter ever seen. Their chief was four times as large as the most
+gigantic otter ever seen in the regions of Whulge, and certainly was
+as great as a seal. When the twelve were arranged, their leader
+skipped to the top of the elk-head stone, and sat there between the
+horns. Then the whole thirteen gave a mighty puff in chorus.
+
+"The hunter of hiaqua was for a moment abashed at his uninvited ring
+of spectators. But he had seen otter before, and bagged them. These he
+could not waste time to shoot, even if a phalanx so numerous were not
+formidable. Besides, they might be tamanoüs. He took to his pick and
+began digging stoutly.
+
+"He soon made way in the snow, and came to solid rock beneath. At
+every thirteenth stroke of his pick, the fugleman otter tapped with
+his tail on the monument. Then the choir of lesser otters tapped
+together with theirs on the snow. This caudal action produced a dull,
+muffled sound, as if there were a vast hollow below.
+
+"Digging with all his force, by and by the seeker for treasure began
+to tire, and laid down his elk-horn spade to wipe the sweat from his
+brow. Straightway the fugleman otter turned, and, swinging his tail,
+gave the weary man a mighty thump on the shoulder; and the whole band,
+imitating, turned, and, backing inward, smote him with centripetal
+tails, until he resumed his labors, much bruised.
+
+"The rock lay first in plates, then in scales. These it was easy to
+remove. Presently, however, as the miser pried carelessly at a larger
+mass, he broke his elkhorn tool. Fugleman otter leaped down, and
+seizing the supplemental pick between his teeth, mouthed it over to
+the digger. Then the amphibious monster took in the same manner the
+broken pick, and bore it round the circle of his suite, who inspected
+it gravely with puffs.
+
+"These strange, magical proceedings disconcerted and somewhat baffled
+the miser; but he plucked up heart, for the prize was priceless, and
+worked on more cautiously with his second pick. At last its blows and
+the regular thumps of the otter's tails called forth a sound hollower
+and hollower. His circle of spectators narrowed so that he could feel
+their panting breath as they bent curiously over the little pit he had
+dug.
+
+"The crisis was evidently at hand.
+
+"He lifted each scale of rock more delicately. Finally he raised a
+scale so thin that it cracked into flakes as he turned it over.
+Beneath was a large square cavity.
+
+"It was filled to the brim with hiaqua.
+
+"He was a millionnaire.
+
+"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanoüs, and retired to
+a respectful distance.
+
+"For some moments he gazed on his treasure, taking thought of his
+future proud grandeur among the dwellers by Whulge. He plunged his arm
+deep as he could go; there was still nothing but the precious shells.
+He smiled to himself in triumph; he had wrung the secret from
+Tamanoüs. Then, as he withdrew his arm, the rattle of the hiaqua
+recalled him to the present. He saw that noon was long past, and he
+must proceed to reduce his property to possession.
+
+"The hiaqua was strung upon long, stout sinews of elk, in bunches of
+fifty shells on each side. Four of these he wound about his waist;
+three he hung across each shoulder; five he took in each hand;--twenty
+strings of pure white hiaqua, every shell large, smooth, unbroken,
+beautiful. He could carry no more; hardly even with this could he
+stagger along. He put down his burden for a moment, while he covered
+up the seemingly untouched wealth of the deposit carefully with the
+scale stones, and brushed snow over the whole.
+
+"The miser never dreamed of gratitude, never thought to hang a string
+from the buried treasure about the salmon and kamas tamanoüs stones,
+and two strings around the elk's head; no, all must be his own, all he
+could carry now, and the rest for the future.
+
+"He turned, and began his climb toward the crater's edge. At once the
+otters, with a mighty puff in concert, took up their line of
+procession, and, plunging into the black lake, began to beat the water
+with their tails.
+
+"The miser could hear the sound of splashing water as he struggled
+upward through the snow, now melted and yielding. It was a long hour
+of harsh toil and much backsliding before he reached the rim, and
+turned to take one more view of this valley of good fortune.
+
+"As he looked, a thick mist began to rise from the lake centre, where
+the otters were splashing. Under the mist grew a cylinder of black
+cloud, utterly hiding the water.
+
+"Terrible are storms in the mountains; but in this looming mass was a
+terror more dread than any hurricane of ruin ever bore within its wild
+vortexes. Tamanoüs was in that black cylinder, and as it strode
+forward, chasing in the very path of the miser, he shuddered, for his
+wealth and his life were in danger.
+
+"However, it might be but a common storm. Sunlight was bright as ever
+overhead in heaven, and all the lovely world below lay dreamily fair,
+in that afternoon of summer, at the feet of the rich man, who now was
+hastening to be its king. He stepped from the crater edge and began
+his descent.
+
+"Instantly the storm overtook him. He was thrown down by its first
+assault, flung over a rough bank of iciness, and lay at the foot torn
+and bleeding, but clinging still to his precious burden. Each hand
+still held its five strings of hiaqua. In each hand he bore a nation's
+ransom. He staggered to his feet against the blast. Utter night was
+around him,--night as if daylight had forever perished, had never come
+into being from chaos. The roaring of the storm had also deafened and
+bewildered him with its wild uproar.
+
+"Present in every crash and thunder of the gale was a growing
+undertone, which the miser well knew to be the voice of Tamanoüs. A
+deadly shuddering shook him. Heretofore that potent Unseen had been
+his friend and guide; there had been awe, but no terror, in his words.
+Now the voice of Tamanoüs was inarticulate, but the miser could divine
+in that sound an unspeakable threat of wrath and vengeance. Floating
+upon this undertone were sharper tamanoüs voices, shouting and
+screaming always sneeringly, 'Ha, ha, hiaqua!--ha, ha, ha!'
+
+"Whenever the miser essayed to move and continue his descent, a
+whirlwind caught him, and with much ado tossed him hither and thither,
+leaving him at last flung and imprisoned in a pinching crevice, or
+buried to the eyes in a snowdrift, or bedded upside down on a shaggy
+boulder, or gnawed by lacerating lava jaws. Sharp torture the old man
+was encountering, but he held fast to his hiaqua.
+
+"The blackness grew ever deeper and more crowded with perdition; the
+din more impish, demoniac, and devilish; the laughter more appalling;
+and the miser more and more exhausted with vain buffeting. He
+determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanoüs with a sacrifice. He
+threw into the black cylinder storm his left-handful, five strings of
+precious hiaqua."
+
+"Somewhat long-winded is thy legend, Hamitchou, Great Medicine-Man of
+the Squallyamish," quoth I. "Why didn't the old fool drop his
+wampum,--shell out, as one might say,--and make tracks?"
+
+"Well, well!" continued Hamitchou; "when the miser had thrown away his
+first handful of hiaqua, there was a momentary lull in elemental war,
+and he heard the otters puffing around him invisible. Then the storm
+renewed, blacker, louder, harsher, crueller than before, and over the
+dread undertone of the voice of Tamanoüs, tamanoüs voices again
+screamed, 'Ha, ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanoüs hands, or
+the paws of the demon otters, clutched at the miser's right-handful
+and tore at his shoulder and waist belts.
+
+"So, while darkness and tempest still buffeted the hapless old man,
+and thrust him away from his path, and while the roaring was wickeder
+than the roars of tens and tens of tens of bears when ahungered they
+pounce upon a plain of kamas, gradually wounded and terrified he flung
+away string after string of hiaqua, gaining never any notice of such
+sacrifice, except an instant's lull of the cyclone and a puff from the
+invisible otters.
+
+"The last string he clung to long, and before he threw it to be caught
+and whirled after its fellows, he tore off a single bunch of fifty
+shells. But upon this, too, the storm laid its clutches. In the final
+desperate struggle the old man was wounded so sternly that when he
+had given up his last relic of the mighty treasure, when he had thrown
+into the formless chaos, instinct with Tamanoüs, his last propitiatory
+offering, he sank and became insensible.
+
+"It seemed a long slumber to him, but at last he awoke. The jagged
+moon was just paling overhead, and he heard Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, foe
+to magic, singing welcome to sunrise. It was the very spot whence he
+started at morning.
+
+"He was hungry, and felt for his bag of kamas and pouch of
+smokeleaves. There, indeed, by his side were the elk-sinew strings of
+the bag, and the black stone pipe-bowl,--but no bag, no kamas, no
+kinni kinnik. The whole spot was thick with kamas plants, strangely
+out of place on the mountain-side, and overhead grew a large
+arbutus-tree, with glistening leaves, ripe for smoking. The old man
+found his hardwood fire-sticks safe under the herbage, and soon
+twirled a light, and, nurturing it in dry grass, kindled a cheery
+fire. He plucked up kamas, set it to roast, and laid a store of the
+arbutus-leaves to dry on a flat stone.
+
+"After he had made a hearty breakfast of the chestnut-like
+kamas-bulbs, and, smoking the thoughtful pipe, was reflecting on the
+events of yesterday, he became aware of an odd change in his
+condition. He was not bruised and wounded from head to foot, as he
+expected, but very stiff only, and as he stirred, his joints creaked
+like the creak of a lazy paddle upon the rim of a canoe. Skai-ki, the
+Blue-Jay, was singularly familiar with him, hopping from her perch in
+the arbutus, and alighting on his head. As he put his hand to dislodge
+her, he touched his scratching-stick of bone, and attempted to pass
+it, as usual, through his hair. The hair was matted and interlaced
+into a network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanoüs,'
+thought the old man.
+
+"Chiefly he was conscious of a mental change. He was calm and
+content. Hiaqua and wealth seemed to have lost their charms for him.
+Tacoma, shining like gold and silver and precious stones of gayest
+lustre, seemed a benign comrade and friend. All the outer world was
+cheerful and satisfying. He thought he had never awakened to a fresher
+morning. He was a young man again, except for that unusual stiffness
+and unmelodious creaking joints. He felt no apprehension of any
+presence of a deputy tamanoüs, sent by Tamanoüs to do malignities upon
+him in the lonely wood. Great Nature had a kindly aspect, and made its
+divinity perceived only by the sweet notes of birds and the hum of
+forest life, and by a joy that clothed his being. And now he found in
+his heart a sympathy for man, and a longing to meet his old
+acquaintances down by the shores of Whulge.
+
+"He rose, and started on the downward way, smiling, and sometimes
+laughing heartily at the strange croaking, moaning, cracking, and
+rasping of his joints. But soon motion set the lubricating valves at
+work, and the sockets grew slippery again. He marched rapidly,
+hastening out of loneliness into society. The world of wood, glade,
+and stream seemed to him strangely altered. Old colossal trees, firs
+behind which he had hidden when on the hunt, cedars under whose
+drooping shade he had lurked, were down, and lay athwart his path,
+transformed into immense mossy mounds, like barrows of giants, over
+which he must clamber warily, lest he sink and be half stifled in the
+dust of rotten wood. Had Tamanoüs been widely at work in that eventful
+night?--or had the spiritual change the old man felt affected his
+views of the outer world?
+
+"Travelling downward, he advanced rapidly, and just before sunset came
+to the prairies where his lodge should be. Everything had seemed to
+him so totally altered, that he tarried a moment in the edge of the
+woods to take an observation before approaching his home. There was a
+lodge, indeed, in the old spot, but a newer and far handsomer one
+than he had left on the fourth evening before.
+
+"A very decrepit old squaw, ablaze with vermilion and decked with
+countless strings of hiaqua and costly beads, was seated on the ground
+near the door, tending a kettle of salmon, whose blue and fragrant
+steam mingled pleasantly with the golden haze of sunset. She resembled
+his own squaw in countenance, as an ancient smoked salmon is like a
+newly-dried salmon. If she was indeed his spouse, she was many years
+older than when he saw her last, and much better dressed than the
+respectable lady had ever been during his miserly days.
+
+"He drew near quietly. The bedizened dame was crooning a chant, very
+dolorous,--like this:
+
+      'My old man has gone, gone, gone,--
+      My old man to Tacoma, has gone.
+      To hunt the elk, he went long ago.
+      When will he come down, down, down,
+      Down to the salmon-pot and me?'
+
+    'He has come from Tacoma down, down, down,--
+    Down to the salmon-pot and thee,'
+
+shouted the reformed miser, rushing forward to supper and his faithful
+wife."
+
+"And how did Penelope explain the mystery?" I asked.
+
+"If you mean the old lady," replied Hamitchou, "she was my
+grandmother, and I'd thank you not to call names. She told my
+grandfather that he had been gone many years;--she could not tell how
+many, having dropped her tally-stick in the fire by accident that very
+day. She also told him how, in despite of the entreaties of many a
+chief who knew her economic virtues, and prayed her to become mistress
+of his household, she had remained constant to the Absent, and forever
+kept the hopeful salmon-pot boiling for his return. She had distracted
+her mind from the bitterness of sorrow by trading in kamas and magic
+herbs, and had thus acquired a genteel competence. The excellent dame
+then exhibited with great complacency her gains, most of which she had
+put in the portable and secure form of personal ornament, making
+herself a resplendent magazine of valuable frippery.
+
+"Little cared the repentant sage for such things. But he was rejoiced
+to be again at home and at peace, and near his own early gains of
+hiaqua and treasure, buried in a place of security. These, however, he
+no longer over-esteemed and hoarded. He imparted whatever he
+possessed, material treasures or stores of wisdom and experience,
+freely to all the land. Every dweller by Whulge came to him for advice
+how to chase the elk, how to troll or spear the salmon, and how to
+propitiate Tamanoüs. He became the Great Medicine Man of the siwashes,
+a benefactor to his tribe and his race.
+
+"Within a year after he came down from his long nap on the side of
+Tacoma, a child, my father, was born to him. The sage lived many
+years, beloved and revered, and on his deathbed, long before the
+Boston tilicum or any blanketeers were seen in the regions of Whulge,
+he told this history to my father, as a lesson and a warning. My
+father, dying, told it to me. But I, alas! have no son; I grow old,
+and lest this wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanoüs be again
+obliged to interpose against avarice, I tell the tale to thee, O
+Boston tyee. Mayest thou and thy nation not disdain this lesson of an
+earlier age, but profit by it and be wise."
+
+So far Hamitchou recounted his legend without the palisades of Fort
+Nisqually, and motioning, in expressive pantomime, at the close, that
+he was dry with big talk, and would gladly wet his whistle.
+
+     [Chapter VIII, beginning at page 155 of the original
+     publication, is entitled: "Sowee House--Loolowcan."]
+
+I had not long, that noon of August, from the top of La Tête, to study
+Tacoma, scene of Hamitchou's wild legend. Humanity forbade dalliance.
+While I fed my soul with sublimity, Klale and his comrades were
+wretched with starvation. But the summit of the pass is near. A few
+struggles more, Klale the plucky, and thy empty sides shall echo less
+drum-like. Up stoutly, my steeds; up a steep but little less than
+perpendicular, paw over these last trunks of the barricades in our
+trail, and ye have won!
+
+So it was. The angle of our ascent suddenly broke down from ninety to
+fifteen, then to nothing. We had reached the plateau. Here were the
+first prairies. Nibble in these, my nags, for a few refreshing
+moments, and then on to superlative dinners in lovelier spots just
+beyond.
+
+Let no one, exaggerating the joys of campaigning, with Horace's
+"Militia potior est," deem that there is no compensating pang among
+them. Is it a pleasant thing, O traveller only in dreams, envier of
+the voyager in reality, to urge tired, reluctant, and unfed mustangs
+up a mountain pass, even for their own good? In such a case a man, the
+humanest and gentlest, must adopt the manners of a brute. He must ply
+the whip, and that cruelly; otherwise, no go. At first, as he smites,
+he winces, for he has struck his own sensibilities; by and by he
+hardens himself, and thrashes without a tremor. When the cortege
+arrives at an edible prairie, gastronomic satisfaction will put
+Lethean freshness in the battered hide of every horse.
+
+We presently turned just aside from the trail into an episode of
+beautiful prairie, one of a succession along the plateau at the crest
+of the range. At this height of about five thousand feet, the snows
+remain until June. In this fair, oval, forest-circled prairie of my
+nooning, the grass was long and succulent, as if it grew in the bed of
+a drained lake. The horses, undressed, were allowed to plunge and
+wallow in the deep herbage. Only horse heads soon could be seen,
+moving about like their brother hippopotami, swimming in sedges.
+
+To me it was luxury enough not to be a whip for a time. Over and above
+this, I had the charm of a quiet nooning on a bank of emerald turf, by
+a spring, at the edge of a clump of evergreens. I took my luncheon of
+cold salt pork and doughy biscuit by a well of brightest water. I
+called in no proxy of tin cup to aid me in saluting this sparkling
+creature, but stooped and kissed the spring. When I had rendered my
+first homage thus to the goddess of the fountain, Ægle herself,
+perhaps, fairest of Naiads, I drank thirstily of the medium in which
+she dwelt. A bubbling dash of water leaped up and splashed my visage
+as I withdrew. Why so, sweet fountain, which I may name Hippocrene,
+since hoofs of Klale have caused me thy discovery? Is this a rebuff?
+If there ever was lover who little merited such treatment it is I.
+"Not so, appreciative stranger," came up in other bubbling gushes the
+responsive voice of Nature through sweet vibrations of the melodious
+fount. "Never a Nymph of mine will thrust thee back. This sudden leap
+of water was a movement of sympathy, and a gentle emotion of
+hospitality. The Naiad there was offering thee her treasure liberally,
+and saying that, drink as thou wilt, I, her mother Nature, have
+commanded my winds and sun to distil thee fresh supplies, and my
+craggy crevices are filtering it in the store-houses, that it may be
+offered to every welcome guest, pure and cool as airs of dawn. Stoop
+down," continued the voice, "thirsty wayfarer, and kiss again my
+daughter of the fountain, nor be abashed if she meets thee half-way.
+She knows that a true lover will never scorn his love's delicate
+advances."
+
+In response to such invitation, and the more for my thirsty slices of
+pork, I lapped the aerated tipple in its goblet, whose stem reaches
+deep into the bubble laboratories. I lapped,--an excellent test of
+pluck in the days of Gideon son of Barak;--and why? For many reasons,
+but among them for this;--he who lying prone can with stout muscular
+gullet swallow water, will be also able to swallow back into position
+his heart, when in moments of tremor it leaps into his throat.
+
+When I had lapped plenteously, I lay and let the breeze-shaken shadows
+smooth me into smiling mood, while my sympathies overflowed to enjoy
+with my horses their dinner. They fed like school-boys home for
+Thanksgiving, in haste lest the present banquet, too good to be true,
+prove Barmecide. A feast of colossal grasses placed itself at the lips
+of the breakfastless stud. They champed as their nature was;--Klale
+like a hungry gentleman,--Gubbins like a hungry clodhopper,--Antipodes
+like a lubberly oaf. They were laying in, according to the Hudson's
+Bay Company's rule, supply at this meal for five days; without such
+power, neither man nor horse is fit to tramp the Northwest.
+
+I lay on the beautiful verdant bank, plucking now dextrously and now
+sinistrously of strawberries, that summer, climbing late to these
+snowy heights, had just ripened. Medical men command us to swallow
+twice a day one bitter pill confectioned of all disgust. Nature doses
+us, by no means against our will, with many sweet boluses of delight,
+berries compacted of acidulated, sugary spiciness. Nature, tenderest
+of leeches,--no bolus of hers is pleasanter medicament than her ruddy
+strawberries. She shaped them like Minié-balls, that they might
+traverse unerringly to the cell of most dulcet digestion. Over their
+glistening surfaces she peppered little golden dots to act as
+obstacles lest they should glide too fleetly over the surfaces of
+taste, and also to gently rasp them into keener sensitiveness. Mongers
+of pestled poisons may punch their pills in malodorous mortars, roll
+them in floury palms, pack them in pink boxes, and send them forth to
+distress a world of patients:--but Nature, who if she even feels one's
+pulse does it by a gentle pressure of atmosphere,--Nature, knowing
+that her children in their travels always need lively tonics, tells
+wind, sun, and dew, servitors of hers, clean and fine of touch, to
+manipulate gay strawberries, and dispose them attractively on fair
+green terraces, shaded at parching noon. Of these lovely fabrics of
+pithy pulpiness, no limit to the dose, if the invalid does as Nature
+intended, and plucks for himself, with fingers rosy and fragrant. I
+plucked of them, as far as I could reach on either side of me, and
+then lay drowsily reposing on my couch at the summit of the Cascade
+Pass, under the shade of a fir, which, outstanding from the forest,
+had changed its columnar structure into a pyramidal, and had branches
+all along its stalwart trunk, instead of a mere tuft at the top.
+
+In this shade I should have known the tree which gave it, without
+looking up,--not because the sharp little spicular leaves of the fir,
+miniatures of that sword Rome used to open the world, its oyster,
+would drop and plunge themselves into my eyes, or would insert their
+blades down my back and scarify,--but because there is an influence
+and sentiment in umbrages, and under every tree its own atmosphere.
+Elms refine and have a graceful elegiac effect upon those they
+shelter. Oaks drop robustness. Mimosas will presently make a
+sensitive-plant of him who hangs his hammock beneath their shade.
+Cocoa-palms will infect him with such tropical indolence, that he will
+not stir until frowzy monkeys climb the tree and pelt him away to the
+next one. The shade of pine-trees, as any one can prove by a journey
+in Maine, makes those who undergo it wiry, keen, trenchant,
+inexhaustible, and tough.
+
+When I had felt the influence of my fir shelter, on the edge of the
+wayside prairie, long enough, I became of course keen as a blade. I
+sprang up and called to Loolowcan, in a resinous voice, "Mamook chaco
+cuitan; make come horse."
+
+Loolowcan, in more genial mood than I had known him, drove the trio
+out from the long grass. They came forth not with backward hankerings,
+but far happier quadrupeds than when they climbed the pass at noon. It
+was a pleasure now to compress with the knees Klale, transformed from
+an empty barrel with protuberant hoops, into a full elastic cylinder,
+smooth as the boiler of a locomotive.
+
+"Loolowcan, my lad, my experienced guide, cur nesika moosum; where
+sleep we?" said I.
+
+"Copa Sowee house,--kicuali. Sowee, olyman tyee,--memloose. Sia-a-ah
+mitlite;--At Sowee's camp--below. Sowee, oldman chief,--dead. It is
+far, far away," replied the son of Owhhigh.
+
+Far is near, distance is annihilated this brilliant day of summer, for
+us recreated with Hippocrene, strawberries, shade of fir and tall
+snow-fed grass. Down the mountain range seems nothing after our long
+laborious up; "the half is more than the whole." "Lead on, Loolowcan,
+intelligent brave, toward the residence of the late Sowee."
+
+More fair prairies linked themselves along the trail. From these
+alpine pastures the future will draw butter and cheese, pasturing
+migratory cattle there, when summer dries the scanty grass upon the
+macadamized prairies of Whulge. It is well to remind ourselves
+sometimes that the world is not wholly squatted over. The plateau soon
+began to ebb toward the downward slope. Descent was like ascent, a way
+shaggy and abrupt. Again the Boston hooihut intruded. My friends the
+woodsmen had constructed an elaborate inclined plane of very knobby
+corduroy. Klale sniffed at this novel road, and turned up his nose at
+it. He was competent to protect that feature against all the perils of
+stumble and fall on the trails he had been educated to travel, but
+dreaded grinding it on the rough bark of this unaccustomed highway.
+Slow-footed oxen, leaning inward and sustaining each other, like two
+roysterers unsteady after wassail, might clumsily toil up such a road
+as this, hauling up stout, white-cotton-roofed wagons, filled with the
+babies and Lares of emigrants; but quick-footed ponies, descending and
+carrying light loads of a wild Indian and an untamed blanketeer, chose
+rather to whisk along the aboriginal paths.
+
+As we came to the irregular terraces after the first pitch, and
+scampered on gayly, I by and by heard a welcome whiz, and a dusky
+grouse (_Tetrao obscurus_) lifted himself out of the trail into the
+lower branches of a giant fir. I had lugged my double-barrel thus far,
+a futile burden, unless when it served a minatory purpose among the
+drunken Klalams. Now it became an animated machine, and uttered a
+sharp exclamation of relief after long patient silence. Down came
+tetrao,--down he came with satisfactory thud, signifying pounds of
+something not pork for supper. We bagged him joyously and dashed on.
+
+"Kopet," whispered Loolowcan turning, with a hushing gesture, "hiu
+kullakullie nika nanitch;--halt, plenty birds I see." He was so eager
+that from under his low brows and unkempt hair his dusky eyes glared
+like the eyes of wild beast, studying his prey from a shadowy lair.
+
+Dismounting, I stole forward with assassin intent, and birds, grouse,
+five noble ones I saw, engaged in fattening their bodies for human
+solace and support. I sent a shot among them. There was a flutter
+among the choir,--one fluttered not. At the sound of my right barrel
+one bird fell without rising; another rose and fell at a hint from the
+sinister tube. The surviving trio were distracted by mortal terror.
+They flew no farther than a dwarf tree hard by. I drew my revolver,
+thinking that there might not be time to load, and fired in a hurry at
+the lowermost.
+
+"Hyas tamanoüs!" whispered Loolowcan, when no bird fell or flew,--"big
+magic," it seemed to the superstitious youth. Often when sportsmen
+miss, they claim that their gun is bewitched, and avail themselves of
+the sure silver bullet.
+
+A second ball, passing with keener aim through the barrel, attained
+its mark. Grouse third shook off his mortal remains, and sped to
+heaven. The two others, contrary to rule, for I had shot the lower,
+fled, cowardly carrying their heavy bodies to die of cold, starvation,
+or old age. "The good die first,"--ay, Wordsworth! among birds this is
+verity; for the good are the fat, who, because of their avoirdupois,
+lag in flight, or alight upon lower branches and are easiest shot.
+
+Loolowcan bagged my three trophies and added them to the first.
+Henceforth the thought of a grouse supper became a fixed idea with me.
+I dwelt upon it with even a morbid appetite. I rehearsed, in prophetic
+mood, the scene of plucking, the scene of roasting, that happy festal
+scene of eating. So immersed did I become in gastronomic revery, that
+I did not mind my lookout, as I dashed after Loolowcan, fearless and
+agile cavalier. A thrust awoke me to a sense of passing objects, a
+very fierce, lance-like thrust, full at my life. A wrecking snag of
+harsh dead wood, that projected up in the trail, struck me, and tore
+me half off my horse, leaving me jerked, scratched, disjointed, and
+shuddering. Pachydermatous leggins of buckskin, at cost of their own
+unity, had saved me from impalement. Some such warning is always
+preparing for the careless.
+
+I soon had an opportunity to propitiate Nemesis by a humane action. A
+monstrous trunk lay across the trail. Loolowcan, reckless
+steeplechaser, put his horse at it, full speed. Gubbins, instead of
+going over neatly, or scrambling over cat-like, reared rampant and
+shied back, volte face. I rode forward to see what fresh interference
+of Tamanoüs was here,--nothing tamanoüs but an unexpected sorry
+object of a horse. A wretched castaway, probably abandoned by the
+exploring party, or astray from them, essaying to leap the tree, had
+fallen back beneath the trunk and branches, and lay there entangled
+and perfectly helpless. We struggled to release him. In vain. At last
+a thought struck me. We seized the poor beast by his tail, fortunately
+a tenacious member, and, heaving vigorously, towed him out of prison.
+
+He tottered forlornly to his feet, looking about him like one risen
+from the dead. "How now, Caudal?" said I, baptizing him by the name of
+the part that saved his life; "canst thou follow toward fodder?" He
+debated the question with himself awhile. Solitary confinement of
+indefinite length, in a cramped posture, had given the poor skeleton
+time to consider that safety from starvation is worth one effort more.
+He found that there was still a modicum of life and its energy within
+his baggy hide. My horses seemed to impart to him some of their
+electricity, and he staggered on droopingly. Lucky Caudal, if life is
+worth having, that on that day, of all days, I should have arrived to
+rescue him. Strange deliverances for body and soul come to the dying.
+Fate sends unlooked-for succor, when horses or men despair.
+
+Luckily for Caudal, the weak-kneed and utterly dejected, Sowee's
+prairie was near,--near was the prairie of Sowee, mighty hunter of
+deer and elk, terror of bears. There at weird night Sowee's ghost was
+often seen to stalk. Dyspeptics from feather-beds behold ghosts, and
+are terrified, but nightwalkers are but bugbears to men who have
+ridden from dawn to dusk of a long summer's day over an Indian trail
+in the mountains. I felt no fear that any incubus in the shape of a
+brassy-hued Indian chief would sit upon my breast that night, and
+murder wholesome sleep.
+
+Nightfall was tumbling down from the zenith before we reached camp.
+The sweet glimmers of twilight were ousted from the forest, sternly
+as mercy is thrust from a darkening heart. Night is really only
+beautiful so far as it is not night,--that is, for its stars, which
+are sources of resolute daylight in other spheres, and for its moon,
+which is daylight's memory, realized, softened, and refined.
+
+Night, however, had not drawn the pall of brief death over the world
+so thick but that I could see enough to respect the taste of the late
+Sowee. When he voted himself this farm, and became seized of it in the
+days of unwritten agrarian laws, and before patents were in vogue, he
+proved his intelligent right to suffrage and seizure. Here in
+admirable quality were the three first requisites of a home in the
+wilderness, water, wood, and grass. A musical rustle, as we galloped
+through, proved the long grass. All around was the unshorn forest.
+There were columnar firs making the Sowee house a hypæthral temple on
+a grand scale.
+
+There had been here a lodge. A few saplings of its framework still
+stood, but Sowee had moved elsewhere not long ago. Wake siah
+memloose,--not long dead was the builder, and viator might camp here
+unquestioned.
+
+Caudal had followed us in an inane, irresponsible way. Patiently now
+he stood, apparently waiting for farther commands from his preservers.
+We unpacked and unsaddled the other animals. They knew their business,
+namely, to bolt instantly for their pasture. Then a busy uproar of
+nipping and crunching was heard. Poor Caudal would not take the hint.
+We were obliged to drive that bony estray with blows out to the
+supper-field, where he stood aghast at the appetites of his new
+comrades. Repose and good example, however, soon had their effect, and
+eight equine jaws instead of six made play in the herbage.
+
+"Alki mika mamook pire, pe nesika klatawah copa klap tsuk; now light
+thou a fire, and we will go find water," said Loolowcan. I struck
+fire,--fire smote tinder,--tinder sent the flame on, until a pyre from
+the world's free wood-pile was kindled. This boon of fire,--what wonder
+that men devised a Prometheus greatest of demigods as its discoverer?
+Mortals, shrinking from the responsibility of a high destiny and
+dreading to know how divine the Divine would have them, always imagine
+an avatar of some one not lower than a half-god when a gift of great
+price comes to the world. And fire is a very priceless and beautiful
+boon,--not, as most know it, in imprisonment, barred with iron, or in
+sooty chimneys, or in mad revolt of conflagration,--but as it grows in
+a flashing pyramid out in camp in the free woods, with eager air
+hurrying in on every side to feed its glory. In the gloom I strike
+metal of steel against metallic flint. From this union a child is born.
+I receive the young spark tenderly in warm "tipsoo," in a soft woolly
+nest of bark or grass tinder. Swaddled in this he thrives. He smiles;
+he chuckles; he laughs; he dances about, does my agile nursling. He
+will soon wear out his first infantile garb, so I cover him up in
+shelter. I feed him with digestible viands, according to his years. I
+give him presently stouter fare, and offer exhilarating morsels of
+fatness. All these the hearty youth assimilates, and grows healthily.
+And now I educate him to manliness, training him on great joints,
+shoulders, and marrowy portions. He becomes erelong a power and a
+friend able to requite me generously for my care. He aids me in
+preparing my feast, and we feast together. Afterward we talk,--Flame
+and I,--we think together strong and passionate thoughts of purpose and
+achievement. These emotions of manhood die away, and we share pensive
+memories of happiness missed, or disdained, or feebly grasped and torn
+away; regrets cover these like embers, and slowly over dead fieriness
+comes a robe of ashy gray.
+
+Fire in the forest is light, heat, and cheer. When ours was nurtured
+to the self-sustaining point, we searched to find where the sage Sowee
+kept his potables. Carefully covered up in sedges was a slender supply
+of water, worth concealing from vulgar dabblers. Its diamond drops
+were hidden away so thoroughly that we must mine for them by
+torchlight. I held a flaring torch, while Loolowcan lay in wait for
+the trickle, and captured it in a tin pot. How wild he looked, that
+youth so frowzy by daylight, as, stooping under the tall sedges, he
+clutched those priceless sparkles.
+
+Upon the _carte du jour_ at Restaurant Sowee was written Grouse. "How
+shall we have them?" said I, cook and convive, to Loolowcan, marmiton
+and convive. "One of these cocks of the mountain shall be fried, since
+gridiron is not," said I to myself, after meditation. "Two shall be
+spitted, and roasted; and, as Azrael may not want us before breakfast
+to-morrow, the fourth shall go on the _carte de dejeuner_."
+
+"O Pork! what a creature thou art!" continued I, in monologue, cutting
+neat slices of that viand with my bowie-knife, and laying them
+fraternally, three in a bed, in the frying-pan. "Blessed be Moses! who
+forbade thee to the Jews, whereby we, of freer dispensations, heirs of
+all the ages, inherit also pigs more numerous and bacon cheaper. O
+Pork! what could campaigners do without thy fatness, thy leanness, thy
+saltness, thy portableness?"
+
+Here Loolowcan presented me the three birds plucked featherless as
+Plato's man. The two roasters we planted carefully on spits before a
+sultry spot of the fire. From a horizontal stick, supported on forked
+stakes, we suspended by a twig over each roaster an automatic baster,
+an inverted cone of pork, ordained to yield its spicy juices to the
+wooing flame, and drip bedewing on each bosom beneath. The roasters
+ripened deliberately, while keen and quick fire told upon the fryer,
+the first course of our feast. Meanwhile I brewed a pot of tea,
+blessing Confucius for that restorative weed, as I had blessed Moses
+for his abstinence from porkers.
+
+Need I say that the grouse was admirable, that everything was
+delicious, and the Confucian weed first chop? Even a scouse of mouldy
+biscuit met the approval of Loolowcan. Feasts cooked under the
+greenwood tree, and eaten by their cooks after a triumphant day of
+progress, are sweeter than the conventional banquets of languid
+Christendom. After we had paid our duty to the brisk fryer and the
+rotund roaster grouse, nothing remained but bones to propitiate Sowee,
+should he find short commons in Elysium, and wander back to his lodge,
+seeking what he might devour.
+
+All along the journey I had been quietly probing the nature of
+Loolowcan, my most intimate associate thus far among the unalloyed
+copper-skins. Chinook jargon was indeed but a blunt probe, yet perhaps
+delicate enough to follow up such rough bits of conglomerate as served
+him for ideas. An inductive philosopher, tracing the laws of
+developing human thought _in corpore viti_ of a frowzy savage, finds
+his work simple,--the nuggets are on the surface. Those tough pebbles
+known to some metaphysicians as innate ideas, can be studied in
+Loolowcan in their process of formation out of instincts.
+
+Number one is the prize number in Loolowcan's lottery of life. He
+thinks of that number; he dreams of it alone. When he lies down to
+sleep, he plots what he will do in the morning with his prize and his
+possession; when he wakes, he at once proceeds to execute his plots.
+Loolowcan knows that there are powers out of himself; rights out of
+himself he does not comprehend, or even conceive. I have thus far been
+very indulgent to him, and treated him republicanly, mindful of the
+heavy mesne profits for the occupation of a continent, and the
+uncounted arrears of blood-money owed by my race to his; yet I find
+no trace of gratitude in my analysis of his character. He seems to be
+composed, selfishness, five hundred parts;--_nil admirari_ coolness,
+five hundred parts;--a well-balanced character, and perhaps one not
+likely to excite enthusiasm in others. I am a steward to him; I purvey
+him also a horse; when we reach the Dalles, I am to pay him for his
+services;--but he is bound to me by no tie of comradery. He has
+caution more highly developed than any quadruped I have met, and will
+not offend me lest I should resign my stewardship, retract Gubbins,
+refuse payment, discharge my guide, and fight through the woods, where
+he sees I am no stranger, alone. He certainly merits a "teapot" for
+his ability in guidance. He has memory and observation unerring; not
+once in all our intricate journey have I found him at fault in any
+fact of space or time. He knows "each lane and every ally green" here,
+accurately as Comus knew his "wild wood."
+
+Moral conceptions exist only in a very limited degree for this type of
+his race. Of God he knows somewhat less than the theologians; that is,
+he is in the primary condition of uninquisitive ignorance, not in the
+secondary, of inquisitive muddle. He has the advantage of no elaborate
+system of human inventions to unlearn. He has no distinct fetichism.
+None of the North American Indians have, in the accurate sense of the
+term; their nomad life and tough struggle with instructive Nature in
+her roughness save them from such elaborate fetichism as may exist in
+more indolent climes and countries.
+
+Loolowcan has his tamanoüs. It is Talipus, the Wolf, a "hyas skookoom
+tamanoüs, a very mighty demon," he informs me. He does not worship it;
+that would interfere with his devotions to his real deity, Number One.
+It, in return, does him little service. If he met Talipus, object of
+his superstition, on a fair morning, he would think it a good omen;
+if on a sulky morning, he might be somewhat depressed, but would not
+on that account turn back, as a Roman brave would have done on meeting
+the matinal wolf. In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanoüs, as a kind
+of ideal hobby, very much as a savage civilized man entertains a pet
+bulldog or a tame bear, a link between himself and the rude, dangerous
+forces of nature. Loolowcan has either chosen his protector according
+to the law of likeness, or, choosing it by chance, has become
+assimilated to its characteristics. A wolfish youth is the _protégé_
+of Talipus,--an unfaithful, sinister, cannibal-looking son of a
+horse-thief. Wolfish likewise is his appetite; when he asks me for
+more dinner, and this without stint or decorum he does, he glares as
+if, grouse failing, pork and hard-tack gone, he could call to Talipus
+to send in a pack of wolves incarnate, and pounce with them upon me. A
+pleasant companion this for lamb-like me to lie down beside in the den
+of the late Sowee. Yet I do presently, after supper and a pipe, and a
+little jargoning in Chinook with my Wolf, roll into my blankets, and
+sleep vigorously, lulled by the gratifying noise of my graminivorous
+horses cramming themselves with material for leagues of lope
+to-morrow.
+
+No shade of Sowee came to my slumbers with warning against the wolf in
+guise of a Klickatat brave. I had no ghostly incubus to shake off, but
+sprang up recreate in body and soul. Life is vivid when it thus
+awakes. To be is to do.
+
+And to-day much is to be done. Long leagues away, beyond a gorge of
+difficulty, is the open rolling hill country, and again far beyond are
+the lodges of the people of Owhhigh. "To-day," said Loolowcan, "we
+must go copa nika ilihee, to my home, to Weenas."
+
+Forlorn Caudal is hardly yet a frisky quadruped. Yet he is of better
+cheer, perhaps up to the family-nag degree of vivacity. As to the
+others, they have waxed fat, and kick. Klale, the Humorous, kicks
+playfully, elongating in preparatory gymnastics. Gubbins, the average
+horse, kicks calmly at his saddler, merely as a protest. Antipodes,
+the spiteful Blunderer, kicks in a revolutionary manner, rolls under
+his pack-saddle, and will not budge without maltreatment. Ill-educated
+Antipodes views mankind only as excoriators of his back, and general
+flagellants. Klickitats kept him raw in flesh and temper; under me his
+physical condition improves; his character is not yet affected.
+
+Before sunrise we quitted the house of Sowee.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Captain William Henry McNeill and Alexander Caulfield Anderson,
+Hudson's Bay Company men, then at Nisqually House. Captain McNeill was
+master of the famous old steamer _Beaver_. Mr. Anderson was in charge
+of Nisqually House. Both men were honored by having their names given
+to islands in Puget Sound.
+
+[2] Pierre Charles, French Canadian, had been an employee of the
+Hudson's Bay Company.
+
+[3] Simon Plomondon was an employee of the Hudson's Bay Company, who
+retired and settled in the Cowlitz Valley.
+
+[4] Probably the Stone Creek of present usage.
+
+[5] Carbon River.
+
+[6] Meaning up the Carbon River and its branch called South Prairie
+Creek.
+
+[7] Chehalis River.
+
+[8] White River.
+
+[9] White River.
+
+[10] Lieutenant Richard Arnold, in Pacific Railway Reports, Volume
+XII, Part I, page 191, says: "Near the junction of Whitewater and
+Green rivers there is a remarkable peak called La Tête, from a large
+rock on its slope resembling the head and neck of a man. This is an
+important point, as it forms the gate of the mountains on the west."
+Modern maps shift the "water" part of the names. They are now White
+and Greenwater rivers.
+
+[11] White and Greenwater rivers.
+
+[12] This is an error and should read 121° 25' W. as Naches Pass is
+known to be 121° 21' and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie" was a
+little west of the Pass.
+
+[13] Greenwater branch of White River.
+
+[14] Naches River.
+
+[15] Wenatchee River.
+
+[16] Mount Adams. The two peaks were frequently confused in early
+writings.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL AUGUST VALENTINE KAUTZ.
+  United States Army.]
+
+V. FIRST ATTEMPTED ASCENT, 1857
+
+BY LIEUTENANT A. V. KAUTZ, U.S.A.
+
+
+     August Valentine Kautz was born at Ispringen, Baden, Germany,
+     on January 5, 1828. In that same year his parents came to
+     America. On attaining manhood the son entered the army and
+     served as a private soldier in the Mexican War. At its
+     conclusion he was appointed to the Military Academy at West
+     Point. Graduating in 1852, he was assigned to the Fourth
+     Infantry and soon found himself in the Pacific Northwest.
+     After going through the Indian wars here he achieved a
+     brilliant record in the Civil War. Continuing in the army, he
+     reached the rank of brigadier-general and was for a time in
+     command of the Department of the Columbia. He died at Seattle
+     on September 4, 1895.
+
+     It was while, as a lieutenant, he was stationed at Fort
+     Steilacoom that he attempted to ascend Mount Rainier. His
+     account of the trip was published in the Overland Monthly,
+     May, 1875. It is here republished by permission of the
+     editor. While the ascent was claimed to be complete the
+     climber says there was still higher land above him, and it is
+     now difficult to fix the exact altitude attained.
+
+     Professor I. C. Russell declares that Professor George
+     Davidson made a statement before the California Academy of
+     Sciences, on March 6, 1871, to the effect that when
+     Lieutenant Kautz "attempted the ascent of Mount Rainier in
+     1857" he found his way barred by a great glacier. From this,
+     says Professor Russell, it "seems that he first reported the
+     existence of living glaciers in the United States." (See:
+     Israel C. Russell: Glaciers of North America; Boston, Ginn &
+     Company, 1897, p. 62). The portrait of General Kautz was
+     furnished by his daughter, Mrs. Navana Kautz Simpson, of
+     Cincinnati, Ohio.
+
+In the summer of 1857 I was stationed at Fort Steilacoom, Washington
+Territory. This post was located near the village of Steilacoom, on
+the waters of Puget Sound. The post and the village took their names
+from a little stream near by, which is the outlet of a number of
+small lakes and ponds emptying into the sound. Quite a family of
+Indians made their permanent home in the vicinity of this creek in
+former years, and were known as "_Steilacoom Tillicum_." According to
+the Indian pronunciation of the name it should have been spelled
+"Steelacoom," dwelling long on the first syllable.
+
+I was at that time a first-lieutenant, young, and fond of visiting
+unexplored sections of the country, and possessed of a very prevailing
+passion for going to the tops of high places. My quarters fronted
+Mount Rainier, which is about sixty miles nearly east of Fort
+Steilacoom in an air line. On a clear day it does not look more than
+ten miles off, and looms up against the eastern sky white as the snow
+with which it is covered, with a perfectly pyramidal outline, except
+at the top, which is slightly rounded and broken. It is a grand and
+inspiring view, and I had expressed so often my determination to make
+the ascent, without doing it, that my fellow-officers finally became
+incredulous, and gave to all improbable and doubtful events a date of
+occurrence when I should ascend Mount Rainier.
+
+My resolution, however, took shape and form about the first of July.
+Nearly all the officers had been very free to volunteer to go with me
+as long as they felt certain I was not going; but when I was ready to
+go, I should have been compelled to go alone but for the doctor, who
+was on a visit to the post from Fort Bellingham.
+
+I made preparations after the best authorities I could find, from
+reading accounts of the ascent of Mont Blanc and other snow mountains.
+We made for each member of the party an _alpenstock_ of dry ash with
+an iron point. We sewed upon our shoes an extra sole, through which
+were first driven four-penny nails with the points broken off and the
+heads inside. We took with us a rope about fifty feet long, a hatchet,
+a thermometer, plenty of hard biscuit, and dried beef such as the
+Indians prepare.
+
+Information relating to the mountain was exceedingly meagre; no white
+man had ever been near it, and Indians were very superstitious and
+afraid of it. The southern slope seemed the least abrupt, and in that
+direction I proposed to reach the mountain; but whether to keep the
+high ground, or follow some stream to its source, was a question.
+Leshi, the chief of the Nesquallies, was at that time in the
+guard-house, awaiting his execution, and as I had greatly interested
+myself to save him from his fate, he volunteered the information that
+the valley of the Nesqually River was the best approach after getting
+above the falls. He had some hope that I would take him as a guide;
+but finding that out of the question he suggested Wah-pow-e-ty,[17] an
+old Indian of the Nesqually tribe, as knowing more about the Nesqually
+than any other of his people.
+
+Mount Rainier is situated on the western side of the Cascade Range,
+near the forty-seventh parallel. The range to which it belongs
+averages about 7,000 to 8,000 feet in height, and snow may be seen
+along its summit-level the year round, while Rainier, with its immense
+covering of snow, towers as high again above the range. In various
+travels and expeditions in the territory, I had viewed the snow-peaks
+of this range from all points of the compass, and since that time
+having visited the mountain regions of Europe, and most of those of
+North America, I assert that Washington Territory contains mountain
+scenery in quantity and quality sufficient to make half a dozen
+Switzerlands, while there is on the continent none more grand and
+imposing than is presented in the Cascade Range north of the Columbia
+River.
+
+About noon on the 8th of July [1857] we finally started. The party
+consisted of four soldiers--two of them equipped to ascend the
+mountain, and the other two to take care of our horses when we should
+be compelled to leave them. We started the soldiers on the direct
+route, with orders to stop at Mr. Wren's, on the eastern limit of the
+Nesqually plains, ten or twelve miles distant, and wait for us, while
+the doctor and I went by the Nesqually Reservation in order to pick up
+old Wah-pow-e-ty, the Indian guide.
+
+We remained all night at Wren's, and the next morning entered that
+immense belt of timber with which the western slope of the Cascade
+Range is covered throughout its entire length. I had become familiar
+with the Indian trail that we followed, the year previous, in our
+pursuit of Indians. The little patches of prairie are so rare that
+they constitute in that immense forest landmarks for the guidance of
+the traveler. Six miles from Wren's we came to Pawhtummi, a little
+_camas_ prairie about 500 yards long, and 100 in breadth, a resort for
+the Indians in the proper season to gather the _camas_-root. Six miles
+farther we came to a similar prairie, circular in form, not more than
+400 yards in diameter, called Koaptil. Another six or seven miles took
+us to the Tanwut, a small stream with a patch of prairie bordering it,
+where the trail crossed. Ten or twelve miles more brought us to the
+Mishawl Prairie, where we camped for the night, this being the end of
+the journey for our horses, and the limit of our knowledge of the
+country.
+
+This prairie takes its name from the stream near by, and is situated
+between it and the Owhap on a high table-land or bluff, not more than
+one or two miles from where these enter the Nesqually. It is perhaps
+half a mile long, and 200 or 300 yards wide at the widest point. The
+grass was abundant, and it was an excellent place to leave our horses.
+Fifteen months before, I had visited this spot, and camped near by
+with a small detachment of troops, searching for Indians who had
+hidden away in these forests, completely demoralized and nearly
+starving. A family of two or three men, and quite a number of women
+and children, had camped in the fork of the Mishawl and Nesqually,
+about two miles from this prairie, and were making fishtraps to catch
+salmon. When we fell in with them we learned that the Washington
+Territory volunteers had been before us, and with their immensely
+superior force had killed the most of them without regard to age or
+sex. Our own little command in that expedition captured about thirty
+of these poor, half-starved, ignorant creatures, and no act of
+barbarity was perpetrated by us to mar the memory of that success.
+
+We accordingly camped in the Mishawl Prairie. When I was here before
+it was in March, and the rainy season was still prevailing; the
+topographical engineer of the expedition and I slept under the same
+blankets on a wet drizzly night, and next morning treated each other
+to bitter reproaches for having each had more than his share of the
+covering. Now the weather was clear and beautiful, and the scene
+lovely in comparison. I can imagine nothing more gloomy and cheerless
+than a fir-forest in Washington Territory on a rainy winter day. The
+misty clouds hang down below the tops of the tallest trees, and
+although it does not rain, but drizzles, yet it is very wet and cold,
+and penetrates every thread of clothing to the skin. The summers of
+this region are in extraordinary contrast with the winters. Clear,
+beautiful, and dry, they begin in May and last till November; while in
+the winter, although in latitude 47° and 48°, it rarely freezes or
+snows--often, however, raining two weeks without stopping a permeating
+drizzle.
+
+On this 9th of July, 1857, the weather was beautiful; it had not
+rained for weeks. The Mishawl--a raging mountain torrent, when last I
+saw it--was now a sluggish rivulet of clear mountain-spring water. We
+started early on our journey, having made our preparations the
+evening before. We calculated to be gone about six days. Each member
+of the party had to carry his own provisions and bedding; everything
+was therefore reduced to the minimum. Each took a blanket, twenty-four
+crackers of hard bread, and about two pounds of dried beef. We took
+Dogue (a German) and Carroll (an Irishman) with us; they were both
+volunteers for the trip; one carried the hatchet and the other the
+rope. I carried a field-glass, thermometer, and a large-sized
+revolver. Wah-pow-e-ty carried his rifle, with which we hoped to
+procure some game. The soldiers carried no arms. Bell and Doneheh were
+left behind to take care of the horses and extra provisions, until our
+return.
+
+We each had a haversack for our provisions, and a tin canteen for
+water. The doctor very unwisely filled his with whisky instead of
+water. Having sounded Wah-pow-e-ty as to the route, we learned he had
+once been on the upper Nesqually when a boy, with his father, and that
+his knowledge of the country was very limited. We ascertained,
+however, that we could not follow the Nesqually at first; that there
+was a fall in the river a short distance above the mouth of the
+Mishawl, and that the mountains came down so abrupt and precipitous
+that we could not follow the stream, and that the mountain must be
+crossed first and a descent made to the river above the fall.
+
+That mountain proved a severer task than we anticipated. There was no
+path and no open country--only a dense forest, obstructed with
+undergrowth and fallen timber. The sun was very hot when it could
+reach us through the foliage; not a breath of air stirred, and after
+we crossed the Mishawl, not a drop of water was to be had until we got
+down to low ground again. We toiled from early morning until three
+o'clock in the afternoon before we reached the summit. As the doctor
+had taken whisky instead of water in his canteen, he found it
+necessary to apply to the other members of the party to quench his
+thirst, and our canteens were speedily empty. The doctor sought relief
+in whisky, but it only aggravated his thirst, and he poured out the
+contents of his canteen. The severe exertion required for the ascent
+brought on painful cramps in his legs, and at one time, about the
+middle of the day, I concluded that we should be obliged to leave him
+to find his way back to camp while we went on without him; but he made
+an agreement with Wah-pow-e-ty to carry his pack for him in addition
+to his own, for ten dollars, and the doctor was thus enabled to go on.
+Here was an illustration of the advantage of training. The doctor was
+large, raw-boned, and at least six feet high, looking as if he could
+have crushed with a single blow the insignificant old Indian, who was
+not much over five feet, and did not weigh more than half as much as
+the doctor; but, inured to this kind of toil, he carried double the
+load that any of the party did, while the doctor, who was habituated
+to a sedentary life, had all he could do, carrying no load whatever,
+to keep up with the Indian.
+
+Early in the afternoon we reached the summit of the first ascent,
+where we enjoyed, in addition to a good rest, a magnificent view of
+the Puget Sound Valley, with Mount Olympus and the Coast Range for a
+background. Here on this summit, too, munching our biscuit of hard
+bread and our dried beef, we enjoyed a refreshing breeze as we looked
+down on the beautiful plains of the Nesqually, with its numerous clear
+and beautiful little lakes. There was nothing definite except
+forest--of which there was a great excess--lakes, and plains of
+limited area, the sound, and a great background of mountains. No
+habitations, farms, or villages were to be seen; not a sign of
+civilization or human life.
+
+After a good rest we pushed on, taking an easterly course, and
+keeping, or trying to keep, on the spur of the mountain; the forest
+was so thick, however, that this was next to an impossibility. We were
+not loth to go down into ravines in the hope of finding some water,
+for we needed it greatly. It was a long time, and we met with many
+disappointments, before we could find enough to quench our thirst. Our
+progress was exceedingly slow on account of the undergrowth. At
+sundown we camped in the grand old forest, the location being chosen
+on account of some water in a partially dry ravine. The distance
+passed over from Mishawl Prairie we estimated at about ten or eleven
+miles. On good roads thirty miles would have wearied us much less.
+
+We started early the next morning, and for a time tried to keep the
+high ground, but found it so difficult that we finally turned down to
+the right, and came upon the Nesqually River about the middle of the
+afternoon. There was no material difference in the undergrowth, but
+there was an advantage gained in having plenty of water to quench our
+thirst. We made about ten miles this day, and camped about sundown.
+There seemed nothing but forest before us; dark, gloomy forest,
+remarkable for large trees, and its terrible solitude. But few living
+things were to be seen. The Nesqually is a very wide muddy torrent,
+fordable in places where the stream is much divided by islands.
+
+We already here began to suffer from the loss of appetite, which was
+to us such a difficulty throughout the entire trip. Even the four
+crackers and two ounces of dried beef, which was our daily limit, we
+found ourselves unable to master, and yet so much was necessary to
+keep up our strength. I have never been able to settle in my mind
+whether this was due to the sameness of the food or the great fatigue
+we underwent.
+
+The third morning we made an early start, and followed up the stream
+in almost a due east direction all day until about five o'clock, when
+the doctor broke down, having been unable to eat anything during the
+day. With considerable cramming I managed to dispose of the most of my
+rations. We kept the north side of the river, and had no streams to
+cross; in fact, there did not appear to be any streams on either side
+putting into the river. The valley seemed several miles in width,
+densely timbered, and the undergrowth a complete thicket. Not more
+than ten miles were made by us. Just before we stopped for the night,
+we passed through a patch of dead timber of perhaps 100 acres, with an
+abundance of blackberries. Opposite our camp, on the south side of the
+river, there was the appearance of quite a tributary coming in from
+the southeast.
+
+We did not get started until about eleven o'clock on the fourth
+morning. After cutting up a deer which Wah-pow-e-ty brought in early
+in the morning, we dried quite a quantity of it by the fire. As we
+anticipated, it proved of much assistance, for we already saw that six
+days would be a very short time in which to make the trip. By night we
+reached a muddy tributary coming in from the north, and evidently
+having its source in the melting snows of Rainier. The summit of the
+mountain was visible from our camp, and seemed close at hand; but
+night set in with promise of bad weather. The valley had become quite
+narrow. Our camp was at the foot of a mountain spur several thousand
+feet high, and the river close at hand. The gloomy forest, the wild
+mountain scenery, the roaring of the river, and the dark overhanging
+clouds, with the peculiar melancholy sighing which the wind makes
+through a fir forest, gave to our camp at this point an awful
+grandeur.
+
+On the fifth morning the clouds were so threatening, and came down so
+low on the surrounding mountains, that we were at a loss what course
+to pursue--whether to follow up the main stream or the tributary at
+our camp, which evidently came from the nearest snow. We finally
+followed the main stream, which very soon turned in toward the
+mountain, the valley growing narrower, the torrent more and more
+rapid, and our progress slower and slower, especially when we were
+compelled to take to the timber. We often crossed the torrent, of
+which the water was intensely cold, in order to avoid the obstructions
+of the forest. Sometimes, however, the stream was impassable, and then
+we often became so entangled in the thickets as almost to despair of
+farther advance. Early in the evening we reached the foot of an
+immense glacier and camped. For several miles before camping the bed
+of the stream was paved with white granite bowlders, and the mountain
+gorge became narrower and narrower. The walls were in many places
+perpendicular precipices, thousands of feet high, their summits hid in
+the clouds. Vast piles of snow were to be seen along the stream--the
+remains of avalanches--for earth, trees, and rocks were intermingled
+with the snow.
+
+As it was near night we camped, thinking it best to begin the ascent
+in the early morning; besides, the weather promised to become worse.
+The foliage of the pine-trees here was very dense, and on such a
+cloudy day it was dark as night in the forest. The limbs of the trees
+drooped upon the ground, a disposition evidently given to them by the
+snow, which must be late in disappearing in this region.
+
+We followed thus far the main branch of the Nesqually, and here it
+emerged from an icy cavern at the foot of an immense glacier. The ice
+itself was of a dark-blue tinge. The water was white, and whenever I
+waded the torrent my shoes filled with gravel and sand. The walls of
+this immense mountain gorge were white granite, and, just where the
+glacier terminated, the immense vein of granite that was visible on
+both sides seemed to form a narrow throat to the great ravine, which
+is much wider both above and below. The water seems to derive its
+color from the disintegration of this granite.[18]
+
+We made our camp under a pine of dense foliage, whose limbs at the
+outer end drooped near the ground. We made our cup of tea, and found
+the water boil at 202° Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling rain,
+and a more solitary, gloomy picture than we presented at that camp it
+is impossible to conceive. Tired, hungry, dirty, clothes all in
+rags--the effects of our struggles with the brush--we were not the
+least happy; the solitude was oppressive. The entire party, except
+myself, dropped down and did not move unless obliged to. I went up to
+the foot of the glacier, and explored a little before night set in. I
+also tried to make a sketch of the view looking up the glacier; but I
+have never looked at it since without being forcibly reminded what a
+failure it is as a sketch.
+
+On the morning of the sixth day we set out again up the glacier. A
+drizzling rain prevailed through the night, and continued this
+morning. We had a little trouble in getting upon the glacier, as it
+terminated everywhere in steep faces that were very difficult to
+climb. Once up, we did not meet with any obstructions or interruptions
+for several hours, although the slippery surface of the glacier, which
+formed inclined planes of about twenty degrees, made it very fatiguing
+with our packs. About noon the weather thickened; snow, sleet, and
+rain prevailed, and strong winds, blowing hither and thither, almost
+blinded us. The surface of the glacier, becoming steeper, began to be
+intersected by immense crevasses crossing our path, often compelling
+us to travel several hundred yards to gain a few feet. We finally
+resolved to find a camp. But getting off the glacier was no easy task.
+We found that the face of the lateral moraine was almost
+perpendicular, and composed of loose stones, sand, and gravel,
+furnishing a very uncertain foothold, besides being about fifty feet
+high. Wah-pow-e-ty and I finally succeeded in getting up, and with the
+aid of the rope we assisted our companions to do the same. When we
+reached the top we were a little surprised to find that we had to go
+down-hill again to reach the mountain side. Here a few stunted pines
+furnished us fuel and shelter, and we rested for the remainder of the
+day. I explored a little in the evening by ascending the ridge from
+the glacier, and discovered that it would be much the best route to
+pursue in ascending to the summit.
+
+When night set in, the solitude of our camp was very oppressive. We
+were near the limit of perpetual snow. The water for our tea we
+obtained from the melting of the ice near by. The atmosphere was very
+different from what it was below, and singularly clear when not
+obstructed by fog, rain, or snow. There were no familiar objects to
+enable one to estimate distance. When I caught a glimpse of the top of
+Rainier through the clouds, I felt certain that we could reach it in
+three hours. The only living things to be seen were some animals, with
+regard to which we still labor under an error. These little creatures
+would make their appearance on the side of the mountain in sight of
+our camp, and feed upon herbage that grew on the soil where the snow
+left it bare. The moment anyone stirred from camp, a sound between a
+whistle and scream would break unexpectedly and from some unknown
+quarter, and immediately all the animals that were in sight would
+vanish in the earth. Upon visiting the spot where they disappeared, we
+would find a burrow which was evidently the creatures' home.
+Everywhere round the entrance we found great numbers of tracks, such
+as a lamb or kid would make. The animals that we saw were about the
+size of kids, and grazed and moved about so much like them, that,
+taken in connection with the tracks we saw, we jumped at once to the
+conclusion that they were mountain sheep, of which we all had heard a
+great deal, but none of our party had ever seen any. My report of
+these animals, which was published in the _Washington Republican_ on
+our return, was severely ridiculed by some of the naturalists who were
+hunting for undescribed insects and animals in that country at the
+time. We are still at a loss to understand the habits of the
+creatures, and to reconcile the split hoofs which the tracks indicated
+with their burrow in the earth.[19]
+
+On the following morning--the seventh day from our camp on the
+Mishawl--the sky showed signs of clear weather, and we began the
+ascent of the main peak. Until about noon we were enveloped in clouds,
+and only occasionally did we get a glimpse of the peak. Soon after
+midday we reached suddenly a colder atmosphere, and found ourselves
+all at once above the clouds, which were spread out smooth and even as
+a sea, above which appeared the snowy peaks of St. Helens, Mount
+Adams, and Mount Hood, looking like pyramidal icebergs above an ocean.
+At first we could not see down through the clouds into the valleys.
+Above, the atmosphere was singularly clear, and the reflection of the
+sun upon the snow very powerful. The summit of Rainier seemed very
+close at hand.
+
+About two o'clock in the afternoon the clouds rolled away like a
+scroll; in a very short time they had disappeared, and the Cascade
+Range lay before us in all its greatness. The view was too grand and
+extensive to be taken in at once, or in the short time we had to
+observe. The entire scene, with few exceptions, was covered with
+forests, with here and there barren rocky peaks that rose up out of
+the ridges; now and then a mountain lake, much more blue than the sky,
+and the Nesqually, winding like a thread of silver through the dark
+forests. From the foot of the glacier for several miles the bed of the
+river was very white, from the granite bowlders that covered the bed
+of the stream. The water, too, was of a decidedly chalkier color near
+its source.
+
+We had no time, however, to study the beauties that lay before us. We
+had already discovered that there was no telling from appearances how
+far we had to go. The travel was very difficult; the surface of the
+snow was porous in some places, and at each step we sunk to our knees.
+Carroll and the Indian gave out early in the afternoon, and returned
+to camp. The doctor began to lag behind. Dogue stuck close to me.
+Between four and five o'clock we reached a very difficult point. It
+proved to be the crest of the mountain, where the comparatively smooth
+surface was much broken up, and inaccessible pinnacles of ice and deep
+crevasses interrupted our progress. It was not only difficult to go
+ahead, but exceedingly dangerous; a false step, or the loss of a
+foot-hold, would have been certain destruction. Dogue was evidently
+alarmed, for every time that I was unable to proceed, and turned back
+to find another passage, he would say, "_I guess, Lieutenant, we
+petter go pack._"
+
+Finally we reached what may be called the top, for although there were
+points higher yet,[20] the mountain spread out comparatively flat, and
+it was much easier to get along. The soldier threw himself down
+exhausted, and said he could go no farther. The doctor was not in
+sight. I went on to explore by myself, but I returned in a quarter of
+an hour without my hat, fully satisfied that nothing more could be
+done. It was after six o'clock, the air was very cold, and the wind
+blew fiercely, so that in a second my hat which it carried away was
+far beyond recovery. The ice was forming in my canteen, and to stay on
+the mountain at such a temperature was to freeze to death, for we
+brought no blankets with us, and we could not delay, as it would be
+impossible to return along the crest of the mountain after dark. When
+I returned to where I had left the soldier, I found the doctor there
+also, and after a short consultation we decided to return.
+
+Returning was far easier and more rapid than going. The snow was much
+harder and firmer, and we passed over in three hours, coming down,
+what required ten in going up. We were greatly fatigued by the day's
+toil, and the descent was not accomplished without an occasional rest
+of our weary limbs. In one place the snow was crusted over, and for a
+short distance the mountain was very steep, and required the skillful
+use of the stick to prevent our going much faster than we desired. The
+soldier lost his footing, and rolled helplessly to the foot of the
+declivity, thirty or forty yards distant, and his face bore the traces
+of the scratching for many a day after, as if he had been through a
+bramble-bush.
+
+We found the Indian and Carroll in the camp. The latter had a long
+story to tell of his wanderings to find camp, and both stated that the
+fatigue was too much for them. There was no complaint on the part of
+any of us about the rarity of the atmosphere. The doctor attributed to
+this cause the fact that he could not go but a few yards at a time,
+near the summit, without resting; but I am inclined to think this was
+due to our exhaustion. My breathing did not seem to be in the least
+affected.
+
+We were much disappointed not to have had more time to explore the
+summit of the mountain. We had, however, demonstrated the feasibility
+of making the ascent. Had we started at dawn of day we should have had
+plenty of time for the journey. From what I saw I should say the
+mountain top was a ridge perhaps two miles in length and nearly half a
+mile in width, with an angle about half-way, and depressions between
+the angle and each end of the ridge which give to the summit the
+appearance of three small peaks as seen from the east or west. When
+viewed from north or south, a rounded summit is all that can be seen;
+while viewed from positions between the cardinal points of the
+compass, the mountain generally has the appearance of two peaks.
+
+The night was very cold and clear after our return. We had some idea
+of making another ascent; but an investigation into the state of our
+provisions, together with the condition of the party generally,
+determined us to begin our return on the morning of the eighth day.
+The two soldiers had eaten all their bread but one cracker each. The
+doctor and I had enough left, so that by a redistribution we had four
+crackers each, with which to return over a space that had required
+seven days of travel coming. We, of course, expected to be a shorter
+time getting back; but let it be ever so short, our prospect for
+something to eat was proportionately much more limited. We had more
+meat than bread, thanks to the deer the Indian had killed, and we
+depended greatly on his killing more game for us going back: but this
+dependence, too, was cut off; the Indian was snow-blind, and needed
+our help to guide him. His groans disturbed us during the night, and
+what was our astonishment in the morning to find his eyelids closed
+with inflammation, and so swollen that he looked as if he had been in
+a free fight and got the worst of it. He could not have told a deer
+from a stump the length of his little old rifle.
+
+Our camp was about 1,000 or 1,500 feet below the last visible shrub;
+water boiled at 199°, and, according to an approximate scale we had
+with us, this indicated an elevation of 7,000 feet. We estimated the
+highest peak to be over 12,000 feet high. I greatly regretted not
+being able to get the boiling-point on the top, but it was impossible
+to have had a fire in such a wind as prevailed round the summit.
+
+As we returned we had more leisure to examine and clearer weather to
+see the glacier than we had coming up. There was no medial moraine;
+but an icy ridge parallel to the lateral moraines, and about midway
+between them, extending as far as we ascended the glacier. The lateral
+moraines were not continuous, but were interrupted by the walls of the
+spurs where they projected into the glacier; between these points the
+lateral moraines existed. The glacier sloped away from the ridge to
+the moraines, more or less sharply, and it was no easy matter to get
+off the ice, owing to the steepness of the moraine. The ice melted by
+reflection from the face of the moraine, and formed a difficult
+crevasse between it and the glacier. Bowlders of every shape and size
+were scattered over the face of the glacier. Large ones were propped
+up on pinnacles of ice; these were evidently too thick for the sun to
+heat through. The small bowlders were sunk more or less deeply, and
+surrounded by water in the hot sun; but they evidently froze fast
+again at night.
+
+The noise produced by the glacier was startling and strange. One might
+suppose the mountain was breaking loose, particularly at night.
+Although, so far as stillness was concerned, there was no difference
+between day and night, at night the noise seemed more terrible. It was
+a fearful crashing and grinding that was going on, where the granite
+was powdered that whitened the river below, and where the bowlders
+were polished and partially rounded.
+
+The great stillness and solitude were also very oppressive; no
+familiar sounds; nothing except the whistle of the animal before
+mentioned and the noise of the glacier's motion was to be heard, and
+if these had not occurred at intervals the solitude would have been
+still more oppressive. We were glad to get down again to the
+Nesqually, where we could hear its roar and see its rushing waters.
+The other members of the party were so tired and worn, however, that
+they seemed to observe but little, and as we were now on our homeward
+way, their thoughts were set only on our camp on the Mishawl, with its
+provisions and promise of rest.
+
+The first day we passed two of the camps we had made coming up, and
+reached a point where we remembered to have seen a great quantity of
+blackberries. It was quite dark by the time we reached the little spot
+of dead timber--which seems to be the favorite haunt of the creeping
+bramble in this country--and to gather our supper of berries we built
+a fire at the foot of a large dead tree. Speedily the flames were
+climbing to the top of the withered branches, and casting a cheerful
+light for a hundred yards round. But what we found very convenient for
+gathering berries proved to be a great annoyance when we wanted to
+sleep. During the night we were constantly moving our place of rest,
+at first on account of the falling embers, and finally for fear of the
+tree itself.
+
+Blackberries are refreshing so far as the palate is concerned; but
+they are not very nourishing. We took our breakfast on them, and
+continued down the Nesqually from six in the morning until six in the
+evening, traveling slowly because of the difficult undergrowth and our
+worn-out and exhausted condition. We passed another of our camps, and
+finally stopped at what evidently had been an Indian camp. The cedar
+bark, always to be found in such places, we anticipated would make a
+shelter for us in case of rain, which the clouds promised us.
+
+No rain fell, however, and we resumed our march, continuing down the
+river five or six miles farther than where we first struck it, to a
+point where the hills came close up and overhung the water. There we
+camped, expecting that an easy march on the morrow would enable us to
+reach our camp on the Mishawl. We ate our last morsel, and the next
+morning I was awakened by the conversation of the two soldiers. They
+were evidently discussing the subject of hunger, for the Irishman
+said: "I've often seen the squaws coming about the cook-house picking
+the pitaties out of the slop-barrel, an' I thought it was awful; but I
+giss I'd do it mesilf this mornin'."
+
+The morning of the eleventh day we left the Nesqually to cross over to
+the Mishawl, and traveled on the mountain all day, until we reached
+the stream at night completely exhausted. We should have stopped
+sooner than we did, but we were almost perishing with thirst, not
+having had any water since we left the Nesqually in the morning. What
+we took along in our canteens was exhausted in the early part of the
+day. We were not more than two miles from the camp in the prairie, and
+notwithstanding that we had had nothing to eat all day, except a few
+berries we had picked by the way, we were so exhausted that we lay
+down to sleep as soon as we had quenched our thirst.
+
+We started up-stream the next morning, thinking we had reached the
+Mishawl below our camp; but soon discovering our mistake, we turned
+down. At this point the Irishman's heart sunk within him, he was so
+exhausted. Thinking we were lost, he wanted to lie down in the stream
+and "drownd" himself. He was assured that we should soon be in camp,
+and we arrived there very soon after, before the men left in charge of
+the horses were up.
+
+Our first thought was of something to eat. I cautioned all about
+eating much at first; but from subsequent results am inclined to think
+my advice was not heeded. I contented myself with a half cracker, a
+little butter, and weak coffee; and an hour after, when I began to
+feel the beneficial effects of what I had eaten, I took a little more
+substantial meal, but refrained from eating heartily.
+
+After a short rest we caught our horses, and the doctor and I rode
+into Steilacoom, where we arrived after a hard ride late in the
+afternoon. As we approached the post, we met on the road a number of
+the inhabitants with whom we were well acquainted, and who did not
+recognize us. Nor were we surprised when we got a glimpse of our faces
+in a glass. Haggard and sunburnt, nearly every familiar feature had
+disappeared. Since the loss of my hat, my head-dress was the sleeve of
+a red flannel shirt, tied into a knot at the elbow, with the point at
+the arm-pit for a visor. Our clothes were in rags; one of the doctor's
+pantaloon-legs had entirely disappeared, and he had improvised a
+substitute out of a coffee-sack. In our generally dilapidated
+condition none of our acquaintances recognized us until we got to the
+post. We passed for Indians until we arrived there, where we were
+received by the officers with a shout at our ludicrous appearance.
+They were all sitting under the oak-trees in front of quarters,
+discussing what had probably become of us, and proposing means for our
+rescue, when we came up.
+
+I felt the effects of the trip for many days, and did not recover my
+natural condition for some weeks. The doctor and I went to the village
+next morning, where the people were startled at our emaciated
+appearance. We found that the doctor had lost twenty-one pounds in
+weight in fourteen days, and I had lost fourteen pounds in the same
+time. The doctor, while we were in the village, was taken with violent
+pains in his stomach, and returned to his post quite sick. He did not
+recover his health again for three months.
+
+The two soldiers went into the hospital immediately on their return,
+and I learned that for the remainder of their service they were in the
+hospital nearly all the time. Four or five years after, Carroll
+applied to me for a certificate on which to file an application for a
+pension, stating that he had not been well since his trip to the
+mountain. The Indian had an attack of gastritis, and barely escaped
+with his life after a protracted sickness. I attribute my own escape
+from a lingering illness to the precautions I took in eating when
+satisfying the first cravings of hunger, on our return to camp.
+
+We are not likely to have any competitors in this attempt to explore
+the summit of Mount Rainier. Packwood and McAllister, two citizens of
+Pierce County, Washington Territory, explored up the Nesqually, and
+crossed over to the head of the Cowlitz River, and thence by what was
+called Cowlitz Pass (since called Packwood Pass), to the east side of
+the mountains, searching for a trail to the mining regions of the
+upper Columbia. More recently, surveyors in the employ of the Pacific
+Railroad Company have been surveying through the same route for a
+railway passage.
+
+When the locomotive is heard in that region some day, when American
+enterprise has established an ice-cream saloon at the foot of the
+glacier, and sherry-cobblers may be had at twenty-five cents half-way
+up to the top of the mountain, attempts to ascend that magnificent
+snow-peak will be quite frequent. But many a long year will pass away
+before roads are sufficiently good to induce any one to do what we did
+in the summer of 1857.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] His name is honored in Wapowety Cleaver overlooking the Kautz
+Glacier.
+
+[18] I have no doubt that the south branch of the Nachess, which flows
+to the east into the Columbia, and that the Puyallup and White rivers,
+which flow west into Puget Sound, have similar sources in glaciers,
+from the fact that in July they are all of a similar character with
+the Nesqually, muddy, white torrents, at a time when little rain has
+fallen for months.--Kautz.
+
+[19] The burrow was made by the marmot and the split-hoof tracks in
+the loose earth were made by mountain goats.
+
+[20] He here gives evidence that he had not reached the summit.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS.]
+
+VI. FIRST SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870
+
+BY GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS
+
+
+     General Hazard Stevens was born at Newport, Rhode Island, on
+     June 9, 1842. His father was Major General Isaac I. Stevens,
+     and his mother, Margaret (Hazard) Stevens, was a
+     granddaughter of Colonel Daniel Lyman of the Revolution. In
+     1854 and 1855, while the son was only thirteen years of age,
+     he accompanied his father, then the first governor of
+     Washington Territory, on treaty-making expeditions among the
+     Indian tribes. Later he accompanied his father into the Union
+     Army as an officer on his father's staff. He was severely
+     wounded in the same battle where his father was killed while
+     leading the charge at Chantilly, September 1, 1862.
+
+     Hazard Stevens continued in the army, and at the end of the
+     war he was mustered out as a brigadier general of volunteers.
+     He then returned to Washington Territory and went to work to
+     support his mother and sisters. On August 17, 1870, he and P.
+     B. Van Trump made the first successful ascent of Mount
+     Rainier.
+
+     In 1874, he followed the other members of the family back to
+     Boston where he remained until his mother's death, a few
+     months ago. He then returned to Puget Sound, and is now a
+     successful farmer near Olympia.
+
+     His companion on the ascent, P. B. Van Trump, remained in
+     Washington. For a number of years he was a ranger at Indian
+     Henry's Hunting Ground in the Mount Rainier National Park.
+     There he was a quaint and attractive figure to all visitors.
+     In 1915, he returned East to live among kinsfolk in New York
+     State.
+
+     The names of both Stevens and Van Trump have been generously
+     bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and cañons within the
+     Mount Rainier National Park.
+
+     General Stevens prefers to call the mountain Takhoma. The
+     full account of the ascent was published by him under the
+     title of "The Ascent of Mount Takhoma" in the Atlantic
+     Monthly for November, 1876. It is here reproduced by
+     permission of the editor of that magazine.
+
+     Mr. Van Trump made several ascents after that first one, and
+     in 1905 General Stevens also made a second ascent. He
+     searched in vain for the relics he had deposited at the
+     summit thirty-five years earlier. The rocks that were bare in
+     1870 were under snow and ice in 1905.
+
+When Vancouver, in 1792, penetrated the Straits of Fuca and explored
+the unknown waters of the Mediterranean of the Pacific, wherever he
+sailed, from the Gulf of Georgia to the farthest inlet of Puget Sound,
+he beheld the lofty, snow-clad barrier range of the Cascades
+stretching north and south and bounding the eastern horizon. Towering
+at twice the altitude of all others, at intervals of a hundred miles
+there loomed up above the range three majestic, snowy peaks that
+
+          "Like giants stand
+    To sentinel enchanted land."
+
+In the matter-of-fact spirit of a British sailor of his time, he named
+these sublime monuments of nature in honor of three lords of the
+English admiralty, Hood, Rainier, and Baker. Of these Rainier is the
+central, situated about half-way between the Columbia River and the
+line of British Columbia, and is by far the loftiest and largest. Its
+altitude is 14,444 feet, while Hood is 11,025 feet, and Baker is
+10,810 feet high. The others, too, are single cones, while Rainier, or
+Takhoma,[21] is an immense mountain-mass with three distinct peaks, an
+eastern, a northern, and a southern; the two last extending out and up
+from the main central dome, from the summit of which they stand over a
+mile distant, while they are nearly two miles apart from each other.
+
+Takhoma overlooks Puget Sound from Olympia to Victoria, one hundred
+and sixty miles. Its snow-clad dome is visible from Portland on the
+Willamette, one hundred and twenty miles south, and from the
+table-land of Walla Walla, one hundred and fifty miles east. A region
+two hundred and fifty miles across, including nearly all of Washington
+Territory, part of Oregon, and part of Idaho, is commanded in one
+field of vision by this colossus among mountains.
+
+Takhoma had never been ascended. It was a virgin peak. The
+superstitious fears and traditions of the Indians, as well as the
+dangers of the ascent, had prevented their attempting to reach the
+summit, and the failure of a gallant and energetic officer, whose
+courage and hardihood were abundantly shown during the rebellion, had
+in general estimation proved it insurmountable.
+
+For two years I had resolved to ascend Takhoma, but both seasons the
+dense smoke overspreading the whole country had prevented the attempt.
+Mr. Philomon Beecher Van Trump, humorous, generous, whole-souled, with
+endurance and experience withal, for he had roughed it in the mines,
+and a poetic appreciation of the picturesque and the sublime, was
+equally eager to scale the summit. Mr. Edward T. Coleman, an English
+gentleman of Victoria, a landscape artist and an Alpine tourist, whose
+reputed experience in Switzerland had raised a high opinion of his
+ability above the snow-line, completed the party.
+
+Olympia, the capital of Washington Territory, is a beautiful,
+maple-embowered town of some two thousand inhabitants, situated at the
+southernmost extremity of Puget Sound, and west of Takhoma, distant in
+an air line seventy-five miles. The intervening country is covered
+with dense fir forests, almost impenetrable to the midday sun, and
+obstructed with fallen trees, upturned roots and stumps, and a perfect
+jungle of undergrowth, through which the most energetic traveler can
+accomplish but eight or nine miles a day. It was advisible to gain the
+nearest possible point by some trail, before plunging into the
+unbroken forest. The Nisqually River, which rises on the southern and
+western slopes of Takhoma, and empties into the sound a few miles
+north of Olympia, offered the most direct and natural approach. Ten
+years before, moreover, a few enterprising settlers had blazed out a
+trail across the Cascade Range, which followed the Nisqually nearly up
+to its source, thence deflected south to the Cowlitz River, and
+pursued this stream in a northeastern course to the summit of the
+range, thus turning the great mountain by a wide circuit. The
+best-informed mountain men represented the approaches on the south and
+southeast as by far the most favorable. The Nisqually-Cowlitz trail,
+then, seemed much the best, for the Nisqually, heading in the south
+and southwest slopes, and the Cowlitz, in the southeastern, afforded
+two lines of approach, by either of which the distance to the
+mountain, after leaving the trail, could not exceed thirty miles.
+
+One August afternoon, Van Trump and I drove out to Yelm Prairie,
+thirty miles east of Olympia, and on the Nisqually River. We dashed
+rapidly on over a smooth, hard, level road, traversing wide reaches of
+prairie, passing under open groves of oaks and firs, and plunging
+through masses of black, dense forest in ever-changing variety. The
+moon had risen as we emerged upon Yelm Prairie; Takhoma, bathed in
+cold, white, spectral light from summit to base, appeared startlingly
+near and distinct. Our admiration was not so noisy as usual. Perhaps a
+little of dread mingled with it. In another hour we drove nearly
+across the plain and turned into a lane which conducted us up a
+beautiful rising plateau, crowned with a noble grove of oaks and
+overlooking the whole prairie. A comfortable, roomy house with a wide
+porch nestled among the trees, and its hospitable owner, Mr. James
+Longmire, appeared at the door and bade us enter.
+
+The next morning we applied to Mr. Longmire for a guide, and for his
+advice as to our proposed trip. He was one of the few who marked out
+the Nisqually-Cowlitz trail years ago. He had explored the mountains
+about Takhoma as thoroughly, perhaps, as any other white man. One of
+the earliest settlers, quiet, self-reliant, sensible, and kindly, a
+better counselor than he could not have been found. The trail, he
+said, had not been traveled for four years, and was entirely illegible
+to eyes not well versed in woodcraft, and it would be folly for any
+one to attempt to follow it who was not thoroughly acquainted with the
+country. He could not leave his harvest, and moreover in three weeks
+he was to cross the mountains for a drove of cattle. His wife, too,
+quietly discouraged his going. She described his appearance on his
+return from previous mountain trips, looking as haggard and thin as
+though he had just risen from a sick-bed. She threw out effective
+little sketches of toil, discomfort, and hardship incident to mountain
+travel, and dwelt upon the hard fare. The bountiful country breakfast
+heaped before us, the rich cream, fresh butter and eggs, snowy,
+melting biscuits, and broiled chicken, with rich, white gravy,
+heightened the effect of her words.
+
+But at length, when it appeared that no one else who knew the trail
+could be found, Mr. Longmire yielded to our persuasions, and consented
+to conduct us as far as the trail led, and to procure an Indian guide
+before leaving us to our own resources. As soon as we returned home we
+went with Mr. Coleman to his room to see a few indispensable
+equipments he had provided, in order that we might procure similar
+ones. The floor was literally covered with his traps, and he exhibited
+them one by one, expatiating upon their various uses. There was his
+ground-sheet, a large gum blanket equally serviceable to Mr. Coleman
+as a tent in camp and a bathtub at the hotel. There was a strong rope
+to which we were all to be tied when climbing the snow-fields, so that
+if one fell into a chasm the others could hold him up. The "creepers"
+were a clumsy, heavy arrangement of iron spikes made to fasten on the
+foot with chains and straps, in order to prevent slipping on the ice.
+He had an ice-axe for cutting steps, a spirit-lamp for making tea on
+the mountains, green goggles for snow-blindness, deer's fat for the
+face, Alpine staffs, needles and thread, twine, tacks, screws,
+screwdriver, gimlet, file, several medical prescriptions, two boards
+for pressing flowers, sketching materials, and in fact every article
+that Mr. Coleman in his extensive reading had found used or
+recommended by travelers. Every one of these he regarded as
+indispensable. The Alpine staff was, he declared, most important of
+all, a great assistance in traveling through the woods as well as on
+the ice; and he illustrated on his hands and knees how to cross a
+crevasse in the ice on two staffs. This interview naturally brought to
+mind the characteristic incident related of Packwood, the mountain man
+who, as hunter and prospector, had explored the deepest recesses of
+the Cascades. He had been engaged to guide a railroad surveying party
+across the mountains, and just as the party was about to start he
+approached the chief and demanded an advance to enable him to buy his
+outfit for the trip. "How much do you want?" asked the chief, rather
+anxiously, lest Packwood should overdraw his prospective wages. "Well,
+about two dollars and a half," was the reply; and at the camp-fire
+that evening, being asked if he had bought his outfit, Packwood,
+thrusting his hand into his pocket, drew forth and exhibited with
+perfect seriousness and complacency his entire outfit,--a jack-knife
+and a plug of tobacco.
+
+Half a dozen carriages rattled gayly out of Olympia in the cool of the
+morning, filled with a laughing, singing, frolicking bevy of young
+ladies and gentlemen. They were the Takhoma party starting on their
+adventurous trip, with a chosen escort accompanying them to their
+first camp. They rested several hours at Longmire's during the heat
+of the day, and the drive was then continued seven miles farther, to
+the Lacamas, an irregular-shaped prairie two miles in length by half a
+mile in breadth. Here live two of Mr. Longmire's sons. Their farms
+form the last settlement, and at the gate of Mr. Elkane Longmire's
+house the road ends. A wooded knoll overlooking the prairie, with a
+spring of water at its foot, was selected as the camp-ground. Some of
+the party stretched a large sail between the trees as a tent, others
+watered and fed the horses, and others busied themselves with the
+supper. Two eager sportsmen started after grouse, while their more
+practical companions bought half a dozen chickens, and had them soon
+dressed and sputtering over the fire. The shades of night were falling
+as the party sat down on the ground and partook of a repast fit for
+the Olympians, and with a relish sharpened by the long journey and a
+whole day's fast.
+
+Early in the morning Mr. Longmire arrived in camp with two mules and a
+pack-horse, and our mountain outfit was rapidly made up into suitable
+bales and packed upon the horse and one of the mules, the other mule
+being reserved for Longmire's own riding. We assembled around the
+breakfast with spirits as gay and appetites as sharp as ever. Then,
+with many good-bys and much waving of handkerchiefs, the party broke
+up. Four roughly clad pedestrians moved off in single file, leading
+their pack animals, and looking back at every step to catch the last
+glimpse of the bright garments and fluttering cambrics, while the
+carriages drove rapidly down the road and disappeared in the dark,
+sullen forest.
+
+We stepped off briskly, following a dim trail in an easterly course,
+and crossing the little prairie entered the timber. After winding over
+hilly ground for about three miles, we descended into the Nisqually
+bottom and forded a fine brook at the foot of the hill. For the next
+ten miles our route lay across the bottom, and along the bank of the
+river, passing around logs, following old, dry beds of the river and
+its lateral sloughs, ankle-deep in loose sand, and forcing our way
+through dense jungles of vine-maple. The trail was scarcely visible,
+and much obstructed by fallen trees and underbrush, and its
+difficulties were aggravated by the bewildering tracks of Indians who
+had lately wandered about the bottom in search of berries or rushes.
+We repeatedly missed the trail, and lost hours in retracing our steps
+and searching for the right course. The weather was hot and sultry,
+and rendered more oppressive by the dense foliage; myriads of gnats
+and mosquitoes tormented us and drove our poor animals almost frantic;
+and our thirst, aggravated by the severe and unaccustomed toil, seemed
+quenchless. At length we reached the ford of the Nisqually. Directly
+opposite, a perpendicular bluff of sand and gravel in alternate strata
+rose to the height of two hundred and fifty feet, its base washed by
+the river and its top crowned with firs. The stream was a hundred
+yards wide, waist-deep, and very rapid. Its waters were icy cold, and
+of a milk-white hue. This color is the characteristic of glacial
+rivers. The impalpable powder of thousands of tons of solid rocks
+ground up beneath the vast weight and resistless though imperceptible
+flow of huge glaciers, remains in solution in these streams, and
+colors them milk-white to the sea. Leading the animals down the bank
+and over a wide, dry bar of cobblestones, we stood at the brink of the
+swift, turbulent river, and prepared to essay its passage. Coleman
+mounted behind Van Trump on the little saddle-mule, his long legs
+dangling nearly to the ground, one hand grasping his Alpine staff, the
+other the neck-rope of the pack-mule, which Longmire bestrode.
+Longmire led in turn the pack-horse, behind whose bulky load was
+perched the other member of the party. The cavalcade, linked together
+in this order, had but just entered the stream when Coleman dropped
+the neckrope he was holding. The mule, bewildered by the rush and
+roar of the waters, turned directly down-stream, and in another
+instant our two pack animals, with their riders, would have been swept
+away in the furious rapids, had not Longmire with great presence of
+mind turned their erratic course in the right direction and safely
+brought them to the opposite shore. Following the bottom along the
+river for some distance, we climbed up the end of the bluff already
+mentioned, by a steep zigzag trail, and skirted along its brink for a
+mile. Far below us on the right rushed the Nisqually. On the left the
+bluff fell off in a steep hillside thickly clothed with woods and
+underbrush, and at its foot plowed the Owhap, a large stream emptying
+into the Nisqually just below our ford. Another mile through the woods
+brought us out upon the Mishell Prairie, a beautiful, oval meadow of a
+hundred acres, embowered in the tall, dense fir forest, with a grove
+of lofty, branching oaks at its farther extremity, and covered with
+green grass and bright flowers. It takes its name from the Mishell
+River, which empties into the Nisqually a mile above the prairie.
+
+We had marched sixteen miles. The packs were gladly thrown off beneath
+a lofty fir; the animals were staked out to graze. A spring in the
+edge of the woods afforded water, and while Mr. Coleman busied himself
+with his pipe, his flask, his note-book, his sketch-book, and his
+pouch of multifarious odds and ends, the other members of the party
+performed the duties incident to camp-life: made the fire, brought
+water, spread the blankets, and prepared supper. The flags attached to
+our Alpine staffs waved gayly overhead, and the sight of their bright
+folds fluttering in the breeze deepened the fixed resolve to plant
+them on Takhoma's hoary head, and made failure seem impossible. Mr.
+Coleman announced the altitude of Mishell Prairie as eight hundred
+feet by barometer. By an unlucky fall the thermometer was broken.
+
+The march was resumed early next morning. As we passed the lofty oaks
+at the end of the little prairie, "On that tree," said Longmire,
+pointing out one of the noblest, "Maxon's company hanged two Indians
+in the war of '56. Ski-hi and his band, after many depredations upon
+the settlements, were encamped on the Mishell, a mile distant, in
+fancied security, when Maxon and his men surprised them and cut off
+every soul except the two prisoners whom they hanged here."
+
+For eight miles the trail led through thick woods, and then, after
+crossing a wide "burn," past a number of deserted Indian wigwams,
+where another trail from the Nisqually plains joined ours, it
+descended a gradual slope, traversed a swampy thicket and another mile
+of heavy timber, and debouched on the Mishell River. This is a fine,
+rapid, sparkling stream, knee-deep and forty feet wide, rippling and
+dashing over a gravelly bed with clear, cold, transparent water. The
+purity of the clear water, so unlike the yeasty Nisqually, proves that
+the Mishell is no glacial river. Rising in an outlying range to the
+northwest of Takhoma, it flows in a southwest course to its confluence
+with the Nisqually near our previous night's camp. We unsaddled for
+the noon-rest. Van Trump went up the stream, fishing; Longmire crossed
+to look out the trail ahead, and Coleman made tea solitaire.
+
+An hour passed, and Longmire returned. "The trail is blind," said he,
+"and we have no time to lose." Just then Van Trump returned; and the
+little train was soon in readiness to resume the tramp. Longmire rode
+his mule across the stream, telling us to drive the pack-animals after
+him and follow by a convenient log near by. As the mule attempted to
+climb a low place in the opposite bank, which offered an apparently
+easy exit from the river, his hind legs sank in a quicksand, he sat
+down quickly, if not gracefully, and, not fancying that posture, threw
+himself clear under water. His dripping rider rose to his feet, flung
+the bridle-rein over his arm, and, springing up the bank at a more
+practicable point, strode along the trail with as little delay and as
+perfect unconcern as though an involuntary ducking was of no more
+moment than climbing over a log.
+
+The trail was blind. Longmire scented it through thickets of salal,
+fern, and underbrush, stumbling over roots, vines, and hollows hidden
+in the rank vegetation, now climbing huge trunks that the animals
+could barely scramble over, and now laboriously working his way around
+some fallen giant and traveling two hundred yards in order to gain a
+dozen yards on the course. The packs, continually jammed against trees
+and shaken loose by this rough traveling, required frequent
+repacking--no small task. At the very top of a high, steep hill, up
+which we had laboriously zigzagged shortly after crossing the Mishell,
+the little packhorse, unable to sustain the weight of the pack, which
+had shifted all to one side, fell and rolled over and over to the
+bottom. Bringing up the goods and chattels one by one on our own
+shoulders to the top of the hill, we replaced the load and started
+again. The course was in a southerly direction, over high rolling
+ground of good clay soil, heavily timbered, with marshy swales at
+intervals, to the Nisqually River again, a distance of twelve miles.
+We encamped on a narrow flat between the high hill just descended and
+the wide and noisy river, near an old ruined log-hut, the former
+residence of a once famed Indian medicine man, who, after the laudable
+custom of his race, had expiated with his life his failure to cure a
+patient.
+
+Early next morning we continued our laborious march along the right
+bank of the Nisqually. Towards noon we left the river, and after
+thridding in an easterly course a perfect labyrinth of fallen timber
+for six miles, and forcing our way with much difficulty through the
+tangled jungle of an extensive vine-maple swamp, at length crossed
+Silver Creek and gladly threw off the packs for an hour's rest.
+
+A short distance after crossing Silver Creek the trail emerged upon
+more open ground, and for the first time the Nisqually Valley lay
+spread out in view before us. On the left stretched a wall of steep,
+rocky mountains, standing parallel to the course of the river and
+extending far eastward, growing higher and steeper and more rugged as
+it receded from view. At the very extremity of this range Takhoma
+loomed aloft, its dome high above all others and its flanks extending
+far down into the valley, and all covered, dome and flanks, with snow
+of dazzling white, in striking contrast with the black basaltic
+mountains about it. Startlingly near it looked to our eyes, accustomed
+to the restricted views and gloom of the forest.
+
+After our noon rest we continued our journey up the valley, twisting
+in and out among the numerous trunks of trees that encumbered the
+ground, and after several hours of tedious trudging struck our third
+camp on Copper Creek, the twin brother to Silver Creek, just at dusk.
+We were thoroughly tired, having made twenty miles in thirteen hours
+of hard traveling.
+
+Starting at daylight next morning, we walked two miles over rough
+ground much broken by ravines, and then descended into the bed of the
+Nisqually at the mouth of Goat Creek, another fine stream which
+empties here. We continued our course along the river bed, stumbling
+over rocky bars and forcing our way through dense thickets of willow,
+for some distance, then ascended the steep bank, went around a high
+hill over four miles of execrable trail, and descended to the river
+again, only two miles above Goat Creek. At this point the Takhoma
+branch or North Fork joins the Nisqually. This stream rises on the
+west side of Takhoma, is nearly as large as the main river, and like
+it shows its glacial origin by its milk-white water and by its icy
+cold, terribly swift and furious torrent. Crossing the Takhoma branch,
+here thirty yards wide, we kept up the main river, crossing and
+recrossing the stream frequently, and toiling over rocky bars for four
+miles, a distance which consumed five hours, owing to the difficulties
+of the way. We then left the Nisqually, turning to the right and
+traveling in a southerly course, and followed up the bed of a swampy
+creek for half a mile, then crossed a level tract much obstructed with
+fallen timber, then ascended a burnt ridge, and followed it for two
+miles to a small, marshy prairie in a wide canyon or defile closed in
+by rugged mountains on either side, and camped beside a little rivulet
+on the east side of the prairie. This was Bear Prairie, the altitude
+of which by the barometer was 2630 feet. The canyon formed a low pass
+between the Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers, and the little rivulet near
+which we camped flowed into the latter stream. The whole region had
+been swept by fire: thousands of giant trunks stood blackened and
+lifeless, the picture of desolation.
+
+As we were reclining on the ground around the campfire, enjoying the
+calm and beatific repose which comes to the toil-worn mountaineer
+after his hearty supper, one of these huge trunks, after several
+warning creaks, came toppling and falling directly over our camp. All
+rushed to one side or another to avoid the impending crash. As one
+member of the party, hastily catching up in one hand a frying-pan
+laden with tin plates and cups, and in the other the camp kettle half
+full of boiling water, was scrambling away, his foot tripped in a
+blackberry vine and he fell outstretched at full length, the
+much-prized utensils scattering far and wide, while the falling tree
+came thundering down in the rear, doing no other damage, however, than
+burying a pair of blankets.
+
+The following day Longmire and the writer went down the canyon to its
+junction with the Cowlitz River, in search of a band of Indians who
+usually made their headquarters at this point, and among whom Longmire
+hoped to find some hunter familiar with the mountains who might guide
+us to the base of Takhoma. The tiny rivulet as we descended soon
+swelled to a large and furious torrent, and its bed filled nearly the
+whole bottom of the gorge. The mountains rose on both sides
+precipitously, and the traces of land-slides which had gouged vast
+furrows down their sides were frequent. With extreme toil and
+difficulty we made our way, continually wading the torrent, clambering
+over broken masses of rock which filled its bed, or clinging to the
+steep hillsides, and reached the Cowlitz at length after twelve miles
+of this fatiguing work, but only to find the Indian camp deserted.
+Further search, however, was rewarded by the discovery of a rude
+shelter formed of a few skins thrown over a framework of poles,
+beneath which sat a squaw at work upon a half-dressed deerskin. An
+infant and a naked child of perhaps four years lay on the ground near
+the fire in front. Beside the lodge and quietly watching our approach,
+of which he alone seemed aware, stood a tall, slender Indian clad in
+buckskin shirt and leggings, with a striped woolen breech-clout, and a
+singular head garniture which gave him a fierce and martial
+appearance. This consisted of an old military cap, the visor thickly
+studded with brassheaded nails, while a large circular brass article,
+which might have been the top of an oil-lamp, was fastened upon the
+crown. Several eagle feathers stuck in the crown and strips of fur
+sewed upon the sides completed the edifice, which, notwithstanding its
+components, appeared imposing rather than ridiculous. A long Hudson
+Bay gun, the stock also ornamented with brass-headed tacks, lay in the
+hollow of the Indian's shoulder.
+
+He received us with great friendliness, yet not without dignity,
+shaking hands and motioning us to a seat beneath the rude shelter,
+while his squaw hastened to place before us suspicious-looking cakes
+of dried berries, apparently their only food. After a moderate
+indulgence in this delicacy, Longmire made known our wants. The
+Indian spoke fluently the Chinook jargon, that high-bred lingo
+invented by the old fur-traders. He called himself "Sluiskin," and
+readily agreed to guide us to Rainier, known to him only as Takhoma,
+and promised to report at Bear Prairie the next day. It was after
+seven in the evening when we reached camp, thoroughly fagged.
+
+Punctual to promise, Sluiskin rode up at noon mounted upon a stunted
+Indian pony, while his squaw and pappooses followed upon another even
+more puny and forlorn. After devouring an enormous dinner, evidently
+compensating for the rigors of a long fast, in reply to our inquiries
+he described the route he proposed to take to Takhoma. Pointing to the
+almost perpendicular height immediately back or east of our camp,
+towering three thousand feet or more overhead, the loftiest mountain
+in sight, "We go to the top of that mountain to-day," said he, "and
+to-morrow we follow along the high, backbone ridge of the mountains,
+now up, now down, first on one side and then on the other, a long
+day's journey, and at last, descending far down from the mountains
+into a deep valley, reach the base of Takhoma." Sluiskin illustrated
+his Chinook with speaking signs and pantomime. He had frequently
+hunted the mountain sheep upon the snow-fields of Takhoma, but had
+never ascended to the summit. It was impossible to do so, and he put
+aside as idle talk our expressed intention of making the ascent.
+
+We had already selected the indispensable articles for a week's tramp,
+a blanket apiece, the smallest coffee-pot and frying-pan, a scanty
+supply of bacon, flour, coffee, etc., and had made them up into
+suitable packs of forty pounds each, provided with slings like a
+knapsack, and had piled together under the lee of a huge fallen trunk
+our remaining goods. Longmire, who although impatient to return home,
+where his presence was urgently needed, had watched and directed our
+preparations during the forenoon with kindly solicitude, now bade us
+good-by: mounted on one mule and leading the other, he soon
+disappeared down the trail on his lonely, homeward way. He left us the
+little pack-horse, thinking it would be quite capable of carrying our
+diminished outfit after our return from Takhoma.
+
+Sluiskin led the way. The load upon his shoulders was sustained by a
+broad band, passing over his head, upon which his heavy, brass-studded
+rifle, clasped in both hands, was poised and balanced. Leaving behind
+the last vestige of trail, we toiled in single file slowly and
+laboriously up the mountain all the afternoon. The steepness of the
+ascent in many places required the use of both hand and foot in
+climbing, and the exercise of great caution to keep the heavy packs
+from dragging us over backwards. Coleman lagged behind from the start,
+and at intervals his voice could be heard hallooing and calling upon
+us to wait. Towards sunset we reached a level terrace, or bench, near
+the summit, gladly threw off our packs, and waited for Coleman, who,
+we supposed, could not be far below. He not appearing, we hallooed
+again and again. No answer! We then sent Sluiskin down the mountain to
+his aid. After an hour's absence the Indian returned. He had
+descended, he said, a long distance, and at last caught sight of
+Coleman. He was near the foot of the mountain, had thrown away his
+pack, blankets and all, and was evidently returning to camp. And
+Sluiskin finished his account with expressions of contempt for the
+"cultus King George man." What was to be done? Coleman carried in his
+pack all our bacon, our only supply of meat, except a few pounds of
+dried beef. He also had the barometer, the only instrument that had
+survived the jolts and tumbles of our rough trip. But, on the other
+hand, he had been a clog upon our march from the outset. He was
+evidently too infirm to endure the toil before us, and would not only
+be unable to reach, still less ascend Takhoma, but might even impede
+and frustrate our own efforts. Knowing that he would be safe in camp
+until our return, we hastily concluded to proceed without him,
+trusting to our rifles for a supply of meat.
+
+Sluiskin led us along the side of the ridge in a southerly direction
+for two miles farther, to a well-sheltered, grassy hollow in the
+mountain-top, where he had often previously encamped. It was after
+dark when we reached this place. The usual spring had gone dry, and,
+parched with thirst we searched the gulches of the mountain-side for
+water an hour, but without success. At length the writer, recalling a
+scanty rill which trickled across their path a mile back, taking the
+coffee-pot and large canteen, retraced his steps, succeeded in filling
+these utensils after much fumbling in the dark and consequent delay,
+and returned to camp. He found Van Trump and the Indian, anxious at
+the long delay, mounted on the crest of the ridge some two hundred
+yards from camp, waving torches and shouting lustily to direct his
+steps. The mosquitoes and flies came in clouds, and were terribly
+annoying. After supper of coffee and bread, we drank up the water,
+rolled ourselves in our blankets, and lay down under a tree with our
+flags floating from under the boughs overhead. Hot as had been the
+day, the night was cold and frosty, owing, doubtless, to the altitude
+of our camp.
+
+At the earliest dawn next morning we were moving on without breakfast,
+and parched with thirst. Sluiskin led us in a general course about
+north-northeast, but twisting to nearly every point of the compass,
+and climbing up and down thousands of feet from mountain to mountain,
+yet keeping on the highest backbone between the headwaters of the
+Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. After several hours of this work we came
+to a well-sheltered hollow, one side filled with a broad bed of snow,
+at the foot of which nestled a tiny, tranquil lakelet, and gladly
+threw off our heavy packs, assuaged our thirst, and took
+breakfast,--bread and coffee again. Early as it was, the chill of the
+frosty night still in the air, the mosquitoes renewed their attacks,
+and proved as innumerable and vexatious as ever.
+
+Continuing our march, we crossed many beds of snow, and drank again
+and again from the icy rills which flowed out of them. The mountains
+were covered with stunted mountain-ash and low, stubby firs with
+short, bushy branches, and occasionally a few pines. Many slopes were
+destitute of trees but covered with luxuriant grass and the greatest
+profusion of beautiful flowers of vivid hues. This was especially the
+case with the southern slopes, while the northern sides of the
+mountains were generally wooded. We repeatedly ate berries, and an
+hour afterwards ascended to where berries of the same kind were found
+scarcely yet formed. The country was much obscured with smoke from
+heavy fires which had been raging on the Cowlitz the last two days.
+But when at length, after climbing for hours an almost perpendicular
+peak,--creeping on hands and knees over loose rocks, and clinging to
+scanty tufts of grass where a single slip would have sent us rolling a
+thousand feet down to destruction,--we reached the highest crest and
+looked over, we exclaimed that we were already well repaid for all our
+toil. Nothing can convey an idea of the grandeur and ruggedness of the
+mountains. Directly in front, and apparently not over two miles
+distant, although really twenty, old Takhoma loomed up more gigantic
+than ever. We were far above the level of the lower snow-line on
+Takhoma. The high peak upon which we clung seemed the central core or
+focus of all the mountains around, and on every side we looked down
+vertically thousands of feet, deep down into vast, terrible defiles,
+black and fir-clothed, which stretched away until lost in the distance
+and smoke. Between them, separating one from another, the
+mountain-walls rose precipitously and terminated in bare, columnar
+peaks of black basaltic or volcanic rock, as sharp as needles. It
+seemed incredible that any human foot could have followed out the
+course we came, as we looked back upon it.
+
+After a few hours more of this climbing, we stood upon the summit of
+the last mountain-ridge that separated us from Takhoma. We were in a
+saddle of the ridge; a lofty peak rose on either side. Below us
+extended a long, steep hollow or gulch filled with snow, the farther
+extremity of which seemed to drop off perpendicularly into a deep
+valley or basin. Across this valley, directly in front, filling up the
+whole horizon and view with an indescribable aspect of magnitude and
+grandeur, stood the old leviathan of mountains. The broad, snowy dome
+rose far among and above the clouds. The sides fell off in vertical
+steeps and fearful black walls of rock for a third of its altitude;
+lower down, vast, broad, gently sloping snow-fields surrounded the
+mountain, and were broken here and there by ledges or masses of the
+dark basaltic rock protruding above them. Long, green ridges projected
+from this snow-belt at intervals, radiating from the mountain and
+extending many miles until lost in the distant forests. Deep valleys
+lay between these ridges. Each at its upper end formed the bed of a
+glacier, which closed and filled it up with solid ice. Below the
+snow-line bright green grass with countless flowers, whose vivid
+scarlet, blue, and purple formed bodies of color in the distance,
+clothed the whole region of ridges and valleys, for a breadth of five
+miles. The beautiful balsam firs, about thirty feet in height, and of
+a purple, dark-green color, stood scattered over the landscape, now
+singly, now in groves, and now in long lines, as though planted in
+some well-kept park. Farther down an unbroken fir forest surrounded
+the mountain and clad the lower portions of the ridges and valleys. In
+every sheltered depression or hollow lay beds of snow with tiny brooks
+and rivulets flowing from them. The glaciers terminated not gradually,
+but abruptly, with a wall of ice from one to five hundred feet high,
+from beneath which yeasty torrents burst forth and rushed roaring and
+tumbling down the valleys. The principal of these, far away on our
+left front, could be seen plunging over two considerable falls, half
+hidden in the forest, while the roar of waters was distinctly audible.
+
+At length we cautiously descended the snow-bed, and, climbing at least
+fifteen hundred feet down a steep but ancient land-slide by means of
+the bushes growing among the loose rocks, reached the valley, and
+encountered a beautiful, peaceful, limpid creek. Van Trump could not
+resist the temptation of unpacking his bundle, selecting one of his
+carefully preserved flies, and trying the stream for trout, but
+without a single rise. After an hour's rest and a hearty repast we
+resumed our packs, despite Sluiskin's protests, who seemed tired out
+with his arduous day's toil and pleaded hard against traveling
+farther. Crossing the stream, we walked through several grassy glades,
+or meadows, alternating with open woods. We soon came to the foot of
+one of the long ridges already described, and ascending it followed it
+for several miles through open woods, until we emerged upon the
+enchanting emerald and flowery meads which clothe these upper regions.
+Halting upon a rising eminence in our course, and looking back, we
+beheld the ridge of mountains we had just descended stretching from
+east to west in a steep, rocky wall; a little to the left, a beautiful
+lake, evidently the source of the stream just crossed, which we called
+Clear Creek, and glimpses of which could be seen among the trees as it
+flowed away to the right, down a rapidly descending valley along the
+foot of the lofty mountain-wall. Beyond the lake again, still farther
+to the left, the land also subsided quickly. It was at once evident
+that the lake was upon a summit, or divide, between the waters of the
+Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. The ridge which we were ascending lay
+north and south, and led directly up to the mountain.
+
+We camped, as the twilight fell upon us, in an aromatic grove of
+balsam firs. A grouse, the fruit of Sluiskin's rifle, broiled before
+the fire, and impartially divided gave a relish to the dry bread and
+coffee. After supper we reclined upon our blankets in front of the
+bright, blazing fire, well satisfied. The Indian, when starting from
+Bear Prairie, had evidently deemed our intention of ascending Takhoma
+too absurd to deserve notice. The turning back of Mr. Coleman only
+deepened his contempt for our prowess. But his views had undergone a
+change with the day's march. The affair began to look serious to him,
+and now in Chinook, interspersed with a few words of broken English
+and many signs and gesticulations, he began a solemn exhortation and
+warning against our rash project.
+
+Takhoma, he said, was an enchanted mountain, inhabited by an evil
+spirit, who dwelt in a fiery lake on its summit. No human being could
+ascend it or even attempt its ascent, and survive. At first, indeed,
+the way was easy. The broad snow-fields, over which he had so often
+hunted the mountain goat, interposed no obstacle, but above them the
+rash adventurer would be compelled to climb up steeps of loose,
+rolling rocks, which would turn beneath his feet and cast him
+head-long into the deep abyss below. The upper snow-slopes, too, were
+so steep that not even a goat, far less a man, could get over them.
+And he would have to pass below lofty walls and precipices whence
+avalanches of snow and vast masses of rocks were continually falling;
+and these would inevitably bury the intruder beneath their ruins.
+Moreover, a furious tempest continually swept the crown of the
+mountain, and the luckless adventurer, even if he wonderfully escaped
+the perils below, would be torn from the mountain and whirled through
+the air by this fearful blast. And the awful being upon the summit,
+who would surely punish the sacrilegious attempt to invade his
+sanctuary,--who could hope to escape his vengeance? Many years ago, he
+continued, his grandfather, a great chief and warrior, and a mighty
+hunter, had ascended part way up the mountain, and had encountered
+some of these dangers, but he fortunately turned back in time to
+escape destruction; and no other Indian had ever gone so far.
+
+Finding that his words did not produce the desired effect, he assured
+us that, if we persisted in attempting the ascent, he would wait three
+days for our return, and would then proceed to Olympia and inform our
+friends of our death; and he begged us to give him a paper (a written
+note) to take to them, so that they might believe his story.
+Sluiskin's manner during this harangue was earnest in the extreme, and
+he was undoubtedly sincere in his forebodings. After we had retired to
+rest, he kept up a most dismal chant, or dirge, until late in the
+night. The dim, white, spectral mass towering so near, the roar of the
+torrents below us, and the occasional thunder of avalanches, several
+of which fell during the night, added to the weird effect of
+Sluiskin's song.
+
+The next morning we moved two miles farther up the ridge and made camp
+in the last clump of trees, quite within the limit of perpetual snow.
+Thence, with snow-spikes upon our feet and Alpine staff in hand, we
+went up the snow-fields to reconnoiter the best line of ascent. We
+spent four hours, walking fast, in reaching the foot of the steep,
+abrupt part of the mountain. After carefully scanning the southern
+approaches, we decided to ascend on the morrow by a steep, rocky ridge
+that seemed to lead up to the snowy crown.
+
+Our camp was pitched on a high knoll crowned by a grove of balsam
+firs, near a turbulent glacial torrent. About nine o'clock, after we
+had lain down for the night, the firs round our camp took fire and
+suddenly burst out in a vivid conflagration. The night was dark and
+windy, and the scene--the vast, dim outlines of Takhoma, the white
+snow-fields, the roaring torrent, the crackling blaze of the burning
+trees--was strikingly wild and picturesque.
+
+In honor of our guide we named the cascade at our feet Sluiskin's
+Falls; the stream we named Glacier Creek, and the mass of ice whence
+it derives its source we styled the Little Nisqually Glacier.
+
+Before daylight the next morning, Wednesday, August 17, 1870, we were
+up and had breakfasted, and at six o'clock we started to ascend
+Takhoma. Besides our Alpine staffs and creepers, we carried a long
+rope, an ice-axe, a brass plate inscribed with our names, our flags, a
+large canteen, and some luncheon. We were also provided with gloves,
+and green goggles for snow-blindness, but found no occasion to use the
+latter. Having suffered much from the heat of the sun since leaving
+Bear Prairie, and being satisfied from our late reconnoissance that we
+could reach the summit and return on the same day, we left behind our
+coats and blankets. In three hours of fast walking we reached the
+highest point of the preceding day's trip, and commenced the ascent by
+the steep, rocky ridge already described as reaching up to the snowy
+dome. We found it to be a very narrow, steep, irregular backbone,
+being solid rock, while the sides were composed of loose broken rocks
+and débris. Up this ridge, keeping upon the spine when possible, and
+sometimes forced to pick our way over the loose and broken rocks at
+the sides, around columnar masses which we could not directly climb
+over, we toiled for five hundred yards, ascending at an angle of
+nearly forty-five degrees. Here the ridge connected, by a narrow neck
+or saddle, with a vast square rock, whose huge and distinct outline
+can be clearly perceived from a distance of twenty-five miles. This,
+like the ridge, is a conglomerate of basalt and trap, in well-defined
+strata, and is rapidly disintegrating and continually falling in
+showers and even masses of rocks and rubbish, under the action of
+frost by night and melting snow by day. It lies imbedded in the side
+of the mountain, with one side and end projected and overhanging deep,
+terrible gorges, and it is at the corner or junction of these two
+faces that the ridge joined it at a point about a thousand feet below
+its top. On the southern face the strata were inclined at an angle of
+thirty degrees. Crossing by the saddle from the ridge, despite a
+strong wind which swept across it, we gained a narrow ledge formed by
+a stratum more solid than its fellows, and creeping along it, hugging
+close to the main rock on our right, laboriously and cautiously
+continued the ascent. The wind was blowing violently. We were now
+crawling along the face of the precipice almost in mid-air. On the
+right the rock towered far above us perpendicularly. On the left it
+fell sheer off, two thousand feet, into a vast abyss. A great glacier
+filled its bed and stretched away for several miles, all seamed or
+wrinkled across with countless crevasses. We crept up and along a
+ledge, not of solid, sure rock, but one obstructed with the loose
+stones and débris which were continually falling from above, and we
+trod on the upper edge of a steep slope of this rubbish, sending the
+stones at every step rolling and bounding into the depth below.
+Several times during our progress showers of rocks fell from the
+precipice above across our path, and rolled into the abyss, but
+fortunately none struck us.
+
+Four hundred yards of this progress brought us to where the rock
+joined the overhanging edge of the vast névé or snow-field that
+descended from the dome of the mountain and was from time to time, as
+pressed forward and downward, breaking off in immense masses, which
+fell with a noise as of thunder into the great canyon on our left. The
+junction of rock and ice afforded our only line of ascent. It was an
+almost perpendicular gutter, but here our ice-axe came into play, and
+by cutting steps in the ice and availing ourselves of every crevice or
+projecting point of the rock, we slowly worked our way up two hundred
+yards higher. Falling stones were continually coming down, both from
+the rock on our right and from the ice in front, as it melted and
+relaxed its hold upon them. Mr. Van Trump was hit by a small one, and
+another struck his staff from his hands. Abandoning the rock, then, at
+the earliest practicable point, we ascended directly up the ice,
+cutting steps for a short distance, until we reached ice so
+corrugated, or drawn up in sharp pinnacles, as to afford a foothold.
+These folds or pinnacles were about two or three feet high, and half
+as thick, and stood close together. It was like a very violent chop
+sea, only the waves were sharper. Up this safe footing we climbed
+rapidly, the side of the mountain becoming less and less steep, and
+the ice waves smaller and more regular, and, after ascending about
+three hundred yards, stood fairly upon the broad dome of mighty
+Takhoma. It rose before us like a broad, gently swelling headland of
+dazzling white, topped with black, where the rocky summit projected
+above the névé. Ascending diagonally towards the left, we continued
+our course. The snow was hard and firm under foot, crisp and light for
+an inch or two, but solidified into ice a foot or less beneath the
+surface. The whole field was covered with the ice-waves already
+described, and intersected by a number of crevasses which we crossed
+at narrow places without difficulty. About half-way up the slope, we
+encountered one from eight to twenty feet wide and of profound depth.
+The most beautiful vivid emerald-green color seemed to fill the abyss,
+the reflection of the bright sunlight from side to side of its pure
+ice walls. The upper side or wall of the crevasse was some twelve feet
+above the lower, and in places overhung it, as though the snow-field
+on the lower side had bodily settled down a dozen feet. Throwing a
+bight of the rope around a projecting pinnacle on the upper side, we
+climbed up, hand over hand, and thus effected a crossing. We were now
+obliged to travel slowly, with frequent rests. In that rare
+atmosphere, after taking seventy or eighty steps, our breath would be
+gone, our muscles grew tired and strained, and we experienced all the
+sensations of extreme fatigue. An instant's pause, however, was
+sufficient to recover strength and breath, and we would start again.
+The wind, which we had not felt while climbing the steepest part of
+the mountain, now again blew furiously, and we began to suffer from
+the cold. Our course,--directed still diagonally towards the left,
+thus shunning the severe exertion of climbing straight up the dome,
+although at an ordinary altitude the slope would be deemed
+easy,--brought us first to the southwest peak. This is a long,
+exceedingly sharp, narrow ridge, springing out from the main dome for
+a mile into mid-air. The ridge affords not over ten or twelve feet of
+foothold on top, and the sides descend almost vertically. On the right
+side the snow lay firm and smooth for a few feet on top, and then
+descended in a steep, unbroken sheet, like an immense, flowing
+curtain, into the tremendous basin which lies on the west side of the
+mountain between the southern and northern peaks, and which is
+inclosed by them as by two mighty arms. The snow on the top and left
+crest of the ridge was broken into high, sharp pinnacles, with cracks
+and fissures extending to the rocks a few feet below. The left side,
+too steep for the snow to lie on, was vertical, bare rock. The wind
+blew so violently that we were obliged to brace ourselves with our
+Alpine staffs and use great caution to guard against being swept off
+the ridge. We threw ourselves behind the pinnacles or into the cracks
+every seventy steps, for rest and shelter against the bitter, piercing
+wind. Hastening forward in this way along the dizzy, narrow, and
+precarious ridge, we reached at length the highest point. Sheltered
+behind a pinnacle of ice we rested a moment, took out our flags and
+fastened them upon the Alpine staffs, and then, standing erect in the
+furious blast, waved them in triumph with three cheers. We stood a
+moment upon that narrow summit, bracing ourselves against the tempest
+to view the prospect. The whole country was shrouded in a dense sea
+of smoke, above which the mountain towered two thousand feet in the
+clear, cloudless ether. A solitary peak far to the southeast,
+doubtless Mount Adams, and one or two others in the extreme northern
+horizon, alone protruded above the pall. On every side of the mountain
+were deep gorges falling off precipitously thousands of feet, and from
+these the thunderous sound of avalanches would rise occasionally. Far
+below were the wide-extended glaciers already described. The wind was
+now a perfect tempest, and bitterly cold; smoke and mist were flying
+about the base of the mountain, half hiding, half revealing its
+gigantic outlines; and the whole scene was sublimely awful.
+
+It was now five P.M. We had spent eleven hours of unremitted toil in
+making the ascent, and, thoroughly fatigued, and chilled by the cold,
+bitter gale, we saw ourselves obliged to pass the night on the summit
+without shelter or food, except our meagre lunch. It would have been
+impossible to descend the mountain before nightfall, and sure
+destruction to attempt it in darkness. We concluded to return to a
+mass of rocks not far below, and there pass the night as best we
+could, burrowing in the loose débris.
+
+The middle peak of the mountain, however, was evidently the highest,
+and we determined to first visit it. Retracing our steps along the
+narrow crest of Peak Success, as we named the scene of our triumph, we
+crossed an intervening depression in the dome, and ascended the middle
+peak, about a mile distant and two hundred feet higher than Peak
+Success. Climbing over a rocky ridge which crowns the summit, we found
+ourselves within a circular crater two hundred yards in diameter,
+filled with a solid bed of snow, and inclosed with a rim of rocks
+projecting above the snow all around. As we were crossing the crater
+on the snow, Van Trump detected the odor of sulphur, and the next
+instant numerous jets of steam and smoke were observed issuing from
+the crevices of the rocks which formed the rim on the northern side.
+Never was a discovery more welcome! Hastening forward, we both
+exclaimed, as we warmed our chilled and benumbed extremities over one
+of Pluto's fires, that here we would pass the night, secure against
+freezing to death, at least. These jets were from the size of that of
+a large steampipe to a faint, scarcely perceptible emission, and
+issued all along the rim among the loose rocks on the northern side
+for more than half the circumference of the crater. At intervals they
+would puff up more strongly, and the smoke would collect in a cloud
+until blown aside and scattered by the wind, and then their force
+would abate for a time.
+
+A deep cavern, extending into and under the ice, and formed by the
+action of heat, was found. Its roof was a dome of brilliant green ice
+with long icicles pendent from it, while its floor, composed of the
+rocks and débris which formed the side of the crater, descended at an
+angle of thirty degrees. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall
+of stones, inclosing a space five by six feet around a strong jet of
+steam and heat. Unlike the angular, broken rocks met with elsewhere,
+within the crater we found well-rounded bowlders and stones of all
+sizes worn as smooth by the trituration of the crater as by the action
+of water. Nowhere, however, did we observe any new lava or other
+evidences of recent volcanic action excepting these issues of steam
+and smoke. Inclosed within the rude shelter thus hastily constructed,
+we discussed our future prospects while we ate our lunch and warmed
+ourselves at our natural register. The heat at the orifice was too
+great to bear for more than an instant, but the steam wet us, the
+smell of sulphur was nauseating, and the cold was so severe that our
+clothes, saturated with the steam, froze stiff when turned away from
+the heated jet. The wind outside roared and whistled, but it did not
+much affect us, secure within our cavern, except when an occasional
+gust came down perpendicularly. However, we passed a most miserable
+night, freezing on one side, and in a hot steam-sulphur-bath on the
+other.
+
+The dawn at last slowly broke, cold and gray. The tempest howled still
+wilder. As it grew light, dense masses of driven mist went sweeping by
+overhead and completely hid the sun, and enveloped the mountain so as
+to conceal objects scarce a hundred feet distant. We watched and
+waited with great anxiety, fearing a storm which might detain us there
+for days without food or shelter, or, worse yet, snow, which would
+render the descent more perilous, or most likely impossible. And when,
+at nine A.M., an occasional rift in the driving mist gave a glimpse of
+blue sky, we made haste to descend. First, however, I deposited the
+brass plate inscribed with our names in a cleft in a large bowlder on
+the highest summit,--a huge mount of rocks on the east side of our
+crater of refuge, which we named Crater Peak,--placed the canteen
+alongside, and covered it with a large stone. I was then literally
+freezing in the cold, piercing blast, and was glad to hurry back to
+the crater, breathless and benumbed.
+
+We left our den of refuge at length, after exercising violently to
+start the blood through our limbs, and, in attempting to pass around
+the rocky summit, discovered a second crater, larger than the first,
+perhaps three hundred yards in diameter. It is circular, filled with a
+bed of snow, with a rocky rim all around and numerous jets of steam
+issuing from the rocks on the northern side. Both craters are
+inclined--the first to the west, and the latter to the east with a
+much steeper inclination, about thirty degrees. The rim of the second
+crater is higher, or the snow-field inside lower, than that of the
+first, and upon the east side rises in a rocky wall thirty feet above
+the snow within. From the summit we obtained a view of the northern
+peak, still partially enveloped in the driving mist. It appeared about
+a mile distant, several hundred feet lower than the center peak, and
+separated from it by a deeper, more abrupt depression or gap than
+that separating Crater and Success peaks. Like the latter, too, it is
+a sharp, narrow ridge springing out from the main mountain, and swept
+bare of snow on its summit by the wind. The weather was still too
+threatening, the glimpses of the sun and sky through the thick, flying
+scud were too few and fugitive, to warrant us in visiting this peak,
+which we named Peak Takhoma, to perpetuate the Indian name of the
+mountain.
+
+Our route back was the same as on the ascent. At the steepest and most
+perilous point in descending the steep gutter where we had been forced
+to cut steps in the ice, we fastened one end of the rope as securely
+as possible to a projecting rock, and lowered ourselves down by it as
+far as it reached, thereby passing the place with comparative safety.
+We were forced to abandon the rope here, having no means of
+unfastening it from the rock above. We reached the foot of the rocky
+ledge or ridge, where the real difficulties and dangers of the ascent
+commenced, at 1.30 P.M., four and a half hours after leaving the
+crater. We had been seven and a half hours in ascending from this
+point to the summit of Peak Success, and in both cases we toiled hard
+and lost no time.
+
+We now struck out rapidly and joyfully for camp. When nearly there Van
+Trump, in attempting to descend a snowbank without his creepers, which
+he had taken off for greater ease in walking, fell, shot like
+lightning forty feet down the steep incline, and struck among some
+loose rocks at its foot with such force as to rebound several feet
+into the air; his face and hands were badly skinned, and he received
+some severe bruises and a deep, wide gash upon his thigh. Fortunately
+the camp was not far distant, and thither with great pain and very
+slowly he managed to hobble. Once there I soon started a blazing fire,
+made coffee, and roasted choice morsels of a marmot, Sluiskin having
+killed and dressed four of these animals during our absence. Their
+flesh, like the badger's, is extremely muscular and tough, and has a
+strong, disagreeable, doggy odor.
+
+Towards the close of our repast, we observed the Indian approaching
+with his head down, and walking slowly and wearily as though tired by
+a long tramp. He raised his head as he came nearer, and, seeing us for
+the first time, stopped short, gazed long and fixedly, and then slowly
+drew near, eying us closely the while, as if to see whether we were
+real flesh and blood or disembodied ghosts fresh from the evil demon
+of Takhoma. He seemed both astonished and delighted to find us safe
+back, and kept repeating that we were strong men and had brave hearts:
+"Skookum tilicum, skookum tumtum." He expected never to see us again,
+he said, and had resolved to start the next morning for Olympia to
+report our destruction.
+
+The weather was still raw and cold. A dense cloud overhung and
+shrouded the triple crown of Takhoma and made us rejoice at our timely
+descent. The scanty shelter afforded by the few balsam firs about our
+camp had been destroyed by the fire, and the situation was terribly
+exposed to the chilly and piercing wind that blew from the great
+ice-fields. Van Trump, however, was too badly hurt to think of moving
+that night. Heating some large stones we placed them at our feet, and
+closely wrapped in our blankets slept soundly upon the open ground,
+although we awoke in the morning benumbed and chilled.
+
+We found many fresh tracks and signs of the mountain-sheep upon the
+snowfields, and hair and wool rubbed off upon rocks, and places where
+they had lain at night. The mountain-sheep of Takhoma is much larger
+than the common goat, and is found only upon the loftiest and most
+secluded peaks of the Cascade Range. Even Sluiskin, a skillful hunter
+and accustomed to the pursuit of this animal for years, failed to kill
+one, notwithstanding he hunted assiduously during our entire stay
+upon the mountain, three days. Sluiskin was greatly chagrined at his
+failure, and promised to bring each of us a sheep-skin the following
+summer, a promise which he faithfully fulfilled.
+
+The glacial system of Takhoma is stupendous. The mountain is really
+the focal centre and summit of a region larger than Massachusetts, and
+the five large rivers which water this region all find their sources
+in its vast glaciers. They are the Cowlitz, which empties into the
+Columbia; the White, Puyallup, and Nisqually rivers, which empty into
+Puget Sound sixty, forty, and twelve miles respectively north of
+Olympia; and the Wenass, which flows eastward through the range and
+empties into the Yakima, which joins the Columbia four hundred miles
+above its mouth. These are all large streams from seventy to a hundred
+miles in length. The White, Puyallup, and Cowlitz rivers are each
+navigable for steamboats for some thirty miles, and like the Nisqually
+show their glacial origin by their white and turgid water, which
+indeed gives the former its name.
+
+The southwestern sides of the mountain furnish the glaciers which form
+the sources of the Nisqually, and one of these, at Sluiskin's Falls,
+has been already described. The main Nisqually glacier issues from the
+deep abyss overhung by the vast rock along the face of which our route
+of ascent lay, and extends in a narrow and somewhat crooked canyon for
+two miles. The ice at its extremity rises in an abrupt wall five
+hundred feet high, and a noisy torrent pours out with great force from
+beneath. This feature is characteristic of every glacier. The main
+Cowlitz glacier issues from the southeast side, just to the right of
+our ridge of ascent. Its head fills a deep gorge at the foot of the
+eastern front or face of the great mass of rock just referred to, and
+the southern face of which overhangs the main Nisqually glacier. Thus
+the heads of these glaciers are separated only by this great rock, and
+are probably not more than half a mile apart, while their mouths are
+three miles apart. Several smaller glaciers serve to swell the waters
+of the Cowlitz. In like manner the glaciers from the western side form
+the Puyallup, and those from the northern and northwestern sides the
+White River. The principal White River glacier is nearly ten miles
+long, and its width is from two to four miles. Its depth, or the
+thickness of its ice, must be thousands of feet. Streams and rivulets
+under the heat of the sun flow down its surface until swallowed by the
+crevasses, and a lakelet of deep blue water an eighth of a mile in
+diameter has been observed upon the solid ice. Pouring down from the
+mountain, the ice by its immense weight and force has gouged out a
+mass upon the northeastern side a mile in thickness. The geological
+formation of Takhoma poorly resists the eroding power of these mighty
+glaciers, for it seems to be composed not of solid rock, but of a
+basaltic conglomerate in strata, as though the volcanic force had
+burst through and rent in pieces some earlier basaltic outflow, and
+had heaped up this vast pile from the fragments in successive strata.
+On every side the mountain is slowly disintegrating.
+
+What other peak can offer to scientific examination or to the
+admiration of tourists fourteen living glaciers of such magnitude,
+issuing from every side, or such grandeur, beauty, and variety of
+scenery?
+
+At daylight we broke up our camp at Sluiskin's Falls, and moved
+slowly, on account of Van Trump's hurt, down the ridge about five
+miles to Clear Creek, where we again regaled ourselves upon a hearty
+repast of marmots, or "raw dog," as Van Trump styled them in derision
+both of the viand and of the cookery. I was convinced from the lay of
+the country that Clear Creek flowed into the Nisqually, or was,
+perhaps, the main stream itself, and that the most direct and feasible
+route back to Bear Prairie would be found by following down the valley
+of these streams to the trail leading from the Nisqually to Bear
+Prairie. Besides, it was evidently impossible for Van Trump, in his
+bruised and injured state, to retrace our rough route over the
+mountains. Leaving him as comfortable as possible, with all our scanty
+stock of flour and marmots, sufficient to last him nearly a week in
+case of need, I started immediately after dinner, with Sluiskin
+leading the way, to explore this new route. The Indian had opposed the
+attempt strenuously, insisting with much urgency that the stream
+flowed through canyons impossible for us to traverse. He now gradually
+veered away from the course of the stream, until ere-long he was
+leading directly up the steep mountain range upon our former route,
+when I called him back peremptorily, and kept him in the rear for a
+little distance. Traveling through open timber, over ground rapidly
+descending, we came at the end of two miles to where the stream is
+hemmed in between one of the long ridges or spurs from Takhoma and the
+high mountain-chain on the south. The stream, receiving many affluents
+on both sides, its clear waters soon discolored by the yeasty glacial
+torrents, here loses its peaceful flow, and for upwards of three miles
+rushes furiously down a narrow, broken, and rocky bed in a succession
+of falls and cascades of great picturesque beauty. With much toil and
+difficulty we picked our way over a wide "talus" of huge, broken
+granite blocks and bowlders, along the foot of a vast mountain of
+solid granite on the south side of the river, until near the end of
+the defile, then crossed the stream, and soon after encountered a
+still larger branch coming from the north, direct from Takhoma, the
+product, doubtless, of the glaciers on the southern and southwestern
+sides. Fording this branch just above its confluence with the other,
+we followed the general course of the river, now unmistakably the
+Nisqually, for about four miles; then, leaving it, we struck off
+nearly south through the forest for three miles, and emerged upon the
+Bear Prairie. The distance was about thirteen miles from where we
+left Van Trump, and we were only some six hours in traveling it, while
+it took seventeen hours of terribly severe work to make the
+mountain-route under Sluiskin's guidance.
+
+Without his help on the shorter route, too, it would have taken me
+more than twice the time it did. For the manner in which, after
+entering the defile of the Nisqually, Sluiskin again took the lead and
+proceeded in a direct and unhesitating course, securing every
+advantage of the ground, availing himself of the wide, rocky bars
+along the river, crossing and recrossing the milky flood which rushed
+along with terrific swiftness and fury, and occasionally forcing his
+way through the thick timber and underbrush in order to cut off wide
+bends of the river, and at length leaving it and striking boldly
+through the forest to Bear Prairie, proved him familiar with every
+foot of the country. His objections to the route evidently arose from
+the jealousy so common with his people of further exploration of the
+country by the whites. As long as they keep within the limits already
+known and explored, they are faithful and indefatigable guides, but
+they invariably interpose every obstacle their ingenuity can suggest
+to deter the adventurous mountaineer from exposing the few last hidden
+recesses that remain unexplored.
+
+Mr. Coleman was found safe in camp, and seemed too glad to see us to
+think of reproaching us for our summary abandonment. He said that in
+attempting to follow us he climbed up so precipitous a place that,
+encumbered with his heavy pack, he could neither advance nor recede.
+He was compelled, therefore, to throw off the pack, which rolled to
+the very bottom of the mountain, and being thus delivered of his
+necessary outfit, he was forced to return to camp. He had been unable
+to find his pack, but having come across some cricketer's spikes among
+his remaining effects, he was resolved to continue his trip to, and
+make the ascent of, Rainier by himself; he had just completed his
+preparations, and especially had deposited on top of the lofty
+mountain which overlooked the prairie two caches, or stores, of
+provisions.
+
+At daylight next morning, Sluiskin, with his little boy riding one of
+his own ponies, himself riding our little calico-colored pack-horse,
+now well rested and saucy, started back for Van Trump, with directions
+to meet us at the trail on the Nisqually. A heavy, drizzling rain set
+in soon afterwards; Mr. Coleman, who had gone early to bring in the
+contents of his mountain-top caches, returned about noon with a very
+small bundle, and, packing our traps upon Sluiskin's other pony, we
+moved over to the rendezvous, pitched Coleman's large gum-sheet as a
+partial shelter, made a rousing fire, and tried to be comfortable.
+Late in the afternoon the pony set up a violent neighing, and in a few
+minutes Van Trump, and Sluiskin with his little boy behind him, rode
+up, drenched to the skin. By following the bed of the river,
+frequently crossing and recrossing, the Indian had managed to ride to
+the very foot of the Nisqually defile, when, leaving the horses in
+this boy's care, he hastened to Van Trump and carefully led and
+assisted him down. Despite the pain of his severe hurts, the latter
+was much amused at Sluiskin's account of our trip, and of finding Mr.
+Coleman safe in camp making tea, and for long after would repeat as an
+excellent joke Sluiskin's remark on passing the point where he had
+attempted to mislead me, "Skookum tenas man hiyu goddam."
+
+We sent the horses back by the Indian to Bear Prairie for grass, there
+being no indications of the rain ceasing. The storm indeed lasted
+three days, during which we remained sheltered beneath the gum-sheet
+as far as possible, and endeavored to counteract the rain by heaping
+up our fire in front. About eight o'clock on the second morning,
+Sluiskin reported himself with our horse, which he returned, he said,
+because he was about to return to his lodge on the Cowlitz, being
+destitute of shelter and food for his family on Bear Prairie. He
+vigorously replenished the fire, declined breakfast, jeered Coleman
+for turning back, although probably the latter did not comprehend his
+broken lingo, and departed.
+
+Sluiskin was an original and striking character. Leading a solitary
+life of hardships amidst these wilds, yet of unusual native
+intelligence, he had contrived, during rare visits to the settlements,
+to acquire the Chinook jargon, besides a considerable stock of English
+words, while his fund of general information was really wonderful. He
+was possessed of a shrewd, sarcastic wit, and, making no pretense to
+the traditional gravity of his race, did not scruple to use it freely.
+Yet beneath this he cherished a high sense of pride and personal
+independence. Although of the blood of the numerous and powerful
+Yakimas, who occupied the country just east of the Cascades, he
+disdained to render allegiance to them or any tribe, and undoubtedly
+regarded the superintendent of Indian affairs, or even the great
+father at Washington himself, with equally contemptuous indifference.
+
+As the last rays of the sun, one warm, drowsy summer afternoon, were
+falling aslant the shady streets of Olympia, Mr. Longmire's well-worn
+family carry-all, drawn by two fat, grass-fed horses, came rattling
+down the main street at a most unusual pace for them; two bright flags
+attached to Alpine staffs, one projecting from each door, fluttered
+gayly overhead, while the occupants of the carriage looked eagerly
+forth to catch the first glimpse of welcoming friends. We returned
+after our tramp of two hundred and forty miles with visages tanned and
+sun-scorched, and with forms as lean and gaunt as greyhounds, and were
+received and lionized to the full, like veterans returning from an
+arduous and glorious campaign. For days afterward, in walking along
+the smooth and level pavements, we felt a strong impulse to step high,
+as though still striding over the innumerable fallen logs and boughs
+of the forest, and for weeks our appetites were a source of
+astonishment to our friends and somewhat mortifying to ourselves. More
+than two months had elapsed before Mr. Van Trump fully recovered from
+his hurts. We published at the time short newspaper accounts of the
+ascent, and, although an occasional old Puget Sounder will still
+growl, "They say they went on top of Mount Rainier, but I'd like to
+see them prove it," we were justly regarded as the first, and as I
+believe the only ones up to the present time, who have ever achieved
+the summit of Takhoma.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[21] Tak-ho'ma or Ta-ho'ma among the Yakimas, Klickitats, Puyallups,
+Nisquallys, and allied tribes of Indians, is the generic term for
+mountain, used precisely as we use the word "mount," as Takhoma
+Wynatchie, or Mount Wynatchie. But they all designate Rainier simply
+as Takhoma, or The Mountain, just as the mountain men used to call it
+the "Old He." (Note in the original article.)
+
+
+
+
+VII. INDIAN WARNING AGAINST DEMONS
+
+BY SLUISKIN, INDIAN GUIDE
+
+
+     The beautiful Sluiskin Falls, at the head of Paradise Valley,
+     have been admired by countless visitors to the Mount Rainier
+     National Park. The name was bestowed upon them by Stevens and
+     Van Trump after their return from what the Indian guide
+     believed was sure death. Before they had left him at the camp
+     near the falls and started to climb over the snow and ice, he
+     delivered an eloquent plea in the Chinook jargon accompanied
+     by natural but effective gestures.
+
+     The speech was remembered and repeated by the white men when
+     they returned among their friends. One of those who committed
+     it to memory was former Congressman M. C. George of Oregon.
+     He furnished a copy. General Stevens in 1915 revised it, but
+     added: "My Chinook I have somewhat lost, so the rendering is
+     probably not so correct as it might be."
+
+     However, the Indian speech and the translation by General
+     Stevens will likely be cherished as here reproduced.
+
+Kloshe nanich, mesika kloshe tilikum. Nika tikigh wawa kopa mesika.
+
+Mesika tikegh klatawa saghalie Takhoma, hyiu pelton. Halo tilikum
+mamook okoke pe mitlite. Hyas tyee mitlite kopa saghalie illahee kopa
+hyiu piah. Wake tikigh tilikum chako kopa yahka illahee.
+
+Ahnkuttie nika papa yahka papa, hyas skookum tyee kopa konaway Yakima
+tilikum, klatawa wake siah yahka la tet. Alta nanich piah chuck pe
+keekwulee tyee chako mimoluse yahka pe hyak klatawa keekwulee saghalie
+illahee, pe hyiu kloshe tumtum. Yahka wake mamook alta, halo ikt
+siwash mamook klatawa.
+
+Kloshe mesika klatawa, kloshe mamook. Hyiu snow, kloshe klatawa snow
+illahee, ahnkuttie nika mimoluse Takhoma mowich kloshe ooakut. Alta
+mesika nanich klatawa hyiu stone, wake kloshe klatawa pe mesika
+teahwit tseepie alta mesika klatawa keekwulee pe mimoluse, keekwulee
+pe mimoluse. Mesika klatawa hyas mesachie snow pe keekwulee hyas
+mesachie illahee yahka Takhoma mowich halo klatawa. Mesika klatawa
+hyas saghalie illahee hyiu stone chako, hyiu stone chako, pe mesika
+mimoluse pe kokshut mesika.
+
+Spose mesika klatawa kopa okoke saghalie illahee alta mesika hyiu
+skookum pe cole wind alta yahka mahsh mesika kopa keekwulee illahee pe
+mimoluse mesika. Spose mesika mitlite mesachie iktas hyas keekwulee
+tyee mitlite Takhoma mesika mimoluse pe mesika mahsh okoke piah chuck.
+
+Wake mesika klatawa!
+
+Mesika mamook nika tumtum kwass, spose mesika klatawa Takhoma
+saghalie. Mesika mimoluse mesika spose klatawa Takhoma. Mesika
+mimoluse pe mesika tilikum sollecks kopa nika.
+
+Wake klatawa!
+
+Wake klatawa!
+
+Spose mesika klatawa, nika mitlite mokst sun pe alta nika klatawa kopa
+Olympia pe wawa kopa mesika tilikum alta mesika mimoluse siah saghalie
+Takhoma. Mesika potlatch pehpah kopa nika mamook kumtuks mesika
+mimoluse wake nika mesachie.
+
+Kopet wawa nika.
+
+
+    TRANSLATION BY GENERAL STEVENS
+
+Listen to me, my good friends. I must talk to you.
+
+Your plan to climb Takhoma is all foolishness. No one can do it and
+live. A mighty chief dwells upon the summit in a lake of fire. He
+brooks no intruders.
+
+Many years ago my grandfather, the greatest and bravest chief of all
+the Yakima, climbed nearly to the summit. There he caught sight of the
+fiery lake and the infernal demon coming to destroy him, and he fled
+down the mountain, glad to escape with his life. Where he failed, no
+other Indian ever dared make the attempt.
+
+At first the way is easy, the task seems light. The broad snowfields,
+over which I have often hunted the mountain goat, offer an inviting
+path. But above them you will have to climb over steep rocks
+overhanging deep gorges where a misstep would hurl you far down--down
+to certain death. You must creep over steep snow banks and cross deep
+crevasses where a mountain goat could hardly keep his footing. You
+must climb along steep cliffs where rocks are continually falling to
+crush you, or knock you off into the bottomless depths.
+
+And if you should escape these perils and reach the great snowy dome,
+then a bitterly cold and furious tempest will sweep you off into space
+like a withered leaf. But if by some miracle you should survive all
+these perils the mighty demon of Takhoma will surely kill you and
+throw you into the fiery lake.
+
+Don't you go!
+
+You make my heart sick when you talk of climbing Takhoma. You will
+perish if you try to climb Takhoma. You will perish and your people
+will blame me.
+
+Don't go!
+
+Don't go!
+
+If you will go, I will wait here two days, and then go to Olympia and
+tell your people that you perished on Takhoma. Give me a paper to them
+to let them know that I am not to blame for your death.
+
+My talk is ended.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: SAMUEL FRANKLIN EMMONS.]
+
+VIII. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870
+
+By S. F. EMMONS
+
+
+     Later in the same year, 1870, when Stevens and Van Trump made
+     their first successful ascent, the achievement was also
+     accomplished by S. F. Emmons and A. D. Wilson of the
+     Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel. Samuel
+     Franklin Emmons was born at Boston on March 29, 1841. He died
+     painlessly and unexpectedly on the eve of his seventieth
+     birthday, March 28, 1911.
+
+     George F. Becker gave him a fervent eulogy which appeared in
+     the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining
+     Engineers for 1911. He says: "There is not a geological
+     society or even a mining camp from Arctic Finland to the
+     Transvaal, or from Alaska to Australia, where Emmons's name
+     is not honored and his authority recognized." With all his
+     fame and ability, the biographer declares, he was modest to
+     diffidence.
+
+     His account of the ascent is in the form of a letter to his
+     chief, Clarence King, who published it in the American
+     Journal of Science for March, 1871. It is here reproduced
+     from that source. The photograph of Mr. Emmons was obtained
+     from the United States Geological Survey. It will be noticed
+     that Mr. Emmons calls the mountain Tachoma.
+
+     The Mountain's largest glacier, to which he refers with
+     enthusiasm, was for a long time known by the name of White
+     River which it feeds. It is peculiarly appropriate that that
+     glacier should bear the name given it on the official map of
+     the United States Geological Survey--Emmons Glacier.
+
+The glaciers of Mt. Tachoma, or Rainier as it is more commonly called,
+form the principal sources of four important rivers of Washington
+Territory, viz: the Cowlitz, which flows into the Columbia, and the
+Nisqually, Puyallup and White rivers which empty into Puget Sound. In
+accordance with your instructions, Mr. A. D. Wilson and I visited this
+mountain in the early part of October, 1870, and carried the work of
+making its complete survey, both geological and topographical, as far
+as the lateness of the season and the means at our disposal would
+permit. As the topographical work has not yet been plotted, the
+figures given in my notes are merely estimates, and liable to
+subsequent correction. I herewith transmit an abstract from my notes
+upon the glaciers, embracing those of rather more than half the slopes
+of the mountain, those on the eastern side, from the extreme southern
+to the extreme northern point.
+
+The summit of Tachoma is formed by three peaks, a southern, an
+eastern, and a northwestern: of these the eastern is the highest;
+those on the south and northwest, being apparently a few hundred feet
+lower, are distant about a mile and a half to two miles from this, and
+separated by deep valleys. The eastern peak, which would seem to have
+formed originally the middle of the mountain mass, is a crater about a
+quarter of a mile in diameter of very perfect circular form. Its sides
+are bare for about 60 feet from the rim, below which they are covered
+by a _névé_ having a slope of from 28° to 31°. This _névé_ extending
+from the shoulders of the southwestern peak to those of the northern,
+a width of several miles, descends to a vertical distance of about
+2000 feet below the crater rim, an immense sheet of white granular
+ice, having the general form of the mountain surface, and broken only
+by long transverse crevasses, one of those observed being from one to
+two miles in length: it is then divided up by the several jutting
+rock-masses or shoulder of the mountain into the Nisqually, Cowlitz
+and White River glaciers, falling in distinct ice cascades for about
+3000 feet at very steep angles, which sometimes approach the
+perpendicular. From the foot of these cascades flow the glaciers
+proper, at a more gentle angle, growing narrower and sinking deeper
+into the mountain as they descend. From the intervening spurs, which
+slope even more gradually, they receive many tributary glaciers,
+while some of these secondary glaciers form independent streams, which
+only join the main river many miles below the end of the glaciers.
+
+The Nisqually, the narrowest of the three main glaciers above
+mentioned, has the most sinuous course, varying in direction from
+southwest to south, while its lower extremity is somewhat west of
+south of the main peak: it receives most of its tributaries from the
+spur to the east, and has a comparatively regular slope in its whole
+length below the cascades. There are some indications of dirt-bands on
+its surface, when seen from a considerable elevation. Toward its lower
+end it is very much broken up by transverse and longitudinal
+crevasses: this is due to the fact, that it has here cut through the
+more yielding strata of volcanic rock, and come upon an underlying and
+unconformable mass of syenite. The ice front at its base is about 500
+feet in height, and the walls of lava which bound its sides rise from
+1000 to 1500 feet above the surface of the ice, generally in sheer
+precipices.
+
+The bed of the Cowlitz glacier is generally parallel to that of the
+Nisqually, though its curves are less marked: the ice cascades in
+which each originates, fall on either side of a black cliff of bedded
+lava and breccia scarcely a thousand feet in horizontal thickness,
+while the mouths of the glaciers, if I may be allowed the expression,
+are about three miles apart. From the jutting edge of this cliff hang
+enormous icicles from 75 to 100 feet in length. The slope of this
+glacier is less regular, being broken by subordinate ice cascades.
+Like the Nisqually its lower extremity stretches out as it were into
+the forest, the slopes on either side, where not too steep, being
+covered with the mountain fir (_Picea nobilis_) for several hundred
+feet above the level of the ice, while the _Pinus flexilis_ grows at
+least 2000 feet higher than the mouth of the glacier.
+
+The general course of this glacier is south, but at its extremity it
+bends to the eastward, apparently deflected from its course by a
+cliff of older felsitic rock, more resisting than the lava. The
+consequence of this deflection is a predominance of longitudinal over
+transverse crevasses at this point, and an unusually large moraine at
+its western side, which rises several hundred feet above the surface
+of the glaciers, and partakes of the character of both lateral and
+terminal moraines: the main medial moraine of the glacier joins this
+near its lower end. This medial moraine proceeds from the cliff which
+bounds the ice cascade source of the glacier on the north, and brings
+down a dark porous lava which is only found high up on the mountain
+near the crater. The position of the medial moraine on the glacier
+would indicate that at least half its mass came from the spur on the
+east, which is probably the case.
+
+This spur, comprehending the whole mass between the Cowlitz and White
+Rivers glaciers, has the shape of a triangle whose apex is formed by a
+huge pinnacle of rock, which, as its bedding indicates, once formed
+part of the crust of the mountain, but now stands isolated, a jagged
+peak rising about 3000 feet above the glaciers at its foot, so steep
+that neither ice nor snow rest upon it. One of the tributaries to the
+Cowlitz glacier from this spur brings down with it a second medial
+moraine, which is traceable to the mouth of the glacier, though in
+general these tributary glaciers bring no medial moraines.
+
+On the eastern slopes of this spur between the two above named
+glaciers, spread secondary glaciers, frequently of great width, but
+owing to the limited height of their initial points, of inconsiderable
+length. These end generally in perpendicular cliffs overhanging the
+rocky amphitheaters at the heads of the smaller streams which flow
+eastward into the Cowlitz. Looking up from the bottom of one of these
+amphitheaters one sees a semi-circular wall of nearly 2000 feet of
+sheer rock, surmounted by about 500 feet of ice, from under which
+small streams of water issue, falling in silvery cascades on to the
+green bottom below.
+
+A ridge of high jagged peaks connects this spur with the main range of
+the Cascade Mts. in the east, and forms the water-shed between the
+White and Cowlitz rivers. From the connecting saddle one can look
+northward across the brink of six glaciers, which all contribute to
+the White River; of these the first four come from the triangular spur
+already mentioned and are of comparatively little extent. The first
+two are, however, interesting from the vein structure which they
+exhibit; they both originate in an irregularly oblong basin, having
+the shape somewhat of an inclined ellipse, turning on its longer
+diameter, the outlets of the glacier being opposite the foci. Seen
+from a high point the veins form concentric lines generally parallel
+to the sides of the basin; the ends of those towards the center
+gradually bend round, until they join together in the form of a figure
+8, and finally just above the outlets form two small ellipses. They
+thus constantly preserve a direction at right angles to that of the
+pressure exerted, downward by the movement of the ice mass, and upward
+by the resistance to this movement of the rock mass between the two
+outlets.
+
+The main White River glacier, the grandest of the whole,[22] pours
+straight down from the rim of the crater in a northeasterly direction,
+and pushes its extremity farther out into the valley than any of the
+others. Its greatest width on the steep slope of the mountain must be
+four or five miles, narrowing towards its extremity to about a mile
+and a half; its length can be scarcely less than ten miles. The great
+eroding power of glacial ice is strikingly illustrated in this
+glacier, which seems to have cut down and carried away on the
+northeastern side of the mountain, fully a third of its mass. The
+thickness of rock cut away as shown by the walls on either side, and
+the isolated peak at the head of the triangular spur, in which the
+bedding of the successive flows of lava, forming the original mountain
+crust, is very regular and conformable, may be roughly estimated at
+somewhat over a mile. Of the thickness of the ice of the glacier I
+have no data for making estimates, though it may probably be reckoned
+in thousands of feet.
+
+It has two principal medial moraines, which, where crossed by us,
+formed little mountain ridges having peaks nearly 100 feet high. The
+sources of these moraines are cliffs on the steeper mountain slope,
+which seem mere black specks in the great white field above: between
+these are great cascades, and below immense transverse crevasses,
+which we had no time or means to visit. The surface water flows in
+rills and brooks, on the lower portion of the glacier, and _moulins_
+are of frequent occurrence. We visited one double _moulin_ where two
+brooks poured into two circular wells, each about ten feet in
+diameter, joined together at the surface but separated below: we could
+not approach near enough the edge to see the bottom of either, but, as
+stones thrown in sent back no sound, judged they must be very deep.
+
+This glacier forks near the foot of the steeper mountain slope, and
+sends off a branch to the northward, which forms a large stream
+flowing down to join the main stream fifteen or twenty miles below.
+Looking down on this from a high overhanging peak, we could see, as it
+were, under our feet, a little lake of deep blue water, about an
+eighth of a mile in diameter, standing in the brown gravel-covered ice
+of the end of the glacier. On the back of the rocky spur, which
+divides these two glaciers, a secondary glacier has scooped out a
+basin-shaped bed, and sends down an ice stream, having all the
+characteristics of a true glacier, but its ice disappears several
+miles above the mouths of the large glaciers on either side. Were
+nothing known of the movement of glaciers, an instance like this
+would seem to afford sufficient evidence that such movement exists,
+and that gravity is the main motive power. From our northern and
+southern points we could trace the beds of several large glaciers to
+the west of us, whose upper and lower portions only were visible, the
+main body of the ice lying hidden by the high intervening spurs.
+
+Ten large glaciers observed by us, and at least half as many more
+hidden by the mountain from our view, proceeding thus from an isolated
+peak, form a most remarkable system, and one worthy of a careful and
+detailed study.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[22] It is a pleasure to note that this fine glacier now bears the
+name of Emmons.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: BAILEY WILLIS.
+  From a photograph taken in 1883.]
+
+IX. EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHERN SLOPES, 1881-1883
+
+BY BAILEY WILLIS
+
+
+     The Northwest for April, 1883, which was Number 2 of Volume I
+     of that magazine, contained an article by Bailey Willis,
+     Assistant Geologist of the Northern Transcontinental Survey.
+     The article is entitled "Canyons and Glaciers. A Journey to
+     the Ice Fields of Mount Tacoma." Mr. Willis was born at
+     Idlewild-on-Hudson, New York, on May 31, 1857. It speaks well
+     for his skill and training that he should have attained to
+     such a position at twenty-four years of age.
+
+     Since then he has worked out a great career in the United
+     States Geological Survey, in China and in other parts of the
+     world. He is now Professor of Geology at Stanford University.
+     He has kindly revised for this publication the product of his
+     younger years. And there has also been found a photograph of
+     the geologist as he appeared when the surveys were made.
+
+     To this day, people who visit the northern slopes and parks
+     of the mountain become familiar with the Bailey Willis trail
+     and from Moraine Park they get a view of the wonderful Willis
+     Wall named in his honor.
+
+The Puyallup River, which empties into Puget Sound near New Tacoma,
+heads in three glaciers on Mount Tacoma. During the summer months,
+when the ice and snow on the mountains are thawing, the water is
+discolored with mud from the glaciers and carries a large amount of
+sediment out to Commencement Bay. If the Coast Survey charts are
+correct, soundings near the centre of the bay have changed from one
+hundred fathoms and "no bottom" in 1867, to eighty fathoms and "gray
+mud" in 1877. But when the nights in the hills begin to be frosty, the
+stream becomes clearer, and in winter the greater volume of spring
+water gives it a deep green tint.
+
+For twenty miles from the Sound the valley is nearly level. The bluffs
+along the river are of coarse gravel, the soil is alluvium, and a well
+sunk a hundred feet at the little town of Puyallup passed through
+gravel and sand to tide mud and brackish water. From the foot-hills to
+its mouth the river meanders over an old valley of unknown depth, now
+filled with material brought down by its several branches. About
+eighteen miles above its mouth the river forks, and the northern
+portion takes the name of Carbon River; the southern was formerly
+called the South Fork, but it should retain the name of Puyallup to
+its next division far up in the mountains. A short distance above
+their junction both Carbon River and the Puyallup escape from narrow,
+crooked cañons, whose vertical sides, one hundred to three hundred
+feet high, are often but fifty feet apart. From these walls steep,
+heavily timbered slopes rise two hundred to eight hundred feet to the
+summits of the foot-hills. These cañons link the buried river basin of
+the lower stream with the upper river valleys. The latter extend from
+the heads of the cañons to the glaciers. They are apparently the
+deserted beds of mightier ice rivers, now shrunk to the very foot of
+Mount Tacoma.
+
+From New Tacoma the entire course of the Puyallup and part of Carbon
+River are in view. Across Commencement Bay are the tide marshes of the
+delta; back from these salt meadows the light green of the
+cottonwoods, alder and vine-maple mark the river's course, till it is
+lost in the dark monotone of the fir forest. No break in the evergreen
+surface indicates the place of the river cañons; but far out among the
+foot-hills a line of mist hangs over the upper valley of Carbon River,
+which winds away eastward, behind the rising ground, to the northern
+side of Mount Tacoma. Milk Creek, one of its branches, drains the
+northwest spur, and on the western slope the snows accumulate in two
+glaciers, from which flow the North and South Forks of the Puyallup.
+These streams meet in a level valley at the base of three singular
+peaks, and plunge united into the dark gateway of the cañon.
+
+A trip to the grand snow peak from which these rivers spring was
+within a year a very difficult undertaking. There was no trail through
+the dense forest, no supply depot on the route. No horse nor donkey
+could accompany the explorer, who took his blankets and provisions on
+his back, and worked his way slowly among the towering tree trunks,
+through underbrush luxuriant as a tropic jungle. But last summer a
+good horse trail was built from Wilkeson to Carbon River, crossing it
+above the cañon, sixteen miles below the glacier, and during the
+autumn it was extended to the head of the Puyallup. Wilkeson is
+reached by a branch railroad from New Tacoma. It is on a small
+tributary of Carbon River, called Fletts Creek, at a point where the
+brook runs from a narrow gorge into a valley about a quarter of a mile
+wide. Coal mines are opened at this point. The horse trail climbs at
+once from Wilkeson to the first terrace, four hundred feet above the
+valley; then winds a quarter of a mile back through the forest to the
+second ascent of a hundred feet, and then a mile over the level to the
+third. Hidden here beneath the thick covering of moss and undergrowth
+of the primeval forest, fourteen hundred feet above the present ocean
+level, are ancient shore lines of the sea, which has left its trace in
+similar terraces in all the valleys about the Sound.[23] Thence the
+trail extends southward over a level plateau. Carbon River Cañon is
+but half a mile away on the west, and five miles from Wilkeson the
+valley above the cañon is reached. The descent to the river is over
+three miles along the hillside eastward.
+
+From Wilkeson to the river the way is all through a belt of forest,
+where the conditions of growth are very favorable. The fir trees are
+massive, straight and free from limbs to a great height. The larger
+ones, eight to twelve feet in diameter on a level with a man's head,
+carry their size upward, tapering very gradually, till near the top
+they shoot out a thick mat of foliage and the trunk in a few feet
+diminishes to a point. One such was measured; it stands like a huge
+obelisk 180 feet, without a limb, supporting a crown of but forty feet
+more. The more slender trees are, curiously enough, the taller;
+straight, clear shafts rise 100 to 150 feet, topped with foliage whose
+highest needles would look down on Trinity spire. Cedars, hemlocks,
+spruce and white fir mingle with these giants, but they do not compete
+with them in height; they fill in the spaces in the vast colonnades.
+Below is the carpet of deep golden green moss and glossy ferns, and
+the tangle of vines and bushes that cover the fallen trunks of the
+fathers of the forest.
+
+The silence of these mountains is awesome, the solitude oppressive.
+The deer, the bear, the panther are seldom met; they see and hear
+first and silently slip away, leaving only their tracks to prove their
+numbers. There are very few birds. Blue jays, and their less showy
+gray, but equally impudent, cousins, the "whiskey jacks," assemble
+about a camp; but in passing through the forest one may wander a whole
+day and see no living thing save a squirrel, whose shrill chatter is
+startling amid the silence. The wind plays in the tree tops far
+overhead, but seldom stirs the branches of the smaller growth. The
+great tree trunks stand immovable. The more awful is it when a gale
+roars through the timber; when the huge columns sway in unison and
+groan with voices strangely human. It is fearful to lie in the utter
+darkness of a stormy night, listening to the pulsating rush of the
+wind, the moan of the forest and the crash of uprooted giants upon
+the ground--listening with bated breath for the report which may
+foretell the fall of yonder tall decaying shaft, whose thick, deep
+cleft bark blazed so brightly on the now dying camp fire. The effect
+of one such storm is seen in Carbon River Valley, above and below
+where the trail crosses. The blast followed the stream and the
+mountain slope on the south side; over an area eight miles long and a
+half a mile to a mile wide the forest is prostrate. Single trees stand
+gaunt and charred by a recent fire, but their comrades are piled like
+jackstraws, the toys of the tornado. Over and under each other they
+lie, bent and interlaced, twenty, thirty feet deep. Pigmy man strained
+his eyes to see their tops, when they stood erect; now he vainly
+stands on tiptoe to look over them in their fallen majesty.
+
+To the head of Carbon River from the bridge, on which the trail
+crosses it, is about sixteen miles. The rocky bed of the river is 100
+to 200 yards wide, a gray strip of polished boulders between sombre
+mountain slopes, that rise sharply from it. The stream winds in
+ever-shifting channels among the stones. About six miles above the
+bridge Milk Creek dashes down from its narrow gorge into the river.
+The high pinnacles of the spur from which it springs are hidden by the
+nearer fir-clad ridges. Between their outlines shines the northern
+peak of Mount Tacoma, framed in dark evergreen spires. Its snow fields
+are only three miles distant, but Carbon River has come a long way
+round. For six miles eastward the undulating lines of the mountains
+converge, then those on the north suddenly cross the view, where the
+river cañon turns sharply southward.
+
+Three miles from this turn is Crescent Mountain, its summit a
+semi-circular gray wall a thousand feet high.[24] At sunset the light
+from the west streams across the head of Milk Creek and Carbon River,
+illuminating these cliffs as with the glow of volcanic fires, while
+twilight deepens in the valley. The next turn of the river brings
+Mount Tacoma again in view. Close on the right a huge buttress towers
+up, cliff upon cliff, 2,500 feet, a single one of the many imposing
+rock masses that form the Ragged Spur between Carbon River and Milk
+Creek. The more rapid fall of the river, the increasing size of the
+boulders, show the nearness of the glacier. Turning eastward to the
+south of Crescent Mountain, you pass the group of trees that hide it.
+
+This first sight is a disappointment. The glacier is a very dirty one.
+The face is about 300 feet long and thirty to forty feet high. It
+entirely fills the space between two low cliffs of polished gray
+rock. Throughout the mass the snows of successive winters are
+interstratified with the summers' accumulations of earth and rock.
+From a dark cavern, whose depths have none of the intense blue color
+so beautiful in crevasses in clear ice, Carbon River pours out, a
+muddy torrent. The top of the glacier is covered with earth about six
+inches deep, contributed to its mass by the cliffs on either side and
+by an island of rock, where a few pines grow, entirely surrounded by
+the ice river. The eye willingly passes over this dirty mass to the
+gleaming northeast spur of the mountain, where the sunlight lingers
+after the chill night wind has begun to blow from the ice fields.
+
+The disappointment of this view of the glacier leaves one unprepared
+for the beauty of that from Crescent Mountain. The ascent from a point
+a short distance down the river is steep, but not dangerous. The lower
+slopes are heavily timbered, but at an elevation of 4,000 feet juniper
+and dwarf pine are dotted over the grassy hillside. Elk, deer and
+white mountain goats find here a pleasant pasture; their trails look
+like well trodden sheep paths on a New England hill. A curious
+badger-like animal, sitting erect on his hind legs, greets one with a
+long shrill whistle that would make a schoolboy envious, but trots
+quickly away on nearer approach. The crest of the southwest rim of the
+amphitheater is easily gained, and the grandeur of the view bursts
+upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and cañons of the Cascade
+Range. Northward forest-covered hill and valley reach to Mount Baker
+and the snow peaks that break the horizon line. Westward are the blue
+waters of the Sound, the snow-clad Olympics and a faint soft line
+beyond; it may be the ocean or a fog bank above it. Southward, 9,000
+feet above you, so near you must throw your head back to see its
+summit, is grand Mount Tacoma; its graceful northern peak piercing the
+sky, it soars single and alone. Whether touched by the glow of early
+morning or gleaming in bright noonday, whether rosy with sunset light
+or glimmering ghost-like, in the full moon, whether standing out clear
+and cloudless or veiled among the mists it weaves from the warm south
+winds, it is always majestic and inspiring, always attractive and
+lovely. It is the symbol of an awful power clad in beauty.
+
+This northern slope of the mountain is very steep, and the
+consolidated snow begins its downward movement from near the top.
+Little pinnacles of rock project through the mass and form eddies in
+the current. A jagged ridge divides it, and part descends into the
+deep unexplored cañon of White River, probably the deepest chasm in
+the flanks of Mount Tacoma. The other part comes straight on toward
+the southern side of Crescent Mountain, a precipice 2,000 feet high;
+diverted, it turns in graceful flowing curves, breaks into a thousand
+ice pyramids and descends into the narrow pass, where its beauty is
+hidden under the ever-falling showers of rock.
+
+This rim you stand upon is very narrow; a hundred feet wide, sometimes
+less, between the cliff that rises 2,000 feet above the glacier and
+the descent of a thousand feet on the other side. Snow lies upon part
+of this slope; stones, started from the edge, leap in lengthening
+bounds over its firm surface and plunge with a splash into the throat
+of the lakelet that lies in the amphitheater. The ice slope, dipping
+into the clear water, passes from purest white to deepest blue as it
+passes out of sight in the depths of the basin.
+
+A two days' visit to this trackless region sufficed only to see a
+small part of the magnificent scenery. White River Cañon, the cliffs
+of Ragged Spur, the northern slope of Mount Tacoma, where the climber
+is always tempted upward, might occupy him for weeks. Across the snow
+fields, where Milk Creek rises, is the glacier of the North Fork of
+the Puyallup, and the end of the horse trail we left at Carbon River
+is within six miles of its base. When a trail is built up Carbon
+River, the way across this divide will be found, and, with comfortable
+stopping places on the two rivers, the tourist can pass a delightful
+week amid scenery we now cross the ocean to Switzerland to see.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] The terraces to which reference is here made are not the work of
+the sea, but of lakes whose waters gathered between the mountain
+slopes and retreating glaciers of the ice period. See the article by
+H. I. Bretz. Geol. Survey of Wash., Bull. 8, 1912.
+
+[24] The amphitheaters which the young geologist mistook for craters
+are now known to be glacier basins eroded by ice.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: MAJOR EDWARD STURGIS INGRAHAM.]
+
+X. DISCOVERY OF CAMP MUIR, 1888
+
+BY MAJOR E. S. INGRAHAM
+
+
+     Major Edward Sturgis Ingraham has visited the mountain
+     annually since 1888. He has ascended to the summit seven
+     times and has spent as many nights in the crater. It was he
+     who gave to a number of the prominent features of the Park
+     their beautiful and enduring names.
+
+     On his first ascent in 1888 the party included John Muir,
+     most famous naturalist of the Pacific Slope. Since he found a
+     sheltered pumice patch and suggested camping there for the
+     night, Major Ingraham called it Camp Muir, now well known to
+     all climbers.
+
+     Major Ingraham prepared an account of the ascent which was
+     published in The Puget Sound Magazine for October, 1888. That
+     magazine has long since ceased to be issued. It was edited by
+     the editor of this present work, who has rescued the article
+     from the rare and almost forgotten files.
+
+     After an extensive career as superintendent of schools,
+     printer, militia officer and miner, Major Ingraham has been
+     devoting his later years to the boy scout work, in which his
+     love for the mountains plays an important part.
+
+     A glacier on the mountain bears the name of Ingraham. How
+     that came to be, is related by him as follows: "One time when
+     I was on the mountain encamped at the Camp of the Clouds,
+     Professor I. C. Russell and another man, both in their shirt
+     sleeves, came tottering into my camp at early morning. They
+     had been caught upon the summit and had spent a shivering
+     night in the crater. I treated them the best I knew how and
+     they departed. When their maps came out I found that a
+     beautiful glacier had been named for me--Ingraham Glacier."
+
+Mount Rainier, one of Nature's masterpieces, is the most striking
+object of grandeur and beauty amidst the unsurpassed scenery of
+Washington Territory. Occupying nearly a central position
+geographically in the Territory, it is alike an object of pride to the
+inhabitants of the Great Plain of the Columbia and to the dwellers
+on Puget Sound. There are other peaks that command our attention, but
+it is to the old monarch that we turn with unfeigned pride and
+exclaim, "Behold a masterpiece!"
+
+The height of Mount Rainier, as estimated by triangulation, is 14,444
+feet. This height was verified by barometer in the hands of one party
+that reached the summit in the month of August of the present year.
+From many points of view it appears a single peak; but in reality it
+is composed of three peaks of nearly the same height. These peaks may
+be designated as northern, crater and southern. They are not in direct
+line, but occupy apexes of an obtuse-angled triangle. The northern
+peak is a cone, with its apex about two miles from the summit of
+crater peak; the southern peak is somewhat flattened on top, and is
+about one and one-half miles from crater peak. Crater peak, as the
+name suggests, has two large craters, with well-defined rims--one
+sloping slightly towards the northeast, and the other towards the
+southwest. The culminating point of this peak is a sugarloaf-shape
+mass of pure snow, about one hundred feet above all adjacent points.
+The northern and southern peaks are inaccessible, except from crater
+peak, owing to the precipitous condition of their sides, which are so
+steep that snow will not cling to them except in small patches. Down
+these sides, during some seasons of the year, avalanches go thundering
+almost hourly with a roar that makes the tourist shudder with fear.
+
+The volcanic condition of Mount Rainier is everywhere apparent. For
+miles before the base is reached vast quantities of ashes, forming the
+greater part of the soil of that region, plainly tell of extensive
+eruptions; the immediate foothills are covered with masses of red and
+black lava; while pumice is found in great abundance upon some of the
+ridges. All these evidences suggest that, long ages ago, Rainier was
+the scene of volcanic activity of immense magnitude. Ascend to the
+top, behold the two well-defined craters, with their rims perfect;
+descend those walls, and try to count the many jets of steam
+constantly puffing forth their sulphurous odors, and one is led to
+believe that Rainier has been active at a comparatively recent period.
+
+Mount Rainier, with its many glaciers, is the source of the principal
+rivers of Western Washington. From the summit of the three peaks the
+snow forges its way downward until it is compressed into ice; the ice
+in turn is compressed until it assumes that peculiar blue tint that
+characterizes ice under great pressure. These ice streams move slowly
+down the valleys, about one foot in twenty-four hours, conforming to
+their beds. Where the bed is inclined, the glacier breaks into
+innumerable masses, somewhat regular, with great yawning crevasses
+between. While crossing one of the White River glaciers below an
+ice-fall I had to stand clear of a dozen bowlders that came rolling
+down from the brink, telling very forcibly that the glacier was
+moving. These glaciers plow their way down the valleys to an elevation
+of between 3000 and 4000 feet, and there dissolve into water. Some of
+them terminate in a gentle incline; others present a high wall of
+clear ice, with the river issuing from an immense cave; still others
+deposit vast quantities of stones and earth, forming what is called
+the "terminal moraine." The glaciers of the northern peak, five in
+number, form the Puyallup and its principal tributary, the Carbon; the
+twelve glaciers of the eastern slope of crater peak yield the icy
+waters of the White and Cowlitz; the glaciers of the southern peak
+form the several sources of the Nisqually. The glaciers are from one
+to two miles in width, and from six to twelve miles in length. Like
+the rivers which they form, they themselves have tributaries. When two
+glaciers unite, their inside lateral moraines join and form a medial
+moraine.
+
+The ascent of Mount Rainier is difficult and dangerous. Three
+different parties have reached the summit from the south side--namely,
+Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump in 1870; P. B. Van Trump, James
+Longmire and Mr. Bailey, in 1883; and a party of seven, of which the
+writer was the projector, in August of the present year. A party of
+three from Snohomish claim to have reached the summit by the northeast
+side in the summer of 1884. Several others and myself have made two
+attempts to reach the summit from that side, but came to an impassable
+crevasse at an elevation of about 14,000 feet on both occasions.
+
+On the morning of the 10th of last August a party of eight gentlemen
+left Seattle for Yelm with the necessary equipments and provisions for
+a two weeks' sojourn among the eternal hills. At Yelm we secured the
+necessary horses to convey our outfit to the snow line on the south
+side. The day at Yelm was clear and beautiful--Mount Rainier never
+looked so grand before. Its three peaks stood out in bold relief
+against the sky, while its walls of ice sparkled with resplendent
+beauty. During the morning and evening the play of colors around its
+base, extending in graduated bands far towards the zenith, made our
+artist groan aloud because of his inability to transfer them to
+canvas. It took us three days from the time we left Yelm to reach the
+Longmire Mineral Springs. These springs were discovered by Mr. James
+Longmire in 1883. They number twenty-five or more, and are heavily
+charged with carbon dioxide and other gases that combine to make the
+water a very pleasant drink as well as a health-giving beverage.
+Around each spring is an incrustation of soda compounds deposited by
+the water. One spring, over which a rude bath-house has been
+constructed, pours forth a large quantity of water at a temperature of
+85° Fahr. A bath in this water is pleasant and invigorating. The view
+from the springs is very beautiful. On the right is the swift flowing
+Nisqually; on the left, a solid white wall of basaltic rock rises to a
+height of nearly one thousand feet; while in front, seeming only a
+mile away, Mount Rainier stands in silent majesty. There were several
+visitors at the springs. In the near future these springs will be
+sought by hundreds of invalids. We would gladly have remained at the
+springs for several days, but, with the old monarch so near, we could
+not delay. The next day found all of the party but two on the tramp.
+That day's work was to ascend to Camp of the Clouds, distant about
+five miles from the springs. It was no small task. The trail is steep
+and rugged, and has been traveled but little. About three miles from
+the springs it crosses the Nisqually. From that point for a mile it is
+one of the steepest trails I have ever traveled. When the top was
+reached we were regaled by the sight and odor of flowers that
+surpassed description in odor and variety. From this point to Camp of
+the Clouds, two miles further on, our path was literally strewed with
+beautiful flowers. This entire region is a paradise for the botanist,
+and the flowers deserve a much fuller description.
+
+At last, after four days of hard tramping, we have reached permanent
+camp at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. Here we unpack, pitch our
+tent and turn our jaded horses loose. Here we wish all our friends
+with us, and here we would gladly remain a month in deep enjoyment of
+the grandeur and beauty around us, but our time is limited and our
+friends far away.
+
+Monday noon, August 14th, we carefully prepare for the ascent. It is
+light artillery now--a pair of blankets, a small supply of provisions,
+principally chocolate, and our Alpine staves complete the outfit. With
+cheerful hearts and steady nerves we begin the climb. It is our
+purpose to ascend to a height of about 10,000 feet and there make camp
+for the night. Soon we pass the timber line. Our pathway now lies over
+the eternal snow, broken only by a projecting spur of the mountain.
+After five hours of hard climbing, we come to a ridge covered with
+sand and pumice. From the presence of the latter we know it to be a
+spot comparatively free from wind, for, on account of the lightness of
+the pumice, it is easily blown away. Here we decide to camp. Two by
+two we go to work preparing our beds. This we do by clearing away the
+loose stones from a space about three by six feet, stirring the sand
+up with our pikes and making a wall of rocks around the cleared place.
+After a half hour's toil we declare our beds prepared. Hastily
+partaking of a little chocolate and hardtack, we "turn in," although
+the hour is early; but the wind is rising and the sharp, stinging cold
+is upon us. After passing a miserable night, we break camp at 4:30
+o'clock. Throwing aside our blankets and part of our provisions, we
+begin the final ascent. Our course takes us along the crest of a rocky
+ridge and beneath a perpendicular wall of basalt over a thousand feet
+in height. Here the courage of one of the party failed him, and he
+concluded to go no farther. The most dangerous part of the ascent is
+along the base of this cliff. The earth pitches at an angle of 35°
+from its base, and at three particular places this incline is not over
+six feet wide, ending in a perpendicular jump-off of fifteen hundred
+feet to the Nisqually glacier below. After a half hour's crouching and
+crawling we get past this dangerous part of our undertaking. We must
+now ascend almost perpendicularly one thousand feet to the top of this
+wall. Ordinarily steps have to be cut in the snow and ice, but on this
+occasion the snow lay in little drifts that served as steps. Up this
+ladder of snow and ice, prepared by the winds, we climb, pausing every
+few steps "to take breath." The top is reached at last. Upon
+consulting our barometer we find we are 12,000 feet above the sea
+level. A halt is ordered to put six steel brads in the sole of each
+boot, to prevent us from slipping on the ice and hard snow that we
+must now encounter.
+
+From the crest of this cliff the incline of the mountain to the summit
+is less than at any other point and consequently fewer crevasses, the
+terror of the mountaineer. Bracing ourselves for the final effort, we
+resumed the march. On account of the continuous ascent and the rarity
+of the atmosphere we have to rest every twenty or thirty steps. Still
+ascending, avoiding the crevasses by a zigzag path, we at last reach
+the last one, or what might more properly be called the first
+crevasse. This crevasse is formed by the first breaking off of the
+snow as it begins to slide down the mountain. The upper side is often
+a perpendicular wall of hard snow from ten to fifty feet high. This
+same crevasse, for it extends half way round the mountain, prevented
+our further progress on two previous occasions, when attempting to
+reach the summit from the northeast slope. Luckily on this occasion we
+found a bridge that afforded us a safe passage over. From this point
+we can see a clear path to the summit. Upward we climb to where the
+rim of the crater seems but a few hundred feet away. Look! there is a
+jet of steam right ahead; one grand effort and I sit upon the rim of
+the crater. I shout a word of triumph which sounds strangely shrill to
+my companions below, who, one by one, soon gain my exalted position.
+The feeling of triumph that filled the heart of each one as he gained
+that sublime height can be realized by no one who has not been in a
+similar position.
+
+Space precludes an extensive description of the view from our elevated
+position; Washington, Oregon and the Sound and sea lay below us. A
+roll of clouds extending entirely around the horizon somewhat
+obstructed the prospect, yet added to the beauty of the scene. Mts.
+Baker, Adams, Hood, St. Helens, and Jefferson appeared above the
+clouds; the Cascade and Olympic ranges, Puget Sound and numerous river
+basins appeared below, while the smoke of distant cities completed
+the scene. Reluctantly turning from this grand panorama of nature, I
+gave my attention to an examination of the craters. There are two,
+elliptical in shape, and from one-half to three-fourths of a mile
+across. Their rims are bare outside, and in to an average depth of
+thirty feet from the crest. This is owing to the internal heat and
+escaping steam, which issues from a hundred jets within the
+circumference of the craters. The steam escapes in intermittent jets
+from little orifices about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The
+walls of the crater in some places are quite warm, all of which
+plainly indicates that Mount Rainier is a volcano, not extinct but
+slumbering.
+
+The amount of steam that escapes from the crater at any one time
+varies with the atmospheric pressure. In fact, Mount Rainier is a
+reliable barometer, foretelling a storm with certainty. Everyone who
+has noted the appearance of the mountain from time to time is familiar
+with the peculiar white cloud that is frequently seen suspended just
+above the summit, while no other clouds are in sight. This peculiar
+cloud, caused by the condensation of escaping steam, is called
+"Rainier's cap," and is the forerunner of a storm. There was
+considerable snow in the craters, but it had the appearance of having
+recently fallen. I believe, should it cease to snow for two or three
+months, the crater would become entirely bare inside; but this is not
+possible, for it snows on Mount Rainier even in midsummer.
+
+Our party spent about two hours on the summit. We would gladly have
+tarried longer, but the clouds were gradually approaching from all
+points, and we did not care to take the chance of spending a night in
+the crater. Our descent in some places was even more dangerous than
+the ascent, owing to the falling rock. I recall with a shudder the
+successful dodging of a shower of bowlders on their way down from the
+top of a cliff two thousand feet above. They were singing as merrily
+as a cannon ball just shot from a thirty-pounder as they passed my
+head.
+
+Our party left the summit about two o'clock, and some of us reached
+"Camp of the Clouds" by six o'clock, descending in four hours the same
+distance that we were twelve hours in covering on the upward climb.
+The names of the party making this very successful ascent are: John
+Muir, P. B. Van Trump, A. C. Warner, D. W. Bass, N. O. Booth, C. V.
+Piper and E. S. Ingraham.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: PROFESSOR ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL.]
+
+XI. EXPLORING THE MOUNTAIN AND ITS GLACIERS, 1896
+
+BY PROFESSOR I. C. RUSSELL
+
+
+     The name of Professor Israel Cook Russell is permanently
+     associated with Mount Rainier. He was one of America's noted
+     geologists. He was born near Garrattsville, New York, on
+     December 10, 1852. Graduating from the University of the City
+     of New York in 1872, he at once began his career in science.
+     In 1874, he was a member of the United States party at
+     Queenstown, New Zealand, to observe the transit of Venus.
+     From 1878 to 1892, he wrought valuable work in geology for
+     the United States Geological Survey. This took him to Alaska
+     and various other parts of the country. He succeeded
+     Alexander Winchell as Professor of Geology in the University
+     of Michigan in 1892 and continued to spend his summers in
+     field work. One of his trips was to the West Indies during
+     the eruption of Mount Pelee.
+
+     Most of his summer trips were devoted to the mountains and
+     valleys of Oregon and Washington. It was during one of these
+     trips, in the summer of 1896, that he made the explorations
+     of Mount Rainier the extensive record of which, fully
+     illustrated, appeared in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the
+     United States Geological Survey for 1896-1897. The essential
+     portions of that record are here reproduced by permission of
+     Director George Otis Smith of the Survey, who also kindly
+     furnished a portrait of his former colleague.
+
+     Professor Russell was honored with the Doctor of Laws degree
+     by his alma mater and by the University of Wisconsin. He died
+     suddenly at the zenith of his power in 1906, leaving a widow,
+     Mrs. J. Augusta (Olmstead) Russell and three daughters. An
+     earnest appreciation of his character and work by G. K.
+     Gilbert was published in The Journal of Geology, Volume XIV,
+     number 8, November-December, 1906. When The Mountaineers Club
+     ascended the mountain in 1909 they named in his honor Russell
+     Cliff, a majestic crest near the summit and overlooking the
+     Winthrop and Emmons glaciers, and later a glacier on the
+     northern slope, near Carbon Glacier, was named Russell
+     Glacier.
+
+The reconnaissance during which the notes for this essay were obtained
+began [1896] at Carbonado, a small coal-mining town about 20 miles
+southeast of Tacoma, with which it is connected by a branch of the
+Union [Northern] Pacific Railroad. Carbonado is situated on the border
+of the unbroken forest. Eastward to beyond the crest of the Cascade
+Mountains is a primeval forest, the density and magnificence of which
+it is impossible adequately to describe to one who is not somewhat
+familiar with the Puget Sound region. From Carbonado a trail, cut
+through the forest under the direction of Willis in 1881, leads to
+Carbon River, a stream flowing from Mount Rainier, which it formerly
+crossed by a bridge that is now destroyed, and thence continues to the
+west of the mountain to Busywild. A branch of this trail leads
+eastward to the north side of the mountain, making accessible a
+beautiful region near the timber line, known as Spray Park.
+
+Our party consisted of Bailey Willis, geologist in charge, George Otis
+Smith and myself, assistants, and F. H. Ainsworth, Fred Koch, William
+B. Williams, and Michael Autier, camp hands.
+
+From Carbonado we proceeded with pack animals along the Willis trail,
+already mentioned, to the crossing of Carbon River. We then left the
+main trail and went up the right bank of the river by a trail recently
+cut as far as the mouth of Chenuis Creek. At that locality our party
+was divided; Willis and myself, taking blankets, rations, etc., and
+crossing the river, proceeded up its bowlder-strewn left bank to the
+foot of Carbon Glacier. The remainder of the party cut a trail along
+the right bank, and in the course of a few days succeeded in making a
+depot of supplies near where the river emerges from beneath the
+extremity of the glacier. The pack train was then taken back to near
+Carbonado for pasture.
+
+The tramp from Carbonado to the foot of the Carbon Glacier was full
+of interest, as it revealed the characteristics of a great region,
+covered with a dense forest, which is a part of the deeply dissected
+Tertiary peneplain surrounding Mount Rainier. The rocks from Carbonado
+to Carbon River crossing are coal bearing. Extensive mines are worked
+at Carbonado, and test shafts have been opened at a few localities
+near the trail which we followed. At Carbonado the river flows through
+a steep-sided canyon about 300 feet deep. Near where the Willis trail
+crosses the stream the canyon broadens, is deeply filled with
+bowlders, and is bordered by forest-covered mountains fully 3,000 feet
+in elevation. On account of the dense forests, the scenery throughout
+the region traversed is wild and picturesque. At a few localities
+glimpses were obtained of the great snow-clad dome of Mount Rainier,
+rising far over the intervening tree-covered foothills.
+
+The forests of the Puget Sound region are the most magnificent on the
+continent. The moist atmosphere and genial climate have led to a
+wonderfully luxuriant growth, especially of evergreens. Huge fir trees
+and cedars stand in close-set ranks and shoot upward straight and
+massive to heights which frequently exceed 250 feet, and sometimes are
+even in excess of 300 feet. The trees are frequently 10 to 12 feet or
+more in diameter at the height of one's head and rise in massive
+columns without a blemish to the first branches, which are in many
+instances 150 feet from the ground. The soil beneath the mighty trees
+is deeply covered with mosses of many harmonious tints, and decked
+with rank ferns, whose gracefully bending fronds attain a length of 6
+to 8 feet. Lithe, slender maples, termed vine-maples from their habit
+of growth, are plentiful, especially along the small water courses. In
+many places the broad leaves of the devil's club (_Fatsia horrida_)
+give an almost tropical luxuriance to the shadowy realm beneath the
+lofty canopies formed by the firs and cedars.
+
+     [A quotation from Bailey Willis is omitted, as the whole
+     article is published in this work--Chapter IX.]
+
+The mighty forest through which we traveled from Carbonado to the
+crossing of Carbon River extends over the country all about Mount
+Rainier and clothes the sides of the mountain to a height of about
+6,000 feet. From distant points of view it appears as an unbroken
+emerald setting for the gleaming, jewel-like summit of the
+snow-covered peak.
+
+In spite of the many attractions of the forest, it was with a sense of
+relief that we entered the canyon of Carbon River and had space to see
+about us. The river presents features of geographical interest,
+especially in the fact that it is filling in its valley. The load of
+stone contributed by the glaciers, from which the stream comes as a
+roaring turbid flood, is greater than it can sweep along, and much of
+its freight is dropped by the way. The bottom of the canyon is a
+desolate, flood-swept area of rounded bowlders, from 100 to 200 yards
+broad. The stream channel is continually shifting, and is frequently
+divided by islands of bowlders, heaped high during some period of
+flood. Many of the stream channels leading away from Mount Rainier are
+known to have the characteristics of the one we ascended, and show
+that the canyons were carved under different conditions from those now
+prevailing. The principal amount of canyon cutting must have been done
+before the streams were overloaded with débris contributed by
+glaciers--that is, the deep dissection of the lower slope of Mount
+Rainier and of the platform on which it stands must have preceded the
+Glacial epoch.
+
+After a night's rest in the shelter of the forest, lulled to sleep by
+the roar of Carbon River in its tumultuous course after its escape
+from the ice caverns, we climbed the heavily moraine-covered extremity
+of Carbon Glacier. At night, weary with carrying heavy packs over the
+chaos of stones that cover the glaciers, we slept on a couch of moss
+beautified with lovely blossoms, almost within the spray of Philo
+Falls, a cataract of clear icy water that pours into the canyon of
+Carbon Glacier from snow fields high up on the western wall of the
+canyon.
+
+I will ask the reader to defer the study of the glaciers until we have
+made a reconnaissance of the mountain and climbed to its summit, as he
+will then be better prepared to understand the relation of the
+glaciers, névés, and other features with which it will be necessary to
+deal. In this portion of our fireside explorations let us enjoy a
+summer outing, deferring until later the more serious task of
+questioning the glaciers.
+
+From Philo Falls we ascended still higher, by following partially
+snow-filled lanes between the long lateral moraines that have been
+left by the shrinking of Carbon Glacier, and found three parallel,
+sharp-crested ridges about a mile long and from 100 to 150 feet high,
+made of bowlders and stones of all shapes, which record the former
+positions of the glacier. Along the western border of the oldest and
+most westerly of these ridges there is a valley, perhaps 100 yards
+wide, intervening between the abandoned lateral moraine and the
+western side of the valley, which rises in precipices to
+forest-covered heights at least 1,000 feet above. Between the morainal
+ridges there are similar narrow valleys, each of which at the time of
+our visit, July 15, was deeply snow-covered. The ridges are clothed
+with spruce and cedar trees, together with a variety of shrubs and
+flowering annuals. The knolls rising through the snow are gorgeous
+with flowers. A wealth of purple Bryanthus, resembling purple heather,
+and of its constant companion, if not near relative, the Cassiope,
+with white, waxy bells, closely simulating the white heather, make
+glorious the mossy banks from which the lingering snow has but just
+departed. Acres of meadow land, still soft with snow water and musical
+with rills and brooks flowing in uncertain courses over the deep, rich
+turf, are beautiful with lilies, which seemed woven in a cloth of gold
+about the borders of the lingering snow banks. We are near the upper
+limit of timber growth, where park-like openings, with thickets of
+evergreens, give a special charm to the mountain side. The morainal
+ridge nearest the glacier is forest-covered on its outer slope, while
+the descent to the glacier is a rough, desolate bank of stones and
+dirt. The glacier has evidently but recently shrunk away from this
+ridge, which was formed along its border by stones brought from a bold
+cliff that rises sheer from the ice a mile upstream. Standing on the
+morainal ridge overlooking the glacier, one has to the eastward an
+unobstructed view of the desolate and mostly stone and dirt covered
+ice. Across the glacier another embankment can be seen, similar to the
+one on the west, and, like it, recording a recent lowering of the
+surface of the glacier of about 150 feet. Beyond the glacier are
+extremely bold and rugged mountains, scantily clothed with forests
+nearly to their summits. The position of the timber line shows that
+the bare peaks above are between 8,000 and 9,000 feet high. Looking
+southward, up the glacier, we have a glimpse into the wild
+amphitheater in which it has its source. The walls of the great hollow
+in the mountain side rise in seemingly vertical precipices about 4,000
+feet high. Far above is a shining, snow-covered peak, which Willis
+named the Liberty Cap. It is one of the culminating points of Mount
+Rainier, but not the actual summit. Its elevation is about 14,300 feet
+above the sea. Toward the west the view is limited by the
+forest-covered morainal ridges near at hand and by the precipitous
+slopes beyond, which lead to a northward-projecting spur of Mount
+Rainier, known as the Mother Mountains. This, our first view of Mount
+Rainier near at hand, has shown that the valley down which Carbon
+Glacier flows, as well as the vast amphitheater in which it has its
+source, is sunk in the flanks of the mountain. To restore the northern
+slope of the ancient volcano as it existed when the mountain was young
+we should have to fill the depression in which the glacier lies at
+least to the height of its bordering ridges. On looking down the
+glacier we see it descending into a vast gulf bordered by steep
+mountains, which rise at least 3,000 feet above its bottom. This is
+the canyon through which the water formed by the melting of the
+glacier escapes. To restore the mountain this great gulf would also
+have to be filled. Clearly the traveler in this region is surrounded
+by the records of mighty changes. Not only does he inquire how the
+volcanic mountain was formed, but how it is being destroyed. The study
+of the glaciers will do much toward making clear the manner in which
+the once smooth slopes have been trenched by radiating valleys,
+leaving mountain-like ridges between.
+
+Another line of inquiry which we shall find of interest as we advance
+is suggested by the recent shrinkage of Carbon Glacier. Are all of the
+glaciers that flow from the mountain wasting away? If we find this to
+be the case, what climatic changes does it indicate?
+
+From our camp among the morainal ridges by the side of Carbon Glacier
+we made several side trips, each of which was crowded with
+observations of interest. One of these excursions, made by Mr. Smith
+and myself, was up the snow fields near camp; past the prominent
+outstanding pinnacles known as the Guardian Rocks, one red and the
+other black; and through Spray Park, with its thousands of groves of
+spire-like evergreens, with flower-enameled glades between. On the
+bare, rocky shoulder of the mountain, where the trees now grow, we
+found the unmistakable grooves and striations left by former glaciers.
+The lines engraved in the rock lead away from the mountain, showing
+that even the boldest ridges were formerly ice-covered. Our route took
+us around the head of the deep canyon through which flows Cataract
+Creek. In making this circuit we followed a rugged saw-tooth crest,
+and had some interesting rock-climbing. Finally, the sharp divide
+between Cataract Creek and a small stream flowing westward to Crater
+Lake was reached, and a slide on a steep snow slope took us quickly
+down to where the flowers made a border of purple and gold about the
+margins of the snow. Soon we were in the forest, and gaining a rocky
+ledge among the trees, could look down on Crater Lake, deeply sunk in
+shaggy mountains which still preserve all of their primitive freshness
+and beauty. Snow lay in deep drifts beneath the shelter of the forest,
+and the lake was ice-covered except for a few feet near the margin.
+This was on July 20. I have been informed that the lake is usually
+free of ice before this date, but the winter preceding our visit was
+of more than usual severity, the snowfall being heavy, and the coming
+of summer was therefore much delayed.
+
+The name Crater Lake implies that its waters occupy a volcanic crater.
+Willis states that Nature has here placed an emerald seal on one of
+Pluto's sally ports; but that the great depression now water-filled is
+a volcanic crater is not so apparent as we might expect. The basin is
+in volcanic rock, but none of the characteristics of a crater due to
+volcanic explosions can be recognized. The rocks, so far as I saw
+them, are massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriæ or other products
+of explosive eruptions. On the bold, rounded rock ledges down which we
+climbed in order to reach the shore, there were deep glacial scorings,
+showing that the basin was once deeply filled with moving ice. My
+observations were not sufficiently extended to enable me to form an
+opinion as to the origin of the remarkable depression, but whatever
+may have been its earlier history, it has certainly been profoundly
+modified by ice erosion.
+
+Following the lake shore southward, groping our way beneath the thick,
+drooping branches which dip in the lake, we reached the notch in the
+rim of the basin through which the waters escape and start on their
+journey to Mowich River and thence to the sea. We there found the
+branch of the Willis trail leading to Spray Park, and turned toward
+camp. Again we enjoyed the luxury of following a winding pathway
+through silent colonnades formed by the moss-grown trunks of noble
+trees. On either side of the trail worn in the brown soil the ferns
+and flowering shrubs were bent over in graceful curves, and at times
+filled the little-used lane, first traversed fifteen years before.
+
+The trail led us to Eagle Cliff, a bold, rocky promontory rising as
+does El Capitan from the Yosemite, 1,800 feet from the forest-lined
+canyon of Mowich River. From Eagle Cliff one beholds the most
+magnificent view that is to be had in all the wonderful region about
+Mount Rainier. The scene beheld on looking eastward toward the mighty
+mountain is remarkable alike for its magnificence and for the artistic
+grouping of the various features of the sublime picture. In the vast
+depths at one's feet the tree-tops, through which the mists from
+neighboring cataracts are drifting, impart a somber tone and make the
+valley's bottom seem far more remote than it is. The sides of the
+canyon are formed by prominent serrate ridges, leading upward to the
+shining snow fields of the mighty dome that heads the valley. Nine
+thousand feet above our station rose the pure white Liberty Cap, the
+crowning glory of the mountain as seen from the northward. The snow
+descending the northwest side of the great central dome is gathered
+between the ridges forming the sides of the valley, and forms a white
+névé from which flows Willis Glacier. In looking up the valley from
+Eagle Cliff the entire extent of the snow fields and of the
+river-like stream of ice flowing from them is in full view. The ice
+ends in a dirt-covered and rock-strewn terminus, just above a huge
+rounded dome that rises in its path. In 1881 the ice reached nearly to
+the top of the dome and broke off in an ice cliff, the detached blocks
+falling into the gulf below. The glacier has now withdrawn its
+terminus well above the precipice where it formerly fell as an ice
+cascade, and its surface has shrunk away from well-defined moraines in
+much the same manner as has already been noted in the case of Carbon
+Glacier. A more detailed account of the retreat of the extremity of
+Willis Glacier[25] will be given later.
+
+From Eagle Cliff we continued our tramp eastward along the trail
+leading to Spray Park, climbed the zigzag pathway up the face of a
+cliff in front of Spray Falls, and gained the picturesque and
+beautiful parklike region above. An hour's tramp brought us again near
+the Guardian Rocks. A swift descent down the even snow fields enabled
+us to reach camp just as the shadows of evening were gathering in the
+deeper canyons, leaving the silent snow fields above all aglow with
+reflected sunset tints.
+
+Taking heavy packs on our backs on the morning of July 21, we
+descended the steep broken surface of the most recent moraine
+bordering Carbon Glacier in its middle course, and reached the solid
+blue ice below. Our course led us directly across the glacier, along
+the lower border of the rapidly melting covering of winter snow. The
+glacier is there about a mile across. Its central part is higher than
+its border, and for the most part the ice is concealed by dirt and
+stones. Just below the névé, however, we found a space about half a
+mile long in which melting had not led to the concentration of
+sufficient débris to make traveling difficult. Farther down the
+glacier, where surface melting was more advanced, the entire glacier,
+with the exception of a few lanes of clear ice between the
+ill-defined medial moraines, was completely concealed beneath a
+desolate sheet of angular stones. On reaching the east side of the
+glacier we were confronted with a wall of clay and stones, the inner
+slope of a moraine similar in all respects to the one we had descended
+to reach the west border of the glacier. A little search revealed a
+locality where a tongue of ice in a slight embayment projected some
+distance up the wall of morainal material, and a steep climb of 50 or
+60 feet brought us to the summit. The glacier has recently
+shrunk--that is, its surface has been lowered from 80 to 100 feet by
+melting.
+
+On the east side of the glacier we found several steep, sharp-crested
+ridges, clothed with forest trees, with narrow, grassy, and
+flower-strewn dells between, in which banks of snow still lingered.
+The ridges are composed of bowlders and angular stones of a great
+variety of sizes and shapes, and are plainly lateral moraines
+abandoned by the shrinking of the glacier. Choosing a way up one of
+the narrow lanes, bordered on each side by steep slopes densely
+covered with trees and shrubs, we found secure footing in the hard
+granular snow, and soon reached a more open, parklike area, covered
+with mossy bosses of turf, on which grew a great profusion of
+brilliant flowers. Before us rose the great cliffs which partially
+inclose the amphitheater in which Carbon Glacier has its source. These
+precipices, as already stated, have a height of about 4,000 feet, and
+are so steep that the snow does not cling to them, but descends in
+avalanches. Above the cliffs, where the inclination is less
+precipitous, the snow lies in thick layers, the edges of which are
+exposed in a vertical precipice rising above the avalanche-swept
+rock-slope below. Far above, and always the central object in the wild
+scenery surrounding us, rose the brilliant white Liberty Cap, one of
+the pinnacles on the rim of the great summit crater. Our way then
+turned eastward, following the side of the mountain, and led us
+through a region just above the timber line, which commands far
+reaching views to the wild and rugged mountains to the northeast. This
+open tract, leading down to groves of spruce trees and diversified by
+charming lakelets, bears abundant evidence of having formerly been
+ice-covered, and is known as Moraine Park.
+
+In order to retain our elevation we crossed diagonally the steep snow
+slopes in the upper portion of the Moraine Park. Midway over the snow
+we rested at a sharp crest of rock, and found that it is composed of
+light-colored granite. Later we found that much of the area between
+the Carbon and Winthrop glaciers is composed of this same kind of
+rock. Granite forms a portion of the border of the valley through
+which flow the glaciers just named, and furnished them with much
+granitic débris, which is carried away as moraines and later worked
+over into well-rounded bowlders by the streams flowing from the ice.
+The presence of granite pebbles in the course of Carbon and White
+rivers, far below the glaciers, is thus accounted for.
+
+A weary tramp of about 4 miles from the camp we had left brought us to
+the border of Winthrop Glacier. In the highest grove of trees, which
+are bent down and frequently lie prone on the ground, although still
+living, we selected a well-sheltered camping-place. Balsam boughs
+furnished luxuriant beds, and the trees killed by winter storms
+enabled us to have a roaring camp fire. Fresh trail of mountain goats
+and their but recently abandoned bed showed that this is a favorite
+resort for those hardy animals. Marmots were also abundant, and
+frequently awakened the echoes with their shrill, whistling cries. The
+elevation of our camp was about 8,000 feet.
+
+From our camp on the cliffs above the west border of Winthrop Glacier
+we made excursions across that glacier and to its heavily
+moraine-covered extremity. The snow mantle that is spread over the
+region about Mount Rainier each winter melts first on the rugged
+plateau surrounding the base of the mountain, and, as the summer's
+heat increases, gradually withdraws up the mountain sides, but never
+so as to uncover the more elevated region. The snow line--that is, the
+position to which the lower border of the mantle of perennial snow
+withdraws late in summer--has an elevation of about 9,000 feet. The
+lower margin of the wintry covering is always irregular, however,
+extending farthest down on the glaciers and retreating highest on the
+rocks. At the time of our visit the snow had melted off of nearly all
+the region below our camp, leaving only dirt-stained snow banks in the
+more completely sheltered recesses and in deeply shaded dells in the
+adjacent forests. On the glaciers all the region at a greater
+elevation than our camp was white and free from dirt and stones, while
+the hard glacial ice was abundantly exposed at lower altitudes and
+ended in a completely moraine-covered terminus. Above us all was
+barren, white, and wintry; below lay the flowery vales and grass
+parks, warm and inviting, leading to the welcome shade of noble
+forests. Our course led upward into the frozen region.
+
+On leaving the camp on the border of Winthrop Glacier we began our
+alpine work. There were five in the party selected for the difficult
+task of scaling Mount Rainier; namely: Willis, Smith, Ainsworth,
+Williams, and myself. Taking our blankets, a small supply of rations,
+an alcohol lamp, alpenstocks, a rope 100 feet long to serve as a life
+line, and a few other articles necessary for traveling above timber
+line, we began the ascent of Winthrop Glacier early on the morning of
+July 23. Our route was comparatively easy at the start, but became
+steeper and steeper as we advanced. The snow was firm and, except for
+the numerous crevasses, presented no great difficulties to be
+overcome. In several places the névé rises in domes as if forced up
+from beneath, but caused in reality by bosses of rock over which the
+glacier flows. These domes are broken by radiating crevasses which
+intersect in their central portions, leaving pillars and castle-like
+masses of snow with vertical sides. At one locality, in attempting to
+pass between two of these shattered domes, we found our way blocked by
+an impassable crevasse. Considerable time was lost in searching for a
+practicable upward route, but at length, by making a detour to the
+right, we found a way which, although steep, allowed us to pass the
+much crevassed area and gain the sharp ridge of rock which divides the
+névé snow flowing from the central dome of the mountain, and marks the
+separation between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers. This prow-like
+promontory, rising some 500 feet above the glaciers on either hand, we
+named The Wedge. This is the upward pointing, acute angle of a great
+V-shaped portion of the lower slope of the mountain, left in bold
+relief by the erosion of the valleys on either side. As will be
+described later, there are several of these remnants about the sides
+of the mountain at the same general horizon, which record a somewhat
+definite stage in the destruction of the mountain by ice erosion.
+
+On reaching The Wedge we found it an utterly desolate rocky cape in a
+sea of snow. We were at an altitude of about 10,000 feet, and far
+above timber. Water was obtained by spreading snow on smooth rocks or
+on rubber sheets, and allowing it to melt by the heat of the afternoon
+sun. Coffee was prepared over the alcohol lamp, sheltered from the
+wind by a bed sheet supported by alpenstocks. After a frugal lunch, we
+made shelf-like ledges in a steep slope of earth and stones and laid
+down our blankets for the night. From sheltered nooks amid the rocks,
+exposed to the full warmth of the declining sun, we had the icy slopes
+of the main central dome of the mountain in full view and chose what
+seemed the most favorable route for the morrow's climb.
+
+Surrounded as we were by the desolation and solitude of barren rocks,
+on which not even a lichen had taken root, and pure white snow fields,
+we were much surprised to receive passing visits from several
+humming-birds which shot past us like winged jewels. They came up the
+valley occupied by the Emmons Glacier, turned sharply at The Wedge,
+and went down the way of the Winthrop Glacier. What tempts these
+children of the sunlight and the flowers into the frozen regions seems
+a mystery. That the humming-birds are bold explorers was not new to
+me, for the reason that on several occasions in previous years, while
+on the snow-covered slopes of Mount St. Elias, far above all vestiges
+of vegetation, my heart had been gladdened by glimpses of their
+brilliant plumage.
+
+When the sun declined beyond the great snow-covered dome that towered
+above us, and the blue shadows crept down the previously dazzling
+cliffs, the air became cold and a strong wind made our perch on the
+rocks uncomfortable. Wrapping ourselves in our blankets we slept until
+the eastern sky began to glow with sunrise tints.
+
+Early on the morning of July 24 [1896] we began the climb of the steep
+snow slopes leading to the summit of the mountain. Roped together as
+we had been on the previous day, we slowly worked our way upward, in a
+tortuous course, in order to avoid the many yawning crevasses. The way
+was steep and difficult. Some members of the party felt the effects of
+the rarefied air, and as we lacked experience in true alpine work our
+progress was slow and laborious. Many of the crevasses that our course
+crossed were of the nature of faults. Their upper rims stood several
+feet above their lower margins, and thus added to the difficulty of
+passing them. Our aim at first was to traverse the névé of Emmons
+Glacier and gain the less rugged slope bordering it on the south, but
+the intervening region was greatly broken and, as we found after
+several approaches to it, utterly impassable. The climb presented no
+special difficulties other than the extreme fatigue incident to
+climbing steep snow slopes, especially while attached to a life line,
+and the delays necessitated by frequently turning and retracing our
+steps in order to get around wide crevasses.
+
+Once while crossing a steep snow slope diagonally, and having a wide
+crevasse below us, Ainsworth, who was next to the rear of the line,
+lost his footing and slid down the slope on his back. Unfortunately,
+at that instant, Williams, who was at the rear of the line, removed
+his alpenstock from the snow, was overturned by the pull on the line,
+and shot headfirst down the slope and disappeared over the brink of
+the crevasse. A strong pull came on the members of the party who were
+in advance, but our alpenstocks held fast, and before assistance could
+be extended to the man dangling in midair, he climbed the taut rope
+and stood unhurt among us once more. The only serious result of the
+accident was the loss of an alpenstock.
+
+Pressing on toward the dark rim of rock that we could now and then
+catch glimpses of at the head of the snow slopes and which we knew to
+be the outer portion of the summit crater, we crossed many frail snow
+bridges and climbed precipitous slopes, in some of which steps had to
+be cut. As we neared the summit we met a strong westerly gale that
+chilled us and benumbed our fingers. At length, weary and faint on
+account of the rarity of the air, we gained the lower portion of the
+rim of stones marking the position of the crater. While my companions
+rested for a few moments in the shelter of the rocks, I pressed on up
+the rugged slope and gained the top of the rim.
+
+The stones exposed at the summit are bare of snow, possibly on account
+of the heat from below, and are rounded and their exposed surfaces
+polished. The smooth, black bowlders shine in the sunlight much the
+same as the sand-burnished stones in desert regions. Here on the
+mountain's brow, exposed to an almost continuous gale, the rocks have
+been polished by drifting snow crystals. The prevailing rounded form
+that the stones present may be the result of weathering, or possibly
+is due to the manner in which the fragments were ejected from the
+volcano. My hasty examinations suggested the former explanation.
+
+Descending into the crater, I discovered crevices from which steam was
+escaping, and on placing my hands on the rocks was rejoiced to find
+them hot. My companions soon joined me, and we began the exploration
+of the crater, our aim being to find the least uncomfortable place in
+which to take refuge from the freezing blast rather than to make
+scientific discoveries.
+
+The crater that we had entered is one of the smaller and more recent
+ones in the truncated summit of the peak, and is deeply filled with
+snow, but the rim is bare and well defined. The steam and heat from
+the rocks have melted out many caverns beneath the snow. In one of
+these we found shelter.
+
+The cavern we chose in which to pass the night, although irregular,
+was about 60 feet long by 40 wide, and had an arched ceiling some 20
+feet high. The snow had been melted out from beneath, leaving a roof
+so thin that a diffused blue light penetrated the chamber. The floor
+sloped steeply, and on the side toward the center of the crater there
+was a narrow space between the rocks and the descending roof which led
+to unexplored depths. As a slide into this forbidding gulf would have
+been exceedingly uncomfortable, if not serious, our life line was
+stretched from crag to crag so as to furnish a support and allow us to
+walk back and forth during the night without danger of slipping. Three
+arched openings or doorways communicated with other chambers, and
+through these drafts of cold air were continually blowing. The icy air
+chilled the vapor rising from the warm rocks and filled the chamber
+with steam which took on grotesque forms in the uncertain, fading
+light. In the central part of the icy chamber was a pinnacle of rock,
+from the crevices of which steam was issuing with a low hissing sound.
+Some of the steam jets were too hot to be comfortable to the ungloved
+hand. In this uninviting chamber we passed the night. The muffled roar
+of the gale as it swept over the mountain could be heard in our
+retreat and made us thankful for the shelter the cavern afforded.
+
+The floor of our cell was too uneven and too steeply inclined to admit
+of lying down. Throughout the night we leaned against the hot rocks or
+tramped wearily up and down holding the life line. Cold blasts from
+the branching ice chambers swept over us. Our clothes were saturated
+with condensed steam. While one side of the body resting against the
+rocks would be hot, the strong drafts of air with a freezing
+temperature chilled the other side. After long hours of intense
+darkness the dome of snow above us became faintly illuminated, telling
+that the sun was again shining. After a light breakfast and a cup of
+tea, prepared over our alcohol lamp, we resumed our exploration, none
+the worse for the exposures of the night.
+
+Following the inner rim of the crater so as to be sheltered from the
+gale still blowing steadily from the west, we gained its northern
+border and climbed to the topmost pinnacle, known as Columbia's Crest.
+This pinnacle rises about 50 feet above the general level of the
+irregular rim of the crater, and is the highest point on the mountain.
+Its elevation, as previously stated, is 14,526 feet.[26]
+
+The magnificent view described by former visitors to this commanding
+station, which we had hoped would reward our efforts, was concealed
+beneath a canopy of smoke that covered all of the region about the
+mountain to a depth of about 10,000 feet. The surface of the layer of
+smoke was sharply defined, and appeared like an undulating sea
+surrounding the island on which we stood. Far to the northward rose
+the regular conical summit of Mount Baker, like an isolated sea-girt
+island. A few of the rugged and more elevated summits, marking the
+course of the Cascade Mountains, could be discerned to the eastward.
+The summits of Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were in plain view and
+seemingly near at hand. All of the forest-covered region between these
+elevated summits was blotted out by the dense, heavy layer of smoke,
+which rose until it met the westerly gale of the upper regions.
+
+During the ascent of Mount Rainier by Emmons and Wilson, previously
+referred to, more favorable atmospheric conditions prevailed than at
+the time of my visit, and the region about the base of the mountain
+was clearly revealed. In describing the view from the summit Emmons
+says:
+
+     From the northeastern rim of the crater we could look down an
+     unbroken slope of nearly 10,000 feet to the head of the White
+     River, the upper half or two-thirds of which was so steep
+     that one had the feeling of looking over a perpendicular
+     wall. [It was up this slope that the climb briefly described
+     above was made.] The systems of glaciers and the streams
+     which flowed from them lay spread out as on a map at our
+     feet; radiating out in every direction from the central mass,
+     they all with one accord curve to the westward to send their
+     waters down toward Puget Sound or the Lower Columbia.
+     [Attention has already been directed to the westward
+     curvature of the streams from Mount Rainier on reaching the
+     tilted peneplain on which the mountain stands, and the
+     explanation has been suggested that they are consequent
+     streams the direction of which was determined by the original
+     slope of the now deeply dissected plateau.]
+
+     Looking to the more distant country, the whole stretch of
+     Puget Sound, seeming like a pretty little lake embowered in
+     green, could be seen in the northwest, beyond which the
+     Olympic Mountains extend out into the Pacific Ocean. The
+     Cascade Mountains, lying dwarfed at our feet, could be traced
+     northward into British Columbia, and southward into Oregon,
+     while above them, at comparatively regular intervals, rose
+     the ghost-like forms of our companion volcanoes. To the
+     eastward the eye ranged for hundreds of miles over chain on
+     chain of mountain ridges, which gradually disappeared in the
+     dim, blue distance.
+
+In the truncated summit of Mount Rainier there are three craters. The
+largest one, partially filled by the building of the two others, is
+the oldest, and has suffered so greatly from subsequent volcanic
+explosions and erosion that no more than its general outline can be
+traced. Peak Success and Liberty Cap are prominent points on the rim
+of what remains of this huge crater. Its diameter, as nearly as can be
+judged, is about 2-1/2 miles. Within the great crater, in the
+formation of which the mountain was truncated and, as previously
+stated, lost fully 2,000 feet of its summit, there are two much
+smaller and much more recent craters. The larger of these, the one in
+which we took refuge, is about 300 yards in diameter, and the second,
+which is an incomplete circle, its rim having been broken by the
+formation of its more recent companion, is perhaps 200 yards across.
+The rim of each now partially snow-filled bowl is well defined, and
+rises steeply from within to a sharp crest. The character of the inner
+slopes shows that much rocky material has been detached and has fallen
+into the cavities from which it was ejected. The rock in the crater
+walls is in fragments and masses, some of them well rounded and
+probably of the nature of volcanic bombs. In each of the smaller
+craters there are numerous steam jets. These show that the rock below
+is still hot, and that water percolating downward is changed to steam.
+These steam jets evidently indicate the presence of residual heat and
+not an actual connection with a volcanic center deep below the
+surface. All the evidence available tends to show that Rainier is an
+extinct volcano. It belongs, however, to the explosive type of
+volcanoes, of which Vesuvius is the best-known example, and there is
+no assurance that its energies may not be reawakened.
+
+In descending we chose the south side of the mountain, knowing from
+the reports of many excursionists who had ascended the peak from that
+direction that a practicable route could probably be found. Threading
+our way between numerous crevasses we soon came in sight of a bold,
+outstanding rock mass, which we judged to be Gibraltar, and succeeded
+in reaching it with but little difficulty. On gaining the junction of
+the rock with the snow fields rising above it, we found evidences of a
+trail, which was soon lost, however, and only served to show that our
+general course was the right one. A deep, narrow space between the
+border of Nisqually Glacier and the precipitous side of Gibraltar,
+from which the snow and ice had been melted by the heat reflected from
+the cliffs on our left, led us down to a shelf on the lower side of
+the promontory, which proved a safe and easy way to the crest of a
+rocky rib on the mountain side which extended far down toward the dark
+forests in view below.
+
+Gibraltar is a portion of the cone of Rainier built before the
+explosion which truncated the mountain. It is an outstanding and very
+prominent rock mass, left in bold relief by the ice excavation which
+has carved deep valleys on each side. The rock divides the descending
+névé in the same manner as does The Wedge, and causes a part of the
+snow drainage to flow to the Cowlitz and the other part to be
+tributary to the Nisqually Glacier. The rocks forming Gibraltar
+consist largely of fragments ejected from the crater above, but
+present a rude stratification due to the presence of lava flows. When
+seen from the side and at a convenient distance, it is evident that
+the planes of bedding, if continued upward at the same angle, would
+reach above the present summit of the mountain. Gibraltar, like The
+Wedge, and several other secondary peaks on the sides of Mount
+Rainier, are, as previously explained, the sharp, upward-pointing
+angles of large V-shaped masses of the original volcanic cone, left in
+bold relief by the excavation of deep valleys radiating from the
+central peak. On the backs, so to speak, of these great V-shaped
+portions of the mountain which now seem to rest against the central
+dome, secondary glaciers, or interglaciers as they may be termed, have
+excavated valleys and amphitheaters. In the V-shaped mass of which
+Gibraltar is the apex, a broad amphitheater-like depression has been
+cut out, leaving a bold cliff above it. The excavation of the
+amphitheater did not progress far enough up the mountain to cut away
+the apex of the V-shaped mass, but left it with a precipice on its
+lower side. This remnant is Gibraltar. An attempt will be made later
+to describe more fully the process of glacial erosion of a conical
+mountain, and to show that the secondary topographic features of Mount
+Rainier are not without system, as they appear at first view, but
+really result from a process which may be said to have a definite end
+in view.
+
+Below Gibraltar the descent was easy. Our life line was no longer
+needed. Tramping in single file over the hard surfaces of the snow
+field, remnants of the previous winter's snow, we made rapid progress,
+and about noon gained the scattered groves of spruce trees which form
+such an attractive feature of Paradise Park.
+
+Fortunately, we found Prof. E. S. Ingraham, of Seattle, and a party of
+friends, including several ladies, encamped in Paradise Park, and the
+hospitality of the camp was extended to us. During the afternoon we
+basked in the warm sunshine, and in the evening gathered about a
+roaring campfire and enjoyed the society of our companions, who were
+enthusiastic in their praise of the wonderful scenes about their camp.
+
+The southern side of Mount Rainier is much less precipitous than its
+northern face, and the open park-like region near timber line is
+broader, more diversified, and much more easy of access. The general
+elevation of the park is between 5,000 and 7,000 feet, and it is
+several thousand acres in extent. Its boundaries are indefinite. It
+merges into the heavily forested region to the south, and into more
+alpine regions on the side toward the mountain, which towers above it
+on the north. To the east it is bordered by Cowlitz Glacier, and on
+the west by Nisqually Glacier. Each of these fine ice rivers descends
+far below timber line. The small interglacier, known as the Paradise
+Glacier, may be considered as lying within the limits of the park.
+
+Paradise Park presents many and varied charms. It is a somewhat rugged
+land, with a deep picturesque valley winding through it. The trees
+grow in isolated groves. Each bunch of dark-green firs and balsams is
+a cluster of gracefully tapering spires. The undulating meadows
+between the shady groves are brilliant in summer with a veritable
+carpet of gorgeous blossoms. In contrast to the exquisite charms of
+the groves and flower-decked rolling meadows are desolate ice fields
+and rugged glaciers which vary, through many tints and shades, from
+silvery whiteness to intense blue. Added to these minor charms, and
+towering far above them, is the massive summit of Rainier. At times
+the sublime mountain appears steel blue in the unclouded sky, or rosy
+with the afterglow at sunset, or all aflame with the glories of the
+newborn day. Clouds gather about the lofty summit and transform it
+into a storm king. Avalanches rushing down its side awaken the echoes
+in the neighboring forest. The appearance of the mountain is never the
+same on different days; indeed, it changes its mood and exerts a
+varying influence on the beholder from hour to hour.
+
+While the central attraction to the lover of mountain scenery in
+Paradise Park is the vast snow-covered dome of Mount Rainier, there
+are other mountains in view that merit attention. To the east rises
+the serrate and rugged Tattoosh range, which is remarkable for the
+boldness with which its bordering slopes rise from the forested region
+about it and the angularity of its many serrate summits. This range
+has never been explored except by miners and hunters, who have made
+no record of their discoveries. It is virgin ground to the geologist
+and geographer. Distant views suggest that the Tattoosh Mountains have
+been sculptured from a plateau, probably an upraised peneplain in
+which there existed a great mass of igneous rock rounded by less
+resistant Tertiary sediments. The softer rocks have been removed,
+leaving the harder and more resistant ones in bold relief, to become
+sculptured by rain and frost into a multitude of angular peaks. This
+attractive, and as yet unstudied, group of peaks is in plain view from
+Paradise Park, and may be easily reached from there by a single day's
+tramp. Many other delightful excursions are open to one who pitches
+his tent in the alpine meadows on the south side of Mount Rainier.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] Called the North Mowich Glacier on the present map.
+
+[26] Since shown to be 14,408 feet.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: PROFESSOR EDGAR MCCLURE.]
+
+XII. McCLURE'S ACHIEVEMENT AND TRAGIC DEATH, 1897
+
+BY HERBERT L. BRUCE AND PROFESSOR H. H. McALISTER
+
+
+     Visitors to Paradise Valley, who climb above the Camp of the
+     Clouds to the snowfields, are sure to be attracted to McClure
+     Rock. It is the scene of one of the mountain's earliest
+     tragedies, in which Professor Edgar McClure of the University
+     of Oregon lost his life. He was trying to measure accurately
+     the height of the great mountain as he had already done for
+     Mount Adams and other peaks.
+
+     The record of his extensive observations was computed with
+     the greatest care by his colleague, Professor H. H. McAlister
+     of the University of Oregon. An account of the work so
+     tragically ended was prepared by Herbert L. Bruce. Both
+     articles were published in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer for
+     November 7, 1897, from which paper they are here reproduced.
+     The portrait of Professor McClure is furnished by his
+     brother, Horace McClure, editorial writer for the Seattle
+     Daily Times.
+
+     The height of the mountain, 14,528 feet, thus obtained,
+     remained in use until 1914, when the United States Geological
+     Survey announced its new and latest findings to be 14,408
+     feet.
+
+One of the most tragic incidents in modern science was the death of
+Professor Edgar McClure, who lost his life on Mount Rainier July 27,
+1897. Occupying, as he did, the chair of chemistry in the University
+of Oregon, his personal tastes, instincts and ambitions were
+essentially scientific. In addition to this he was a member of the
+Mazamas, whose purposes in the line of scientific exploration have
+lent a romantic interest and a cumulative value to the geography of
+the northwest. The particular expedition with which Professor McClure
+was associated when he met his untimely death, left Portland with the
+distinct object of making the ascent of Mount Rainier, recording such
+geographical and topographical observations as might be feasible. As a
+member of the expedition Professor McClure was placed in charge of the
+elevation department and set before himself a somewhat more distinct
+and definite purpose, viz., to ascertain by the most approved methods
+and with the most accurately graduated instruments the precise height
+of the famous and beautiful mountain. How well he accomplished this
+purpose will best appear in the subjoined letter from Professor E. H.
+McAlister, his friend and colleague, who with infinite care and
+sympathetic zeal has worked out the data, which would otherwise have
+been undecipherable not only to the general public but to the average
+scholar. As he himself said when he had completed his arduous task: "I
+have done everything possible to wring the truth from the
+observations. In my judgment they should become historic on account of
+the probability of their great accuracy."
+
+To the accomplishment of this object Professor McClure brought all the
+varied resources of a ripe culture and an ardent, vigorous young
+manhood. His plans were all laid with the greatest care. To him their
+fulfillment meant not so much a personal or selfish triumph as a
+victory for science. The very instrument on which he most relied for
+accurate determinations, as will be seen from Professor McAlister's
+statement, was not only hallowed by scientific associations, but was
+prepared for its high mission more lovingly and assiduously than a
+favorite racer would be groomed for the course. Twice had it looked
+upon the beauties of the Columbia river from the summit of Mount Hood,
+and on three other lofty peaks it had served its silent but efficient
+ministry to the cause of science. On one of these, Mount Adams, the
+altitude determined with this instrument was accepted by the United
+States government, yet a new tube was filled for it, Professor McClure
+himself preparing the mercury by distillation, and seeing to it that
+the vacuum was exceptionally perfect. That the barometer was most
+carefully handled at the time of observation will fully appear from
+the record below. It was suspended by a ring and allowed to hang until
+it had assumed the temperature of the surrounding air before being
+read. Not only this, but all the subsidiary phenomena which could have
+the slightest bearing on the result were laboriously determined.
+Concurrent observations were made at all salient surrounding stations,
+while for a week before the date of actual observation Professor
+McClure himself had made numerous observations both of pressure and of
+temperature at various sub-stations in the vicinity of Mount Rainier,
+and his collaborateur has secured simultaneous observations from
+Seattle and Portland. Uniting as he did the fervor of the pioneer
+explorer with the accuracy of the laboratory chemist, Professor
+McClure was peculiarly fitted to obtain a result which bids fair to
+become historic.
+
+The broken barometer will appeal powerfully to every lover of science.
+If, as has been suggested, a monument be reared to mark the spot where
+the young scientist gave up his life, no fitter design could be
+adopted than a stone shaft bearing on its face a bas-relief of the
+historic instrument which he bore on his back with sacred care. It is
+entirely probable that this barometer, coupled with his unselfish
+solicitude for the safety of other members of the expedition, was the
+immediate cause of his death. He carried it in a double case; a wooden
+one which his own hands had constructed, and outside of this a strong
+leather tube. From the latter stout thongs enabled him to strap the
+instrument on his back, much as a pioneer huntsman would wear his
+trusty rifle. While standing on the perilous ledge whence he took the
+fatal plunge, he turned to sound warning to his companions whom he was
+leading in a search for the lost pathway down the mountain. "Don't
+come down here; it is too steep," he called, turning so as to make
+his voice more audible. These were his last words. He vanished in the
+night and the abyss. It is likely that the tube, three and a half feet
+in length, caught as he turned and helped to hurl him from his
+precarious footing. Like his own high strung frame, the delicate
+instrument was shattered; but neither of the twain went away from the
+world without leaving an imperishable record.
+
+It is interesting to note the close correspondence of his independent
+observations with those made by others. The height of the mountain had
+been measured many times before he essayed to measure it. Some
+observers had measured it by triangulation, and others, notably Major
+E. S. Ingraham, of Seattle, had given its altitude from the readings
+of mercurial barometers. Major Ingraham gave the height at 14,524
+feet. It will be noticed that the result obtained by Professor McClure
+was just four feet greater, a remarkable coincidence at that vast
+altitude and among conditions of hardship, exposure and uncertainty.
+Prior to Professor McClure's record, the latest measurement of Rainier
+had been made by George F. Hyde, of the United States Geological
+Survey, in 1896. He pursued the method of triangulation, and, taking
+as his base a line at Ellensburg, in connection with the sea level
+gauge at Tacoma, he figured out the extreme height of Rainier at
+14,519 feet.
+
+The value of Professor McClure's determination will be heightened
+rather than lessened by the peculiar difficulty and rareness of
+scientific work in an unexplored territory and from a base which has
+not all the appurtenances and advantages of the older scientific
+stations of the East and of Europe. In this respect his work is like
+that of Agassiz and of Audubon. Not unlike those great masters was he
+in his intense and lofty devotion to science. Not unlike them he
+wrought with rigid accuracy where others had worked almost at random.
+Not unlike them he aroused among his friends and students the
+conviction that he was a born high priest of nature, whose chief
+mission in the world was to reveal her secrets to mankind. He offered
+up his life virtually a sacrifice to the cause of popular and
+practical science, and in as lofty a sense as ever dignified a Roman
+arena he was a martyr to the cause of truth. To use the matchless
+figure employed by Byron in describing the death of Henry Kirk White,
+who died a victim to his own passionate devotion to literary art, he
+was like the struck eagle whose own feather "winged the shaft that
+quivered in his heart."
+
+Just in harmony with this thought came countless expressions of
+sympathy and condolence to the members of Professor McClure's family
+when the sad news of his death went abroad. One of the most touching,
+and, to my mind, one of the most typical of all these came from an
+obscure man in an obscure corner of Kentucky. He was not a great man
+himself, as the world counts greatness, this man in Kentucky; but he
+knew a great man when he saw him. He had known Edgar McClure; and when
+he heard the circumstances of his death he sat down and wrote a brief
+note. One sentence in it was worthy of Whittier or Emerson. It was
+this: "Edgar McClure died as he had always lived--on the mountain
+top."
+
+In transmitting his results to Horace McClure, brother of the deceased
+scientist, Professor McAlister brings to a proper close a labor of
+love, one that is as creditable to his scholarly culture as it is to
+his unselfish and devoted friendship.
+
+                              HERBERT L. BRUCE.
+
+
+    LETTER OF TRANSMISSION
+
+                              University of Oregon,
+                              Eugene, Or., October 28, 1897.
+
+MR. HORACE MCCLURE--Dear Sir: I herewith transmit to you for
+publication my report upon the observations of your late brother,
+Professor Edgar McClure, relative to the altitude of Mount Rainier,
+the data having been referred to me for reduction and computation by
+yourself and by the officials of the Mazama Club.
+
+It is but just to myself to say that the long delay in the appearance
+of this report has been caused by unavoidable difficulties in the
+collection of subsidiary data; in particular, the comparison sheet
+showing the instrumental error of Professor McClure's barometer could
+not be found until the 9th of this month, when it was discovered among
+some effects left by him in Portland. A further delay has been
+occasioned in obtaining a few other important data. A report
+approximately correct could have been made some time ago, but I felt
+it was due to the memory of Professor McClure's reputation for extreme
+accuracy that no report whatever should be published until I was able
+to state a result for which I could vouch as being the very best that
+the observations were capable of affording.
+
+The thanks of all concerned are due to Mr. B. S. Pague, Director of
+the Oregon Weather Bureau, for numerous courtesies and for his
+efficient aid in the collection of data.
+
+                    Very respectfully,
+
+                              E. H. MCALISTER,
+                              Professor of Applied Mathematics.
+
+THE RESULT
+
+For the benefit of those not interested in the scientific details of
+this report, it may be stated at once that the summit of Mount
+Rainier, according to Professor McClure's observations, is 14,528 feet
+above sea level. The altitudes of various sub-stations occupied en
+route will be found further on. An account of the data, with
+description of the methods employed in reduction and computation, is
+given, to indicate the degree of reliance to be placed upon the
+result.
+
+The principal observation to which this report refers was made by
+Professor Edgar McClure, of the University of Oregon, on the summit of
+Mount Rainier, Washington, July 27, 1897, at 4:30 P.M., Pacific
+standard time. The observation consists of a reading of Green's
+standard mercurial barometer, No. 1612, together with readings of
+attached and detached thermometers. It appears that the barometer,
+which was suspended by a ring at the top, was allowed so to hang until
+it had assumed the temperature of the surrounding air, before being
+read; that the sky was clear at the time; and that the place of
+observation, the highest on the mountain, is designated as Columbia
+Crest.
+
+The barometric reading, corrected for instrumental error and
+temperature, was 17.708 inches; the air temperature was 29 degrees
+Fahrenheit.
+
+Concurrent observations were made at 9:30 A.M. and hourly during the
+afternoon by the regular observers at Seattle, Portland, Fort Canby,
+the University of Oregon at Eugene, Roseburg, and one observation at
+Walla Walla at 5 P.M.
+
+In addition to these, during the week preceding the 27th Professor
+McClure made numerous observations both of pressure and temperature at
+various sub-stations in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, and
+simultaneous observations are furnished from Seattle and Portland.
+
+At the very outset of the work of reduction it was evident that Eugene
+and Roseburg were under an area of relatively low barometric pressure
+on the 27th, representing atmospheric conditions that did not prevail
+in the region of Mount Rainier. I therefore rejected the observations
+at both these places, using only those at Seattle, Portland, Fort
+Canby and Walla Walla. The strategic position of these four points
+will be seen at once by a glance at the map.
+
+The method followed in making the reduction was, in brief, to deduce
+from the observations at the four base stations surrounding the
+mountain the actual atmospheric conditions prevailing in the
+immediate region of the mountain. More specifically, the process
+consisted in determining the atmospheric pressure and temperature at
+an imaginary sea level vertically under the mountain, which level I
+shall subsequently call the "mean base."
+
+In this I was greatly assisted by a careful study of the daily weather
+charts issued by the government, Mr. Pague having kindly loaned me his
+official file for July. I thus practically had at my disposal
+observations from all the important points on the Coast, both before
+and after the principal observation. With due regard to the position
+and direction of the isobars, and giving proper weight to the
+observations at each of the four base stations, I finally deduced
+30.130 inches as the value of the pressure at the mean base which best
+satisfied all the data. It ought to be said, perhaps, that this result
+does not depend upon my judgment to any appreciable extent, but was
+legitimately worked out from the observations and isobaric lines.
+
+In determining the mean temperature of the air column extending from
+the mean base to the summit of the mountain, the observations made by
+Professor McClure during the previous week in the vicinity were so
+numerous and well timed as to leave far less than the usual amount of
+uncertainty. Making due allowance for the moderate elevations of the
+stations, these observations show clearly that the temperature about
+the mountain at that time followed that of Seattle very closely, and
+was also not much different from that of Portland, but departed
+notably from both the heat of Walla Walla and the low temperature of
+Fort Canby. Allowing proper weight to these facts, the observations at
+the base stations, with that of Professor McClure at the summit, gave
+49 degrees Fahrenheit as the mean temperature of the air column.
+
+I regard the method of reduction outlined above as possessing decided
+advantages over any other that could be applied to the problem in
+hand; especially because it admits of using the isobaric charts with
+great freedom and effectiveness, thereby increasing the reliability of
+the result to a marked extent.
+
+The reduction made, there remained for the final calculation the
+following data:
+
+    Barometric pressure at the summit of Rainier    17.708 inches
+    Barometric pressure at mean base                30.130 inches
+    Mean temperature of air column                     49 deg. F.
+    Latitude of Mount Rainer                      46 deg. 48 min.
+
+In making the calculation I used the amplified form of Laplace's
+formula given in the recent publications of the Smithsonian
+Institution, with the constants there adopted. Perhaps for the general
+reader it may be important to remark that this formula, besides the
+barometric pressures, contains corrections for the temperature of the
+air column; for latitude, and for the variation of gravity with
+altitude in its effect on the weight of the mercury in the barometer;
+for the average humidity of the air; and for the variation of gravity
+with altitude in its effect on the weight of the air. I used the
+latest edition of the Smithsonian tables, but afterward verified the
+result by a numerical solution of the formula--the altitude being, as
+stated at the beginning, 14,528 feet above sea level.
+
+It should be noted as an evidence of the great care and foresight with
+which Professor McClure planned his work and the success with which he
+carried it out, that the result of his observations agrees within nine
+feet with that obtained by the United States Geological Survey in
+1895, using, as we may suppose, the most refined methods of
+triangulation--the latter estimate being 14,519 feet. In connection
+with so great an altitude, nine feet is an insignificant quantity, and
+the close correspondence in the results of the two methods of
+measurement is truly remarkable. I am not inclined to regard it as
+accidental, but as due to the most careful work in both cases.
+
+Having a full knowledge of all the available data, I am perhaps better
+prepared than anyone else to pass judgment upon the result set forth;
+and while it would be folly to give a numerical estimate of the
+probable error, I feel justified in saying that no single barometric
+determination is ever likely to prove more accurate than this one of
+Professor McClure's. At any rate, the outstanding error is now too
+small to justify the hazard of any future attempts.
+
+From the observations made by Professor McClure while en route to the
+summit, together with simultaneous records from Seattle and Portland,
+the following altitudes are obtained:
+
+                                 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL
+    Eatonville                            870
+    Kernahan's ranch                    1,880
+    Longmire springs                    2,850
+    Mazama camp                         5,932
+    Camp-No-Camp                       12,700
+    South side Crater Rainier          14,275
+
+The data in these cases were not sufficient to admit an elaborate
+working-out of the altitude, so that the figures given are to be
+regarded as rather close approximations, except in the case of Mazama
+camp, the altitude of which rests upon four observations and is
+correspondingly reliable.
+
+Professor McClure's barometer had a notable history in mountaineering.
+To quote the professor's own words:
+
+"It has twice looked upon the beauties of the Columbia river from the
+summit of Mount Hood. It was the first barometer taken to the top of
+Mount Hood, and gave the true elevation, 11,225 feet, in place of
+17,000 or 18,000 feet previously claimed. This barometric measurement
+of Mount Hood was made in August, 1867, by a government party under
+the direction of Lieutenant R. S. Williamson. The second barometric
+measurement of Mount Hood was made with the same instrument in
+August, 1870, by Professor George H. Collier."
+
+In August, 1891, the barometer was carried by Professor McClure to the
+summit of Diamond Peak; in August, 1894, by the writer, to the summit
+of the middle peak of the Three Sisters, in Oregon, giving an altitude
+of 10,080 feet, not hitherto published; in July, 1895, Professor
+McClure took it with the Mazamas to Mount Adams, and in July, 1897, to
+the summit of Mount Rainier.
+
+A new tube was filled and inserted about two years ago, Professor
+McClure preparing the mercury by distillation and the writer boiling
+it in the tube. The vacuum was exceptionally perfect. The comparison
+sheet previously mentioned showed that the instrument on the occasion
+of its last trip read .005 inch above standard.
+
+In thus completing the labors of Professor McClure, with whom I was so
+long and so intimately associated, I feel a very melancholy
+satisfaction. For his sake, I have spared no pains in collecting all
+the useful data that could be obtained, to make the result reliable to
+the last degree possible in such a case. I leave that result as a
+sufficient guarantee of the accuracy of the whole work from beginning
+to end.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: PROFESSOR HENRY LANDES.]
+
+XIII. FIELD NOTES ON MOUNT RAINIER, 1905
+
+BY PROFESSOR HENRY LANDES
+
+
+     Henry Landes is Professor of Geology and Dean of the College
+     of Science, University of Washington, and he has also served
+     as State Geologist of Washington, since 1895. He was born at
+     Carroll, Indiana, on December 22, 1867. He graduated from the
+     University of Indiana in 1892 and obtained the Master of Arts
+     degree at Harvard University in 1893. He was assistant to the
+     State Geologist of New Jersey and Principal of the High
+     School at Rockland, Maine, before being elected to his
+     present professorship at the University of Washington in
+     1895. For a year and a half, 1914-1915, he was Acting
+     President of the University of Washington.
+
+     He has published many articles and pamphlets on geological
+     subjects. The one here given appeared in Mazama, published in
+     December, 1905, by the Mazamas in Portland, Oregon. It is
+     reproduced here with the permission of the author and of the
+     mountaineering club.
+
+The Columbia River afforded to the first people who came to Washington
+and Oregon the easiest and most feasible route across the Cascade
+Mountains. It was through this gateway that travel passed from one
+side of the range to the other until the advent of the railways in
+comparatively recent years. The early travelers along the river who
+were of an observing or scientific bent, noted that the rocks were, in
+general, dark, heavy and massive and of the class commonly known as
+basalt. Here and there a sort of pudding stone or agglomerate was
+observed, which in some instances might represent a sedimentary
+deposit, but which here had clearly an igneous origin.
+
+The observations of the early travelers were supplemented later by the
+further studies of geologists; and from the facts noted along the
+Columbia River, the generalization holds good to a great extent on
+the Oregon side, but it is by no means true on the Washington side, as
+has been shown by later studies. Granite rocks are encountered within
+a few miles of the Columbia River as one travels north along the
+Cascade Range. Associated with these granite rocks are found rocks of
+a metamorphic type, such as gneiss, schists, quartzites, crystalline
+limestone, slate, etc. Such rocks exist south of Mount Rainier, but
+are not conspicuous. North of this point, however, and throughout all
+of the northern Cascades they form the great bulk of the rock.
+
+In other words, in the Cascades of Washington, igneous activity has
+been much more common in the region south of Rainier than in that
+north of the mountain. When the first observations were made upon the
+great lava flows of southeastern Washington, which form a part of the
+greatest lava plain in the world, it was supposed that the lava had
+its origin in the volcanoes of the Cascades. Later investigations have
+shown this view to be erroneous. The lava of the plain has come
+directly from below through great longitudinal fissures instead of
+through circular openings such as one finds in volcanoes.
+
+It is probable that the Cascades, like most other mountains, have had
+several different periods of uplift. We have several notable examples
+of mountains which have had an initial uplift and then have been
+reduced to base by erosion. By a second upheaval the plain has been
+converted into a plateau, and this in time assumes a very rugged,
+mountainous character as a result of the combined forces of air and
+water. Eventually these same forces would reduce the region to a plain
+again. Just how many times this thing has happened in the Cascades we
+do not know. Bailey Willis has shown that in the northern Cascades, at
+least, the whole country was reduced to a plain prior to the last
+uplift, which took place in comparatively recent times. Out of this
+plateau, formed by the uplifting of the plain, has arisen through the
+active attack of erosive forces the truly mountainous character of the
+district. Erosion has been at the maximum in the mountains because of
+the heavy precipitation. Precipitation in the high mountains being
+chiefly in the form of snow has led to the formation of glaciers,
+producing thereby a rapidity of erosion of the first order. The active
+work of ice and running water has given to the mountains an extremely
+rugged appearance, characterized by valleys of great depth extending
+into the very heart of the mountains and with precipitous divides.
+
+It must be understood that the time consumed in the uplifting of the
+Cascades, and the conversion from plain to plateau, was of
+considerable duration. With the beginning of the uplift, the sluggish
+streams of the plain became rejuvenated, and took up actively once
+more the work of erosion. By the time the maximum uplift was reached,
+the plateau had lost to a certain degree its character of extreme
+levelness. The streams had already entrenched themselves in rather
+conspicuous valleys. It is believed that the great volcanoes of
+Washington--Rainier and its associates--began their activities about
+the time the uplift described above reached its maximum height. In the
+vicinity of Rainier the rock of the old plateau is granite; and the
+volcano may be said to be built upon a platform of that material. On
+the north side of the mountain granite appears conspicuously at a
+height of about 7,000 feet; while on the south side it appears at
+points varying from 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea.
+
+That the surface of the granite platform was irregular and uneven may
+be seen in the walls of the Nisqually canyon, near the lower terminus
+of the glacier. As one ascends the canyon to the glacier, the contact
+between the lava rock and the granite shows quite plainly on both the
+right and the left side. On the left the contact is at least 1,000
+feet above that on the right side. A little way above the lower end of
+the glacier, on each side of the canyon, a good opportunity presents
+itself to study the contact of the lava and granite. The granite at
+this place shows clearly that it was once a land surface; and one may
+note weathering for a distance downward of seventy-five or one hundred
+feet. The upper portion of the granite shows the usual characteristics
+of weathering, namely, the conversion of feldspar into kaolin, the
+oxidation of iron, etc. At this point the lava overlying the granite
+is quite basic and massive. The first flow reached a thickness here of
+fully three hundred feet, and exhibits a fine development of basaltic
+structure.
+
+In following up the canyon walls one observes that the activity of the
+volcano for some time was characterized almost exclusively by lava
+flows. In the main the lava is an andesite, and is very generally of a
+porphyritic structure. Some of the lava flows were of great extent,
+and reached points many miles distant from the center of the mountain.
+While the earlier stages of the activity of the volcano were
+characterized by lava flows of great thickness, by and by explosive
+products began to appear, and interbedded with the sheets of lava one
+finds bombs, lapilli, cinders, etc.
+
+It may be said in general that as the volcano grew in years it changed
+more and more from eruptions of the quiet type to those of the
+explosive character. It is plain that a long period of time was
+consumed in the making of that great volcanic pile, and that the
+eruptions were by no means continuous. It is clearly shown that after
+certain outflows of lava, quietude reigned for a time; that at last
+the surface of the rock became cool and that erosive agents broke it
+up into great masses of loose stones. In later flows of lava these
+stones were picked up and cemented into layers of pudding stone, which
+are styled agglomerates.
+
+Rocks of an agglomerate type are well shown in the walls of
+Gibraltar. This massive pile is largely made up of boulders, great and
+small, rather loosely held together by a lava cement. The work of
+frost and ice, expansion and contraction, loosens the boulders
+readily, and their constant falling from the cliffs gives to this part
+of the mountain's ascent its dangerous character. While this volcano
+belongs to a very late period in the history of the earth, it is very
+clear that there has been no marked activity for many thousands of
+years. The presence of steam, which is emitted from the hundreds of
+small openings about the crater, undoubtedly shows the presence of
+heated rock at no great distance below the surface. Rock is a poor
+conductor, however, and cooling takes place with very great slowness
+after a depth of comparatively few feet is reached.
+
+Like most volcanoes, the composite character of the cone is shown on
+Mount Rainier. After a certain height is reached in the building up of
+a cone, the rising lava in the throat, or the explosive activities
+within, sometimes produce an opening through the walls of the cone,
+and a new outlet to the surface is formed. This often gives the
+volcano a sort of hummocky or warty appearance, and produces a
+departure from the symmetrical character. In the case of Rainier it
+seems to the writer that upon the summit four distinct craters, or
+outlets, are distinguishable. The first crater reached by the usual
+route of ascent is the largest one, and may be styled the East crater.
+It is nearly circular in outline, with a diameter of about one-half
+mile. Its walls are bare of snow for nearly the whole of its
+circumference, but the pit is filled with snow and ice. Going across
+the crater to the westward, one passes over what is really the highest
+point on the mountain, and then goes down into a smaller crater, or
+the West crater. This is similar in character and outline to its
+neighbor, but here the many jets of issuing steam are much more
+prominent. At a point a few hundred feet lower on the mountain-side
+there is a peak known as Liberty Cap. A cross-section of the cap is
+in plain view and shows very clearly that this is a minor cone or
+local point of eruption. It is made up of rock very similar to the
+main mass of the mountain; and it is likely that the volcanic activity
+of the mountain was centered here for some time. Looking directly
+south from the West crater one sees at a distance of less than a mile
+another peak which is entirely snow-covered; but which may represent
+an instance parallel with that of the peak on the north side.
+
+Mount Rainier is so deeply covered with ice and snow that the glacial
+aspects of the mountain are far more conspicuous than the volcanic
+ones. The facts about the vulcanism and the history of the growth of
+the mountain are very difficult to study; and it will be a long time
+before they are fully known. The glaciers, on the other hand, are very
+conspicuous, comparatively easy of access, and the many facts
+concerning their extent, rate of motion, recession, or advance, may be
+quite readily determined. The glaciers, while very prominent at the
+present time, were at one time much larger than now. There are many
+things which go to prove that they formerly reached much farther down
+the valleys.
+
+From the top of the mountain one may see off to the westward for many
+miles south of Puget Sound prairies of large size, covering a great
+many square miles. These prairies represent the plains of gravel
+derived from the melting glaciers, when these stood in their vicinity.
+From these points of maximum extension the glaciers have slowly
+receded to their present position.
+
+That the glaciers are receding at the present time is a matter of
+common observation. At the lower end of the Nisqually glacier the
+advancing line of vegetation is about one-fourth mile below the
+present limit of the ice. It is the opinion of Mr. Longmire that the
+glacier has retreated about that far since he first came to the
+valley, twenty-five years ago. General Stevens was able to point out
+several instances of notable shrinkages in the glaciers, especially in
+the Paradise glacier, since his ascent of the mountain in 1870. It
+will interest students of glaciers to know that some permanent
+monuments have been set up at the lower end of the Nisqually glacier;
+and that arrangements have been made whereby the retreat of the ice
+may be accurately measured from year to year.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FRANÇOIS ÉMILE MATTHES.]
+
+XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER
+
+BY F. E. MATTHES
+
+
+     François Émile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on
+     March 16, 1874. After pursuing studies in Holland,
+     Switzerland and Germany, he came to the United States in 1891
+     and graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
+     in 1895. Since 1896 he has been at work with the United
+     States Geological Survey, mostly in the field of topography.
+     He has been honored by and is a member of many scientific
+     societies.
+
+     His topographic work on the maps of Yosemite and Mount
+     Rainier National Parks made for him many appreciative friends
+     on the Pacific Coast. His pamphlet on "Mount Rainier and Its
+     Glaciers" was published by the United States Department of
+     the Interior in 1914. He secured consent for its
+     republication in the present work.
+
+The impression still prevails in many quarters that true glaciers,
+such as are found in the Swiss Alps, do not exist within the confines
+of the United States, and that to behold one of these rare scenic
+features one must go to Switzerland, or else to the less accessible
+Canadian Rockies or the inhospitable Alaskan coast. As a matter of
+fact, permanent bodies of snow and ice, large enough to deserve the
+name of glaciers, occur on many of our western mountain chains,
+notably in the Rocky Mountains, where only recently a national
+reservation--Glacier National Park--was named for its ice fields; in
+the Sierra Nevada of California, and farther north, in the Cascade
+Range. It is on the last-named mountain chain that glaciers especially
+abound, clustering as a rule in groups about the higher summits of the
+crest. But this range also supports a series of huge, extinct
+volcanoes that tower high above its sky line in the form of isolated
+cones. On these the snows lie deepest and the glaciers reach their
+grandest development. Ice clad from head to foot the year round, these
+giant peaks have become known the country over as the noblest
+landmarks of the Pacific Northwest. Foremost among them are Mount
+Shasta, in California (14,162 feet); Mount Hood, in Oregon (11,225
+feet); Mount St. Helens (9,697 feet), Mount Adams (12,307 feet), Mount
+Rainier (14,408 feet), and Mount Baker (10,730 feet), in the State of
+Washington.
+
+Easily king of all is Mount Rainier. Almost 250 feet higher than Mount
+Shasta, its nearest rival in grandeur and in mass, it is
+overwhelmingly impressive, both by the vastness of its glacial mantle
+and by the striking sculpture of its cliffs. The total area of its
+glaciers amounts to no less than 45 square miles, an expanse of ice
+far exceeding that of any other single peak in the United States. Many
+of its individual ice streams are between 4 and 6 miles long and vie
+in magnitude and in splendor with the most boasted glaciers of the
+Alps. Cascading from the summit in all directions, they radiate like
+the arms of a great starfish. All reach down to the foot of the
+mountain and some advance considerably beyond.
+
+As for the plea that these glaciers lie in a scarcely opened,
+out-of-the-way region, a forbidding wilderness as compared with
+maturely civilized Switzerland, it no longer has the force it once
+possessed. Rainier's ice fields can now be reached from Seattle or
+Tacoma, the two principal cities of western Washington, in a
+comfortable day's journeying, either by rail or by automobile. The
+cooling sight of crevassed glaciers and the exhilarating
+flower-scented air of alpine meadows need no longer be exclusive
+pleasures, to be gained only by a trip abroad.
+
+Mount Rainier stands on the west edge of the Cascade Range,
+overlooking the lowlands that stretch to Puget Sound. Seen from
+Seattle or Tacoma, 60 and 50 miles distant, respectively, it appears
+to rise directly from sea level, so insignificant seem the ridges
+about its base. Yet these ridges themselves are of no mean height.
+They rise 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the valleys that cut through them,
+and their crests average 6,000 feet in altitude. Thus at the southwest
+entrance of the park, in the Nisqually Valley, the elevation above sea
+level, as determined by accurate spirit leveling, is 2,003 feet, while
+Mount Wow (Goat Mountain), immediately to the north, rises to an
+altitude of 6,045 feet. But so colossal are the proportions of the
+great volcano that they dwarf even mountains of this size and give
+them the appearance of mere foothills. In the Tatoosh Range Pinnacle
+Peak is one of the higher summits, 6,562 feet in altitude. That peak
+rises nearly 4,000 feet above the Nisqually River, which at Longmire
+has an elevation of 2,700 feet, yet it will be seen that Mount Rainier
+towers still 7,846 feet higher than Pinnacle Peak.
+
+From the top of the volcano one fairly looks down upon the Tatoosh
+Range, to the south; upon Mount Wow, to the southwest; upon the Mother
+Mountains, to the northwest, indeed, upon all the ridges of the
+Cascade Range. Only Mount Adams, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Hood loom
+like solitary peaks above the even sky line, while the ridges below
+this line seem to melt together in one vast, continuous mountain
+platform. And such a platform, indeed, one should conceive the Cascade
+Range once to have been. Only it is now thoroughly dissected by
+profound, ramifying valleys, and has been resolved into a sea of
+wavelike crests and peaks.
+
+Mount Rainier stands, in round numbers, 10,000 feet high above its
+immediate base, and covers 100 square miles of territory, or one-third
+of the area of Mount Rainier National Park. In shape it is not a
+simple cone tapering to a slender, pointed summit like Fuji Yama, the
+great volcano of Japan. It is, rather, a broadly truncated mass
+resembling an enormous tree stump with spreading base and irregularly
+broken top. Its life history has been a varied one. Like all
+volcanoes, Rainier has built up its cone with the material ejected by
+its own eruptions--with cinders and bombs (steam-shredded particles
+and lumps of lava), and with occasional flows of liquid lava that have
+solidified into layers of hard, basaltic rock. At one time it attained
+an altitude of not less than 16,000 feet, if one may judge by the
+steep inclination of the lava and cinder layers visible in its flanks.
+Then a great explosion followed that destroyed the top part of the
+mountain, and reduced its height by some 2,000 feet. The volcano was
+left beheaded, and with a capacious hollow crater, surrounded by a
+jagged rim.
+
+Later on this great cavity, which measured nearly 3 miles across, from
+south to north, was filled by two small cinder cones. Successive
+feeble eruptions added to their height until at last they formed
+together a low, rounded dome--the eminence that now constitutes the
+mountain's summit. It rises only about 400 feet above the rim of the
+old crater, and is an inconspicuous feature, not readily identifiable
+from all sides as the highest point. In fact, so broad is the
+mountain's crown that from no point at its base can one see the top.
+The higher portions of the old crater rim, moreover, rise to
+elevations within a few hundred feet of the summit, and, especially
+when viewed from below, stand out boldly as separate peaks that mask
+and seem to overshadow the central dome. Especially prominent are Peak
+Success (14,150 feet) on the southwest side, and Liberty Cap (14,112
+feet) on the northwest side.
+
+The altitude of the main summit has for many years been in doubt.
+Several figures have been announced from time to time, no two of them
+in agreement with each other; but all of these, it is to be observed,
+were obtained by more or less approximate methods. In 1913 the United
+States Geological Survey, in connection with its topographic surveys
+of the Mount Rainier National Park, was able to make a new series of
+measurements by triangulation methods at close range. These give the
+peak an elevation of 14,408 feet, thus placing it near the top of the
+list of high summits of the United States. This last figure, it should
+be added, is not likely to be in error by more than a foot or two and
+may with some confidence be regarded as final. Greater exactness of
+determination is scarcely practicable in the case of Mount Rainier, as
+its highest summit consists actually of a mound of snow the height of
+which naturally varies somewhat with the seasons and from year to
+year.
+
+This crowning snow mound, which was once supposed to be the highest
+point in the United States, still bears the proud name of Columbia
+Crest. It is essentially a huge snowdrift or snow dune, heaped up by
+the westerly winds. Driving furiously up through the great breach in
+the west flank of the mountain, between Peak Success and Liberty Cap,
+they eddy lightly as they shoot over the summit and there deposit
+their load of snow.
+
+The drift is situated at the point where the rims of the two summit
+craters touch, and represents the only permanent snow mass on these
+rims, for some of the internal heat of the volcano still remains and
+suffices to keep these rock-crowned curving ridges bare of snow the
+better part of the year. It is intense enough, even, to produce
+numerous steam jets along the inner face of the rim of the east
+crater, which appears to be the most recently formed of the two. The
+center of this depression, however, is filled with snow, so that it
+has the appearance of a shallow, white-floored bowl some 1,200 feet in
+diameter. Great caverns are melted out by the steam jets under the
+edges of the snow mass, and these caverns afford shelters which,
+though uninviting, are not to be despised. They have proved a
+blessing to more than one party that has found itself compelled to
+remain overnight on the summit, saving them from death in the icy
+gales.
+
+That Mount Rainier should still retain so much of its internal heat is
+not surprising in view of the recency of its eruptions. It is known to
+have been active at intervals during the last century, and actual
+record exists of slight eruptions in 1843, 1854, 1858, and 1870.
+Indian legends mention a great cataclysmal outburst at an earlier
+period.
+
+At present the volcano may be regarded as dormant and no apprehension
+need be felt as to the possibility of an early renewal of its
+activity. The steam jets in the summit crater, it is true, as well as
+the hot springs at the mountain's foot (Longmire Springs), attest the
+continued presence of subterranean fires, but they are only feeble
+evidences as compared with the geysers, the steam jets, and the hot
+springs of the Yellowstone National Park. Yet that region is not
+considered any less safe to visit because of the presence of these
+thermal phenomena.
+
+In spite of Mount Rainier's continued activity until within the memory
+of man its sides appear to have been snow clad for a considerable
+length of time. Indeed, so intense and so long-continued has been the
+eroding action of the ice that the cone is now deeply ice-scarred and
+furrowed. Most of its outer layers, in fact, appear already to have
+been stripped away. Here and there portions of them remain standing on
+the mountain's flanks in the form of sharp-crested crags and ridges,
+and from these one may roughly surmise the original dimensions of the
+cone. Mere details in the volcano's sculpture, these residual masses
+are, some of them, so tall that, were they standing among ordinary
+mountains, they would be reckoned as great peaks. Particularly
+noteworthy is Little Tahoma, a sharp, triangular tooth on the east
+flank, that rises to an elevation of 11,117 feet. In its steep,
+ice-carved walls one may trace ascending volcanic strata aggregating
+2,000 feet in thickness that point upward to the place of their
+origin, the former summit of the mountain, which rose almost half a
+mile higher than the present top.
+
+Nor is the great crater rim left by the explosion that carried off the
+original summit preserved in its entirety. Peak Success and Liberty
+Cap are the only two promontories that give trustworthy indication of
+its former height and strength. Probably they represent the more
+massive portions on the southwest and northwest sides, respectively,
+while the weaker portions to the east and south have long since
+crumbled away under the heavy ice cascades that have been overriding
+them for ages. Only a few small rocky points remain upon which the
+snows split in their descent. The most prominent, as well as the most
+interesting, is the one on the southeast side, popularly known as
+Gibraltar Rock. Really a narrow, wedge-shaped mass, it appears in
+profile like a massive, square-cut promontory. The trail to the summit
+of the mountain passes along its overhanging south face and then
+ascends by a precipitous chute between ice and rock. It is this part
+of the ascent that is reputed as the most precarious and hazardous.
+
+From the rim points downward the ice cover of the cone divides into a
+number of distinct stream-like tongues or glaciers, each sunk in a
+great hollow pathway of its own. Between these ice-worn trenches the
+uneroded portions of the cone stand out in high relief, forming as a
+rule huge triangular "wedges," heading at the sharp rim points and
+spreading thence downward to the mountain's base. There they assume
+the aspect of more gently sloping, grassy table-lands, the charming
+alpine meadows of which Paradise Park and Spray Park are the most
+famous. Separating these upland parks are the profound ice-cut
+canyons which, beyond the glacier ends, widen out into densely
+forested valleys, each containing a swift-flowing river. No less than
+a dozen of these ice-fed torrents radiate from the volcano in all
+directions, while numerous lesser streams course from the snow fields
+between the glaciers.
+
+Thus the cone of Mount Rainier is seen to be dissected from its summit
+to its foot. Sculptured by its own glacier mantle, its slopes have
+become diversified with a fretwork of ridges, peaks, and canyons.
+
+The first ice one meets on approaching the mountain from Longmire
+Springs lies in the upper end of the Nisqually Valley. The wagon road,
+which up to this point follows the west side of the valley, winding in
+loops and curves along the heavily wooded mountain flank, here
+ventures out upon the rough bowlder bed of the Nisqually River and
+crosses the foaming torrent on a picturesque wooden bridge. A scant
+thousand feet above this structure, blocking the valley to a height of
+some 400 feet, looms a huge shapeless pile of what seems at first
+sight only rock débris, gray and chocolate in color. It is the
+dirt-stained end of one of the largest glaciers--the Nisqually. From a
+yawning cave in its front issues the Nisqually stream, a river full
+fledged from the start.
+
+The altitude here, it should be noted, is a trifle under 4,000 feet
+(elevation of bridge is 3,960 feet); hence the ice in view lies more
+than 10,000 feet below the summit of the mountain, the place of its
+origin. And in this statement is strikingly summed up the whole nature
+and economy of a glacier such as the Nisqually.
+
+A glacier is not a mere stationary blanket of snow and ice clinging
+inert to the mountain flank. It is a slowly moving streamlike body
+that descends by virtue of its own weight. The upper parts are
+continually being replenished by fresh snowfalls, which at those high
+altitudes do not entirely melt away in summer; while the lower end,
+projecting as it does below the snow line, loses annually more by
+melting than it receives by precipitation, and is maintained only by
+the continued accession of masses from above. The rate at which the
+ice advances has been determined by Prof. J. N. Le Conte, of the
+University of California. In 1903 he placed a row of stakes across the
+glacier, and with the aid of surveying instruments obtained accurate
+measurements of the distances through which they moved from day to
+day. He found that in summer, when the movement is greatest, it
+averages 16 inches per day. This figure, however, applies only to the
+central portion of the glacier--the main current, so to speak--for the
+margins necessarily move more slowly, being retarded by friction
+against the channel sides.
+
+The snout of the Nisqually Glacier, accordingly, is really composed of
+slowly advancing ice, but so rapid is the melting at this low altitude
+that it effectually counterbalances the advance, and thus the ice
+front remains essentially stationary and apparently fixed in place.
+Actually, it is subject to slight back and forward movements,
+amounting to a foot or more per day; for, as one may readily imagine,
+fluctuations in snowfall and in temperature, above or below the
+normal, are ever likely to throw the balance one way or another.
+
+A glacier may also make periodic advances or retreats on a larger
+scale in obedience to climatic changes extending over many years. Thus
+all the glaciers on Mount Rainier, as well as many in other parts of
+the world, are at present, and have been for some time, steadily
+retreating as the result of milder climate or of a lessening in snow
+supply. Only so recently as 1885 the Nisqually Glacier reached down to
+the place now occupied by the bridge, and it is safe to say that at
+that time no engineer would have had the daring to plan the road as it
+is now laid. In the last 25 years, however, the Nisqually Glacier has
+retreated fully 1,000 feet.
+
+Evidences of similar wholesale recession are to be observed at the
+ends of the other glaciers of Mount Rainier, but the measure of their
+retreat is not recorded with the precision that was possible in the
+case of the Nisqually Glacier. Eyewitnesses still live at Longmire
+Springs who can testify to the former extension of the Nisqually
+Glacier down to the site of the wagon bridge.
+
+As one continues the ascent by the wagon road a partial view of the
+glacier's lower course is obtained, and there is gained some idea of
+its stream-like character. More satisfying are the views from Paradise
+Park. Here several miles of the ice stream (its total length is nearly
+5 miles) lie stretched out at one's feet, while looking up toward the
+mountain one beholds the tributary ice fields and ice streams,
+pouring, as it were, from above, from right and left, rent by
+innumerable crevasses and resembling foaming cascades suddenly
+crystallized in place. The turmoil of these upper branches may be too
+confusing to be studied with profit, but the more placid lower course
+presents a favorable field for observation, and a readily accessible
+one at that.
+
+A veritable frozen river it seems, flowing between smooth, parallel
+banks, half a mile apart. Its surface, in contrast to the glistening
+ice cascades above, has the prevailingly somber tint of old ice,
+relieved here and there by bright patches of last winter's snow. These
+lie for the most part in gaping fissures or crevasses that run athwart
+the glacier at short intervals and divide its body into narrow slices.
+In the upper course, where the glacier overrides obstacles in its bed,
+the crevasses are particularly numerous and irregularly spaced,
+sometimes occurring in two sets intersecting at right angles, and
+producing square-cut prisms. Farther down the ice stream's current is
+more sluggish and the crevasses heal up by degrees, providing a united
+surface, over which one may travel freely.
+
+Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with débris. Angular rock
+fragments, large and small, and quantities of dust, derived from the
+rock walls bordering the ice stream higher up, litter its surface and
+hide the color of the ice. At first only a narrow ridge of such
+material--a moraine, as it is called--accompanies the ice river on
+each side, resembling a sharp-crested embankment built by human hands
+to restrain its floods; but toward the lower end of the glacier, as
+the ice wastes away, the débris contained in it is released in masses,
+and forms brown marginal bands, fringing the moraines. In fact, from
+here on down it becomes difficult to tell where the ice of the glacier
+ends at the sides and where the moraines begin.
+
+The lower part of the glacier also possesses a peculiar feature in the
+form of a débris ridge about midway on its back--a medial moraine.
+Most of the way it stretches like a slender, dark ribbon, gradually
+narrowing upstream. One may trace it with the eye up to its point of
+origin, the junction of the two main branches of the glacier, at the
+foot of a sharp rock spur on the mountain's flank.
+
+In the last mile of the Nisqually's course, this medial moraine
+develops from a mere dirt band to a conspicuous embankment, projecting
+40 feet above the ice. Not the entire body of the ridge, however, is
+made up of rock débris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the
+protective influence of the débris layer on its surface, which is
+thick enough to shield the ice beneath from the hot rays of the sun,
+and greatly retards melting, while the adjoining unprotected ice
+surfaces are rapidly reduced.
+
+A short distance above the glacier's terminus the medial moraine and
+the ever-broadening marginal bands come together. No more clear ice
+remains exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of débris cover the
+entire surface of the glacier, and the moraine-smothered mass assumes
+the peculiar inchoate appearance that is so striking upon first view.
+
+In utter contrast with the glacier's dying lower end are the bright
+snow fields on the summit in which it commences its career. Hard by
+the rock rim of the east summit crater the snows begin, enwrapping in
+an even, immaculate layer the smooth sides of the cinder cone. Only a
+few feet deep at first, they thicken downward by degrees, until, a
+thousand feet below the crater, they possess sufficient depth and
+weight to acquire movement. Occasional angular crevasses here
+interrupt the slope and force the summit-bound traveler to make
+wearying detours.
+
+Looking down into a gash of this sort one beholds nothing but clean
+snow, piled in many layers. Only a faint blue tinges the crevasse
+walls, darkening but slowly with the depth, in contrast to the intense
+indigo hue characteristic of the partings in the lower course of the
+glacier. There the material is a dense ice, more or less crystalline
+in texture; here it is scarcely more than snow, but slightly compacted
+and loosely granular--what is generally designated by the Swiss term
+"névé."
+
+For several thousand feet down, as far as the 10,000-foot level, in
+fact, does the snow retain this granular consistency. One reason for
+the slowness with which it compacts is found in the low temperatures
+that prevail at high altitudes and preclude any considerable melting.
+The air itself seldom rises above the freezing point, even in the
+middle of the day, and as a consequence the snow never becomes soft
+and mushy, as it does at lower levels.
+
+When snow assumes the mushy, "wet-sugar" state, it is melting
+internally as well as at its outer surface, owing both to the water
+that soaks into it and to the warming of the air inclosed within its
+innumerable tiny pores (which tiny air spaces, by the way, give the
+snow its brilliant whiteness). Snow in this condition has, paradoxical
+though it may sound, a temperature a few tenths of a degree higher
+than the melting point--a fact recently established by delicate
+temperature measurements made on European glaciers. It is this
+singular fact, no doubt, that explains how so many minute organisms
+are able to flourish and propagate in summer on the lower portions of
+many glaciers. It may be of interest to digress here briefly in order
+to speak of these little known though common forms of life.
+
+Several species of insects are among the regular inhabitants of
+glaciers. Most of them belong to a very low order--the Springtails, or
+_Thysanura_--and are so minute that in spite of their dark color they
+escape the attention of most passers-by. If one looks closely,
+however, they may readily be observed hopping about like miniature
+fleas or wriggling deftly into the cavities of the snow. It seems to
+incommode them but little if in their acrobatic jumps they
+occasionally alight in a puddle or in a rill, for they are thickly
+clad with furry scales that prevent them from getting wet--just as a
+duck is kept dry by its greasy feathers.
+
+Especially plentiful on the lower parts of the Rainier glaciers, and
+more readily recognized, are slender dark-brown worms of the genus
+_Mesenchytraeus_, about 1 inch in length. Millions and millions of
+them may be seen on favorable days in July and August writhing on the
+surface of the ice, evidently breeding there and feeding on organic
+matter blown upon the glacier in the form of dust. So essential to
+their existence is the chill of the ice that they enter several
+inches, and sometimes many feet below the surface on days when the sun
+is particularly hot, reappearing late in the afternoon.
+
+Mention also deserves to be made of that microscopic plant
+_Protococcus nivalis_, which is responsible for the mysterious pink or
+light, rose-colored patches so often met with on glaciers--the "red
+snow" of a former superstition. Each patch represents a colony or
+culture comprising billions of individuals. It is probable that they
+represent but a small fraction of the total microflora thriving on
+the snow, the other species remaining invisible for lack of a
+conspicuous color.
+
+To return to the frigid upper névés, it is not to be supposed that
+they suffer no loss whatever by melting. The heat radiated directly to
+them by the sun is alone capable of doing considerable damage, even
+while the air remains below the freezing point. At these high
+altitudes the sun heat is astonishingly intense, as more than one
+uninitiated mountain climber has learned to his sorrow by neglecting
+to take the customary precaution of blacking his face before making
+the ascent. In a few hours the skin is literally scorched and begins
+to blister painfully.
+
+At the foot of the mountain the sun heat is relatively feeble, for
+much of it is absorbed by the dust and vapor in the lower layers of
+the atmosphere, but on the summit, which projects 2 miles higher, the
+air is thin and pure, and lets the rays pass through but little
+diminished in strength.
+
+The manner in which the sun affects the snow is peculiar and
+distinctive. Instead of reducing the surface evenly, it melts out many
+close-set cups and hollows, a foot or more in diameter and separated
+by sharp spires and crests. No water is visible anywhere, either in
+rills or in pools, evaporation keeping pace with the reduction. If the
+sun's action is permitted to continue uninterrupted for many days, as
+may happen in a hot, dry summer, these snow cups deepen by degrees,
+until at length they assume the aspect of gigantic bee cells, several
+feet in depth. Snow fields thus honeycombed may be met with on the
+slopes above Gibraltar Rock. They are wearisome to traverse, for the
+ridges and spines are fairly resistant, so that one must laboriously
+clamber over them. Most exasperating, however, is the going after a
+snowstorm has filled the honeycombs. Then the traveler, waist deep in
+mealy snow, is left to flounder haphazard through a hidden labyrinth.
+
+Of interest in this connection is the great snow cliff immediately
+west of Gibraltar Rock. Viewed from the foot of that promontory, the
+sky line of the snow castle fairly bristles with honeycomb spines;
+while below, in the face of the snow cliff, dark, wavy lines, roughly
+parallel to the upper surface, repeat its pattern in subdued form.
+They represent the honeycombs of previous seasons, now buried under
+many feet of snow, but still traceable by the dust that was imprisoned
+with them.
+
+The snow cliff west of Gibraltar Rock is of interest also for other
+reasons. It is the end of a great snow cascade that descends from the
+rim of the old crater. Several such cascades may be seen on the south
+side of the mountain, separated by craggy remnants of the crater rim.
+Above them the summit névés stretch in continuous fields, but from the
+rim on down, the volcano's slopes are too precipitous to permit a
+gradual descent, and the névés break into wild cascades and falls.
+Fully two to three thousand feet they tumble, assembling again in
+compact, sluggish ice fields on the gentler slopes below.
+
+Of the three cascades that feed the Nisqually Glacier only the central
+one, it is to be observed, forms a continuous connection between the
+summit névés and the lower ice fields. The two others, viz. the one
+next to Gibraltar and the westernmost of the three, terminate in
+vertical cliffs, over great precipices of rock. From them snow masses
+detach at intervals and produce thundering avalanches that bound far
+out over the inclined ice fields below. Especially frequent are the
+falls from the cliff near Gibraltar. They occur hourly at certain
+times, but as a rule at periods of one or more days.
+
+From the westernmost cascade avalanches are small and rare. Indeed, as
+one watches them take place at long intervals throughout a summer one
+can not but begin to doubt whether they are in themselves really
+sufficient to feed and maintain so extensive an ice field as lies
+stretched out under them. Surely much more snow must annually melt
+away from the broad surface of that field, exposed as it lies to the
+midday sun, than the insignificant avalanches can replace. Were they
+its only source of supply, the ice field, one feels confident, would
+soon cease to exist.
+
+The fact is that the ice field in question is not dependent for its
+support on the avalanches from above. It may receive some
+contributions to its volume through them, but in reality it is an
+independent ice body, nourished chiefly by direct snow precipitation
+from the clouds. And this is true, in large measure, of all the ice
+fields lying under the ice cascades. The Nisqually Glacier,
+accordingly, is not to be regarded as composed merely of the cascading
+névés, reunited and cemented together, but as taking a fresh start at
+these lower levels. Improbable though this may seem at first, it is
+nevertheless a fact that is readily explained.
+
+The winter snows on Mount Rainier are heaviest in the vicinity of its
+base; indeed, the snowfall at those low levels is several times
+greater than that on the summit. This in itself may seem anomalous. So
+accustomed is one to think that the snowfall on high mountains
+increases with the altitude that it seems strange to find a case in
+which the opposite is true. Yet Mount Rainier stands by no means alone
+in this regard. The Sierra Nevada and the Andes, the Himalayas and the
+Alps, all show closely analogous conditions.
+
+In each of these lofty mountain regions the precipitation is known to
+be heaviest at moderate altitudes, while higher up it decreases
+markedly. The reason is that the storm clouds--the clouds that carry
+most of the rain and snow--hang in a zone of only moderate elevation,
+while higher up the atmosphere contains but little moisture and seldom
+forms clouds of any great density.
+
+In the Rainier region the height of the storm clouds is in large
+measure regulated by the relief of the Cascade Range; for it is really
+this cooling mountain barrier that compels the moisture-laden winds
+from the Pacific Ocean to condense and to discharge. It follows that
+the storm clouds are seldom much elevated above the sky line of the
+Cascade Mountains; they cling, so to speak, to its crest and ridges,
+while the cone of Mount Rainier towers high above them into serener
+skies. Many a day may one look down from the summit, or even from a
+halfway point, such as Camp Muir (10,062 feet), upon the upper surface
+of the clouds. Like a layer of fleecy cotton they appear, smothering
+the lower mountains and enveloping the volcano's base.
+
+Clouds, it is true, are frequently seen gathering about the mountain's
+crown, usually in the form of a circular cap or hood, precursor of a
+general storm, but such clouds yield but very little snow.
+
+No accurate measurements have been made of the snowfall at the
+mountain's foot, but in the Nisqually Valley, at Longmire Springs, the
+winter snows are known often to exceed 20 feet in depth. The summer
+heat at this low level (2,762 feet) is, of course, abundantly able to
+remove all of it, at least by the end of May. But higher up every
+thousand feet of elevation suffices to prolong appreciably the life of
+the snowy cover. In Paradise Park, for instance, at altitudes between
+5,000 and 6,000 feet, huge snowdrifts encumber the flowering meadows
+until far into July. Above an altitude of 6,000 feet permanent drifts
+and snow fields survive in certain favored spots, while at the
+7,000-foot level the snow line, properly speaking, is reached. Above
+this line considerable snow remains regularly from one winter to the
+next, and extensive ice fields and glaciers exist even without
+protection from the sun.
+
+It is between the 8,000 and 10,000 foot levels, however, that one
+meets with the conditions most favorable for the development of
+glaciers. Below this zone the summer heat largely offsets the heavy
+precipitation, while above it the snowfall itself is relatively scant.
+Within the belt the annual addition of snow to the ice fields is
+greater than anywhere else on Mount Rainier. The result is manifest in
+the arrangement and distribution of the glaciers on the cone. By far
+the greater number originate in the vicinity of the 10,000-foot level,
+while those ice streams which cascade from the summit, such as the
+Nisqually, are in a sense reborn some 4,000 feet lower down.
+
+A striking example of an ice body nourished wholly by the snows
+falling on the lower slope of Mount Rainier is the Paradise Glacier.
+In no wise connected with the summit névés, it makes its start at an
+elevation of less than 9,000 feet. Situated on the spreading slope
+between the diverging canyons of the Nisqually on the west and of the
+Cowlitz on the northeast, it constitutes a typical "interglacier," as
+intermediate ice bodies of this kind are termed.
+
+Its appearance is that of a gently undulating ice field, crevassed
+only toward its lower edge and remarkably clean throughout. No
+débris-shedding cliffs rise anywhere along its borders, and this fact,
+no doubt, largely explains its freedom from morainal accumulations.
+
+The absence of cliffs also implies a lack of protecting shade.
+Practically the entire expanse of the glacier lies exposed to the full
+glare of the sun. As a consequence its losses by melting are very
+heavy, and a single hot summer may visibly diminish the glacier's
+bulk. Nevertheless it seems to hold its own as well as any other
+glacier on Mount Rainier, and this ability to recuperate finds its
+explanation in the exceeding abundance of fresh snows that replenish
+it every winter.
+
+The Paradise Glacier, however, is not the product wholly of direct
+precipitation from the clouds. Much of its mass is supplied by the
+wind, and accumulates in the lee of the high ridge to the west, over
+which the route to Camp Muir and Gibraltar Rock is laid. The westerly
+gales keep this ridge almost bare of snow, permitting only a few
+drifts to lodge in sheltered depressions. But east of the ridge there
+are great eddies in which the snow forms long, smooth slopes that
+descend several hundred feet to the main body of the glacier. These
+slopes are particularly inviting to tourists for the delightful
+"glissades" which they afford. Sitting down on the hard snow at the
+head of such a slope, one may indulge in an exhilarating glide of
+amazing swiftness, landing at last safely on the level snows beneath.
+
+The generally smooth and united surface of the Paradise Glacier, it
+may be added, contributes not a little to its attractiveness as a
+field for alpine sports. On it one may roam at will without
+apprehension of lurking peril; indeed one can journey across its
+entire width, from Paradise Park to the Cowlitz Rocks, without
+encountering a single dangerous fissure. This general absence of
+crevasses is accounted for largely by the evenness of the glacier's
+bed and by its hollow shape, owing to which the snows on all sides
+press inward and compact the mass in the center. Only toward its
+frontal margin, where the glacier plunges over an abrupt rock step, as
+well as in the hump of that part known as Stevens Glacier, is the ice
+rent by long crevasses and broken into narrow blades. Here it may be
+wise for the inexperienced not to venture without a competent guide,
+for the footing is apt to be treacherous, and jumping over crevasses
+or crossing them by frail snow bridges are feats never accomplished
+without risk.
+
+In the early part of summer the Paradise Glacier has the appearance of
+a vast, unbroken snow field, blazing, immaculate, in the sun. But
+later, as the fresh snows melt away from its surface, grayish patches
+of old crystalline ice develop in places, more especially toward the
+glacier's lower margin. Day by day these patches expand until, by the
+end of August, most of the lower ice field has been stripped of its
+brilliant mantle. Its countenance, once bright and serene, now assumes
+a grim expression and becomes crisscrossed by a thousand seams, like
+the visage of an aged man.
+
+Over this roughened surface trickle countless tiny rills which,
+uniting, form swift rivulets and torrents, indeed veritable river
+systems on a miniature scale that testify with eloquence to the
+rapidity with which the sun consumes the snow. Strangely capricious in
+course are these streamlets, for, while in the main gravitating with
+the glacier's slope, they are ever likely to be caught and deflected
+by the numerous seams in the ice. These seams, it should be explained,
+are lines of former crevasses that have healed again under pressure in
+the course of the glacier's slow descent. As a rule they inclose a
+small amount of dirt, and owing to its presence are particularly
+vulnerable to erosion. Along them the streamlets rapidly intrench
+themselves--perhaps by virtue of their warmth, what little there is of
+it, as much as by actual abrasion--and hollow out channels of a
+freakish sort, here straight and canal-like, there making sharp zigzag
+turns; again broadening into profound, canoe-shaped pools, or emptying
+into deeper trenches by little sparkling cataracts, or passing under
+tiny bridges and tunnels--a veritable toy land carved in ice.
+
+But unfortunately these pretty features are ephemeral, many of them
+changing from day to day; for, evenings, as the lowering sun withdraws
+its heat, the melting gradually comes to a halt, and the little
+streams cease to flow. The soft babbling and gurgling and the often
+exquisitely melodious tinkle of dripping water in hidden glacial wells
+are hushed, and the silent frost proceeds to choke up passages and
+channels, so that next day's waters have to seek new avenues.
+
+In the region where the new crevasses open the surface drainage comes
+abruptly to an end. Here gaping chutes of deepest azure entrap the
+torrents and the waters rush with musical thunder to the interior of
+the glacier and finally down to its bed.
+
+At its lower border the Paradise Glacier splits into several lobes.
+The westernmost sends forth the Paradise River, which, turning
+southwestward, plunges over the Sluiskin Fall (named for the Klickitat
+Indian who guided Van Trump and Hazard Stevens to the mountain in
+1870, when they made the first successful ascent) and runs the length
+of Paradise Valley. The middle lobe has become known as Stevens
+Glacier (named for Hazard Stevens) and ends in Stevens Creek, a stream
+which almost immediately drops over a precipice of some 600 feet--the
+Fairy Falls--and winds southeastward through rugged Stevens Canyon.
+The easternmost lobes, known collectively as Williwakas Glacier, send
+forth two little cascades, which, uniting, form Williwakas Creek. This
+stream is a tributary of the Cowlitz River, as is Stevens Creek.
+
+Immediately adjoining the Paradise Glacier on the northeast, and not
+separated from it by any definite barrier, lies the Cowlitz Glacier,
+one of the stateliest ice streams of Mount Rainier. It flows in a
+southeasterly direction, and burrows its nose deeply into the
+forest-covered hills at the mountain's foot. Its upper course consists
+of two parallel-flowing ice streams, intrenched in profound troughs,
+which they have enlarged laterally until now only a narrow, ragged
+crest of rock remains between them, resembling a partition a thousand
+feet in height. At the upper end of this crest stands Gibraltar Rock.
+
+At the point of confluence of the two branches there begins a long
+medial moraine that stretches like a black tape the whole length of
+the lower course. To judge by its position midway on the glacier's
+back, the two tributaries must be very nearly equal in strength, yet,
+when traced to their sources, they are found to originate in widely
+different ways. The north branch, named Ingraham Glacier (after Maj.
+E. S. Ingraham, one of Rainier's foremost pioneers), comes from the
+névés on the summit; while the south branch heads in a pocket
+immediately under Gibraltar. No snow comes to it from the summit;
+hence we can not escape the conclusion that it receives through direct
+precipitation and through wind drifting about as much snow as its
+sister branch receives from the summit regions. Like the glacier
+troughs below, the pocket appears to have widened laterally under the
+influence of the ice, and is now separated from the Nisqually ice
+fields to the west by only a narrow rock partition, the Cowlitz
+Cleaver, as it is locally called. Up this narrow crest the route to
+Gibraltar Rock ascends. The name "cleaver," it may be said in passing,
+is most apt for the designation of a narrow rock crest of this sort,
+and well deserves to be more generally used in the place of awkward
+foreign terms, such as arrete and grat.
+
+Both branches of the Cowlitz Glacier cascade steeply immediately above
+their confluence, but the lower glacier has a gentle gradient and a
+fairly uneventful course. Like the lower Nisqually, it is bordered by
+long morainal ridges, and toward its end acquires broad marginal dirt
+bands. For nearly a mile these continue, leaving a gradually narrowing
+lane of clear ice between them. Then they coalesce and the whole ice
+body becomes strewn with rock débris.
+
+The Cowlitz Glacier, including its north branch, the Ingraham Glacier,
+measures slightly over 6 miles in length. Throughout that distance the
+ice stream lies sunk in a steep-walled canyon of its own carving.
+Imposing cliffs of columnar basalt, ribbed as if draped in corduroy,
+overlook its lower course. Slender waterfalls glide down their
+precipitous fronts, like silver threads, guided by the basalt
+flutings.
+
+From the end of the glacier issues the Muddy Fork of the Cowlitz
+River, which, joining the Ohanapecosh, forms the Cowlitz River proper,
+one of the largest streams of the Cascade Range. For nearly a hundred
+miles the Cowlitz River follows a southwesterly course, finally
+emptying in the Columbia River a short distance below Portland,
+Oregon.
+
+The name Muddy Fork is a most apt one, for the stream leaves the
+glacier heavily charged with débris and mud, and while it gradually
+clears itself as it proceeds over its gravelly bed, it is still turbid
+when it reaches the Ohanapecosh. That stream is relatively clear, for
+it heads in a glacier of small extent and little eroding power, and
+consequently begins its career with but a moderate load; furthermore
+it receives on its long circuitous course a number of tributaries from
+the Cascade Range, all of them containing clear water.
+
+The name Muddy, however, might with equal appropriateness be given to
+every one of the streams flowing from the ice fields of Mount Rainier.
+So easily disintegrated are the volcanic materials of which that peak
+is composed, that the glaciers are enabled to erode with great
+rapidity, even in their present shrunken state. They consequently
+deliver to the streams vast quantities of débris, much of it in the
+form of cobbles and bowlders, but much of it also in the form of "rock
+flour."
+
+A considerable proportion of a glacier's erosional work is performed
+by abrasion or grinding, its bed being scoured and grooved by the rock
+blocks and smaller débris held by the passing ice. As a result glacier
+streams ordinarily carry much finely comminuted rock, or rock flour,
+and this, because of its fineness, remains long in suspension and
+imparts to the water a distinctive color. In regions of light-colored
+rocks the glacier streams have a characteristic milky hue, which, as
+it fades out, passes over into a delicate turquoise tint. But the
+lavas of Mount Rainier produce for the most part dark-hued flour, and
+as a consequence the rivers coming from that peak are dyed a somber
+chocolate brown.
+
+A word may not be out of place here about the sharp daily fluctuations
+of the ice-fed rivers of the Mount Rainier National Park, especially
+in view of the difficulties these streams present to crossing. There
+are fully a score of turbulent rivers radiating from the peak, and as
+a consequence one can not journey far through the park without being
+obliged to cross one of them. On all the permanent trails substantial
+bridges obviate the difficulty, but in the less developed portions of
+the park, fording is still the only method available. It is well to
+bear in mind that these rivers, being nourished by melting snow,
+differ greatly in habit from streams in countries where glaciers are
+absent. Generally speaking, they are highest in summer and lowest in
+winter; also, since their flow is intimately dependent upon the
+quantity of snow being melted at a given time, it follows that in
+summer when the sun reaches its greatest power they swell daily to a
+prodigious volume, reaching a maximum in the afternoon, while during
+the night and early morning hours they again ebb to a relatively
+moderate size. In the forenoon of a warm summer day one may watch them
+grow hourly in volume and in violence, until toward the middle of the
+day they become raging torrents of liquid mud in which heavy cobbles
+and even bowlders may be heard booming as they roll before the
+current. It would be nothing short of folly to attempt to ford under
+these conditions, whether on horseback or on foot. In the evening,
+however, and still better, in the early morning, one may cross with
+safety; the streams then have the appearance of mere mountain brooks
+wandering harmlessly over broad bowlder beds.
+
+High above the Ingraham Glacier towers that sharp, residual mass of
+lava strata known as Little Tahoma (11,117 feet), the highest
+outstanding eminence on the flank of Mount Rainier. It forms a
+gigantic "wedge" that divides the Ingraham from the Emmons Glacier to
+the north. So extensive is this wedge that it carries on its back
+several large ice fields and interglaciers, some of which, lying far
+from the beaten path of the tourist, are as yet unnamed. Separating
+them from each other are various attenuated, pinnacled crests, all of
+them subordinate to a main backbone that runs eastward some 6 miles
+and terminates in the Cowlitz Chimneys (7,607 feet), a group of tall
+rock towers that dominate the landscape on the east side of Mount
+Rainier.
+
+Most of the ice fields, naturally, lie on the shady north slope of the
+main backbone; in fact, a series of them extends as far east as the
+Cowlitz Chimneys. One of the lesser crests, however, that running
+southeastward to the upland region known as Cowlitz Park, also gives
+protection to an ice body of some magnitude, the Ohanapecosh Glacier.
+Considerably broader than it is long in the direction of its flow,
+this glacier lies on a high shelf a mile and a half across, whence it
+cascades down into the head of a walled-in canyon. Formerly, no doubt,
+it more than filled this canyon, but now it sends down only a shrunken
+lobe. The stream that issues from it, the Ohanapecosh River, is really
+the main prong and head of the Cowlitz River.
+
+The largest and most elevated of the ice fields east of Little Tahoma
+is known for its peculiar shape as Fryingpan Glacier. It covers fully
+3 square miles of ground and constitutes the most extensive and most
+beautiful interglacier on Mount Rainier. It originates in the hollow
+east side of Little Tahoma itself and descends rapidly northward,
+overlooking the great Emmons Glacier and finally reaching down almost
+to its level. It is not a long time since the two ice bodies were
+confluent.
+
+The eastern portion of the Fryingpan Glacier drains northeastward and
+sends forth several cascading torrents which, uniting with others
+coming from the lesser ice fields to the east, form the Fryingpan
+River, a brisk stream that joins White River several miles farther
+north.
+
+Below the Fryingpan Glacier there lies a region of charming
+flower-dotted meadows named Summerland, a most attractive spot for
+camping.
+
+Cloaking almost the entire east side of Mount Rainier is the Emmons
+Glacier, the most extensive ice stream on the peak (named after Samuel
+F. Emmons, the geologist and mountaineer who was the second to conquer
+the peak in 1870). About 5-1/2 miles long and 1-3/4 miles wide in its
+upper half, it covers almost 8 square miles of territory. It makes a
+continuous descent from the summit to the base, the rim of the old
+crater having almost completely broken down under its heavy névé
+cascades. But two small remnants of the rim still protrude through the
+ice and divide it into three cascades. From each of these dark rock
+islands trails a long medial moraine that extends in an
+ever-broadening band down to the foot of the glacier.
+
+Conspicuous lateral moraines accompany the ice stream on each side.
+There are several parallel ridges of this sort, disposed in successive
+tiers above each other on the valley sides. Most impressively do they
+attest the extent of the Emmons Glacier's recent shrinking. The
+youngest moraine, fresh looking as if deposited only yesterday, lies
+but 50 feet above the glacier's surface and a scant 100 feet distant
+from its edge; the older ridges, subdued in outline, and already
+tinged with verdure, lie several hundred feet higher on the slope.
+
+The Emmons Glacier, like the Nisqually and the Cowlitz, becomes
+densely littered with morainal débris at its lower end, maintaining,
+however, for a considerable distance a central lane of clear ice. The
+stream which it sends forth, White River, is the largest of all the
+ice-fed streams radiating from the peak. It flows northward and then
+turns in a northwesterly direction, emptying finally in Puget Sound
+at the city of Seattle.
+
+On the northeast side of the mountain, descending from the same high
+névés as the Emmons Glacier, is the Winthrop Glacier. Not until
+halfway down, at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, does it detach
+itself as a separate ice stream. The division takes place at the apex
+of that great triangular interspace so aptly named "the Wedge." Upon
+its sharp cliff edge, Steamboat Prow, the descending névés part, it
+has been said, like swift-flowing waters upon the dividing bow of a
+ship at anchor. The simile is an excellent one; even the long foam
+crest, rising along the ship's side, is represented by a wave of ice.
+
+Undoubtedly the Wedge formerly headed much higher up on the mountain's
+flank. Perhaps it extended upward in the form of a long, attenuated
+"cleaver." It is easy to see how the ice masses impinging upon it have
+reduced it to successively lower levels. They are still unrelentingly
+at work. It is on the back of the Wedge, it may be added here, that is
+situated that small ice body which Maj. Ingraham named the
+"Interglacier." That name has since been applied in a generic sense to
+all similar ice bodies lying on the backs of "wedges."
+
+Of greatest interest on the Winthrop Glacier are the ice cascades and
+domes. Evidently the glacier's bed is a very uneven one, giving rise
+to falls and pools, such as one observes in a turbulent trout stream.
+The cascades explain themselves readily enough, but the domes require
+a word of interpretation. They are underlain by rounded bosses of
+especially resistant rock. Over these the ice is lifted, much as is
+the water of a swift mountain torrent over submerged bowlders.
+Immediately above each obstruction the ice appears compact and free
+from crevasses, but as it reaches the top and begins to pour over it
+breaks, and a network of intersecting cracks divides it into erect,
+angular blocks and fantastic obelisks. Below each dome there is, as a
+rule, a deep hollow partly inclosed by trailing ice ridges, analogous
+to the whirling eddy that occurs normally below a bowlder in a brook.
+Thus does a glacier simulate a stream of water even in its minor
+details.
+
+The domes of the Winthrop Glacier measure 50 to 60 feet in height. A
+sample of the kind of obstruction that produces them appears, as if
+specially provided to satisfy human curiosity, near the terminus of
+the glacier. There one may see, close to the west wall of the
+troughlike bed, a projecting rock mass, rounded and smoothly polished,
+over which the glacier rode but a short time ago.
+
+Another feature of interest sometimes met with on the Winthrop
+Glacier, and for that matter also on the other ice streams of Mount
+Rainier, are the "glacier tables." These consist of slabs of rock
+mounted each on a pedestal of snow and producing the effect of huge
+toadstools. The slabs are always of large size, while the pedestals
+vary from a few inches to several feet in height.
+
+The origin of the rocks may be traced to cliffs of incoherent volcanic
+materials that disintegrate under the frequent alternations of frost
+and thaw and send down periodic rock avalanches, the larger fragments
+of which bound out far upon the glacier's surface.
+
+The snow immediately under these large fragments is effectually
+protected from the sun and does not melt, while the surrounding snow,
+being unprotected, is constantly wasting away, often at the rate of
+several inches per day. Thus in time each rock is left poised on a
+column of its own conserving. There is, however, a limit to the height
+which such a column can attain, for as soon as it begins to exceed a
+certain height the protecting shadow of the capping stone no longer
+reaches down to the base of the pedestal and the slanting rays of the
+sun soon undermine it. More commonly, however, the south side of the
+column becomes softened both by heat transmitted from the sun-warmed
+south edge of the stone, as well as by heat reflected from the
+surrounding glacier surface, and as a consequence the table begins to
+tilt. On very hot days, in fact, the inclination of the table keeps
+pace with the progress of the sun, much after the manner of a
+sun-loving flower, the slant being to the southeast in the forenoon
+and to the southwest in the afternoon. As the snow pillar increases in
+height it becomes more and more exposed and the tilting is
+accentuated, until at last the rock slides down.
+
+In its new position the slab at once begins to generate a new
+pedestal, from which in due time it again slides down, and so the
+process may be repeated several times in the course of a single
+summer, the rock shifting its location by successive slips an
+appreciable distance across the glacier in a southerly direction.
+
+As has been stated, the slabs on glacier tables are always of large
+size. This is not a fortuitous circumstance; rocks under a certain
+size, and especially fragments of little thickness, cannot produce
+pedestals; in fact, far from conserving the snow under them, they
+accelerate its melting and sink below the surface. This is especially
+true of dark-colored rocks. Objects of dark color, as is well known to
+physicists, have a faculty for absorbing heat, whereas light-colored
+objects, especially white ones, reflect it best. Dark-colored
+fragments of rock lying on a glacier, accordingly, warm rapidly at
+their upper surface and, if thin, forthwith transmit their heat to the
+snow under them, causing it to melt much faster than the surrounding
+clean snow, which, because of its very whiteness, reflects a large
+percentage of the heat it receives from the sun. As a consequence each
+small rock fragment and even each separate dust particle on a glacier
+melts out a tiny well of its own, as a rule not vertically downward
+but at a slight inclination in the direction of the noonday sun. And
+thus, in some localities, one may behold the apparently incongruous
+spectacle of large and heavy rocks supported on snow pillars alongside
+of little fragments that have sunk into the ice.
+
+There is also a limit to the depth which the little wells may attain;
+as they deepen, the rock fragment at the bottom receives the sun heat
+each day for a progressively shorter period, until at last it receives
+so little that its rate of sinking becomes less than that of the
+melting glacier surface. Nevertheless it will be clear that the
+presence of scattered rock débris on a glacier must greatly augment
+the rate of melting, as it fairly honeycombs the ice and increases the
+number of melting surfaces. Wherever the débris is dense, on the other
+hand, and accumulates on the glacier in a heavy layer, its effect
+becomes a protective one and surface melting is retarded instead of
+accelerated. The dirt-covered lower ends of the glaciers of Mount
+Rainier are thus to be regarded as in a measure preserved by the
+débris that cloaks them; their life is greatly prolonged by the
+unsightly garment.
+
+In many ways the most interesting of all the ice streams on Mount
+Rainier is the Carbon Glacier, the great ice river on the north side,
+which flows between those two charming natural gardens, Moraine Park
+and Spray Park. The third glacier in point of length, it heads,
+curiously, not on the summit, but in a profound, walled-in
+amphitheater, inset low into the mountain's flank. This amphitheater
+is what is technically known as a glacial cirque, a horseshoe-shaped
+basin elaborated by the ice from a deep gash that existed originally
+in the volcano's side. It has the distinction of being the largest of
+all the ice-sculptured cirques on Mount Rainier, and one of the
+grandest in the world. It measures more than a mile and a half in
+diameter, while its head wall towers a sheer 3,600 feet. So well
+proportioned is the great hollow, however, and so simple are its
+outlines that the eye finds difficulty in correctly estimating the
+dimensions. Not until an avalanche breaks from the 300-foot névé cliff
+above and hurls itself over the precipice with crashing thunder, does
+one begin to realize the depth of the colossal recess. The falling
+snow mass is several seconds in descending, and though weighing
+hundreds of tons, seemingly floats down with the leisureliness of a
+feather.
+
+These avalanches were once believed to be the authors of the cirque.
+They were thought to have worn back the head wall little by little,
+even as a waterfall causes the cliff under it to recede. But the real
+manner in which glacial cirques evolve is better understood to-day. It
+is now known that cirques are produced primarily by the eroding action
+of the ice masses embedded in them. Slowly creeping forward, these ice
+masses, shod as they are with débris derived from the encircling
+cliffs, scour and scoop out their hollow sites, and enlarge and deepen
+them by degrees. Seconding this work is the rock-splitting action of
+water freezing in the interstices of the rock walls. This process is
+particularly effective in the great cleft at the glacier's head,
+between ice and cliff. This abyss is periodically filled with fresh
+snows, which freeze to the rock; then, as the glacier moves away, it
+tears or plucks out the frost-split fragments from the wall. Thus the
+latter is continually being undercut. The overhanging portions fall
+down, as decomposition lessens their cohesion, and so the entire cliff
+recedes.
+
+A glacier, accordingly, may be said, literally, to gnaw headward into
+the mountain. But, as it does so, it also attacks the cliffs that
+flank it, and as a consequence, the depression in which it lies tends
+to widen and to become semicircular in plan. In its greatest
+perfection a glacial cirque is horseshoe-shaped in outline. The Carbon
+Glacier's amphitheater, it will be noticed, consists really of two
+twin cirques, separated by an angular buttress. But this projection,
+which is the remnant of a formerly long spur dividing the original
+cavity, is fast being eliminated by the undermining process, so that
+in time the head wall will describe a smooth, uninterrupted horseshoe
+curve.
+
+In its headward growth the Carbon Glacier, as one may readily observe
+on the map, has encroached considerably upon the summit platform of
+the mountain, the massive northwest portion of the crater rim of which
+Liberty Cap is the highest point. In so doing it has made great
+inroads upon the névé fields that send down the avalanches, and has
+reduced this source of supply. On the other hand, by deploying
+laterally, the glacier has succeeded in capturing part of the névés
+formerly tributary to the ice fields to the west, and has made good
+some of the losses due to its headward cutting. But, after all, these
+are events of relatively slight importance in the glacier's career;
+for like the lower ice fields of the Nisqually, and like most glaciers
+on the lower slopes of the mountain, the Carbon Glacier is not wholly
+dependent upon the summit névés for its supply of ice. The avalanches,
+imposing though they are, contribute but a minor portion of its total
+bulk. Most of its mass is derived directly from the low hanging snow
+clouds, or is blown into the cirque by eddying winds. How abundantly
+capable these agents are to create large ice bodies at low altitudes
+is convincingly demonstrated by the extensive névé fields immediately
+west of the Carbon Glacier, for which the name Russell Glacier has
+recently been proposed. It is to be noted, however, that these ice
+fields lie spread out on shelves fairly exposed to sun and wind. How
+much better adapted for the accumulation of snow is the Carbon
+Glacier's amphitheater! Not only does it constitute an admirably
+designed catchment basin for wind-blown snow, but an effective
+conserver of the névés collecting in it. Opening to the north only,
+its encircling cliffs thoroughly shield the contained ice mass from
+the sun. By its very form, moreover, it tends to prolong the
+glacier's life, for the latter lies compactly in the hollow with a
+relatively small surface exposed to melting. The cirque, therefore, is
+at once the product of the glacier and its generator and conserver.
+
+Of the lower course of the Carbon Glacier little need here be said, as
+it does not differ materially from the lower courses of the glaciers
+already described. It may be mentioned, however, that toward its
+terminus the glacier makes a steep descent and develops a series of
+parallel medial moraines and that it reaches down to an elevation of
+3,365 feet, almost 600 feet lower than any other ice stream on Mount
+Rainier. A beautiful cave usually forms at the point of exit of the
+Carbon River.
+
+West of the profound canyon of the Carbon River, there rises a craggy
+range which the Indians have named the Mother Mountains. From its
+narrow backbone one looks down on either side into broadly open,
+semicircular valley heads. Some drain northward to the Carbon River,
+some southward to the Mowich River. Encircling them run attenuated
+rock partitions, surmounted by low, angular peaks; while cutting
+across their stairwise descending floors are precipitous steps of
+rock, a hundred feet in height. On the treads lie scattered shallow
+lakelets, strung together by little silvery brooks trickling in
+capricious courses.
+
+Most impressive is the basin that lies immediately under the west end
+of the range. Smoothly rounded like a bowl, it holds in its center an
+almost circular lake of vivid emerald hue--that mysterious body of
+water known as Crater Lake. Let it be said at once that this
+appellation is an unfortunate misnomer. The basin is not of volcanic
+origin. It lies in lava and other volcanic rocks, to be sure, but
+these are merely spreading layers of the cone of Mount Rainier. Ice is
+the agent responsible for the carving of the hollow. It was once the
+cradle of a glacier, and that ice mass, gnawing headward and deploying
+even as the Carbon Glacier does to-day, enlarged its site into a
+horseshoe basin, a typical glacial cirque. The lake in the center is a
+strictly normal feature; many glacial cirques possess such bowls,
+scooped out by the eroding ice masses from the weaker portions of the
+rock floor; only it is seldom that such features acquire the symmetry
+of form exhibited by Crater Lake. The lakelets observed in the
+neighboring valley heads--all of which are abandoned cirques--are of
+similar origin.
+
+As for the skeleton character of the dividing crests, it will be
+readily seen to be the outcome of the headward gnawing of opposing
+cirques. In some places, even, the deploying process has attenuated
+the ridges sufficiently to break them through. West of Crater Lake is
+an instance of a crest that has thus been breached.
+
+It is a significant fact that the empty cirques about the Mother
+Mountains lie at elevations ranging between 4,500 and 6,000 feet; that
+is, on an average 5,000 feet lower than the cirques on Mount Rainier
+which now produce glaciers. Evidently the snow line in glacial times
+lay at a much lower level than it does to-day, and the ice mantle of
+Mount Rainier expanded not merely by the forward lengthening of its
+ice tongues but by the birth of numerous new glaciers about the
+mountain's foot. The large size of the empty cirques and canyons,
+moreover, leads one to infer that many of these new glaciers far
+exceeded in volume the ice streams descending the volcano's sides. The
+latter, it is true, increased considerably in thickness during glacial
+times, but not in proportion to the growth of the low-level glaciers.
+Nor is this surprising in view of the heavy snow falls occurring on
+the mountain's lower slopes. There is good reason to believe,
+moreover, that the cool glacial climate resulted in a general lowering
+of the zone of heaviest snowfall. It probably was depressed to levels
+between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Not only the cirque glaciers about the
+Mother Mountains, but all the neighboring ice streams of the glacial
+epoch originated within this zone, as is indicated by the altitudes of
+the cirques throughout the adjoining portions of the Cascade Range. By
+their confluence these ice bodies produced a great system of glaciers
+that filled all the valleys of this mountain belt and even protruded
+beyond its western front.
+
+To these extensive valley glaciers the ice flows of Mount Rainier
+stood in the relation of mere tributaries. They descended from regions
+of rather scant snowfall, for the peak in those days of frigid climate
+rose some 10,000 feet above the zone of heaviest snowfall, into
+atmospheric strata of relative dryness. It may well be, indeed, that
+it carried then but little more snow upon its summit than it does
+to-day.
+
+The North Mowich Glacier is the northernmost of the series of ice
+bodies on the west flank of Mount Rainier. Like the Carbon Glacier, it
+heads in a cirque at the base of the Liberty Cap massif, fed by direct
+snow precipitation, by wind drifting, and by avalanches. The cirque is
+small and shallow, not as capacious even as either of the twin
+recesses in the Carbon Glacier's amphitheater. As a consequence the
+ice stream issuing from it is of only moderate volume; nevertheless it
+attains a length of 3-3/4 miles. This is due in part to the heavy
+snows that reënforce it throughout its middle course and in part to
+overflows from the ice fields bordering it on the south. These ice
+fields, almost extensive enough to be considered a distinct glacier,
+are separated from the North Mowich Glacier only by a row of
+pinnacles, the remnants evidently of a narrow rock partition or
+"cleaver," now demolished by the ice. The lowest and most prominent of
+the rock spires bears the appropriate name of "The Needle" (7,587
+feet).
+
+The débris-covered lower end of the glacier splits into two short
+lobes on a rounded boss in the middle of the channel. This boss, but a
+short time ago, was overridden by the glacier and then undoubtedly
+gave rise to an ice dome of the kind so numerous farther up on the
+North Mowich Glacier and also characteristic of the Winthrop Glacier.
+
+Separated from the ice fields of the North Mowich Glacier by a great
+triangular ice field (named Edmunds Glacier) lies the South Mowich
+Glacier, also a cirque-born ice stream, heading against the base of
+the Liberty Cap massif. It is the shortest of the western glaciers,
+measuring only a scant 3 miles. Aside from the snows accumulating in
+its ill-shaped cirque it receives strong reënforcements from its
+neighbor to the south--the Puyallup Glacier.
+
+Toward its lower end it splits into two unequal lobes, the
+southernmost of which is by far the longer. Sharp cut rock wedges
+beyond its front show that when the glacier extended farther down it
+split again and again.
+
+The north lobe is of interest because the stream that cascades from
+the Edmunds Glacier runs for a considerable distance under it. In the
+near future the lobe is likely to recede sufficiently to enable the
+torrent to pass unhindered by its front.
+
+What especially distinguishes the Puyallup Glacier from its neighbors
+to the north is the great elevation of its cirque. The Carbon, North
+Mowich, and South Mowich Glaciers all head at levels of about 10,000
+feet. The amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier, on the contrary, opens
+a full 2,000 feet higher up. Encircled by a great vertical wall that
+cuts into the Liberty Cap platform from the south, it has evidently
+developed through glacial sapping from a hollow of volcanic origin.
+From this great reservoir the Puyallup Glacier descends by a rather
+narrow chute. Then it expands again to a width of three-fourths of a
+mile and sends a portion of its volume to the South Mowich Glacier. In
+spite of this loss it continues to expand, reaching a maximum width
+of a mile and a total length of 4 miles. No doubt this is accounted
+for by the heavy snowfalls that replenish it throughout its course.
+
+Its lower end consists of a tortuous ice lobe that describes a
+beautiful curve, flanked on the north by a vertical lava cliff. A
+lesser lobe splits off to the south on a wedge of rock.
+
+Immediately south of the elevated amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier
+the crater rim of the volcano is breached for a distance of half a
+mile. Through this gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the névé
+fields about the summit, and this cascade, reënforced by a flow from
+the Puyallup cirque, forms the great Tahoma Glacier, the most
+impressive ice stream on the southwest side. Separated from its
+northern neighbor by a rock cleaver of remarkable length and
+straightness, it flows in a direct course for a distance of 5 miles.
+Its surface, more than a mile broad in places, is diversified by
+countless ice falls and cataracts.
+
+A mere row of isolated pinnacles indicates its eastern border, and
+across the gaps in this row its névés coalesce with those of the South
+Tahoma Glacier. Farther down the two ice streams abruptly part company
+and flow in wide detours around a cliff-girt, castellated rock
+mass--Glacier Island it has been named. The Tahoma Glacier, about a
+mile above its terminus, spits upon a low, verdant wedge and sends a
+lobe southward which skirts the walls of this island rock, and at its
+base meets again the South Tahoma Glacier. From here on the two ice
+streams merge and form a single densely débris-laden mass, so chaotic
+in appearance that one would scarcely take it for a glacier. Numerous
+rivulets course over its dark surface only to disappear in mysterious
+holes and clefts. Profound, circular kettles filled with muddy water
+often develop on it during the summer months, and after a brief
+existence empty themselves again by subglacial passages or by a newly
+formed crevasse. So abundant is the rock débris released by melting
+that the wind at times whips it up into veritable dust storms.
+
+Beautifully regular moraines accompany the ice mass on both sides,
+giving clear evidence of its recent shrinking.
+
+The partner of the Tahoma Glacier, known as the South Tahoma Glacier,
+heads in a profound cirque sculptured in the flanks of the great
+buttress that culminates in Peak Success (14,150 feet). It is
+interesting chiefly as an example of a cirque-born glacier, nourished
+almost exclusively by direct snowfalls from the clouds and by eddying
+winds. In spite of its position, exposed to the midday sun, it attains
+a length of nearly 4 miles, a fact which impressively attests the
+ampleness of its ice supply.
+
+In glacial times the glacier had a much greater volume and rose high
+enough to override the south half of Glacier Island, as is clearly
+shown by the glacial grooves and the scattered ice-worn bowlders on
+that eminence. As the glacier shrank it continued for some time to
+send a lobe through the gulch in the middle of the island. Even now a
+portion of this lobe remains, but it no longer connects with the
+Tahoma Glacier.
+
+An excellent nearby view of the lower cascades of the South Tahoma
+Glacier may be had from the ice-scarred rock platform west of Pyramid
+Rock. From that point, as well as from the other heights of [Indian]
+Henrys Hunting Ground, one may enjoy a panorama of ice and rock such
+as is seen in only few places on this continent.
+
+East of the South Tahoma Glacier, heading against a great cleaver that
+descends from Peak Success, lies a triangular ice field, or
+interglacier, named Pyramid Glacier. It covers a fairly smooth, gently
+sloping platform underlain by a heavy lava bed, and breaking off at
+its lower edge in precipitous, columnar cliffs. Into this platform a
+profound but narrow box canyon has been incised by an ice stream
+descending from the summit névés east of Peak Success. This is the
+Kautz Glacier, an ice stream peculiar for its exceeding slenderness.
+On the map it presents almost a worm-like appearance, heightened
+perhaps by its strongly sinuous course. In spite of its meager width,
+which averages about 1,000 feet, the ice stream attains a length of
+almost 4 miles and descends to an altitude of 4,800 feet. This no
+doubt is to be attributed in large measure to the protecting influence
+of the box canyon.
+
+It receives one tributary of importance, the Success Glacier, which
+heads in a cirque against the flanks of Peak Success. This ice stream
+supplies probably one-third of the total bulk of the Kautz Glacier, as
+one may infer from the position of the medial moraine that develops at
+the point of confluence. In the lower course of the glacier this
+medial moraine grows in width and height until it assumes the
+proportions of a massive ridge, occupying about one-third of the
+breadth of the ice stream's surface.
+
+A singularly fascinating spectacle is that which the moraine-covered
+lower end of the glacier presents from the heights of Van Trump Park.
+A full 1,000 feet down one looks upon the ice stream as it curves
+around a sharp bend in its canyon.
+
+A short distance below the glacier's terminus, the canyon contracts
+abruptly to a gorge only 300 feet in width. So resistant is the
+columnar basalt in this locality that the ice has been unable to hew
+out a wider passage. Not its entire volume, however, was squeezed
+through the narrow portal; there is abundant evidence showing that in
+glacial times when the ice stream was more voluminous it overrode the
+rock buttresses on the west side of the gorge.
+
+The name of P. B. Van Trump, the hardy pioneer climber of Mount
+Rainier, has been attached to the interglacier situated between the
+Kautz and the Nisqually Glaciers. This ice body lies on the uneven
+surface of an extensive wedge that tapers upward to a sharp point--one
+of the remnants of the old crater rim. A number of small ice fields
+are distributed on this wedge, each ensconced in a hollow inclosed
+more or less completely by low ridges. By gradually deploying each of
+these ice bodies has enlarged its site, and thus the dividing ridges
+have been converted into slender rock walls or cleavers. In many
+places they have even been completely consumed and the ice fields
+coalesce. The Van Trump Glacier is the most extensive of these
+composite ice fields. The rapid melting which it has suffered in the
+last decades, however, has gone far toward dismembering it; already
+several small ice strips are threatening to become separated from the
+main body.
+
+In glacial times the Van Trump Glacier sent forth at least six lobes,
+most of which converged farther down in the narrow valleys traversing
+the attractive alpine region now known as Van Trump Park. This upland
+park owes its scenic charm largely to its manifold glacial features
+and is diversified by cirques, canyons, lakelets, moraines, and
+waterfalls.
+
+In the foregoing descriptions the endeavor has been to make clear how
+widely the glaciers of Mount Rainier differ in character, in
+situation, and in size. They are not to be conceived as mere ice
+tongues radiating down the slopes of the volcano from an ice cap on
+its crown. There is no ice cap, properly speaking, and there has
+perhaps never been one at any time in the mountain's history, not even
+during the glacial epochs.
+
+Several of the main ice streams head in the névés gathering about the
+summit craters, but a larger number originate in profound
+amphitheaters carved in the mountain's flanks, at levels fully 4,000
+feet below the summit. In the general distribution of the glaciers the
+low temperatures prevailing at high altitudes have, of course, been a
+controlling factor; nevertheless in many instances their influence has
+been outbalanced by topographic features favoring local snow
+accumulation and by the heavy snowfalls occurring on the lower
+slopes.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: GEORGE OTIS SMITH.]
+
+XV. THE ROCKS OF MOUNT RAINIER
+
+BY GEORGE OTIS SMITH
+
+
+     Director George Otis Smith of the United States Geological
+     Survey was born at Hodgdon, Maine, on February 22, 1871. He
+     graduated from Colby College in 1893 and obtained his Doctor
+     of Philosophy degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1896.
+     He had begun his geological work in 1893 and from 1896 to
+     1907 he was assistant geologist and geologist of the United
+     States Geological Survey. Since 1907 he has been director of
+     that important branch of the Government work.
+
+     He had been studying the rocks of Mount Rainier before he
+     joined Professor Russell in the explorations of 1896. The
+     record of those studies was published at the same time as
+     Professor Russell's report in the Eighteenth Annual Report of
+     the United States Geological Survey for 1896-1897. With his
+     permission the record is here reproduced in full. So far as
+     is known to the present editor it is the most complete study
+     yet published on the rocks of Mount Rainier.
+
+The earliest geological observations on the structure of Mount Rainier
+were made in 1870 by S. F. Emmons, of the Geological Exploration of
+the Fortieth Parallel. The rock specimens collected at this time were
+studied later by Messrs. Hague and Iddings, of the United States
+Geological Survey.[27] This petrographical study showed that "Mount
+Rainier is formed almost wholly of hypersthene andesite, with
+different conditions of groundmass and accompanied by hornblende and
+olivine in places." The only other petrographical study of these
+volcanics is that of Mr. K. Oebbeke, of Munich,[28] upon a small
+collection made on Mount Rainier by Professor Zittel in 1883.
+
+On the reconnaissance trips on the northern and eastern slopes of
+Mount Rainier, during the seasons of 1895 and 1896, the writer had
+opportunity to make some general observations on the rocks of this
+mountain, and the petrographical material then collected has since
+been studied. The observations and collections were of necessity
+limited, both by the reconnaissance character of the examination and
+by the mantle of snow and ice which covers so large a part of this
+volcanic cone.
+
+Two classes of rock are to be discussed as occurring on Mount Rainier:
+the lavas and pyroclastics which compose the volcanic cone and the
+granitic rocks forming the platform upon which the volcano was built
+up.
+
+
+VOLCANIC ROCKS
+
+GEOLOGIC RELATIONS
+
+On Crater Peak a dark line of rock appears above the snow, and here
+the outer slope of the crater rim is found to be covered with blocks
+of lava. A black, loose-textured andesite is most abundant, and from
+its occurrence on the edge of this well-defined crater may be regarded
+as representing the later eruptions of Rainier. Lower down on the
+slopes of the mountain opportunities for the study of the structure of
+the volcanic cone are found in the bold rock masses that mark the
+apexes of the interglacial areas. Examples of these are Little Tahoma,
+Gibraltar, Cathedral Rock, the Wedge, and the Guardian Rocks. These
+remnants of the old surface of the cone, together with the cliffs that
+bound the lower courses of the glaciers, exhibit the structural
+relations very well.
+
+Even when viewed from a distance these cliffs and peaks are seen to be
+composed of bedded material. Projecting ledges interrupt the talus
+slopes and express differences of hardness in the several beds, while
+variations in color also indicate separate lava flows and agglomeratic
+deposits. Gibraltar is thus seen to be composed of interbedded lavas
+and pyroclastics, and on the Wedge a similar alternation is several
+times repeated, a pink agglomerate being exceptionally striking in
+appearance.
+
+These lava flows and beds of volcanic ejectamenta thus exposed dip
+away from the summit at a low angle. The steepest dip observed was in
+the amphitheater at the head of Carbon Glacier, where in the dividing
+spur the dip to the northeast is about 30°. Some exceptions in the
+inclination of the beds were noted on the southeastern slope, where in
+a few cases the layers are horizontal, or even dip toward the central
+axis of the cone. In general, however, the volcanics composing Mount
+Rainier may be said to dip away from the summit at an angle somewhat
+lower than that of the slopes of the present cone. In the outlying
+ridges to the north, the Mother Range, Crescent Mountain, and the
+Sluiskin Mountains, the structure seems to be that of interbedded
+volcanics approximately horizontal. The extent of the volcanics from
+the center of eruption has not been determined. Similar lava extends
+to the south, beyond the Tattoosh Range, and volcanics of similar
+composition occur to the north, in the Tacoma quadrangle. The latter
+lavas and tuffs may have originated from smaller and less important
+cones, now destroyed by erosion.
+
+A radial dike was observed at only one locality, near the base of
+Little Tahoma. In several cases the lava masses, as seen in cross
+section, are lens-shaped, and where associated with fragmental beds
+have unconformable relations. This shows that some of the lava flows
+took the form of streams, relatively narrow, rather than of broad
+sheets. Such a feature is in accord with the distribution of rock
+types. Thus along Ptarmigan Ridge for considerable vertical and
+horizontal range the rock shows only slight variation. The
+distribution of rock types will be more fully discussed in a later
+paragraph.
+
+Of how large a part of the lava flows the crater still remaining was
+the point of origin is a question to be answered only after more
+detailed observation has been made. The best section for the study of
+the succession of flows and ejectamenta is the amphitheater at the
+head of the Carbon Glacier. The 4,000 feet of rock in this bold wall
+would afford an excellent opportunity for this were it not that
+frequent avalanches preclude the possibility of geologic study except
+at long range.
+
+MEGASCOPIC CHARACTERS
+
+The volcanic rocks of Rainier are of varying color and texture. Dense
+black rocks with abundant phenocrysts of glassy feldspars, rough and
+coarse lavas of different tints of pink, red, and purple, and compact
+light-gray rocks are some of the types represented upon the slopes of
+this volcanic cone. In color, the majority of the rocks may be grouped
+together as light gray to dark gray. The black and red lavas are less
+common. In texture, the Rainier lavas are, for the most part, compact.
+Slaggy and scoriaceous phases are common, but probably represent only
+a small part of the different flows. Near the Guardian Rocks large
+masses of ropy lava are found which suggest ejected bombs.
+Agglomeratic and tuffaceous rocks are of quite common occurrence,
+although less important than the lavas. Vesicular lavas occur at
+several localities, and fragments of a light-olive pumice, many as
+large as a foot in diameter, wholly cover some of the long, gentle
+slopes southeast of Little Tahoma and in Moraine Park.
+
+Contraction parting or jointing is often observed, being especially
+characteristic of the basaltic types. The platy parting is the more
+common, but the columnar or prismatic parting is well exhibited at
+several localities. The black basaltic lava east of Cowlitz Glacier
+shows the latter structure in a striking manner. The blocks resemble
+pigs of iron in size and shape, and where exposed in a vertical cliff
+these seem to be piled in various positions.
+
+The rocks on the higher slopes of Mount Rainier are in general very
+fresh in appearance. An exception may be noted in the case of the
+rocks at the base of Little Tahoma, where some alteration is evident.
+The bright coloring of the surfaces of the lava blocks and the general
+appearance of the face of the cliff may indicate fumarole action at
+this point. There is also some decomposition along the inner edge of
+the crater rim, near the steam vents. On the lower slopes, some
+distance below the snow line, the freshness of the rock is not a
+noticeable feature, and it is seen that here weathering is of the
+nature of chemical decomposition as well as of mechanical
+disintegration.
+
+MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS
+
+Microscopically these lavas show more uniformity than is apparent
+megascopically. Rocks which in color and texture appear quite diverse
+are found to be mineralogical equivalents. The majority of these rocks
+are andesites, the hypersthene-andesites predominating, as was shown
+by Hague and Iddings; but over large areas the andesites are decidedly
+basaltic, and, indeed, many of the lavas are basalts. The megascopic
+differences are mostly referable to groundmass characters, the color
+of the rock being dependent upon the color and proportion of glassy
+base present. Therefore the degree of crystallization of groundmass
+constituents is of more importance in determining the megascopic
+appearance than is the mineralogical composition, and the basaltic
+lavas are for the most part light gray in color, while the more acid
+hypersthene-andesites are often black or red.
+
+In petrographic character the lavas range from hypersthene-andesite to
+basalt. This variation is dependent upon the ferromagnesian
+silicates, and four rock types are represented--hypersthene-andesite,
+pyroxene-andesite, augite-andesite, and basalt--any of which may carry
+small amounts of hornblende. A rigid separation of these rock types,
+however, is impossible, since insensible gradations connect the most
+acid with the most basic. In the same flow hypersthene-andesite may
+occur in one portion, while in close proximity the lava is an
+augite-andesite.
+
+These lavas have groundmass textures that vary from almost
+holo-crystalline to glassy. The felted or hyalopilitic texture is the
+most common, and plagioclase is the principal groundmass constituent.
+The feldspars are lath-shaped, often with castellated terminations. In
+the more basic phases anhedrons of augite and of olivine appear, and
+magnetite grains are usually present. Flowage is often beautifully
+expressed by the arrangement of the slender laths of feldspar.
+
+Among the phenocrysts feldspar is the most prominent. It has the usual
+twinning characteristic of plagioclase and belongs to the
+andesine-labradorite series, extinction angles proving basic andesine
+and acid labradorite to be the most common. Zonal structure is
+characteristic, being noticeable even without the use of polarized
+light. Zonal arrangement of glass inclusions testifies to the
+vicissitudes of crystallization, and often the core of a feldspar
+phenocryst is seen to have suffered corrosion by the magma and
+subsequently to have been repaired with a zone of feldspar more acid
+in composition.
+
+Of the darker phenocrysts, the pyroxenes are more abundant than the
+olivine or hornblende. Hypersthene and augite occur alone or together,
+and are readily distinguished by their different crystallographic
+habits as well as by their optical properties. The hypersthene is
+usually more perfectly idiomorphic and occurs in long prisms, with the
+pinacoidal planes best developed, while the augite is in stout
+prisms, usually twinned. Both are light colored, and the pleochroism
+of the hypersthene is sometimes quite faint. According to the relative
+importance of these two pyroxenes, the lavas belong to different
+types, hypersthene-andesite, pyroxene-andesite, or augite-andesite.
+
+Olivine occurs in certain of the Rainier lavas, in stout prisms
+somewhat rounded and often with reddened borders. The usual
+association with apatite and magnetite crystals is noted. The olivine
+varies much in relative abundance, so as to be considered now an
+accessory and now an essential constituent, and in the latter case the
+rock is a basalt.
+
+Hornblende is not abundant in any of the rocks studied, although
+typical hornblende-andesite has been described among the specimens
+collected by Professor Zittel. Where it occurs it is in brown
+crystals, which have usually suffered magmatic alteration. In one
+case, where this alteration is less marked, the idiomorphic hornblende
+is found to inclose a crystal of labradorite, and thus must have been
+one of the latest phenocrysts to crystallize. It also surrounds
+olivine in this same rock,[29] which is a hypersthene-andesite, the
+hornblende and olivine being only accessory.
+
+The different textures of these lavas are doubtless expressive
+primarily of diversity in the physical conditions of consolidation,
+but also in part of variations in chemical composition. The variations
+in mineralogical composition are likewise referable to these two
+factors, but here the latter is the more important. The
+hypersthene-augite olivine variation, already referred to, doubtless
+well expresses the chemical composition of the magma, and deserves to
+be taken as the chief criterion in the classification of the lavas. As
+was noted by Hague and Iddings, the hypersthene and olivine play a
+like rôle, the former occurring when the silica percentage is somewhat
+higher than in basalt. It is exceptional to find the two in the same
+specimen, the one being absent whenever the other is present. The
+following analysis[30] of the typical hypersthene-andesite from Crater
+Peak shows the lava to be a comparatively acid andesite:
+
+ANALYSIS OF HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE FROM CRATER PEAK, MOUNT RAINIER
+
+                         PER CENT.
+    SiO_{2}                 61.62
+    Al_{2}O_{3}             16.86
+    FeO                      6.61
+    CaO                      6.57
+    MgO                      2.17
+    Na_{2}O                  3.93
+    K_{2}O                   1.66
+                            -----
+                            99.42
+
+An analysis[31] of one of the light-gray, olivine-bearing rocks on the
+northern slope of the mountain gives a silica percentage of 54.86, and
+is doubtless representative of the more basic of the Rainier lavas.
+
+The sporadic occurrence of hornblende in these andesites is
+principally the result of physical conditions rather than of chemical
+composition. The magmatic alteration of the phenocrysts of hornblende
+affords evidence of this variation in consolidation conditions, a
+diminution of pressure with continuance of slow cooling giving rise to
+the magmatic alteration of the hornblende. That this change took place
+during the later stages of consolidation is shown by the relative age
+of the hornblende, noted above, and also by the fact that in one case
+a phenocryst of augite, where it abuts against the hornblende, has
+protected the latter from this alteration. The alteration is in part
+pseudomorphic, the hornblende retaining its characteristic outlines,
+but often there has been resorption. In one andesite the abundance of
+these remnants of hornblende and also of augite anhedrons in the
+groundmass may justify the conclusion that this augite andesite is of
+derivative origin, of the class described by Washington.[32] It may be
+noted also that hypersthene shows a tendency to magmatic alteration,
+although only rarely.
+
+In a basal flow in Moraine Park, the slaggy and compact phases show
+differences in phenocrysts as well as in groundmass. The glassy rock
+has hypersthene as the predominant phenocryst, while feldspar is the
+more important in the compact and more crystalline andesite.
+
+The distribution of the rock types described above is of interest. On
+the northern slope of the mountain, between Willis and Carbon
+glaciers, the characteristic lava is a gray andesite, smooth to rough
+in texture, and showing platy and columnar parting. Hypersthene is not
+the prevailing pyroxene, and olivine is usually present, often in such
+abundance as to make the rock a basalt.
+
+In Moraine Park gray andesites also predominate, with both pyroxenes
+as phenocrysts, but here hypersthene is the more important. On the
+eastern slope on the Wedge, between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers, the
+lavas are pyroxene-andesites and vary much in megascopic appearance,
+although little in microscopic characters. These rocks are quite
+distinct from any seen to the north. The nunatak in Emmons Glacier is
+composed of hypersthene-andesite, but on Little Tahoma the lava shows
+more variety. Both augite-andesite and hypersthene-andesite occur,
+while at the southern end of this interglacial rock mass, just east of
+Cowlitz Glacier, the cliffs are composed of the prismatic black
+basalt. On Crater Peak, and below on Gibraltar, hypersthene andesite
+occurs with considerable variation of color and texture. On the spurs
+west of Nisqually Glacier the andesites contain both pyroxenes, the
+augite being somewhat the more important.
+
+The distribution of the volcanic rocks, as determined in the study of
+reconnaissance collections, indicates that the cone has been built up
+by eruptions of lava and of fragmental material. The successive lava
+streams were doubtless of considerable thickness, but were limited in
+lateral extent. The beds of fragmental material are of the nature of
+flow breccias and of coarse agglomerates on the higher slopes, while
+tuffs occur at a greater distance from the center of eruption. This
+composite cone appears to be remarkably free from radial dikes, which
+may indicate that the volcanic energy was expended chiefly at the
+crater. The variation in rock types on different sides of the volcanic
+cone may be evidence of changes in position of the center of eruption.
+The destruction of an earlier crater and the eccentric position of a
+later would give rise to such a radial distribution of lavas as has
+been described above.
+
+
+GRANITE
+
+OCCURRENCE
+
+The presence of an acid holocrystalline rock on the slopes of Mount
+Rainier was first reported by Lieutenant Kautz in 1857, from whose
+accounts Dr. George Gibbs was led to announce the occurrence of
+granite as a dike in recent lavas.[33] Emmons in 1870 observed a cliff
+of "beautiful white syenitic granite" rising above the foot of
+Nisqually Glacier and correctly interpreted the geologic relations. In
+1895, on a reconnaissance trip, the writer identified granite among
+the bowlders composing the lateral moraines of Carbon Glacier, as
+well as on the surface of the glacier itself, and in the following
+season bowlders of granite were found to be plentiful in the river bed
+at the foot of this glacier. This anomaly of granite bowlders coming
+from a volcanic peak was also noted in the canyon of the Nisqually by
+Emmons.
+
+In the somewhat more careful study of the Mount Rainier rocks, search
+was made and the granite was found in place at several points on the
+northeastern slope. A biotite-hornblende-granite was observed on
+Carbon River at the mouth of Canada Creek, about 12 miles from the
+summit of Mount Rainier, and at Chenuis Falls, 2 miles up the river, a
+finer grained holocrystalline rock occurs, apparently an aplitic phase
+of the granite. In the lower portion of Carbon Glacier, near its
+eastern edge, a nunatak of granite can be seen, while the same rock
+occurs farther to the east, beyond the older of the lateral moraines.
+Higher on the slopes of Rainier a more marked ridge of granite was
+traced. A knob rises above the eastern moraine of Carbon Glacier at an
+altitude of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, and the more prominent
+features to the east in Moraine Park also owe their survival to the
+greater erosion-resisting power of the granite.
+
+PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION
+
+These granites have few features worthy of special mention. Hornblende
+and biotite are the ferromagnesian constituents and vary much in
+relative importance. The variations from hornblende-granite to
+biotite-granite occur in the same knob or ridge, and considering all
+occurrences the two varieties seem to be of equal development. There
+is also some variation in the amount of quartz present, and in the
+relative importance of the orthoclase and plagioclase. All of these
+characters are also found in the granites of the Northern Cascades.
+
+RELATION TO THE VOLCANIC ROCKS
+
+Along the side of the knob overlooking Carbon Glacier the granite as
+seen from a distance appears to be intrusive. Blocks of andesite cover
+the slope, deposited there by the glacier at a time when it possessed
+greater lateral extent, and the granite talus from above crosses this
+same slope in a narrow band. The relations prove less deceptive on
+close examination, and the granite is seen to constitute an older
+ridge. Farther along this ridge, at the cliffs on the north-eastern
+edge of Moraine Park, the granitic rock is found over-lain by the
+lava. The actual contact of the two rocks is concealed by soil filling
+the crevice left by disintegration along the contact plane. The
+granite, however, exhibits no intrusive characters, while the
+overlying andesite becomes scoriaceous in its lower portion, although
+compact immediately above. This contact is on the southern side of the
+granite ridge, the crest of which is approximately east-west. This
+position of the lava contact considerably below the highest occurrence
+of the granite indicates that the topographic features of this old
+granite ridge were even more marked at the time of the eruption of the
+lavas and the building of the volcanic cone. Above this ridge of
+granite on the one side tower the cliffs of bedded volcanics which
+compose the Sluiskin Mountains, and on the other is the andesite ridge
+bounding the canyon of Winthrop Glacier. Thus Mount Rainier, although
+a volcanic peak, rests upon an elevated platform of granite which is
+exposed by erosion at a few points on the slopes of the mountain.
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+The volcanic rocks of Mount Rainier include both lavas and
+pyroclastics. The breccias, agglomerates, and tuffs, although of
+striking appearance, are, perhaps, less important elements in the
+construction of the composite cone.
+
+The lavas vary much in color and texture, but these megascopic
+differences are referable rather to the degree of crystallization of
+the magma than to its chemical character. The variation in the chemical
+composition of the lavas expresses itself in mineralogical differences,
+and thus four rock types are distinguished--hypersthene-andesite,
+pyroxene-andesite, augite-andesite, and basalt. The distribution of
+these types indicates a radial arrangement of lava streams, and
+hypersthene-andesite is the more abundant variety of lava.
+
+Granite is exposed on the slopes of Rainier where erosion has cut away
+the overlying lava, and it is plain that the volcanic cone rests upon
+an elevated platform of older rock, approximately 8,000 feet above sea
+level.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: _Copyright by Harris & Ewing, Washington, D. C._
+  PROFESSOR CHARLES VANCOUVER PIPER]
+
+XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER
+
+BY PROFESSOR CHARLES V. PIPER
+
+
+     Charles Vancouver Piper was born on Vancouver Island, at
+     Victoria, British Columbia, on June 16, 1867. He graduated
+     from the University of Washington in 1885 and since then has
+     received degrees and honors from other institutions and
+     learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoölogy at
+     the Washington Agricultural College (now State College of
+     Washington) from 1892 to 1903. He has been agrostologist in
+     charge of forage crop investigations for the Bureau of Plant
+     Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, since
+     1903.
+
+     He has discovered many new forms of plant life and has
+     published many monographs and books in the field of botany.
+     This account of the flora of Mount Rainier was first
+     published in The Mazama (Portland, Oregon) in two articles,
+     one in Volume II, Number 2 (April, 1901), and the other in
+     Volume II, Number 4 (December, 1905). They are reproduced
+     with the consent of the editor of The Mazama, and Professor
+     Piper has revised and amplified them for this purpose.
+
+Up to an elevation of 4,000 feet or more the flanks of Mount Rainier
+are clothed in a continuous belt of somber forest, broken only where
+glaciers and their nascent streams have hewn pathways, or where, alas,
+fire has left desolate slopes marked here and there by the whitened,
+weather-worn shaft of some old tree, a dreary monument to its
+destroyed fellows. This forest is composed in its lower reaches
+largely of Douglas spruce. Scattered through it in smaller quantities
+one finds Lovely fir, Western white pine, Western hemlock, a few
+Engelmann spruces, and on the stream banks cedar and yew, and now and
+then a little cottonwood.
+
+At about the 3,500-foot level the character of the forest changes. The
+Western hemlock gives way to the larger-coned Black hemlock; the
+Douglas spruce and Lovely fir are replaced by the Noble fir; and the
+ragged-barked Alaska cedar greets the eye. Another thousand feet and
+the Subalpine fir replaces its two near relatives. From this point
+upward, the forest, now composed only of Black hemlock, Alaska cedar
+and Subalpine fir, to which in some places the White-bark pine must be
+added, is confined largely to the crests of ridges and straggles up
+the mountain in irregular broken lines. Between these timbered ridges
+extensive grassy slopes appear, veritable flower gardens when in their
+glory.
+
+At 6,500 feet elevation the timber ceases to be. Scraggly prostrate
+firs and hemlocks, sprawling as it were on the earth for shelter, mark
+sharply the limit of their endurance. Here, too, the continuous carpet
+of grass and flowers ceases--and a soil of volcanic sand or powdered
+pumice supports a very different vegetation. At 10,000 feet the
+toughest mountaineer of all the flowering plants, _Smelowskia ovalis_,
+still appears. Far above this, however, even to the crater's rim,
+lichens trace their hieroglyphics on the rocks; and on the
+steam-warmed rocks of the crater two mosses find lodgment, _Hypnum
+elegans_ Hooker?, and _Philonotis fontana_ Bridel, the latter even in
+fruit.
+
+Few plants grow in the dense shades of the lower forests, and these
+are mainly ericaceous. Most plentiful are _Vaccinium ovalifolium_, _V.
+macrophyllum_, _Gaultheria ovatifolia_, _Menziesia ferruginea_,
+_Pachystima myrsinites_, _Cornus canadensis_ and _Clintonia uniflora_.
+Here, too, occur several weird-looking whitish or reddish saprophytes,
+_Monotropa hypopitys_, _Pterospora andromedea_, and _Corallorhiza
+mertensiana_.
+
+On the drier portions of the grassy slopes _Lupinus subalpinus_,
+_Castilleja oreopola_, _Potentilla flabellifolia_, _Pulsatilla
+occidentalis_, _Erigeron salsuginosus_, _Polygonum bistortoides_,
+_Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Cassiope mertensiana_ and _Vaccinium
+deliciosum_ are the most attractive plants. Where the ground is
+springy _Veratrum viride_ occurs in great clumps and _Dodecatheon
+jeffreyi_, _Caltha leptosepala_ and _Ranunculus suksdorfii_ are
+plentiful.
+
+In the shelter of the Alpine trees _Rhododendron albiflorum_, _Ribes
+howellii_ and _Arnica latifolia_ flourish. Along the rills _Gentiana
+calycosa_, _Arnica chamissonis_ and _Mimulus lewisii_ form banks of
+color. On the cliffs _Chelone nemorosa_, _Spiraea densiflora_,
+_Polemonium humile_ and _Castilleja rupicola_ are perhaps most
+conspicuous.
+
+Above the limit of trees, in what have been called "pumice fields," a
+characteristic series of plants appears. This belt ranges in altitude
+from 6,500 to 10,000 feet. It is best developed on the east side of
+the mountain, where the avalanches from Little Tahoma have covered
+great areas with more or less finely divided basalt. Conspicuous
+plants of this region are _Lupinus lyallii_, _Spraguea multiceps_,
+_Polemonium elegans_, _Hulsea nana_, _Erigeron aureus_, _Oreostemma
+alpigena_, _Polygonum newberryi_, _Poa suksdorfii_, _Draba aureola_
+and _Smelowskia ovalis_. The last three ascend to above Camp Muir,
+altitude 10,000 feet.
+
+The first botanist to visit Mount Rainier was Dr. William F. Tolmie,
+surgeon of the Hudson's Bay Company, who reached the mountain in 1833.
+He made considerable collections, which were sent to Sir William
+Hooker. Among Tolmie's plants were several not previously known.
+
+The writer collected on the mountain in 1888 and again in 1889 and
+1895. Since then the following botanists have made collections on
+Mount Rainier: Rev. E. C. Smith, in 1889 and 1890; Dr. E. L. Greene,
+in 1889; Mr. J. B. Flett in 1895, 1896 and since; Mr. M. W. Gorman in
+1897; and Mr. O. D. Allen from 1895 to about 1905.
+
+Most of the work done thus far has been in Paradise Park and its
+immediate vicinity. Next to this, the flora of Spray Park is best
+known. The east slopes of the peak have been partially explored, but
+to the knowledge of the writer no botanist has ever yet collected on
+the west slopes.
+
+The list of plants here given numbers 315 species. In preparing it,
+Longmire Springs, altitude 2,850 feet, has been selected as the
+lowermost limit on the south side of the mountain, and Crater Lake,
+altitude about 3,500 feet, as the limit on the north side. It is quite
+certain that a considerable number of lowland plants will have to be
+added to the list here given, and it is possible that a few have been
+included that will have to be dropped, as the exact place of
+collection of some species is not clearly indicated on the labels of
+the specimens. Unless otherwise stated, the notes are based on the
+writer's observations and specimens, and refer mainly to the Paradise
+Park region.
+
+There yet remains much to be done in the study of the Mount Rainier
+flora. A particularly interesting phase of it lies in the matter of
+altitudinal distribution of the various species.
+
+No attempt is here made to list the plants lower than the ferns. The
+writer has made considerable collections of the fungi, liverworts and
+mosses; and Mr. O. D. Allen has also collected the mosses. These
+plants should receive a larger amount of attention from botanists who
+visit the mountain in the future.
+
+The following plants were first described from specimens obtained on
+Mount Rainier:
+
+    =Petasites nivalis= Greene.
+    =Luina piperi= Robinson.
+    =Prenanthes stricta= Greene.
+    =Oreostemma alpigena= (Torrey & Gray) Greene.
+    =Aster amplifolius= Greene.
+    =Arnica aspera= Greene.
+    =Castilleja rupicola= Piper.
+    =Mimulus caespitosus= Greene.
+    =Veronica allenii= Greenman.
+    =Pedicularis ornithorhyncha= Bentham.
+    =Pedicularis contorta= Bentham.
+    =Pentstemon tolmiei= Hooker.
+    =Pentstemon newberryi rupicola= Piper.
+    =Gentiana calycosa= Grisebach.
+    =Gentiana calycosa stricta= Grisebach.
+    =Hydrophyllum congestum= Wiegand.
+    =Polemonium elegans= Greene.
+    =Polemonium bicolor= Greenman.
+    =Dodecatheon crenatum= Greene.
+    =Vaccinium deliciosum= Piper.
+    =Ligusticum purpureum= Coulter & Rose.
+    =Hesperogenia stricklandi= Coulter & Rose.
+    =Lupinus volcanicus= Greene.
+    =Stellaria washingtoniana= Robinson.
+    =Potentilla flabellifolia= Hooker.
+    =Luzula arcuata major= Hooker.
+    =Sitanion rigidum= J. G. Smith.
+    =Sitanion rubescens= Piper.
+    =Poa saxatilis= Scribner & Williams.
+
+The type specimens of _Saxifraga tolmiei_ were collected by Tolmie on
+the "N. W. Coast." It is altogether probable that he got them on Mount
+Rainier, where the plant is so abundant.
+
+
+LIST OF SPECIES
+
+=COMPOSITAE.= (Aster Family.)
+
+=Scorzonella borealis= (Bongard) Greene.
+
+A plant much resembling a dandelion, occurring on the north side of
+the mountain.
+
+=Troximon alpestre= Gray.
+
+A plant much resembling the dandelion, frequent on the grassy slopes
+at 5,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Troximon aurantiacum= Hooker.
+
+This species has entire mostly basal leaves, and bears a single head
+of orange or purple flowers. Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet.
+
+=Troximon glaucum asperum= (Rydberg) Piper. (_Agoseris leontodon
+asperum_ Rydberg.)
+
+A species with large lemon-yellow flowers and hoary pubescent leaves.
+It occurs in the pumice and lava at 7,500 feet altitude and is quite
+abundant near the base of Little Tahoma.
+
+=Hieracium albiflorum= Hooker.
+
+A tall plant with hairy entire leaves and a rather ample corymb of
+white flowers. Essentially a lowland plant, but occurring up to 5,500
+feet altitude, especially in burnt ground.
+
+=Hieracium gracile= Hooker.
+
+A small hawkweed with yellow flowers in black hairy involucres. A
+common plant at 5,500 to 6,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Cirsium edule= Nuttall.
+
+Plentiful on the ridges of Moraine Park at the limit of trees. Also
+reported by Gorman as occurring in open woods near the timber line in
+Cowlitz canyon. This thistle is abundant at the sea level, and the
+roots were formerly a favorite food of the Indians.
+
+=Saussurea americana= D. C. Eaton.
+
+A peculiar plant with leafy stems, two to four feet high, bearing a
+dense cluster of elongate rayless heads of purple flowers. Found only
+on the high ridge north of the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Senecio ochraceus= Piper.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 230.
+
+=Senecio triangularis= Hooker.
+
+A tall species with triangular coarsely dentate leaves and numerous
+rather small heads of yellow flowers. Abundant in the marsh at
+Longmire Springs and in wet places on the mountain slopes up to 6,000
+feet altitude.
+
+=Senecio ductoris= Piper.
+
+A low species with thickish crenate leaves and deep yellow heads.
+Found only on the moraine on the south side of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Senecio flettii= Wiegand.
+
+Found near Cowlitz Chimneys by Miss Winona Bailey, in 1915; previously
+known only from the Olympic Mountains.
+
+=Arnica latifolia= Bongard.
+
+A smooth cordate leaved plant with one to five heads, resembling small
+sunflowers. Not uncommon up to 6,000 feet altitude, especially in the
+shelter of timber.
+
+=Arnica mollis= Hooker.
+
+Similar to the preceding, but the leaves oblong, nearly entire, and
+viscid glandular. Abundant along the rivulets, 4,000 to 6,000 feet
+altitude.
+
+=Arnica aspera= Greene.
+
+Described from specimens collected in Spray Park. It is very similar
+to _A. mollis_ Hooker, but the pubescence is coarser.
+
+=Arnica eradiata= (Gray) Heller.
+
+Closely related to the preceding but easily recognized by its rayless
+heads. It occurs on the steep slopes above Sluiskin Falls.
+
+=Luina hypoleuca= Bentham.
+
+A beautiful suffruticose plant, six to twelve inches high, with
+entire oval leaves shining green above and white tomentose beneath. It
+was originally discovered by Dr. Lyall, of the International Boundary
+Survey, in the Cascade Mountains at the 49th parallel. It is not
+uncommon about Mount Rainier, occurring on perpendicular cliffs along
+the Cowlitz Glacier; in similar places on the banks of the Nisqually
+at Longmire Springs; and on the gravel bars of the same river. The
+flowers are cream-colored.
+
+=Rainiera stricta= Greene.
+    (_Prenanthes stricta_ Greene.)
+    (_Luina piperi_ Robinson.)
+    (_Luina stricta_ Robinson.)
+
+A tall plant with large oblong entire leaves and a long raceme of
+yellowish, rayless heads. Professor Greene makes it the type of a new
+genus _Rainiera_, while Dr. Robinson refers it to _Luina_. The plant
+has been collected in Spray Park by Professor Greene; on the Goat
+Mountains, Allen; near Mount Adams, Henderson; head of Naches River,
+Vasey; and on the high ridge northeast of the foot of Cowlitz Glacier
+by the writer. The statement that the plant has milky juice is an
+error.
+
+=Petasites speciosa= (Nuttall) Piper.
+    (_Nardosmia speciosa_ Nuttall.)
+
+Abundant along streams up to 3,000 feet altitude. Easily recognized by
+its large palmate leaves, which frequently measure a foot or more in
+diameter. The flowers appear very early in spring with the leaves and
+have an odor suggesting violets. This species is clearly distinct from
+the Eastern _P. palmata_ (Aiton) Gray and was long ago well
+characterized by Nuttall.
+
+=Petasites frigida= (Linnaeus) Fries.
+    (_Petasites nivalis_ Greene).
+
+Common along rivulets 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. Resembling the
+preceding species, but much smaller and with quite different leaves.
+
+=Achillea lanulosa= Nuttall.
+
+An Alpine form of the common Western yarrow. Not rare in the decayed
+lava at 6,000 to 7,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Hulsea nana= Gray.
+
+A sticky plant with pinnatifid leaves and large yellow heads.
+Plentiful on the east side of the mountain near the base of Little
+Tahoma in the pumice fields. This seems to be the northernmost limit
+of the plant.
+
+=Anaphalis margaritacea occidentalis= Greene.
+
+The well-known "Everlasting Flower," which occurs in dry or burnt
+woods up to 4,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Antennaria media= Greene.
+
+A small depressed cudweed, only an inch or two high. Common at 6,000
+feet altitude.
+
+=Antennaria lanata= (Hooker) Greene.
+
+Like the preceding but larger and more hairy. Grassy slopes at 6,000
+feet. Common.
+
+=Antennaria racemosa= Hooker.
+
+Collected by Allen in the "upper valley of the Nisqually." A much
+larger and greener plant than the preceding species.
+
+=Erigeron salsuginosus= (Richardson) Gray.
+
+The common pink aster or "daisy" of the grassy slopes. One of the most
+conspicuous plants at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude, but even ascending
+to 7,000 feet in a much dwarfed form.
+
+=Erigeron acris debilis= Gray.
+
+An insignificant white-flowered species, rare at about 7,500 feet
+altitude.
+
+=Erigeron compositus trifidus= (Hooker) Gray.
+
+A small pinkish aster, with the leaves cut into linear lobes. Growing
+in decayed lava at 7,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Erigeron speciosus= De Candolle.
+
+A handsome species with entire ciliate leaves and rather numerous
+heads, with deep violet rays. Collected by Allen in the Goat
+Mountains, No. 222.
+
+=Erigeron aureus= Greene.
+    (_Aplopappus brandegei_ Gray.)
+
+A beautiful little aster with bright golden rays, the solitary heads
+on scapes two or three inches tall. Abundant in the pumice,
+7,500-8,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Aster ledophyllus= Gray.
+
+A tall species with leafy stems, and numerous middle-sized heads with
+pink-purple rays. The leaves are entire, pubescent on the under side.
+Not uncommon on the grassy slopes at 5,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Aster foliaceus frondeus= Gray.
+    (_Aster amplifolius_ Greene.)
+
+A species with broad half-clasping leaves and deep-violet-colored
+rays. Professor Greene's type came from Mount Rainier, but his species
+seems not to differ from the plant earlier described by Dr. Gray.
+
+=Oreostemma alpigena= (Torrey & Gray) Greene.
+    (_Aster pulchellus_ D. C. Eaton.)
+
+A low plant with narrow tufted leaves, the scapes bearing one or
+rarely two large heads. The rays are deep violet. The plant is common
+in the pumice fields at 7,000-8,000 feet altitude, but, strange to
+say, also occurs on the borders of small lakes at the foot of Pinnacle
+Peak at 4,500 feet elevation. In exposed places at high altitudes the
+leaves are often curiously twisted. It was originally described from
+the specimen collected on Mount Rainier by Tolmie.
+
+=Solidago algida= Piper.
+
+A small goldenrod, two to twelve inches tall, occurring ordinarily on
+the faces of perpendicular cliffs at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Artemisia borealis wormskioldii= Besser.
+
+A silky canescent wormwood about one foot high, its leaves pinnate;
+found on the north side of the mountain by Flett.
+
+=Artemisia richardsoniana= Besser.
+
+In the Synoptical Flora, Vol. II, p. 371, this species is stated to
+have been collected on Mount Rainier by Tolmie. On the sheet in the
+Gray Herbarium Dr. Gray has indicated that this is an error, the
+specimens having really been collected in the Rocky Mountains by
+Burke.
+
+
+=CAMPANULACEAE.= (Bellflower Family.)
+
+=Campanula rotundifolia= Linnaeus.
+
+This charming and familiar blue bell is abundant on the cliffs near
+the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+
+=VALERIANACEAE.= (Valerian Family.)
+
+=Valeriana sitchensis= Bongard.
+
+An abundant plant at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. The leaves are
+pinnately compound, the rather large leaflets repandly dentate. The
+flowers are whitish, usually pink tinged. Like other species, this
+valerian has a decidedly unpleasant odor, that is difficult to compare
+with any other. To the writer the odor is always associated with
+mountain meadows, doubtless because it so frequently predominates in
+such places.
+
+
+=RUBIACEAE.= (Madder Family.)
+
+=Galium triflorum= Michaux.
+
+A very common species of bedstraw which ascends on the lower slopes of
+the mountain.
+
+=Galium oreganum= Britton.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 296.
+
+
+=SCROPHULARIACEAE.= (Figwort Family.)
+
+=Chelone nemorosa= Douglas.
+
+A handsome plant with opposite serrate leaves and corymbs of
+purple-red flowers somewhat like those of the foxglove. Dry cliffs and
+slopes at 5,000 feet altitude. Also reported by Gorman as occurring at
+Longmire Springs.
+
+=Pentstemon confertus= Douglas.
+
+A species with entire leaves and dense clusters of small pale yellow
+flowers. In its typical form the species is one to two feet tall, but
+on Mount Rainier, where it occurs at from 7,000 to 8,000 feet
+elevation, it is reduced to two to four inches high, but otherwise not
+differing from the type.
+
+=Pentstemon procerus= Douglas.
+
+Like the above, but blue flowered. It occurs at 8,000 feet and on
+Rainier is scarcely two inches tall, while at lower altitudes it is
+frequently as many feet high. This dwarf Alpine form has been
+described by Professor Greene as a new species under the name of
+_Pentstemon pulchellus_. It is an interesting fact that Tolmie long
+ago collected on Mount Rainier a dwarf species which Hooker named
+_Pentstemon tolmiei_. But alas, the specimens are in fruit, and it is
+past finding out now whether his plant was the yellow-flowered or the
+blue-flowered form. Most likely, however, it was the latter, as that
+is far more frequent than the yellow-flowered form.
+
+=Pentstemon diffusus= Douglas.
+
+A handsome species with serrate leaves and blue-purple flowers. Mount
+Rainier, Piper 2068. Goat Mountains, Allen 129.
+
+=Pentstemon ovatus= Douglas.
+
+Much like the preceding plant, differing essentially in the anthers.
+Collected by Allen "mountains near the upper valley of the Nisqually,"
+and by the writer on the slopes of Mount Rainier.
+
+=Pentstemon menziesii= Hooker.
+
+A dwarf prostrate plant with thickish evergreen toothed leaves and
+dull purple flowers, abundant on the rocks at 8,000 feet elevation. A
+variety with the leaves entire instead of denticulate, _P. davidsonii_
+Greene, also occurs on the mountain.
+
+=Pentstemon rupicola= (Piper) Howell.
+
+Much like the preceding, but with glaucous leaves and rose-colored
+larger flowers. The writer found it originally on the perpendicular
+cliffs, at the limit of trees above "Camp of the Clouds."
+
+=Collinsia tenella= (Pursh) Piper.
+
+Collected by Flett on an old moraine along the Carbon Glacier.
+
+=Mimulus lewisii= Pursh.
+
+Abundant along rills, 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. Easily known by
+its opposite dentate leaves, viscid pubescence and rose-purple
+corollas. The original specimens were collected in Idaho by the Lewis
+and Clark expedition.
+
+=Mimulus breweri= (Greene) Rydberg.
+    (_Eunanus breweri_ Greene.)
+
+A minute species with pale purple flowers, abundant on dry cliffs near
+"Camp of the Clouds."
+
+=Mimulus alpinus= (Gray) Piper.
+    (_M. luteus alpinus_ Gray.)
+    (_M. scouleri caespitosus_ Greene.)
+
+A dwarf plant with matted stolons, the bright yellow flowers painting
+the cliffs wherever there is dripping water. The Mount Rainier plants
+match closely the original types collected by Dr. Parry in Wyoming, so
+that Professor Greene's name is clearly a synonym of the earlier one
+of Gray.
+
+=Veronica alpina= Linnaeus.
+
+A small plant two or three inches high, with several pairs of small,
+ovate, pubescent leaves, and a terminal raceme of small blue flowers.
+Common at 4,500 to 5,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Veronica cusickii= Gray.
+
+A very similar plant to the above, but with larger blue flowers and
+smooth leaves. Abundant just above "Camp of the Clouds."
+
+=Veronica allenii= Greenman.
+
+Much like the preceding species, but with smaller white flowers. A new
+species discovered by Allen "near Paradise River at 5,400 feet
+elevation."
+
+=Castilleja miniata= Douglas.
+
+This vivid scarlet "Painted Cup" or "Indian Pink" is easily known by
+its entire leaves. Not infrequent at 5,000 to 6,000 feet; also
+occurring at lower altitudes down to sea-level.
+
+=Castilleja angustifolia hispida= (Bentham) Fernald.
+
+Very similar to the last, but the flower spikes shorter and the leaves
+cut-lobed. Bear Prairie, Allen.
+
+=Castilleja rupicola= Piper.
+
+Like the last, but smaller, the leaves usually purplish and deeply
+cut, the flowers intensely scarlet and with very long beaks. On the
+cliffs on both sides of Sluiskin Falls, whence the original specimens
+were obtained.
+
+=Castilleja oreopola= Greenman.
+
+The common species of the grassy slopes, the flowers reddish-purple or
+occasionally white.
+
+=Pedicularis bracteosa= Bentham.
+
+A tall "lousewort," with fern-like leaves and a long terminal spike of
+greenish-white flowers. Frequent in wet places up to 5,500 feet
+altitude.
+
+=Pedicularis contorta= Douglas.
+
+A yellow-flowered species not rare at 7,000 feet elevation along the
+Nisqually Glacier. First found by Tolmie on Mount Rainier.
+
+=Pedicularis surrecta= Bentham.
+
+The reddish flowers with long, coiled beaks easily distinguish this
+plant. Common in wet meadows at 4,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Pedicularis ornithorhyncha= Bentham.
+
+Much like the preceding but with beakless flowers. Originally
+described from Mount Rainier specimens collected by Tolmie in 1833,
+and not again seen until the writer collected them in the same place
+in 1888. The plant has since been found at two or three places north
+of Mount Rainier, but all in Washington.
+
+=Pedicularis racemosa= Douglas.
+
+The commonest species, easily known by its half prostrate habit,
+lanceolate leaves, and short clusters of white or pinkish twisted
+flowers. Ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+
+=PINGUICULACEAE.= (Butterwort Family.)
+
+=Pinguicula vulgaris= Linnaeus.
+
+The butterwort, with its greasy entire leaves in a rosette and
+solitary violet flowers is not rare on moist cliffs.
+
+
+=LABIATAE.= (Mint Family.)
+
+=Madronella discolor= Greene.
+
+A very sweet-smelling plant, the only mint as yet found on the
+mountain. Occurs on the talus of the high cliffs on the north side of
+Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+
+=BORAGINACEAE.= (Borage Family.)
+
+=Mertensia laevigata= Piper.
+
+A handsome branched herb, two feet high or more. The large entire
+leaves and the cluster of small blue tubular flowers make it readily
+recognizable. Frequent at 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Cryptantha muriculata= (A. De Candolle) Greene.
+
+Goat Mountains, Flett; a small common lowland plant with white
+flowers.
+
+
+=HYDROPHYLLACEAE.= (Waterleaf Family.)
+
+=Hydrophyllum albifrons= Heller.
+    (_Hydrophyllum congestum_ Wiegand.)
+
+On the meadows near Van Trump Glacier.
+
+=Romanzoffia sitchensis= Bongard.
+
+A handsome little plant with orbicular coarsely dentate leaves and a
+loose cluster of small white flowers. In habit much like some
+saxifrages. Rare on wet cliffs near Sluiskin Falls.
+
+=Phacelia nemoralis= Greene.
+
+This plant occurs on rock talus along the north side of Cowlitz
+Glacier.
+
+=Phacelia sericea= Gray.
+
+A handsome species with silvery leaves and dense clusters of purple
+flowers. Collected somewhere on the mountain by Rev. E. C. Smith in
+1890.
+
+
+=POLEMONIACEAE.= (Phlox Family.)
+
+=Phlox diffusa= Bentham.
+
+A prostrate plant with acerose leaves, when in bloom forming dense
+masses of pale blue. Common at 5,500 to 6,500 feet altitude, in rocky
+soil.
+
+=Gilia gracilis= (Douglas) Hooker.
+
+Growing on an old moraine along Carbon Glacier, Flett.
+
+=Gilia nuttallii= Gray.
+
+A white-flowered species found by Rev. E. C. Smith in 1890 somewhere
+on the southwest slopes of the mountain.
+
+=Collomia debilis= (Watson) Greene.
+
+Not rare in talus at the base of basalt cliffs on the east side of the
+mountain at 7,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Collomia heterophylla= Hooker.
+
+Found by Mr. Gorman on the gravelly banks of the Nisqually at Longmire
+Springs; also by Flett; a common lowland plant.
+
+=Polemonium humile= Roemer & Schultes.
+
+A handsome plant with pinnate leaves and corymbs of pale blue flowers.
+Common on the rocks at 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Polemonium elegans= Greene.
+    (_P. bicolor_ Greenman.)
+
+Similar to the preceding, but smaller and very glandular, the blue
+flowers having a large yellow center. Rather rare in pumice at 7,500
+feet elevation.
+
+=Polemonium viscosum pilosum= Greenman.
+
+Very much like the preceding plant. Discovered by Allen on the Goat
+Mountains, No. 261.
+
+
+=GENTIANACEAE.= (Gentian Family.)
+
+=Gentiana calycosa= Grisebach.
+
+An elegant plant with deep blue bell-shaped flowers. Abundant along
+the rills at 5,000 feet. The species was described from Mount Rainier
+specimens collected by Tolmie in 1833. Grisebach also described a
+variety _stricta_, based on very trivial characters.
+
+
+=PRIMULACEAE.= (Primrose Family.)
+
+=Dodecatheon jeffreyi= Van Houtte.
+    (_D. crenatum_ Greene.)
+    (_D. viviparum_ Greene.)
+
+Plentiful in wet places at 4,500 to 5,500 feet elevation. Professor
+Greene's types came from Spray Park.
+
+=Douglasia laevigata= Gray.
+
+A handsome little plant forming broad mats and bearing blood-red
+flowers in corymbs. Goat Mountains, Allen.
+
+=Trientalis latifolia= Hooker.
+
+Gorman reports this plant as occurring in coniferous woods between
+Longmire Springs and Paradise Park.
+
+
+=PYROLACEAE.= (Indian Pipe Family.)
+
+=Chimaphila umbellata= (Linnaeus) Nuttall.
+
+Reported by Gorman "on the trail above Longmire Springs, in coniferous
+woods."
+
+=Chimaphila menziesii= (R. Brown) Sprengel.
+
+In deep coniferous woods, 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Pyrola secunda= Linnaeus.
+
+Growing with the preceding.
+
+=Pyrola bracteata= Hooker.
+
+Reported by Gorman "in coniferous woods along the Nisqually River at
+2,850 feet."
+
+=Moneses uniflora= (Linnaeus) Gray.
+
+In woods near the base of the mountain.
+
+=Monotropa hypopitys= Linnaeus.
+
+Common in the dense shade of conifers along the trail above
+Longmire's.
+
+=Pterospora andromedea= Nuttall.
+
+This peculiar plant occurs along the Nisqually trail at about 3,000
+feet altitude.
+
+=Allotropa virgata= Torrey & Gray.
+
+This queer plant is abundant in coniferous woods on the north side of
+the mountain, but it is doubtful whether it comes within our limits.
+
+
+=ERICACEAE.= (Heath Family.)
+
+=Menziesia glabella= Gray.
+
+A shrub four to eight feet high, much resembling a huckleberry, but
+the fruit is dry.
+
+=Kalmia polifolia microphylla= (Hooker) Piper.
+
+In wet places at 7,000 feet altitude near Nisqually Glacier.
+
+=Phyllodoce empetriformis= (Smith) D. Don.
+
+The common red-flowered heather, abundant on dryish slopes at 5,000 to
+6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Phyllodoce glanduliflora= (Hooker) Coville.
+
+Much like the preceding, but the flowers yellowish-white and
+glandular. Frequent at 6,500 to 7,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Cassiope mertensiana= (Bongard) Donn.
+
+A low shrub growing with _Phyllodoce empetriformis_, and having small
+pendent, bell-shaped white flowers.
+
+=Harrimanella stelleriana= (Pallas) Coville.
+
+On the moist cliffs overlooking the Nisqually Glacier, at 5,500 feet
+elevation. This is the southernmost known station for the plant.
+
+=Gaultheria shallon= Pursh.
+
+The salal-berry is reported by Gorman to occur in coniferous woods
+between Longmire Springs and Paradise Park.
+
+=Gaultheria ovatifolia= Gray.
+
+This species resembles a diminutive plant of the preceding, but the
+berries are red and spicy, and borne singly in the axils of the
+leaves. Abundant in the coniferous woods at 3,000 to 3,500 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Gaultheria humifusa= (Graham) Rydberg.
+
+Much like a small plant of the preceding species, and only an inch or
+two high. Not rare on the slopes near Sluiskin Falls.
+
+=Rhododendron albiflorum= Hooker.
+    (_Cladothamnus campanulatus_ Greene).
+
+The white-flowered azalea so common in the shelter of trees at 5,000
+to 5,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Arctostaphylos uva-ursi= Linnaeus.
+
+The kinnikinnik, essentially a lowland plant, covers the rocks at
+8,000 feet altitude near Nisqually Glacier.
+
+=Arctostaphylos nevadensis= Gray.
+
+On the gravel bars of the Nisqually at Longmire Springs.
+
+=Vaccinium macrophyllum= (Hooker) Piper.
+
+The most valuable of all the native huckleberries. Easily recognized
+by the nearly black, not glaucous berries, and finely serrate leaves.
+Plentiful at 3,000 to 4,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Vaccinium ovalifolium= Smith.
+
+Much like the preceding, but taller, the leaves entire, and the
+glaucous black berries not nearly so sweet.
+
+=Vaccinium myrtillus microphyllum= Hooker.
+    (_V. scoparium_ Leiberg.)
+
+A low, broom-like species, with small leaves and red or wine-colored
+berries. On dry ridges, 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Vaccinium deliciosum= Piper.
+
+This is the common bilberry of the alpine meadows of the Cascade and
+Olympic Mountains in Washington, where it is abundant at 4,500 to
+5,500 feet altitude. In habit and fruit it resembles _V. caespitosum_,
+but in floral characters _V. ovalifolium_, to which Dr. Gray rather
+hesitatingly referred it. From this last it may readily be
+distinguished by its serrulate leaves and low habit, its relatively
+longer filaments, which in _V. ovalifolium_ are only one half as long
+as the anthers, and its small-seeded fruit of very different flavor.
+Very young leaves have the serrulations tipped with small glandular
+appendages.
+
+
+=UMBELLIFERAE.= (Parsley Family.)
+
+=Ligusticum purpureum= Coulter & Rose.
+
+A tall "wild parsnip," with fern-like leaves and small whitish or
+purple-tinged flowers. Everywhere on the slopes, 4,000 to 6,000 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Lomatium angustatum= Coulter & Rose.
+
+In rock talus near Sluiskin Falls.
+
+=Lomatium triternatum= Coulter & Rose.
+
+A form of this variable species was found on the Goat Mountains by
+Allen, No. 257.
+
+=Angelica lyallii= Watson.
+
+Paradise Park, 5,000 feet elevation. Also common near the foot of
+Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Sanicula septentrionalis= Greene.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 254.
+
+=Osmorhiza ambigua= (Gray) Coulter & Rose.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 256.
+
+=Heracleum lanatum= Michaux.
+
+Common at 4,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Hesperogenia stricklandi= Coulter & Rose.
+
+An interesting plant, the type of a new genus, found in Paradise Park
+by Allen and by Strickland. Also collected on the mountain by Flett.
+Occurs at 6,500 feet elevation.
+
+
+=HALORAGIDACEAE.= (Water Milfoil Family.)
+
+=Hippuris vulgaris= Linnaeus.
+
+Found by Allen at Longmire Springs.
+
+=Hippuris montana= Ledebour.
+
+An interesting little species much resembling some mosses. It
+frequently mats the ground in wet places at 4,500 feet elevation.
+
+
+=ONAGRACEAE.= (Evening Primrose Family.)
+
+=Epilobium spicatum= Lamarck.
+
+The common "fireweed," reported by Gorman on the "grassy slopes, 5,000
+to 6,000 feet altitude."
+
+=Epilobium latifolium= Linnaeus.
+
+A species with flowers like the preceding, but only four to six inches
+tall. Found by Rev. E. C. Smith near the Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Epilobium luteum= Pursh.
+
+A yellow-flowered species common along streams, 3,000 to 5,000 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Epilobium alpinum= Linnaeus.
+    (_E. hornemanni_ Reichenbach.)
+
+Common at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Epilobium anagallidifolium= Lamarck.
+
+A minute species found on the Tatoosh Mountains by Allen.
+
+=Epilobium clavatum= Trelease.
+
+Gravelly slopes at 5,000 feet. Plentiful along the Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Epilobium fastigiatum= (Nuttall) Piper.
+
+A glaucous-leaved small species, on the gravel bars of the Nisqually,
+and up to 4,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Gayophytum ramosissimum= Torrey & Gray.
+
+On gravelly slopes near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+
+=VIOLACEAE.= (Violet Family.)
+
+=Viola palustris= Linnaeus.
+
+The common swamp violet was found at Narada Falls by Flett.
+
+=Viola adunca= Smith.
+
+Rare in rock crevices near Sluiskin Falls. Flowers deep violet.
+
+=Viola montanensis= Rydberg.
+
+Like the preceding, but the leaves puberulent. Near Van Trump Glacier,
+at 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Viola glabella= Nuttall.
+
+A yellow-flowered species common along streams and in rich woods up to
+3,000 feet altitude.
+
+
+=HYPERICACEAE.= (St. Johnswort Family.)
+
+=Hypericum bryophytum= Elmer.
+
+A diminutive plant along rills at 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+
+=ACERACEAE.= (Maple Family.)
+
+=Acer douglasii= Hooker.
+
+The smooth maple is common on the headwaters of the Nisqually.
+
+
+=CELASTRACEAE.= (Staff Tree Family.)
+
+=Pachystima myrsinites= (Pursh) Rafinesque.
+
+An evergreen shrub two or three feet high, having considerable
+resemblance to a huckleberry. Common in coniferous woods at 3,000 to
+4,000 feet elevation.
+
+
+=EMPETRACEAE.= (Crowberry Family.)
+
+=Empetrum nigrum= Linnaeus.
+
+A prostrate cespitose shrub with yew-like leaves and black berries.
+Common on the rocks at 7,500 feet altitude.
+
+
+=OXALIDACEAE.= (Oxalis Family.)
+
+=Oxalis oregana= Nuttall.
+
+Common in rich, moist woods up to 3,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Oxalis trilliifolia= Hooker.
+
+With the preceding, which it resembles. It may be distinguished by its
+scapes bearing several flowers, instead of only one, and by its narrow
+pods.
+
+
+=LEGUMINOSAE.= (Pea Family.)
+
+=Lupinus subalpinus= Piper & Robinson.
+
+The common lupine of the grassy slopes, 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Lupinus volcanicus= Greene.
+
+A small species, with hairy pubescence, growing above the limit of the
+preceding and below that of the following.
+
+=Lupinus lyallii= Watson.
+
+A lovely little plant with silvery foliage. Abundant in the pumice
+fields at 7,000 to 8,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Lathyrus pauciflorus= Fernald.
+
+A wild pea with purple flowers collected by Allen in the Goat
+Mountains.
+
+=Lathyrus nevadensis= Watson.
+
+Very like the preceding but with white flowers. Collected by Allen,
+No. 297, on mountains near the upper valley of the Nisqually.
+
+=Oxytropis cusickii= Greenman.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 245.
+
+
+=ROSACEAE.= (Rose Family.)
+
+=Spiraea densiflora= Nuttall.
+
+A low shrub with dense corymbs of rose-colored flowers. Common in bogs
+at 4,500 feet, and on rock cliffs up to 6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Eriogynia pectinata= (Pursh) Hooker.
+
+A little shrub only two or three inches tall, forming dense mats. The
+plant should easily be recognized by its sharply cleft leaves and
+dense erect racemes of white flowers. Abundant at 5,000 to 6,000 feet
+elevation. Gorman reports it from near the "Sphinx," 8,500 feet.
+
+=Rubus nivalis= Douglas.
+
+A trailing vine, with glossy, green, simple leaves. Common in the
+coniferous forests at 3,000 feet altitude, where it seldom blooms. On
+exposed rocks and banks one rarely finds its dull red flowers or
+bright red, raspberry-like, sour fruit.
+
+=Rubus pedatus= Smith.
+
+A trailing herbaceous plant, with palmately compound leaves and
+strawberry-like blossoms. The smooth red fruit is sour, and consists
+of only a few large drupelets. Common in the woods up to 4,000 feet
+altitude.
+
+=Rubus lasiococcus= Gray.
+
+Much like the preceding, but with simple leaves and pubescent fruit.
+Grows with the preceding, and up to 5,000 feet or more.
+
+=Potentilla flabellifolia= Hooker.
+
+The common cinquefoil of the meadows, with bright yellow
+buttercup-like flowers. Plentiful at 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Potentilla dissecta= Pursh.
+
+This has been collected by Allen on the Goat Mountains, No. 251.
+
+=Potentilla glaucophylla= Lehmann.
+
+Near the foot of Gibraltar, at 8,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Potentilla villosa= Pallas.
+
+A species with silvery strawberry-like leaves and bright yellow
+flowers. On the cliffs near the foot of Little Tahoma, at 7,500 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Potentilla fruticosa tenuifolia= (Willdenow) Lehmann.
+
+This shrubby cinquefoil occurs along White River Glacier.
+
+=Sibbaldia procumbens= Linnaeus.
+
+Abundant on the ridge near Sluiskin Falls.
+
+=Dryas octopetala= Linnaeus.
+
+Found in talus between Urania and White Glaciers by Professor Flett.
+This is the southernmost known station in the Cascade Mountains.
+
+=Pyrus occidentalis= Watson.
+
+This mountain ash occurs at 4,500 to 5,000 feet altitude, usually
+forming dense clumps. It is seldom over four feet high. From related
+species its dull purple glaucous fruit and dull green leaves, serrate
+only near the apex, easily distinguish it.
+
+=Pyrus sitchensis= (Roemer) Piper.
+    (_Sorbus sitchensis_ Roemer.)
+
+This species grows from four to fifteen feet high, and is easily known
+by its intense scarlet fruit and shining leaflets, which are sharply
+serrate to the base. The plant of the Cascade Mountains matches
+exactly with the type from Sitka, and we can detect no differences in
+the shrub common in the Blue Mountains and in Western Idaho. This
+shrub has heretofore been known as _Pyrus sambucifolia_ Chamisso &
+Schlechtendahl, but authentic Kamtschatka specimens of this last are
+clearly different from our plant.
+
+=Rosa nutkana= Presl.
+
+This common wild rose has been collected by Allen on the Goat
+Mountains, at 4,500 feet elevation.
+
+
+=SAXIFRAGACEAE.= (Saxifrage Family.)
+
+=Ribes howellii= Greene.
+    (_Ribes acerifolium_ Howell.)
+
+A small currant, two to four feet high, with pendent racemes of
+flowers and glaucous black fruit. Common in the shelter of trees up to
+their limit.
+
+=Ribes bracteosum= Douglas.
+
+A currant with very large leaves and long, erect racemes of greenish
+flowers; fruit black. It is common along streams at low altitudes, and
+is locally known as "stink currant." Gorman reports it from Cowlitz
+Canyon, near the timber line.
+
+=Ribes lacustre= (Persoon) Poiret.
+
+This very prickly gooseberry is reported by Gorman from the same
+locality as the preceding.
+
+=Leptarrhena amplexifolia= (Sternberg) Seringe.
+
+A handsome plant, with a radical tuft of oblong crenate evergreen
+leaves, and an erect scape of small greenish flowers in a corymb. The
+pods when mature are usually deeply tinged with purple. Common on the
+borders of rills at 5,000 feet, and on the wet cliffs near Sluiskin
+Falls. Also reported by Professor Greene from Spray Park.
+
+=Tiarella unifoliata= Hooker.
+
+Common in rich woods up to 3,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Mitella breweri= Watson.
+
+In the shelter of trees, common at 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Mitella pentandra= Hooker.
+
+Much like the preceding and found in similar places.
+
+=Mitella trifida= Graham.
+
+Found on Mount Rainier and on Goat Mountains by Allen.
+
+=Parnassia fimbriata= König.
+
+A plant with radical reniform leaves and one-flowered scapes. The
+petals are white and fringed. Not rare in moist places near Sluiskin
+Falls; also at Crater Lake.
+
+=Heuchera glabra= Willdenow.
+
+On the cliffs near Camp of the Clouds.
+
+=Heuchera micrantha= Douglas.
+
+Mount Rainier, _Tolmie_, according to Hooker.
+
+=Elmera racemosa= (Watson) Rydberg.
+    (_Heuchera racemosa_ Watson.)
+
+Rock crevices at the base of Little Tahoma; rare.
+
+=Suksdorfia ranunculifolia= (Hooker) Engler.
+
+Rock Cliffs near Camp of the Clouds.
+
+=Saxifraga bongardi= Presl.
+
+Common along rills, 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Saxifraga bronchialis austromontana= (Wiegand) Piper.
+
+Abundant on rock cliffs near Longmire Springs, and frequent up to
+6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Saxifraga marshallii= Greene.
+
+Rare on the cliffs near Sluiskin Falls. Also collected on the Goat
+Mountains by Mr. Allen.
+
+=Saxifraga odontoloma= Piper.
+
+A species with reniform, coarsely dentate leaves. Common along the
+rivulets, 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Saxifraga nelsoniana= D. Don.
+
+Much like the preceding, but the petals oval instead of orbicular and
+clawed. Near Camp of the Clouds; rare.
+
+=Saxifraga mertensiana= Bongard.
+
+Much like _S. odontoloma_, but the leaves doubly dentate, and usually
+bearing bulblets among the flowers. North side of Cowlitz Glacier;
+rare.
+
+=Saxifraga tolmaei= Torrey & Gray.
+
+Abundant at 5,000 to 7,500 feet elevation, blooming as soon as the
+snow melts. Easily known by its small, thick, entire leaves, and small
+white flowers, solitary on scapes an inch or two high. Originally
+found by Tolmie, from whose specimens the species was described.
+
+=Saxifraga debilis= Engelmann.
+
+Found on Mount Rainier by Mr. Allen. This is the first record of the
+plant west of Colorado.
+
+=Saxifraga caespitosa= Linnaeus.
+
+Collected by Flett and by Allen. Leaves 3 to 5-lobed.
+
+
+=CRASSULACEAE.= (Stonecrop Family.)
+
+=Sedum divergens= Watson.
+
+This species is easily known by its small globular leaves. Common on
+the cliffs near Sluiskin Falls.
+
+
+=CRUCIFERAE.= (Mustard Family.)
+
+=Draba aureola= Watson.
+
+A viscid yellow-flowered species, rather rare at and near Camp Muir.
+
+=Draba lonchocarpa= Rydberg.
+
+In pumice sand at 8,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Arabis lyallii= Watson.
+
+Common along Paradise River, at 5,000 feet altitude, but also
+occurring in the pumice at 7,500 feet.
+
+=Arabis drummondii= Gray.
+
+Piper No. 2065, referable to this species, is from Mount Rainier.
+Collected near the Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Cardamine kamtschatica= (Regel) Schulz.
+    (_C. umbellata_ Greene.)
+
+A small "bitter-cress," not rare along rills at 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Erysimum asperum= (Nuttall) De Candolle.
+
+A yellow-flowered plant much like a wallflower, rare at 6,000 feet
+altitude. It occurs also in loose rock near Interglacier.
+
+=Smelowskia ovalis= Jones.
+
+A small, white-flowered, canescent plant, interesting because it
+ascends Mount Rainier higher than any other flowering plant. Common
+from 8,000 to 10,000 feet altitude. One specimen was collected quite
+at the base of "The Sphinx."
+
+
+=FUMARIACEAE.= (Bleeding-heart Family.)
+
+=Corydalis scouleri= Hooker.
+
+Common along streams at low elevations.
+
+
+=BERBERIDACEAE.= (Barberry Family.)
+
+=Achlys triphylla= (Smith) De Candolle.
+
+Reported by Mr. Gorman "on the trail from Longmire Springs to the
+Park." The sweet-smelling leaves of this plant have suggested the name
+of "vanilla leaf."
+
+
+=RANUNCULACEAE.= (Buttercup Family.)
+
+=Thalictrum occidentale= Gray.
+
+This meadow-rue is not rare near the foot of Van Trump Glacier.
+
+=Anemone drummondii= Watson.
+
+Collected by Flett, No. 2171, on the north side of the mountain at
+7,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Anemone hudsoniana= (De Candolle) Richardson.
+
+Collected on the Goat Mountains by Mr. Allen, No. 250.
+
+=Pulsatilla occidentalis= (Watson) Freyn.
+
+Common on the dry slopes 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. Flowers large,
+white or bluish, developing a large head of tailed carpels, which has
+much the appearance of a hussar's cap.
+
+=Trautvetteria grandis= Nuttall.
+
+A tall plant with large maple-like leaves and loose corymbs of
+delicate white flowers. Abundant in shady woods up to 4,000 feet
+elevation. The pallid blossoms, in sharp contrast to the shade they
+dwell in, has prompted the name of "ghost flower."
+
+=Ranunculus suksdorfii= Gray.
+
+A bright-flowered buttercup, not rare in moist places at 5,500 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Ranunculus verecundus= Robinson.
+
+On rocky ridges at 7,000 feet altitude, Flett.
+
+=Caltha leptosepala= De Candolle.
+    (_C. macounii_ Greene.)
+
+Wet places, 4,000 to 6,000 feet; plentiful.
+
+=Aquilegia formosa= Fisher.
+
+The common scarlet and yellow columbine of the lowland, found on the
+grassy slopes at 5,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Delphinium bicolor= Nuttall.
+
+A handsome blue and white-flowered larkspur, found in the Goat
+Mountains by Mr. Allen, No. 146.
+
+=Delphinium glaucum= Watson.
+
+This larkspur is tall, three to four feet high, with rather many large
+leaves, and long racemes of pale blue small flowers. Collected by Mr.
+Allen in the Upper Nisqually Valley, and by the writer near Crater
+Lake.
+
+
+=CARYOPHYLLACEAE.= (Pink Family.)
+
+=Silene lyallii= Watson.
+    (_S. macounii_ Watson.)
+    (_S. douglasii viscida_ Robinson.)
+
+Distinguished from its near allies by its four-lobed petals. Not rare
+at 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Silene suksdorfii= Robinson.
+
+A low species, with scapes mostly one-flowered. Rather rare in the
+loose basalt talus near the base of Little Tahoma.
+
+=Silene acaulis= Linnaeus.
+
+The "moss campion" of Europe, and common in the Rocky Mountains.
+Collected by Mr. Flett near the Mowich Glacier.
+
+=Stellaria borealis= Bigelow.
+
+A prostrate chickweed, common along the Paradise River, at 5,000 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Stellaria washingtoniana= Robinson.
+
+Described from specimens collected by Allen on the slopes of the
+mountain at the head of Nisqually River in alder woods.
+
+=Sagina occidentalis= Watson.
+
+A small species of pearlwort, doubtfully referred here, occurs rarely
+along rivulets in Paradise Park.
+
+=Cerastium arvense= Linnaeus.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 237.
+
+=Arenaria capillaris= Poiret.
+
+Common on the rocks at 5,000 to 7,000 feet elevation. The form with
+curved leaves, variety _nardifolia_ Regel, is more frequent than the
+type.
+
+=Arenaria verna= Linnaeus.
+
+Rather rare in the pumice on the east side of the mountain.
+
+=Arenaria macrophylla= Hooker.
+
+In dry woods at low altitudes.
+
+
+=PORTULACACEAE.= (Purslane Family.)
+
+=Spraguea multiceps= Howell.
+
+A handsome plant, with entire spatulate leaves and dense heads of pink
+or purple flowers. Common in the pumice fields.
+
+=Claytonia sibirica= Linnaeus.
+
+Collected by Flett somewhere near the base of the mountain. The
+commonest lowland "spring beauty."
+
+=Claytonia asarifolia= Bongard.
+
+A plant with fleshy entire leaves and small racemes of white flowers.
+Occasional along the rivulets at 4,000 to 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Claytonia parvifolia= Mocino.
+
+On the rocks at 3,000 to 4,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Claytonia lanceolata= Pursh.
+
+Common in the grassy meadows. The tuberous root is edible.
+
+=Lewisia columbiana= (Howell) Robinson.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen. Leaves fleshy, flowers rose-purple, showy.
+
+
+=POLYGONACEAE.= (Buckwheat Family.)
+
+=Oxyria digyna= (Linnaeus) Hill.
+
+A small plant with reniform entire leaves, and flowers and fruit like
+those of the common docks. Not rare in rock crevices at 5,000 to 6,000
+feet elevation.
+
+=Polygonum minimum= Watson.
+
+Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Polygonum douglasii= Greene.
+
+On a gravelly slope near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Polygonum newberryi= Small.
+
+Common in the pumice fields, where it is a characteristic plant.
+
+=Polygonum bistortoides= Pursh.
+
+Very plentiful on the grassy slopes, where it is conspicuous by its
+dense white-flowered spikes an inch long, borne singly on slender
+stems a foot or two high.
+
+=Eriogonum compositum= Douglas.
+
+A form of this variable species occurs on the talus at the foot of the
+cliffs on the north side of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Eriogonum pyrolaefolium coryphaeum= Torrey & Gray.
+
+Plentiful in the pumice fields.
+
+
+=BETULACEAE.= (Birch Family.)
+
+=Alnus sinuata= (Regel) Rydberg.
+
+Sitka alder. A small alder, seldom over ten or twelve feet high.
+Common along the streams at low altitude.
+
+
+=SALICACEAE.= (Willow Family.)
+
+=Salix scouleriana= Barratt.
+
+The common upland willow; not rare up to 3,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Salix sitchensis= Sanson.
+
+The "silky willow" is plentiful along the Nisqually at Longmire
+Springs.
+
+=Salix barclayi= Anderson.
+
+=Salix commutata= Bebb.
+
+These two willows make thickets along the rills at about 6,000 feet
+altitude. The leaves in the former are smooth above and glaucous
+beneath; in the latter pubescent on both sides.
+
+=Salix nivalis= Hooker.
+
+A very dwarf willow, with obtuse leaves, growing only a few inches
+high. Found on the north side of the mountain by Flett.
+
+=Salix saximontana= Rydberg.
+
+Very similar to _Salix nivalis_, but larger in every way. Also found
+by Flett on the north side of the mountain.
+
+=Salix cascadensis= Cockerell.
+    (_S. tenera_ Andersson.)
+
+A very dwarf rare willow with leaves acute at each end. North slope of
+the mountain, collected by Flett.
+
+=Populus trichocarpa= Torrey & Gray.
+
+The cottonwood occurs along the Nisqually to some distance above
+Longmire Springs.
+
+
+=ORCHIDACEAE.= (Orchis Family.)
+
+=Corallorhiza maculata= Rafinesque.
+
+Common in the coniferous woods at low altitudes.
+
+=Corallorhiza mertensiana= Bongard.
+
+Frequent in the dense coniferous woods up to 3,500 feet.
+
+=Spiranthes romanzoffiana= Chamisso.
+
+A small form of this species was found in a bog on the summit of the
+ridge overlooking the foot of the Nisqually Glacier.
+
+=Peramium decipiens= (Hooker) Piper.
+
+On the trail above Longmire Springs, according to Mr. Gorman.
+
+=Limnorchis stricta= (Lindley) Rydberg.
+
+A tall plant with long spikes of greenish flowers. Not rare in wet
+places at 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Listera caurina= Piper.
+
+Common in mossy woods up to 3,500 feet.
+
+=Listera convallarioides= (Swartz) Torrey.
+
+Growing in moist woods near the foot of the mountain.
+
+
+=LILIACEAE.= (Lily Family.)
+
+=Allium validum= Watson.
+
+This wild onion has rootstock-like bulbs. It has been found on the
+north side of the mountain, and only by Mr. Flett.
+
+=Vagnera sessilifolia= (Baker) Greene.
+
+Common in moist woods up to 3,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Streptopus curvipes= Vail.
+
+Common in moist woods at 3,000 feet. Distinguished from the Eastern
+_S. roseus_ by its small size, simple stems, and creeping rootstocks.
+
+=Lilium columbianum= Hanson.
+
+The wild tiger lily occurs on dry slopes near Longmire Springs and in
+Paradise Park, at 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Fritillaria lanceolata= Pursh.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 235.
+
+=Erythronium montanum= Watson.
+
+The white-flowered adder's tongue, so abundant in Paradise Park, up to
+5,500 feet altitude.
+
+=Erythronium parviflorum= (Watson) Goodding.
+
+Much like the preceding, but the flowers yellow. Frequent along rills
+at 5,500 feet.
+
+=Clintonia uniflora= (Schultes) Kunth.
+
+Abundant in the coniferous forests at 2,000 to 4,000 feet altitude.
+Easily recognized by its tuft of two to four radical leaves, which are
+oblong in form, and its delicate scapes, three or four inches high,
+bearing a single white flower. The berry is blue.
+
+=Trillium ovatum= Pursh.
+
+The wake-robin is plentiful at 3,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Tofieldia intermedia= Rydberg.
+
+This species has been confused with both _T. glutinosa_ and _T.
+occidentalis_. From the former it differs principally in its seed
+characters, otherwise being so similar that there are no
+distinguishing characters in the flowering specimens. All the Cascade
+Mountain specimens apparently belong to _T. intermedia_, because no
+plant with the seed character of _T. glutinosa_ has as yet been found
+in that range of mountains.
+
+=Veratrum viride= Aiton.
+
+The green hellebore forms considerable clumps, three or four feet
+high. It is frequent on moist slopes in Paradise Park.
+
+=Stenanthium occidentale= Gray.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, 233. Also collected on Mount Rainier by Rev. E.
+C. Smith, in 1890.
+
+=Xerophyllum tenax= (Pursh) Nuttall.
+
+The so-called pine-lily or bear-grass is not rare in gravelly soil in
+rather open woods. Straggling specimens are found up to 5,500 feet
+altitude.
+
+
+=JUNCACEAE.= (Rush Family.)
+
+=Juncoides glabratum= (Hooker) Sheldon.
+
+Dry, grassy slopes at 5,000 feet.
+
+=Juncoides majus= (Hooker) Piper.
+    (_Luzula arcuata major_ Hooker.)
+    (_Juncoides piperi_ Coville.)
+
+The plants referred here occur at 7,000 feet altitude, in springy
+places. Allen, No. 44, and Piper, 2172, are identical with Tolmie's
+Mount Rainier specimens.
+
+=Juncoides parviflorum= (Ehrhart) Coville.
+
+Common on dry slopes up to 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Juncoides spicata= (Linnaeus) Kuntze.
+
+Rather rare in damp places in the pumice fields, at 8,000 feet
+altitude.
+
+=Juncus subtriflorus= (E. Meyer) Coville.
+
+Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Juncus parryi= Engelmann.
+
+Much like the preceding, and growing along with it.
+
+=Juncus mertensianus= Bongard.
+
+Frequent along rills even up to 8,000 feet altitude.
+
+
+=CYPERACEAE.= (Sedge Family.)
+
+=Eriophorum polystachion= Linnaeus.
+
+This "cotton-grass" occurs in the low ground around the lakes near the
+base of Pinnacle Peak.
+
+=Carex paddoensis= Suksdorf.
+
+Springy places at 8,000 feet altitude; Allen, 172; Piper, 2541.
+
+=Carex pyrenaica= Wahlenberg.
+
+With the preceding; Allen, 171; Piper, 2540.
+
+=Carex phaeocephala= Piper.
+
+Dryish places at 7,500 feet elevation; Piper, 2535.
+
+=Carex preslii= Bailey.
+
+Common at 5,000 feet, along streams.
+
+=Carex pachystachya= Chamisso.
+
+This species occurs along rills in Paradise Park.
+
+=Carex nigricans= Meyer.
+
+Common at 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Carex rossii= Boott.
+
+On the grassy ridge above Sluiskin Falls.
+
+=Carex geyeri= Boott.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, 169.
+
+=Carex mertensii= Prescott.
+
+Rare along stream banks at about 4,000 feet altitude. Some of our
+specimens came from near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Carex spectabilis= Dewey.
+    (_C. invisa_ Bailey.)
+
+In wet meadows at 4,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Carex scopulorum= Holm.
+
+With the preceding.
+
+=Carex ablata= Bailey.
+
+Frequent in the meadows of Paradise Park.
+
+=Carex accedens= Holm.
+
+Paradise Park; Piper, 2550.
+
+=Carex arcta= Boott.
+
+Mount Rainier, 4,000 feet altitude; Allen 271.
+
+=Carex atrata= Linnaeus.
+
+Collected by Allen, August 14, 1895.
+
+=Carex laeviculmis= Meinschausen.
+
+In swamps near the foot of the mountain.
+
+=Carex hepburnii= Boott.
+
+A handsome little plant common at 8,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Carex kelloggii= W. Boott.
+
+Along Paradise River; Piper, 2548.
+
+=Carex rigida= Goodenough.
+
+Allen, 269, and Piper, 2533, are referred here. The last-named
+specimens are from near the foot of Pinnacle Peak.
+
+
+=GRAMINEAE.= (Grass Family.)
+
+=Phleum alpinum= Linnaeus.
+
+The "mountain timothy" is of frequent occurrence at 5,000 to 6,000
+feet altitude.
+
+=Agrostis geminata= Trinius.
+
+Collected by Allen, in 1894.
+
+=Agrostis aequivalvis= Trinius.
+
+The plant referred here is common on the banks of the Paradise River
+up to 5,000 feet.
+
+=Agrostis rossae= Vasey.
+
+Slopes at 6,000 feet elevation; common.
+
+=Agrostis humilis= Vasey.
+
+Abundant in springy places at 8,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Calamagrostis vaseyi= Beal.
+
+Goat Mountains, Allen, and common on the rocky ridges north of Cowlitz
+Glacier.
+
+=Calamagrostis scabra= Presl.
+
+Not rare at 5,500 feet elevation; near Sluiskin Falls, Piper; Tatoosh
+Mountains, Allen.
+
+=Deschampsia atropurpurea= (Wahlenberg) Scheele.
+
+Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Danthonia intermedia= Vasey.
+
+Common at about 5,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Trisetum cernuum= Trinius.
+
+Moist places up to 5,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Trisetum spicatum= (Linnaeus) Richter.
+
+Rare on the ridge near Camp of the Clouds.
+
+=Cinna latifolia= (Treviranus) Grisebach.
+
+Common in wet ground about Longmire Springs.
+
+=Poa arctica= R. Brown.
+
+A grass doubtfully referred to this species is common at 5,500 feet
+elevation.
+
+=Poa paddensis= Williams.
+
+One of the most frequent grasses at 5,000 to 6,000 feet.
+
+=Poa saxatilis= Scribner & Williams.
+
+On rock cliffs at 6,000 feet. The type of this species is Piper No.
+1964, from above Camp of the Clouds.
+
+=Poa suksdorfii= Vasey.
+
+Rather rare in the pumice at 9,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Poa lettermani= Vasey.
+
+On the slopes near Camp Muir, growing with the preceding.
+
+=Festuca viridula= Vasey.
+
+The finest grass on the slopes. Abundant at 5,000 feet elevation.
+
+=Festuca ovina supina= (Schur) Hackel.
+
+In the pumice fields at 8,000 feet altitude.
+
+=Festuca subulata= Trinius.
+
+Longmire Springs, in moist places.
+
+=Bromus marginatus= Nees.
+
+A species doubtfully referred here was collected on the mountains in
+1890 by Rev. E. C. Smith. No specimens of it are now in our
+possession.
+
+=Sitanion rigidum= J. G. Smith.
+
+Pumice fields at 8,000 feet.
+
+=Sitanion glabrum= J. G. Smith.
+
+Common on the rocky ridges north of Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Sitanion rubescens= Piper.
+
+Dry slopes on the south side of the mountain.
+
+
+=SPARGANIACEAE.= (Bur-reed Family.)
+
+=Sparganium minimum= Fries.
+
+Collected in 1890 by Rev. E. C. Smith, in one of the small lakes near
+the base of Pinnacle Peak.
+
+
+=TAXACEAE.= (Yew Family.)
+
+=Taxus brevifolia= Nuttall. Western Yew.
+
+The yew is not uncommon along the trail from Longmire Springs to
+Paradise Park. It does not ascend much above 3,000 feet elevation.
+
+
+=PINACEAE.= (Pine Family.)
+
+=Juniperus sibirica= Burgsdorff. Mountain Juniper.
+
+The alpine juniper occurs on the banks of the Nisqually, near Longmire
+Springs, and is common on the rocks up to 7,500 feet elevation.
+
+=Chamaecyparis nootkatensis= (Lambert) Spach. Alaska Cedar.
+
+The Alaska cedar ranges on the mountain slopes from 3,500 feet up to
+6,000 feet altitude. It is far more abundant on the north side of the
+peak than on the south. Few, if any, specimens exceed four feet in
+diameter, and where the trees are most abundant the trunks are only
+one or two feet through.
+
+=Abies grandis= Lindley. White Fir.
+
+Some trees, without cones, which were observed on the trail above
+Longmire Springs, are doubtfully referred here. They are more likely
+to belong to the following species.
+
+=Abies amabilis= (Douglas) Forbes. Lovely Fir.
+
+The Lovely fir is abundant at from 2,500 to 3,500 feet elevation. It
+is usually but a small tree, with beautifully symmetrical form. Except
+when fruiting, it is difficult to distinguish from the lowland white
+fir.
+
+=Abies nobilis= Lindley. Noble Fir.
+
+The finest of all the firs, frequently four to six feet in diameter,
+without a single branch for a hundred feet or more. Easily known by
+the deep red color of the bark when chopped into, and by the large
+cones, covered with reflexed bracts. Abundant at 4,000 to 5,000 feet.
+
+=Abies lasiocarpa= (Hooker) Nuttall. Subalpine Fir.
+
+This is the primly conical little fir so common in Paradise Park. It
+rarely occurs below 4,500 feet elevation. Its dark purple pubescent
+cones, only two or three inches long, readily distinguish it from the
+preceding species.
+
+=Pseudotsuga mucronata= (Rafinesque) Sudworth. Douglas Spruce.
+
+The Douglas spruce is common up to 3,500 feet elevation. There is a
+marked tendency of the cones to be relatively shorter and thicker at
+this altitude, but otherwise the tree shows little variation from its
+lowland typical form.
+
+=Tsuga heterophylla= Rafinesque. Western Hemlock.
+
+The Western hemlock is abundant at 3,000 feet altitude, but usually
+much smaller than when growing near the sea level.
+
+=Tsuga mertensiana= (Bongard) Carriere. Black Hemlock.
+
+The Black hemlock is frequent from 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. On
+the higher slopes it commonly forms clumps with the Subalpine fir.
+When this is the case, the irregular form and dark foliage of the
+hemlock, usually festooned with lichens, form a pleasing contrast to
+the conical form and lighter foliage of the fir.
+
+=Pinus albicaulis= Engelmann. White-bark Pine.
+
+This white-barked nut pine is abundant on the high ridge north of the
+Cowlitz Glacier. It also occurs above Camp of the Clouds. It rarely
+fruits, and when it does the cones, with their sweet edible seeds, are
+quickly torn to pieces by Clark's crow. The trunk and branches are
+frequently adorned with the bright yellow lichen, _Evernia vulpina_.
+
+=Pinus monticola= Douglas. Western White Pine.
+
+Not uncommon at low elevations. The narrow cones, six to twelve inches
+long, are characteristic.
+
+=Pinus contorta= Douglas. Lodgepole Pine.
+
+Reported by Mr. Gorman "on the moraines of the Nisqually."
+
+=Picea engelmanni= Parry. Engelmann Spruce.
+
+Rather a rare tree about Mount Rainier, at 3,500 feet elevation. In
+the Sitka or Tideland spruce the leaves are decidedly flattened; in
+the Engelmann spruce they are nearly square in cross section.
+
+
+=ISOETACEAE.= (Quillwort Family.)
+
+=Isoetes echinospora braunii= Engelmann.
+
+Common in the small lakes near the foot of Pinnacle Peak.
+
+
+=LYCOPODIACEAE.= (Club-moss Family.)
+
+=Lycopodium annotinum= Linnaeus.
+
+A large patch of this handsome species occurs at the point where the
+trail first crosses Paradise River above Longmire Springs.
+
+=Lycopodium sitchense= Ruprecht.
+
+Common on the meadows at 4,000 feet elevation.
+
+
+=EQUISETACEAE.= (Horsetail Family.)
+
+=Equisetum limosum= Linnaeus.
+
+This species occurs in the bog on top of the ridge above the foot of
+Nisqually Glacier. The old trail to the park led through this bog.
+
+=Equisetum arvense= Linnaeus.
+
+Sterile fronds of this plant were observed at Longmire Springs.
+
+=Equisetum robustum= A. Braun.
+
+Common in damp places up to 3,000 feet elevation. Readily eaten by
+cayuses.
+
+
+=POLYPODIACEAE.= (Fern Family.)
+
+=Polypodium hesperium= Maxon.
+
+Not rare in rock crevices on the cliffs overlooking the lakes at the
+foot of Pinnacle Peak.
+
+=Phegopteris dryopteris= (Linnaeus) Fee.
+
+The pretty "oak-fern" is abundant along the trail above Longmire's, in
+deep woods.
+
+=Phegopteris alpestris= (Hoppe) Mettenius.
+
+Forming crown-like tufts in the talus at the foot of cliffs in
+Paradise Park.
+
+=Dryopteris spinulosa dilatata= (Hoffman) Underwood.
+
+The common wood-fern is frequent in the forests at 3,000 feet
+altitude.
+
+=Polystichum lonchitis= (Linnaeus) Roth.
+
+Specimens of this species are in my possession from Mount Rainier, but
+the exact place of collection has passed my recollection. Presumably
+it was found in or near Paradise Park.
+
+=Filix fragilis= (Linnaeus) Underwood.
+
+Diminutive specimens of this fern were collected on the cliffs at
+8,000 feet altitude. Rev. E. C. Smith found much finer examples at a
+lower elevation.
+
+=Cryptogramma acrostichoides= R. Brown.
+
+Common in the coarse gravel on the bars of the Nisqually, occurring
+even at the foot of the glacier.
+
+
+=OPHIOGLOSSACEAE.= (Adder's Tongue Family.)
+
+=Botrychium lunaria= (Linnaeus) Swartz.
+
+Specimens were collected by Rev. E. C. Smith on the north side of the
+mountain in 1888.
+
+=Botrychium lanceolatum= (S. G. Gmelin) Angstroem.
+
+Longmire Springs, Allen, not otherwise known on the Pacific Coast.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[27] Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, Vol. XXVI, 1883, pp. 222-235.
+
+[28] Neues Jahrbuch für Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226.
+
+[29] Observed by Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p.
+612.
+
+[30] Hague and Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 225.
+
+[31] Oebbeke, _op. cit._, p. 226.
+
+[32] Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 276.
+
+[33] Emmons, Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1877, No. 4, p. 45.
+
+
+
+
+XVII. CREATION OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK
+
+MEMORIAL BY SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES
+
+
+     A surprisingly wide interest was awakened by the proposal to
+     create a national park to include the great mass of Mount
+     Rainier and its immediate surroundings. Five societies
+     appointed committees to coöperate in securing the needed
+     legislation from Congress. Those committees prepared a
+     memorial. The Senate Miscellaneous Document, number 247,
+     Fifty-third Congress, second session, shows that the memorial
+     was introduced on July 16, 1894, by Senator Watson C. Squire
+     from the State of Washington. The memorial was deemed of
+     sufficient importance to be republished in the Eighteenth
+     Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey for
+     1896-1897. It is here reproduced from that publication.
+
+     With all the interest thus manifested, it required nearly
+     five years from the introduction of the memorial to witness
+     the achievement of its purpose. The act of Congress creating
+     the Mount Rainier National Park bears the date of March 2,
+     1899.
+
+
+    _To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
+    States of America in Congress assembled:_
+
+At a meeting of the Geological Society of America, in Madison, Wis.,
+August 15, 1893, a committee was appointed for the purpose of
+memorializing the Congress in relation to the establishment of a
+national park in the State of Washington to include Mount Rainier,
+often called Mount Tacoma. The committee consists of Dr. David T. Day,
+Mr. S. F. Emmons, and Mr. Bailey Willis.
+
+At a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of
+Science, in Madison, Wis., August 21, 1893, a committee was appointed
+by that body for the same purpose as above mentioned, consisting of
+Maj. J. W. Powell, Prof. Joseph Le Conte, Prof. I. C. Russell, Mr. B.
+E. Fernow, and Dr. C. H. Merriam.
+
+At a meeting of the National Geographic Society, held in Washington,
+D. C., on October 13, 1893, there was appointed a committee for the
+purpose above mentioned, consisting of Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, Hon.
+Watson C. Squire, Mr. John W. Thompson, Miss Mary F. Waite, and Miss
+Eliza R. Scidmore.
+
+At a meeting of the Sierra Club, held in San Francisco December 30,
+1893, a committee for the same purpose was appointed, composed of Mr.
+John Muir, President D. S. Jordan, Mr. R. M. Johnson, Mr. George B.
+Bayley, Mr. P. B. Van Trump.
+
+At a meeting of the Appalachian Mountain Club, held in Boston April
+11, 1894, a similar committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. John
+Ritchie, Jr., Rev. E. C. Smith, Dr. Charles E. Fay.
+
+The committees thus appointed were instructed by the several bodies to
+which they belong to coöperate in the preparation of a memorial to
+Congress, setting forth the substantial reasons for the establishment
+of such park.
+
+Pursuant to their instructions, the committees present the following
+memorial to the Congress, and pray that such action may be taken by
+the honorable Senators and Representatives as will secure to the
+people of the United States the benefits of a national park which
+shall include the area mentioned above. In support of their prayer
+they beg to submit the following statement:
+
+By proclamation of the President, in compliance with the statutes
+provided therefor, a Pacific Forest Reserve has been established in
+the State of Washington, the western portion of which is nearly
+coincident with the tract of land to be included in the national park
+for which your memorialists pray.
+
+The western part of this reserve includes many features of unique
+interest and wonderful grandeur, which fit it peculiarly to be a
+national park, forever set aside for the pleasure and instruction of
+the people. The region is one of such exceptional rainfall and
+snowfall that the preservation of its forests is of unusual importance
+as a protection against floods in the lower valleys; but the scenic
+features, which mark it out for a national park, attract tourists, who
+set fire to the timber. This destruction goes on notwithstanding it is
+a forest reserve, and will continue until protection is afforded by
+adequate supervision of the area, whether as a reserve or park.
+
+The reserve is traversed through the middle from north to south by the
+crest of the Cascade Range, which has an elevation varying from 5,300
+to 6,800 feet. This is the divide between tributaries of Puget Sound,
+flowing west, and those of Yakima River, flowing east. Mount Rainier,
+the isolated volcanic peak, 14,400 feet high, stands 12 miles west of
+the divide, from which it is separated by a deep valley.
+
+The eastern half of the reserve differs from the western in climate,
+in flora, and in fauna, in geographic and geologic features, and in
+aspects of scenery. The eastern slope of the Cascade Range within the
+reserve is a mountainous region, with summits rising to a general
+elevation of 6,500 to 7,600 feet above the sea. It is forest covered
+and presents many attractions to the tourist and hunter; but it is not
+peculiar among the mountain regions of America either for grandeur or
+interest, and it is not an essential part of the area to be set apart
+as a national park.
+
+The western slope of the Cascades within the reserve is short and
+steep as compared with the eastern. Much of it is precipitous,
+particularly opposite Mount Rainier, where its bare walls would appear
+most grand were they not in the shadow of that overpowering peak.
+North and south of Rainier this slope is more gradual and densely
+wooded.
+
+The western half of the Pacific reserve, that portion which it is
+proposed shall be made a national park, is characterized by Mount
+Rainier, whose summit is but 4 miles from the western boundary of the
+reserve and whose glaciers extend beyond its limits.
+
+Mount Tacoma is not simply a volcanic cone, peculiar for its hugeness.
+It was formerly a vast volcanic dome, 30 miles in radius to the north,
+west, and south; but rivers have cut deep canyons, glaciers have
+carved ample amphitheaters back into the mass, and now many serrate
+ridges rising from a few hundred to 10,000 feet above the sea converge
+at that altitude to support the central pyramid, which towers more
+than 4,000 feet above its base.
+
+This grand mountain is not, like Mount Blanc, merely the dominant peak
+of a chain of snow mountains; it is the only snow peak in view, Mount
+St. Helens and Mount Adams being, like it, isolated and many miles
+distant. Rainier is majestic in its isolation, reaching 6,000 to 8,000
+feet above its neighbors. It is superb in its boldness, rising from
+one canyon 11,000 feet in 7 miles. Not only is it the grandest
+mountain in this country, it is one of the grand mountains of the
+world, to be named with St. Elias, Fusiyama, and Ararat, and the most
+superb summits of the Alps. Eminent scientists of England and Germany,
+who, as members of the Alpine Club of Switzerland and travelers of
+wide experience, would naturally be conservative in their judgment,
+have borne witness to the majesty of the scenery about Rainier.
+
+In 1883 Professor Zittel, a well-known German geologist, and Prof.
+James Bryce, member of Parliament and author of the American
+Commonwealth, made a report on the scenery about Mount Rainier. Among
+other things, they said:
+
+"The scenery of Mount Rainier is of rare and varied beauty. The peak
+itself is as noble a mountain as we have ever seen in its lines and
+structure. The glaciers which descend from its snow fields present
+all the characteristic features of those in the Alps, and though less
+extensive than the ice streams of the Mount Blanc or Monta Rosa groups
+are in their crevasses and séracs equally striking and equally worthy
+of close study. We have seen nothing more beautiful in Switzerland or
+Tyrol, in Norway or in the Pyrenees, than the Carbon River glaciers
+and the great Puyallup glaciers; indeed, the ice in the latter is
+unusually pure, and the crevasses unusually fine. The combination of
+ice scenery with woodland scenery of the grandest type is to be found
+nowhere in the Old World, unless it be in the Himalayas, and, so far
+as we know, nowhere else on the American Continent."
+
+These eminent and experienced observers further say:
+
+"We may perhaps be permitted to express a hope that the suggestion
+will at no distant date be made to Congress that Mount Rainier should,
+like the Yosemite Valley and the geyser region of the Upper
+Yellowstone, be reserved by the Federal Government and treated as a
+national park."
+
+But Mount Tacoma is single not merely because it is superbly majestic;
+it is an arctic island in a temperate zone. In a bygone age an arctic
+climate prevailed over the Northwest, and glaciers covered the Cascade
+Range. Arctic animals and arctic plants then lived throughout the
+region. As the climate became milder and glaciers melted, the
+creatures of the cold climate were limited in their geographic range
+to the districts of the shrinking glaciers. On the great peak the
+glaciers linger still. They give to it its greatest beauty. They are
+themselves magnificent, and with them survives a colony of arctic
+animals and plants which can not exist in the temperate climate of the
+less lofty mountains. These arctic forms are as effectually isolated
+as shipwrecked sailors on an island in mid-ocean. There is no refuge
+for them beyond their haunts on ice-bound cliffs. But even there the
+birds and animals are no longer safe from the keen sportsman, and the
+few survivors must soon be exterminated unless protected by the
+Government in a national park.
+
+The area of the Pacific forest reserve includes valuable timber and
+important water supplies. It is said to contain coal, gold, and
+silver.
+
+The timber on the western slope differs from that on the eastern in
+size and density of growth and in kinds of trees. The forests of Puget
+Sound are world-renowned for the magnitude and beauty of their
+hemlocks, cedars, and firs. Their timber constitutes one of the most
+important resources of the State. Nowhere are they more luxuriant than
+on the foothills west and north of Mount Rainier. But their value as
+timber is there subordinate to their value as regulators of floods.
+The Puyallup River, whose lower valley is a rich hop garden, is even
+now subject to floods during the rapid melting of the snow on Mount
+Rainier in the limited area above timber line. In the broader area
+below timber line, but above 3,000 feet in elevation, the depth of
+snow in the winter of 1893 was 9 to 15 feet. Protected by the dense
+canopy of the fir and hemlock trees this snow melts slowly and the
+river is high from March to June. But let the forest be once destroyed
+by fire or by lumbermen and the snows of each winter, melting in early
+spring, will annually overwhelm the Puyallup Valley and transform it
+into a gravelly waste. The same is true of White River and the
+Nisqually.
+
+The forests of the eastern slope, tributary to the Yakima, are of even
+greater importance as water preservers. They constitute a great
+reservoir, holding back the precipitation of the wet season and
+allowing it to filter down when most needed by crops. In the Yakima
+Valley water gives to land its value. Storage of flood waters and
+extensive distribution by canals is necessary. The forests being
+preserved to control the water, the natural storage basins should be
+improved and canals built. For these reasons it is most important
+that no part of the forest reserve should be sacrificed, even though
+the eastern half is not included in the national park.
+
+The boundaries of the proposed national park have been so drawn as to
+exclude from its area all lands upon which coal, gold, or other
+valuable minerals are supposed to occur, and they conform to the
+purpose that the park shall include all features of peculiar scenic
+beauty without encroaching on the interests of miners or settlers.
+
+None save those who can march and camp in the primeval forest can now
+visit Mount Rainier; but it is the wilderness, not the distance, that
+makes it difficult of approach. On the west the distance up the
+Nisqually River from the railroad at Yelm Prairie to the reserve is
+but 40 miles. Though heavily timbered, the valley of the Nisqually
+affords an easy route for a railroad. The Cowlitz Valley also offers a
+line of approach without difficulty by rail, it being about 50 miles
+from the railroad to the reserve.
+
+On the northwest the railroad at Wilkeson is but 23 miles from the
+summit of Mount Rainier, and the glaciers can be reached by riding 25
+miles through the great forest.
+
+On the north the Cascade branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad
+crosses the range, only 13 miles in a direct line and 19 miles along
+the summit from the northern limit of the reserve.
+
+On the east the city of North Yakima is but 62 miles from the summit
+of Mount Rainier.
+
+The proposed park covers a mountain region which lies across the line
+of travel from east to west. The railroad winds northward; the travel
+down the Columbia River turns southward to avoid it. The great current
+of tourists which flows north and south through Portland, Tacoma,
+Seattle, Vancouver, and Alaska passes to the west within sight of
+Mount Rainier, and when the grand old mountain is obscured by clouds
+the travelers linger to see it, or, passing regretfully on their way,
+know that they have missed the finest view of their trip.
+
+When a railroad is built up the Nisqually or Cowlitz Valley to the
+park and connection by stages is assured northward to the Cascade
+branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad and eastward to Yakima, the
+flood of travel will be diverted through the park.
+
+The point which combines accessibility with surroundings of great
+beauty, and which is therefore most appropriate as a hotel site, is
+southeast of Mount Rainier, on one of the spurs of the Tatoosh
+Mountains, near the Cowlitz Valley. To open this region to travel it
+would be sufficient to establish the hotel and its connections down
+the Nisqually or Cowlitz Valley, together with trails to points of
+interest within the park. From the hotel a principal trail would
+extend north to the Emmons and White River glaciers, which would thus
+be easily accessible, and thence the railroad at Wilkeson could
+readily be reached on horseback over the old Northern Pacific trail.
+In the future, stage roads, or possibly a railroad, would be extended
+over the Cowlitz Pass to the eastern slope, North Yakima would be
+reached via the Tieton or Tannum Valley, and Tannum Lake would become
+a favorite resort.
+
+But the highway which would challenge the world for its equal in grand
+scenery would extend from the Cowlitz Pass northward along the crest
+of the range to the Cascade branch. The distance is 50 miles, 31 in
+the park and 19 beyond it to the railroad. Within the reserve the
+summit is open and park-like. On the east is a sea of mountains; on
+the west is a bold descent of 3,000 feet to the valleys of Cowlitz and
+White rivers, beyond which Tacoma rises in overpowering grandeur,
+8,000 feet above the road and only 12 miles distant.
+
+A committee of your memorialists has carefully examined the existing
+maps of the State of Washington with special reference to the
+position of this reserve, and finds that the boundaries of the
+reserve are farther east, in relation to Mount Rainier, than was
+supposed. The western boundary traverses the slope of Mount Rainier
+at altitudes of 7,000 to 9,000 feet, and the glaciers extend several
+miles beyond it. In order to include all of the glacial area and the
+immediately adjacent forest on the west, your memorialists
+respectfully recommend that the western boundary of the park be
+drawn one range west of that of the reserve, viz., at the range line
+between ranges 6 and 7 east of the Willamette meridian. By this
+change no part of the Wilkeson-Carbonado coal field would be
+included in the park.
+
+Your memorialists find, as already stated, that it is not necessary to
+include the eastern slope of the Cascades in the park, and furthermore
+that it is desirable to leave the Natchez Pass on the north and the
+Cowlitz Pass on the south open for the construction of railroads. Your
+memorialists therefore pray that the park be defined by the following
+boundaries: Beginning at the northwest corner of sec. 19, T. 18 N., R.
+7 E. of the Willamette meridian; thence south 24 miles more or less to
+the southwest corner of sec. 18, T. 14 N., R. 7 E.; thence east 27
+miles more or less to the summit of the Cascade Range; thence in a
+northerly direction to a point east of the place of beginning, and
+thence west 26 miles more or less to the place of beginning.
+
+Your memorialists respectfully represent that--
+
+Railroad lines have been surveyed and after the establishment of a
+national park would soon be built to its boundaries. The concessions
+for a hotel, stopping places, and stage routes could be leased and the
+proceeds devoted to the maintenance of the park. The policing of the
+park could be performed from the barracks at Vancouver by details of
+soldiers, who would thus be given useful and healthful employment from
+May to October.
+
+The establishment of a hotel would afford opportunity for a weather
+station, which, in view of the controlling influence exerted by Mount
+Rainier on the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific, would be
+important in relation to local weather predictions.
+
+Your memorialists further represent that this region of marvelous
+beauty is even now being seriously marred by careless camping parties.
+Its valuable forests and rare animals are being injured and will
+certainly be destroyed unless the forest reserve be policed during the
+camping seasons. But efficient protection of the undeveloped
+wilderness is extraordinarily difficult and in this case practically
+impossible.
+
+Therefore, for the preservation of the property of the United States,
+for the protection from floods of the people of Washington in the
+Yakima, Cowlitz, Nisqually, Puyallup, and White River valleys, and for
+the pleasure and education of the nation, your memorialists pray that
+the area above described be declared a national park forever.
+
+For the National Geographic Society:
+
+                              GARDINER G. HUBBARD,
+                              _President._
+
+For the American Association for the Advancement of Science:
+
+                              J. W. POWELL.
+
+For the Geological Society of America:
+
+                              BAILEY WILLIS.
+
+For the Sierra Club:
+
+                              JOHN MUIR.
+
+For the Appalachian Mountain Club:
+
+                              JOHN RITCHIE, JR.
+
+WASHINGTON, D.C., _June 27, 1894_.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII. MOUNT RAINIER IS 14,408 FEET HIGH
+
+BY THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
+
+
+     The United States Geological Survey issued a bulletin for
+     newspaper publication on January 22, 1914, giving the height
+     of the mountain as determined by the most accurate and
+     definitive methods known. That bulletin is here given as it
+     was then issued. At the same time F. E. Matthes, topographer
+     with the Survey, sent additional comment to the Sierra Club
+     of California, by whom it was published in the Sierra
+     Bulletin for January, 1914. This comment is now reproduced by
+     permission of the Sierra Club.
+
+The height of the summit of Mount Rainier, Washington, has been
+determined by the United States Geological Survey to be 14,408 feet
+above mean sea level. This elevation now officially displaces the
+former supposed height of the mountain of 14,363 feet and accords to
+Mount Rainier the distinction of being the second highest mountain
+peak in the United States, Mount Whitney, California, being the
+highest. The correct height of Rainier was determined by a party of
+topographic engineers of the Survey in connection with the mapping of
+the Mount Rainier National Park, which was completed last summer. The
+topographic survey of the park was begun in 1910 by F. E. Matthes,
+continued in 1911 by Mr. Matthes and George R. Davis, and finished in
+1913 by C. H. Birdseye, W. O. Tufts, O. G. Taylor, and S. E. Taylor.
+
+In the mapping of the summit of the mountain a terrific blizzard was
+encountered; in fact, two ascents of the upper portion of the mountain
+were necessary. The first ascent of the upper 5,450 feet was begun at
+5 o'clock A.M., August 16 [1913], and dawn broke with every indication
+of developing into a beautiful day. On reaching the summit the men
+encountered a terrific gale, clouds enveloped the mountain, preventing
+observations, and by noon snow began to fall. A descent was attempted,
+but the party became hopelessly lost in a labyrinth of crevasses, the
+storm developing into a blizzard. To descend further was impossible;
+to remain was suicide. Consequently a return to the crater was
+ordered, and the men reached it after a two hours' climb, utterly
+exhausted and nearly frozen. Here they sought shelter in one of the
+steam caves, where during the long night they were thoroughly steamed
+and half frozen in turn. Strenuous measures were employed by the men
+to keep from falling asleep and freezing to death. As it was, their
+fingers and ears were badly frozen. Finally, with a rising barometer,
+they succeeded in descending 9,000 feet to a temporary camp, making
+the descent in three hours. Here they recuperated and prepared for
+another ascent, which was accomplished on August 20, the start being
+made at 1 o'clock in the morning. Good weather was encountered and the
+mapping of the entire summit was finished by 1 o'clock.
+
+"If anyone thinks that American glaciers are play glaciers, or that
+the weather which may be encountered at the summit of Mount Rainier in
+August is uniformly balmy and springlike," said Mr. Birdseye, whose
+fingers and ears were badly frosted, "let him climb Mount Rainier
+during one of its summer blizzards. The steam caves in the crater are
+not the pleasantest places imaginable to spend the night in, but had
+they not been there, not one of us would be alive today to tell the
+tale."
+
+
+COMMENT BY F. E. MATTHES
+
+The mountaineers of the Pacific Northwest will no doubt jubilate at
+the above announcement by the United States Geological Survey of the
+new figure for the altitude of Mount Rainier. It places that peak
+close to the top of the list of high mountains in the United States.
+Mount Rainier's closest rival on the Pacific coast, Mount Shasta, it
+so happens, has just recently been beheaded by the United States Coast
+and Geodetic Survey, and now can claim no more than 14,162 feet, that
+is, 218 feet less than it once boasted. The great volcano of Puget
+Sound is thus left well in the lead.
+
+A review of the different figures that have been announced in the past
+for each of the higher peaks of the United States would almost justify
+one to infer that these summits have a peculiar habit of fluctuating
+in height from time to time. Both Rainier and Shasta have been
+notorious for their inconstancy; so much so indeed that it is to be
+feared that the public will lose faith somewhat in the trustworthiness
+of altitude determinations in general. There is good reason to
+believe, however, that the last announcements for these two peaks are
+not likely to be changed again. About Mount Shasta, perhaps the Coast
+Survey is the only party able to speak positively; but as regards
+Mount Rainier, the Geological Survey feels satisfied that the new
+figure is the best that can be obtained with modern methods and
+instruments.
+
+The elevation of Mount Whitney (14,501 ft.), it may be remembered, was
+determined by actual leveling, but such procedure would have been
+impossible on Mount Rainier, as the most practicable route to its
+summit leads over many miles of snow and ice, and up a precipitous
+chute several hundred feet in height. On thawing snow accurate
+leveling is out of the question, for the instrument can not be set up
+so firmly that it will not settle slightly between back and fore
+sights. To execute this pottering kind of work in freezing weather
+would entail both hardship and great expense. But the obstacle that
+would have proved entirely insuperable to levels on Mount Rainier and
+led to the abandoning of that method is the dreaded Gibraltar Rock,
+well known to many who read this magazine [Sierra Club Bulletin]. To
+carry levels up its precipitous side is for practical considerations
+all but impossible.
+
+It was necessary, in the case of Mount Rainier, to resort to
+long-distance methods of angulation. That is to say, sights were taken
+to its summit from neighboring peaks, six to eight miles distant, the
+altitudes of which had been carefully determined, and the positions of
+which with respect to the mountain's summit had been computed from a
+scheme of triangulation.
+
+It is not possible to execute vertical-angle measurements of this sort
+with the precision obtainable by leveling; at the same time by
+providing a sufficient number of checks and repeating each measurement
+many times a result can be attained that can be relied on within a
+foot or two. And closer than that the determination of a snowcapped
+peak, such as Mount Rainier, need scarcely be; for its actual height
+is bound to fluctuate by several feet from year to year and even from
+month to month.
+
+It is gratifying to note how closely the new trigonometric
+determination of Mount Rainier accords with the barometric one of
+Prof. Alexander McAdie (14,394 ft.). It is hoped that this agreement
+between the results of two fundamentally different methods will
+strengthen public faith in their reliability, and lead to the
+discarding of other figures (some of them much exaggerated) that have
+appeared in print from time to time.
+
+In closing, it may be said, that the Geological Survey's bulletin
+little more than hints at the fortitude and pluck of Mr. Birdseye and
+his party in their almost disastrous experiences on the peak. Survey
+men are so frequently confronted by peril in their daily work, that
+they are not apt to write or talk about it, and as a consequence the
+public seldom learns the intimate details. It is to be hoped that the
+history of this undertaking will some day appear in full.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: PETER RAINIER.
+  Admiral of the Blue, Royal Navy. ]
+
+XIX. PLACE NAMES AND ELEVATIONS IN MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK
+
+
+     Place names within a region like the Mount Rainier National
+     Park are produced by three causes: The first and most
+     important is the actual need of such names by those who work
+     within the Park and by those who report upon or write about
+     it. The second is the natural desire to honor those
+     individuals whose achievements are worthy of commemoration.
+     The third cause is found in the vanity of visitors. This is
+     sometimes manifested in the harmless and often helpful desire
+     just to be the one to name something, but usually it takes
+     the form of a desire of visitors to write the names of
+     themselves or their friends upon the map.
+
+     The ranger who discovers from a look-out peak a distant fire
+     near some unnamed lake or cliff hastens to a telephone, but
+     finds his work of sending fire fighters to the place of
+     danger much more difficult than if he could use some definite
+     place name. Trail builders and patrols continually find a
+     similar need for names. For their own use they proceed to
+     invent names which often stick. The Mountaineers in 1915
+     found that a trail builder had supplied such a need by giving
+     a beautiful waterfall near his trail the name of his favorite
+     brand of canned peaches. More care of such matters is now
+     being exercised by those interested working through the
+     United States Geographic Board.
+
+     The elevations given are taken from the official map and
+     other Government publications. In time all important heights
+     will be definitely determined and marked.
+
+     It is hoped that this compilation of the names may be
+     improved from year to year. Further facts about any of the
+     names would be welcomed by the editor of this work.
+
+=Ada Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek near the northern
+boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Adelaide Lake.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. Origin
+of name not ascertained.
+
+=Affi Falls.= In Lodi Creek, in the north-central portion of the Park.
+Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Alice Falls.= In Spukwush Creek, in the northwestern portion of the
+Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Alki Crest.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. The name is from
+the Chinook jargon meaning "by and by."
+
+=Allen Lake.= See Lake Allen.
+
+=Alta Vista.= A point near the snow line on the south-central slope.
+It was named by John P. Hartman, who visited the place with a Tacoma
+party in 1889. The name is Spanish and means "high view."
+
+=Anvil Rock.= On the southern slope, near the upper Cowlitz Glacier.
+The name is descriptive, but who suggested it has not been
+ascertained. Elevation, 9,584 feet above sea level.
+
+=Arthur Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
+not ascertained.
+
+=August Peak.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of
+name not ascertained.
+
+=Avalanche Camp.= On the north slope. Named by a member of The
+Mountaineers, during that club's first ascent in 1909. Elevation,
+10,900 feet above sea level.
+
+=Baker Point.= Outjutting portion of Goat Island Mountain, overlooking
+Emmons Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Bald Rock.= On the southeastern slope, near the Cowlitz Divide. The
+name is descriptive.
+
+=Barnes Pass.= On western edge of the Park. Named in honor of the
+photographer, C. A. Barnes, who discovered it while with J. H. Weer
+and J. B. Flett.
+
+=Barrier Peak.= A prolongation of Governors Ridge near the
+east-central boundary of the Park.
+
+=Basaltic Falls.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain. One of
+the features of Cowlitz Park. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett and H. H.
+Garretson.
+
+=Bear Park.= In the northeastern corner of the Park.
+
+=Bee Flat.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, just south of
+Chenuis Mountain.
+
+=Beehive.= Large rock on the southeast slope. It was named by Major E.
+S. Ingraham in 1888, who says: "It reminded me of one of those
+old-fashioned beehives." Elevation, 11,033 feet above sea level.
+
+=Beljica.= An interesting peak near the road leading from Ashford to
+the Park. The name is a composite made up of initials. In July, 1897,
+a party of nine young people visiting the peak provided the name. The
+B was for Burgon D. Mesler, the e for any one of three--Elizabeth
+Drabe, Elizabeth Sharp and Elizabeth Mesler, the l for Lucy K.
+LaWall, the j for Jessie K. LaWall, the i for Isabel Mesler, the c
+for Clara Mesler, and the a for Alexander Mesler.
+
+=Bench Lake.= In the southern portion of the Park. The land lying
+above the lake is called The Bench. Elevation of the lake, 4,500 feet
+above sea level.
+
+=Berkeley Park.= In the north-central portion of the Park, between
+Burroughs and Skyscraper Mountains. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Berry Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park.
+
+=Boulder Creek.= A tributary of Ohanapecosh River, in the park of the
+same name, on the eastern slope of the mountain.
+
+=Boundary Peak.= Appropriately named, as it lies on the southern
+boundary line of the Park.
+
+=Brown Peak.= In the northeastern corner of the Park.
+
+=Buel Peak.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. Origin of
+name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,933 feet above sea level.
+
+=Burnt Park.= In the northeastern corner of the Park.
+
+=Burroughs Mountain.= On the northeast slope. It was named for the
+naturalist and was at first called John Burroughs Mountain.
+
+=Butter Creek.= Flowing from the Tatoosh Range across the southern
+boundary of the Park.
+
+=Camp Curtis.= On the northeast slope. Named by The Mountaineers in
+1909 in honor of Asahel Curtis, leader of that club's first ascent.
+Elevation, 9,000 feet above sea level.
+
+=Camp Delight.= See Camp of the Stars.
+
+=Camp Misery.= On the southern slope of the mountain at the base of
+the Beehive. The name is descriptive. Elevation, 11,033 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=Camp Muir.= On the southeast slope. Named by Major E. S. Ingraham, in
+honor of the naturalist, John Muir, who selected the temporary camping
+place during their ascent in 1888, because the presence of pumice
+indicated a shelter from strong winds. Elevation, 10,062 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=Camp No Camp.= On the southeastern slope, near the summit of the
+mountain. It is in the saddle near the summit of Gibraltar. The name
+indicates a disappointed attempt at rest. Elevation, 12,550 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=Camp of the Clouds.= On the south slope above Paradise Valley. Named
+on August 12, 1886, by Charles E. Kehoe, Charles A. Billings and
+George N. Talcott of Olympia. During their visit there the heavy banks
+of clouds parted and gave them a superb mountain view. Elevation,
+5,947 feet above sea level.
+
+=Camp of the Stars.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, near
+the foot of Gibraltar. It is a narrow shelf of rocks, affording space
+for a dozen climbers when crowded together and "feet hanging over." It
+was used by one of the Ingraham parties, and H. E. Holmes says they at
+first called it Camp Delight on account of their joy at the first rays
+of morning. Elevation, about 12,000 feet above sea level.
+
+=Canyon Bridge.= In the southeastern part of the Park. The Muddy Fork
+of the Cowlitz River rushes through a very narrow and deep rift in the
+rocks. The spanning bridge gives an attractive view.
+
+=Carbon Glacier.= This glacier begins at the foot of Willis Wall on
+the north face of the mountain.
+
+=Carbon River.= About 1876 coal was discovered on the banks of this
+river suggesting the name, which was also later given to the glacier
+from which the river has its source.
+
+=Carter Falls.= One of the beautiful features of the lower Paradise
+River. Named for an early guide who built the first trail to Paradise
+Valley. For years the Longmires collected a fee of fifty cents from
+each one using the trail. It was willingly paid when it was explained
+that the money went to the builder of the trail.
+
+=Castle Rock.= In the northwestern portion of the Park. Named from its
+resemblance to an old castle. Elevation, 6,116 feet above sea level.
+
+=Cataract Basin.= See Mist Park.
+
+=Cataract Creek.= Flows from Mist Park to the Carbon River in the
+northwestern portion of the Park. About midway in its course are the
+beautiful Cataract Falls.
+
+=Cathedral Rocks.= Extending southeast from the summit. It is an
+extensive cleaver between the upper Cowlitz and Ingraham Glaciers. Who
+first suggested the name has not been ascertained. Elevation, 8,262
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Chenuis Mountain.= An extensive ridge near the northern boundary of
+the Park. On the shoulders of the mountain rest three little lakes
+called Chenuis Lakes. From the northern slopes of the mountain there
+rises Chenuis Creek, which, near its junction with the Carbon River at
+the northwestern boundary of the Park, produces the beautiful Chenuis
+Falls. The name seems to be Indian, but its origin has not been
+ascertained. Elevation of the ridge, from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=Christine Falls.= On the lower portion of Van Trump creek. Mr. Van
+Trump says the falls "were named after my daughter, Christine Louise,
+by a friend John Hayes, of Yelm." Elevation, 3,667 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=Cliff Lake.= In the south-central portion of the Park, between the
+Tatoosh Range and the boundary.
+
+=Clover Lakes.= In White River Park, in the northwestern part of the
+Park.
+
+=Cold Basin.= In the northern portion of the Park, just south of Grand
+Park.
+
+=Colonnade.= The ridge lying between the South Mowich and the Puyallup
+Glaciers on the west-central slope of the mountain.
+
+=Columbia Crest.= Name suggested by H. E. Holmes of the Ingraham party
+in 1891. They had spent two nights in the crater and before leaving
+voted on a name for the highest part of the summit, with Columbia
+Crest as the result. It has occasionally been called The Dome. By
+Stevens and Van Trump it was called Crater Peak. Elevation, 14,408
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Comet Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in Van Trump
+Park. Elevation, 5,200 feet above sea level.
+
+=Cougar Falls.= Near the southern boundary of the Park, in the Nickel
+Creek tributary of the Cowlitz River.
+
+=Cowlitz Chimneys.= Pointed and columnar rocks on the east-central
+slope. Though not adjacent to the glacier or river of that name, they
+undoubtedly got their name from one or the other. Elevation 7,607 feet
+above sea level.
+
+=Cowlitz Cleaver.= Near the southern peak of the summit. It is
+appropriately named, as it cleaves the higher streams of ice part of
+which flow into Puget Sound and the rest into the Columbia River.
+
+=Cowlitz Divide.= A ridge running from north to south in the
+southeastern corner of the Park.
+
+=Cowlitz Glacier.= Named by General Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump
+in 1870 when they discovered it to be the source of the river by that
+name. It has its beginning from a group of smaller glaciers on the
+southeast slope of the mountain. Above the glaciers lies Cowlitz Park.
+
+=Cowlitz River.= The name appears as early as the Lewis and Clark
+reports, 1805-1806, where it is spelled Coweliskee. In varying forms
+it appears in the writings of all subsequent explorers. A tribe of
+Indians by that name inhabited its valleys. The river finally flows
+southward into the Columbia River.
+
+=Cowlitz Rocks.= A mass of rocks on the southeast slope, between the
+Paradise and Cowlitz Glaciers. The rocks were named in 1907 by the
+veteran guide, Jules Stampfler, who found a name necessary to satisfy
+the curiosity of his companies of tourists. Elevation, 7,457 feet
+above sea level.
+
+=Crater Lake.= On the northwest slope. Bailey Willis gave the name in
+1883. He recently wrote: "The amphitheatres which the young geologist
+mistook for craters are now known to be glacier basins eroded by
+ice." Elevation, 4,929 feet above sea level.
+
+=Crater Peak.= See Columbia Crest.
+
+=Crescent Mountain.= On the northern slope. The name was used by
+Bailey Willis in 1883. Near the foot of this mountain lies Crescent
+Lake.
+
+=Cress Falls.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, near Spukwush
+Creek.
+
+=Crystal Mountain.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain,
+overlooking Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. Elevation, 6,300 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=Cushman Crest.= On the southern slope, overlooking Nisqually Glacier.
+Named in honor of the late Congressman F. W. Cushman, of Tacoma.
+
+=Dege Peak.= Overlooking Yakima Park in the northern part of the Park.
+Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Denman Falls.= On the western slope, in St. Andrews Creek. Named by
+Ben Longmire in honor of A. H. Denman of Tacoma, enthusiastic
+mountaineer and photographer.
+
+=Devils Dream Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, a
+tributary of Pyramid Creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Dick Creek.= Flowing from Elysian Fields to the Carbon River in the
+northwestern portion of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Division Rock.= At the lower end of North Mowich Glacier, on the
+northwestern slope of the mountain.
+
+=Doe Creek.= A tributary of Ipsut Creek in the northwestern portion of
+the Park.
+
+=Double Peak.= Near the southeastern boundary of the Park. The height
+is marked at 6,200 feet. The name was suggested by its form.
+
+=Eagle Cliff.= Overlooking Spray Creek in the northwestern portion of
+the Park.
+
+=Eagle Peak.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. Elevation,
+5,955 feet above sea level.
+
+=Echo Cliffs.= In the northwestern portion of the Park above Cataract
+Creek.
+
+=Echo Rock.= On the northwest slope near Russell Glacier. Major E. S.
+Ingraham named it Seattle Rock because it may be seen from that city.
+He does not know who changed the name.
+
+=Edith Creek.= On the southern slope, a tributary of the Paradise
+River. In 1907, Jules Stampfler, the guide, was getting out a series
+of stereopticon views and he needed a name for that creek. He does not
+remember Edith's full name. She was a member of one of his parties.
+
+=Edmunds Glacier.= On the western slope. In June, 1883, the glaciers
+were visited by Vice President Oakes of the Northern Pacific Railroad
+Company and United States Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont. One
+result of that trip was an order to build what has since been known as
+the Bailey Willis trail to the northwestern slopes of the mountain.
+Another subsequent result was the naming of the glacier in honor of
+Senator Edmunds.
+
+=Elizabeth Ridge.= Near Crater Lake in the northwestern corner of the
+Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Elysian Fields.= One of the beautiful park regions on the northern
+slope. The name was given by Major E. S. Ingraham in 1888. Elevation,
+5,700 feet above sea level.
+
+=Emerald Ridge.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, dividing
+the lower parts of the Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers. The name is
+descriptive, but by whom it was first suggested has not been
+ascertained.
+
+=Emmons Glacier.= On the northeastern slope. This is the largest
+glacier on the mountain. For a long time it was called White Glacier
+because it gave rise to the river of that name. The river's name came
+from the glacial whiteness of its waters. The present name is in honor
+of S. F. Emmons, who, with A. D. Wilson, made the second successful
+ascent of the mountain in 1870.
+
+=Eunice Lake.= In the northwest corner of the Park near Tolmie Peak.
+Bailey Willis named it Tolmie Lake in 1883; but it was not so mapped
+officially, and the name was changed to honor Mrs. W. H. Gilstrap of
+Tacoma. She and her husband were frequent visitors to the Crater Lake
+region.
+
+=Fairy Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in the upper waters of
+Stevens Creek. Elevation, 5,500 feet above sea level.
+
+=Falls Creek.= Rises in North Park and flows across the boundary at
+the northwestern corner of the Park.
+
+=Fay Peak.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking
+Crater Lake. Elevation, 6,500 feet above sea level. The name was given
+in honor of Miss Fay Fuller of Tacoma, who in 1890 was the first of
+her sex to attain the summit of Mount Rainier.
+
+=Fir Lake.= A small lake in the southeastern corner of the Park.
+
+=Fish Creek.= A tributary of Tahoma Creek in the southwestern corner
+of the Park.
+
+=Fishers Hornpipe Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, a
+tributary of Pyramid creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Flett Glacier.= Near Ptarmigan Ridge on the northwestern slope. The
+name is in honor of Professor J. B. Flett of Tacoma, one of the most
+enthusiastic explorers of the mountain.
+
+=Florence Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of
+name not ascertained.
+
+=Frog Heaven.= On the south-central slope of the mountain, to the west
+of Narada Falls.
+
+=Frozen Lake.= In the northern portion of the Park, just south of
+Mount Fremont.
+
+=Fryingpan Glacier.= There are two conflicting theories about this
+name. One is that some campers lost a frying pan in the river, giving
+it that name, which was later extended to the glacier. The other is
+that Professor I. C. Russell named the glacier from its fancied
+resemblance to a frying pan, and that the name was later extended to
+the river. On the east-central slope of the mountain.
+
+=Garda Falls.= In Granite Creek, a tributary of Winthrop Creek, in the
+north-central portion of the Park. Named by C. A. Barnes in honor of
+Miss Garda Fogg of Tacoma.
+
+=George Lake.= See Lake George.
+
+=Gibraltar.= This famous and forbidding cliff of rock just southeast
+of the summit was named by the Ingraham party in 1889. Elevation,
+12,679 feet above sea level.
+
+=Glacier Basin.= On the northern slope of the mountain. It is a rather
+steep but attractive little park, with a small lake and good spring
+water. Inter Glacier is at its head and Inter Fork passes through it.
+Miners at Starbo Camp maintain a little waterpower sawmill, and they
+have for years worked at prospective mines on the slopes of the Basin.
+They have built a wagon road to their camp, by use of which tourists
+will soon become well acquainted with the beauties of Glacier Basin
+and the surrounding regions. Elevation, 6,000 feet above sea level.
+
+=Glacier Island.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain. The name
+is descriptive, as the island lies between the lower parts of Tahoma
+and South Tahoma Glaciers.
+
+=Goat Island Mountain.= On the northeastern slope of the mountain,
+between Emmons Glacier and Summer Land.
+
+=Goat Island Rock.= In the lower portion of Carbon Glacier, in the
+northwestern portion of the Park.
+
+=Golden Lakes.= A cluster of beautiful lakes in and near Sunset Park,
+close to the west-central boundary of the Park. At sundown they glow
+like molten gold.
+
+=Gove Peak.= In the northwestern portion of the Park. Origin of name
+not ascertained.
+
+=Governors Ridge.= Toward the east-central boundary of the Park. The
+name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen of the Park.
+
+=Grand Park.= A high and extensive area in the northern portion of the
+Park. The miles of relatively level ground, flower-strewn and
+ornamented with circular groves of alpine firs and hemlocks, with
+deer abundant every summer, make the name an appropriate one.
+Elevation, 5,700 feet above sea level.
+
+=Granite Creek.= In the north-central portion of the Park. It is a
+tributary of Winthrop Creek.
+
+=Grant Creek.= A tributary to Spray Creek in the northwestern portion
+of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Green Lake.= In the northwestern corner of the Park.
+
+=Green Park.= North of Sourdough Mountains, in the northeastern part
+of the Park.
+
+=Hall's Camp.= See Wigwam Camp.
+
+=Hayden Creek.= A tributary of Meadow Creek in the northwestern corner
+of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Henrys Hunting Ground.= See Indian Henrys Hunting Ground.
+
+=Hessong Rock.= On the northwest slope overlooking Spray Park. It was
+named in honor of a photographer who lived at Lake Kapowsin.
+
+=Hidden Lake.= Near White River Park, in the northeastern part of the
+Park.
+
+=Howard Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
+not ascertained.
+
+=Huckleberry Creek.= Takes its rise in the Sourdough Mountains and
+flows northward across the boundary of the Park.
+
+=Huckleberry Park.= At the headwaters of Huckleberry Creek in the
+northeastern part of the Park.
+
+=Independence Ridge.= Extending from Chenuis Mountain to the northern
+boundary of the Park.
+
+=Indian Bar.= A large gravel bar in Ohanapecosh Park on the eastern
+slope of the mountain.
+
+=Indian Henrys Hunting Ground.= About 1870, a Cowlitz Indian began
+hunting mountain goats in that region. Henry Winsor, a pioneer mail
+carrier, asked his name and got an unpronounceable answer. "That's no
+name," said Winsor, "your name is Indian Henry." His playful joke
+stuck. On the map the word "Indian" is omitted, but the United States
+Geographic Board has voted to restore it. P. B. Van Trump said the
+Indian's name was Sotolick.
+
+=Ingraham Glacier.= This beautiful glacier lies between Cathedral
+Rocks and Little Tahoma on the southeast slope. It was named by
+Professor I. C. Russell in 1896 in honor of Major E. S. Ingraham of
+Seattle.
+
+=Inter Glacier.= On the northeast slope. It was named by Major E. S.
+Ingraham in 1886 when he attempted but failed to ascend the mountain
+from the north side. The name was suggested by the glacier being
+hemmed in by a rim of rocks.
+
+=Ipsut Pass.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Flowing from it
+to the Carbon River is a stream called Ipsut Creek. The word is said
+to be a form of an Indian word meaning "bear."
+
+=Iron Mountain.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain,
+overlooking Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. The name describes the
+masses of supposed iron stain. Elevation, 6,200 feet above sea level.
+
+=Jeanette Heights.= On the west-central slope overlooking Edmunds
+Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Josephine Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek, taking its rise
+in Green Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=June Creek.= Flows across the boundary in the northwestern corner of
+the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Kautz Glacier.= This glacier begins at the foot of Peak Success, the
+southern summit. It was named in honor of Lieutenant (afterwards
+General) A. V. Kautz, who attempted an ascent in 1857. The creek
+flowing from the glacier bears the same name.
+
+=Klapatche Ridge.= Near the west-central boundary of the Park, between
+the North Puyallup River and St. Andrews Creek. Origin of name not
+ascertained.
+
+=Knapsack Pass.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, a pass
+between Fay Peak and Mother Mountain from Mist Park to Crater Lake.
+
+=Kotsuck Creek.= Flows across the east-central boundary of the Park.
+Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Lake Allen.= On the west slope of Mount Wow in the southwestern
+corner of the Park. To avoid confusion, it was originally named Lake
+O. D. Allen. The name was given in honor of the veteran botanist, who
+was at one time a professor at Yale University.
+
+=Lake Eleanor.= Near the northern boundary of the Park. Origin of name
+not ascertained.
+
+=Lake Ethel.= In the north-central portion of the Park, with outlet
+into the West Fork of White River. The name was suggested by The
+Mountaineers in 1912 as a compliment to the daughter of Park Ranger
+Thomas E. O'Farrell.
+
+=Lake George.= On the western slope of Mount Wow in the southwestern
+corner of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Lake James.= In the north-central portion of the Park, with outlet
+into Van Horn Creek. The name was suggested by The Mountaineers in
+1912 as a compliment to the young son of Thomas E. O'Farrell, Park
+Ranger.
+
+=Lake Tom.= A small lake near Arthur Peak in the northwestern corner
+of the Park.
+
+=Landslide.= On the northwest of Slide Mountain, in the northeastern
+corner of the Park.
+
+=Lee Creek.= A tributary of Crater Creek in the northwestern portion
+of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Liberty Cap.= The northern peak of the summit of Mount Rainier. It
+has been claimed that Stevens and Van Trump gave this name at the time
+of their first ascent in 1870, but Mr. Van Trump says they called it
+Tahoma Peak. One of the early uses of the present name was by Bailey
+Willis, who wrote in 1883: "Over the trees near the outlet, just to
+the right of this pinnacle, a pure white peak towers up into the
+heavens; it is the northern summit of Mount Tacoma,--the Liberty Cap."
+Elevation, 14,112 feet above sea level.
+
+=Liberty Ridge.= To the west of Willis Wall and overlooking the head
+of Carbon Glacier near the northern summit. The name was adopted in
+1914 by the engineers of the United States Geological Survey who made
+the official map of the Park. It was suggested by John H. Williams,
+author of the book entitled "The Mountain That Was God."
+
+=Little Tahoma Peak.= A towering and rugged peak on the east flank of
+Mount Rainier. Very few adventuresome climbers have as yet attained
+its summit. Elevation, 11,117 feet above sea level. The only ascent
+known was made by Prof. J. B. Flett and H. H. Garretson.
+
+=Lodi Creek.= A tributary of White River, in the north-central portion
+of the Park. The name is said to have been given by early prospectors
+for minerals.
+
+=Longmire Springs.= Near the southeastern boundary of the Park. The
+springs were discovered by the pioneer, James Longmire, who acquired
+title to the property and lived there until his death on September 17,
+1897. Members of his family still maintain a resort there. The
+National Park Inn, a postoffice, Park offices, and other conveniences
+make Longmire the capital of the Park. Elevation, 2,761 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=Lost Creek.= Flows across the northeastern boundary of the Park.
+
+=Louise Lake.= In the south-central portion of the Park between Mazama
+Ridge and Tatoosh Range. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=McClure Rock.= On the southeastern slope near Paradise Glacier. It
+marks the place of the tragic death of Professor Edgar McClure, of the
+University of Oregon, in 1897, while descending after taking
+barometric measurements at the summit. Elevation, 7,384 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=McNealey Peak.= A part of Sourdough Mountains in the northern part of
+the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Madcap Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in the Paradise
+River between Narada Falls and Carter Falls.
+
+=Maple Falls.= In a creek of the same name, near the southern boundary
+of the Park. The creek is a tributary of Stevens Creek.
+
+=Marcus Peak.= A part of Sourdough Mountains in the northeastern part
+of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Margaret Falls.= On the southeast slope, between Cowlitz Park and
+Cowlitz Glacier. The name was in honor of one of the daughters of E.
+S. Hall, former Superintendent of the Park.
+
+=Marie Falls.= On the southeast slope, in the upper waters of Nickel
+Creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Marjorie Lakes.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. Origin
+of name not ascertained.
+
+=Marmot Creek.= A tributary of Cataract Creek, draining Seattle Park,
+in the northwestern portion of the Park. The name is for the whistling
+marmot, so plentiful in that region.
+
+=Marsh Lakes.= In the southern part of the Park.
+
+=Martha Falls.= On the southeast slope. The falls were named in honor
+of the wife of the late Elcaine Longmire, by Ben Longmire, the son.
+
+=Martin Peak.= On the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of
+name not ascertained.
+
+=Mary Belle Falls.= On the southeast slope in the upper waters of
+Nickel Creek. The name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in
+honor of one of the daughters of E. S. Hall, former Superintendent of
+the Park.
+
+=Mazama Ridge.= On the southern slope of the mountain, beginning at
+Sluiskin Falls. Named for the Oregon mountain climbing club whose main
+camp was pitched there in 1905.
+
+=Meadow Creek.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. It rises
+near Tolmie Peak and was named by Bailey Willis in 1883.
+
+=Mildred Point.= On the southwest slope, overlooking the foot of Kautz
+Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Mineral Mountain.= On the north-central slope of the mountain,
+overlooking Mystic Lake. The name tells the hopes of early prospectors
+who worked there before the National Park was created.
+
+=Mirror Lakes.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, in Indian
+Henrys Hunting Ground.
+
+=Mist Park.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, on the shoulders
+of Mother Mountain. Elevation, 6,000 feet above sea level. This park
+is also known as Cataract Basin.
+
+=Moraine Park.= On the northern slope, bordering Carbon Glacier. It
+was named by Professor I. C. Russell.
+
+=Mosquito Flat.= In the north-central portion of the Park, near Lakes
+James and Ethel. The name indicates that the place was first visited
+at an unfortunate season. Elevation, 4,400 feet above sea level.
+
+=Mother Mountain.= An extensive ridge in the northwestern portion of
+the Park. The name came from the figure of a woman in the rock on the
+northeastern summit of the ridge clearly seen silhouetted against the
+sky by those traveling on the Carbon River trail. Elevation, 6,540
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Mount Ararat.= On the southwest slope, overlooking Indian Henrys
+Hunting Ground. Ben Longmire writes: "I named it because I found there
+some long slabs of wood that had turned to stone and I thought they
+might have been part of old Noah's boat. I also found a stump with a
+ring around it as if his rope might have been tied there. It was all
+stone." Elevation, 5,996 feet above sea level.
+
+=Mount Fremont.= In the northern portion of the Park at the western
+extremity of Sourdough Mountains. The origin of the name has not been
+ascertained. Elevation, 7,300 feet above sea level.
+
+=Mount Pleasant.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking
+Mist and Spray Parks.
+
+=Mount Rainier.= Named for Admiral Peter Rainier of the British Navy
+by Captain George Vancouver in 1792. For his own account of the
+discovery and naming of the mountain, see Chapter I of this book.
+Elevation, 14,408 feet above sea level.
+
+=Mount Ruth.= On the northeastern slope of the mountain, overlooking
+the Inter and Emmons Glaciers. The name was given in honor of Ruth
+Knapp, daughter of the prospector who built "Knapp's Cabin," a
+landmark for tourists in the Glacier Basin region. Elevation, 8,700
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Mount Wow.= In the southwestern corner of the Park. It is sometimes
+called Goat Mountain. Elevation, 6,045 feet above sea level.
+
+=Mountain Meadows.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. The name
+originated with Bailey Willis in 1883. Elevation, 4,000 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=Mowich Glaciers.= On the western and northwestern slopes of the
+mountain are two beautiful glaciers known as North and South Mowich.
+The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning "deer." Who first
+suggested the name has not been ascertained. Each glacier has its
+draining stream. These flow together, making Mowich River, which
+crosses the northwestern boundary of the Park. North Mowich was once
+called Willis Glacier and South Mowich was called Edmunds Glacier.
+
+=Muddy Fork.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain. One of
+several sources of the Cowlitz River, it drains from the foot of the
+large Cowlitz Glacier.
+
+=Myrtle Falls.= On the southern slope in Edith Creek, a tributary of
+the Paradise River. The name was given by Jules Stampfler, the guide,
+in 1907. Myrtle was a member of one of his parties, but he has
+forgotten the rest of her name.
+
+=Mystic Lake.= On the northern slope of the mountain, between the
+Winthrop and Carbon Glaciers. It is a favorite place for campers who
+expect to attempt the ascent of the mountain on its northern slopes.
+Elevation, 5,750 feet above sea level. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett and
+H. H. Garretson on account of a mysterious temporary whirlpool seen
+near its outlet.
+
+=Nahunta Falls.= On the south slope. At one time the falls had the
+name Marie, but it was changed at the suggestion of Secretary Josephus
+Daniels of the United States Navy Department. He says: "The name was
+familiar to me as one given by the Carolina Tuscarora to a river in
+North Carolina and also to their largest fort or 'head town.'"
+Secretary Daniels obtained from the Bureau of American Ethnology
+information that the name has appeared under various spellings and may
+mean "tall trees" or "tall timbers."
+
+=Narada Falls.= On the south-central slope, the principal feature of
+the lower Paradise River. An effort was recently made to change the
+name to Cushman Falls in honor of the late Congressman F. W. Cushman,
+a strong friend of the Park. The present name is of Theosophical
+origin. Narada was a spiritual being worshipped by the Brahman people
+in India by reason of his service to the first race of men. Among
+modern Theosophists the word has become a metaphysical subject, the
+greater part of which is given to esoteric students and cannot be
+revealed. The word itself means "uncontaminated." The wonderful beauty
+of the scene, in its pure and original form, suggested the name to an
+early group of visitors, Theosophists, consisting of the following
+persons: Professor E. O. Schwägerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield,
+Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Knight, Miss Ida Wright (now Mrs. Vern Mudgett),
+Mrs. Addie G. Barlow and Mr. Henry Carter. Elevation, 4,572 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=National Park Inn.= At Longmire Springs near the southwestern
+entrance to the Park. This attractive hotel has frequently been so
+overrun with guests that numerous tents have been used for sleeping
+quarters. These are placed in the groves of pines and firs on the bank
+of the Nisqually River. Many trips to interesting parts of the
+mountain are made from the Inn. Elevation, 2,761 feet above sea level.
+
+=Natural Bridge.= In the north-central portion of the Park. Many
+photographers have scrambled to the scene of this natural curiosity.
+Elevation, 5,400 feet above sea level.
+
+=Needle Creek.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. It is a
+tributary of Kotsuck Creek and takes its rise near the sharp cliffs of
+Cowlitz Chimneys, which may have suggested the name "Needle."
+
+=Needle Rock.= On the northwest slope, overlooking the North Mowich
+Glacier. The name was given by Professor J. B. Flett from its supposed
+resemblance to Cleopatra's Needle. Elevation, 7,587 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=Nisqually Glacier.= The large glacier flowing from the southern flank
+of Mount Rainier. It was named by Stevens and Van Trump in 1870 when
+they found it to be the source of Nisqually River.
+
+=Nisqually River.= Rising at the foot of Nisqually Glacier, it flows
+southwesterly through the Park and empties into Puget Sound between
+Tacoma and Olympia. It was mentioned in the Journal of John Work of
+the Hudson's Bay Company, as early as 1824. The first settlement by
+white men on Puget Sound was made by the Hudson's Bay Company near its
+mouth in May, 1833. That trading post was called Nisqually House. Rev.
+Myron Eells, the talented missionary, says the word comes from the
+native word, "Squally-o-bish," from the tribe of that name.
+
+=North Mowich.= See Mowich.
+
+=North Park.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Elevation, about
+5,000 feet above sea level.
+
+=Northern Crags.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking
+Elysian Fields.
+
+=Observation Rock.= On the northwest slope near Flett Glacier. In 1885
+it was named Observation Point by Prof. L. F. Henderson. An extensive
+view of western Washington is to be had from its top. Elevation, 8,364
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Ohanapecosh Glacier.= On the east-central slope of the mountain.
+Below the glacier lies the beautiful Ohanapecosh Park, from which
+flows the river of the same name, which passes out of the Park at the
+northeastern corner of the boundary. The name is Indian, but its
+meaning has not been ascertained.
+
+=Old Desolate.= A ridge in the northwestern portion of the Park
+between Moraine and Vernal Parks.
+
+=Ollala Creek.= In the southeastern corner of the Park. The name is
+from the Chinook jargon, meaning "berries."
+
+=Owyhigh Lakes.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. The
+Yakima had a great war leader, Chief Owhigh, and this is apparently an
+honor for him. See narrative by Theodore Winthrop in this book,
+Chapter IV.
+
+=Panhandle Gap.= On the east-central slope of the mountain, above the
+Sarvent Glaciers. Elevation, about 7,000 feet above sea level.
+
+=Panorama Point.= On the southern slope of the mountain, overlooking
+Nisqually Glacier.
+
+=Paradise Glacier.= On the southeast slope. In 1870, Stevens and Van
+Trump called it Little Nisqually Glacier.
+
+=Paradise River.= Stevens and Van Trump called the river Glacier Creek
+in 1870.
+
+=Paradise Valley.= On the south-central slope. This is the best known
+part of the Park. David Longmire says that his mother (wife of the
+pioneer, James Longmire) and a Mrs. Jameson were the first women to
+visit the region. As they wound up the zigzag trail through the forest
+they were suddenly in the midst of most wonderful mountain scenery.
+"O, what a paradise!" exclaimed one. "Yes, a real paradise," answered
+the other. That was in 1885, and the name Paradise has remained in use
+for the valley and has also been extended to the river and the glacier
+from which it takes its source.
+
+=Paul Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
+not ascertained.
+
+=Peak Success.= The southern summit of Mount Rainier. It was named in
+1870 by Stevens and Van Trump on the occasion of their making the
+first ascent of the mountain. The new map calls it Point Success.
+Elevation, 14,150 feet above sea level.
+
+=Pearl Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, draining Pyramid
+Glacier into Kautz Creek. About midway in its course the creek plunges
+over what are known as Pearl Falls.
+
+=Pigeon Creek.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park.
+
+=Pinnacle Peak.= One of the most dominant peaks of the Tatoosh Range
+in the south-central portion of the Park. Its height is marked at
+6,562 feet. On its northern slope lies an ice field called Pinnacle
+Glacier. The ascent of this peak is attempted by many visitors
+starting from Paradise Valley.
+
+=Plummer Peak.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. The name
+was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in honor of the late Fred
+G. Plummer, Geographer of the United States Forest Service.
+
+=Point Success.= See Peak Success.
+
+=Prospector Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek in the
+northeastern part of the Park.
+
+=Ptarmigan Ridge.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain, lying
+north of the North Mowich Glacier and south of the Flett and Russell
+Glaciers. The name was given on account of the large number of
+ptarmigan families found there each summer. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett
+and H. H. Garretson.
+
+=Puyallup Cleaver.= The large ridge of rocks on the western slope of
+the mountain, dividing the Puyallup and Tahoma Glaciers.
+
+=Puyallup Glacier.= On the western slope. Its name comes from the fact
+that it feeds one of the branches of the Puyallup River.
+
+=Puyallup River.= Two forks of this river rise from the glaciers on
+the western and southwestern slopes of the mountain. The river empties
+into Puget Sound at Tacoma Harbor. There have been many spellings of
+the word in early annals. Rev. Myron Eells says the tribe of Indians
+living on the river called themselves "Puyallupnamish."
+
+=Pyramid Park.= On the southern slope of the mountain, adjacent to
+Pyramid Peak. From the park flows a stream called Pyramid Creek, and
+above the park lies Pyramid Glacier, between South Tahoma and Kautz
+Glaciers.
+
+=Pyramid Peak.= On the southwestern slope, overlooking Indian Henrys
+Hunting Ground. It was named by James L. Mosman, of Yelm, because of
+its resemblance to a perfect pyramid. The same name has been extended
+to a small park and glacier to the northeastward of the peak.
+Elevation, 6,937 feet above sea level.
+
+=Rainier.= See Mount Rainier.
+
+=Rampart Ridge.= On the southern slope of the mountain. This ridge is
+a prominent group of crags rising above Longmire Springs. Elevation,
+3,800 feet above sea level. The nearer and higher portion of the ridge
+is known as The Ramparts. The name is an old one, but who first
+suggested it has not been ascertained. Elevation of The Ramparts,
+4,080 feet above sea level.
+
+=Ranger Creek.= In the northwestern corner of the Park, flowing into
+Carbon River near the Ranger Station at the boundary of the Park.
+
+=Redstone Peak.= In the north-central portion of the Park, between the
+headwaters of Van Horn Creek and White River.
+
+=Reese's Camp.= On the south-central slope of the mountain, in
+Paradise Park. For a number of years John L. Reese has accommodated
+visitors in a log and canvas hotel with numerous tents for sleeping
+rooms. The name of his camp has grown so familiar that other names are
+forgotten. The site of his hotel was once known as Theosophy Ridge.
+Beginning with 1916, the Rainier National Park Company, a new
+corporation composed of prominent citizens, will supplant Reese's Camp
+with a modern hotel and will provide garages, lunch-stations and other
+conveniences for the tourists. The elevation at Reese's Camp is 5,557
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Reflection Lakes.= On the south-central slope of the mountain. These
+lakes are visited by all who make the trip to Pinnacle Peak from
+Paradise Valley. Elevation, 4,861 feet above sea level.
+
+=Register Rock.= On the rim of the crater, where there is securely
+fastened in the rocks a record on which all successful climbers by
+way of the Gibraltar route sign their names. Elevation, 14,161 feet
+above sea level, or 247 feet below Columbia Crest, the actual summit.
+
+=Ricksecker Point.= On the southern slope. It was named in honor of
+Eugene Ricksecker, the engineer, who had charge of building the
+government road in the Park. Elevation, 4,212 feet above sea level.
+
+=Round Pass.= Near the southwestern boundary of the Park. It is
+understood that the name is to be changed to Halls Pass in honor of
+former Superintendent E. S. Hall.
+
+=Rushingwater Creek.= Flows from the Golden Lakes across the
+west-central boundary of the Park.
+
+=Russell Cliff.= At the summit, east of Liberty Cap. It was named by
+The Mountaineers Club, during an ascent in 1909, in honor of Professor
+I. C. Russell.
+
+=Russell Glacier.= On the northern slope, just west of Carbon Glacier.
+It was named in honor of Professor I. C. Russell.
+
+=Rust Ridge.= In the northwestern corner of the Park.
+
+=St. Andrews Park.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain. Among
+the first campers in that region was a group of choir boys from St.
+Mark's (Episcopal) Church of Seattle. It is said that they called the
+place St. Andrews Park. The stream flowing out of it is now called St.
+Andrews Creek, and high up on the western slope is St. Andrews Rock,
+at the entrance to Sunset Amphitheatre.
+
+=St. Elmo Pass.= On the north slope, through the ridge that divides
+the Winthrop and Inter Glaciers. It was named by Major E. S. Ingraham,
+who says: "In 1887, I camped on the ridge with my party. During the
+night a great thunderstorm arose and we could hear the peals of
+thunder below. A couple of boys who were with the party were sleeping
+above us. Suddenly they called out that the storm was over because
+they could see the stars. I, too, saw stars, but I did not think they
+were real. I got up and began to investigate. What the boys thought
+were stars was St. Elmo fire which had settled on their alpenstocks.
+Even the cooking utensils were aflame with it, and our heads shone. I
+explained the phenomenon and the place was called St. Elmo Pass."
+Elevation, 7,415 feet above sea level.
+
+=St. Jacobs Lake.= A small lake in the southeastern corner of the
+Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Sarvent Glaciers.= Two small but interesting glaciers on the
+east-central slope, draining into Fryingpan Creek. They were named in
+honor of Henry M. Sarvent, the engineer, who made the first detailed
+map of the mountain.
+
+=Scarface.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. The name is
+descriptive. Elevation, 6,100 feet above sea level.
+
+=Seattle Park.= A small but beautiful area in the northwestern portion
+of the Park between the Russell and Carbon Glaciers. It was named for
+the City of Seattle.
+
+=Shadow Lake.= On the east-central slope of the mountain, east of
+Burroughs Mountain. Elevation, 6,200 feet above sea level.
+
+=Shaw Creek.= A tributary of White River near the eastern boundary of
+the Park. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Silvan Island.= On the south side of Emmons Glacier. Named by Prof.
+J. B. Flett.
+
+=Silver Falls.= In the southeastern corner of the Park.
+
+=Skyscraper Mountain.= In the north-central portion of the Park,
+overlooking Berkeley Park. It is a recent name and comes from its
+supposed resemblance to a modern style of architecture. Elevation,
+7,650 feet above sea level.
+
+=Slide Mountain.= In the northeastern corner of the Park. Elevation,
+6,630 feet above sea level.
+
+=Sluiskin Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in the upper waters of
+Paradise River. Named by Stevens and Van Trump, in 1870, in honor of
+their Indian guide. Elevation, 5,900 feet above sea level.
+
+=Sluiskin Mountain.= In the north-central portion of the Park,
+overlooking Vernal Park. Evidently an additional, though later, honor
+for the Indian guide of Stevens and Van Trump. Elevation, 7,015 feet
+above sea level.
+
+=Snow Lake.= Near the southern boundary of the Park.
+
+=Sotolick Point.= On the southwest slope. The name is spelled
+"Satulick" on the map. It was suggested by P. B. Van Trump, who says
+Sotolick was the name of Indian Henry. Elevation, 5,574 feet above sea
+level.
+
+=South Mowich.= See Mowich.
+
+=South Tahoma.= See Tahoma.
+
+=Spray Falls.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain. The highest
+and most beautiful falls on the north side of the mountain. It was
+probably named when the Bailey Willis trail was built by it in 1883.
+The abundant water breaks into a mass of spray. Elevation, 5,300 feet
+above sea level.
+
+=Spray Park.= Above Spray Falls lies this extensive and most beautiful
+park. Its elevation is from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level.
+Several lakes drain into Spray Creek, which produces Spray Falls. The
+name originated at the falls and was later extended to the creek and
+park.
+
+=Spukwush Creek.= Flowing from Chenuis Mountain to Carbon River in the
+northwestern portion of the Park. The name seems to be Indian, but its
+origin has not been ascertained.
+
+=Squaw Lake.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, near the
+entrance to Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. It is said that the Squaw
+camped there while her hunter husband went further up the slopes for
+his game.
+
+=Starbo Camp.= In Glacier Basin, on the northern slope of the
+mountain. It is named for the miner who has maintained a camp there
+for a number of years. Further information is given under the head of
+Glacier Basin.
+
+=Steamboat Prow.= On the north slope of the mountain. The
+appropriateness of this name is apparent to any who have visited the
+upper ice fields of the Winthrop and Emmons Glaciers. The pointed
+cliff seems to be buffeting a sea of ice. Elevation, 9,500 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=Stevens Glacier.= On the southeastern slope, adjoining Paradise
+Glacier. The name is in honor of General Hazard Stevens who, with P.
+B. Van Trump, made the first ascent of the mountain in 1870. The creek
+flowing from the glacier is called Stevens Creek; its deep bed is
+Stevens Canyon, and the overlooking crags are Stevens Ridge.
+
+=Stevens Peak.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. The name is
+probably an additional honor for General Hazard Stevens. Elevation,
+6,511 feet above sea level.
+
+=Success Glacier.= On the southern slope of the mountain, flowing into
+Kautz Glacier. Between Success Glacier and South Tahoma Glacier lies a
+ridge called Success Cleaver. For the origin of the name see Peak
+Success.
+
+=Summer Land.= One of the mountain's most beautiful parks, on the
+east-central slope, above Fryingpan Creek. It was named by Major E. S.
+Ingraham in 1888.
+
+=Sunbeam Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in a tributary
+of Stevens Creek.
+
+=Sunrise Ridge.= Appropriately named as being at the northeastern edge
+of the Park. A stream flowing from the ridge is called Sunrise Creek.
+Elevation, about 6,000 feet above sea level.
+
+=Sunset Amphitheatre.= A huge cirque extending up toward Liberty Cap
+on the western side of the mountain. From it flow the Puyallup and
+Tahoma Glaciers.
+
+=Sunset Park.= So named because it extends to the west-central
+boundary of the Park.
+
+=Sweet Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name
+not ascertained. Elevation, 4,500 feet above sea level.
+
+=Sylvia Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in Stevens Creek. Ben
+Longmire, who is quite a wag, says: "Bill Stafford named some falls,
+Sylvia Falls, after his sweetheart, and she has not spoken to him
+since."
+
+=Tahoma Glacier.= On the southwest slope of the mountain, beginning
+at Sunset Amphitheatre and draining into the South Fork of the
+Puyallup River. Just south of this glacier is another called South
+Tahoma Glacier, which drains into Tahoma Creek, which in turn flows
+into the Nisqually River at the southwestern corner of the Park. The
+name is one of the forms of the word Tacoma. Stevens and Van Trump
+gave the name to what is now known as Liberty Cap at the summit. The
+name is also applied to a most prominent peak on the eastern slope of
+the mountain. See Little Tahoma.
+
+=Tamanos Mountain.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. The
+name is apparently one way of spelling the Chinook jargon word meaning
+"spirit."
+
+=Tato Falls.= On the southern slope, near the foot of Nisqually
+Glacier. The name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen.
+
+=Tatoosh Range.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. The
+Indian word is said to mean "nourishing breast." A stream from the
+mountains is called Tatoosh Creek. Highest elevation, at Unicorn Peak,
+6,939 feet above sea level.
+
+=Tenas Creek.= Flowing from Mount Wow across the boundary in the
+southwest corner of the Park. The name is from the Chinook jargon
+meaning "little."
+
+=The Burn.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. The name is too
+suggestive of a departed forest.
+
+=The Castle.= A part of the Tatoosh Range, in the southern portion of
+the Park.
+
+=The Fan.= On the southeastern slope, just south of the lower part of
+Cowlitz Glacier. It is a lake whose name was suggested by its shape.
+
+=The Palisades.= A ridge jutting northwestward from Sourdough
+Mountains, in the northeastern part of the Park.
+
+=The Ramparts.= See Rampart Ridge.
+
+=The Wedge.= On the north slope of the mountain, between the Winthrop
+and Emmons Glaciers. A large mass with Steamboat Prow at the upper or
+"sharpened" edge. Named by Prof. I. C. Russell and his party in 1896.
+
+=Theosophy Ridge.= See Reese's Camp.
+
+=Tilicum Point.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain, a part of
+Ptarmigan Ridge. The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning
+"friend." Elevation, 6,654 feet above sea level.
+
+=Tirzah Peak.= A portion of Chenuis Mountain near the northwestern
+boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,212
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Tokaloo Rock.= On the western slope, at the lower end of Puyallup
+Cleaver. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 7,675 feet above
+sea level.
+
+=Tolmie Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. It is named in
+honor of Dr. William Fraser Tolmie, the Hudson's Bay Company surgeon,
+who was the first white man to approach the mountain. It was in 1833
+that he climbed this peak. In 1883, Bailey Willis wrote: "The point
+remained unvisited for fifty years; last summer I was able to identify
+it and named it Tolmie Peak." A near-by stream is called Tolmie Creek.
+Elevation of the peak, 5,939 feet above sea level.
+
+=Trixie Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in Cowlitz Park. The name
+was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in honor of one of the
+daughters of former Superintendent E. S. Hall.
+
+=Tumtum Peak.= In the southwestern corner of the Park, visible to all
+on the road to and from Longmire. The name is from the Chinook jargon,
+meaning "heart," and was suggested by the form of the mountain.
+Elevation, 4,678 feet above sea level.
+
+=Twin Falls.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, in the lower
+part of Cowlitz Park.
+
+=Tyee Peak.= A part of Chenuis Mountain in the northwestern portion of
+the Park. The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning "chief."
+Elevation, 6,030 feet above sea level.
+
+=Unicorn Peak.= Where the Tatoosh Range approaches the south-central
+boundary of the Park, this peak rises to a height of 6,939 feet. On
+its western flank is an ice field called Unicorn Glacier.
+
+=Van Horn Creek.= On the northern slope, toward the boundary of the
+Park. The name was suggested by Thomas E. O'Farrell, Park Ranger, in
+honor of Rev. F. J. Van Horn, one of The Mountaineers' party of 1909.
+The beautiful falls in the creek received the same name. Elevation of
+the falls, about 4,400 feet above sea level.
+
+=Van Trump Glacier.= On the southern slope. It is named in honor of P.
+B. Van Trump who, with General Hazard Stevens, made the first ascent
+of the mountain in 1870. The creek flowing from the glacier has the
+same name, and the flower-strewn region above the creek is called Van
+Trump Park. Elevation of the park, about 5,500 feet above sea level.
+
+=Vernal Park.= In the north-central portion of the Park, just south of
+Sluiskin Mountain.
+
+=Virginia Peak.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of
+name not ascertained. Elevation, 4,934 feet above sea level.
+
+=Wahpenayo Peak.= Between the Tatoosh Range and the south-central
+boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 6,234
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Wallace Peak.= A portion of Chenuis Mountain near the northwestern
+boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,800
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Wapowety Cleaver.= On the southern slope, overlooking Kautz Glacier.
+Mr. Van Trump says that Wapowety was the Indian guide of Lieutenant A.
+V. Kautz during his attempted ascent in 1857. Elevation, about 9,500
+feet above sea level.
+
+=Washington Cascades.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in the
+Paradise River above Narada Falls.
+
+=Wauhaukaupauken Falls.= On the east slope, in Ohanapecosh Park. This
+is one of the remarkable features of the mountain streams. The meaning
+and origin of the Indian name have not been ascertained.
+
+=Weer Rock.= On the western slope. The name does not appear on the
+map, but it is said to have been agreed upon as an honor to J. H.
+Weer, of Tacoma, who has done extensive exploration work upon and
+around the mountain. He was leader of The Mountaineers, in 1915, when
+the first large party encircled the mountain at snow-line.
+
+=White River.= This river drains most of the glaciers on the
+northeastern slopes of the mountain. With a grand sweep around the
+mountain, the river flows through its valley to unite with the Black
+River near Seattle, becoming the Duwamish River, which empties into
+Puget Sound at Seattle Harbor. Its name came from the glacial
+character of the water.
+
+=White River Park.= Lying between Sourdough Mountains and Sunrise
+Ridge in the northeastern part of the Park.
+
+=Whitman Glacier.= On the eastern slope of the mountain flowing from
+the side of Little Tahoma. The name is in honor of Doctor Marcus
+Whitman, who gave his life as a missionary among the Indians. He, his
+wife, and twelve others were murdered by the Indians near Walla Walla
+in 1847. The ridge of rocks east of the glacier is called Whitman
+Crest.
+
+=Wigwam Camp.= In Indian Henrys Hunting Ground, on the southwestern
+slope of the mountain. For several years a tent and log-cabin camp has
+been maintained here by George B. Hall for the accommodation of
+visitors. Elevation, 5,300 feet above sea level.
+
+=Willis Wall.= On the northern face of the mountain at the head of
+Carbon Glacier. The great vertical cliff, 3,600 feet high, over which
+avalanches of snow crash throughout the summer months, is one of the
+attractive features of the great mountain. It was named in honor of
+Bailey Willis, on account of his extensive explorations in 1883.
+
+=Williwakas Glacier.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain,
+flowing from Paradise Glacier. The stream draining the glacier is
+known as Williwakas Creek. Origin of name not ascertained.
+
+=Wilson Glacier.= On the southern slope, above Nisqually Glacier. It
+was named in honor of A. D. Wilson, who, with S. F. Emmons, made the
+second ascent of the mountain in 1870.
+
+=Windy Gap.= In the northern portion of the Park, between the ridges
+of Chenuis and Crescent Mountains.
+
+=Winthrop Glacier.= On the northern slope, where its head joins that
+of Emmons Glacier. It is named in honor of Theodore Winthrop, who
+passed close by the mountain in 1853 and recorded his observations in
+his book entitled "The Canoe and the Saddle." The same name is given
+to a creek that drains this glacier into White River. The glacier was
+formerly mapped as White Glacier.
+
+=Wright Creek.= A tributary of Fryingpan Creek, taking its rise near
+the Cowlitz Chimneys, on the eastern slope of the mountain. Origin of
+name not ascertained.
+
+=Yakima Park.= On the northeastern slope, on the shoulders of
+Sourdough Mountains. The name is that of a tribe of Indians living
+east of the Cascade Mountains. It has there been used as the name of a
+county and a city.
+
+=Yellowstone Cliffs.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, at the
+southeastern end of Chenuis Mountain.
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
+    The following pages contain advertisements of
+    books by the same author or on kindred subjects.
+
+
+           _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
+
+  =Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound=
+
+            BY EDMOND S. MEANY
+
+                              _Illustrated, 8vo, $2.50_
+
+A carefully edited and extra-illustrated reproduction of the 1801
+edition of Vancouver's "Journal" of discoveries on the Northwest
+Coast. This is preceded by a life of the great navigator, and accounts
+of others who made explorations in that region. A large number of
+portrait-plates additional to the reproduction of those in the
+original Journal, and several maps, embellish the work.
+
+     "A remarkably interesting volume--the most valuable addition
+     to American history that ever came out of the Pacific
+     Northwest, if not indeed from the whole Pacific
+     Coast."--_Seattle Daily Times._
+
+     "A noteworthy addition to the subject of Americana in its
+     largest sense."--_Review of Reviews._
+
+     "An excellent specimen of the best historical work, written
+     with fairness and impartiality."--_San Francisco Chronicle._
+
+
+           _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
+
+    =United States History for Schools=
+
+            BY EDMOND S. MEANY
+
+                              _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00_
+
+A complete and well-balanced treatment of United States history.
+Industrial and social changes, rather than the traditional grouping of
+topics on changes of administration, etc., have determined the
+division of the subject into periods and of the periods into chapters.
+The space devoted to wars has been reduced to the minimum and more
+space has been given to the record of the nation's political,
+industrial, and social progress, emphasizing the advancement of the
+United States within the last fifty years. It presents American
+history as a part of world history. The treatment covers all the
+important points required by the Committee of Eight in its Report to
+the American Historical Association. The style is vivid and
+interesting; the sentences are short and vigorous and the paragraphs
+are topical units. The book abounds in illuminating "side lights"
+always interesting and relevant. Suggestions for collateral study and
+reading are provided and study questions are given at the close of
+each chapter.
+
+
+           _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
+
+  =A History of the State of Washington=
+
+            BY EDMOND S. MEANY
+
+                              _Illustrated, decorated cloth, 8vo, $2.25_
+                              _School edition. Ill., 12mo, $1.25_
+
+An interesting and valuable work on the growth and development of the
+State of Washington, especially timely on account of the present
+exposition. It is not, however, an account of the isolated growth of
+one state, but in a great measure the history of the whole Pacific
+slope.
+
+    "It would be difficult to exaggerate the interest and charm of
+    these vivid pages, written, as they were, under the spell and
+    inspiration of a new world."--_Literary Digest._
+
+
+          _By WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS_
+ Professor of Geology, University of Michigan
+
+      =Earth Features and their Meaning=
+
+=A Textbook for Cultural Courses on General Geology=
+
+                              _Profusely illustrated, 8vo, $3.00_
+
+    "The purpose of 'Earth Features and their Meaning,' by
+    Professor W. H. Hobbs, is primarily to furnish a readable work
+    on miscellaneous topics of modern geology and physical
+    geography. In his preface the author lays stress on the fact
+    that the book is a series of readings to stimulate the
+    traveler to appreciate the landscape wherever he may go. A
+    special emphasis is laid upon earthquakes, volcanoes, the work
+    of water, desert processes, and glaciers....
+
+    "The book is noteworthy for the importance given to the
+    experimental method in geology, for good reading references at
+    the end of each chapter, for an unusually good analysis of
+    weathering and the surface processes of dry regions, such as
+    dune accumulations in the deserts, and for original treatment
+    of glaciation."--_Nation._
+
+    "The subject matter is presented in such an interesting and
+    intelligent manner that the general reader and student will
+    receive from its study such an understanding of the subject
+    that he will be able, in his travels, to recognize many of the
+    earth's features about which he has read. The landscapes which
+    are represented are very largely those which are along the
+    routes of travel. Much stress has been placed on the
+    dependence of the chief geological processes of a region, upon
+    the general climatic conditions there existing....
+
+    "This is a book which should be possessed by every teacher of
+    earth science and geology, whether in secondary school or
+    college. It deserves and doubtless will have a large
+    circulation."--_School Science and Mathematics._
+
+    "The book is an excellent reference volume for students who
+    are interested in a simple outline of geology. The volume
+    has been tested in class work and should prove its
+    worth."--_Bulletin of American Geographical Society._
+
+
+    =Characteristics of Existing Glaciers=
+
+                              _Illustrated, cloth, 8vo, $3.25_
+
+    "Every geographer and geologist interested in ice will
+    appreciate these clear descriptions and excellent illustrations
+    of the earth's great glaciers--they make up into a most
+    presentable book."--_Nature._
+
+
+             THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  Publishers    64-66 Fifth Avenue    New York
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Obvious typographical errors were corrected. Hyphenation variants
+present in the original were retained.
+
+Author/subject illustrations have been re-positioned to the beginning
+of chapters to which they pertain.
+
+Company information at bottom of each ad page was reduced to one
+placement at the end of the ads.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42314 ***