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diff --git a/42314.txt b/42314.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7632cc1..0000000 --- a/42314.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12949 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Mount Rainier, by Various, Edited by Edmond -S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Mount Rainier - A Record of Exploration - - -Author: Various - -Editor: Edmond S. (Edmond Stephen) Meany - -Release Date: March 12, 2013 [eBook #42314] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOUNT RAINIER*** - - -E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, JoAnn Greenwood, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 42314-h.htm or 42314-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42314/42314-h/42314-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42314/42314-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/mountrainierreco00meanuoft - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - Subscripts in chemical formulas are indicated by an - underscore followed by the subscripted number enclosed - by curly brackets (example: SiO_{2} is the formula for - silicon dioxide). - - In Chapter XII we were unable to resolve a discrepancy - between H. H. McAlister and E. H. McAlister, so both - were retained. - - - - - -MOUNT RAINIER - - * * * * * - -[Illustration] - -THE MACMILLAN COMPANY -NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO . DALLAS -ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO - -MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED -LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA -MELBOURNE - -THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. -TORONTO - - * * * * * - - - [Illustration: FIRST PICTURE OF MOUNT RAINER. - Drawn by W. Alexander from a sketch by J. Sykes, 1792. - Engraved by J. Landseer for Vancouver's Journal.] - - -MOUNT RAINIER - -A Record of Exploration - -Edited by - -EDMOND S. MEANY - -Professor of History in the University of Washington. -President of The Mountaineers. -Author of "Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound," -"History of the State of Washington," etc. - - - - - - - -New York -The Macmillan Company -1916 - -All rights reserved - -Copyright, 1916, -By the Macmillan Company. - -Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916. - -Norwood Press -J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. -Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. - - - - - To - - GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS - - EARLY LOVER OF THE MOUNTAIN, THIS BOOK - - IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED - - - - -PREFACE - - -Mount Rainier National Park is visited annually by increasing -thousands of tourists. Many of them seek information about the -discoveries and explorations of the mountain and its environs. Much of -the information sought, especially that about the origin of place -names, has never been published. The annals of discovery and -exploration, which have been published, have often appeared in books, -pamphlets, or periodicals not easily accessible. It is the purpose of -this work to gather the essential portions of the desired information -within a compact, usable form. - -During the summer of 1915, the mountain was for the first time -encircled by a large company of travelers. Small parties, carrying -their luggage and provisions on their backs, had made the trip a -number of times. The Mountaineers Club, in 1915, conducted a party of -one hundred, with fully equipped pack train and commissary, around the -mountain. They camped each evening at or near the snow-line. At the -daily campfires extracts were read from the original sources of the -mountain's history. The interest there manifested in such records gave -additional impulse to the preparation of this book. - -It is natural that the chronological order should be chosen in -arranging the materials, beginning with the discovery and naming of -the mountain by Captain George Vancouver of the British Navy. The -records are then continued to the present time. There still remains to -be done much scientific work on the glaciers, snowfields, rocks, and -plants within the Park. It is hoped that this book may stimulate such -field work as well as the publication of the results. - -The reader will notice that several writers in referring to the -mountain use some form of the name Tacoma. The editor has not -hesitated to publish such names as were used in the original articles -here reproduced. In all other cases he has used the name Mount -Rainier, approved by the United States Geographic Board. - -In the separate chapters it will be noticed that the height of the -mountain has been placed at varying figures. The United States -Geological Survey has spoken on this subject with apparent official -finality, giving the altitude as 14,408 feet above sea level. How this -height was determined is told in the official announcement reproduced -in Chapter XVIII of the text, with comment thereon by F. E. Matthes, -one of the engineers of the United States Geological Survey. - -The place names within the Park have been derived from such varied -sources that it is well-nigh impossible to ascertain the origin and -meaning of all of them. For the first time they are here (Chapter XIX) -gathered into a complete alphabetical arrangement with as full -information as is now available. The writer would welcome further -facts about any of the names. - -In the introductory paragraphs before each chapter, the editor has -sought to express his acknowledgment for assistance rendered by others -in the compilation of the work. For fear some may have been omitted he -wishes here to express gratitude for all such help and to mention -especially Professor J. Franklin Jameson, Director of the Department -of Historical Research of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, for -his assistance in securing photostat reproductions of a number of rare -items found in the Library of Congress. - -The editor also acknowledges the assistance rendered by Victor J. -Farrar, research assistant in the University of Washington. - - EDMOND S. MEANY. - - UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, - Seattle, August, 1916. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. THE MOUNTAIN DISCOVERED AND NAMED, 1792 1 - By Captain George Vancouver, R.N. - - II. FIRST APPROACH TO THE MOUNTAIN, 1833 6 - By Doctor William Fraser Tolmie. - - III. FIRST RECORDED TRIP THROUGH NACHES PASS, 1841 13 - By Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson, U.S.N., of - the Wilkes Expedition. - - IV. TACOMA AND THE INDIAN LEGEND OF HAMITCHOU 34 - By Theodore Winthrop. - - V. FIRST ATTEMPTED ASCENT, 1857 73 - By Lieutenant A. V. Kautz, U.S.A. - - VI. FIRST SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870 94 - By General Hazard Stevens. - - VII. INDIAN WARNING AGAINST DEMONS 132 - By Sluiskin, Indian Guide. - - VIII. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870 135 - By S. F. Emmons. - - IX. EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHERN SLOPES, 1881-1883 142 - By Bailey Willis. - - X. DISCOVERY OF CAMP MUIR, 1888 150 - By Major E. S. Ingraham. - - XI. EXPLORING THE MOUNTAIN AND ITS GLACIERS, 1896 159 - By Professor I. C. Russell. - - XII. MCCLURE'S ACHIEVEMENT AND TRAGIC DEATH, 1897 183 - By Herbert L. Bruce and Professor H. H. - McAlister. - - XIII. FIELD NOTES ON MOUNT RAINIER, 1905 194 - By Professor Henry Landes. - - XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER 201 - By F. E. Matthes. - - XV. THE ROCKS OF MOUNT RAINIER 241 - By George Otis Smith. - - XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER 254 - By Professor Charles V. Piper. - - XVII. CREATION OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK 287 - Memorial by Scientific Societies. - - XVIII. MOUNT RAINIER IS 14,408 FEET HIGH 297 - By the United States Geological Survey. - - XIX. PLACE NAMES AND ELEVATIONS IN MOUNT RAINIER - NATIONAL PARK 302 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - First Picture of Mount Rainier. Drawn by W. Alexander, - from a sketch by J. Sykes, 1792. Engraved by J. - Landseer for Vancouver's Journal _Frontispiece_ - - PAGE - - Captain George Vancouver, Royal Navy 1 - - Doctor William Fraser Tolmie 6 - - Commander Charles Wilkes, United States Navy 13 - - Theodore Winthrop, from the Rowse Crayon Portrait. 34 - - General August Valentine Kautz, United States Army. 73 - - General Hazard Stevens 94 - - Samuel Franklin Emmons 135 - - Bailey Willis, from Photograph taken in 1883 142 - - Major Edward Sturgis Ingraham 150 - - Professor Israel Cook Russell 159 - - Professor Edgar McClure 183 - - Professor Henry Landes 194 - - Francois Emile Matthes 201 - - George Otis Smith 241 - - Professor Charles Vancouver Piper 254 - - Peter Rainier, Admiral of the Blue, Royal Navy 302 - - - - -MOUNT RAINIER - -A RECORD OF EXPLORATIONS - - - - - [Illustration: CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER. - Royal Navy.] - -I. THE MOUNTAIN DISCOVERED AND NAMED, 1792 - -BY CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER, R.N. - - - Captain George Vancouver, the great English navigator and - explorer, lived but forty years, from 1758 to 1798. He - entered the British navy on the _Resolution_ under Captain - James Cook in 1771 and was with that even more famous - explorer during his second and third voyages, from 1772 to - 1780. He was placed in command of the _Discovery_ and - _Chatham_ in 1791 and sent to the northwest coast of America. - On this voyage he discovered and named Puget Sound and many - other geographic features on the western coast of America. - - The portions of his Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific - Ocean, giving the record of his discovery, naming, and - exploration in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, are taken from - Volume II of the second edition, published in London in 1801, - pages 79, 118, and 134-138. - - -[Tuesday, May 8, 1792.] The weather was serene and pleasant, and the -country continued to exhibit, between us and the eastern snowy range, -the same luxuriant appearance. At its northern extremity, mount Baker -bore by compass N. 22 E.; the round snowy mountain, now forming its -southern extremity, and which, after my friend Rear Admiral Rainier, I -distinguished by the name of MOUNT RAINIER, bore N. [S.] 42 E. - - -[Saturday, May 19, 1792.] About noon, we passed an inlet on the -larboard or eastern shore, which seemed to stretch far to the -northward; but, as it was out of the line of our intended pursuit of -keeping the continental shore on board, I continued our course up the -main inlet, which now extended as far as, from the deck, the eye could -reach, though, from the mast-head, intervening land appeared, beyond -which another high round mountain covered with snow was discovered, -apparently situated several leagues to the south of mount Rainier, and -bearing by compass S. 22 E. This I considered as a further extension -of the eastern snowy range; but the intermediate mountains, connecting -it with mount Rainier, were not sufficiently high to be seen at that -distance. - - -[Saturday, May 26, 1792.] Towards noon we landed on a point on the -eastern shore, whose latitude I observed to be 47 deg. 21', round which -we flattered ourselves we should find the inlet take an extensive -eastwardly course. This conjecture was supported by the appearance of -a very abrupt division in the snowy range of mountains immediately to -the south of mount Rainier, which was very conspicuous from the ship, -and the main arm of the inlet appearing to stretch in that direction -from the point we were then upon. We here dined, and although our -repast was soon concluded, the delay was irksome, as we were -excessively anxious to ascertain the truth, of which we were not long -held in suspense. For having passed round the point, we found the -inlet to terminate here in an extensive circular compact bay, whose -waters washed the base of mount Rainier, though its elevated summit -was yet at a very considerable distance from the shore, with which it -was connected by several ridges of hills rising towards it with -gradual ascent and much regularity. The forest trees, and the several -shades of verdure that covered the hills, gradually decreased in point -of beauty, until they became invisible; when the perpetual clothing of -snow commenced, which seemed to form a horizontal line from north to -south along this range of rugged mountains, from whose summit mount -Rainier rose conspicuously, and seemed as much elevated above them as -they were above the level of the sea; the whole producing a most -grand, picturesque effect. The lower mountains, as they descended to -the right and left, became gradually relieved of their frigid garment; -and as they approached the fertile woodland region that binds the -shores of this inlet in every direction, produced a pleasing variety. -We now proceeded to the N. W. in which direction the inlet from hence -extended, and afforded us some reason to believe that it communicated -with that under the survey of our other party. This opinion was -further corroborated by a few Indians, who had in a very civil manner -accompanied us some time, and who gave us to understand that in the -north western direction this inlet was very wide and extensive; this -they expressed before we quitted our dinner station, by opening their -arms, and making other signs that we should be led a long way by -pursuing that route; whereas, by bending their arm, or spreading out -their hand, and pointing to the space contained in the curve of the -arm, or between the fore-finger and thumb, that we should find our -progress soon stopped in the direction which led towards mount -Rainier. The little respect which most Indians bear to truth, and -their readiness to assert what they think is most agreeable for the -moment, or to answer their own particular wishes and inclinations, -induced me to place little dependance on this information, although -they could have no motive for deceiving us. - -About a dozen of these friendly people had attended at our dinner, one -part of which was a venison pasty. Two of them, expressing a desire to -pass the line of separation drawn between us, were permitted to do so. -They sat down by us, and ate of the bread, and fish that we gave them -without the least hesitation; but on being offered some of the -venison, though they saw us eat it with great relish, they could not -be induced to taste it. They received it from us with great disgust, -and presented it round to the rest of the party, by whom it underwent -a very strict examination. Their conduct on this occasion left no -doubt in our minds that they believed it to be human flesh, an -impression which it was highly expedient should be done away. To -satisfy them that it was the flesh of the deer, we pointed to the -skins of the animal they had about them. In reply to this they pointed -to each other, and made signs that could not be misunderstood, that it -was the flesh of human beings, and threw it down in the dirt, with -gestures of great aversion and displeasure. At length we happily -convinced them of their mistake by shewing them a haunch we had in the -boat, by which means they were undeceived, and some of them ate of the -remainder of the pye with a good appetite. - -This behavior, whilst in some measure tending to substantiate their -knowledge or suspicions that such barbarities have existence, led us -to conclude, that the character given of the natives of North-West -America does not attach to every tribe. These people have been -represented not only as accustomed inhumanly to devour the flesh of -their conquered enemies; but also to keep certain servants, or rather -slaves, of their own nation, for the sole purpose of making the -principal part of the banquet, to satisfy the unnatural savage -gluttony of the chiefs of this country, on their visits to each other. -Were such barbarities practiced once a month, as is stated, it would -be natural to suppose these people, so inured, would not have shewn -the least aversion to eating flesh of any description; on the -contrary, it is not possible to conceive a greater degree of -abhorrence than was manifested by these good people, until their minds -were made perfectly easy that it was not human flesh we offered them -to eat. This instance must necessarily exonerate at least this -particular tribe from so barbarous a practice; and, as their affinity -to the inhabitants of Nootka, and of the sea-coast, to the south of -that place, in their manners and customs, admits of little difference, -it is but charitable to hope those also, on a more minute inquiry, may -be found not altogether deserving such a character. They are not, -however, free from the general failing attendant on a savage life. One -of them having taken a knife and fork to imitate our manner of eating, -found means to secrete them under his garment; but, on his being -detected, gave up his plunder with the utmost good humour and -unconcern. - -They accompanied us from three or four miserable huts, near the place -where we had dined, for about four miles; during which time they -exchanged the only things they had to dispose of, their bows, arrows, -and spears, in the most fair and honest manner, for hawk's bells, -buttons, beads, and such useless commodities. - - - - - [Illustration: DOCTOR WILLIAM FRASER TOLMIE.] - -II. FIRST APPROACH TO THE MOUNTAIN, 1833 - -BY DOCTOR WILLIAM FRASER TOLMIE - - - Doctor William Fraser Tolmie was a medical officer in the - service of the Hudson's Bay Company. He was born at - Inverness, Scotland, on February 3, 1812, and died at - Victoria, British Columbia, on December 8, 1888. He was - educated at Glasgow, and when twenty years of age he joined - the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1833, he was located at - Nisqually House, Puget Sound. It was then that he made his - trip to the mountain. He later served at other posts in the - Pacific Northwest, and was raised to the rank of Chief Factor - in 1856. He was then placed on the board of management of the - great company. In 1860 he retired from the service. - - In 1850 he was married to Jane, eldest daughter of Chief - Factor John Work. Their descendants still live at Victoria, - British Columbia. They, especially the son John W. Tolmie, - have compared this reproduction from Doctor Tolmie's diary - with the original manuscript to insure accuracy. So far as is - now known, this is the first record of a white man's close - approach to Mount Rainier. - - It is pleasant to note that the new map of Mount Rainier - National Park, published by the United States Geological - Survey, shows the peak he climbed and the creek flowing near - it bearing the name of Tolmie. - -August 27, 1833. Obtained Mr. Herron's consent to making a botanizing -excursion to Mt. Rainier, for which he has allowed 10 days. Have -engaged two horses from a chief living in that quarter, who came here -tonight, and Lachalet is to be my guide. Told the Indians I am going -to Mt. Rainier to gather herbs of which to make medicine, part of -which is to be sent to Britain and part retained in case intermittent -fever should visit us when I will prescribe for the Indians. - -Aug. 28. A tremendous thunder storm occurred last night, succeeded by -torrents of rain. The thunder was very loud, and the lightening -flashing completely enlightened my apartment. Have been chatting with -Mr. Herron about colonizing Whidby's island, a project of which he is -at present quite full--more anon. No horses have appeared. Understand -that the mountain is four days' journey distant--the first of which -can only be performed on horseback. If they do not appear tomorrow I -shall start with Lachalet on foot. - -Aug. 29. Prairie 8 miles N. of home. Sunset. Busy making arrangements -for journey, and while thus occupied the guide arrived with 3 horses. -Started about 3, mounted on a strong iron grey, my companions -disposing of themselves on the other two horses, except one, who -walked. We were 6 in number. I have engaged Lachalet for a blanket, -and his nephew, Lashima, for ammunition to accompany me and Nuckalkut -a Poyalip (whom I took for a native of Mt. Rainier) with 2 horses to -be guide on the mountain after leaving the horse track, and Quilniash, -his relative, a very active, strong fellow, has volunteered to -accompany me. The Indians are all in great hopes of killing elk and -chevriel, and Lachalet has already been selling and promising the -grease he is to get. It is in a great measure the expectation of -finding game that urges them to undertake the journey. Cantered slowly -along the prairie and are now at the residence of Nuckalkut's father, -under the shade of a lofty pine, in a grassy amphitheatre, beautifully -interspersed and surrounded with oaks, and through the gaps in the -circle we see the broad plain extending southwards to Nusqually. In a -hollow immediately behind is a small lake whose surface is almost one -sheet of waterlilies about to flower. Have supped on sallal; and at -dusk shall turn in. - -Aug. 30. Sandy beach of Poyallipa River. Slept ill last night, and as -I dozed in the morning was aroused by a stroke across the thigh from a -large decayed branch which fell from the pine overshadowing us. A -drizzling rain fell during most of the night. Got up about dawn, and -finding thigh stiff and painful thought a stop put to the journey, but -after moving about it felt easier. Started about sunrise, I mounted on -a spirited brown mare, the rest on passable animals, except Nuckalkut, -who bestrode a foal. Made a northeasterly course through prairie. -Breakfasted at a small marsh on bread, sallal, dried cockels and a -small piece of chevriel saved from the last night's repast of my -companions (for I cannot call them attendants). The points of wood now -became broader, and the intervening plain degenerated into prairions. -Stopped about 1 P.M. at the abode of 3 Tekatat families, who met us -rank and file at the door to shake hands. Their sheds were made of -bark resting on a horizontal pole, supported at each end by tripods, -and showed an abundance of elk's flesh dried within. Two kettles were -filled with this, and, after smoking, my Indians made a savage repast -on the meat and bouillion, Lachalet saying it was the Indian custom to -eat a great deal at once and afterwards abstain for a time; he, -however, has twice eaten since. Traded some dried meat for 4 balls and -3 rings, and mounting, rode off in the midst of a heavy shower. -Ascended and descended at different times several steep banks and -passed through dense and tangled thickets, occasionally coming on a -prairion. The soil throughout was of the same nature as that of -Nusqually. After descending a very steep bank came to the Poyallip. -Lashima carried the baggage across on his head. Rode to the opposite -side through a rich alluvial plain, 3 or 4 miles in length and 3/4 to -1 in breadth. It is covered with fern about 8 feet high in some parts. -Passed through woods and crossed river several times. About 7 P.M. -dismounted and the horses and accoutrements were left in a wood at -the river's brink. Started now on foot for a house Nuckalkut knew, and -after traversing woods and twice crossing the torrents "on the -unsteadfast footing" of a log, arrived at the house, which was a -deserted one, and encamped on the dry part of river's bed, along which -our course lies tomorrow. The Poyallip flows rapidly and is about 10 -or 12 yards broad. Its banks are high and covered with lofty cedars -and pines. The water is of a dirty white colour, being impregnated by -white clay. Lachalet has tonight been trying to persuade me from going -to the snow on the mountain. - -Aug. 31. Slept well, and in the morning two salmon were caught, on -which we are to breakfast before starting. After breakfast Quillihaish -stuck the gills and sound of the fish on a spit which stood before the -fire, so that the next comer might know that salmon could be obtained -there. Have traveled nearly the whole day through a wood of cedar and -pine, surface very uneven, and after ascending the bed of river a -couple of miles are now encamped about ten yards from its margin in -the wood. Find myself very inferior to my companions in the power of -enduring fatigue. Their pace is a smart trot which soon obliges me to -rest. The waters of the Poyallip are still of the same colour. Can see -a short distance up two lofty hills covered with wood. Evening cloudy -and rainy. Showery all day. - -Sunday, Sept. 1. Bank of Poyallip river. It has rained all night and -is now, 6 A.M., pouring down. Are a good deal sheltered by the trees. -My companions are all snoozing. Shall presently arouse them and hold a -council of war. The prospect is very discouraging. Our provisions will -be expended today and Lachalet said he thought the river would be too -high to be fordable in either direction. Had dried meat boiled in a -cedar bark kettle for breakfast. I got rigged out in green blanket -without trousers, in Indian style, and trudged on through the wood. -Afterwood exchanged blanket with Lachalet for Ouvrie's capot, which -has been on almost every Indian at Nusqually. However, I found it more -convenient than the blanket. Our course lay up the river, which we -crossed frequently. The bed is clayey in most parts. Saw the sawbill -duck once or twice riding down on a log and fired twice, -unsuccessfully. Have been flanked on both sides with high, pineclad -hills for some time. A short distance above encampment snow can be -seen. It having rained almost incessantly, have encamped under -shelving bank which has been undermined by the river. Immense stones, -only held in situ by dried roots, form the roof, and the floor is very -rugged. Have supped on berries, which, when heated with stones in -kettle, taste like lozenges. Propose tomorrow to ascend one of the -snowy peaks above. - -Sept. 2. Summit of a snowy peak immediately under Rainier. Passed a -very uncomfortable night in our troglodytic mansion. Ascended the -river for 3 miles to where it was shut in by amphitheatre of mountains -and could be seen bounding over a lofty precipice above. Ascended that -which showed most snow. Our track lay at first through a dense wood of -pine, but we afterwards emerged into an exuberantly verdant gully, -closed on each side by lofty precipices. Followed fully to near the -summit and found excellent berries in abundance. It contained very few -Alpine plants. Afterwards came to a grassy mound, where the sight of -several decayed trees induced us to encamp. After tea I set out with -Lachalet and Nuckalkut for the summit, which was ankle deep with snow -for 1/4 mile downwards. The summit terminated in abrupt precipice -directed northwards and bearing N. E. from Mt. Rainier, the adjoining -peak. The mists were at times very dense, but a puff of S. W. wind -occasionally dispelled them. On the S. side of Poyallip is a range of -snow-dappled mountains, and they, as well as that on the N. side, -terminate in Mt. Rainier, a short distance to E. Collected a vasculum -of plants at the snow, and having examined and packed them shall turn -in. Thermometer at base, 54 deg., at summit of ascent, 47 deg. - -Sept. 3. Woody islet on Poyallip. It rained heavily during night, but -about dawn the wind shifting to the N. E. dispersed the clouds and -frost set in. Lay shivering all night and roused my swarthy companions -twice to rekindle the fire. At sunrise, accompanied by Quilliliash, -went to the summit and found the tempr. of the air 33 deg. The snow -was spangled and sparkled brightly in the bright sunshine. It was -crisp and only yielded a couple of inches to the pressure of foot in -walking. Mt. Rainier appeared surpassingly splendid and magnificent; -it bore, from the peak on which I stood, S. S. E., and was separated -from it only by a narrow glen, whose sides, however, were formed by -inaccessible precipices. Got all my bearings more correctly to-day, -the atmosphere being clear and every object distinctly perceived. The -river flows at first in a northerly direction from the mountain. The -snow on the summit of the mountain adjoining Rainier on western side -of Poyallip is continuous with that of latter, and thus the S. Western -aspect of Rainier seemed the most accessible. By ascending the first -mountain through a gully in its northern side, you reach the eternal -snow of Rainier, and for a long distance afterwards the ascent is very -gradual, but then it becomes abrupt from the sugarloaf form assumed by -the mountain. Its eastern side is steep on its northern aspect; a few -glaciers were seen on the conical portion; below that the mountain is -composed of bare rock, apparently volcanic, which about 50 yards in -breadth reaches from the snow to the valley beneath and is bounded on -each side by bold bluff crags scantily covered with stunted pines. Its -surface is generally smooth, but here and there raised into small -points or knobs or arrowed with short and narrow longitudinal lines in -which snow lay. From the snow on western border the Poyallipa arose, -and in its course down this rock slope was fenced into the eastward by -a regular elevation of the rock in the form of a wall or dyke, which -at the distance I viewed it at, seemed about four feet high and four -hundred yards in length. Two large pyramids of rock arose from the -gentle acclivity at S. W. extremity of mountain, and around each the -drifting snow had accumulated in large quantity, forming a basin -apparently of great depth. Here I also perceived, peeping from their -snowy covering, two lines of dyke similar to that already mentioned. - -Sept. 4. Am tonight encamped on a small eminence near the commencement -of prairie. Had a tedious walk through the wood bordering Poyallip, -but accomplished it in much shorter time than formerly. Evening fine. - -Sept. 5. Nusqually. Reached Tekatat camp in the forenoon and regaled -on boiled elk and shallon. Pushed on ahead with Lachalet and -Quilliliash, and arrived here in the evening, where all is well. - - - - - [Illustration: COMMANDER CHARLES WILKES. - United States Navy.] - -III. FIRST RECORDED TRIP THROUGH NACHES PASS, 1841 - -BY LIEUTENANT ROBERT E. JOHNSON, U.S.N. - - - The proper and official title of the United States Exploring - Expedition, 1838-1842, by common speech has been contracted - to the Wilkes Expedition. The commander of the expedition was - Charles Wilkes, who entered the United States Navy as a - midshipman on January 1, 1818. On July 25, 1866, he was - promoted to rear-admiral on the retired list. He was born at - New York City on April 3, 1798, and died at Washington City - on February 8, 1877. - - He was honored in Europe and America for his scientific - attainments, especially in connection with the expedition - that now bears his name. That voyage with a squadron of - American naval vessels was for the purpose of increasing the - world's knowledge of geography and kindred sciences. They - reached Puget Sound in 1841 and, while making headquarters at - Nisqually House of the Hudson's Bay Company, Commander Wilkes - sent Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson in command of a party to - cross the Cascade Range. Search in the Navy Department - revealed only scant information that Lieutenant Johnson was - from North Carolina. The Historical Commission of that State - and others there have failed to find information about his - subsequent career. - - Since he speaks of obtaining a guide, it is likely that he - was not the first white man to cross the Cascades, but he was - the first to leave us a known record. The portions of that - record which bear upon Mount Rainier and its environs is here - reproduced. - - Commander Wilkes, before giving the record of his - subordinate, makes reference to the peak as follows: "The - height of Mount Rainier was obtained by measuring a base line - on the prairies, in which operation I was assisted by - Lieutenant Case, and the triangulation gave its height, - twelve thousand three hundred and thirty feet." (Narrative, - Volume IV., page 413.) - - The final reports of the expedition were to appear in - twenty-four large volumes and eleven atlases. Several of the - volumes were never published, and of those completed only one - hundred sets were printed. The rare monographs were full of - information. The first part or "Narrative" in five volumes - was issued in several editions. The portions here reproduced - are taken from the edition by Lea and Blanchard, - Philadelphia, 1845, Volume IV., pages 418-429 and 468-470. - -I have before stated that Lieutenant Johnson's party was ready for -departure on the 19th May [1841]; that it consisted of Lieutenant -Johnson, Messrs. Pickering, Waldron, and Brackenridge, a sergeant of -marines, and a servant. I must do justice to the exertions of this -officer in getting ready for his journey, which he accomplished in -less time than I anticipated, as the delays incident to setting out on -a novel expedition, and one believed by most persons to be scarcely -practicable in the summer season, are great and tantalizing. In making -preparations for such a journey, the Indians were to be bargained -with, and, as I have before had occasion to remark, are enough to tire -the patience of Job himself. First, the Indian himself is to be sought -out; then the horse is to be tried; next the price is to be discussed, -then the mode of payment, and finally the potlatch: each and all are -matters of grave consideration and delay, during which the Indians -make a business of watching every circumstance of which they can take -advantage. No one can be sure of closing his bargain, until the terms -are duly arranged, the potlatch given, and the horse delivered. After -obtaining horses, Lieutenant Johnson had the saddles, alforcas, -saddle-cloths, saddle-trees or pack-saddles, etc., with a variety of -lashings, to prepare. For many of these we were indebted to the -kindness of Captain M'Niel and Mr. Anderson.[1] Others were made on -board the ship, after a pattern lent us. One of the most important -persons to obtain was a good guide, and hearing of one who resided at -the Cowlitz river, by the name of Pierre Charles,[2] he was at once -sent for; but I did not think it worth while to detain the party until -his arrival, as he could easily overtake it. Lieutenant Johnson, -therefore, was directed to hurry his departure, and to set out, which -he did on the 19th May, at noon, and proceeded to the prairie about -two miles distant, where the party encamped. - -There is little danger on these expeditions of having too few -articles: the great difficulty is to avoid having too many. It turned -out as I had anticipated. The first night passed in their tent fully -satisfied them of this, and taught them to dispense with all other -bedding save blankets. - -Mr. Anderson rode to the encampment before night, bringing the news of -the arrival of Pierre Charles at the fort; whereupon Lieutenant -Johnson returned to make an agreement with him and his companion. This -was done, although, as is to be supposed, their demands were -exorbitant, in consequence of the belief that their services were -indispensable. - -Pierre Charles's companion was a young man, named Peter Bercier, (a -connexion of Plomondon)[3] who spoke English, and all the languages of -the country. - -On the morning of the 20th, they obtained an accession to their -horses, and set out on their route towards the mountains. Although the -possibility of crossing them was doubted, yet I felt satisfied if -exertion and perseverance could effect the object, the officer who had -charge of the party would succeed. This day, they made but five miles; -after which they encamped, at the recommendation of Pierre Charles, in -order that the horses might not be over-fatigued, and be able to get -good pasture and water. Here a number of natives visited the camp. -Pine trees were in large numbers, many of them upwards of one hundred -and thirty feet in height. On the banks of a small stream, near their -camp, were found the yellow Ranunculus, a species of Trillium, in -thickets, with large leaves and small flowers, Lupines, and some -specimens of a cruciferous plant. - -On the 21st they made an early start, and in the forenoon crossed the -Puyallup, a stream about seventy feet wide; along which is a fine -meadow of some extent, with clumps of alder and willow: the soil was -of a black turfy nature. After leaving the meadow-land, they began to -ascend along a path that was scarcely visible from being overgrown -with Gaultheria, Hazel, Spiraea, Vaccinium, and Cornus. - -During the day, they crossed the Stehna.[4] In the evening, after -making sixteen miles, they encamped at the junction of the Puyallup -with the Upthascap.[5] Near by was a hut, built of the planks of the -Arbor Vitae (Thuja), which was remarkably well made; and the boards -used in its structure, although split, had all the appearance of being -sawn: many of them were three feet wide, and about fifteen feet long. -The hut was perfectly water-tight. Its only inhabitants were two -miserable old Indians and two boys, who were waiting here for the -arrival of those employed in the salmon-fishery. The rivers were -beginning to swell to an unusual size, owing to the melting of the -snows in the mountains; and in order to cross the streams, it became -necessary to cut down large trees, over which the packs were carried, -while the horses swam over. These were not the only difficulties they -had to encounter: the path was to be cut for miles through thickets of -brushwood and fallen timber; steep precipices were to be ascended, -with slippery sides and entangled with roots of every variety of shape -and size, in which the horses' legs would become entangled, and before -reaching the top be precipitated, loads and all, to the bottom. The -horses would at times become jammed with their packs between trees, -and were not to be disengaged without great toil, trouble, and damage -to their burdens. In some cases, after succeeding in getting nearly to -the top of a hill thirty or forty feet high, they would become -exhausted and fall over backwards, making two or three somersets, -until they reached the bottom, when their loads were again to be -arranged. - -On the 22d, their route lay along the banks of the Upthascap,[6] which -is a much wider stream than the Puyallup. A short distance up, they -came to a fish-weir, constructed as the one heretofore described, on -the Chickeeles,[7] though much smaller. - -This part of the country abounds with arbor-vitae trees, some of which -were found to be thirty feet in circumference at the height of four -feet from the ground, and upwards of one hundred feet high. -Notwithstanding the many difficulties encountered, they this day made -about twelve miles. - -On the morning of the 23d, just as they were about to leave their -camp, their men brought in a deer, which was soon skinned and packed -away on the horses. This was the first large game they had obtained, -having previously got only a few grouse. - -They had now reached the Smalocho,[8] which runs to the westward, and -is sixty-five feet wide: its depth was found to be four and a half -feet, which, as it was also rapid, was too great for the horses to -ford and carry their loads. The Indians now became serviceable to -them. Lieutenant Johnson had engaged several that were met on their -way, and they now amounted to thirteen, who appeared for a time lively -and contented. This, however, was but a forerunner of discontent, and -a refusal to go any farther; but with coaxing and threatening they -were induced to proceed. - -The road or way, after passing the river, was over a succession of -deep valleys and hills, so steep that it was difficult for a horse to -get up and over them with a load, and the fall of a horse became a -common occurrence. They were all, however, recovered without injury, -although one of them fell upwards of one hundred feet; yet in -consequence of his fall having been repeatedly broken by the shrubs -and trees, he reached the bottom without injury to himself, but with -the loss of his load, consisting of their camp utensils, &c., which -were swept off by the rapid current of the river. - -The route lay, for several days, through forests of spruce, and some -of the trees that had fallen measured two hundred and sixty-five feet -in length. One of these, at the height of ten feet from the roots, -measured thirty-five feet in circumference, and at the end which had -been broken off in its fall, it was found to be eighteen inches in -diameter, which would make the tree little short of three hundred feet -when it was growing. The stems of all these trees were clear of -branches to the height of one hundred and fifty feet from the ground, -and perfectly straight. In many cases it was impossible to see over -the fallen trees, even when on horseback, and on these, seedlings were -growing luxuriantly, forcing their roots through the bark and over the -body of the trunk till they reached the ground. Many spruces were seen -which had grown in this way; and these, though of considerable size, -still retained the form of an arch, showing where the old tree had -lain, and under which they occasionally rode. As may be supposed, they -could not advance very rapidly over such ground, and Lieutenant -Johnson remarks, that although he was frequently desirous of -shortening the road, by taking what seemed a more direct course, he -invariably found himself obliged to return to the Indian trail. - -Daylight of the 24th brought with it its troubles: it was found that -the horses had strayed,--a disaster that the Indians took quite -coolly, hoping it would be the cause of their return. After a -diligent search, the horses were found in places where they had sought -better food, although it was scanty enough even there. - -During the day, the route led along the Smalocho,[9] which runs nearly -east and west; and they only left its banks when they were obliged to -do so by various impassable barriers. This part of the country is -composed of conical hills, which are all thickly clothed with pine -trees of gigantic dimensions. They made nine miles this day, without -accident; but when they encamped, they had no food for the horses -except fern. The animals, in consequence, seemed much overcome, as did -also the Indians, who had travelled the whole day with heavy loads. -Lieutenant Johnson, by way of diverting the fatigue of the latter, got -up a shooting-match for a knife, the excitement of which had the -desired effect. - -The trees hereabout were chiefly the cotton-wood, maple, spruce, pine, -and elder, and some undergrowth of raspberry, the young shoots of -which the natives eat with great relish. - -On the 25th, they set out at an early hour, and found the travelling -less rough, so that they reached the foot of La Tete[10] before noon, -having accomplished eleven miles. Lieutenant Johnson with the sergeant -ascended La Tete, obtained the bearings, from its summit, of all the -objects around, and made its height by barometer, two thousand seven -hundred and ninety-eight feet: its latitude was fixed at 47 deg. 08' -54'' N. This mountain was entirely destitute of wood; but, having -been burnt over, was found strewn with huge charred trunks, and the -whole ground covered with ashes. The inclination of its sides was -about fifty degrees. - -The country around seemed one continued series of hills, and like La -Tete had suffered from the fire. According to the natives, although -the wood on the mountains was destroyed many years since, yet it was -still observed to be on fire, in some places, about two years ago. -Most of the tops of the distant peaks had snow on them. To the east -was seen the appearance of two valleys, through which the two branches -of the Smalocho[11] flow. - -On descending from La Tete, the river was to be crossed: this was -found too deep to be forded, and it consequently became necessary to -form a bridge to transport the baggage, by cutting down trees. The -current was found to run 6.2 miles per hour. They had been in hopes of -reaching the Little Prairie before night, but in consequence of this -delay, were forced to encamp before arriving there. - -The Indians complained much of the want of food: many of the horses -also were exhausted for the same cause, and exhibited their scanty -nourishment in their emaciated appearance. - -On the 26th, they reached the Little Prairie at an early hour, where, -after consultation, it was determined to wait a day to recruit the -horses, as this was the only place they could obtain food. It was also -desirable to ascertain the practicability of passing the mountain with -the horses, and at the same time to carry forward some of the loads, -that the horses might have as little as possible to transport. Mr. -Waldron and Pierre Charles were therefore sent forward with the -Indians, having loads of fifty pounds each, to ascend the mountain, -while Lieutenant Johnson remained with the camp to get observations. -Dr. Pickering and Mr. Brackenridge accompanied the party of Mr. -Waldron to the snow-line. The prairie on which they had encamped was -about two and a half acres in extent, and another of the same size was -found half a mile farther east. - -The 27th was employed by Lieutenant Johnson in determining the -positions of this prairie, which proved to be in latitude 47 deg. 05' -51'' N., and longitude 120 deg. 13' W.[12] The variation was 19 deg. -39' easterly. At sunset, messengers arrived from Mr. Waldron, who had -reached the summit at noon, and was to proceed down to the snow-line -to encamp. The snow was found to be about ten feet deep, and the party -crossing sank about ankle-deep, for which reason opinions varied as to -the possibility of getting the horses over; but it was determined to -make the trial. Lieutenant Johnson, therefore, set out, leaving a -supply of food with an old Indian and a horse, both of whom were worn -out, and unable to proceed. - -By eleven o'clock, they were met by Pierre Charles and the Indians, -who gave some slight hopes of accomplishing the task of getting all -over. Lieutenant Johnson determined to take only the strongest horses -to the edge of the snow. At half-past 5 P.M., they reached the best -practicable encampment, being a mile beyond the place where Mr. -Waldron had encamped two days before. The snow having melted so -rapidly, Lieutenant Johnson, taking all things into consideration, -determined, notwithstanding the forebodings of failure held out by the -party that had gone before, to make the attempt. It now became -necessary to push on with as much haste as possible, on account of the -state of their provisions; for what with the loss sustained in fording -the river, and in consumption, they were obliged to adopt an -allowance. - -On the 29th, they departed, at early dawn, in order to take advantage -of the firmness of the snow, occasioned by the last night's frost. -They ascended rapidly, and passed over the worst of the way, the -horses sinking no deeper than their fetlocks. They first passed over a -narrow ridge, and then a succession of small cones, until they reached -the summit. - -Mount Rainier, from the top, bore south-southwest, apparently not more -than ten miles distant. A profile of the mountain indicates that it -has a terminal crater, as well as some on its flanks. The barometer -stood at 24.950 in.: five thousand and ninety-two feet. There was -another, to the north-northeast, covered with snow, and one to the -west appeared about two hundred feet higher than the place where the -observations were taken. This latter had suffered from fire in the -same way as La Tete, and showed only a few patches of snow. To the -eastward, a range of inferior height, running north and south, was in -view, without snow. - -On the western ascent of this mountain, the pines were scrubby; but at -the summit, which was a plain, about a mile in length by half a mile -wide, they were straight and towering, about eighty feet in height, -without any limbs or foliage, except at the top. The distance -travelled over the top was about five miles. On descending the east -side, the snow was much deeper and softer, but the horses managed to -get along well, and without accident. - -Lieutenant Johnson, in following the party, missed the trail, and lost -his way for three or four hours. On discovering the camp of those who -had gone before, on the opposite side of a stream, he attempted to -cross it on a log, in doing which his foot slipped, and he was -precipitated into the water. Although his first thought was to save -the chronometer from accident, it was too late, for the watch had -stopped; it was not, however, so far injured as not to be set a-going, -and it continued to go during the remainder of the journey: the only -use I have been able to make of his subsequent observations, was to -obtain the relative meridian distances between the points visited, -without the absolute longitude. It is needless to say, that I placed -little or no dependence on them, in constructing the map. - -Although the horses had, with one or two exceptions, reached the -eastern side of the mountain, yet they, together with the Indians, -were very much exhausted. The time had now come when the Indians, -according to agreement, were to be paid off, and they had done much -more than they agreed to do, having crossed the mountain twice. - -Finding the necessity of retaining all the blankets that had been -brought with them, in order to buy horses, Lieutenant Johnson proposed -to the Indians to receive an order on Nisqually, in lieu of the -immediate delivery of the blankets. This they readily assented to, and -also willingly gave up those that had already been paid them, on -receiving a similar order,--thus showing a spirit of accommodation -highly praiseworthy. Only two of them returned to Nisqually, to whom -were entrusted the botanical specimens, and the care of the horses -left upon the road. - -The banks of the small streams on the eastern side of the mountain -were bordered with the greatest variety of trees and shrubs, -consisting of poplars, buckthorn fifty feet high, dogwood thirty to -forty feet high, several species of willow, alder, two species of -maple, and occasionally a yew. The undergrowth was composed of Hazel, -Vaccinium, Gaultheria, and a prickly species of Aralia. The herbaceous -shrubs were Goodyera, Neottia, Viola, Claytonia, Corallorrhiza. The -latter, however, were not in flower. - -The party on foot, after leaving the Little Prairie about half a mile, -crossed the northern branch of the Smalocho,[13] which was found much -swollen and very rapid. Two trees were cut down to form a bridge. -After this, the walking through the forest became smooth and firm, and -they passed on at a rapid pace. The Indians, although loaded with -ninety pounds of baggage, kept up with the rest. At nightfall they -encamped at the margin of the snow. - -On lighting their fires, they accidentally set fire to the -moss-covered trees, and in a few moments all around them was a -blazing mass of flame, which compelled them to change their quarters -farther to windward. They had made eighteen miles. But few plants were -found, the season being too early for collecting at so high an -elevation. The ground was covered with spruce-twigs, which had -apparently been broken off by the weight of the snow. The summit was -passed through an open space about twenty acres in extent. This glade -was surrounded with a dense forest of spruce trees. There was no -danger in walking except near the young trees, which had been bent -down by the snow, but on passing these they often broke through, and -experienced much difficulty in extricating themselves, particularly -the poor Indians, with their heavy burdens. The breadth of snow passed -over was about eight miles. At three o'clock they reached the -Spipen[14] River, where they encamped: this camp was found to be two -thousand five hundred and forty-one feet above the level of the sea. -The vegetation appeared to our botanical gentlemen farther advanced on -the east side than on the west, at the same height; the Pulmonarias -and several small annuals were more forward. There were only a few -pine trees, and those small, seen on the west side of the ridge; and -on the east side, there was a species of larch, the hackmatack of the -country. While they remained at this camp, they found a Pyrola, and -some new ferns. - -The country about the Spipen[14] is mountainous and woody, with a -narrow strip of meadow-land along its banks. Mr. Waldron had, on -arriving at the camp, sent Lachemere, one of the Indians, down the -river to an Indian chief, in order to procure horses. Those that -remained after providing for the baggage, were consequently assigned -each to two or three individuals to ride and tye on their route. - -On the 30th, they proceeded down the Spipen, making a journey of -eighteen miles, and passed another branch of the river, the junction -of which augmented its size very considerably. Its banks, too, became -perpendicular and rocky, with a current flowing between them at the -rate of six or seven miles an hour. After the junction, the stream was -about one hundred feet broad, and its course was east-southeast. - -The vegetation on the east side of the mountains was decidedly more -advanced than that to the west, and several very interesting species -of plants were met with by the botanists, on the banks of the streams: -among them were Paeonia brownii, Cypripedium oregonium, Pentstemon, -Ipomopsis elegans, and several Compositae, and a very handsome -flowering shrub, Purshia tridentata. - -On the 31st, they continued their route over a rough country, in some -places almost impassable for a horse from its steepness, and in others -so marshy as to require much caution to prevent being mired. - -During the morning, they met two Indians, who informed them that the -chief of the Yakima tribe was a short distance in advance, waiting to -meet them, and that he had several horses. At noon they reached a -small prairie on the banks of the river, where old Tidias, the chief, -was seen seated in state to receive Lieutenant Johnson; but this -ceremony was unavoidably broken in upon by the necessity of getting -the meridian observations. The chief, however, advanced towards him -with every mark of friendship, giving the party a hearty welcome. In -person he was tall, straight, and thin, a little bald, with long black -hair hanging down his back, carefully tied with a worsted rag. He was -grave, but dignified and graceful. When they had been seated, and -after smoking a couple of pipes in silence, he intimated that he was -ready for a talk, which then followed, relative to the rivers and face -of the country; but little information was obtained that could be -depended upon. - -This tribe subsist chiefly upon salmon and the cammass-root: game is -very scarce, and the beaver have all disappeared. The cammass-root is -pounded and made into a sort of cake, which is not unpleasant, having -a sweetish taste, but it is very dry, although some of the party took -a fancy to it. - -Tidias had with him an old man almost blind, who claimed much respect, -and two young men, whose dress of buckskin, profusely ornamented with -beads, was much admired by the party. During the talk, the old chief -expressed himself delighted to see the white men, and spoke of his own -importance, his immense territory, etc., in a style of boasting, to -which the Indians are very much addicted. He said that he was desirous -of affording all the accommodation he could to the party. But although -he had eight or ten fine horses with him, he would not agree to part -with them, as they were all his favourites. He was presented with a -variety of articles, in return for which he gave the party a few dried -salmon. - -Towards evening, old Tidias took leave of them, saying that it was not -proper for an Indian to encamp in the same place with a white man, and -with a promise that he would have horses by ten o'clock the next day; -but he had a game to play by procrastinating, in which he thoroughly -succeeded. - -In the morning they reached the Indian camp below, but no horses had -arrived. It was far, they said, to Tidias's house; a man could not go -thither and return in the same day; no horses or salmon could be -brought; no one could be permitted to go. Lieutenant Johnson was then -told that the road he had to follow was a "hungry" road. At last the -Indian was induced by high offers to exchange good horses for a great -number of bad ones, and finally consented to part with two more. On -quitting him they became thoroughly aware that all the difficulties -were owing, not to any indisposition to sell, but were created for the -purpose of inducing high prices to be given. - -The party now branched off at right angles to their former route, -Lieutenant Johnson heartily sick and tired of his friend Tidias and -his people. Two more of the Indians here left them. The country they -entered, after passing a ridge about six hundred feet high, was quite -of a different aspect, forming long sloping hills, covered with a -scanty growth of pines. Many dry beds of rivulets were passed, and the -soil of the hills produced nothing but a long thin grass. There are, -however, some small valleys where the growth of grass is luxuriant, -the pines are larger, and the scenery assumed a park-like appearance. - -From the summit of one of the hills, a sketch of Mount Rainier, and of -the intervening range, was obtained. - -On the top of the ridge they fell in with a number of Spipen Indians, -who were engaged in digging the cammass and other roots. The latter -were those of an umbelliferous plant, oblong, tuberous, and in taste -resembling a parsnip. The process used to prepare them for bread, is -to bake them in a well-heated oven of stones; when they are taken out -they are dried, and then pounded between two stones till the mass -becomes as fine as corn meal, when it is kneaded into cakes and dried -in the sun. These roots are the principal vegetable food of the -Indians throughout Middle Oregon. The women are frequently seen, to -the number of twenty or thirty, with baskets suspended from the neck, -and a pointed stick in their hand, digging these roots, and so -intently engaged in the search for them, as to pay no attention -whatever to a passer-by. When these roots are properly dried, they are -stored away for the winter's consumption. This day they made only -fifteen miles, in a northern direction. - -On the 2d of June, they reached the Yakima, after having crossed a -small stream. The Yakima was too deep for the horses to ford with -their packs, and they now for the first time used their balsas of -India-rubber cloth, which were found to answer the purpose of -floating the loads across the stream. - -This river is one hundred and fifty feet wide, and pursues an -east-southeast course, with a velocity of more than four miles an -hour. At this place were found twenty migrating Indians, who have -their permanent residence on the banks lower down. - -The chief, Kamaiyah, was the son-in-law of old Tidias, and one of the -most handsome and perfectly-formed Indians they had met with. He was -found to be gruff and surly in his manners, which was thought to be -owing to his wish to appear dignified. These Indians were living in -temporary huts, consisting of mats spread on poles. Among them was -seen quite a pretty girl, dressed in a shirt and trousers, with -moccasins of skin very much ornamented with fringe and beads. They had -a number of fine horses, but could not be induced to part with any of -them. - -Lieutenant Johnson had now succeeded in purchasing venison and salmon, -and the party again had full allowance. - -On the 3d, they continued their route to the northward, over gradually -rising ground, and Lieutenant Johnson having succeeded in purchasing -three more horses, only three of the party were now without them, so -that the riding and tye system was not quite so often resorted to as -before. On this plain was seen a number of curlews, some grouse, and a -large species of hare. They encamped again near the snow, and found -their altitude greater than any yet reached, the barometer standing at -24.750 in.: five thousand two hundred and three feet. They had again -reached the spruces and lost the pine, which was only found on the -hill-sides and plains. - -At 4 A.M. on the morning of the 4th of June, the thermometer stood at -28 deg.. They on that day continued their route up the mountain and -across its summit, which was here and there covered with patches of snow. -I regret to record another accident to the instruments. The sergeant, to -whom the barometer was intrusted by Lieutenant Johnson, in putting up -the instrument this morning, carelessly broke it; and thus ended the -barometrical experiments in the most interesting portion of the route. - -It is difficult to account for the scarcity of snow on a much higher -elevation than they had before reached, and under circumstances which -would appear to have warranted a contrary expectation. Dr. Pickering -was induced to believe that this change in the climate is owing to the -open nature of the surrounding country; its being devoid of dense -forests, with but a few scattered trees and no under-brush; and the -vicinity to elevated plains, and the ridge being of a less broken -character. - -The early part of the day was cold, with showers of sleet. On the -crest of the mountain they passed over swampy ground, with but a few -patches of spruces: after passing which, they began to descend very -regularly towards the Columbia, which they reached early in the -afternoon, about three miles below the Pischous River.[15] The -Columbia at this place is a rapid stream, but the scenery differs -entirely from that of other rivers: its banks are altogether devoid of -any fertile alluvial flats; destitute even of scattered trees; there -is no freshness in the little vegetation on its borders; the sterile -sands in fact reach to its very brink, and it is scarcely to be -believed until its banks are reached that a mighty river is rolling -its waters past these arid wastes. - - [The record of the journey to Fort Colville is omitted, to be - resumed when the party returning draws near the environs of - Mount Rainier. The portion omitted extends from page 430 to - 468 in the original publication.] - -The party now pursued the route up the river, and in two hours reached -the Yakima, up whose valley they passed, encamping after making -twenty-five miles. The country was rolling, and might be termed sandy -and barren. - -Mount St. Helen's,[16] with its snow-capped top, was seen at a great -distance to the west. - -On the 5th, they continued their route, and at midday were overtaken -by an Indian, with a note informing them of the arrival of Mr. Drayton -at Wallawalla with the brigade. This was quick travelling for news in -Oregon; for so slow is it usually carried, that our party were the -first to bring the news of the arrival and operations of the squadron -in Oregon. This intelligence had not previously reached Wallawalla, -although it is considered to be on the direct post-route to the -interior, notwithstanding we had been in the country nearly two -months. The news of the murder of Mr. Black, in New Caledonia, was -nearly a year in reaching some points on the coast. - -This was one of the warmest days they had experienced, and the -thermometer under the shade of a canopy stood at 108 deg. At a short -distance from the place where they stopped was a small hut, composed -of a few branches and reeds, which was thought to be barely sufficient -to contain a sheep; yet under it were four generations of human -beings, all females, seated in a posture, which, to whites, would have -been impracticable. They had just procured their subsistence for the -day, and their meal consisted of the berries of the dogwood. The scene -was not calculated to impress one very favourably with savage life. -The oldest of these had the cartilage of the nose pierced, but the -others had not; leading to the conclusion that the practice had been -discontinued for some years in the nation, who still, however, retain -the name. - -The country exhibited little appearance of vegetation; the herbage -was quite dried up, and from appearances was likely to continue so -throughout the season. The prevailing vegetation consisted of bushes -of wormwood, stinted in growth, and unyielding. - -After making thirty-three miles, they encamped among loose sand, one -hundred feet above the water of the river. Many rattlesnakes were -found in this vicinity. - -Owing to the quantities of mosquitoes, combined with the fear of -snakes, the party obtained little or no rest, and were all glad to -mount their horses and proceed on their way. - -In the early part of the day, they arrived at the junction of the -Spipen with the Yakima: previous to this they crossed another branch, -coming in from the southwest; the waters of the latter were very -turbid, of a dark-brown colour, and it was conjectured that it had its -source at or near Mount Rainier. Along its banks was seen a range of -basaltic columns. The Yakima was crossed during the day in canoes, the -river not being yet fordable. - -The country, which had for some days exhibited the appearance of the -Tillandsia districts of Peru, had now begun to acquire a tinge of -green, and some scattered pine trees had become visible. Some small -oaks were passed, which appeared of a local character. This night they -again had a number of rattlesnakes in their camp. - -On the 8th, the valley had narrowed, and the banks becoming more -perpendicular, they had a great many difficulties to encounter. They -stopped at the camp of old Tidias, whom, it will be recollected, they -had encountered after crossing the mountains, and from whom they -obtained some horses. They soon afterwards arrived at the path where -they had turned off to the north. The river had fallen very much -during their absence, and there was a marked difference in the season, -the vegetation being much more backward than in the parts they had -recently visited. The berries were just beginning to ripen, while in -the plains, not twenty miles distant, they were already over. Old -Tidias determined to accompany them to Nisqually, taking with him his -son, and lending them several horses. The Spipen, up which they -passed, was now hemmed in by mountain ridges, occasionally leaving -small portions of level ground. They encamped at the place they had -occupied on the 30th of May. - -The vegetation, since they had passed this place, had so much advanced -that they had difficulty in recognising it again. The wet prairies -were overgrown with rank grass, from one to two feet in height. After -a short rest at the foot of the mountain, they began its ascent, and -reached the crest of the ridge in about three hours. On every side -they found a low growth of shrubs, which they had not suspected when -it was covered with snow, and causing the summit to differ essentially -from the broad ridge they had crossed between the Yakima and Pischous -rivers. They encamped for the night on the edge of a wet prairie, -which afforded pasturage for their horses. - -The next day they passed through several similar prairies, and -descended the western slope of the mountain, where they found more -patches of snow than on the east side. This was just the reverse of -what they had found on their previous passage; the season, too, was -evidently much less advanced. This circumstance was supposed to be -owing to the denser forest on the west, as well as the absence of -elevated plains. - -They encamped the same night at the little prairie before spoken of, -at the foot of the western slope. Before reaching it, they met a party -of men and women carrying a sick chief over the mountain, who was -evidently dying. It was affecting to see him stretching forth his hand -to them as they passed, as if desiring to be friends with all before -he died. He died the same night. - -The two next days it rained almost constantly, but they found the road -much less difficult to travel than before, and the streams were -fordable, which enabled them to make more rapid progress. - -On the 13th, they passed the Smalocho, and on the 15th reached -Nisqually, all well; having performed a journey of about one thousand -miles without any material accident, except those that have been -related as having occurred to the instruments. They traversed a route -which white men had never before taken, thus enabling us to become -acquainted with a portion of the country about which all had before -been conjecture. They had also made a large addition to our collection -of plants. - - - - - [Illustration: THEODORE WINTHROP. - From the Rowse crayon portrait.] - -IV. TACOMA AND THE INDIAN LEGEND OF HAMITCHOU - -BY THEODORE WINTHROP - - - Theodore Winthrop was a descendant of the famous Governor - John Winthrop, of Massachusetts. He was born at New Haven, - Connecticut, on September 22, 1828, and lost his life early - in the Civil War near Great Bethel, Virginia, on June 10, - 1861. His death was deeply mourned as of one who had given - great promise of success in the field of literature. - - His book, _The Canoe and the Saddle_, has appeared in many - editions. It tells of his visit to Puget Sound and across the - Cascade Mountains in 1853. In that volume he declares that - the Indians called the mountain, Tacoma. So far as is known - to the editor, that is the first place that that name for the - mountain appeared in print. - - In addition to this interesting fact, the book is a charming - piece of literature, and will endure as one of the classics - on the Pacific Northwest. The portions here reproduced relate - to the mountain. They are taken from an early edition of the - book published by the John W. Lovell Company of New York. The - edition carries no date, but the copyright notice is by - Ticknor and Fields, 1862. The parts used are from pages - 43-45, and 123-176. - - The author's niece, Elizabeth Winthrop Johnson, of Pasadena, - California, kindly furnished a photograph of Rowse's portrait - of her famous uncle. - - The large and beautiful glacier sweeping from the northeast - summit past the western slope of Steamboat Prow now bears the - name of Winthrop Glacier. - -We had rounded a point, and opened Puyallop Bay, a breadth of -sheltered calmness, when I, lifting sleepy eyelids for a dreamy stare -about, was suddenly aware of a vast white shadow in the water. What -cloud, piled massive on the horizon, could cast an image so sharp in -outline, so full of vigorous detail of surface? No cloud, as my -stare, no longer dreamy, presently discovered,--no cloud, but a cloud -compeller. It was a giant mountain dome of snow, swelling and seeming -to fill the aerial spheres as its image displaced the blue deeps of -tranquil water. The smoky haze of an Oregon August hid all the length -of its lesser ridges, and left this mighty summit based upon uplifting -dimness. Only its splendid snows were visible, high in the unearthly -regions of clear blue noonday sky. The shore line drew a cincture of -pines across the broad base, where it faded unreal into the mist. The -same dark girth separated the peak from its reflection, over which my -canoe was now pressing, and sending wavering swells to shatter the -beautiful vision before it. - -Kingly and alone stood this majesty, without any visible comrade or -consort, though far to the north and the south its brethren and -sisters dominated their realms, each in isolated sovereignty, rising -above the pine-darkened sierra of the Cascade Mountains,--above the -stern chasm where the Columbia, Achilles of rivers, sweeps, -short-lived and jubilant, to the sea,--above the lovely vales of the -Willamette and Umpqua. Of all the peaks from California to Frazer's -River, this one before me was royalest. Mount Regnier Christians have -dubbed it, in stupid nomenclature perpetuating the name of somebody or -nobody. More melodiously the siwashes call it Tacoma,--a generic term -also applied to all snow peaks. Whatever keen crests and crags there -may be in its rock anatomy of basalt, snow covers softly with its -bends and sweeping curves. Tacoma, under its ermine, is a crushed -volcanic dome, or an ancient volcano fallen in, and perhaps as yet not -wholly lifeless. The domes of snow are stateliest. There may be more -of feminine beauty in the cones, and more of masculine force and -hardihood in the rough pyramids, but the great domes are calmer and -more divine, and, even if they have failed to attain absolute -dignified grace of finish, and are riven and broken down, they still -demand our sympathy for giant power, if only partially victor. Each -form--the dome, the cone, and the pyramid--has its type among the -great snow peaks of the Cascades. - - [Chapter VII, beginning at page 123 of the original - publication, is entitled "Tacoma."] - -Up and down go the fortunes of men, now benignant, now malignant. -_Ante meridiem_ of our lives, we are rising characters. Our full noon -comes, and we are borne with plaudits on the shoulders of a grateful -populace. _Post meridiem_, we are ostracized, if not more rudely -mobbed. At twilight, we are perhaps recalled, and set on the throne of -Nestor. - -Such slow changes in esteem are for men of some import and of settled -character. Loolowcan suffered under a more rapidly fluctuating public -opinion. At the camp of the road-makers, he had passed through a -period of neglect,--almost of ignominy. My hosts had prejudices -against redskins; they treated the son of Owhhigh with no -consideration; and he became depressed and slinking in manner under -the influence of their ostracism. No sooner had we disappeared from -the range of Boston eyes than Loolowcan resumed his leadership and his -control. I was very secondary now, and followed him humbly enough up -the heights we had reached. Here were all the old difficulties -increased, because they were no longer met on a level. We were to -climb the main ridge,--the mountain of La Tete,--abandoning the -valley, assaulting the summits. And here, as Owhhigh had prophesied in -his harangue at Nisqually, the horse's mane must be firmly grasped by -the climber. Poor, panting, weary nags! may it be true, the promise of -Loolowcan, that not far away is abundant fodder! But where can aught, -save firs with ostrich digestion, grow on these rough, forest-clad -shoulders? - -So I clambered on till near noon. - -I had been following thus for many hours the blind path, harsh, -darksome, and utterly lonely, urging on with no outlook, encountering -no landmark,--at last, as I stormed a ragged crest, gaining a height -that overtopped the firs, and, halting there for panting moments, -glanced to see if I had achieved mastery as well as position,--as I -looked somewhat wearily and drearily across the solemn surges of -forest, suddenly above their sombre green appeared Tacoma. Large and -neighbor it stood, so near that every jewel of its snow-fields seemed -to send me a separate ray; yet not so near but that I could with one -look take in its whole image, from clear-cut edge to edge. - -All around it the dark evergreens rose like a ruff; above them the -mountain splendors swelled statelier for the contrast. Sunlight of -noon was so refulgent upon the crown, and lay so thick and dazzling in -nooks and chasms, that the eye sought repose of gentler lights, and -found it in shadowed nooks and clefts, where, sunlight entering not, -delicate mist, an emanation from the blue sky, had fallen, and lay -sheltered and tremulous, a mild substitute for the stronger glory. The -blue haze so wavered and trembled into sunlight, and sunbeams shot -glimmering over snowy brinks so like a constant avalanche, that I -might doubt whether this movement and waver and glimmer, this blending -of mist with noontide flame, were not a drifting smoke and cloud of -yellow sulphurous vapor floating over some slowly chilling crater far -down in the red crevices. - -But if the giant fires had ever burned under that cold summit, they -had long since gone out. The dome that swelled up passionately had -crusted over and then fallen in upon itself, not vigorous enough with -internal life to bear up in smooth proportion. Where it broke into -ruin was no doubt a desolate waste, stern, craggy, and riven, but such -drear results of Titanic convulsion the gentle snows hid from view. - -No foot of man had ever trampled those pure snows. It was a virginal -mountain, distant from the possibility of human approach and human -inquisitiveness as a marble goddess is from human love. - -Yet there was nothing unsympathetic in its isolation, or despotic in -its distant majesty. But this serene loftiness was no home for any -deity of those that men create. Only the thought of eternal peace -arose from this heaven-upbearing monument like incense, and, -overflowing, filled the world with deep and holy calm. - -Wherever the mountain turned its cheek toward the sun, many fair and -smiling dimples appeared, and along soft curves of snow, lines of -shadow drew tracery fair as the blue veins on a child's temple. -Without the infinite sweetness and charm of this kindly changefulness -of form and color, there might have been oppressive awe in the -presence of this transcendent glory against the solemn blue of noon. -Grace played over the surface of majesty, as a drift of rose-leaves -wavers in the air before a summer shower, or as a wreath of rosy mist -flits before the grandeur of a storm. Loveliness was sprinkled like a -boon of blossoms upon sublimity. - -Our lives forever demand and need visual images that can be symbols to -us of the grandeur or the sweetness of repose. There are some faces -that arise dreamy in our memories, and look us into calmness in our -frantic moods. Fair and happy is a life that need not call upon its -vague memorial dreams for such attuning influence, but can turn to a -present reality, and ask tranquillity at the shrine of a household -goddess. The noble works of nature, and mountains most of all, - - "have power to make - Our noisy years seem moments in the being - Of the eternal silence." - -And, studying the light and the majesty of Tacoma, there passed from -it and entered into my being, to dwell there evermore by the side of -many such, a thought and an image of solemn beauty, which I could -thenceforth evoke whenever in the world I must have peace or die. For -such emotion years of pilgrimage were worthily spent. If mortal can -gain the thoughts of immortality, is not his earthly destiny achieved? -For, when we have so studied the visible poem, and so fixed it deep in -the very substance of our minds, there is forever with us not merely a -perpetual possession of delight, but a watchful monitor that will not -let our thoughts be long unfit for the pure companionship of beauty. -For whenever a man is false to the light that is in him, and accepts -meaner joys, or chooses the easy indulgence that meaner passions give, -then every fair landscape in all his horizon dims, and all its -grandeurs fade and dwindle away, the glory vanishes, and he looks, -like one lost, upon his world, late so lovely and sinless. - -While I was studying Tacoma, and learning its fine lesson, it in turn -might contemplate its own image far away on the waters of Whulge, -where streams from its own snows, gushing seaward to buffet in the -boundless deep, might rejoice in a last look at their parent ere they -swept out of Puyallop Bay. Other large privilege of view it had. It -could see what I could not,--Tacoma the Less, Mt. Adams, meritorious -but clumsy; it could reflect sunbeams gracefully across a breadth of -forest to St. Helen's, the vestal virgin, who still kept her flame -kindled, and proved her watchfulness ever and anon. Continuing its -panoramic studies, Tacoma could trace the chasm of the Columbia by -silver circles here and there,--could see every peak, chimney, or -unopened vent, from Kulshan to Shasta Butte. The Blue Mountains -eastward were within its scope, and westward the faint-blue levels of -the Pacific. Another region, worthy of any mountain's beholding, -Tacoma sees, somewhat vague and dim in distance: it sees the sweet -Arcadian valley of the Willamette, charming with meadow, park, and -grove. In no older world where men have, in all their happiest moods, -recreated themselves for generations in taming earth to orderly -beauty, have they achieved a fairer garden than Nature's simple labor -of love has made there, giving to rough pioneers the blessings and the -possible education of refined and finished landscape, in the presence -of landscape strong, savage, and majestic. - -All this Tacoma beholds, as I can but briefly hint; and as one who is -a seer himself becomes a tower of light and illumination to the world, -so Tacoma, so every brother seer of his among the lofty snow-peaks, -stands to educate, by his inevitable presence, every dweller -thereabouts. Our race has never yet come into contact with great -mountains as companions of daily life, nor felt that daily development -of the finer and more comprehensive senses which these signal facts of -nature compel. That is an influence of the future. The Oregon people, -in a climate where being is bliss,--where every breath is a draught of -vivid life,--these Oregon people, carrying to a new and grander New -England of the West a fuller growth of the American Idea, under whose -teaching the man of lowest ambitions must still have some little -indestructible respect for himself, and the brute of most tyrannical -aspirations some little respect for others; carrying the civilization -of history where it will not suffer by the example of Europe,--with -such material, that Western society, when it crystallizes, will -elaborate new systems of thought and life. It is unphilosophical to -suppose that a strong race, developing under the best, largest, and -calmest conditions of nature, will not achieve a destiny. - -Up to Tacoma, or into some such solitude of nature, imaginative men -must go, as Moses went up to Sinai, that the divine afflatus may stir -within them. The siwashes appreciate, according to their capacity, the -inspiration of lonely grandeur, and go upon the mountains, starving -and alone, that they may become seers, enchanters, magicians, -diviners,--what in conventional lingo is called "big medicine." For -though the Indians here have not peopled these thrones of their world -with the creatures of an anthropomorphic mythology, they yet deem them -the abode of Tamanous. Tamanous is a vague and half-personified type -of the unknown, of the mysterious forces of nature; and there is also -an indefinite multitude of undefined emanations, each one a tamanous -with a small t, which are busy and impish in complicating existence, -or equally active and spritely in unravelling it. Each Indian of this -region patronizes his own personal tamanous, as men of the more -eastern tribes keep a private manitto, and as Socrates kept a daimon. -To supply this want, Tamanous with a big T undergoes an avatar, and -incarnates himself into a salmon, a beaver, a clam, or into some -inanimate object, such as a canoe, a paddle, a fir-tree, a flint, or -into some elemental essence, as fire, water, sun, mist; and tamanous -thus individualized becomes the "guide, philosopher, and friend" of -every siwash, conscious that otherwise he might stray and be lost in -the unknown realms of Tamanous. - -Hamitchou, a frowzy ancient of the Squallyamish, told to Dr. Tolmie -and me, at Nisqually, a legend of Tamanous and Tacoma, which, being -interpreted, runs as follows:-- - - Hamitchou's Legend - -"Avarice, O Boston tyee," quoth Hamitchou, studying me with dusky -eyes, "is a mighty passion. Now, be it known unto thee that we Indians -anciently used not metals nor the money of you blanketeers. Our -circulating medium was shells,--wampum you would name it. Of all -wampum, the most precious is Hiaqua. Hiaqua comes from the far north. -It is a small, perforated shell, not unlike a very opaque quill -toothpick, tapering from the middle, and cut square at both ends. We -string it in many strands, and hang it around the neck of one we -love,--namely, each man his own neck. We also buy with it what our -hearts desire. He who has most hiaqua is best and wisest and happiest -of all the northern Haida and of all the people of Whulge. The -mountain horsemen value it; and braves of the terrible Blackfeet have -been known, in the good old days, to come over and offer a horse or a -wife for a bunch of fifty hiaqua. - -"Now, once upon a time there dwelt where this fort of Nisqually now -stands a wise old man of the Squallyamish. He was a great fisherman -and a great hunter; and the wiser he grew, much the wiser he thought -himself. When he had grown very wise, he used to stay apart from every -other siwash. Companionable salmon-boilings round a common pot had no -charms for him. 'Feasting was wasteful,' he said, 'and revellers would -come to want.' And when they verified his prophecy, and were full of -hunger and empty of salmon, he came out of his hermitage, and had -salmon to sell. - -"Hiaqua was the pay he always demanded; and as he was a very wise old -man, and knew all the tide-ways of Whulge, and all the enticing -ripples and placid spots of repose in every river where fish might -dash or delay, he was sure to have salmon when others wanted, and thus -bagged largely of its precious equivalent, hiaqua. - -"Not only a mighty fisher was the sage, but a mighty hunter, and elk, -the greatest animal of the woods, was the game he loved. Well had he -studied every trail where elk leave the print of their hoofs, and -where, tossing their heads, they bend the tender twigs. Well had he -searched through the broad forest, and found the long-haired prairies -where elk feed luxuriously; and there, from behind palisade fir-trees, -he had launched the fatal arrow. Sometimes, also, he lay beside a pool -of sweetest water, revealed to him by gemmy reflections of sunshine -gleaming through the woods, until at noon the elk came down, to find -death awaiting him as he stooped and drank. Or beside the same -fountain the old man watched at night, drowsily starting at every -crackling branch, until, when the moon was high, and her illumination -declared the pearly water, elk dashed forth incautious into the glade, -and met their midnight destiny. - -"Elk-meat, too, he sold to his tribe. This brought him pelf, but, alas -for his greed, the pelf came slowly. Waters and woods were rich in -game. All the Squallyamish were hunters and fishers, though none so -skilled as he. They were rarely in absolute want, and, when they came -to him for supplies, they were far too poor in hiaqua. - -"So the old man thought deeply, and communed with his wisdom, and, -while he waited for fish or beast, he took advice within himself from -his demon,--he talked with Tamanous. And always the question was, 'How -may I put hiaqua in my purse?' - -"Tamanous never revealed to him that far to the north, beyond the -waters of Whulge, are tribes with their under lip pierced with a -fishbone, among whom hiaqua is plenty as salmonberries are in the -woods what time in mid-summer salmon fin it along the reaches of -Whulge. - -"But the more Tamanous did not reveal to him these mysteries of -nature, the more he kept dreamily prying into his own mind, -endeavoring to devise some scheme by which he might discover a -treasure-trove of the beloved shell. His life seemed wasted in the -patient, frugal industry, which only brought slow, meagre gains. He -wanted the splendid elation of vast wealth and the excitement of -sudden wealth. His own peculiar tamanous was the elk. Elk was also -his totem, the cognizance of his freemasonry with those of his own -family, and their family friends in other tribes. Elk, therefore, were -every way identified with his life; and he hunted them farther and -farther up through the forests on the flanks of Tacoma, hoping that -some day his tamanous would speak in the dying groan of one of them, -and gasp out the secret of the mines of hiaqua, his heart's desire. - -"Tacoma was so white and glittering, that it seemed to stare at him -very terribly and mockingly, and to know his shameful avarice, and how -it led him to take from starving women their cherished lip and nose -jewels of hiaqua, and to give them in return only tough scraps of -dried elk-meat and salmon. When men are shabby, mean, and grasping, -they feel reproached for their grovelling lives by the unearthliness -of nature's beautiful objects, and they hate flowers, and sunsets, -mountains, and the quiet stars of heaven. - -"Nevertheless," continued Hamitchou, "this wise old fool of my legend -went on stalking elk along the sides of Tacoma, ever dreaming of -wealth. And at last, as he was hunting near the snows one day, one -very clear and beautiful day of late summer, when sunlight was -magically disclosing far distances, and making all nature -supernaturally visible and proximate, Tamanous began to work in the -soul of the miser. - -"'Are you brave,' whispered Tamanous in the strange, ringing, dull, -silent thunder-tones of a demon voice. 'Dare you go to the caves where -my treasures are hid?' - -"'I dare,' said the miser. - -"He did not know that his lips had syllabled a reply. He did not even -hear his own words. But all the place had become suddenly vocal with -echoes. The great rock against which he leaned crashed forth, 'I -dare.' Then all along through the forest, dashing from tree to tree -and lost at last among the murmuring of breeze-shaken leaves, went -careering his answer, taken up and repeated scornfully, 'I dare.' And -after a silence, while the daring one trembled and would gladly have -ventured to shout, for the companionship of his own voice, there came -across from the vast snow wall of Tacoma a tone like the muffled, -threatening plunge of an avalanche into a chasm, 'I dare.' - -"'You dare,' said Tamanous, enveloping him with a dread sense of an -unseen, supernatural presence; 'you pray for wealth of hiaqua. -Listen!' - -"This injunction was hardly needed; the miser was listening with dull -eyes kindled and starting. He was listening with every rusty hair -separating from its unkempt mattedness, and outstanding upright, a -caricature of an aureole. - -"'Listen,' said Tamanous, in the noonday hush. And then Tamanous -vouchsafed at last the great secret of the hiaqua mines, while in -terror near to death the miser heard, and every word of guidance -toward the hidden treasure of the mountains seared itself into his -soul ineffaceably. - -"Silence came again more terrible now than the voice of -Tamanous,--silence under the shadow of the great cliff,--silence -deepening down the forest vistas,--silence filling the void up to the -snows of Tacoma. All life and motion seemed paralyzed. At last -Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, the wise bird, foe to magic, sang cheerily -overhead. Her song seemed to refresh again the honest laws of nature. -The buzz of life stirred everywhere again, and the inspired miser rose -and hastened home to prepare for his work. - -"When Tamanous has put a great thought in a man's brain, has whispered -him a great discovery within his power, or hinted at a great crime, -that spiteful demon does not likewise suggest the means of -accomplishment. - -"The miser, therefore, must call upon his own skill to devise proper -tools, and upon his own judgment to fix upon the most fitting time -for carrying out his quest. Sending his squaw out to the kamas -prairie, under pretence that now was the season for her to gather -their winter store of that sickish-sweet esculent root, and that she -might not have her squaw's curiosity aroused by seeing him at strange -work, he began his preparations. He took a pair of enormous elk-horns, -and fashioned from each horn a two-pronged pick or spade, by removing -all the antlers except the two topmost. He packed a good supply of -kippered salmon, and filled his pouch with kinni kinnick for smoking -in his black stone pipe. With his bow and arrows and his two elk-horn -picks wrapped in buckskin hung at his back, he started just before -sunset, as if for a long hunt. His old, faithful, maltreated, -blanketless, vermilionless squaw, returning with baskets full of -kamas, saw him disappearing moodily down the trail. - -"All that night, all the day following, he moved on noiselessly by -paths he knew. He hastened on, unnoticing outward objects, as one with -a controlling purpose hastens. Elk and deer, bounding through the -trees, passed him, but he tarried not. At night he camped just below -the snows of Tacoma. He was weary, weary, and chill night-airs blowing -down from the summit almost froze him. He dared not take his -fire-sticks, and, placing one perpendicular upon a little hollow on -the flat side of the other, twirl the upright stick rapidly between -his palms until the charred spot kindled and lighted his 'tipsoo,' his -dry, tindery wool of inner bark. A fire, gleaming high upon the -mountain-side, might be a beacon to draw thither any night-wandering -savage to watch in ambush, and learn the path toward the mines of -hiaqua. So he drowsed chilly and fireless, awakened often by dread -sounds of crashing and rumbling among the chasms of Tacoma. He -desponded bitterly, almost ready to abandon his quest, almost doubting -whether he had in truth received a revelation, whether his interview -with Tamanous had not been a dream, and finally whether all the hiaqua -in the world was worth this toil and anxiety. Fortunate is the sage -who at such a point turns back and buys his experience without worse -befalling him. - -"Past midnight he suddenly was startled from his drowse, and sat bolt -upright in terror. A light. Was there another searcher in the forest, -and a bolder than he? That flame just glimmering over the tree-tops, -was it a camp-fire of friend or foe? Had Tamanous been revealing to -another the great secret? No, smiled the miser, his eyes fairly open, -and discovering that the new light was the moon. He had been waiting -for her illumination of paths heretofore untrodden by mortal. She did -not show her full, round jolly face, but turned it askance as if she -hardly liked to be implicated in this night's transaction. - -"However, it was light he wanted, not sympathy, and he started up at -once to climb over the dim snows. The surface was packed by the -night's frost, and his moccasins gave him firm hold; yet he travelled -but slowly, and could not always save himself from a _glissade_ -backwards, and a bruise upon some projecting knob or crag. Sometimes, -upright fronts of ice diverted him for long circuits, or a broken wall -of cold cliff arose, which he must surmount painfully. Once or twice -he stuck fast in a crevice, and hardly drew himself out by placing his -bundle of picks across the crack. As he plodded and floundered thus -deviously and toilsomely upward, at last the wasted moon gan pale -overhead, and under foot the snow grew rosy with coming dawn. The dim -world about the mountain's base displayed something of its vast -detail. He could see, more positively than by moonlight, the -far-reaching arteries of mist marking the organism of Whulge beneath; -and what had been but a black chaos now revealed itself into the -Alpine forest whence he had come. - -"But he troubled himself little with staring about; up he looked, for -the summit was at hand. To win that summit was wellnigh the attainment -of his hopes, if Tamanous were true; and that, with the flush of -morning ardor upon him, he could not doubt. There, in a spot Tamanous -had revealed to him, was hiaqua,--hiaqua that should make him the -richest and greatest of all the Squallyamish. - -"The chill before sunrise was upon him as he reached the last curve of -the dome. Sunrise and he struck the summit together. Together sunrise -and he looked over the glacis. They saw within a great hollow all -covered with the whitest of snow, save at the centre, where a black -lake lay deep in a well of purple rock. - -"At the eastern end of this lake was a small, irregular plain of snow, -marked by three stones like monuments. Towards these the miser sprang -rapidly, with full sunshine streaming after him over the snows. - -"The first monument he examined with keen looks. It was tall as a -giant man, and its top was fashioned into the grotesque likeness of a -salmon's head. He turned from this to inspect the second. It was of -similar height, but bore at its apex an object in shape like the -regular flame of a torch. As he approached, he presently discovered -that this was an image of the kamas-bulb in stone. These two -semblances of prime necessities of Indian life delayed him but an -instant, and he hastened on to the third monument, which stood apart -on a perfect level. The third stone was capped by something he almost -feared to behold, lest it should prove other than his hopes. Every -word of Tamanous had thus far proved veritable; but might there not be -a bitter deceit at the last? The miser trembled. - -"Yes, Tamanous was trustworthy. The third monument was as the old man -anticipated. It was a stone elk's head, such as it appears in earliest -summer, when the antlers are sprouting lustily under their rough -jacket of velvet. - -"You remember, Boston tyee," continued Hamitchou, "that Elk was the -old man's tamanous, the incarnation for him of the universal Tamanous. -He therefore was right joyous at this good omen of protection; and his -heart grew big and swollen with hope, as the black salmon-berry swells -in a swamp in June. He threw down his 'ikta'; every impediment he laid -down upon the snow; and, unwrapping his two picks of elk-horn, he took -the stoutest, and began to dig in the frozen snow at the foot of the -elk-head monument. - -"No sooner had he struck the first blow than he heard behind him a -sudden puff, such as a seal makes when it comes to the surface to -breathe. Turning round much startled, he saw a huge otter just -clambering up over the edge of the lake. The otter paused, and struck -on the snow with his tail, whereupon another otter and another -appeared, until, following their leader in slow and solemn file, were -twelve other otters, marching toward the miser. The twelve approached, -and drew up in a circle around him. Each was twice as large as any -otter ever seen. Their chief was four times as large as the most -gigantic otter ever seen in the regions of Whulge, and certainly was -as great as a seal. When the twelve were arranged, their leader -skipped to the top of the elk-head stone, and sat there between the -horns. Then the whole thirteen gave a mighty puff in chorus. - -"The hunter of hiaqua was for a moment abashed at his uninvited ring -of spectators. But he had seen otter before, and bagged them. These he -could not waste time to shoot, even if a phalanx so numerous were not -formidable. Besides, they might be tamanous. He took to his pick and -began digging stoutly. - -"He soon made way in the snow, and came to solid rock beneath. At -every thirteenth stroke of his pick, the fugleman otter tapped with -his tail on the monument. Then the choir of lesser otters tapped -together with theirs on the snow. This caudal action produced a dull, -muffled sound, as if there were a vast hollow below. - -"Digging with all his force, by and by the seeker for treasure began -to tire, and laid down his elk-horn spade to wipe the sweat from his -brow. Straightway the fugleman otter turned, and, swinging his tail, -gave the weary man a mighty thump on the shoulder; and the whole band, -imitating, turned, and, backing inward, smote him with centripetal -tails, until he resumed his labors, much bruised. - -"The rock lay first in plates, then in scales. These it was easy to -remove. Presently, however, as the miser pried carelessly at a larger -mass, he broke his elkhorn tool. Fugleman otter leaped down, and -seizing the supplemental pick between his teeth, mouthed it over to -the digger. Then the amphibious monster took in the same manner the -broken pick, and bore it round the circle of his suite, who inspected -it gravely with puffs. - -"These strange, magical proceedings disconcerted and somewhat baffled -the miser; but he plucked up heart, for the prize was priceless, and -worked on more cautiously with his second pick. At last its blows and -the regular thumps of the otter's tails called forth a sound hollower -and hollower. His circle of spectators narrowed so that he could feel -their panting breath as they bent curiously over the little pit he had -dug. - -"The crisis was evidently at hand. - -"He lifted each scale of rock more delicately. Finally he raised a -scale so thin that it cracked into flakes as he turned it over. -Beneath was a large square cavity. - -"It was filled to the brim with hiaqua. - -"He was a millionnaire. - -"The otters recognized him as the favorite of Tamanous, and retired to -a respectful distance. - -"For some moments he gazed on his treasure, taking thought of his -future proud grandeur among the dwellers by Whulge. He plunged his arm -deep as he could go; there was still nothing but the precious shells. -He smiled to himself in triumph; he had wrung the secret from -Tamanous. Then, as he withdrew his arm, the rattle of the hiaqua -recalled him to the present. He saw that noon was long past, and he -must proceed to reduce his property to possession. - -"The hiaqua was strung upon long, stout sinews of elk, in bunches of -fifty shells on each side. Four of these he wound about his waist; -three he hung across each shoulder; five he took in each hand;--twenty -strings of pure white hiaqua, every shell large, smooth, unbroken, -beautiful. He could carry no more; hardly even with this could he -stagger along. He put down his burden for a moment, while he covered -up the seemingly untouched wealth of the deposit carefully with the -scale stones, and brushed snow over the whole. - -"The miser never dreamed of gratitude, never thought to hang a string -from the buried treasure about the salmon and kamas tamanous stones, -and two strings around the elk's head; no, all must be his own, all he -could carry now, and the rest for the future. - -"He turned, and began his climb toward the crater's edge. At once the -otters, with a mighty puff in concert, took up their line of -procession, and, plunging into the black lake, began to beat the water -with their tails. - -"The miser could hear the sound of splashing water as he struggled -upward through the snow, now melted and yielding. It was a long hour -of harsh toil and much backsliding before he reached the rim, and -turned to take one more view of this valley of good fortune. - -"As he looked, a thick mist began to rise from the lake centre, where -the otters were splashing. Under the mist grew a cylinder of black -cloud, utterly hiding the water. - -"Terrible are storms in the mountains; but in this looming mass was a -terror more dread than any hurricane of ruin ever bore within its wild -vortexes. Tamanous was in that black cylinder, and as it strode -forward, chasing in the very path of the miser, he shuddered, for his -wealth and his life were in danger. - -"However, it might be but a common storm. Sunlight was bright as ever -overhead in heaven, and all the lovely world below lay dreamily fair, -in that afternoon of summer, at the feet of the rich man, who now was -hastening to be its king. He stepped from the crater edge and began -his descent. - -"Instantly the storm overtook him. He was thrown down by its first -assault, flung over a rough bank of iciness, and lay at the foot torn -and bleeding, but clinging still to his precious burden. Each hand -still held its five strings of hiaqua. In each hand he bore a nation's -ransom. He staggered to his feet against the blast. Utter night was -around him,--night as if daylight had forever perished, had never come -into being from chaos. The roaring of the storm had also deafened and -bewildered him with its wild uproar. - -"Present in every crash and thunder of the gale was a growing -undertone, which the miser well knew to be the voice of Tamanous. A -deadly shuddering shook him. Heretofore that potent Unseen had been -his friend and guide; there had been awe, but no terror, in his words. -Now the voice of Tamanous was inarticulate, but the miser could divine -in that sound an unspeakable threat of wrath and vengeance. Floating -upon this undertone were sharper tamanous voices, shouting and -screaming always sneeringly, 'Ha, ha, hiaqua!--ha, ha, ha!' - -"Whenever the miser essayed to move and continue his descent, a -whirlwind caught him, and with much ado tossed him hither and thither, -leaving him at last flung and imprisoned in a pinching crevice, or -buried to the eyes in a snowdrift, or bedded upside down on a shaggy -boulder, or gnawed by lacerating lava jaws. Sharp torture the old man -was encountering, but he held fast to his hiaqua. - -"The blackness grew ever deeper and more crowded with perdition; the -din more impish, demoniac, and devilish; the laughter more appalling; -and the miser more and more exhausted with vain buffeting. He -determined to propitiate exasperated Tamanous with a sacrifice. He -threw into the black cylinder storm his left-handful, five strings of -precious hiaqua." - -"Somewhat long-winded is thy legend, Hamitchou, Great Medicine-Man of -the Squallyamish," quoth I. "Why didn't the old fool drop his -wampum,--shell out, as one might say,--and make tracks?" - -"Well, well!" continued Hamitchou; "when the miser had thrown away his -first handful of hiaqua, there was a momentary lull in elemental war, -and he heard the otters puffing around him invisible. Then the storm -renewed, blacker, louder, harsher, crueller than before, and over the -dread undertone of the voice of Tamanous, tamanous voices again -screamed, 'Ha, ha, ha, hiaqua!' and it seemed as if tamanous hands, or -the paws of the demon otters, clutched at the miser's right-handful -and tore at his shoulder and waist belts. - -"So, while darkness and tempest still buffeted the hapless old man, -and thrust him away from his path, and while the roaring was wickeder -than the roars of tens and tens of tens of bears when ahungered they -pounce upon a plain of kamas, gradually wounded and terrified he flung -away string after string of hiaqua, gaining never any notice of such -sacrifice, except an instant's lull of the cyclone and a puff from the -invisible otters. - -"The last string he clung to long, and before he threw it to be caught -and whirled after its fellows, he tore off a single bunch of fifty -shells. But upon this, too, the storm laid its clutches. In the final -desperate struggle the old man was wounded so sternly that when he -had given up his last relic of the mighty treasure, when he had thrown -into the formless chaos, instinct with Tamanous, his last propitiatory -offering, he sank and became insensible. - -"It seemed a long slumber to him, but at last he awoke. The jagged -moon was just paling overhead, and he heard Skai-ki, the Blue-Jay, foe -to magic, singing welcome to sunrise. It was the very spot whence he -started at morning. - -"He was hungry, and felt for his bag of kamas and pouch of -smokeleaves. There, indeed, by his side were the elk-sinew strings of -the bag, and the black stone pipe-bowl,--but no bag, no kamas, no -kinni kinnik. The whole spot was thick with kamas plants, strangely -out of place on the mountain-side, and overhead grew a large -arbutus-tree, with glistening leaves, ripe for smoking. The old man -found his hardwood fire-sticks safe under the herbage, and soon -twirled a light, and, nurturing it in dry grass, kindled a cheery -fire. He plucked up kamas, set it to roast, and laid a store of the -arbutus-leaves to dry on a flat stone. - -"After he had made a hearty breakfast of the chestnut-like -kamas-bulbs, and, smoking the thoughtful pipe, was reflecting on the -events of yesterday, he became aware of an odd change in his -condition. He was not bruised and wounded from head to foot, as he -expected, but very stiff only, and as he stirred, his joints creaked -like the creak of a lazy paddle upon the rim of a canoe. Skai-ki, the -Blue-Jay, was singularly familiar with him, hopping from her perch in -the arbutus, and alighting on his head. As he put his hand to dislodge -her, he touched his scratching-stick of bone, and attempted to pass -it, as usual, through his hair. The hair was matted and interlaced -into a network reaching fully two ells down his back. 'Tamanous,' -thought the old man. - -"Chiefly he was conscious of a mental change. He was calm and -content. Hiaqua and wealth seemed to have lost their charms for him. -Tacoma, shining like gold and silver and precious stones of gayest -lustre, seemed a benign comrade and friend. All the outer world was -cheerful and satisfying. He thought he had never awakened to a fresher -morning. He was a young man again, except for that unusual stiffness -and unmelodious creaking joints. He felt no apprehension of any -presence of a deputy tamanous, sent by Tamanous to do malignities upon -him in the lonely wood. Great Nature had a kindly aspect, and made its -divinity perceived only by the sweet notes of birds and the hum of -forest life, and by a joy that clothed his being. And now he found in -his heart a sympathy for man, and a longing to meet his old -acquaintances down by the shores of Whulge. - -"He rose, and started on the downward way, smiling, and sometimes -laughing heartily at the strange croaking, moaning, cracking, and -rasping of his joints. But soon motion set the lubricating valves at -work, and the sockets grew slippery again. He marched rapidly, -hastening out of loneliness into society. The world of wood, glade, -and stream seemed to him strangely altered. Old colossal trees, firs -behind which he had hidden when on the hunt, cedars under whose -drooping shade he had lurked, were down, and lay athwart his path, -transformed into immense mossy mounds, like barrows of giants, over -which he must clamber warily, lest he sink and be half stifled in the -dust of rotten wood. Had Tamanous been widely at work in that eventful -night?--or had the spiritual change the old man felt affected his -views of the outer world? - -"Travelling downward, he advanced rapidly, and just before sunset came -to the prairies where his lodge should be. Everything had seemed to -him so totally altered, that he tarried a moment in the edge of the -woods to take an observation before approaching his home. There was a -lodge, indeed, in the old spot, but a newer and far handsomer one -than he had left on the fourth evening before. - -"A very decrepit old squaw, ablaze with vermilion and decked with -countless strings of hiaqua and costly beads, was seated on the ground -near the door, tending a kettle of salmon, whose blue and fragrant -steam mingled pleasantly with the golden haze of sunset. She resembled -his own squaw in countenance, as an ancient smoked salmon is like a -newly-dried salmon. If she was indeed his spouse, she was many years -older than when he saw her last, and much better dressed than the -respectable lady had ever been during his miserly days. - -"He drew near quietly. The bedizened dame was crooning a chant, very -dolorous,--like this: - - 'My old man has gone, gone, gone,-- - My old man to Tacoma, has gone. - To hunt the elk, he went long ago. - When will he come down, down, down, - Down to the salmon-pot and me?' - - 'He has come from Tacoma down, down, down,-- - Down to the salmon-pot and thee,' - -shouted the reformed miser, rushing forward to supper and his faithful -wife." - -"And how did Penelope explain the mystery?" I asked. - -"If you mean the old lady," replied Hamitchou, "she was my -grandmother, and I'd thank you not to call names. She told my -grandfather that he had been gone many years;--she could not tell how -many, having dropped her tally-stick in the fire by accident that very -day. She also told him how, in despite of the entreaties of many a -chief who knew her economic virtues, and prayed her to become mistress -of his household, she had remained constant to the Absent, and forever -kept the hopeful salmon-pot boiling for his return. She had distracted -her mind from the bitterness of sorrow by trading in kamas and magic -herbs, and had thus acquired a genteel competence. The excellent dame -then exhibited with great complacency her gains, most of which she had -put in the portable and secure form of personal ornament, making -herself a resplendent magazine of valuable frippery. - -"Little cared the repentant sage for such things. But he was rejoiced -to be again at home and at peace, and near his own early gains of -hiaqua and treasure, buried in a place of security. These, however, he -no longer over-esteemed and hoarded. He imparted whatever he -possessed, material treasures or stores of wisdom and experience, -freely to all the land. Every dweller by Whulge came to him for advice -how to chase the elk, how to troll or spear the salmon, and how to -propitiate Tamanous. He became the Great Medicine Man of the siwashes, -a benefactor to his tribe and his race. - -"Within a year after he came down from his long nap on the side of -Tacoma, a child, my father, was born to him. The sage lived many -years, beloved and revered, and on his deathbed, long before the -Boston tilicum or any blanketeers were seen in the regions of Whulge, -he told this history to my father, as a lesson and a warning. My -father, dying, told it to me. But I, alas! have no son; I grow old, -and lest this wisdom perish from the earth, and Tamanous be again -obliged to interpose against avarice, I tell the tale to thee, O -Boston tyee. Mayest thou and thy nation not disdain this lesson of an -earlier age, but profit by it and be wise." - -So far Hamitchou recounted his legend without the palisades of Fort -Nisqually, and motioning, in expressive pantomime, at the close, that -he was dry with big talk, and would gladly wet his whistle. - - [Chapter VIII, beginning at page 155 of the original - publication, is entitled: "Sowee House--Loolowcan."] - -I had not long, that noon of August, from the top of La Tete, to study -Tacoma, scene of Hamitchou's wild legend. Humanity forbade dalliance. -While I fed my soul with sublimity, Klale and his comrades were -wretched with starvation. But the summit of the pass is near. A few -struggles more, Klale the plucky, and thy empty sides shall echo less -drum-like. Up stoutly, my steeds; up a steep but little less than -perpendicular, paw over these last trunks of the barricades in our -trail, and ye have won! - -So it was. The angle of our ascent suddenly broke down from ninety to -fifteen, then to nothing. We had reached the plateau. Here were the -first prairies. Nibble in these, my nags, for a few refreshing -moments, and then on to superlative dinners in lovelier spots just -beyond. - -Let no one, exaggerating the joys of campaigning, with Horace's -"Militia potior est," deem that there is no compensating pang among -them. Is it a pleasant thing, O traveller only in dreams, envier of -the voyager in reality, to urge tired, reluctant, and unfed mustangs -up a mountain pass, even for their own good? In such a case a man, the -humanest and gentlest, must adopt the manners of a brute. He must ply -the whip, and that cruelly; otherwise, no go. At first, as he smites, -he winces, for he has struck his own sensibilities; by and by he -hardens himself, and thrashes without a tremor. When the cortege -arrives at an edible prairie, gastronomic satisfaction will put -Lethean freshness in the battered hide of every horse. - -We presently turned just aside from the trail into an episode of -beautiful prairie, one of a succession along the plateau at the crest -of the range. At this height of about five thousand feet, the snows -remain until June. In this fair, oval, forest-circled prairie of my -nooning, the grass was long and succulent, as if it grew in the bed of -a drained lake. The horses, undressed, were allowed to plunge and -wallow in the deep herbage. Only horse heads soon could be seen, -moving about like their brother hippopotami, swimming in sedges. - -To me it was luxury enough not to be a whip for a time. Over and above -this, I had the charm of a quiet nooning on a bank of emerald turf, by -a spring, at the edge of a clump of evergreens. I took my luncheon of -cold salt pork and doughy biscuit by a well of brightest water. I -called in no proxy of tin cup to aid me in saluting this sparkling -creature, but stooped and kissed the spring. When I had rendered my -first homage thus to the goddess of the fountain, Aegle herself, -perhaps, fairest of Naiads, I drank thirstily of the medium in which -she dwelt. A bubbling dash of water leaped up and splashed my visage -as I withdrew. Why so, sweet fountain, which I may name Hippocrene, -since hoofs of Klale have caused me thy discovery? Is this a rebuff? -If there ever was lover who little merited such treatment it is I. -"Not so, appreciative stranger," came up in other bubbling gushes the -responsive voice of Nature through sweet vibrations of the melodious -fount. "Never a Nymph of mine will thrust thee back. This sudden leap -of water was a movement of sympathy, and a gentle emotion of -hospitality. The Naiad there was offering thee her treasure liberally, -and saying that, drink as thou wilt, I, her mother Nature, have -commanded my winds and sun to distil thee fresh supplies, and my -craggy crevices are filtering it in the store-houses, that it may be -offered to every welcome guest, pure and cool as airs of dawn. Stoop -down," continued the voice, "thirsty wayfarer, and kiss again my -daughter of the fountain, nor be abashed if she meets thee half-way. -She knows that a true lover will never scorn his love's delicate -advances." - -In response to such invitation, and the more for my thirsty slices of -pork, I lapped the aerated tipple in its goblet, whose stem reaches -deep into the bubble laboratories. I lapped,--an excellent test of -pluck in the days of Gideon son of Barak;--and why? For many reasons, -but among them for this;--he who lying prone can with stout muscular -gullet swallow water, will be also able to swallow back into position -his heart, when in moments of tremor it leaps into his throat. - -When I had lapped plenteously, I lay and let the breeze-shaken shadows -smooth me into smiling mood, while my sympathies overflowed to enjoy -with my horses their dinner. They fed like school-boys home for -Thanksgiving, in haste lest the present banquet, too good to be true, -prove Barmecide. A feast of colossal grasses placed itself at the lips -of the breakfastless stud. They champed as their nature was;--Klale -like a hungry gentleman,--Gubbins like a hungry clodhopper,--Antipodes -like a lubberly oaf. They were laying in, according to the Hudson's -Bay Company's rule, supply at this meal for five days; without such -power, neither man nor horse is fit to tramp the Northwest. - -I lay on the beautiful verdant bank, plucking now dextrously and now -sinistrously of strawberries, that summer, climbing late to these -snowy heights, had just ripened. Medical men command us to swallow -twice a day one bitter pill confectioned of all disgust. Nature doses -us, by no means against our will, with many sweet boluses of delight, -berries compacted of acidulated, sugary spiciness. Nature, tenderest -of leeches,--no bolus of hers is pleasanter medicament than her ruddy -strawberries. She shaped them like Minie-balls, that they might -traverse unerringly to the cell of most dulcet digestion. Over their -glistening surfaces she peppered little golden dots to act as -obstacles lest they should glide too fleetly over the surfaces of -taste, and also to gently rasp them into keener sensitiveness. Mongers -of pestled poisons may punch their pills in malodorous mortars, roll -them in floury palms, pack them in pink boxes, and send them forth to -distress a world of patients:--but Nature, who if she even feels one's -pulse does it by a gentle pressure of atmosphere,--Nature, knowing -that her children in their travels always need lively tonics, tells -wind, sun, and dew, servitors of hers, clean and fine of touch, to -manipulate gay strawberries, and dispose them attractively on fair -green terraces, shaded at parching noon. Of these lovely fabrics of -pithy pulpiness, no limit to the dose, if the invalid does as Nature -intended, and plucks for himself, with fingers rosy and fragrant. I -plucked of them, as far as I could reach on either side of me, and -then lay drowsily reposing on my couch at the summit of the Cascade -Pass, under the shade of a fir, which, outstanding from the forest, -had changed its columnar structure into a pyramidal, and had branches -all along its stalwart trunk, instead of a mere tuft at the top. - -In this shade I should have known the tree which gave it, without -looking up,--not because the sharp little spicular leaves of the fir, -miniatures of that sword Rome used to open the world, its oyster, -would drop and plunge themselves into my eyes, or would insert their -blades down my back and scarify,--but because there is an influence -and sentiment in umbrages, and under every tree its own atmosphere. -Elms refine and have a graceful elegiac effect upon those they -shelter. Oaks drop robustness. Mimosas will presently make a -sensitive-plant of him who hangs his hammock beneath their shade. -Cocoa-palms will infect him with such tropical indolence, that he will -not stir until frowzy monkeys climb the tree and pelt him away to the -next one. The shade of pine-trees, as any one can prove by a journey -in Maine, makes those who undergo it wiry, keen, trenchant, -inexhaustible, and tough. - -When I had felt the influence of my fir shelter, on the edge of the -wayside prairie, long enough, I became of course keen as a blade. I -sprang up and called to Loolowcan, in a resinous voice, "Mamook chaco -cuitan; make come horse." - -Loolowcan, in more genial mood than I had known him, drove the trio -out from the long grass. They came forth not with backward hankerings, -but far happier quadrupeds than when they climbed the pass at noon. It -was a pleasure now to compress with the knees Klale, transformed from -an empty barrel with protuberant hoops, into a full elastic cylinder, -smooth as the boiler of a locomotive. - -"Loolowcan, my lad, my experienced guide, cur nesika moosum; where -sleep we?" said I. - -"Copa Sowee house,--kicuali. Sowee, olyman tyee,--memloose. Sia-a-ah -mitlite;--At Sowee's camp--below. Sowee, oldman chief,--dead. It is -far, far away," replied the son of Owhhigh. - -Far is near, distance is annihilated this brilliant day of summer, for -us recreated with Hippocrene, strawberries, shade of fir and tall -snow-fed grass. Down the mountain range seems nothing after our long -laborious up; "the half is more than the whole." "Lead on, Loolowcan, -intelligent brave, toward the residence of the late Sowee." - -More fair prairies linked themselves along the trail. From these -alpine pastures the future will draw butter and cheese, pasturing -migratory cattle there, when summer dries the scanty grass upon the -macadamized prairies of Whulge. It is well to remind ourselves -sometimes that the world is not wholly squatted over. The plateau soon -began to ebb toward the downward slope. Descent was like ascent, a way -shaggy and abrupt. Again the Boston hooihut intruded. My friends the -woodsmen had constructed an elaborate inclined plane of very knobby -corduroy. Klale sniffed at this novel road, and turned up his nose at -it. He was competent to protect that feature against all the perils of -stumble and fall on the trails he had been educated to travel, but -dreaded grinding it on the rough bark of this unaccustomed highway. -Slow-footed oxen, leaning inward and sustaining each other, like two -roysterers unsteady after wassail, might clumsily toil up such a road -as this, hauling up stout, white-cotton-roofed wagons, filled with the -babies and Lares of emigrants; but quick-footed ponies, descending and -carrying light loads of a wild Indian and an untamed blanketeer, chose -rather to whisk along the aboriginal paths. - -As we came to the irregular terraces after the first pitch, and -scampered on gayly, I by and by heard a welcome whiz, and a dusky -grouse (_Tetrao obscurus_) lifted himself out of the trail into the -lower branches of a giant fir. I had lugged my double-barrel thus far, -a futile burden, unless when it served a minatory purpose among the -drunken Klalams. Now it became an animated machine, and uttered a -sharp exclamation of relief after long patient silence. Down came -tetrao,--down he came with satisfactory thud, signifying pounds of -something not pork for supper. We bagged him joyously and dashed on. - -"Kopet," whispered Loolowcan turning, with a hushing gesture, "hiu -kullakullie nika nanitch;--halt, plenty birds I see." He was so eager -that from under his low brows and unkempt hair his dusky eyes glared -like the eyes of wild beast, studying his prey from a shadowy lair. - -Dismounting, I stole forward with assassin intent, and birds, grouse, -five noble ones I saw, engaged in fattening their bodies for human -solace and support. I sent a shot among them. There was a flutter -among the choir,--one fluttered not. At the sound of my right barrel -one bird fell without rising; another rose and fell at a hint from the -sinister tube. The surviving trio were distracted by mortal terror. -They flew no farther than a dwarf tree hard by. I drew my revolver, -thinking that there might not be time to load, and fired in a hurry at -the lowermost. - -"Hyas tamanous!" whispered Loolowcan, when no bird fell or flew,--"big -magic," it seemed to the superstitious youth. Often when sportsmen -miss, they claim that their gun is bewitched, and avail themselves of -the sure silver bullet. - -A second ball, passing with keener aim through the barrel, attained -its mark. Grouse third shook off his mortal remains, and sped to -heaven. The two others, contrary to rule, for I had shot the lower, -fled, cowardly carrying their heavy bodies to die of cold, starvation, -or old age. "The good die first,"--ay, Wordsworth! among birds this is -verity; for the good are the fat, who, because of their avoirdupois, -lag in flight, or alight upon lower branches and are easiest shot. - -Loolowcan bagged my three trophies and added them to the first. -Henceforth the thought of a grouse supper became a fixed idea with me. -I dwelt upon it with even a morbid appetite. I rehearsed, in prophetic -mood, the scene of plucking, the scene of roasting, that happy festal -scene of eating. So immersed did I become in gastronomic revery, that -I did not mind my lookout, as I dashed after Loolowcan, fearless and -agile cavalier. A thrust awoke me to a sense of passing objects, a -very fierce, lance-like thrust, full at my life. A wrecking snag of -harsh dead wood, that projected up in the trail, struck me, and tore -me half off my horse, leaving me jerked, scratched, disjointed, and -shuddering. Pachydermatous leggins of buckskin, at cost of their own -unity, had saved me from impalement. Some such warning is always -preparing for the careless. - -I soon had an opportunity to propitiate Nemesis by a humane action. A -monstrous trunk lay across the trail. Loolowcan, reckless -steeplechaser, put his horse at it, full speed. Gubbins, instead of -going over neatly, or scrambling over cat-like, reared rampant and -shied back, volte face. I rode forward to see what fresh interference -of Tamanous was here,--nothing tamanous but an unexpected sorry -object of a horse. A wretched castaway, probably abandoned by the -exploring party, or astray from them, essaying to leap the tree, had -fallen back beneath the trunk and branches, and lay there entangled -and perfectly helpless. We struggled to release him. In vain. At last -a thought struck me. We seized the poor beast by his tail, fortunately -a tenacious member, and, heaving vigorously, towed him out of prison. - -He tottered forlornly to his feet, looking about him like one risen -from the dead. "How now, Caudal?" said I, baptizing him by the name of -the part that saved his life; "canst thou follow toward fodder?" He -debated the question with himself awhile. Solitary confinement of -indefinite length, in a cramped posture, had given the poor skeleton -time to consider that safety from starvation is worth one effort more. -He found that there was still a modicum of life and its energy within -his baggy hide. My horses seemed to impart to him some of their -electricity, and he staggered on droopingly. Lucky Caudal, if life is -worth having, that on that day, of all days, I should have arrived to -rescue him. Strange deliverances for body and soul come to the dying. -Fate sends unlooked-for succor, when horses or men despair. - -Luckily for Caudal, the weak-kneed and utterly dejected, Sowee's -prairie was near,--near was the prairie of Sowee, mighty hunter of -deer and elk, terror of bears. There at weird night Sowee's ghost was -often seen to stalk. Dyspeptics from feather-beds behold ghosts, and -are terrified, but nightwalkers are but bugbears to men who have -ridden from dawn to dusk of a long summer's day over an Indian trail -in the mountains. I felt no fear that any incubus in the shape of a -brassy-hued Indian chief would sit upon my breast that night, and -murder wholesome sleep. - -Nightfall was tumbling down from the zenith before we reached camp. -The sweet glimmers of twilight were ousted from the forest, sternly -as mercy is thrust from a darkening heart. Night is really only -beautiful so far as it is not night,--that is, for its stars, which -are sources of resolute daylight in other spheres, and for its moon, -which is daylight's memory, realized, softened, and refined. - -Night, however, had not drawn the pall of brief death over the world -so thick but that I could see enough to respect the taste of the late -Sowee. When he voted himself this farm, and became seized of it in the -days of unwritten agrarian laws, and before patents were in vogue, he -proved his intelligent right to suffrage and seizure. Here in -admirable quality were the three first requisites of a home in the -wilderness, water, wood, and grass. A musical rustle, as we galloped -through, proved the long grass. All around was the unshorn forest. -There were columnar firs making the Sowee house a hypaethral temple on -a grand scale. - -There had been here a lodge. A few saplings of its framework still -stood, but Sowee had moved elsewhere not long ago. Wake siah -memloose,--not long dead was the builder, and viator might camp here -unquestioned. - -Caudal had followed us in an inane, irresponsible way. Patiently now -he stood, apparently waiting for farther commands from his preservers. -We unpacked and unsaddled the other animals. They knew their business, -namely, to bolt instantly for their pasture. Then a busy uproar of -nipping and crunching was heard. Poor Caudal would not take the hint. -We were obliged to drive that bony estray with blows out to the -supper-field, where he stood aghast at the appetites of his new -comrades. Repose and good example, however, soon had their effect, and -eight equine jaws instead of six made play in the herbage. - -"Alki mika mamook pire, pe nesika klatawah copa klap tsuk; now light -thou a fire, and we will go find water," said Loolowcan. I struck -fire,--fire smote tinder,--tinder sent the flame on, until a pyre from -the world's free wood-pile was kindled. This boon of fire,--what wonder -that men devised a Prometheus greatest of demigods as its discoverer? -Mortals, shrinking from the responsibility of a high destiny and -dreading to know how divine the Divine would have them, always imagine -an avatar of some one not lower than a half-god when a gift of great -price comes to the world. And fire is a very priceless and beautiful -boon,--not, as most know it, in imprisonment, barred with iron, or in -sooty chimneys, or in mad revolt of conflagration,--but as it grows in -a flashing pyramid out in camp in the free woods, with eager air -hurrying in on every side to feed its glory. In the gloom I strike -metal of steel against metallic flint. From this union a child is born. -I receive the young spark tenderly in warm "tipsoo," in a soft woolly -nest of bark or grass tinder. Swaddled in this he thrives. He smiles; -he chuckles; he laughs; he dances about, does my agile nursling. He -will soon wear out his first infantile garb, so I cover him up in -shelter. I feed him with digestible viands, according to his years. I -give him presently stouter fare, and offer exhilarating morsels of -fatness. All these the hearty youth assimilates, and grows healthily. -And now I educate him to manliness, training him on great joints, -shoulders, and marrowy portions. He becomes erelong a power and a -friend able to requite me generously for my care. He aids me in -preparing my feast, and we feast together. Afterward we talk,--Flame -and I,--we think together strong and passionate thoughts of purpose and -achievement. These emotions of manhood die away, and we share pensive -memories of happiness missed, or disdained, or feebly grasped and torn -away; regrets cover these like embers, and slowly over dead fieriness -comes a robe of ashy gray. - -Fire in the forest is light, heat, and cheer. When ours was nurtured -to the self-sustaining point, we searched to find where the sage Sowee -kept his potables. Carefully covered up in sedges was a slender supply -of water, worth concealing from vulgar dabblers. Its diamond drops -were hidden away so thoroughly that we must mine for them by -torchlight. I held a flaring torch, while Loolowcan lay in wait for -the trickle, and captured it in a tin pot. How wild he looked, that -youth so frowzy by daylight, as, stooping under the tall sedges, he -clutched those priceless sparkles. - -Upon the _carte du jour_ at Restaurant Sowee was written Grouse. "How -shall we have them?" said I, cook and convive, to Loolowcan, marmiton -and convive. "One of these cocks of the mountain shall be fried, since -gridiron is not," said I to myself, after meditation. "Two shall be -spitted, and roasted; and, as Azrael may not want us before breakfast -to-morrow, the fourth shall go on the _carte de dejeuner_." - -"O Pork! what a creature thou art!" continued I, in monologue, cutting -neat slices of that viand with my bowie-knife, and laying them -fraternally, three in a bed, in the frying-pan. "Blessed be Moses! who -forbade thee to the Jews, whereby we, of freer dispensations, heirs of -all the ages, inherit also pigs more numerous and bacon cheaper. O -Pork! what could campaigners do without thy fatness, thy leanness, thy -saltness, thy portableness?" - -Here Loolowcan presented me the three birds plucked featherless as -Plato's man. The two roasters we planted carefully on spits before a -sultry spot of the fire. From a horizontal stick, supported on forked -stakes, we suspended by a twig over each roaster an automatic baster, -an inverted cone of pork, ordained to yield its spicy juices to the -wooing flame, and drip bedewing on each bosom beneath. The roasters -ripened deliberately, while keen and quick fire told upon the fryer, -the first course of our feast. Meanwhile I brewed a pot of tea, -blessing Confucius for that restorative weed, as I had blessed Moses -for his abstinence from porkers. - -Need I say that the grouse was admirable, that everything was -delicious, and the Confucian weed first chop? Even a scouse of mouldy -biscuit met the approval of Loolowcan. Feasts cooked under the -greenwood tree, and eaten by their cooks after a triumphant day of -progress, are sweeter than the conventional banquets of languid -Christendom. After we had paid our duty to the brisk fryer and the -rotund roaster grouse, nothing remained but bones to propitiate Sowee, -should he find short commons in Elysium, and wander back to his lodge, -seeking what he might devour. - -All along the journey I had been quietly probing the nature of -Loolowcan, my most intimate associate thus far among the unalloyed -copper-skins. Chinook jargon was indeed but a blunt probe, yet perhaps -delicate enough to follow up such rough bits of conglomerate as served -him for ideas. An inductive philosopher, tracing the laws of -developing human thought _in corpore viti_ of a frowzy savage, finds -his work simple,--the nuggets are on the surface. Those tough pebbles -known to some metaphysicians as innate ideas, can be studied in -Loolowcan in their process of formation out of instincts. - -Number one is the prize number in Loolowcan's lottery of life. He -thinks of that number; he dreams of it alone. When he lies down to -sleep, he plots what he will do in the morning with his prize and his -possession; when he wakes, he at once proceeds to execute his plots. -Loolowcan knows that there are powers out of himself; rights out of -himself he does not comprehend, or even conceive. I have thus far been -very indulgent to him, and treated him republicanly, mindful of the -heavy mesne profits for the occupation of a continent, and the -uncounted arrears of blood-money owed by my race to his; yet I find -no trace of gratitude in my analysis of his character. He seems to be -composed, selfishness, five hundred parts;--_nil admirari_ coolness, -five hundred parts;--a well-balanced character, and perhaps one not -likely to excite enthusiasm in others. I am a steward to him; I purvey -him also a horse; when we reach the Dalles, I am to pay him for his -services;--but he is bound to me by no tie of comradery. He has -caution more highly developed than any quadruped I have met, and will -not offend me lest I should resign my stewardship, retract Gubbins, -refuse payment, discharge my guide, and fight through the woods, where -he sees I am no stranger, alone. He certainly merits a "teapot" for -his ability in guidance. He has memory and observation unerring; not -once in all our intricate journey have I found him at fault in any -fact of space or time. He knows "each lane and every ally green" here, -accurately as Comus knew his "wild wood." - -Moral conceptions exist only in a very limited degree for this type of -his race. Of God he knows somewhat less than the theologians; that is, -he is in the primary condition of uninquisitive ignorance, not in the -secondary, of inquisitive muddle. He has the advantage of no elaborate -system of human inventions to unlearn. He has no distinct fetichism. -None of the North American Indians have, in the accurate sense of the -term; their nomad life and tough struggle with instructive Nature in -her roughness save them from such elaborate fetichism as may exist in -more indolent climes and countries. - -Loolowcan has his tamanous. It is Talipus, the Wolf, a "hyas skookoom -tamanous, a very mighty demon," he informs me. He does not worship it; -that would interfere with his devotions to his real deity, Number One. -It, in return, does him little service. If he met Talipus, object of -his superstition, on a fair morning, he would think it a good omen; -if on a sulky morning, he might be somewhat depressed, but would not -on that account turn back, as a Roman brave would have done on meeting -the matinal wolf. In fact, he keeps Talipus, his tamanous, as a kind -of ideal hobby, very much as a savage civilized man entertains a pet -bulldog or a tame bear, a link between himself and the rude, dangerous -forces of nature. Loolowcan has either chosen his protector according -to the law of likeness, or, choosing it by chance, has become -assimilated to its characteristics. A wolfish youth is the _protege_ -of Talipus,--an unfaithful, sinister, cannibal-looking son of a -horse-thief. Wolfish likewise is his appetite; when he asks me for -more dinner, and this without stint or decorum he does, he glares as -if, grouse failing, pork and hard-tack gone, he could call to Talipus -to send in a pack of wolves incarnate, and pounce with them upon me. A -pleasant companion this for lamb-like me to lie down beside in the den -of the late Sowee. Yet I do presently, after supper and a pipe, and a -little jargoning in Chinook with my Wolf, roll into my blankets, and -sleep vigorously, lulled by the gratifying noise of my graminivorous -horses cramming themselves with material for leagues of lope -to-morrow. - -No shade of Sowee came to my slumbers with warning against the wolf in -guise of a Klickatat brave. I had no ghostly incubus to shake off, but -sprang up recreate in body and soul. Life is vivid when it thus -awakes. To be is to do. - -And to-day much is to be done. Long leagues away, beyond a gorge of -difficulty, is the open rolling hill country, and again far beyond are -the lodges of the people of Owhhigh. "To-day," said Loolowcan, "we -must go copa nika ilihee, to my home, to Weenas." - -Forlorn Caudal is hardly yet a frisky quadruped. Yet he is of better -cheer, perhaps up to the family-nag degree of vivacity. As to the -others, they have waxed fat, and kick. Klale, the Humorous, kicks -playfully, elongating in preparatory gymnastics. Gubbins, the average -horse, kicks calmly at his saddler, merely as a protest. Antipodes, -the spiteful Blunderer, kicks in a revolutionary manner, rolls under -his pack-saddle, and will not budge without maltreatment. Ill-educated -Antipodes views mankind only as excoriators of his back, and general -flagellants. Klickitats kept him raw in flesh and temper; under me his -physical condition improves; his character is not yet affected. - -Before sunrise we quitted the house of Sowee. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Captain William Henry McNeill and Alexander Caulfield Anderson, -Hudson's Bay Company men, then at Nisqually House. Captain McNeill was -master of the famous old steamer _Beaver_. Mr. Anderson was in charge -of Nisqually House. Both men were honored by having their names given -to islands in Puget Sound. - -[2] Pierre Charles, French Canadian, had been an employee of the -Hudson's Bay Company. - -[3] Simon Plomondon was an employee of the Hudson's Bay Company, who -retired and settled in the Cowlitz Valley. - -[4] Probably the Stone Creek of present usage. - -[5] Carbon River. - -[6] Meaning up the Carbon River and its branch called South Prairie -Creek. - -[7] Chehalis River. - -[8] White River. - -[9] White River. - -[10] Lieutenant Richard Arnold, in Pacific Railway Reports, Volume -XII, Part I, page 191, says: "Near the junction of Whitewater and -Green rivers there is a remarkable peak called La Tete, from a large -rock on its slope resembling the head and neck of a man. This is an -important point, as it forms the gate of the mountains on the west." -Modern maps shift the "water" part of the names. They are now White -and Greenwater rivers. - -[11] White and Greenwater rivers. - -[12] This is an error and should read 121 deg. 25' W. as Naches Pass -is known to be 121 deg. 21' and Lieutenant Johnson's "Little Prairie" -was a little west of the Pass. - -[13] Greenwater branch of White River. - -[14] Naches River. - -[15] Wenatchee River. - -[16] Mount Adams. The two peaks were frequently confused in early -writings. - - - - - [Illustration: GENERAL AUGUST VALENTINE KAUTZ. - United States Army.] - -V. FIRST ATTEMPTED ASCENT, 1857 - -BY LIEUTENANT A. V. KAUTZ, U.S.A. - - - August Valentine Kautz was born at Ispringen, Baden, Germany, - on January 5, 1828. In that same year his parents came to - America. On attaining manhood the son entered the army and - served as a private soldier in the Mexican War. At its - conclusion he was appointed to the Military Academy at West - Point. Graduating in 1852, he was assigned to the Fourth - Infantry and soon found himself in the Pacific Northwest. - After going through the Indian wars here he achieved a - brilliant record in the Civil War. Continuing in the army, he - reached the rank of brigadier-general and was for a time in - command of the Department of the Columbia. He died at Seattle - on September 4, 1895. - - It was while, as a lieutenant, he was stationed at Fort - Steilacoom that he attempted to ascend Mount Rainier. His - account of the trip was published in the Overland Monthly, - May, 1875. It is here republished by permission of the - editor. While the ascent was claimed to be complete the - climber says there was still higher land above him, and it is - now difficult to fix the exact altitude attained. - - Professor I. C. Russell declares that Professor George - Davidson made a statement before the California Academy of - Sciences, on March 6, 1871, to the effect that when - Lieutenant Kautz "attempted the ascent of Mount Rainier in - 1857" he found his way barred by a great glacier. From this, - says Professor Russell, it "seems that he first reported the - existence of living glaciers in the United States." (See: - Israel C. Russell: Glaciers of North America; Boston, Ginn & - Company, 1897, p. 62). The portrait of General Kautz was - furnished by his daughter, Mrs. Navana Kautz Simpson, of - Cincinnati, Ohio. - -In the summer of 1857 I was stationed at Fort Steilacoom, Washington -Territory. This post was located near the village of Steilacoom, on -the waters of Puget Sound. The post and the village took their names -from a little stream near by, which is the outlet of a number of -small lakes and ponds emptying into the sound. Quite a family of -Indians made their permanent home in the vicinity of this creek in -former years, and were known as "_Steilacoom Tillicum_." According to -the Indian pronunciation of the name it should have been spelled -"Steelacoom," dwelling long on the first syllable. - -I was at that time a first-lieutenant, young, and fond of visiting -unexplored sections of the country, and possessed of a very prevailing -passion for going to the tops of high places. My quarters fronted -Mount Rainier, which is about sixty miles nearly east of Fort -Steilacoom in an air line. On a clear day it does not look more than -ten miles off, and looms up against the eastern sky white as the snow -with which it is covered, with a perfectly pyramidal outline, except -at the top, which is slightly rounded and broken. It is a grand and -inspiring view, and I had expressed so often my determination to make -the ascent, without doing it, that my fellow-officers finally became -incredulous, and gave to all improbable and doubtful events a date of -occurrence when I should ascend Mount Rainier. - -My resolution, however, took shape and form about the first of July. -Nearly all the officers had been very free to volunteer to go with me -as long as they felt certain I was not going; but when I was ready to -go, I should have been compelled to go alone but for the doctor, who -was on a visit to the post from Fort Bellingham. - -I made preparations after the best authorities I could find, from -reading accounts of the ascent of Mont Blanc and other snow mountains. -We made for each member of the party an _alpenstock_ of dry ash with -an iron point. We sewed upon our shoes an extra sole, through which -were first driven four-penny nails with the points broken off and the -heads inside. We took with us a rope about fifty feet long, a hatchet, -a thermometer, plenty of hard biscuit, and dried beef such as the -Indians prepare. - -Information relating to the mountain was exceedingly meagre; no white -man had ever been near it, and Indians were very superstitious and -afraid of it. The southern slope seemed the least abrupt, and in that -direction I proposed to reach the mountain; but whether to keep the -high ground, or follow some stream to its source, was a question. -Leshi, the chief of the Nesquallies, was at that time in the -guard-house, awaiting his execution, and as I had greatly interested -myself to save him from his fate, he volunteered the information that -the valley of the Nesqually River was the best approach after getting -above the falls. He had some hope that I would take him as a guide; -but finding that out of the question he suggested Wah-pow-e-ty,[17] an -old Indian of the Nesqually tribe, as knowing more about the Nesqually -than any other of his people. - -Mount Rainier is situated on the western side of the Cascade Range, -near the forty-seventh parallel. The range to which it belongs -averages about 7,000 to 8,000 feet in height, and snow may be seen -along its summit-level the year round, while Rainier, with its immense -covering of snow, towers as high again above the range. In various -travels and expeditions in the territory, I had viewed the snow-peaks -of this range from all points of the compass, and since that time -having visited the mountain regions of Europe, and most of those of -North America, I assert that Washington Territory contains mountain -scenery in quantity and quality sufficient to make half a dozen -Switzerlands, while there is on the continent none more grand and -imposing than is presented in the Cascade Range north of the Columbia -River. - -About noon on the 8th of July [1857] we finally started. The party -consisted of four soldiers--two of them equipped to ascend the -mountain, and the other two to take care of our horses when we should -be compelled to leave them. We started the soldiers on the direct -route, with orders to stop at Mr. Wren's, on the eastern limit of the -Nesqually plains, ten or twelve miles distant, and wait for us, while -the doctor and I went by the Nesqually Reservation in order to pick up -old Wah-pow-e-ty, the Indian guide. - -We remained all night at Wren's, and the next morning entered that -immense belt of timber with which the western slope of the Cascade -Range is covered throughout its entire length. I had become familiar -with the Indian trail that we followed, the year previous, in our -pursuit of Indians. The little patches of prairie are so rare that -they constitute in that immense forest landmarks for the guidance of -the traveler. Six miles from Wren's we came to Pawhtummi, a little -_camas_ prairie about 500 yards long, and 100 in breadth, a resort for -the Indians in the proper season to gather the _camas_-root. Six miles -farther we came to a similar prairie, circular in form, not more than -400 yards in diameter, called Koaptil. Another six or seven miles took -us to the Tanwut, a small stream with a patch of prairie bordering it, -where the trail crossed. Ten or twelve miles more brought us to the -Mishawl Prairie, where we camped for the night, this being the end of -the journey for our horses, and the limit of our knowledge of the -country. - -This prairie takes its name from the stream near by, and is situated -between it and the Owhap on a high table-land or bluff, not more than -one or two miles from where these enter the Nesqually. It is perhaps -half a mile long, and 200 or 300 yards wide at the widest point. The -grass was abundant, and it was an excellent place to leave our horses. -Fifteen months before, I had visited this spot, and camped near by -with a small detachment of troops, searching for Indians who had -hidden away in these forests, completely demoralized and nearly -starving. A family of two or three men, and quite a number of women -and children, had camped in the fork of the Mishawl and Nesqually, -about two miles from this prairie, and were making fishtraps to catch -salmon. When we fell in with them we learned that the Washington -Territory volunteers had been before us, and with their immensely -superior force had killed the most of them without regard to age or -sex. Our own little command in that expedition captured about thirty -of these poor, half-starved, ignorant creatures, and no act of -barbarity was perpetrated by us to mar the memory of that success. - -We accordingly camped in the Mishawl Prairie. When I was here before -it was in March, and the rainy season was still prevailing; the -topographical engineer of the expedition and I slept under the same -blankets on a wet drizzly night, and next morning treated each other -to bitter reproaches for having each had more than his share of the -covering. Now the weather was clear and beautiful, and the scene -lovely in comparison. I can imagine nothing more gloomy and cheerless -than a fir-forest in Washington Territory on a rainy winter day. The -misty clouds hang down below the tops of the tallest trees, and -although it does not rain, but drizzles, yet it is very wet and cold, -and penetrates every thread of clothing to the skin. The summers of -this region are in extraordinary contrast with the winters. Clear, -beautiful, and dry, they begin in May and last till November; while -in the winter, although in latitude 47 deg. and 48 deg., it rarely -freezes or snows--often, however, raining two weeks without stopping a -permeating drizzle. - -On this 9th of July, 1857, the weather was beautiful; it had not -rained for weeks. The Mishawl--a raging mountain torrent, when last I -saw it--was now a sluggish rivulet of clear mountain-spring water. We -started early on our journey, having made our preparations the -evening before. We calculated to be gone about six days. Each member -of the party had to carry his own provisions and bedding; everything -was therefore reduced to the minimum. Each took a blanket, twenty-four -crackers of hard bread, and about two pounds of dried beef. We took -Dogue (a German) and Carroll (an Irishman) with us; they were both -volunteers for the trip; one carried the hatchet and the other the -rope. I carried a field-glass, thermometer, and a large-sized -revolver. Wah-pow-e-ty carried his rifle, with which we hoped to -procure some game. The soldiers carried no arms. Bell and Doneheh were -left behind to take care of the horses and extra provisions, until our -return. - -We each had a haversack for our provisions, and a tin canteen for -water. The doctor very unwisely filled his with whisky instead of -water. Having sounded Wah-pow-e-ty as to the route, we learned he had -once been on the upper Nesqually when a boy, with his father, and that -his knowledge of the country was very limited. We ascertained, -however, that we could not follow the Nesqually at first; that there -was a fall in the river a short distance above the mouth of the -Mishawl, and that the mountains came down so abrupt and precipitous -that we could not follow the stream, and that the mountain must be -crossed first and a descent made to the river above the fall. - -That mountain proved a severer task than we anticipated. There was no -path and no open country--only a dense forest, obstructed with -undergrowth and fallen timber. The sun was very hot when it could -reach us through the foliage; not a breath of air stirred, and after -we crossed the Mishawl, not a drop of water was to be had until we got -down to low ground again. We toiled from early morning until three -o'clock in the afternoon before we reached the summit. As the doctor -had taken whisky instead of water in his canteen, he found it -necessary to apply to the other members of the party to quench his -thirst, and our canteens were speedily empty. The doctor sought relief -in whisky, but it only aggravated his thirst, and he poured out the -contents of his canteen. The severe exertion required for the ascent -brought on painful cramps in his legs, and at one time, about the -middle of the day, I concluded that we should be obliged to leave him -to find his way back to camp while we went on without him; but he made -an agreement with Wah-pow-e-ty to carry his pack for him in addition -to his own, for ten dollars, and the doctor was thus enabled to go on. -Here was an illustration of the advantage of training. The doctor was -large, raw-boned, and at least six feet high, looking as if he could -have crushed with a single blow the insignificant old Indian, who was -not much over five feet, and did not weigh more than half as much as -the doctor; but, inured to this kind of toil, he carried double the -load that any of the party did, while the doctor, who was habituated -to a sedentary life, had all he could do, carrying no load whatever, -to keep up with the Indian. - -Early in the afternoon we reached the summit of the first ascent, -where we enjoyed, in addition to a good rest, a magnificent view of -the Puget Sound Valley, with Mount Olympus and the Coast Range for a -background. Here on this summit, too, munching our biscuit of hard -bread and our dried beef, we enjoyed a refreshing breeze as we looked -down on the beautiful plains of the Nesqually, with its numerous clear -and beautiful little lakes. There was nothing definite except -forest--of which there was a great excess--lakes, and plains of -limited area, the sound, and a great background of mountains. No -habitations, farms, or villages were to be seen; not a sign of -civilization or human life. - -After a good rest we pushed on, taking an easterly course, and -keeping, or trying to keep, on the spur of the mountain; the forest -was so thick, however, that this was next to an impossibility. We were -not loth to go down into ravines in the hope of finding some water, -for we needed it greatly. It was a long time, and we met with many -disappointments, before we could find enough to quench our thirst. Our -progress was exceedingly slow on account of the undergrowth. At -sundown we camped in the grand old forest, the location being chosen -on account of some water in a partially dry ravine. The distance -passed over from Mishawl Prairie we estimated at about ten or eleven -miles. On good roads thirty miles would have wearied us much less. - -We started early the next morning, and for a time tried to keep the -high ground, but found it so difficult that we finally turned down to -the right, and came upon the Nesqually River about the middle of the -afternoon. There was no material difference in the undergrowth, but -there was an advantage gained in having plenty of water to quench our -thirst. We made about ten miles this day, and camped about sundown. -There seemed nothing but forest before us; dark, gloomy forest, -remarkable for large trees, and its terrible solitude. But few living -things were to be seen. The Nesqually is a very wide muddy torrent, -fordable in places where the stream is much divided by islands. - -We already here began to suffer from the loss of appetite, which was -to us such a difficulty throughout the entire trip. Even the four -crackers and two ounces of dried beef, which was our daily limit, we -found ourselves unable to master, and yet so much was necessary to -keep up our strength. I have never been able to settle in my mind -whether this was due to the sameness of the food or the great fatigue -we underwent. - -The third morning we made an early start, and followed up the stream -in almost a due east direction all day until about five o'clock, when -the doctor broke down, having been unable to eat anything during the -day. With considerable cramming I managed to dispose of the most of my -rations. We kept the north side of the river, and had no streams to -cross; in fact, there did not appear to be any streams on either side -putting into the river. The valley seemed several miles in width, -densely timbered, and the undergrowth a complete thicket. Not more -than ten miles were made by us. Just before we stopped for the night, -we passed through a patch of dead timber of perhaps 100 acres, with an -abundance of blackberries. Opposite our camp, on the south side of the -river, there was the appearance of quite a tributary coming in from -the southeast. - -We did not get started until about eleven o'clock on the fourth -morning. After cutting up a deer which Wah-pow-e-ty brought in early -in the morning, we dried quite a quantity of it by the fire. As we -anticipated, it proved of much assistance, for we already saw that six -days would be a very short time in which to make the trip. By night we -reached a muddy tributary coming in from the north, and evidently -having its source in the melting snows of Rainier. The summit of the -mountain was visible from our camp, and seemed close at hand; but -night set in with promise of bad weather. The valley had become quite -narrow. Our camp was at the foot of a mountain spur several thousand -feet high, and the river close at hand. The gloomy forest, the wild -mountain scenery, the roaring of the river, and the dark overhanging -clouds, with the peculiar melancholy sighing which the wind makes -through a fir forest, gave to our camp at this point an awful -grandeur. - -On the fifth morning the clouds were so threatening, and came down so -low on the surrounding mountains, that we were at a loss what course -to pursue--whether to follow up the main stream or the tributary at -our camp, which evidently came from the nearest snow. We finally -followed the main stream, which very soon turned in toward the -mountain, the valley growing narrower, the torrent more and more -rapid, and our progress slower and slower, especially when we were -compelled to take to the timber. We often crossed the torrent, of -which the water was intensely cold, in order to avoid the obstructions -of the forest. Sometimes, however, the stream was impassable, and then -we often became so entangled in the thickets as almost to despair of -farther advance. Early in the evening we reached the foot of an -immense glacier and camped. For several miles before camping the bed -of the stream was paved with white granite bowlders, and the mountain -gorge became narrower and narrower. The walls were in many places -perpendicular precipices, thousands of feet high, their summits hid in -the clouds. Vast piles of snow were to be seen along the stream--the -remains of avalanches--for earth, trees, and rocks were intermingled -with the snow. - -As it was near night we camped, thinking it best to begin the ascent -in the early morning; besides, the weather promised to become worse. -The foliage of the pine-trees here was very dense, and on such a -cloudy day it was dark as night in the forest. The limbs of the trees -drooped upon the ground, a disposition evidently given to them by the -snow, which must be late in disappearing in this region. - -We followed thus far the main branch of the Nesqually, and here it -emerged from an icy cavern at the foot of an immense glacier. The ice -itself was of a dark-blue tinge. The water was white, and whenever I -waded the torrent my shoes filled with gravel and sand. The walls of -this immense mountain gorge were white granite, and, just where the -glacier terminated, the immense vein of granite that was visible on -both sides seemed to form a narrow throat to the great ravine, which -is much wider both above and below. The water seems to derive its -color from the disintegration of this granite.[18] - -We made our camp under a pine of dense foliage, whose limbs at the -outer end drooped near the ground. We made our cup of tea, and found -the water boil at 202 deg. Fahrenheit. Night set in with a drizzling -rain, and a more solitary, gloomy picture than we presented at that -camp it is impossible to conceive. Tired, hungry, dirty, clothes all -in rags--the effects of our struggles with the brush--we were not the -least happy; the solitude was oppressive. The entire party, except -myself, dropped down and did not move unless obliged to. I went up to -the foot of the glacier, and explored a little before night set in. I -also tried to make a sketch of the view looking up the glacier; but I -have never looked at it since without being forcibly reminded what a -failure it is as a sketch. - -On the morning of the sixth day we set out again up the glacier. A -drizzling rain prevailed through the night, and continued this -morning. We had a little trouble in getting upon the glacier, as it -terminated everywhere in steep faces that were very difficult to -climb. Once up, we did not meet with any obstructions or interruptions -for several hours, although the slippery surface of the glacier, which -formed inclined planes of about twenty degrees, made it very fatiguing -with our packs. About noon the weather thickened; snow, sleet, and -rain prevailed, and strong winds, blowing hither and thither, almost -blinded us. The surface of the glacier, becoming steeper, began to be -intersected by immense crevasses crossing our path, often compelling -us to travel several hundred yards to gain a few feet. We finally -resolved to find a camp. But getting off the glacier was no easy task. -We found that the face of the lateral moraine was almost -perpendicular, and composed of loose stones, sand, and gravel, -furnishing a very uncertain foothold, besides being about fifty feet -high. Wah-pow-e-ty and I finally succeeded in getting up, and with the -aid of the rope we assisted our companions to do the same. When we -reached the top we were a little surprised to find that we had to go -down-hill again to reach the mountain side. Here a few stunted pines -furnished us fuel and shelter, and we rested for the remainder of the -day. I explored a little in the evening by ascending the ridge from -the glacier, and discovered that it would be much the best route to -pursue in ascending to the summit. - -When night set in, the solitude of our camp was very oppressive. We -were near the limit of perpetual snow. The water for our tea we -obtained from the melting of the ice near by. The atmosphere was very -different from what it was below, and singularly clear when not -obstructed by fog, rain, or snow. There were no familiar objects to -enable one to estimate distance. When I caught a glimpse of the top of -Rainier through the clouds, I felt certain that we could reach it in -three hours. The only living things to be seen were some animals, with -regard to which we still labor under an error. These little creatures -would make their appearance on the side of the mountain in sight of -our camp, and feed upon herbage that grew on the soil where the snow -left it bare. The moment anyone stirred from camp, a sound between a -whistle and scream would break unexpectedly and from some unknown -quarter, and immediately all the animals that were in sight would -vanish in the earth. Upon visiting the spot where they disappeared, we -would find a burrow which was evidently the creatures' home. -Everywhere round the entrance we found great numbers of tracks, such -as a lamb or kid would make. The animals that we saw were about the -size of kids, and grazed and moved about so much like them, that, -taken in connection with the tracks we saw, we jumped at once to the -conclusion that they were mountain sheep, of which we all had heard a -great deal, but none of our party had ever seen any. My report of -these animals, which was published in the _Washington Republican_ on -our return, was severely ridiculed by some of the naturalists who were -hunting for undescribed insects and animals in that country at the -time. We are still at a loss to understand the habits of the -creatures, and to reconcile the split hoofs which the tracks indicated -with their burrow in the earth.[19] - -On the following morning--the seventh day from our camp on the -Mishawl--the sky showed signs of clear weather, and we began the -ascent of the main peak. Until about noon we were enveloped in clouds, -and only occasionally did we get a glimpse of the peak. Soon after -midday we reached suddenly a colder atmosphere, and found ourselves -all at once above the clouds, which were spread out smooth and even as -a sea, above which appeared the snowy peaks of St. Helens, Mount -Adams, and Mount Hood, looking like pyramidal icebergs above an ocean. -At first we could not see down through the clouds into the valleys. -Above, the atmosphere was singularly clear, and the reflection of the -sun upon the snow very powerful. The summit of Rainier seemed very -close at hand. - -About two o'clock in the afternoon the clouds rolled away like a -scroll; in a very short time they had disappeared, and the Cascade -Range lay before us in all its greatness. The view was too grand and -extensive to be taken in at once, or in the short time we had to -observe. The entire scene, with few exceptions, was covered with -forests, with here and there barren rocky peaks that rose up out of -the ridges; now and then a mountain lake, much more blue than the sky, -and the Nesqually, winding like a thread of silver through the dark -forests. From the foot of the glacier for several miles the bed of the -river was very white, from the granite bowlders that covered the bed -of the stream. The water, too, was of a decidedly chalkier color near -its source. - -We had no time, however, to study the beauties that lay before us. We -had already discovered that there was no telling from appearances how -far we had to go. The travel was very difficult; the surface of the -snow was porous in some places, and at each step we sunk to our knees. -Carroll and the Indian gave out early in the afternoon, and returned -to camp. The doctor began to lag behind. Dogue stuck close to me. -Between four and five o'clock we reached a very difficult point. It -proved to be the crest of the mountain, where the comparatively smooth -surface was much broken up, and inaccessible pinnacles of ice and deep -crevasses interrupted our progress. It was not only difficult to go -ahead, but exceedingly dangerous; a false step, or the loss of a -foot-hold, would have been certain destruction. Dogue was evidently -alarmed, for every time that I was unable to proceed, and turned back -to find another passage, he would say, "_I guess, Lieutenant, we -petter go pack._" - -Finally we reached what may be called the top, for although there were -points higher yet,[20] the mountain spread out comparatively flat, and -it was much easier to get along. The soldier threw himself down -exhausted, and said he could go no farther. The doctor was not in -sight. I went on to explore by myself, but I returned in a quarter of -an hour without my hat, fully satisfied that nothing more could be -done. It was after six o'clock, the air was very cold, and the wind -blew fiercely, so that in a second my hat which it carried away was -far beyond recovery. The ice was forming in my canteen, and to stay on -the mountain at such a temperature was to freeze to death, for we -brought no blankets with us, and we could not delay, as it would be -impossible to return along the crest of the mountain after dark. When -I returned to where I had left the soldier, I found the doctor there -also, and after a short consultation we decided to return. - -Returning was far easier and more rapid than going. The snow was much -harder and firmer, and we passed over in three hours, coming down, -what required ten in going up. We were greatly fatigued by the day's -toil, and the descent was not accomplished without an occasional rest -of our weary limbs. In one place the snow was crusted over, and for a -short distance the mountain was very steep, and required the skillful -use of the stick to prevent our going much faster than we desired. The -soldier lost his footing, and rolled helplessly to the foot of the -declivity, thirty or forty yards distant, and his face bore the traces -of the scratching for many a day after, as if he had been through a -bramble-bush. - -We found the Indian and Carroll in the camp. The latter had a long -story to tell of his wanderings to find camp, and both stated that the -fatigue was too much for them. There was no complaint on the part of -any of us about the rarity of the atmosphere. The doctor attributed to -this cause the fact that he could not go but a few yards at a time, -near the summit, without resting; but I am inclined to think this was -due to our exhaustion. My breathing did not seem to be in the least -affected. - -We were much disappointed not to have had more time to explore the -summit of the mountain. We had, however, demonstrated the feasibility -of making the ascent. Had we started at dawn of day we should have had -plenty of time for the journey. From what I saw I should say the -mountain top was a ridge perhaps two miles in length and nearly half a -mile in width, with an angle about half-way, and depressions between -the angle and each end of the ridge which give to the summit the -appearance of three small peaks as seen from the east or west. When -viewed from north or south, a rounded summit is all that can be seen; -while viewed from positions between the cardinal points of the -compass, the mountain generally has the appearance of two peaks. - -The night was very cold and clear after our return. We had some idea -of making another ascent; but an investigation into the state of our -provisions, together with the condition of the party generally, -determined us to begin our return on the morning of the eighth day. -The two soldiers had eaten all their bread but one cracker each. The -doctor and I had enough left, so that by a redistribution we had four -crackers each, with which to return over a space that had required -seven days of travel coming. We, of course, expected to be a shorter -time getting back; but let it be ever so short, our prospect for -something to eat was proportionately much more limited. We had more -meat than bread, thanks to the deer the Indian had killed, and we -depended greatly on his killing more game for us going back: but this -dependence, too, was cut off; the Indian was snow-blind, and needed -our help to guide him. His groans disturbed us during the night, and -what was our astonishment in the morning to find his eyelids closed -with inflammation, and so swollen that he looked as if he had been in -a free fight and got the worst of it. He could not have told a deer -from a stump the length of his little old rifle. - -Our camp was about 1,000 or 1,500 feet below the last visible shrub; -water boiled at 199 deg., and, according to an approximate scale we had -with us, this indicated an elevation of 7,000 feet. We estimated the -highest peak to be over 12,000 feet high. I greatly regretted not -being able to get the boiling-point on the top, but it was impossible -to have had a fire in such a wind as prevailed round the summit. - -As we returned we had more leisure to examine and clearer weather to -see the glacier than we had coming up. There was no medial moraine; -but an icy ridge parallel to the lateral moraines, and about midway -between them, extending as far as we ascended the glacier. The lateral -moraines were not continuous, but were interrupted by the walls of the -spurs where they projected into the glacier; between these points the -lateral moraines existed. The glacier sloped away from the ridge to -the moraines, more or less sharply, and it was no easy matter to get -off the ice, owing to the steepness of the moraine. The ice melted by -reflection from the face of the moraine, and formed a difficult -crevasse between it and the glacier. Bowlders of every shape and size -were scattered over the face of the glacier. Large ones were propped -up on pinnacles of ice; these were evidently too thick for the sun to -heat through. The small bowlders were sunk more or less deeply, and -surrounded by water in the hot sun; but they evidently froze fast -again at night. - -The noise produced by the glacier was startling and strange. One might -suppose the mountain was breaking loose, particularly at night. -Although, so far as stillness was concerned, there was no difference -between day and night, at night the noise seemed more terrible. It was -a fearful crashing and grinding that was going on, where the granite -was powdered that whitened the river below, and where the bowlders -were polished and partially rounded. - -The great stillness and solitude were also very oppressive; no -familiar sounds; nothing except the whistle of the animal before -mentioned and the noise of the glacier's motion was to be heard, and -if these had not occurred at intervals the solitude would have been -still more oppressive. We were glad to get down again to the -Nesqually, where we could hear its roar and see its rushing waters. -The other members of the party were so tired and worn, however, that -they seemed to observe but little, and as we were now on our homeward -way, their thoughts were set only on our camp on the Mishawl, with its -provisions and promise of rest. - -The first day we passed two of the camps we had made coming up, and -reached a point where we remembered to have seen a great quantity of -blackberries. It was quite dark by the time we reached the little spot -of dead timber--which seems to be the favorite haunt of the creeping -bramble in this country--and to gather our supper of berries we built -a fire at the foot of a large dead tree. Speedily the flames were -climbing to the top of the withered branches, and casting a cheerful -light for a hundred yards round. But what we found very convenient for -gathering berries proved to be a great annoyance when we wanted to -sleep. During the night we were constantly moving our place of rest, -at first on account of the falling embers, and finally for fear of the -tree itself. - -Blackberries are refreshing so far as the palate is concerned; but -they are not very nourishing. We took our breakfast on them, and -continued down the Nesqually from six in the morning until six in the -evening, traveling slowly because of the difficult undergrowth and our -worn-out and exhausted condition. We passed another of our camps, and -finally stopped at what evidently had been an Indian camp. The cedar -bark, always to be found in such places, we anticipated would make a -shelter for us in case of rain, which the clouds promised us. - -No rain fell, however, and we resumed our march, continuing down the -river five or six miles farther than where we first struck it, to a -point where the hills came close up and overhung the water. There we -camped, expecting that an easy march on the morrow would enable us to -reach our camp on the Mishawl. We ate our last morsel, and the next -morning I was awakened by the conversation of the two soldiers. They -were evidently discussing the subject of hunger, for the Irishman -said: "I've often seen the squaws coming about the cook-house picking -the pitaties out of the slop-barrel, an' I thought it was awful; but I -giss I'd do it mesilf this mornin'." - -The morning of the eleventh day we left the Nesqually to cross over to -the Mishawl, and traveled on the mountain all day, until we reached -the stream at night completely exhausted. We should have stopped -sooner than we did, but we were almost perishing with thirst, not -having had any water since we left the Nesqually in the morning. What -we took along in our canteens was exhausted in the early part of the -day. We were not more than two miles from the camp in the prairie, and -notwithstanding that we had had nothing to eat all day, except a few -berries we had picked by the way, we were so exhausted that we lay -down to sleep as soon as we had quenched our thirst. - -We started up-stream the next morning, thinking we had reached the -Mishawl below our camp; but soon discovering our mistake, we turned -down. At this point the Irishman's heart sunk within him, he was so -exhausted. Thinking we were lost, he wanted to lie down in the stream -and "drownd" himself. He was assured that we should soon be in camp, -and we arrived there very soon after, before the men left in charge of -the horses were up. - -Our first thought was of something to eat. I cautioned all about -eating much at first; but from subsequent results am inclined to think -my advice was not heeded. I contented myself with a half cracker, a -little butter, and weak coffee; and an hour after, when I began to -feel the beneficial effects of what I had eaten, I took a little more -substantial meal, but refrained from eating heartily. - -After a short rest we caught our horses, and the doctor and I rode -into Steilacoom, where we arrived after a hard ride late in the -afternoon. As we approached the post, we met on the road a number of -the inhabitants with whom we were well acquainted, and who did not -recognize us. Nor were we surprised when we got a glimpse of our faces -in a glass. Haggard and sunburnt, nearly every familiar feature had -disappeared. Since the loss of my hat, my head-dress was the sleeve of -a red flannel shirt, tied into a knot at the elbow, with the point at -the arm-pit for a visor. Our clothes were in rags; one of the doctor's -pantaloon-legs had entirely disappeared, and he had improvised a -substitute out of a coffee-sack. In our generally dilapidated -condition none of our acquaintances recognized us until we got to the -post. We passed for Indians until we arrived there, where we were -received by the officers with a shout at our ludicrous appearance. -They were all sitting under the oak-trees in front of quarters, -discussing what had probably become of us, and proposing means for our -rescue, when we came up. - -I felt the effects of the trip for many days, and did not recover my -natural condition for some weeks. The doctor and I went to the village -next morning, where the people were startled at our emaciated -appearance. We found that the doctor had lost twenty-one pounds in -weight in fourteen days, and I had lost fourteen pounds in the same -time. The doctor, while we were in the village, was taken with violent -pains in his stomach, and returned to his post quite sick. He did not -recover his health again for three months. - -The two soldiers went into the hospital immediately on their return, -and I learned that for the remainder of their service they were in the -hospital nearly all the time. Four or five years after, Carroll -applied to me for a certificate on which to file an application for a -pension, stating that he had not been well since his trip to the -mountain. The Indian had an attack of gastritis, and barely escaped -with his life after a protracted sickness. I attribute my own escape -from a lingering illness to the precautions I took in eating when -satisfying the first cravings of hunger, on our return to camp. - -We are not likely to have any competitors in this attempt to explore -the summit of Mount Rainier. Packwood and McAllister, two citizens of -Pierce County, Washington Territory, explored up the Nesqually, and -crossed over to the head of the Cowlitz River, and thence by what was -called Cowlitz Pass (since called Packwood Pass), to the east side of -the mountains, searching for a trail to the mining regions of the -upper Columbia. More recently, surveyors in the employ of the Pacific -Railroad Company have been surveying through the same route for a -railway passage. - -When the locomotive is heard in that region some day, when American -enterprise has established an ice-cream saloon at the foot of the -glacier, and sherry-cobblers may be had at twenty-five cents half-way -up to the top of the mountain, attempts to ascend that magnificent -snow-peak will be quite frequent. But many a long year will pass away -before roads are sufficiently good to induce any one to do what we did -in the summer of 1857. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] His name is honored in Wapowety Cleaver overlooking the Kautz -Glacier. - -[18] I have no doubt that the south branch of the Nachess, which flows -to the east into the Columbia, and that the Puyallup and White rivers, -which flow west into Puget Sound, have similar sources in glaciers, -from the fact that in July they are all of a similar character with -the Nesqually, muddy, white torrents, at a time when little rain has -fallen for months.--Kautz. - -[19] The burrow was made by the marmot and the split-hoof tracks in -the loose earth were made by mountain goats. - -[20] He here gives evidence that he had not reached the summit. - - - - - [Illustration: GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS.] - -VI. FIRST SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870 - -BY GENERAL HAZARD STEVENS - - - General Hazard Stevens was born at Newport, Rhode Island, on - June 9, 1842. His father was Major General Isaac I. Stevens, - and his mother, Margaret (Hazard) Stevens, was a - granddaughter of Colonel Daniel Lyman of the Revolution. In - 1854 and 1855, while the son was only thirteen years of age, - he accompanied his father, then the first governor of - Washington Territory, on treaty-making expeditions among the - Indian tribes. Later he accompanied his father into the Union - Army as an officer on his father's staff. He was severely - wounded in the same battle where his father was killed while - leading the charge at Chantilly, September 1, 1862. - - Hazard Stevens continued in the army, and at the end of the - war he was mustered out as a brigadier general of volunteers. - He then returned to Washington Territory and went to work to - support his mother and sisters. On August 17, 1870, he and P. - B. Van Trump made the first successful ascent of Mount - Rainier. - - In 1874, he followed the other members of the family back to - Boston where he remained until his mother's death, a few - months ago. He then returned to Puget Sound, and is now a - successful farmer near Olympia. - - His companion on the ascent, P. B. Van Trump, remained in - Washington. For a number of years he was a ranger at Indian - Henry's Hunting Ground in the Mount Rainier National Park. - There he was a quaint and attractive figure to all visitors. - In 1915, he returned East to live among kinsfolk in New York - State. - - The names of both Stevens and Van Trump have been generously - bestowed upon glaciers, creeks, ridges, and canyons within the - Mount Rainier National Park. - - General Stevens prefers to call the mountain Takhoma. The - full account of the ascent was published by him under the - title of "The Ascent of Mount Takhoma" in the Atlantic - Monthly for November, 1876. It is here reproduced by - permission of the editor of that magazine. - - Mr. Van Trump made several ascents after that first one, and - in 1905 General Stevens also made a second ascent. He - searched in vain for the relics he had deposited at the - summit thirty-five years earlier. The rocks that were bare in - 1870 were under snow and ice in 1905. - -When Vancouver, in 1792, penetrated the Straits of Fuca and explored -the unknown waters of the Mediterranean of the Pacific, wherever he -sailed, from the Gulf of Georgia to the farthest inlet of Puget Sound, -he beheld the lofty, snow-clad barrier range of the Cascades -stretching north and south and bounding the eastern horizon. Towering -at twice the altitude of all others, at intervals of a hundred miles -there loomed up above the range three majestic, snowy peaks that - - "Like giants stand - To sentinel enchanted land." - -In the matter-of-fact spirit of a British sailor of his time, he named -these sublime monuments of nature in honor of three lords of the -English admiralty, Hood, Rainier, and Baker. Of these Rainier is the -central, situated about half-way between the Columbia River and the -line of British Columbia, and is by far the loftiest and largest. Its -altitude is 14,444 feet, while Hood is 11,025 feet, and Baker is -10,810 feet high. The others, too, are single cones, while Rainier, or -Takhoma,[21] is an immense mountain-mass with three distinct peaks, an -eastern, a northern, and a southern; the two last extending out and up -from the main central dome, from the summit of which they stand over a -mile distant, while they are nearly two miles apart from each other. - -Takhoma overlooks Puget Sound from Olympia to Victoria, one hundred -and sixty miles. Its snow-clad dome is visible from Portland on the -Willamette, one hundred and twenty miles south, and from the -table-land of Walla Walla, one hundred and fifty miles east. A region -two hundred and fifty miles across, including nearly all of Washington -Territory, part of Oregon, and part of Idaho, is commanded in one -field of vision by this colossus among mountains. - -Takhoma had never been ascended. It was a virgin peak. The -superstitious fears and traditions of the Indians, as well as the -dangers of the ascent, had prevented their attempting to reach the -summit, and the failure of a gallant and energetic officer, whose -courage and hardihood were abundantly shown during the rebellion, had -in general estimation proved it insurmountable. - -For two years I had resolved to ascend Takhoma, but both seasons the -dense smoke overspreading the whole country had prevented the attempt. -Mr. Philomon Beecher Van Trump, humorous, generous, whole-souled, with -endurance and experience withal, for he had roughed it in the mines, -and a poetic appreciation of the picturesque and the sublime, was -equally eager to scale the summit. Mr. Edward T. Coleman, an English -gentleman of Victoria, a landscape artist and an Alpine tourist, whose -reputed experience in Switzerland had raised a high opinion of his -ability above the snow-line, completed the party. - -Olympia, the capital of Washington Territory, is a beautiful, -maple-embowered town of some two thousand inhabitants, situated at the -southernmost extremity of Puget Sound, and west of Takhoma, distant in -an air line seventy-five miles. The intervening country is covered -with dense fir forests, almost impenetrable to the midday sun, and -obstructed with fallen trees, upturned roots and stumps, and a perfect -jungle of undergrowth, through which the most energetic traveler can -accomplish but eight or nine miles a day. It was advisible to gain the -nearest possible point by some trail, before plunging into the -unbroken forest. The Nisqually River, which rises on the southern and -western slopes of Takhoma, and empties into the sound a few miles -north of Olympia, offered the most direct and natural approach. Ten -years before, moreover, a few enterprising settlers had blazed out a -trail across the Cascade Range, which followed the Nisqually nearly up -to its source, thence deflected south to the Cowlitz River, and -pursued this stream in a northeastern course to the summit of the -range, thus turning the great mountain by a wide circuit. The -best-informed mountain men represented the approaches on the south and -southeast as by far the most favorable. The Nisqually-Cowlitz trail, -then, seemed much the best, for the Nisqually, heading in the south -and southwest slopes, and the Cowlitz, in the southeastern, afforded -two lines of approach, by either of which the distance to the -mountain, after leaving the trail, could not exceed thirty miles. - -One August afternoon, Van Trump and I drove out to Yelm Prairie, -thirty miles east of Olympia, and on the Nisqually River. We dashed -rapidly on over a smooth, hard, level road, traversing wide reaches of -prairie, passing under open groves of oaks and firs, and plunging -through masses of black, dense forest in ever-changing variety. The -moon had risen as we emerged upon Yelm Prairie; Takhoma, bathed in -cold, white, spectral light from summit to base, appeared startlingly -near and distinct. Our admiration was not so noisy as usual. Perhaps a -little of dread mingled with it. In another hour we drove nearly -across the plain and turned into a lane which conducted us up a -beautiful rising plateau, crowned with a noble grove of oaks and -overlooking the whole prairie. A comfortable, roomy house with a wide -porch nestled among the trees, and its hospitable owner, Mr. James -Longmire, appeared at the door and bade us enter. - -The next morning we applied to Mr. Longmire for a guide, and for his -advice as to our proposed trip. He was one of the few who marked out -the Nisqually-Cowlitz trail years ago. He had explored the mountains -about Takhoma as thoroughly, perhaps, as any other white man. One of -the earliest settlers, quiet, self-reliant, sensible, and kindly, a -better counselor than he could not have been found. The trail, he -said, had not been traveled for four years, and was entirely illegible -to eyes not well versed in woodcraft, and it would be folly for any -one to attempt to follow it who was not thoroughly acquainted with the -country. He could not leave his harvest, and moreover in three weeks -he was to cross the mountains for a drove of cattle. His wife, too, -quietly discouraged his going. She described his appearance on his -return from previous mountain trips, looking as haggard and thin as -though he had just risen from a sick-bed. She threw out effective -little sketches of toil, discomfort, and hardship incident to mountain -travel, and dwelt upon the hard fare. The bountiful country breakfast -heaped before us, the rich cream, fresh butter and eggs, snowy, -melting biscuits, and broiled chicken, with rich, white gravy, -heightened the effect of her words. - -But at length, when it appeared that no one else who knew the trail -could be found, Mr. Longmire yielded to our persuasions, and consented -to conduct us as far as the trail led, and to procure an Indian guide -before leaving us to our own resources. As soon as we returned home we -went with Mr. Coleman to his room to see a few indispensable -equipments he had provided, in order that we might procure similar -ones. The floor was literally covered with his traps, and he exhibited -them one by one, expatiating upon their various uses. There was his -ground-sheet, a large gum blanket equally serviceable to Mr. Coleman -as a tent in camp and a bathtub at the hotel. There was a strong rope -to which we were all to be tied when climbing the snow-fields, so that -if one fell into a chasm the others could hold him up. The "creepers" -were a clumsy, heavy arrangement of iron spikes made to fasten on the -foot with chains and straps, in order to prevent slipping on the ice. -He had an ice-axe for cutting steps, a spirit-lamp for making tea on -the mountains, green goggles for snow-blindness, deer's fat for the -face, Alpine staffs, needles and thread, twine, tacks, screws, -screwdriver, gimlet, file, several medical prescriptions, two boards -for pressing flowers, sketching materials, and in fact every article -that Mr. Coleman in his extensive reading had found used or -recommended by travelers. Every one of these he regarded as -indispensable. The Alpine staff was, he declared, most important of -all, a great assistance in traveling through the woods as well as on -the ice; and he illustrated on his hands and knees how to cross a -crevasse in the ice on two staffs. This interview naturally brought to -mind the characteristic incident related of Packwood, the mountain man -who, as hunter and prospector, had explored the deepest recesses of -the Cascades. He had been engaged to guide a railroad surveying party -across the mountains, and just as the party was about to start he -approached the chief and demanded an advance to enable him to buy his -outfit for the trip. "How much do you want?" asked the chief, rather -anxiously, lest Packwood should overdraw his prospective wages. "Well, -about two dollars and a half," was the reply; and at the camp-fire -that evening, being asked if he had bought his outfit, Packwood, -thrusting his hand into his pocket, drew forth and exhibited with -perfect seriousness and complacency his entire outfit,--a jack-knife -and a plug of tobacco. - -Half a dozen carriages rattled gayly out of Olympia in the cool of the -morning, filled with a laughing, singing, frolicking bevy of young -ladies and gentlemen. They were the Takhoma party starting on their -adventurous trip, with a chosen escort accompanying them to their -first camp. They rested several hours at Longmire's during the heat -of the day, and the drive was then continued seven miles farther, to -the Lacamas, an irregular-shaped prairie two miles in length by half a -mile in breadth. Here live two of Mr. Longmire's sons. Their farms -form the last settlement, and at the gate of Mr. Elkane Longmire's -house the road ends. A wooded knoll overlooking the prairie, with a -spring of water at its foot, was selected as the camp-ground. Some of -the party stretched a large sail between the trees as a tent, others -watered and fed the horses, and others busied themselves with the -supper. Two eager sportsmen started after grouse, while their more -practical companions bought half a dozen chickens, and had them soon -dressed and sputtering over the fire. The shades of night were falling -as the party sat down on the ground and partook of a repast fit for -the Olympians, and with a relish sharpened by the long journey and a -whole day's fast. - -Early in the morning Mr. Longmire arrived in camp with two mules and a -pack-horse, and our mountain outfit was rapidly made up into suitable -bales and packed upon the horse and one of the mules, the other mule -being reserved for Longmire's own riding. We assembled around the -breakfast with spirits as gay and appetites as sharp as ever. Then, -with many good-bys and much waving of handkerchiefs, the party broke -up. Four roughly clad pedestrians moved off in single file, leading -their pack animals, and looking back at every step to catch the last -glimpse of the bright garments and fluttering cambrics, while the -carriages drove rapidly down the road and disappeared in the dark, -sullen forest. - -We stepped off briskly, following a dim trail in an easterly course, -and crossing the little prairie entered the timber. After winding over -hilly ground for about three miles, we descended into the Nisqually -bottom and forded a fine brook at the foot of the hill. For the next -ten miles our route lay across the bottom, and along the bank of the -river, passing around logs, following old, dry beds of the river and -its lateral sloughs, ankle-deep in loose sand, and forcing our way -through dense jungles of vine-maple. The trail was scarcely visible, -and much obstructed by fallen trees and underbrush, and its -difficulties were aggravated by the bewildering tracks of Indians who -had lately wandered about the bottom in search of berries or rushes. -We repeatedly missed the trail, and lost hours in retracing our steps -and searching for the right course. The weather was hot and sultry, -and rendered more oppressive by the dense foliage; myriads of gnats -and mosquitoes tormented us and drove our poor animals almost frantic; -and our thirst, aggravated by the severe and unaccustomed toil, seemed -quenchless. At length we reached the ford of the Nisqually. Directly -opposite, a perpendicular bluff of sand and gravel in alternate strata -rose to the height of two hundred and fifty feet, its base washed by -the river and its top crowned with firs. The stream was a hundred -yards wide, waist-deep, and very rapid. Its waters were icy cold, and -of a milk-white hue. This color is the characteristic of glacial -rivers. The impalpable powder of thousands of tons of solid rocks -ground up beneath the vast weight and resistless though imperceptible -flow of huge glaciers, remains in solution in these streams, and -colors them milk-white to the sea. Leading the animals down the bank -and over a wide, dry bar of cobblestones, we stood at the brink of the -swift, turbulent river, and prepared to essay its passage. Coleman -mounted behind Van Trump on the little saddle-mule, his long legs -dangling nearly to the ground, one hand grasping his Alpine staff, the -other the neck-rope of the pack-mule, which Longmire bestrode. -Longmire led in turn the pack-horse, behind whose bulky load was -perched the other member of the party. The cavalcade, linked together -in this order, had but just entered the stream when Coleman dropped -the neckrope he was holding. The mule, bewildered by the rush and -roar of the waters, turned directly down-stream, and in another -instant our two pack animals, with their riders, would have been swept -away in the furious rapids, had not Longmire with great presence of -mind turned their erratic course in the right direction and safely -brought them to the opposite shore. Following the bottom along the -river for some distance, we climbed up the end of the bluff already -mentioned, by a steep zigzag trail, and skirted along its brink for a -mile. Far below us on the right rushed the Nisqually. On the left the -bluff fell off in a steep hillside thickly clothed with woods and -underbrush, and at its foot plowed the Owhap, a large stream emptying -into the Nisqually just below our ford. Another mile through the woods -brought us out upon the Mishell Prairie, a beautiful, oval meadow of a -hundred acres, embowered in the tall, dense fir forest, with a grove -of lofty, branching oaks at its farther extremity, and covered with -green grass and bright flowers. It takes its name from the Mishell -River, which empties into the Nisqually a mile above the prairie. - -We had marched sixteen miles. The packs were gladly thrown off beneath -a lofty fir; the animals were staked out to graze. A spring in the -edge of the woods afforded water, and while Mr. Coleman busied himself -with his pipe, his flask, his note-book, his sketch-book, and his -pouch of multifarious odds and ends, the other members of the party -performed the duties incident to camp-life: made the fire, brought -water, spread the blankets, and prepared supper. The flags attached to -our Alpine staffs waved gayly overhead, and the sight of their bright -folds fluttering in the breeze deepened the fixed resolve to plant -them on Takhoma's hoary head, and made failure seem impossible. Mr. -Coleman announced the altitude of Mishell Prairie as eight hundred -feet by barometer. By an unlucky fall the thermometer was broken. - -The march was resumed early next morning. As we passed the lofty oaks -at the end of the little prairie, "On that tree," said Longmire, -pointing out one of the noblest, "Maxon's company hanged two Indians -in the war of '56. Ski-hi and his band, after many depredations upon -the settlements, were encamped on the Mishell, a mile distant, in -fancied security, when Maxon and his men surprised them and cut off -every soul except the two prisoners whom they hanged here." - -For eight miles the trail led through thick woods, and then, after -crossing a wide "burn," past a number of deserted Indian wigwams, -where another trail from the Nisqually plains joined ours, it -descended a gradual slope, traversed a swampy thicket and another mile -of heavy timber, and debouched on the Mishell River. This is a fine, -rapid, sparkling stream, knee-deep and forty feet wide, rippling and -dashing over a gravelly bed with clear, cold, transparent water. The -purity of the clear water, so unlike the yeasty Nisqually, proves that -the Mishell is no glacial river. Rising in an outlying range to the -northwest of Takhoma, it flows in a southwest course to its confluence -with the Nisqually near our previous night's camp. We unsaddled for -the noon-rest. Van Trump went up the stream, fishing; Longmire crossed -to look out the trail ahead, and Coleman made tea solitaire. - -An hour passed, and Longmire returned. "The trail is blind," said he, -"and we have no time to lose." Just then Van Trump returned; and the -little train was soon in readiness to resume the tramp. Longmire rode -his mule across the stream, telling us to drive the pack-animals after -him and follow by a convenient log near by. As the mule attempted to -climb a low place in the opposite bank, which offered an apparently -easy exit from the river, his hind legs sank in a quicksand, he sat -down quickly, if not gracefully, and, not fancying that posture, threw -himself clear under water. His dripping rider rose to his feet, flung -the bridle-rein over his arm, and, springing up the bank at a more -practicable point, strode along the trail with as little delay and as -perfect unconcern as though an involuntary ducking was of no more -moment than climbing over a log. - -The trail was blind. Longmire scented it through thickets of salal, -fern, and underbrush, stumbling over roots, vines, and hollows hidden -in the rank vegetation, now climbing huge trunks that the animals -could barely scramble over, and now laboriously working his way around -some fallen giant and traveling two hundred yards in order to gain a -dozen yards on the course. The packs, continually jammed against trees -and shaken loose by this rough traveling, required frequent -repacking--no small task. At the very top of a high, steep hill, up -which we had laboriously zigzagged shortly after crossing the Mishell, -the little packhorse, unable to sustain the weight of the pack, which -had shifted all to one side, fell and rolled over and over to the -bottom. Bringing up the goods and chattels one by one on our own -shoulders to the top of the hill, we replaced the load and started -again. The course was in a southerly direction, over high rolling -ground of good clay soil, heavily timbered, with marshy swales at -intervals, to the Nisqually River again, a distance of twelve miles. -We encamped on a narrow flat between the high hill just descended and -the wide and noisy river, near an old ruined log-hut, the former -residence of a once famed Indian medicine man, who, after the laudable -custom of his race, had expiated with his life his failure to cure a -patient. - -Early next morning we continued our laborious march along the right -bank of the Nisqually. Towards noon we left the river, and after -thridding in an easterly course a perfect labyrinth of fallen timber -for six miles, and forcing our way with much difficulty through the -tangled jungle of an extensive vine-maple swamp, at length crossed -Silver Creek and gladly threw off the packs for an hour's rest. - -A short distance after crossing Silver Creek the trail emerged upon -more open ground, and for the first time the Nisqually Valley lay -spread out in view before us. On the left stretched a wall of steep, -rocky mountains, standing parallel to the course of the river and -extending far eastward, growing higher and steeper and more rugged as -it receded from view. At the very extremity of this range Takhoma -loomed aloft, its dome high above all others and its flanks extending -far down into the valley, and all covered, dome and flanks, with snow -of dazzling white, in striking contrast with the black basaltic -mountains about it. Startlingly near it looked to our eyes, accustomed -to the restricted views and gloom of the forest. - -After our noon rest we continued our journey up the valley, twisting -in and out among the numerous trunks of trees that encumbered the -ground, and after several hours of tedious trudging struck our third -camp on Copper Creek, the twin brother to Silver Creek, just at dusk. -We were thoroughly tired, having made twenty miles in thirteen hours -of hard traveling. - -Starting at daylight next morning, we walked two miles over rough -ground much broken by ravines, and then descended into the bed of the -Nisqually at the mouth of Goat Creek, another fine stream which -empties here. We continued our course along the river bed, stumbling -over rocky bars and forcing our way through dense thickets of willow, -for some distance, then ascended the steep bank, went around a high -hill over four miles of execrable trail, and descended to the river -again, only two miles above Goat Creek. At this point the Takhoma -branch or North Fork joins the Nisqually. This stream rises on the -west side of Takhoma, is nearly as large as the main river, and like -it shows its glacial origin by its milk-white water and by its icy -cold, terribly swift and furious torrent. Crossing the Takhoma branch, -here thirty yards wide, we kept up the main river, crossing and -recrossing the stream frequently, and toiling over rocky bars for four -miles, a distance which consumed five hours, owing to the difficulties -of the way. We then left the Nisqually, turning to the right and -traveling in a southerly course, and followed up the bed of a swampy -creek for half a mile, then crossed a level tract much obstructed with -fallen timber, then ascended a burnt ridge, and followed it for two -miles to a small, marshy prairie in a wide canyon or defile closed in -by rugged mountains on either side, and camped beside a little rivulet -on the east side of the prairie. This was Bear Prairie, the altitude -of which by the barometer was 2630 feet. The canyon formed a low pass -between the Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers, and the little rivulet near -which we camped flowed into the latter stream. The whole region had -been swept by fire: thousands of giant trunks stood blackened and -lifeless, the picture of desolation. - -As we were reclining on the ground around the campfire, enjoying the -calm and beatific repose which comes to the toil-worn mountaineer -after his hearty supper, one of these huge trunks, after several -warning creaks, came toppling and falling directly over our camp. All -rushed to one side or another to avoid the impending crash. As one -member of the party, hastily catching up in one hand a frying-pan -laden with tin plates and cups, and in the other the camp kettle half -full of boiling water, was scrambling away, his foot tripped in a -blackberry vine and he fell outstretched at full length, the -much-prized utensils scattering far and wide, while the falling tree -came thundering down in the rear, doing no other damage, however, than -burying a pair of blankets. - -The following day Longmire and the writer went down the canyon to its -junction with the Cowlitz River, in search of a band of Indians who -usually made their headquarters at this point, and among whom Longmire -hoped to find some hunter familiar with the mountains who might guide -us to the base of Takhoma. The tiny rivulet as we descended soon -swelled to a large and furious torrent, and its bed filled nearly the -whole bottom of the gorge. The mountains rose on both sides -precipitously, and the traces of land-slides which had gouged vast -furrows down their sides were frequent. With extreme toil and -difficulty we made our way, continually wading the torrent, clambering -over broken masses of rock which filled its bed, or clinging to the -steep hillsides, and reached the Cowlitz at length after twelve miles -of this fatiguing work, but only to find the Indian camp deserted. -Further search, however, was rewarded by the discovery of a rude -shelter formed of a few skins thrown over a framework of poles, -beneath which sat a squaw at work upon a half-dressed deerskin. An -infant and a naked child of perhaps four years lay on the ground near -the fire in front. Beside the lodge and quietly watching our approach, -of which he alone seemed aware, stood a tall, slender Indian clad in -buckskin shirt and leggings, with a striped woolen breech-clout, and a -singular head garniture which gave him a fierce and martial -appearance. This consisted of an old military cap, the visor thickly -studded with brassheaded nails, while a large circular brass article, -which might have been the top of an oil-lamp, was fastened upon the -crown. Several eagle feathers stuck in the crown and strips of fur -sewed upon the sides completed the edifice, which, notwithstanding its -components, appeared imposing rather than ridiculous. A long Hudson -Bay gun, the stock also ornamented with brass-headed tacks, lay in the -hollow of the Indian's shoulder. - -He received us with great friendliness, yet not without dignity, -shaking hands and motioning us to a seat beneath the rude shelter, -while his squaw hastened to place before us suspicious-looking cakes -of dried berries, apparently their only food. After a moderate -indulgence in this delicacy, Longmire made known our wants. The -Indian spoke fluently the Chinook jargon, that high-bred lingo -invented by the old fur-traders. He called himself "Sluiskin," and -readily agreed to guide us to Rainier, known to him only as Takhoma, -and promised to report at Bear Prairie the next day. It was after -seven in the evening when we reached camp, thoroughly fagged. - -Punctual to promise, Sluiskin rode up at noon mounted upon a stunted -Indian pony, while his squaw and pappooses followed upon another even -more puny and forlorn. After devouring an enormous dinner, evidently -compensating for the rigors of a long fast, in reply to our inquiries -he described the route he proposed to take to Takhoma. Pointing to the -almost perpendicular height immediately back or east of our camp, -towering three thousand feet or more overhead, the loftiest mountain -in sight, "We go to the top of that mountain to-day," said he, "and -to-morrow we follow along the high, backbone ridge of the mountains, -now up, now down, first on one side and then on the other, a long -day's journey, and at last, descending far down from the mountains -into a deep valley, reach the base of Takhoma." Sluiskin illustrated -his Chinook with speaking signs and pantomime. He had frequently -hunted the mountain sheep upon the snow-fields of Takhoma, but had -never ascended to the summit. It was impossible to do so, and he put -aside as idle talk our expressed intention of making the ascent. - -We had already selected the indispensable articles for a week's tramp, -a blanket apiece, the smallest coffee-pot and frying-pan, a scanty -supply of bacon, flour, coffee, etc., and had made them up into -suitable packs of forty pounds each, provided with slings like a -knapsack, and had piled together under the lee of a huge fallen trunk -our remaining goods. Longmire, who although impatient to return home, -where his presence was urgently needed, had watched and directed our -preparations during the forenoon with kindly solicitude, now bade us -good-by: mounted on one mule and leading the other, he soon -disappeared down the trail on his lonely, homeward way. He left us the -little pack-horse, thinking it would be quite capable of carrying our -diminished outfit after our return from Takhoma. - -Sluiskin led the way. The load upon his shoulders was sustained by a -broad band, passing over his head, upon which his heavy, brass-studded -rifle, clasped in both hands, was poised and balanced. Leaving behind -the last vestige of trail, we toiled in single file slowly and -laboriously up the mountain all the afternoon. The steepness of the -ascent in many places required the use of both hand and foot in -climbing, and the exercise of great caution to keep the heavy packs -from dragging us over backwards. Coleman lagged behind from the start, -and at intervals his voice could be heard hallooing and calling upon -us to wait. Towards sunset we reached a level terrace, or bench, near -the summit, gladly threw off our packs, and waited for Coleman, who, -we supposed, could not be far below. He not appearing, we hallooed -again and again. No answer! We then sent Sluiskin down the mountain to -his aid. After an hour's absence the Indian returned. He had -descended, he said, a long distance, and at last caught sight of -Coleman. He was near the foot of the mountain, had thrown away his -pack, blankets and all, and was evidently returning to camp. And -Sluiskin finished his account with expressions of contempt for the -"cultus King George man." What was to be done? Coleman carried in his -pack all our bacon, our only supply of meat, except a few pounds of -dried beef. He also had the barometer, the only instrument that had -survived the jolts and tumbles of our rough trip. But, on the other -hand, he had been a clog upon our march from the outset. He was -evidently too infirm to endure the toil before us, and would not only -be unable to reach, still less ascend Takhoma, but might even impede -and frustrate our own efforts. Knowing that he would be safe in camp -until our return, we hastily concluded to proceed without him, -trusting to our rifles for a supply of meat. - -Sluiskin led us along the side of the ridge in a southerly direction -for two miles farther, to a well-sheltered, grassy hollow in the -mountain-top, where he had often previously encamped. It was after -dark when we reached this place. The usual spring had gone dry, and, -parched with thirst we searched the gulches of the mountain-side for -water an hour, but without success. At length the writer, recalling a -scanty rill which trickled across their path a mile back, taking the -coffee-pot and large canteen, retraced his steps, succeeded in filling -these utensils after much fumbling in the dark and consequent delay, -and returned to camp. He found Van Trump and the Indian, anxious at -the long delay, mounted on the crest of the ridge some two hundred -yards from camp, waving torches and shouting lustily to direct his -steps. The mosquitoes and flies came in clouds, and were terribly -annoying. After supper of coffee and bread, we drank up the water, -rolled ourselves in our blankets, and lay down under a tree with our -flags floating from under the boughs overhead. Hot as had been the -day, the night was cold and frosty, owing, doubtless, to the altitude -of our camp. - -At the earliest dawn next morning we were moving on without breakfast, -and parched with thirst. Sluiskin led us in a general course about -north-northeast, but twisting to nearly every point of the compass, -and climbing up and down thousands of feet from mountain to mountain, -yet keeping on the highest backbone between the headwaters of the -Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. After several hours of this work we came -to a well-sheltered hollow, one side filled with a broad bed of snow, -at the foot of which nestled a tiny, tranquil lakelet, and gladly -threw off our heavy packs, assuaged our thirst, and took -breakfast,--bread and coffee again. Early as it was, the chill of the -frosty night still in the air, the mosquitoes renewed their attacks, -and proved as innumerable and vexatious as ever. - -Continuing our march, we crossed many beds of snow, and drank again -and again from the icy rills which flowed out of them. The mountains -were covered with stunted mountain-ash and low, stubby firs with -short, bushy branches, and occasionally a few pines. Many slopes were -destitute of trees but covered with luxuriant grass and the greatest -profusion of beautiful flowers of vivid hues. This was especially the -case with the southern slopes, while the northern sides of the -mountains were generally wooded. We repeatedly ate berries, and an -hour afterwards ascended to where berries of the same kind were found -scarcely yet formed. The country was much obscured with smoke from -heavy fires which had been raging on the Cowlitz the last two days. -But when at length, after climbing for hours an almost perpendicular -peak,--creeping on hands and knees over loose rocks, and clinging to -scanty tufts of grass where a single slip would have sent us rolling a -thousand feet down to destruction,--we reached the highest crest and -looked over, we exclaimed that we were already well repaid for all our -toil. Nothing can convey an idea of the grandeur and ruggedness of the -mountains. Directly in front, and apparently not over two miles -distant, although really twenty, old Takhoma loomed up more gigantic -than ever. We were far above the level of the lower snow-line on -Takhoma. The high peak upon which we clung seemed the central core or -focus of all the mountains around, and on every side we looked down -vertically thousands of feet, deep down into vast, terrible defiles, -black and fir-clothed, which stretched away until lost in the distance -and smoke. Between them, separating one from another, the -mountain-walls rose precipitously and terminated in bare, columnar -peaks of black basaltic or volcanic rock, as sharp as needles. It -seemed incredible that any human foot could have followed out the -course we came, as we looked back upon it. - -After a few hours more of this climbing, we stood upon the summit of -the last mountain-ridge that separated us from Takhoma. We were in a -saddle of the ridge; a lofty peak rose on either side. Below us -extended a long, steep hollow or gulch filled with snow, the farther -extremity of which seemed to drop off perpendicularly into a deep -valley or basin. Across this valley, directly in front, filling up the -whole horizon and view with an indescribable aspect of magnitude and -grandeur, stood the old leviathan of mountains. The broad, snowy dome -rose far among and above the clouds. The sides fell off in vertical -steeps and fearful black walls of rock for a third of its altitude; -lower down, vast, broad, gently sloping snow-fields surrounded the -mountain, and were broken here and there by ledges or masses of the -dark basaltic rock protruding above them. Long, green ridges projected -from this snow-belt at intervals, radiating from the mountain and -extending many miles until lost in the distant forests. Deep valleys -lay between these ridges. Each at its upper end formed the bed of a -glacier, which closed and filled it up with solid ice. Below the -snow-line bright green grass with countless flowers, whose vivid -scarlet, blue, and purple formed bodies of color in the distance, -clothed the whole region of ridges and valleys, for a breadth of five -miles. The beautiful balsam firs, about thirty feet in height, and of -a purple, dark-green color, stood scattered over the landscape, now -singly, now in groves, and now in long lines, as though planted in -some well-kept park. Farther down an unbroken fir forest surrounded -the mountain and clad the lower portions of the ridges and valleys. In -every sheltered depression or hollow lay beds of snow with tiny brooks -and rivulets flowing from them. The glaciers terminated not gradually, -but abruptly, with a wall of ice from one to five hundred feet high, -from beneath which yeasty torrents burst forth and rushed roaring and -tumbling down the valleys. The principal of these, far away on our -left front, could be seen plunging over two considerable falls, half -hidden in the forest, while the roar of waters was distinctly audible. - -At length we cautiously descended the snow-bed, and, climbing at least -fifteen hundred feet down a steep but ancient land-slide by means of -the bushes growing among the loose rocks, reached the valley, and -encountered a beautiful, peaceful, limpid creek. Van Trump could not -resist the temptation of unpacking his bundle, selecting one of his -carefully preserved flies, and trying the stream for trout, but -without a single rise. After an hour's rest and a hearty repast we -resumed our packs, despite Sluiskin's protests, who seemed tired out -with his arduous day's toil and pleaded hard against traveling -farther. Crossing the stream, we walked through several grassy glades, -or meadows, alternating with open woods. We soon came to the foot of -one of the long ridges already described, and ascending it followed it -for several miles through open woods, until we emerged upon the -enchanting emerald and flowery meads which clothe these upper regions. -Halting upon a rising eminence in our course, and looking back, we -beheld the ridge of mountains we had just descended stretching from -east to west in a steep, rocky wall; a little to the left, a beautiful -lake, evidently the source of the stream just crossed, which we called -Clear Creek, and glimpses of which could be seen among the trees as it -flowed away to the right, down a rapidly descending valley along the -foot of the lofty mountain-wall. Beyond the lake again, still farther -to the left, the land also subsided quickly. It was at once evident -that the lake was upon a summit, or divide, between the waters of the -Nisqually and Cowlitz rivers. The ridge which we were ascending lay -north and south, and led directly up to the mountain. - -We camped, as the twilight fell upon us, in an aromatic grove of -balsam firs. A grouse, the fruit of Sluiskin's rifle, broiled before -the fire, and impartially divided gave a relish to the dry bread and -coffee. After supper we reclined upon our blankets in front of the -bright, blazing fire, well satisfied. The Indian, when starting from -Bear Prairie, had evidently deemed our intention of ascending Takhoma -too absurd to deserve notice. The turning back of Mr. Coleman only -deepened his contempt for our prowess. But his views had undergone a -change with the day's march. The affair began to look serious to him, -and now in Chinook, interspersed with a few words of broken English -and many signs and gesticulations, he began a solemn exhortation and -warning against our rash project. - -Takhoma, he said, was an enchanted mountain, inhabited by an evil -spirit, who dwelt in a fiery lake on its summit. No human being could -ascend it or even attempt its ascent, and survive. At first, indeed, -the way was easy. The broad snow-fields, over which he had so often -hunted the mountain goat, interposed no obstacle, but above them the -rash adventurer would be compelled to climb up steeps of loose, -rolling rocks, which would turn beneath his feet and cast him -head-long into the deep abyss below. The upper snow-slopes, too, were -so steep that not even a goat, far less a man, could get over them. -And he would have to pass below lofty walls and precipices whence -avalanches of snow and vast masses of rocks were continually falling; -and these would inevitably bury the intruder beneath their ruins. -Moreover, a furious tempest continually swept the crown of the -mountain, and the luckless adventurer, even if he wonderfully escaped -the perils below, would be torn from the mountain and whirled through -the air by this fearful blast. And the awful being upon the summit, -who would surely punish the sacrilegious attempt to invade his -sanctuary,--who could hope to escape his vengeance? Many years ago, he -continued, his grandfather, a great chief and warrior, and a mighty -hunter, had ascended part way up the mountain, and had encountered -some of these dangers, but he fortunately turned back in time to -escape destruction; and no other Indian had ever gone so far. - -Finding that his words did not produce the desired effect, he assured -us that, if we persisted in attempting the ascent, he would wait three -days for our return, and would then proceed to Olympia and inform our -friends of our death; and he begged us to give him a paper (a written -note) to take to them, so that they might believe his story. -Sluiskin's manner during this harangue was earnest in the extreme, and -he was undoubtedly sincere in his forebodings. After we had retired to -rest, he kept up a most dismal chant, or dirge, until late in the -night. The dim, white, spectral mass towering so near, the roar of the -torrents below us, and the occasional thunder of avalanches, several -of which fell during the night, added to the weird effect of -Sluiskin's song. - -The next morning we moved two miles farther up the ridge and made camp -in the last clump of trees, quite within the limit of perpetual snow. -Thence, with snow-spikes upon our feet and Alpine staff in hand, we -went up the snow-fields to reconnoiter the best line of ascent. We -spent four hours, walking fast, in reaching the foot of the steep, -abrupt part of the mountain. After carefully scanning the southern -approaches, we decided to ascend on the morrow by a steep, rocky ridge -that seemed to lead up to the snowy crown. - -Our camp was pitched on a high knoll crowned by a grove of balsam -firs, near a turbulent glacial torrent. About nine o'clock, after we -had lain down for the night, the firs round our camp took fire and -suddenly burst out in a vivid conflagration. The night was dark and -windy, and the scene--the vast, dim outlines of Takhoma, the white -snow-fields, the roaring torrent, the crackling blaze of the burning -trees--was strikingly wild and picturesque. - -In honor of our guide we named the cascade at our feet Sluiskin's -Falls; the stream we named Glacier Creek, and the mass of ice whence -it derives its source we styled the Little Nisqually Glacier. - -Before daylight the next morning, Wednesday, August 17, 1870, we were -up and had breakfasted, and at six o'clock we started to ascend -Takhoma. Besides our Alpine staffs and creepers, we carried a long -rope, an ice-axe, a brass plate inscribed with our names, our flags, a -large canteen, and some luncheon. We were also provided with gloves, -and green goggles for snow-blindness, but found no occasion to use the -latter. Having suffered much from the heat of the sun since leaving -Bear Prairie, and being satisfied from our late reconnoissance that we -could reach the summit and return on the same day, we left behind our -coats and blankets. In three hours of fast walking we reached the -highest point of the preceding day's trip, and commenced the ascent by -the steep, rocky ridge already described as reaching up to the snowy -dome. We found it to be a very narrow, steep, irregular backbone, -being solid rock, while the sides were composed of loose broken rocks -and debris. Up this ridge, keeping upon the spine when possible, and -sometimes forced to pick our way over the loose and broken rocks at -the sides, around columnar masses which we could not directly climb -over, we toiled for five hundred yards, ascending at an angle of -nearly forty-five degrees. Here the ridge connected, by a narrow neck -or saddle, with a vast square rock, whose huge and distinct outline -can be clearly perceived from a distance of twenty-five miles. This, -like the ridge, is a conglomerate of basalt and trap, in well-defined -strata, and is rapidly disintegrating and continually falling in -showers and even masses of rocks and rubbish, under the action of -frost by night and melting snow by day. It lies imbedded in the side -of the mountain, with one side and end projected and overhanging deep, -terrible gorges, and it is at the corner or junction of these two -faces that the ridge joined it at a point about a thousand feet below -its top. On the southern face the strata were inclined at an angle of -thirty degrees. Crossing by the saddle from the ridge, despite a -strong wind which swept across it, we gained a narrow ledge formed by -a stratum more solid than its fellows, and creeping along it, hugging -close to the main rock on our right, laboriously and cautiously -continued the ascent. The wind was blowing violently. We were now -crawling along the face of the precipice almost in mid-air. On the -right the rock towered far above us perpendicularly. On the left it -fell sheer off, two thousand feet, into a vast abyss. A great glacier -filled its bed and stretched away for several miles, all seamed or -wrinkled across with countless crevasses. We crept up and along a -ledge, not of solid, sure rock, but one obstructed with the loose -stones and debris which were continually falling from above, and we -trod on the upper edge of a steep slope of this rubbish, sending the -stones at every step rolling and bounding into the depth below. -Several times during our progress showers of rocks fell from the -precipice above across our path, and rolled into the abyss, but -fortunately none struck us. - -Four hundred yards of this progress brought us to where the rock -joined the overhanging edge of the vast neve or snow-field that -descended from the dome of the mountain and was from time to time, as -pressed forward and downward, breaking off in immense masses, which -fell with a noise as of thunder into the great canyon on our left. The -junction of rock and ice afforded our only line of ascent. It was an -almost perpendicular gutter, but here our ice-axe came into play, and -by cutting steps in the ice and availing ourselves of every crevice or -projecting point of the rock, we slowly worked our way up two hundred -yards higher. Falling stones were continually coming down, both from -the rock on our right and from the ice in front, as it melted and -relaxed its hold upon them. Mr. Van Trump was hit by a small one, and -another struck his staff from his hands. Abandoning the rock, then, at -the earliest practicable point, we ascended directly up the ice, -cutting steps for a short distance, until we reached ice so -corrugated, or drawn up in sharp pinnacles, as to afford a foothold. -These folds or pinnacles were about two or three feet high, and half -as thick, and stood close together. It was like a very violent chop -sea, only the waves were sharper. Up this safe footing we climbed -rapidly, the side of the mountain becoming less and less steep, and -the ice waves smaller and more regular, and, after ascending about -three hundred yards, stood fairly upon the broad dome of mighty -Takhoma. It rose before us like a broad, gently swelling headland of -dazzling white, topped with black, where the rocky summit projected -above the neve. Ascending diagonally towards the left, we continued -our course. The snow was hard and firm under foot, crisp and light for -an inch or two, but solidified into ice a foot or less beneath the -surface. The whole field was covered with the ice-waves already -described, and intersected by a number of crevasses which we crossed -at narrow places without difficulty. About half-way up the slope, we -encountered one from eight to twenty feet wide and of profound depth. -The most beautiful vivid emerald-green color seemed to fill the abyss, -the reflection of the bright sunlight from side to side of its pure -ice walls. The upper side or wall of the crevasse was some twelve feet -above the lower, and in places overhung it, as though the snow-field -on the lower side had bodily settled down a dozen feet. Throwing a -bight of the rope around a projecting pinnacle on the upper side, we -climbed up, hand over hand, and thus effected a crossing. We were now -obliged to travel slowly, with frequent rests. In that rare -atmosphere, after taking seventy or eighty steps, our breath would be -gone, our muscles grew tired and strained, and we experienced all the -sensations of extreme fatigue. An instant's pause, however, was -sufficient to recover strength and breath, and we would start again. -The wind, which we had not felt while climbing the steepest part of -the mountain, now again blew furiously, and we began to suffer from -the cold. Our course,--directed still diagonally towards the left, -thus shunning the severe exertion of climbing straight up the dome, -although at an ordinary altitude the slope would be deemed -easy,--brought us first to the southwest peak. This is a long, -exceedingly sharp, narrow ridge, springing out from the main dome for -a mile into mid-air. The ridge affords not over ten or twelve feet of -foothold on top, and the sides descend almost vertically. On the right -side the snow lay firm and smooth for a few feet on top, and then -descended in a steep, unbroken sheet, like an immense, flowing -curtain, into the tremendous basin which lies on the west side of the -mountain between the southern and northern peaks, and which is -inclosed by them as by two mighty arms. The snow on the top and left -crest of the ridge was broken into high, sharp pinnacles, with cracks -and fissures extending to the rocks a few feet below. The left side, -too steep for the snow to lie on, was vertical, bare rock. The wind -blew so violently that we were obliged to brace ourselves with our -Alpine staffs and use great caution to guard against being swept off -the ridge. We threw ourselves behind the pinnacles or into the cracks -every seventy steps, for rest and shelter against the bitter, piercing -wind. Hastening forward in this way along the dizzy, narrow, and -precarious ridge, we reached at length the highest point. Sheltered -behind a pinnacle of ice we rested a moment, took out our flags and -fastened them upon the Alpine staffs, and then, standing erect in the -furious blast, waved them in triumph with three cheers. We stood a -moment upon that narrow summit, bracing ourselves against the tempest -to view the prospect. The whole country was shrouded in a dense sea -of smoke, above which the mountain towered two thousand feet in the -clear, cloudless ether. A solitary peak far to the southeast, -doubtless Mount Adams, and one or two others in the extreme northern -horizon, alone protruded above the pall. On every side of the mountain -were deep gorges falling off precipitously thousands of feet, and from -these the thunderous sound of avalanches would rise occasionally. Far -below were the wide-extended glaciers already described. The wind was -now a perfect tempest, and bitterly cold; smoke and mist were flying -about the base of the mountain, half hiding, half revealing its -gigantic outlines; and the whole scene was sublimely awful. - -It was now five P.M. We had spent eleven hours of unremitted toil in -making the ascent, and, thoroughly fatigued, and chilled by the cold, -bitter gale, we saw ourselves obliged to pass the night on the summit -without shelter or food, except our meagre lunch. It would have been -impossible to descend the mountain before nightfall, and sure -destruction to attempt it in darkness. We concluded to return to a -mass of rocks not far below, and there pass the night as best we -could, burrowing in the loose debris. - -The middle peak of the mountain, however, was evidently the highest, -and we determined to first visit it. Retracing our steps along the -narrow crest of Peak Success, as we named the scene of our triumph, we -crossed an intervening depression in the dome, and ascended the middle -peak, about a mile distant and two hundred feet higher than Peak -Success. Climbing over a rocky ridge which crowns the summit, we found -ourselves within a circular crater two hundred yards in diameter, -filled with a solid bed of snow, and inclosed with a rim of rocks -projecting above the snow all around. As we were crossing the crater -on the snow, Van Trump detected the odor of sulphur, and the next -instant numerous jets of steam and smoke were observed issuing from -the crevices of the rocks which formed the rim on the northern side. -Never was a discovery more welcome! Hastening forward, we both -exclaimed, as we warmed our chilled and benumbed extremities over one -of Pluto's fires, that here we would pass the night, secure against -freezing to death, at least. These jets were from the size of that of -a large steampipe to a faint, scarcely perceptible emission, and -issued all along the rim among the loose rocks on the northern side -for more than half the circumference of the crater. At intervals they -would puff up more strongly, and the smoke would collect in a cloud -until blown aside and scattered by the wind, and then their force -would abate for a time. - -A deep cavern, extending into and under the ice, and formed by the -action of heat, was found. Its roof was a dome of brilliant green ice -with long icicles pendent from it, while its floor, composed of the -rocks and debris which formed the side of the crater, descended at an -angle of thirty degrees. Forty feet within its mouth we built a wall -of stones, inclosing a space five by six feet around a strong jet of -steam and heat. Unlike the angular, broken rocks met with elsewhere, -within the crater we found well-rounded bowlders and stones of all -sizes worn as smooth by the trituration of the crater as by the action -of water. Nowhere, however, did we observe any new lava or other -evidences of recent volcanic action excepting these issues of steam -and smoke. Inclosed within the rude shelter thus hastily constructed, -we discussed our future prospects while we ate our lunch and warmed -ourselves at our natural register. The heat at the orifice was too -great to bear for more than an instant, but the steam wet us, the -smell of sulphur was nauseating, and the cold was so severe that our -clothes, saturated with the steam, froze stiff when turned away from -the heated jet. The wind outside roared and whistled, but it did not -much affect us, secure within our cavern, except when an occasional -gust came down perpendicularly. However, we passed a most miserable -night, freezing on one side, and in a hot steam-sulphur-bath on the -other. - -The dawn at last slowly broke, cold and gray. The tempest howled still -wilder. As it grew light, dense masses of driven mist went sweeping by -overhead and completely hid the sun, and enveloped the mountain so as -to conceal objects scarce a hundred feet distant. We watched and -waited with great anxiety, fearing a storm which might detain us there -for days without food or shelter, or, worse yet, snow, which would -render the descent more perilous, or most likely impossible. And when, -at nine A.M., an occasional rift in the driving mist gave a glimpse of -blue sky, we made haste to descend. First, however, I deposited the -brass plate inscribed with our names in a cleft in a large bowlder on -the highest summit,--a huge mount of rocks on the east side of our -crater of refuge, which we named Crater Peak,--placed the canteen -alongside, and covered it with a large stone. I was then literally -freezing in the cold, piercing blast, and was glad to hurry back to -the crater, breathless and benumbed. - -We left our den of refuge at length, after exercising violently to -start the blood through our limbs, and, in attempting to pass around -the rocky summit, discovered a second crater, larger than the first, -perhaps three hundred yards in diameter. It is circular, filled with a -bed of snow, with a rocky rim all around and numerous jets of steam -issuing from the rocks on the northern side. Both craters are -inclined--the first to the west, and the latter to the east with a -much steeper inclination, about thirty degrees. The rim of the second -crater is higher, or the snow-field inside lower, than that of the -first, and upon the east side rises in a rocky wall thirty feet above -the snow within. From the summit we obtained a view of the northern -peak, still partially enveloped in the driving mist. It appeared about -a mile distant, several hundred feet lower than the center peak, and -separated from it by a deeper, more abrupt depression or gap than -that separating Crater and Success peaks. Like the latter, too, it is -a sharp, narrow ridge springing out from the main mountain, and swept -bare of snow on its summit by the wind. The weather was still too -threatening, the glimpses of the sun and sky through the thick, flying -scud were too few and fugitive, to warrant us in visiting this peak, -which we named Peak Takhoma, to perpetuate the Indian name of the -mountain. - -Our route back was the same as on the ascent. At the steepest and most -perilous point in descending the steep gutter where we had been forced -to cut steps in the ice, we fastened one end of the rope as securely -as possible to a projecting rock, and lowered ourselves down by it as -far as it reached, thereby passing the place with comparative safety. -We were forced to abandon the rope here, having no means of -unfastening it from the rock above. We reached the foot of the rocky -ledge or ridge, where the real difficulties and dangers of the ascent -commenced, at 1.30 P.M., four and a half hours after leaving the -crater. We had been seven and a half hours in ascending from this -point to the summit of Peak Success, and in both cases we toiled hard -and lost no time. - -We now struck out rapidly and joyfully for camp. When nearly there Van -Trump, in attempting to descend a snowbank without his creepers, which -he had taken off for greater ease in walking, fell, shot like -lightning forty feet down the steep incline, and struck among some -loose rocks at its foot with such force as to rebound several feet -into the air; his face and hands were badly skinned, and he received -some severe bruises and a deep, wide gash upon his thigh. Fortunately -the camp was not far distant, and thither with great pain and very -slowly he managed to hobble. Once there I soon started a blazing fire, -made coffee, and roasted choice morsels of a marmot, Sluiskin having -killed and dressed four of these animals during our absence. Their -flesh, like the badger's, is extremely muscular and tough, and has a -strong, disagreeable, doggy odor. - -Towards the close of our repast, we observed the Indian approaching -with his head down, and walking slowly and wearily as though tired by -a long tramp. He raised his head as he came nearer, and, seeing us for -the first time, stopped short, gazed long and fixedly, and then slowly -drew near, eying us closely the while, as if to see whether we were -real flesh and blood or disembodied ghosts fresh from the evil demon -of Takhoma. He seemed both astonished and delighted to find us safe -back, and kept repeating that we were strong men and had brave hearts: -"Skookum tilicum, skookum tumtum." He expected never to see us again, -he said, and had resolved to start the next morning for Olympia to -report our destruction. - -The weather was still raw and cold. A dense cloud overhung and -shrouded the triple crown of Takhoma and made us rejoice at our timely -descent. The scanty shelter afforded by the few balsam firs about our -camp had been destroyed by the fire, and the situation was terribly -exposed to the chilly and piercing wind that blew from the great -ice-fields. Van Trump, however, was too badly hurt to think of moving -that night. Heating some large stones we placed them at our feet, and -closely wrapped in our blankets slept soundly upon the open ground, -although we awoke in the morning benumbed and chilled. - -We found many fresh tracks and signs of the mountain-sheep upon the -snowfields, and hair and wool rubbed off upon rocks, and places where -they had lain at night. The mountain-sheep of Takhoma is much larger -than the common goat, and is found only upon the loftiest and most -secluded peaks of the Cascade Range. Even Sluiskin, a skillful hunter -and accustomed to the pursuit of this animal for years, failed to kill -one, notwithstanding he hunted assiduously during our entire stay -upon the mountain, three days. Sluiskin was greatly chagrined at his -failure, and promised to bring each of us a sheep-skin the following -summer, a promise which he faithfully fulfilled. - -The glacial system of Takhoma is stupendous. The mountain is really -the focal centre and summit of a region larger than Massachusetts, and -the five large rivers which water this region all find their sources -in its vast glaciers. They are the Cowlitz, which empties into the -Columbia; the White, Puyallup, and Nisqually rivers, which empty into -Puget Sound sixty, forty, and twelve miles respectively north of -Olympia; and the Wenass, which flows eastward through the range and -empties into the Yakima, which joins the Columbia four hundred miles -above its mouth. These are all large streams from seventy to a hundred -miles in length. The White, Puyallup, and Cowlitz rivers are each -navigable for steamboats for some thirty miles, and like the Nisqually -show their glacial origin by their white and turgid water, which -indeed gives the former its name. - -The southwestern sides of the mountain furnish the glaciers which form -the sources of the Nisqually, and one of these, at Sluiskin's Falls, -has been already described. The main Nisqually glacier issues from the -deep abyss overhung by the vast rock along the face of which our route -of ascent lay, and extends in a narrow and somewhat crooked canyon for -two miles. The ice at its extremity rises in an abrupt wall five -hundred feet high, and a noisy torrent pours out with great force from -beneath. This feature is characteristic of every glacier. The main -Cowlitz glacier issues from the southeast side, just to the right of -our ridge of ascent. Its head fills a deep gorge at the foot of the -eastern front or face of the great mass of rock just referred to, and -the southern face of which overhangs the main Nisqually glacier. Thus -the heads of these glaciers are separated only by this great rock, and -are probably not more than half a mile apart, while their mouths are -three miles apart. Several smaller glaciers serve to swell the waters -of the Cowlitz. In like manner the glaciers from the western side form -the Puyallup, and those from the northern and northwestern sides the -White River. The principal White River glacier is nearly ten miles -long, and its width is from two to four miles. Its depth, or the -thickness of its ice, must be thousands of feet. Streams and rivulets -under the heat of the sun flow down its surface until swallowed by the -crevasses, and a lakelet of deep blue water an eighth of a mile in -diameter has been observed upon the solid ice. Pouring down from the -mountain, the ice by its immense weight and force has gouged out a -mass upon the northeastern side a mile in thickness. The geological -formation of Takhoma poorly resists the eroding power of these mighty -glaciers, for it seems to be composed not of solid rock, but of a -basaltic conglomerate in strata, as though the volcanic force had -burst through and rent in pieces some earlier basaltic outflow, and -had heaped up this vast pile from the fragments in successive strata. -On every side the mountain is slowly disintegrating. - -What other peak can offer to scientific examination or to the -admiration of tourists fourteen living glaciers of such magnitude, -issuing from every side, or such grandeur, beauty, and variety of -scenery? - -At daylight we broke up our camp at Sluiskin's Falls, and moved -slowly, on account of Van Trump's hurt, down the ridge about five -miles to Clear Creek, where we again regaled ourselves upon a hearty -repast of marmots, or "raw dog," as Van Trump styled them in derision -both of the viand and of the cookery. I was convinced from the lay of -the country that Clear Creek flowed into the Nisqually, or was, -perhaps, the main stream itself, and that the most direct and feasible -route back to Bear Prairie would be found by following down the valley -of these streams to the trail leading from the Nisqually to Bear -Prairie. Besides, it was evidently impossible for Van Trump, in his -bruised and injured state, to retrace our rough route over the -mountains. Leaving him as comfortable as possible, with all our scanty -stock of flour and marmots, sufficient to last him nearly a week in -case of need, I started immediately after dinner, with Sluiskin -leading the way, to explore this new route. The Indian had opposed the -attempt strenuously, insisting with much urgency that the stream -flowed through canyons impossible for us to traverse. He now gradually -veered away from the course of the stream, until ere-long he was -leading directly up the steep mountain range upon our former route, -when I called him back peremptorily, and kept him in the rear for a -little distance. Traveling through open timber, over ground rapidly -descending, we came at the end of two miles to where the stream is -hemmed in between one of the long ridges or spurs from Takhoma and the -high mountain-chain on the south. The stream, receiving many affluents -on both sides, its clear waters soon discolored by the yeasty glacial -torrents, here loses its peaceful flow, and for upwards of three miles -rushes furiously down a narrow, broken, and rocky bed in a succession -of falls and cascades of great picturesque beauty. With much toil and -difficulty we picked our way over a wide "talus" of huge, broken -granite blocks and bowlders, along the foot of a vast mountain of -solid granite on the south side of the river, until near the end of -the defile, then crossed the stream, and soon after encountered a -still larger branch coming from the north, direct from Takhoma, the -product, doubtless, of the glaciers on the southern and southwestern -sides. Fording this branch just above its confluence with the other, -we followed the general course of the river, now unmistakably the -Nisqually, for about four miles; then, leaving it, we struck off -nearly south through the forest for three miles, and emerged upon the -Bear Prairie. The distance was about thirteen miles from where we -left Van Trump, and we were only some six hours in traveling it, while -it took seventeen hours of terribly severe work to make the -mountain-route under Sluiskin's guidance. - -Without his help on the shorter route, too, it would have taken me -more than twice the time it did. For the manner in which, after -entering the defile of the Nisqually, Sluiskin again took the lead and -proceeded in a direct and unhesitating course, securing every -advantage of the ground, availing himself of the wide, rocky bars -along the river, crossing and recrossing the milky flood which rushed -along with terrific swiftness and fury, and occasionally forcing his -way through the thick timber and underbrush in order to cut off wide -bends of the river, and at length leaving it and striking boldly -through the forest to Bear Prairie, proved him familiar with every -foot of the country. His objections to the route evidently arose from -the jealousy so common with his people of further exploration of the -country by the whites. As long as they keep within the limits already -known and explored, they are faithful and indefatigable guides, but -they invariably interpose every obstacle their ingenuity can suggest -to deter the adventurous mountaineer from exposing the few last hidden -recesses that remain unexplored. - -Mr. Coleman was found safe in camp, and seemed too glad to see us to -think of reproaching us for our summary abandonment. He said that in -attempting to follow us he climbed up so precipitous a place that, -encumbered with his heavy pack, he could neither advance nor recede. -He was compelled, therefore, to throw off the pack, which rolled to -the very bottom of the mountain, and being thus delivered of his -necessary outfit, he was forced to return to camp. He had been unable -to find his pack, but having come across some cricketer's spikes among -his remaining effects, he was resolved to continue his trip to, and -make the ascent of, Rainier by himself; he had just completed his -preparations, and especially had deposited on top of the lofty -mountain which overlooked the prairie two caches, or stores, of -provisions. - -At daylight next morning, Sluiskin, with his little boy riding one of -his own ponies, himself riding our little calico-colored pack-horse, -now well rested and saucy, started back for Van Trump, with directions -to meet us at the trail on the Nisqually. A heavy, drizzling rain set -in soon afterwards; Mr. Coleman, who had gone early to bring in the -contents of his mountain-top caches, returned about noon with a very -small bundle, and, packing our traps upon Sluiskin's other pony, we -moved over to the rendezvous, pitched Coleman's large gum-sheet as a -partial shelter, made a rousing fire, and tried to be comfortable. -Late in the afternoon the pony set up a violent neighing, and in a few -minutes Van Trump, and Sluiskin with his little boy behind him, rode -up, drenched to the skin. By following the bed of the river, -frequently crossing and recrossing, the Indian had managed to ride to -the very foot of the Nisqually defile, when, leaving the horses in -this boy's care, he hastened to Van Trump and carefully led and -assisted him down. Despite the pain of his severe hurts, the latter -was much amused at Sluiskin's account of our trip, and of finding Mr. -Coleman safe in camp making tea, and for long after would repeat as an -excellent joke Sluiskin's remark on passing the point where he had -attempted to mislead me, "Skookum tenas man hiyu goddam." - -We sent the horses back by the Indian to Bear Prairie for grass, there -being no indications of the rain ceasing. The storm indeed lasted -three days, during which we remained sheltered beneath the gum-sheet -as far as possible, and endeavored to counteract the rain by heaping -up our fire in front. About eight o'clock on the second morning, -Sluiskin reported himself with our horse, which he returned, he said, -because he was about to return to his lodge on the Cowlitz, being -destitute of shelter and food for his family on Bear Prairie. He -vigorously replenished the fire, declined breakfast, jeered Coleman -for turning back, although probably the latter did not comprehend his -broken lingo, and departed. - -Sluiskin was an original and striking character. Leading a solitary -life of hardships amidst these wilds, yet of unusual native -intelligence, he had contrived, during rare visits to the settlements, -to acquire the Chinook jargon, besides a considerable stock of English -words, while his fund of general information was really wonderful. He -was possessed of a shrewd, sarcastic wit, and, making no pretense to -the traditional gravity of his race, did not scruple to use it freely. -Yet beneath this he cherished a high sense of pride and personal -independence. Although of the blood of the numerous and powerful -Yakimas, who occupied the country just east of the Cascades, he -disdained to render allegiance to them or any tribe, and undoubtedly -regarded the superintendent of Indian affairs, or even the great -father at Washington himself, with equally contemptuous indifference. - -As the last rays of the sun, one warm, drowsy summer afternoon, were -falling aslant the shady streets of Olympia, Mr. Longmire's well-worn -family carry-all, drawn by two fat, grass-fed horses, came rattling -down the main street at a most unusual pace for them; two bright flags -attached to Alpine staffs, one projecting from each door, fluttered -gayly overhead, while the occupants of the carriage looked eagerly -forth to catch the first glimpse of welcoming friends. We returned -after our tramp of two hundred and forty miles with visages tanned and -sun-scorched, and with forms as lean and gaunt as greyhounds, and were -received and lionized to the full, like veterans returning from an -arduous and glorious campaign. For days afterward, in walking along -the smooth and level pavements, we felt a strong impulse to step high, -as though still striding over the innumerable fallen logs and boughs -of the forest, and for weeks our appetites were a source of -astonishment to our friends and somewhat mortifying to ourselves. More -than two months had elapsed before Mr. Van Trump fully recovered from -his hurts. We published at the time short newspaper accounts of the -ascent, and, although an occasional old Puget Sounder will still -growl, "They say they went on top of Mount Rainier, but I'd like to -see them prove it," we were justly regarded as the first, and as I -believe the only ones up to the present time, who have ever achieved -the summit of Takhoma. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[21] Tak-ho'ma or Ta-ho'ma among the Yakimas, Klickitats, Puyallups, -Nisquallys, and allied tribes of Indians, is the generic term for -mountain, used precisely as we use the word "mount," as Takhoma -Wynatchie, or Mount Wynatchie. But they all designate Rainier simply -as Takhoma, or The Mountain, just as the mountain men used to call it -the "Old He." (Note in the original article.) - - - - -VII. INDIAN WARNING AGAINST DEMONS - -BY SLUISKIN, INDIAN GUIDE - - - The beautiful Sluiskin Falls, at the head of Paradise Valley, - have been admired by countless visitors to the Mount Rainier - National Park. The name was bestowed upon them by Stevens and - Van Trump after their return from what the Indian guide - believed was sure death. Before they had left him at the camp - near the falls and started to climb over the snow and ice, he - delivered an eloquent plea in the Chinook jargon accompanied - by natural but effective gestures. - - The speech was remembered and repeated by the white men when - they returned among their friends. One of those who committed - it to memory was former Congressman M. C. George of Oregon. - He furnished a copy. General Stevens in 1915 revised it, but - added: "My Chinook I have somewhat lost, so the rendering is - probably not so correct as it might be." - - However, the Indian speech and the translation by General - Stevens will likely be cherished as here reproduced. - -Kloshe nanich, mesika kloshe tilikum. Nika tikigh wawa kopa mesika. - -Mesika tikegh klatawa saghalie Takhoma, hyiu pelton. Halo tilikum -mamook okoke pe mitlite. Hyas tyee mitlite kopa saghalie illahee kopa -hyiu piah. Wake tikigh tilikum chako kopa yahka illahee. - -Ahnkuttie nika papa yahka papa, hyas skookum tyee kopa konaway Yakima -tilikum, klatawa wake siah yahka la tet. Alta nanich piah chuck pe -keekwulee tyee chako mimoluse yahka pe hyak klatawa keekwulee saghalie -illahee, pe hyiu kloshe tumtum. Yahka wake mamook alta, halo ikt -siwash mamook klatawa. - -Kloshe mesika klatawa, kloshe mamook. Hyiu snow, kloshe klatawa snow -illahee, ahnkuttie nika mimoluse Takhoma mowich kloshe ooakut. Alta -mesika nanich klatawa hyiu stone, wake kloshe klatawa pe mesika -teahwit tseepie alta mesika klatawa keekwulee pe mimoluse, keekwulee -pe mimoluse. Mesika klatawa hyas mesachie snow pe keekwulee hyas -mesachie illahee yahka Takhoma mowich halo klatawa. Mesika klatawa -hyas saghalie illahee hyiu stone chako, hyiu stone chako, pe mesika -mimoluse pe kokshut mesika. - -Spose mesika klatawa kopa okoke saghalie illahee alta mesika hyiu -skookum pe cole wind alta yahka mahsh mesika kopa keekwulee illahee pe -mimoluse mesika. Spose mesika mitlite mesachie iktas hyas keekwulee -tyee mitlite Takhoma mesika mimoluse pe mesika mahsh okoke piah chuck. - -Wake mesika klatawa! - -Mesika mamook nika tumtum kwass, spose mesika klatawa Takhoma -saghalie. Mesika mimoluse mesika spose klatawa Takhoma. Mesika -mimoluse pe mesika tilikum sollecks kopa nika. - -Wake klatawa! - -Wake klatawa! - -Spose mesika klatawa, nika mitlite mokst sun pe alta nika klatawa kopa -Olympia pe wawa kopa mesika tilikum alta mesika mimoluse siah saghalie -Takhoma. Mesika potlatch pehpah kopa nika mamook kumtuks mesika -mimoluse wake nika mesachie. - -Kopet wawa nika. - - - TRANSLATION BY GENERAL STEVENS - -Listen to me, my good friends. I must talk to you. - -Your plan to climb Takhoma is all foolishness. No one can do it and -live. A mighty chief dwells upon the summit in a lake of fire. He -brooks no intruders. - -Many years ago my grandfather, the greatest and bravest chief of all -the Yakima, climbed nearly to the summit. There he caught sight of the -fiery lake and the infernal demon coming to destroy him, and he fled -down the mountain, glad to escape with his life. Where he failed, no -other Indian ever dared make the attempt. - -At first the way is easy, the task seems light. The broad snowfields, -over which I have often hunted the mountain goat, offer an inviting -path. But above them you will have to climb over steep rocks -overhanging deep gorges where a misstep would hurl you far down--down -to certain death. You must creep over steep snow banks and cross deep -crevasses where a mountain goat could hardly keep his footing. You -must climb along steep cliffs where rocks are continually falling to -crush you, or knock you off into the bottomless depths. - -And if you should escape these perils and reach the great snowy dome, -then a bitterly cold and furious tempest will sweep you off into space -like a withered leaf. But if by some miracle you should survive all -these perils the mighty demon of Takhoma will surely kill you and -throw you into the fiery lake. - -Don't you go! - -You make my heart sick when you talk of climbing Takhoma. You will -perish if you try to climb Takhoma. You will perish and your people -will blame me. - -Don't go! - -Don't go! - -If you will go, I will wait here two days, and then go to Olympia and -tell your people that you perished on Takhoma. Give me a paper to them -to let them know that I am not to blame for your death. - -My talk is ended. - - - - - [Illustration: SAMUEL FRANKLIN EMMONS.] - -VIII. SECOND SUCCESSFUL ASCENT, 1870 - -By S. F. EMMONS - - - Later in the same year, 1870, when Stevens and Van Trump made - their first successful ascent, the achievement was also - accomplished by S. F. Emmons and A. D. Wilson of the - Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel. Samuel - Franklin Emmons was born at Boston on March 29, 1841. He died - painlessly and unexpectedly on the eve of his seventieth - birthday, March 28, 1911. - - George F. Becker gave him a fervent eulogy which appeared in - the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining - Engineers for 1911. He says: "There is not a geological - society or even a mining camp from Arctic Finland to the - Transvaal, or from Alaska to Australia, where Emmons's name - is not honored and his authority recognized." With all his - fame and ability, the biographer declares, he was modest to - diffidence. - - His account of the ascent is in the form of a letter to his - chief, Clarence King, who published it in the American - Journal of Science for March, 1871. It is here reproduced - from that source. The photograph of Mr. Emmons was obtained - from the United States Geological Survey. It will be noticed - that Mr. Emmons calls the mountain Tachoma. - - The Mountain's largest glacier, to which he refers with - enthusiasm, was for a long time known by the name of White - River which it feeds. It is peculiarly appropriate that that - glacier should bear the name given it on the official map of - the United States Geological Survey--Emmons Glacier. - -The glaciers of Mt. Tachoma, or Rainier as it is more commonly called, -form the principal sources of four important rivers of Washington -Territory, viz: the Cowlitz, which flows into the Columbia, and the -Nisqually, Puyallup and White rivers which empty into Puget Sound. In -accordance with your instructions, Mr. A. D. Wilson and I visited this -mountain in the early part of October, 1870, and carried the work of -making its complete survey, both geological and topographical, as far -as the lateness of the season and the means at our disposal would -permit. As the topographical work has not yet been plotted, the -figures given in my notes are merely estimates, and liable to -subsequent correction. I herewith transmit an abstract from my notes -upon the glaciers, embracing those of rather more than half the slopes -of the mountain, those on the eastern side, from the extreme southern -to the extreme northern point. - -The summit of Tachoma is formed by three peaks, a southern, an -eastern, and a northwestern: of these the eastern is the highest; -those on the south and northwest, being apparently a few hundred feet -lower, are distant about a mile and a half to two miles from this, and -separated by deep valleys. The eastern peak, which would seem to have -formed originally the middle of the mountain mass, is a crater about a -quarter of a mile in diameter of very perfect circular form. Its sides -are bare for about 60 feet from the rim, below which they are covered -by a _neve_ having a slope of from 28 deg. to 31 deg. This _neve_ -extending from the shoulders of the southwestern peak to those of the -northern, a width of several miles, descends to a vertical distance of -about 2000 feet below the crater rim, an immense sheet of white granular -ice, having the general form of the mountain surface, and broken only -by long transverse crevasses, one of those observed being from one to -two miles in length: it is then divided up by the several jutting -rock-masses or shoulder of the mountain into the Nisqually, Cowlitz -and White River glaciers, falling in distinct ice cascades for about -3000 feet at very steep angles, which sometimes approach the -perpendicular. From the foot of these cascades flow the glaciers -proper, at a more gentle angle, growing narrower and sinking deeper -into the mountain as they descend. From the intervening spurs, which -slope even more gradually, they receive many tributary glaciers, -while some of these secondary glaciers form independent streams, which -only join the main river many miles below the end of the glaciers. - -The Nisqually, the narrowest of the three main glaciers above -mentioned, has the most sinuous course, varying in direction from -southwest to south, while its lower extremity is somewhat west of -south of the main peak: it receives most of its tributaries from the -spur to the east, and has a comparatively regular slope in its whole -length below the cascades. There are some indications of dirt-bands on -its surface, when seen from a considerable elevation. Toward its lower -end it is very much broken up by transverse and longitudinal -crevasses: this is due to the fact, that it has here cut through the -more yielding strata of volcanic rock, and come upon an underlying and -unconformable mass of syenite. The ice front at its base is about 500 -feet in height, and the walls of lava which bound its sides rise from -1000 to 1500 feet above the surface of the ice, generally in sheer -precipices. - -The bed of the Cowlitz glacier is generally parallel to that of the -Nisqually, though its curves are less marked: the ice cascades in -which each originates, fall on either side of a black cliff of bedded -lava and breccia scarcely a thousand feet in horizontal thickness, -while the mouths of the glaciers, if I may be allowed the expression, -are about three miles apart. From the jutting edge of this cliff hang -enormous icicles from 75 to 100 feet in length. The slope of this -glacier is less regular, being broken by subordinate ice cascades. -Like the Nisqually its lower extremity stretches out as it were into -the forest, the slopes on either side, where not too steep, being -covered with the mountain fir (_Picea nobilis_) for several hundred -feet above the level of the ice, while the _Pinus flexilis_ grows at -least 2000 feet higher than the mouth of the glacier. - -The general course of this glacier is south, but at its extremity it -bends to the eastward, apparently deflected from its course by a -cliff of older felsitic rock, more resisting than the lava. The -consequence of this deflection is a predominance of longitudinal over -transverse crevasses at this point, and an unusually large moraine at -its western side, which rises several hundred feet above the surface -of the glaciers, and partakes of the character of both lateral and -terminal moraines: the main medial moraine of the glacier joins this -near its lower end. This medial moraine proceeds from the cliff which -bounds the ice cascade source of the glacier on the north, and brings -down a dark porous lava which is only found high up on the mountain -near the crater. The position of the medial moraine on the glacier -would indicate that at least half its mass came from the spur on the -east, which is probably the case. - -This spur, comprehending the whole mass between the Cowlitz and White -Rivers glaciers, has the shape of a triangle whose apex is formed by a -huge pinnacle of rock, which, as its bedding indicates, once formed -part of the crust of the mountain, but now stands isolated, a jagged -peak rising about 3000 feet above the glaciers at its foot, so steep -that neither ice nor snow rest upon it. One of the tributaries to the -Cowlitz glacier from this spur brings down with it a second medial -moraine, which is traceable to the mouth of the glacier, though in -general these tributary glaciers bring no medial moraines. - -On the eastern slopes of this spur between the two above named -glaciers, spread secondary glaciers, frequently of great width, but -owing to the limited height of their initial points, of inconsiderable -length. These end generally in perpendicular cliffs overhanging the -rocky amphitheaters at the heads of the smaller streams which flow -eastward into the Cowlitz. Looking up from the bottom of one of these -amphitheaters one sees a semi-circular wall of nearly 2000 feet of -sheer rock, surmounted by about 500 feet of ice, from under which -small streams of water issue, falling in silvery cascades on to the -green bottom below. - -A ridge of high jagged peaks connects this spur with the main range of -the Cascade Mts. in the east, and forms the water-shed between the -White and Cowlitz rivers. From the connecting saddle one can look -northward across the brink of six glaciers, which all contribute to -the White River; of these the first four come from the triangular spur -already mentioned and are of comparatively little extent. The first -two are, however, interesting from the vein structure which they -exhibit; they both originate in an irregularly oblong basin, having -the shape somewhat of an inclined ellipse, turning on its longer -diameter, the outlets of the glacier being opposite the foci. Seen -from a high point the veins form concentric lines generally parallel -to the sides of the basin; the ends of those towards the center -gradually bend round, until they join together in the form of a figure -8, and finally just above the outlets form two small ellipses. They -thus constantly preserve a direction at right angles to that of the -pressure exerted, downward by the movement of the ice mass, and upward -by the resistance to this movement of the rock mass between the two -outlets. - -The main White River glacier, the grandest of the whole,[22] pours -straight down from the rim of the crater in a northeasterly direction, -and pushes its extremity farther out into the valley than any of the -others. Its greatest width on the steep slope of the mountain must be -four or five miles, narrowing towards its extremity to about a mile -and a half; its length can be scarcely less than ten miles. The great -eroding power of glacial ice is strikingly illustrated in this -glacier, which seems to have cut down and carried away on the -northeastern side of the mountain, fully a third of its mass. The -thickness of rock cut away as shown by the walls on either side, and -the isolated peak at the head of the triangular spur, in which the -bedding of the successive flows of lava, forming the original mountain -crust, is very regular and conformable, may be roughly estimated at -somewhat over a mile. Of the thickness of the ice of the glacier I -have no data for making estimates, though it may probably be reckoned -in thousands of feet. - -It has two principal medial moraines, which, where crossed by us, -formed little mountain ridges having peaks nearly 100 feet high. The -sources of these moraines are cliffs on the steeper mountain slope, -which seem mere black specks in the great white field above: between -these are great cascades, and below immense transverse crevasses, -which we had no time or means to visit. The surface water flows in -rills and brooks, on the lower portion of the glacier, and _moulins_ -are of frequent occurrence. We visited one double _moulin_ where two -brooks poured into two circular wells, each about ten feet in -diameter, joined together at the surface but separated below: we could -not approach near enough the edge to see the bottom of either, but, as -stones thrown in sent back no sound, judged they must be very deep. - -This glacier forks near the foot of the steeper mountain slope, and -sends off a branch to the northward, which forms a large stream -flowing down to join the main stream fifteen or twenty miles below. -Looking down on this from a high overhanging peak, we could see, as it -were, under our feet, a little lake of deep blue water, about an -eighth of a mile in diameter, standing in the brown gravel-covered ice -of the end of the glacier. On the back of the rocky spur, which -divides these two glaciers, a secondary glacier has scooped out a -basin-shaped bed, and sends down an ice stream, having all the -characteristics of a true glacier, but its ice disappears several -miles above the mouths of the large glaciers on either side. Were -nothing known of the movement of glaciers, an instance like this -would seem to afford sufficient evidence that such movement exists, -and that gravity is the main motive power. From our northern and -southern points we could trace the beds of several large glaciers to -the west of us, whose upper and lower portions only were visible, the -main body of the ice lying hidden by the high intervening spurs. - -Ten large glaciers observed by us, and at least half as many more -hidden by the mountain from our view, proceeding thus from an isolated -peak, form a most remarkable system, and one worthy of a careful and -detailed study. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[22] It is a pleasure to note that this fine glacier now bears the -name of Emmons. - - - - - [Illustration: BAILEY WILLIS. - From a photograph taken in 1883.] - -IX. EXPLORATIONS ON THE NORTHERN SLOPES, 1881-1883 - -BY BAILEY WILLIS - - - The Northwest for April, 1883, which was Number 2 of Volume I - of that magazine, contained an article by Bailey Willis, - Assistant Geologist of the Northern Transcontinental Survey. - The article is entitled "Canyons and Glaciers. A Journey to - the Ice Fields of Mount Tacoma." Mr. Willis was born at - Idlewild-on-Hudson, New York, on May 31, 1857. It speaks well - for his skill and training that he should have attained to - such a position at twenty-four years of age. - - Since then he has worked out a great career in the United - States Geological Survey, in China and in other parts of the - world. He is now Professor of Geology at Stanford University. - He has kindly revised for this publication the product of his - younger years. And there has also been found a photograph of - the geologist as he appeared when the surveys were made. - - To this day, people who visit the northern slopes and parks - of the mountain become familiar with the Bailey Willis trail - and from Moraine Park they get a view of the wonderful Willis - Wall named in his honor. - -The Puyallup River, which empties into Puget Sound near New Tacoma, -heads in three glaciers on Mount Tacoma. During the summer months, -when the ice and snow on the mountains are thawing, the water is -discolored with mud from the glaciers and carries a large amount of -sediment out to Commencement Bay. If the Coast Survey charts are -correct, soundings near the centre of the bay have changed from one -hundred fathoms and "no bottom" in 1867, to eighty fathoms and "gray -mud" in 1877. But when the nights in the hills begin to be frosty, the -stream becomes clearer, and in winter the greater volume of spring -water gives it a deep green tint. - -For twenty miles from the Sound the valley is nearly level. The bluffs -along the river are of coarse gravel, the soil is alluvium, and a well -sunk a hundred feet at the little town of Puyallup passed through -gravel and sand to tide mud and brackish water. From the foot-hills to -its mouth the river meanders over an old valley of unknown depth, now -filled with material brought down by its several branches. About -eighteen miles above its mouth the river forks, and the northern -portion takes the name of Carbon River; the southern was formerly -called the South Fork, but it should retain the name of Puyallup to -its next division far up in the mountains. A short distance above -their junction both Carbon River and the Puyallup escape from narrow, -crooked canyons, whose vertical sides, one hundred to three hundred -feet high, are often but fifty feet apart. From these walls steep, -heavily timbered slopes rise two hundred to eight hundred feet to the -summits of the foot-hills. These canyons link the buried river basin -of the lower stream with the upper river valleys. The latter extend -from the heads of the canyons to the glaciers. They are apparently the -deserted beds of mightier ice rivers, now shrunk to the very foot of -Mount Tacoma. - -From New Tacoma the entire course of the Puyallup and part of Carbon -River are in view. Across Commencement Bay are the tide marshes of the -delta; back from these salt meadows the light green of the -cottonwoods, alder and vine-maple mark the river's course, till it is -lost in the dark monotone of the fir forest. No break in the evergreen -surface indicates the place of the river canyons; but far out among the -foot-hills a line of mist hangs over the upper valley of Carbon River, -which winds away eastward, behind the rising ground, to the northern -side of Mount Tacoma. Milk Creek, one of its branches, drains the -northwest spur, and on the western slope the snows accumulate in two -glaciers, from which flow the North and South Forks of the Puyallup. -These streams meet in a level valley at the base of three singular -peaks, and plunge united into the dark gateway of the canyon. - -A trip to the grand snow peak from which these rivers spring was -within a year a very difficult undertaking. There was no trail through -the dense forest, no supply depot on the route. No horse nor donkey -could accompany the explorer, who took his blankets and provisions on -his back, and worked his way slowly among the towering tree trunks, -through underbrush luxuriant as a tropic jungle. But last summer a -good horse trail was built from Wilkeson to Carbon River, crossing it -above the canyon, sixteen miles below the glacier, and during the -autumn it was extended to the head of the Puyallup. Wilkeson is -reached by a branch railroad from New Tacoma. It is on a small -tributary of Carbon River, called Fletts Creek, at a point where the -brook runs from a narrow gorge into a valley about a quarter of a mile -wide. Coal mines are opened at this point. The horse trail climbs at -once from Wilkeson to the first terrace, four hundred feet above the -valley; then winds a quarter of a mile back through the forest to the -second ascent of a hundred feet, and then a mile over the level to the -third. Hidden here beneath the thick covering of moss and undergrowth -of the primeval forest, fourteen hundred feet above the present ocean -level, are ancient shore lines of the sea, which has left its trace in -similar terraces in all the valleys about the Sound.[23] Thence the -trail extends southward over a level plateau. Carbon River Canyon is -but half a mile away on the west, and five miles from Wilkeson the -valley above the canyon is reached. The descent to the river is over -three miles along the hillside eastward. - -From Wilkeson to the river the way is all through a belt of forest, -where the conditions of growth are very favorable. The fir trees are -massive, straight and free from limbs to a great height. The larger -ones, eight to twelve feet in diameter on a level with a man's head, -carry their size upward, tapering very gradually, till near the top -they shoot out a thick mat of foliage and the trunk in a few feet -diminishes to a point. One such was measured; it stands like a huge -obelisk 180 feet, without a limb, supporting a crown of but forty feet -more. The more slender trees are, curiously enough, the taller; -straight, clear shafts rise 100 to 150 feet, topped with foliage whose -highest needles would look down on Trinity spire. Cedars, hemlocks, -spruce and white fir mingle with these giants, but they do not compete -with them in height; they fill in the spaces in the vast colonnades. -Below is the carpet of deep golden green moss and glossy ferns, and -the tangle of vines and bushes that cover the fallen trunks of the -fathers of the forest. - -The silence of these mountains is awesome, the solitude oppressive. -The deer, the bear, the panther are seldom met; they see and hear -first and silently slip away, leaving only their tracks to prove their -numbers. There are very few birds. Blue jays, and their less showy -gray, but equally impudent, cousins, the "whiskey jacks," assemble -about a camp; but in passing through the forest one may wander a whole -day and see no living thing save a squirrel, whose shrill chatter is -startling amid the silence. The wind plays in the tree tops far -overhead, but seldom stirs the branches of the smaller growth. The -great tree trunks stand immovable. The more awful is it when a gale -roars through the timber; when the huge columns sway in unison and -groan with voices strangely human. It is fearful to lie in the utter -darkness of a stormy night, listening to the pulsating rush of the -wind, the moan of the forest and the crash of uprooted giants upon -the ground--listening with bated breath for the report which may -foretell the fall of yonder tall decaying shaft, whose thick, deep -cleft bark blazed so brightly on the now dying camp fire. The effect -of one such storm is seen in Carbon River Valley, above and below -where the trail crosses. The blast followed the stream and the -mountain slope on the south side; over an area eight miles long and a -half a mile to a mile wide the forest is prostrate. Single trees stand -gaunt and charred by a recent fire, but their comrades are piled like -jackstraws, the toys of the tornado. Over and under each other they -lie, bent and interlaced, twenty, thirty feet deep. Pigmy man strained -his eyes to see their tops, when they stood erect; now he vainly -stands on tiptoe to look over them in their fallen majesty. - -To the head of Carbon River from the bridge, on which the trail -crosses it, is about sixteen miles. The rocky bed of the river is 100 -to 200 yards wide, a gray strip of polished boulders between sombre -mountain slopes, that rise sharply from it. The stream winds in -ever-shifting channels among the stones. About six miles above the -bridge Milk Creek dashes down from its narrow gorge into the river. -The high pinnacles of the spur from which it springs are hidden by the -nearer fir-clad ridges. Between their outlines shines the northern -peak of Mount Tacoma, framed in dark evergreen spires. Its snow fields -are only three miles distant, but Carbon River has come a long way -round. For six miles eastward the undulating lines of the mountains -converge, then those on the north suddenly cross the view, where the -river canyon turns sharply southward. - -Three miles from this turn is Crescent Mountain, its summit a -semi-circular gray wall a thousand feet high.[24] At sunset the light -from the west streams across the head of Milk Creek and Carbon River, -illuminating these cliffs as with the glow of volcanic fires, while -twilight deepens in the valley. The next turn of the river brings -Mount Tacoma again in view. Close on the right a huge buttress towers -up, cliff upon cliff, 2,500 feet, a single one of the many imposing -rock masses that form the Ragged Spur between Carbon River and Milk -Creek. The more rapid fall of the river, the increasing size of the -boulders, show the nearness of the glacier. Turning eastward to the -south of Crescent Mountain, you pass the group of trees that hide it. - -This first sight is a disappointment. The glacier is a very dirty one. -The face is about 300 feet long and thirty to forty feet high. It -entirely fills the space between two low cliffs of polished gray -rock. Throughout the mass the snows of successive winters are -interstratified with the summers' accumulations of earth and rock. -From a dark cavern, whose depths have none of the intense blue color -so beautiful in crevasses in clear ice, Carbon River pours out, a -muddy torrent. The top of the glacier is covered with earth about six -inches deep, contributed to its mass by the cliffs on either side and -by an island of rock, where a few pines grow, entirely surrounded by -the ice river. The eye willingly passes over this dirty mass to the -gleaming northeast spur of the mountain, where the sunlight lingers -after the chill night wind has begun to blow from the ice fields. - -The disappointment of this view of the glacier leaves one unprepared -for the beauty of that from Crescent Mountain. The ascent from a point -a short distance down the river is steep, but not dangerous. The lower -slopes are heavily timbered, but at an elevation of 4,000 feet juniper -and dwarf pine are dotted over the grassy hillside. Elk, deer and -white mountain goats find here a pleasant pasture; their trails look -like well trodden sheep paths on a New England hill. A curious -badger-like animal, sitting erect on his hind legs, greets one with a -long shrill whistle that would make a schoolboy envious, but trots -quickly away on nearer approach. The crest of the southwest rim of the -amphitheater is easily gained, and the grandeur of the view bursts -upon you suddenly. Eastward are the cliffs and canyons of the Cascade -Range. Northward forest-covered hill and valley reach to Mount Baker -and the snow peaks that break the horizon line. Westward are the blue -waters of the Sound, the snow-clad Olympics and a faint soft line -beyond; it may be the ocean or a fog bank above it. Southward, 9,000 -feet above you, so near you must throw your head back to see its -summit, is grand Mount Tacoma; its graceful northern peak piercing the -sky, it soars single and alone. Whether touched by the glow of early -morning or gleaming in bright noonday, whether rosy with sunset light -or glimmering ghost-like, in the full moon, whether standing out clear -and cloudless or veiled among the mists it weaves from the warm south -winds, it is always majestic and inspiring, always attractive and -lovely. It is the symbol of an awful power clad in beauty. - -This northern slope of the mountain is very steep, and the -consolidated snow begins its downward movement from near the top. -Little pinnacles of rock project through the mass and form eddies in -the current. A jagged ridge divides it, and part descends into the -deep unexplored canyon of White River, probably the deepest chasm in -the flanks of Mount Tacoma. The other part comes straight on toward -the southern side of Crescent Mountain, a precipice 2,000 feet high; -diverted, it turns in graceful flowing curves, breaks into a thousand -ice pyramids and descends into the narrow pass, where its beauty is -hidden under the ever-falling showers of rock. - -This rim you stand upon is very narrow; a hundred feet wide, sometimes -less, between the cliff that rises 2,000 feet above the glacier and -the descent of a thousand feet on the other side. Snow lies upon part -of this slope; stones, started from the edge, leap in lengthening -bounds over its firm surface and plunge with a splash into the throat -of the lakelet that lies in the amphitheater. The ice slope, dipping -into the clear water, passes from purest white to deepest blue as it -passes out of sight in the depths of the basin. - -A two days' visit to this trackless region sufficed only to see a -small part of the magnificent scenery. White River Canyon, the cliffs -of Ragged Spur, the northern slope of Mount Tacoma, where the climber -is always tempted upward, might occupy him for weeks. Across the snow -fields, where Milk Creek rises, is the glacier of the North Fork of -the Puyallup, and the end of the horse trail we left at Carbon River -is within six miles of its base. When a trail is built up Carbon -River, the way across this divide will be found, and, with comfortable -stopping places on the two rivers, the tourist can pass a delightful -week amid scenery we now cross the ocean to Switzerland to see. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[23] The terraces to which reference is here made are not the work of -the sea, but of lakes whose waters gathered between the mountain -slopes and retreating glaciers of the ice period. See the article by -H. I. Bretz. Geol. Survey of Wash., Bull. 8, 1912. - -[24] The amphitheaters which the young geologist mistook for craters -are now known to be glacier basins eroded by ice. - - - - - [Illustration: MAJOR EDWARD STURGIS INGRAHAM.] - -X. DISCOVERY OF CAMP MUIR, 1888 - -BY MAJOR E. S. INGRAHAM - - - Major Edward Sturgis Ingraham has visited the mountain - annually since 1888. He has ascended to the summit seven - times and has spent as many nights in the crater. It was he - who gave to a number of the prominent features of the Park - their beautiful and enduring names. - - On his first ascent in 1888 the party included John Muir, - most famous naturalist of the Pacific Slope. Since he found a - sheltered pumice patch and suggested camping there for the - night, Major Ingraham called it Camp Muir, now well known to - all climbers. - - Major Ingraham prepared an account of the ascent which was - published in The Puget Sound Magazine for October, 1888. That - magazine has long since ceased to be issued. It was edited by - the editor of this present work, who has rescued the article - from the rare and almost forgotten files. - - After an extensive career as superintendent of schools, - printer, militia officer and miner, Major Ingraham has been - devoting his later years to the boy scout work, in which his - love for the mountains plays an important part. - - A glacier on the mountain bears the name of Ingraham. How - that came to be, is related by him as follows: "One time when - I was on the mountain encamped at the Camp of the Clouds, - Professor I. C. Russell and another man, both in their shirt - sleeves, came tottering into my camp at early morning. They - had been caught upon the summit and had spent a shivering - night in the crater. I treated them the best I knew how and - they departed. When their maps came out I found that a - beautiful glacier had been named for me--Ingraham Glacier." - -Mount Rainier, one of Nature's masterpieces, is the most striking -object of grandeur and beauty amidst the unsurpassed scenery of -Washington Territory. Occupying nearly a central position -geographically in the Territory, it is alike an object of pride to the -inhabitants of the Great Plain of the Columbia and to the dwellers -on Puget Sound. There are other peaks that command our attention, but -it is to the old monarch that we turn with unfeigned pride and -exclaim, "Behold a masterpiece!" - -The height of Mount Rainier, as estimated by triangulation, is 14,444 -feet. This height was verified by barometer in the hands of one party -that reached the summit in the month of August of the present year. -From many points of view it appears a single peak; but in reality it -is composed of three peaks of nearly the same height. These peaks may -be designated as northern, crater and southern. They are not in direct -line, but occupy apexes of an obtuse-angled triangle. The northern -peak is a cone, with its apex about two miles from the summit of -crater peak; the southern peak is somewhat flattened on top, and is -about one and one-half miles from crater peak. Crater peak, as the -name suggests, has two large craters, with well-defined rims--one -sloping slightly towards the northeast, and the other towards the -southwest. The culminating point of this peak is a sugarloaf-shape -mass of pure snow, about one hundred feet above all adjacent points. -The northern and southern peaks are inaccessible, except from crater -peak, owing to the precipitous condition of their sides, which are so -steep that snow will not cling to them except in small patches. Down -these sides, during some seasons of the year, avalanches go thundering -almost hourly with a roar that makes the tourist shudder with fear. - -The volcanic condition of Mount Rainier is everywhere apparent. For -miles before the base is reached vast quantities of ashes, forming the -greater part of the soil of that region, plainly tell of extensive -eruptions; the immediate foothills are covered with masses of red and -black lava; while pumice is found in great abundance upon some of the -ridges. All these evidences suggest that, long ages ago, Rainier was -the scene of volcanic activity of immense magnitude. Ascend to the -top, behold the two well-defined craters, with their rims perfect; -descend those walls, and try to count the many jets of steam -constantly puffing forth their sulphurous odors, and one is led to -believe that Rainier has been active at a comparatively recent period. - -Mount Rainier, with its many glaciers, is the source of the principal -rivers of Western Washington. From the summit of the three peaks the -snow forges its way downward until it is compressed into ice; the ice -in turn is compressed until it assumes that peculiar blue tint that -characterizes ice under great pressure. These ice streams move slowly -down the valleys, about one foot in twenty-four hours, conforming to -their beds. Where the bed is inclined, the glacier breaks into -innumerable masses, somewhat regular, with great yawning crevasses -between. While crossing one of the White River glaciers below an -ice-fall I had to stand clear of a dozen bowlders that came rolling -down from the brink, telling very forcibly that the glacier was -moving. These glaciers plow their way down the valleys to an elevation -of between 3000 and 4000 feet, and there dissolve into water. Some of -them terminate in a gentle incline; others present a high wall of -clear ice, with the river issuing from an immense cave; still others -deposit vast quantities of stones and earth, forming what is called -the "terminal moraine." The glaciers of the northern peak, five in -number, form the Puyallup and its principal tributary, the Carbon; the -twelve glaciers of the eastern slope of crater peak yield the icy -waters of the White and Cowlitz; the glaciers of the southern peak -form the several sources of the Nisqually. The glaciers are from one -to two miles in width, and from six to twelve miles in length. Like -the rivers which they form, they themselves have tributaries. When two -glaciers unite, their inside lateral moraines join and form a medial -moraine. - -The ascent of Mount Rainier is difficult and dangerous. Three -different parties have reached the summit from the south side--namely, -Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump in 1870; P. B. Van Trump, James -Longmire and Mr. Bailey, in 1883; and a party of seven, of which the -writer was the projector, in August of the present year. A party of -three from Snohomish claim to have reached the summit by the northeast -side in the summer of 1884. Several others and myself have made two -attempts to reach the summit from that side, but came to an impassable -crevasse at an elevation of about 14,000 feet on both occasions. - -On the morning of the 10th of last August a party of eight gentlemen -left Seattle for Yelm with the necessary equipments and provisions for -a two weeks' sojourn among the eternal hills. At Yelm we secured the -necessary horses to convey our outfit to the snow line on the south -side. The day at Yelm was clear and beautiful--Mount Rainier never -looked so grand before. Its three peaks stood out in bold relief -against the sky, while its walls of ice sparkled with resplendent -beauty. During the morning and evening the play of colors around its -base, extending in graduated bands far towards the zenith, made our -artist groan aloud because of his inability to transfer them to -canvas. It took us three days from the time we left Yelm to reach the -Longmire Mineral Springs. These springs were discovered by Mr. James -Longmire in 1883. They number twenty-five or more, and are heavily -charged with carbon dioxide and other gases that combine to make the -water a very pleasant drink as well as a health-giving beverage. -Around each spring is an incrustation of soda compounds deposited by -the water. One spring, over which a rude bath-house has been -constructed, pours forth a large quantity of water at a temperature of -85 deg. Fahr. A bath in this water is pleasant and invigorating. The -view from the springs is very beautiful. On the right is the swift -flowing Nisqually; on the left, a solid white wall of basaltic rock -rises to a height of nearly one thousand feet; while in front, seeming -only a mile away, Mount Rainier stands in silent majesty. There were -several visitors at the springs. In the near future these springs will -be sought by hundreds of invalids. We would gladly have remained at the -springs for several days, but, with the old monarch so near, we could -not delay. The next day found all of the party but two on the tramp. -That day's work was to ascend to Camp of the Clouds, distant about -five miles from the springs. It was no small task. The trail is steep -and rugged, and has been traveled but little. About three miles from -the springs it crosses the Nisqually. From that point for a mile it is -one of the steepest trails I have ever traveled. When the top was -reached we were regaled by the sight and odor of flowers that -surpassed description in odor and variety. From this point to Camp of -the Clouds, two miles further on, our path was literally strewed with -beautiful flowers. This entire region is a paradise for the botanist, -and the flowers deserve a much fuller description. - -At last, after four days of hard tramping, we have reached permanent -camp at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. Here we unpack, pitch our -tent and turn our jaded horses loose. Here we wish all our friends -with us, and here we would gladly remain a month in deep enjoyment of -the grandeur and beauty around us, but our time is limited and our -friends far away. - -Monday noon, August 14th, we carefully prepare for the ascent. It is -light artillery now--a pair of blankets, a small supply of provisions, -principally chocolate, and our Alpine staves complete the outfit. With -cheerful hearts and steady nerves we begin the climb. It is our -purpose to ascend to a height of about 10,000 feet and there make camp -for the night. Soon we pass the timber line. Our pathway now lies over -the eternal snow, broken only by a projecting spur of the mountain. -After five hours of hard climbing, we come to a ridge covered with -sand and pumice. From the presence of the latter we know it to be a -spot comparatively free from wind, for, on account of the lightness of -the pumice, it is easily blown away. Here we decide to camp. Two by -two we go to work preparing our beds. This we do by clearing away the -loose stones from a space about three by six feet, stirring the sand -up with our pikes and making a wall of rocks around the cleared place. -After a half hour's toil we declare our beds prepared. Hastily -partaking of a little chocolate and hardtack, we "turn in," although -the hour is early; but the wind is rising and the sharp, stinging cold -is upon us. After passing a miserable night, we break camp at 4:30 -o'clock. Throwing aside our blankets and part of our provisions, we -begin the final ascent. Our course takes us along the crest of a rocky -ridge and beneath a perpendicular wall of basalt over a thousand feet -in height. Here the courage of one of the party failed him, and he -concluded to go no farther. The most dangerous part of the ascent is -along the base of this cliff. The earth pitches at an angle of 35 deg. -from its base, and at three particular places this incline is not over -six feet wide, ending in a perpendicular jump-off of fifteen hundred -feet to the Nisqually glacier below. After a half hour's crouching and -crawling we get past this dangerous part of our undertaking. We must -now ascend almost perpendicularly one thousand feet to the top of this -wall. Ordinarily steps have to be cut in the snow and ice, but on this -occasion the snow lay in little drifts that served as steps. Up this -ladder of snow and ice, prepared by the winds, we climb, pausing every -few steps "to take breath." The top is reached at last. Upon -consulting our barometer we find we are 12,000 feet above the sea -level. A halt is ordered to put six steel brads in the sole of each -boot, to prevent us from slipping on the ice and hard snow that we -must now encounter. - -From the crest of this cliff the incline of the mountain to the summit -is less than at any other point and consequently fewer crevasses, the -terror of the mountaineer. Bracing ourselves for the final effort, we -resumed the march. On account of the continuous ascent and the rarity -of the atmosphere we have to rest every twenty or thirty steps. Still -ascending, avoiding the crevasses by a zigzag path, we at last reach -the last one, or what might more properly be called the first -crevasse. This crevasse is formed by the first breaking off of the -snow as it begins to slide down the mountain. The upper side is often -a perpendicular wall of hard snow from ten to fifty feet high. This -same crevasse, for it extends half way round the mountain, prevented -our further progress on two previous occasions, when attempting to -reach the summit from the northeast slope. Luckily on this occasion we -found a bridge that afforded us a safe passage over. From this point -we can see a clear path to the summit. Upward we climb to where the -rim of the crater seems but a few hundred feet away. Look! there is a -jet of steam right ahead; one grand effort and I sit upon the rim of -the crater. I shout a word of triumph which sounds strangely shrill to -my companions below, who, one by one, soon gain my exalted position. -The feeling of triumph that filled the heart of each one as he gained -that sublime height can be realized by no one who has not been in a -similar position. - -Space precludes an extensive description of the view from our elevated -position; Washington, Oregon and the Sound and sea lay below us. A -roll of clouds extending entirely around the horizon somewhat -obstructed the prospect, yet added to the beauty of the scene. Mts. -Baker, Adams, Hood, St. Helens, and Jefferson appeared above the -clouds; the Cascade and Olympic ranges, Puget Sound and numerous river -basins appeared below, while the smoke of distant cities completed -the scene. Reluctantly turning from this grand panorama of nature, I -gave my attention to an examination of the craters. There are two, -elliptical in shape, and from one-half to three-fourths of a mile -across. Their rims are bare outside, and in to an average depth of -thirty feet from the crest. This is owing to the internal heat and -escaping steam, which issues from a hundred jets within the -circumference of the craters. The steam escapes in intermittent jets -from little orifices about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The -walls of the crater in some places are quite warm, all of which -plainly indicates that Mount Rainier is a volcano, not extinct but -slumbering. - -The amount of steam that escapes from the crater at any one time -varies with the atmospheric pressure. In fact, Mount Rainier is a -reliable barometer, foretelling a storm with certainty. Everyone who -has noted the appearance of the mountain from time to time is familiar -with the peculiar white cloud that is frequently seen suspended just -above the summit, while no other clouds are in sight. This peculiar -cloud, caused by the condensation of escaping steam, is called -"Rainier's cap," and is the forerunner of a storm. There was -considerable snow in the craters, but it had the appearance of having -recently fallen. I believe, should it cease to snow for two or three -months, the crater would become entirely bare inside; but this is not -possible, for it snows on Mount Rainier even in midsummer. - -Our party spent about two hours on the summit. We would gladly have -tarried longer, but the clouds were gradually approaching from all -points, and we did not care to take the chance of spending a night in -the crater. Our descent in some places was even more dangerous than -the ascent, owing to the falling rock. I recall with a shudder the -successful dodging of a shower of bowlders on their way down from the -top of a cliff two thousand feet above. They were singing as merrily -as a cannon ball just shot from a thirty-pounder as they passed my -head. - -Our party left the summit about two o'clock, and some of us reached -"Camp of the Clouds" by six o'clock, descending in four hours the same -distance that we were twelve hours in covering on the upward climb. -The names of the party making this very successful ascent are: John -Muir, P. B. Van Trump, A. C. Warner, D. W. Bass, N. O. Booth, C. V. -Piper and E. S. Ingraham. - - - - - [Illustration: PROFESSOR ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL.] - -XI. EXPLORING THE MOUNTAIN AND ITS GLACIERS, 1896 - -BY PROFESSOR I. C. RUSSELL - - - The name of Professor Israel Cook Russell is permanently - associated with Mount Rainier. He was one of America's noted - geologists. He was born near Garrattsville, New York, on - December 10, 1852. Graduating from the University of the City - of New York in 1872, he at once began his career in science. - In 1874, he was a member of the United States party at - Queenstown, New Zealand, to observe the transit of Venus. - From 1878 to 1892, he wrought valuable work in geology for - the United States Geological Survey. This took him to Alaska - and various other parts of the country. He succeeded - Alexander Winchell as Professor of Geology in the University - of Michigan in 1892 and continued to spend his summers in - field work. One of his trips was to the West Indies during - the eruption of Mount Pelee. - - Most of his summer trips were devoted to the mountains and - valleys of Oregon and Washington. It was during one of these - trips, in the summer of 1896, that he made the explorations - of Mount Rainier the extensive record of which, fully - illustrated, appeared in the Eighteenth Annual Report of the - United States Geological Survey for 1896-1897. The essential - portions of that record are here reproduced by permission of - Director George Otis Smith of the Survey, who also kindly - furnished a portrait of his former colleague. - - Professor Russell was honored with the Doctor of Laws degree - by his alma mater and by the University of Wisconsin. He died - suddenly at the zenith of his power in 1906, leaving a widow, - Mrs. J. Augusta (Olmstead) Russell and three daughters. An - earnest appreciation of his character and work by G. K. - Gilbert was published in The Journal of Geology, Volume XIV, - number 8, November-December, 1906. When The Mountaineers Club - ascended the mountain in 1909 they named in his honor Russell - Cliff, a majestic crest near the summit and overlooking the - Winthrop and Emmons glaciers, and later a glacier on the - northern slope, near Carbon Glacier, was named Russell - Glacier. - -The reconnaissance during which the notes for this essay were obtained -began [1896] at Carbonado, a small coal-mining town about 20 miles -southeast of Tacoma, with which it is connected by a branch of the -Union [Northern] Pacific Railroad. Carbonado is situated on the border -of the unbroken forest. Eastward to beyond the crest of the Cascade -Mountains is a primeval forest, the density and magnificence of which -it is impossible adequately to describe to one who is not somewhat -familiar with the Puget Sound region. From Carbonado a trail, cut -through the forest under the direction of Willis in 1881, leads to -Carbon River, a stream flowing from Mount Rainier, which it formerly -crossed by a bridge that is now destroyed, and thence continues to the -west of the mountain to Busywild. A branch of this trail leads -eastward to the north side of the mountain, making accessible a -beautiful region near the timber line, known as Spray Park. - -Our party consisted of Bailey Willis, geologist in charge, George Otis -Smith and myself, assistants, and F. H. Ainsworth, Fred Koch, William -B. Williams, and Michael Autier, camp hands. - -From Carbonado we proceeded with pack animals along the Willis trail, -already mentioned, to the crossing of Carbon River. We then left the -main trail and went up the right bank of the river by a trail recently -cut as far as the mouth of Chenuis Creek. At that locality our party -was divided; Willis and myself, taking blankets, rations, etc., and -crossing the river, proceeded up its bowlder-strewn left bank to the -foot of Carbon Glacier. The remainder of the party cut a trail along -the right bank, and in the course of a few days succeeded in making a -depot of supplies near where the river emerges from beneath the -extremity of the glacier. The pack train was then taken back to near -Carbonado for pasture. - -The tramp from Carbonado to the foot of the Carbon Glacier was full -of interest, as it revealed the characteristics of a great region, -covered with a dense forest, which is a part of the deeply dissected -Tertiary peneplain surrounding Mount Rainier. The rocks from Carbonado -to Carbon River crossing are coal bearing. Extensive mines are worked -at Carbonado, and test shafts have been opened at a few localities -near the trail which we followed. At Carbonado the river flows through -a steep-sided canyon about 300 feet deep. Near where the Willis trail -crosses the stream the canyon broadens, is deeply filled with -bowlders, and is bordered by forest-covered mountains fully 3,000 feet -in elevation. On account of the dense forests, the scenery throughout -the region traversed is wild and picturesque. At a few localities -glimpses were obtained of the great snow-clad dome of Mount Rainier, -rising far over the intervening tree-covered foothills. - -The forests of the Puget Sound region are the most magnificent on the -continent. The moist atmosphere and genial climate have led to a -wonderfully luxuriant growth, especially of evergreens. Huge fir trees -and cedars stand in close-set ranks and shoot upward straight and -massive to heights which frequently exceed 250 feet, and sometimes are -even in excess of 300 feet. The trees are frequently 10 to 12 feet or -more in diameter at the height of one's head and rise in massive -columns without a blemish to the first branches, which are in many -instances 150 feet from the ground. The soil beneath the mighty trees -is deeply covered with mosses of many harmonious tints, and decked -with rank ferns, whose gracefully bending fronds attain a length of 6 -to 8 feet. Lithe, slender maples, termed vine-maples from their habit -of growth, are plentiful, especially along the small water courses. In -many places the broad leaves of the devil's club (_Fatsia horrida_) -give an almost tropical luxuriance to the shadowy realm beneath the -lofty canopies formed by the firs and cedars. - - [A quotation from Bailey Willis is omitted, as the whole - article is published in this work--Chapter IX.] - -The mighty forest through which we traveled from Carbonado to the -crossing of Carbon River extends over the country all about Mount -Rainier and clothes the sides of the mountain to a height of about -6,000 feet. From distant points of view it appears as an unbroken -emerald setting for the gleaming, jewel-like summit of the -snow-covered peak. - -In spite of the many attractions of the forest, it was with a sense of -relief that we entered the canyon of Carbon River and had space to see -about us. The river presents features of geographical interest, -especially in the fact that it is filling in its valley. The load of -stone contributed by the glaciers, from which the stream comes as a -roaring turbid flood, is greater than it can sweep along, and much of -its freight is dropped by the way. The bottom of the canyon is a -desolate, flood-swept area of rounded bowlders, from 100 to 200 yards -broad. The stream channel is continually shifting, and is frequently -divided by islands of bowlders, heaped high during some period of -flood. Many of the stream channels leading away from Mount Rainier are -known to have the characteristics of the one we ascended, and show -that the canyons were carved under different conditions from those now -prevailing. The principal amount of canyon cutting must have been done -before the streams were overloaded with debris contributed by -glaciers--that is, the deep dissection of the lower slope of Mount -Rainier and of the platform on which it stands must have preceded the -Glacial epoch. - -After a night's rest in the shelter of the forest, lulled to sleep by -the roar of Carbon River in its tumultuous course after its escape -from the ice caverns, we climbed the heavily moraine-covered extremity -of Carbon Glacier. At night, weary with carrying heavy packs over the -chaos of stones that cover the glaciers, we slept on a couch of moss -beautified with lovely blossoms, almost within the spray of Philo -Falls, a cataract of clear icy water that pours into the canyon of -Carbon Glacier from snow fields high up on the western wall of the -canyon. - -I will ask the reader to defer the study of the glaciers until we have -made a reconnaissance of the mountain and climbed to its summit, as he -will then be better prepared to understand the relation of the -glaciers, neves, and other features with which it will be necessary to -deal. In this portion of our fireside explorations let us enjoy a -summer outing, deferring until later the more serious task of -questioning the glaciers. - -From Philo Falls we ascended still higher, by following partially -snow-filled lanes between the long lateral moraines that have been -left by the shrinking of Carbon Glacier, and found three parallel, -sharp-crested ridges about a mile long and from 100 to 150 feet high, -made of bowlders and stones of all shapes, which record the former -positions of the glacier. Along the western border of the oldest and -most westerly of these ridges there is a valley, perhaps 100 yards -wide, intervening between the abandoned lateral moraine and the -western side of the valley, which rises in precipices to -forest-covered heights at least 1,000 feet above. Between the morainal -ridges there are similar narrow valleys, each of which at the time of -our visit, July 15, was deeply snow-covered. The ridges are clothed -with spruce and cedar trees, together with a variety of shrubs and -flowering annuals. The knolls rising through the snow are gorgeous -with flowers. A wealth of purple Bryanthus, resembling purple heather, -and of its constant companion, if not near relative, the Cassiope, -with white, waxy bells, closely simulating the white heather, make -glorious the mossy banks from which the lingering snow has but just -departed. Acres of meadow land, still soft with snow water and musical -with rills and brooks flowing in uncertain courses over the deep, rich -turf, are beautiful with lilies, which seemed woven in a cloth of gold -about the borders of the lingering snow banks. We are near the upper -limit of timber growth, where park-like openings, with thickets of -evergreens, give a special charm to the mountain side. The morainal -ridge nearest the glacier is forest-covered on its outer slope, while -the descent to the glacier is a rough, desolate bank of stones and -dirt. The glacier has evidently but recently shrunk away from this -ridge, which was formed along its border by stones brought from a bold -cliff that rises sheer from the ice a mile upstream. Standing on the -morainal ridge overlooking the glacier, one has to the eastward an -unobstructed view of the desolate and mostly stone and dirt covered -ice. Across the glacier another embankment can be seen, similar to the -one on the west, and, like it, recording a recent lowering of the -surface of the glacier of about 150 feet. Beyond the glacier are -extremely bold and rugged mountains, scantily clothed with forests -nearly to their summits. The position of the timber line shows that -the bare peaks above are between 8,000 and 9,000 feet high. Looking -southward, up the glacier, we have a glimpse into the wild -amphitheater in which it has its source. The walls of the great hollow -in the mountain side rise in seemingly vertical precipices about 4,000 -feet high. Far above is a shining, snow-covered peak, which Willis -named the Liberty Cap. It is one of the culminating points of Mount -Rainier, but not the actual summit. Its elevation is about 14,300 feet -above the sea. Toward the west the view is limited by the -forest-covered morainal ridges near at hand and by the precipitous -slopes beyond, which lead to a northward-projecting spur of Mount -Rainier, known as the Mother Mountains. This, our first view of Mount -Rainier near at hand, has shown that the valley down which Carbon -Glacier flows, as well as the vast amphitheater in which it has its -source, is sunk in the flanks of the mountain. To restore the northern -slope of the ancient volcano as it existed when the mountain was young -we should have to fill the depression in which the glacier lies at -least to the height of its bordering ridges. On looking down the -glacier we see it descending into a vast gulf bordered by steep -mountains, which rise at least 3,000 feet above its bottom. This is -the canyon through which the water formed by the melting of the -glacier escapes. To restore the mountain this great gulf would also -have to be filled. Clearly the traveler in this region is surrounded -by the records of mighty changes. Not only does he inquire how the -volcanic mountain was formed, but how it is being destroyed. The study -of the glaciers will do much toward making clear the manner in which -the once smooth slopes have been trenched by radiating valleys, -leaving mountain-like ridges between. - -Another line of inquiry which we shall find of interest as we advance -is suggested by the recent shrinkage of Carbon Glacier. Are all of the -glaciers that flow from the mountain wasting away? If we find this to -be the case, what climatic changes does it indicate? - -From our camp among the morainal ridges by the side of Carbon Glacier -we made several side trips, each of which was crowded with -observations of interest. One of these excursions, made by Mr. Smith -and myself, was up the snow fields near camp; past the prominent -outstanding pinnacles known as the Guardian Rocks, one red and the -other black; and through Spray Park, with its thousands of groves of -spire-like evergreens, with flower-enameled glades between. On the -bare, rocky shoulder of the mountain, where the trees now grow, we -found the unmistakable grooves and striations left by former glaciers. -The lines engraved in the rock lead away from the mountain, showing -that even the boldest ridges were formerly ice-covered. Our route took -us around the head of the deep canyon through which flows Cataract -Creek. In making this circuit we followed a rugged saw-tooth crest, -and had some interesting rock-climbing. Finally, the sharp divide -between Cataract Creek and a small stream flowing westward to Crater -Lake was reached, and a slide on a steep snow slope took us quickly -down to where the flowers made a border of purple and gold about the -margins of the snow. Soon we were in the forest, and gaining a rocky -ledge among the trees, could look down on Crater Lake, deeply sunk in -shaggy mountains which still preserve all of their primitive freshness -and beauty. Snow lay in deep drifts beneath the shelter of the forest, -and the lake was ice-covered except for a few feet near the margin. -This was on July 20. I have been informed that the lake is usually -free of ice before this date, but the winter preceding our visit was -of more than usual severity, the snowfall being heavy, and the coming -of summer was therefore much delayed. - -The name Crater Lake implies that its waters occupy a volcanic crater. -Willis states that Nature has here placed an emerald seal on one of -Pluto's sally ports; but that the great depression now water-filled is -a volcanic crater is not so apparent as we might expect. The basin is -in volcanic rock, but none of the characteristics of a crater due to -volcanic explosions can be recognized. The rocks, so far as I saw -them, are massive lavas, and not fragmental scoriae or other products -of explosive eruptions. On the bold, rounded rock ledges down which we -climbed in order to reach the shore, there were deep glacial scorings, -showing that the basin was once deeply filled with moving ice. My -observations were not sufficiently extended to enable me to form an -opinion as to the origin of the remarkable depression, but whatever -may have been its earlier history, it has certainly been profoundly -modified by ice erosion. - -Following the lake shore southward, groping our way beneath the thick, -drooping branches which dip in the lake, we reached the notch in the -rim of the basin through which the waters escape and start on their -journey to Mowich River and thence to the sea. We there found the -branch of the Willis trail leading to Spray Park, and turned toward -camp. Again we enjoyed the luxury of following a winding pathway -through silent colonnades formed by the moss-grown trunks of noble -trees. On either side of the trail worn in the brown soil the ferns -and flowering shrubs were bent over in graceful curves, and at times -filled the little-used lane, first traversed fifteen years before. - -The trail led us to Eagle Cliff, a bold, rocky promontory rising as -does El Capitan from the Yosemite, 1,800 feet from the forest-lined -canyon of Mowich River. From Eagle Cliff one beholds the most -magnificent view that is to be had in all the wonderful region about -Mount Rainier. The scene beheld on looking eastward toward the mighty -mountain is remarkable alike for its magnificence and for the artistic -grouping of the various features of the sublime picture. In the vast -depths at one's feet the tree-tops, through which the mists from -neighboring cataracts are drifting, impart a somber tone and make the -valley's bottom seem far more remote than it is. The sides of the -canyon are formed by prominent serrate ridges, leading upward to the -shining snow fields of the mighty dome that heads the valley. Nine -thousand feet above our station rose the pure white Liberty Cap, the -crowning glory of the mountain as seen from the northward. The snow -descending the northwest side of the great central dome is gathered -between the ridges forming the sides of the valley, and forms a white -neve from which flows Willis Glacier. In looking up the valley from -Eagle Cliff the entire extent of the snow fields and of the -river-like stream of ice flowing from them is in full view. The ice -ends in a dirt-covered and rock-strewn terminus, just above a huge -rounded dome that rises in its path. In 1881 the ice reached nearly to -the top of the dome and broke off in an ice cliff, the detached blocks -falling into the gulf below. The glacier has now withdrawn its -terminus well above the precipice where it formerly fell as an ice -cascade, and its surface has shrunk away from well-defined moraines in -much the same manner as has already been noted in the case of Carbon -Glacier. A more detailed account of the retreat of the extremity of -Willis Glacier[25] will be given later. - -From Eagle Cliff we continued our tramp eastward along the trail -leading to Spray Park, climbed the zigzag pathway up the face of a -cliff in front of Spray Falls, and gained the picturesque and -beautiful parklike region above. An hour's tramp brought us again near -the Guardian Rocks. A swift descent down the even snow fields enabled -us to reach camp just as the shadows of evening were gathering in the -deeper canyons, leaving the silent snow fields above all aglow with -reflected sunset tints. - -Taking heavy packs on our backs on the morning of July 21, we -descended the steep broken surface of the most recent moraine -bordering Carbon Glacier in its middle course, and reached the solid -blue ice below. Our course led us directly across the glacier, along -the lower border of the rapidly melting covering of winter snow. The -glacier is there about a mile across. Its central part is higher than -its border, and for the most part the ice is concealed by dirt and -stones. Just below the neve, however, we found a space about half a -mile long in which melting had not led to the concentration of -sufficient debris to make traveling difficult. Farther down the -glacier, where surface melting was more advanced, the entire glacier, -with the exception of a few lanes of clear ice between the -ill-defined medial moraines, was completely concealed beneath a -desolate sheet of angular stones. On reaching the east side of the -glacier we were confronted with a wall of clay and stones, the inner -slope of a moraine similar in all respects to the one we had descended -to reach the west border of the glacier. A little search revealed a -locality where a tongue of ice in a slight embayment projected some -distance up the wall of morainal material, and a steep climb of 50 or -60 feet brought us to the summit. The glacier has recently -shrunk--that is, its surface has been lowered from 80 to 100 feet by -melting. - -On the east side of the glacier we found several steep, sharp-crested -ridges, clothed with forest trees, with narrow, grassy, and -flower-strewn dells between, in which banks of snow still lingered. -The ridges are composed of bowlders and angular stones of a great -variety of sizes and shapes, and are plainly lateral moraines -abandoned by the shrinking of the glacier. Choosing a way up one of -the narrow lanes, bordered on each side by steep slopes densely -covered with trees and shrubs, we found secure footing in the hard -granular snow, and soon reached a more open, parklike area, covered -with mossy bosses of turf, on which grew a great profusion of -brilliant flowers. Before us rose the great cliffs which partially -inclose the amphitheater in which Carbon Glacier has its source. These -precipices, as already stated, have a height of about 4,000 feet, and -are so steep that the snow does not cling to them, but descends in -avalanches. Above the cliffs, where the inclination is less -precipitous, the snow lies in thick layers, the edges of which are -exposed in a vertical precipice rising above the avalanche-swept -rock-slope below. Far above, and always the central object in the wild -scenery surrounding us, rose the brilliant white Liberty Cap, one of -the pinnacles on the rim of the great summit crater. Our way then -turned eastward, following the side of the mountain, and led us -through a region just above the timber line, which commands far -reaching views to the wild and rugged mountains to the northeast. This -open tract, leading down to groves of spruce trees and diversified by -charming lakelets, bears abundant evidence of having formerly been -ice-covered, and is known as Moraine Park. - -In order to retain our elevation we crossed diagonally the steep snow -slopes in the upper portion of the Moraine Park. Midway over the snow -we rested at a sharp crest of rock, and found that it is composed of -light-colored granite. Later we found that much of the area between -the Carbon and Winthrop glaciers is composed of this same kind of -rock. Granite forms a portion of the border of the valley through -which flow the glaciers just named, and furnished them with much -granitic debris, which is carried away as moraines and later worked -over into well-rounded bowlders by the streams flowing from the ice. -The presence of granite pebbles in the course of Carbon and White -rivers, far below the glaciers, is thus accounted for. - -A weary tramp of about 4 miles from the camp we had left brought us to -the border of Winthrop Glacier. In the highest grove of trees, which -are bent down and frequently lie prone on the ground, although still -living, we selected a well-sheltered camping-place. Balsam boughs -furnished luxuriant beds, and the trees killed by winter storms -enabled us to have a roaring camp fire. Fresh trail of mountain goats -and their but recently abandoned bed showed that this is a favorite -resort for those hardy animals. Marmots were also abundant, and -frequently awakened the echoes with their shrill, whistling cries. The -elevation of our camp was about 8,000 feet. - -From our camp on the cliffs above the west border of Winthrop Glacier -we made excursions across that glacier and to its heavily -moraine-covered extremity. The snow mantle that is spread over the -region about Mount Rainier each winter melts first on the rugged -plateau surrounding the base of the mountain, and, as the summer's -heat increases, gradually withdraws up the mountain sides, but never -so as to uncover the more elevated region. The snow line--that is, the -position to which the lower border of the mantle of perennial snow -withdraws late in summer--has an elevation of about 9,000 feet. The -lower margin of the wintry covering is always irregular, however, -extending farthest down on the glaciers and retreating highest on the -rocks. At the time of our visit the snow had melted off of nearly all -the region below our camp, leaving only dirt-stained snow banks in the -more completely sheltered recesses and in deeply shaded dells in the -adjacent forests. On the glaciers all the region at a greater -elevation than our camp was white and free from dirt and stones, while -the hard glacial ice was abundantly exposed at lower altitudes and -ended in a completely moraine-covered terminus. Above us all was -barren, white, and wintry; below lay the flowery vales and grass -parks, warm and inviting, leading to the welcome shade of noble -forests. Our course led upward into the frozen region. - -On leaving the camp on the border of Winthrop Glacier we began our -alpine work. There were five in the party selected for the difficult -task of scaling Mount Rainier; namely: Willis, Smith, Ainsworth, -Williams, and myself. Taking our blankets, a small supply of rations, -an alcohol lamp, alpenstocks, a rope 100 feet long to serve as a life -line, and a few other articles necessary for traveling above timber -line, we began the ascent of Winthrop Glacier early on the morning of -July 23. Our route was comparatively easy at the start, but became -steeper and steeper as we advanced. The snow was firm and, except for -the numerous crevasses, presented no great difficulties to be -overcome. In several places the neve rises in domes as if forced up -from beneath, but caused in reality by bosses of rock over which the -glacier flows. These domes are broken by radiating crevasses which -intersect in their central portions, leaving pillars and castle-like -masses of snow with vertical sides. At one locality, in attempting to -pass between two of these shattered domes, we found our way blocked by -an impassable crevasse. Considerable time was lost in searching for a -practicable upward route, but at length, by making a detour to the -right, we found a way which, although steep, allowed us to pass the -much crevassed area and gain the sharp ridge of rock which divides the -neve snow flowing from the central dome of the mountain, and marks the -separation between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers. This prow-like -promontory, rising some 500 feet above the glaciers on either hand, we -named The Wedge. This is the upward pointing, acute angle of a great -V-shaped portion of the lower slope of the mountain, left in bold -relief by the erosion of the valleys on either side. As will be -described later, there are several of these remnants about the sides -of the mountain at the same general horizon, which record a somewhat -definite stage in the destruction of the mountain by ice erosion. - -On reaching The Wedge we found it an utterly desolate rocky cape in a -sea of snow. We were at an altitude of about 10,000 feet, and far -above timber. Water was obtained by spreading snow on smooth rocks or -on rubber sheets, and allowing it to melt by the heat of the afternoon -sun. Coffee was prepared over the alcohol lamp, sheltered from the -wind by a bed sheet supported by alpenstocks. After a frugal lunch, we -made shelf-like ledges in a steep slope of earth and stones and laid -down our blankets for the night. From sheltered nooks amid the rocks, -exposed to the full warmth of the declining sun, we had the icy slopes -of the main central dome of the mountain in full view and chose what -seemed the most favorable route for the morrow's climb. - -Surrounded as we were by the desolation and solitude of barren rocks, -on which not even a lichen had taken root, and pure white snow fields, -we were much surprised to receive passing visits from several -humming-birds which shot past us like winged jewels. They came up the -valley occupied by the Emmons Glacier, turned sharply at The Wedge, -and went down the way of the Winthrop Glacier. What tempts these -children of the sunlight and the flowers into the frozen regions seems -a mystery. That the humming-birds are bold explorers was not new to -me, for the reason that on several occasions in previous years, while -on the snow-covered slopes of Mount St. Elias, far above all vestiges -of vegetation, my heart had been gladdened by glimpses of their -brilliant plumage. - -When the sun declined beyond the great snow-covered dome that towered -above us, and the blue shadows crept down the previously dazzling -cliffs, the air became cold and a strong wind made our perch on the -rocks uncomfortable. Wrapping ourselves in our blankets we slept until -the eastern sky began to glow with sunrise tints. - -Early on the morning of July 24 [1896] we began the climb of the steep -snow slopes leading to the summit of the mountain. Roped together as -we had been on the previous day, we slowly worked our way upward, in a -tortuous course, in order to avoid the many yawning crevasses. The way -was steep and difficult. Some members of the party felt the effects of -the rarefied air, and as we lacked experience in true alpine work our -progress was slow and laborious. Many of the crevasses that our course -crossed were of the nature of faults. Their upper rims stood several -feet above their lower margins, and thus added to the difficulty of -passing them. Our aim at first was to traverse the neve of Emmons -Glacier and gain the less rugged slope bordering it on the south, but -the intervening region was greatly broken and, as we found after -several approaches to it, utterly impassable. The climb presented no -special difficulties other than the extreme fatigue incident to -climbing steep snow slopes, especially while attached to a life line, -and the delays necessitated by frequently turning and retracing our -steps in order to get around wide crevasses. - -Once while crossing a steep snow slope diagonally, and having a wide -crevasse below us, Ainsworth, who was next to the rear of the line, -lost his footing and slid down the slope on his back. Unfortunately, -at that instant, Williams, who was at the rear of the line, removed -his alpenstock from the snow, was overturned by the pull on the line, -and shot headfirst down the slope and disappeared over the brink of -the crevasse. A strong pull came on the members of the party who were -in advance, but our alpenstocks held fast, and before assistance could -be extended to the man dangling in midair, he climbed the taut rope -and stood unhurt among us once more. The only serious result of the -accident was the loss of an alpenstock. - -Pressing on toward the dark rim of rock that we could now and then -catch glimpses of at the head of the snow slopes and which we knew to -be the outer portion of the summit crater, we crossed many frail snow -bridges and climbed precipitous slopes, in some of which steps had to -be cut. As we neared the summit we met a strong westerly gale that -chilled us and benumbed our fingers. At length, weary and faint on -account of the rarity of the air, we gained the lower portion of the -rim of stones marking the position of the crater. While my companions -rested for a few moments in the shelter of the rocks, I pressed on up -the rugged slope and gained the top of the rim. - -The stones exposed at the summit are bare of snow, possibly on account -of the heat from below, and are rounded and their exposed surfaces -polished. The smooth, black bowlders shine in the sunlight much the -same as the sand-burnished stones in desert regions. Here on the -mountain's brow, exposed to an almost continuous gale, the rocks have -been polished by drifting snow crystals. The prevailing rounded form -that the stones present may be the result of weathering, or possibly -is due to the manner in which the fragments were ejected from the -volcano. My hasty examinations suggested the former explanation. - -Descending into the crater, I discovered crevices from which steam was -escaping, and on placing my hands on the rocks was rejoiced to find -them hot. My companions soon joined me, and we began the exploration -of the crater, our aim being to find the least uncomfortable place in -which to take refuge from the freezing blast rather than to make -scientific discoveries. - -The crater that we had entered is one of the smaller and more recent -ones in the truncated summit of the peak, and is deeply filled with -snow, but the rim is bare and well defined. The steam and heat from -the rocks have melted out many caverns beneath the snow. In one of -these we found shelter. - -The cavern we chose in which to pass the night, although irregular, -was about 60 feet long by 40 wide, and had an arched ceiling some 20 -feet high. The snow had been melted out from beneath, leaving a roof -so thin that a diffused blue light penetrated the chamber. The floor -sloped steeply, and on the side toward the center of the crater there -was a narrow space between the rocks and the descending roof which led -to unexplored depths. As a slide into this forbidding gulf would have -been exceedingly uncomfortable, if not serious, our life line was -stretched from crag to crag so as to furnish a support and allow us to -walk back and forth during the night without danger of slipping. Three -arched openings or doorways communicated with other chambers, and -through these drafts of cold air were continually blowing. The icy air -chilled the vapor rising from the warm rocks and filled the chamber -with steam which took on grotesque forms in the uncertain, fading -light. In the central part of the icy chamber was a pinnacle of rock, -from the crevices of which steam was issuing with a low hissing sound. -Some of the steam jets were too hot to be comfortable to the ungloved -hand. In this uninviting chamber we passed the night. The muffled roar -of the gale as it swept over the mountain could be heard in our -retreat and made us thankful for the shelter the cavern afforded. - -The floor of our cell was too uneven and too steeply inclined to admit -of lying down. Throughout the night we leaned against the hot rocks or -tramped wearily up and down holding the life line. Cold blasts from -the branching ice chambers swept over us. Our clothes were saturated -with condensed steam. While one side of the body resting against the -rocks would be hot, the strong drafts of air with a freezing -temperature chilled the other side. After long hours of intense -darkness the dome of snow above us became faintly illuminated, telling -that the sun was again shining. After a light breakfast and a cup of -tea, prepared over our alcohol lamp, we resumed our exploration, none -the worse for the exposures of the night. - -Following the inner rim of the crater so as to be sheltered from the -gale still blowing steadily from the west, we gained its northern -border and climbed to the topmost pinnacle, known as Columbia's Crest. -This pinnacle rises about 50 feet above the general level of the -irregular rim of the crater, and is the highest point on the mountain. -Its elevation, as previously stated, is 14,526 feet.[26] - -The magnificent view described by former visitors to this commanding -station, which we had hoped would reward our efforts, was concealed -beneath a canopy of smoke that covered all of the region about the -mountain to a depth of about 10,000 feet. The surface of the layer of -smoke was sharply defined, and appeared like an undulating sea -surrounding the island on which we stood. Far to the northward rose -the regular conical summit of Mount Baker, like an isolated sea-girt -island. A few of the rugged and more elevated summits, marking the -course of the Cascade Mountains, could be discerned to the eastward. -The summits of Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were in plain view and -seemingly near at hand. All of the forest-covered region between these -elevated summits was blotted out by the dense, heavy layer of smoke, -which rose until it met the westerly gale of the upper regions. - -During the ascent of Mount Rainier by Emmons and Wilson, previously -referred to, more favorable atmospheric conditions prevailed than at -the time of my visit, and the region about the base of the mountain -was clearly revealed. In describing the view from the summit Emmons -says: - - From the northeastern rim of the crater we could look down an - unbroken slope of nearly 10,000 feet to the head of the White - River, the upper half or two-thirds of which was so steep - that one had the feeling of looking over a perpendicular - wall. [It was up this slope that the climb briefly described - above was made.] The systems of glaciers and the streams - which flowed from them lay spread out as on a map at our - feet; radiating out in every direction from the central mass, - they all with one accord curve to the westward to send their - waters down toward Puget Sound or the Lower Columbia. - [Attention has already been directed to the westward - curvature of the streams from Mount Rainier on reaching the - tilted peneplain on which the mountain stands, and the - explanation has been suggested that they are consequent - streams the direction of which was determined by the original - slope of the now deeply dissected plateau.] - - Looking to the more distant country, the whole stretch of - Puget Sound, seeming like a pretty little lake embowered in - green, could be seen in the northwest, beyond which the - Olympic Mountains extend out into the Pacific Ocean. The - Cascade Mountains, lying dwarfed at our feet, could be traced - northward into British Columbia, and southward into Oregon, - while above them, at comparatively regular intervals, rose - the ghost-like forms of our companion volcanoes. To the - eastward the eye ranged for hundreds of miles over chain on - chain of mountain ridges, which gradually disappeared in the - dim, blue distance. - -In the truncated summit of Mount Rainier there are three craters. The -largest one, partially filled by the building of the two others, is -the oldest, and has suffered so greatly from subsequent volcanic -explosions and erosion that no more than its general outline can be -traced. Peak Success and Liberty Cap are prominent points on the rim -of what remains of this huge crater. Its diameter, as nearly as can be -judged, is about 2-1/2 miles. Within the great crater, in the -formation of which the mountain was truncated and, as previously -stated, lost fully 2,000 feet of its summit, there are two much -smaller and much more recent craters. The larger of these, the one in -which we took refuge, is about 300 yards in diameter, and the second, -which is an incomplete circle, its rim having been broken by the -formation of its more recent companion, is perhaps 200 yards across. -The rim of each now partially snow-filled bowl is well defined, and -rises steeply from within to a sharp crest. The character of the inner -slopes shows that much rocky material has been detached and has fallen -into the cavities from which it was ejected. The rock in the crater -walls is in fragments and masses, some of them well rounded and -probably of the nature of volcanic bombs. In each of the smaller -craters there are numerous steam jets. These show that the rock below -is still hot, and that water percolating downward is changed to steam. -These steam jets evidently indicate the presence of residual heat and -not an actual connection with a volcanic center deep below the -surface. All the evidence available tends to show that Rainier is an -extinct volcano. It belongs, however, to the explosive type of -volcanoes, of which Vesuvius is the best-known example, and there is -no assurance that its energies may not be reawakened. - -In descending we chose the south side of the mountain, knowing from -the reports of many excursionists who had ascended the peak from that -direction that a practicable route could probably be found. Threading -our way between numerous crevasses we soon came in sight of a bold, -outstanding rock mass, which we judged to be Gibraltar, and succeeded -in reaching it with but little difficulty. On gaining the junction of -the rock with the snow fields rising above it, we found evidences of a -trail, which was soon lost, however, and only served to show that our -general course was the right one. A deep, narrow space between the -border of Nisqually Glacier and the precipitous side of Gibraltar, -from which the snow and ice had been melted by the heat reflected from -the cliffs on our left, led us down to a shelf on the lower side of -the promontory, which proved a safe and easy way to the crest of a -rocky rib on the mountain side which extended far down toward the dark -forests in view below. - -Gibraltar is a portion of the cone of Rainier built before the -explosion which truncated the mountain. It is an outstanding and very -prominent rock mass, left in bold relief by the ice excavation which -has carved deep valleys on each side. The rock divides the descending -neve in the same manner as does The Wedge, and causes a part of the -snow drainage to flow to the Cowlitz and the other part to be -tributary to the Nisqually Glacier. The rocks forming Gibraltar -consist largely of fragments ejected from the crater above, but -present a rude stratification due to the presence of lava flows. When -seen from the side and at a convenient distance, it is evident that -the planes of bedding, if continued upward at the same angle, would -reach above the present summit of the mountain. Gibraltar, like The -Wedge, and several other secondary peaks on the sides of Mount -Rainier, are, as previously explained, the sharp, upward-pointing -angles of large V-shaped masses of the original volcanic cone, left in -bold relief by the excavation of deep valleys radiating from the -central peak. On the backs, so to speak, of these great V-shaped -portions of the mountain which now seem to rest against the central -dome, secondary glaciers, or interglaciers as they may be termed, have -excavated valleys and amphitheaters. In the V-shaped mass of which -Gibraltar is the apex, a broad amphitheater-like depression has been -cut out, leaving a bold cliff above it. The excavation of the -amphitheater did not progress far enough up the mountain to cut away -the apex of the V-shaped mass, but left it with a precipice on its -lower side. This remnant is Gibraltar. An attempt will be made later -to describe more fully the process of glacial erosion of a conical -mountain, and to show that the secondary topographic features of Mount -Rainier are not without system, as they appear at first view, but -really result from a process which may be said to have a definite end -in view. - -Below Gibraltar the descent was easy. Our life line was no longer -needed. Tramping in single file over the hard surfaces of the snow -field, remnants of the previous winter's snow, we made rapid progress, -and about noon gained the scattered groves of spruce trees which form -such an attractive feature of Paradise Park. - -Fortunately, we found Prof. E. S. Ingraham, of Seattle, and a party of -friends, including several ladies, encamped in Paradise Park, and the -hospitality of the camp was extended to us. During the afternoon we -basked in the warm sunshine, and in the evening gathered about a -roaring campfire and enjoyed the society of our companions, who were -enthusiastic in their praise of the wonderful scenes about their camp. - -The southern side of Mount Rainier is much less precipitous than its -northern face, and the open park-like region near timber line is -broader, more diversified, and much more easy of access. The general -elevation of the park is between 5,000 and 7,000 feet, and it is -several thousand acres in extent. Its boundaries are indefinite. It -merges into the heavily forested region to the south, and into more -alpine regions on the side toward the mountain, which towers above it -on the north. To the east it is bordered by Cowlitz Glacier, and on -the west by Nisqually Glacier. Each of these fine ice rivers descends -far below timber line. The small interglacier, known as the Paradise -Glacier, may be considered as lying within the limits of the park. - -Paradise Park presents many and varied charms. It is a somewhat rugged -land, with a deep picturesque valley winding through it. The trees -grow in isolated groves. Each bunch of dark-green firs and balsams is -a cluster of gracefully tapering spires. The undulating meadows -between the shady groves are brilliant in summer with a veritable -carpet of gorgeous blossoms. In contrast to the exquisite charms of -the groves and flower-decked rolling meadows are desolate ice fields -and rugged glaciers which vary, through many tints and shades, from -silvery whiteness to intense blue. Added to these minor charms, and -towering far above them, is the massive summit of Rainier. At times -the sublime mountain appears steel blue in the unclouded sky, or rosy -with the afterglow at sunset, or all aflame with the glories of the -newborn day. Clouds gather about the lofty summit and transform it -into a storm king. Avalanches rushing down its side awaken the echoes -in the neighboring forest. The appearance of the mountain is never the -same on different days; indeed, it changes its mood and exerts a -varying influence on the beholder from hour to hour. - -While the central attraction to the lover of mountain scenery in -Paradise Park is the vast snow-covered dome of Mount Rainier, there -are other mountains in view that merit attention. To the east rises -the serrate and rugged Tattoosh range, which is remarkable for the -boldness with which its bordering slopes rise from the forested region -about it and the angularity of its many serrate summits. This range -has never been explored except by miners and hunters, who have made -no record of their discoveries. It is virgin ground to the geologist -and geographer. Distant views suggest that the Tattoosh Mountains have -been sculptured from a plateau, probably an upraised peneplain in -which there existed a great mass of igneous rock rounded by less -resistant Tertiary sediments. The softer rocks have been removed, -leaving the harder and more resistant ones in bold relief, to become -sculptured by rain and frost into a multitude of angular peaks. This -attractive, and as yet unstudied, group of peaks is in plain view from -Paradise Park, and may be easily reached from there by a single day's -tramp. Many other delightful excursions are open to one who pitches -his tent in the alpine meadows on the south side of Mount Rainier. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[25] Called the North Mowich Glacier on the present map. - -[26] Since shown to be 14,408 feet. - - - - - [Illustration: PROFESSOR EDGAR MCCLURE.] - -XII. McCLURE'S ACHIEVEMENT AND TRAGIC DEATH, 1897 - -BY HERBERT L. BRUCE AND PROFESSOR H. H. McALISTER - - - Visitors to Paradise Valley, who climb above the Camp of the - Clouds to the snowfields, are sure to be attracted to McClure - Rock. It is the scene of one of the mountain's earliest - tragedies, in which Professor Edgar McClure of the University - of Oregon lost his life. He was trying to measure accurately - the height of the great mountain as he had already done for - Mount Adams and other peaks. - - The record of his extensive observations was computed with - the greatest care by his colleague, Professor H. H. McAlister - of the University of Oregon. An account of the work so - tragically ended was prepared by Herbert L. Bruce. Both - articles were published in the Seattle Post-Intelligencer for - November 7, 1897, from which paper they are here reproduced. - The portrait of Professor McClure is furnished by his - brother, Horace McClure, editorial writer for the Seattle - Daily Times. - - The height of the mountain, 14,528 feet, thus obtained, - remained in use until 1914, when the United States Geological - Survey announced its new and latest findings to be 14,408 - feet. - -One of the most tragic incidents in modern science was the death of -Professor Edgar McClure, who lost his life on Mount Rainier July 27, -1897. Occupying, as he did, the chair of chemistry in the University -of Oregon, his personal tastes, instincts and ambitions were -essentially scientific. In addition to this he was a member of the -Mazamas, whose purposes in the line of scientific exploration have -lent a romantic interest and a cumulative value to the geography of -the northwest. The particular expedition with which Professor McClure -was associated when he met his untimely death, left Portland with the -distinct object of making the ascent of Mount Rainier, recording such -geographical and topographical observations as might be feasible. As a -member of the expedition Professor McClure was placed in charge of the -elevation department and set before himself a somewhat more distinct -and definite purpose, viz., to ascertain by the most approved methods -and with the most accurately graduated instruments the precise height -of the famous and beautiful mountain. How well he accomplished this -purpose will best appear in the subjoined letter from Professor E. H. -McAlister, his friend and colleague, who with infinite care and -sympathetic zeal has worked out the data, which would otherwise have -been undecipherable not only to the general public but to the average -scholar. As he himself said when he had completed his arduous task: "I -have done everything possible to wring the truth from the -observations. In my judgment they should become historic on account of -the probability of their great accuracy." - -To the accomplishment of this object Professor McClure brought all the -varied resources of a ripe culture and an ardent, vigorous young -manhood. His plans were all laid with the greatest care. To him their -fulfillment meant not so much a personal or selfish triumph as a -victory for science. The very instrument on which he most relied for -accurate determinations, as will be seen from Professor McAlister's -statement, was not only hallowed by scientific associations, but was -prepared for its high mission more lovingly and assiduously than a -favorite racer would be groomed for the course. Twice had it looked -upon the beauties of the Columbia river from the summit of Mount Hood, -and on three other lofty peaks it had served its silent but efficient -ministry to the cause of science. On one of these, Mount Adams, the -altitude determined with this instrument was accepted by the United -States government, yet a new tube was filled for it, Professor McClure -himself preparing the mercury by distillation, and seeing to it that -the vacuum was exceptionally perfect. That the barometer was most -carefully handled at the time of observation will fully appear from -the record below. It was suspended by a ring and allowed to hang until -it had assumed the temperature of the surrounding air before being -read. Not only this, but all the subsidiary phenomena which could have -the slightest bearing on the result were laboriously determined. -Concurrent observations were made at all salient surrounding stations, -while for a week before the date of actual observation Professor -McClure himself had made numerous observations both of pressure and of -temperature at various sub-stations in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, -and his collaborateur has secured simultaneous observations from -Seattle and Portland. Uniting as he did the fervor of the pioneer -explorer with the accuracy of the laboratory chemist, Professor -McClure was peculiarly fitted to obtain a result which bids fair to -become historic. - -The broken barometer will appeal powerfully to every lover of science. -If, as has been suggested, a monument be reared to mark the spot where -the young scientist gave up his life, no fitter design could be -adopted than a stone shaft bearing on its face a bas-relief of the -historic instrument which he bore on his back with sacred care. It is -entirely probable that this barometer, coupled with his unselfish -solicitude for the safety of other members of the expedition, was the -immediate cause of his death. He carried it in a double case; a wooden -one which his own hands had constructed, and outside of this a strong -leather tube. From the latter stout thongs enabled him to strap the -instrument on his back, much as a pioneer huntsman would wear his -trusty rifle. While standing on the perilous ledge whence he took the -fatal plunge, he turned to sound warning to his companions whom he was -leading in a search for the lost pathway down the mountain. "Don't -come down here; it is too steep," he called, turning so as to make -his voice more audible. These were his last words. He vanished in the -night and the abyss. It is likely that the tube, three and a half feet -in length, caught as he turned and helped to hurl him from his -precarious footing. Like his own high strung frame, the delicate -instrument was shattered; but neither of the twain went away from the -world without leaving an imperishable record. - -It is interesting to note the close correspondence of his independent -observations with those made by others. The height of the mountain had -been measured many times before he essayed to measure it. Some -observers had measured it by triangulation, and others, notably Major -E. S. Ingraham, of Seattle, had given its altitude from the readings -of mercurial barometers. Major Ingraham gave the height at 14,524 -feet. It will be noticed that the result obtained by Professor McClure -was just four feet greater, a remarkable coincidence at that vast -altitude and among conditions of hardship, exposure and uncertainty. -Prior to Professor McClure's record, the latest measurement of Rainier -had been made by George F. Hyde, of the United States Geological -Survey, in 1896. He pursued the method of triangulation, and, taking -as his base a line at Ellensburg, in connection with the sea level -gauge at Tacoma, he figured out the extreme height of Rainier at -14,519 feet. - -The value of Professor McClure's determination will be heightened -rather than lessened by the peculiar difficulty and rareness of -scientific work in an unexplored territory and from a base which has -not all the appurtenances and advantages of the older scientific -stations of the East and of Europe. In this respect his work is like -that of Agassiz and of Audubon. Not unlike those great masters was he -in his intense and lofty devotion to science. Not unlike them he -wrought with rigid accuracy where others had worked almost at random. -Not unlike them he aroused among his friends and students the -conviction that he was a born high priest of nature, whose chief -mission in the world was to reveal her secrets to mankind. He offered -up his life virtually a sacrifice to the cause of popular and -practical science, and in as lofty a sense as ever dignified a Roman -arena he was a martyr to the cause of truth. To use the matchless -figure employed by Byron in describing the death of Henry Kirk White, -who died a victim to his own passionate devotion to literary art, he -was like the struck eagle whose own feather "winged the shaft that -quivered in his heart." - -Just in harmony with this thought came countless expressions of -sympathy and condolence to the members of Professor McClure's family -when the sad news of his death went abroad. One of the most touching, -and, to my mind, one of the most typical of all these came from an -obscure man in an obscure corner of Kentucky. He was not a great man -himself, as the world counts greatness, this man in Kentucky; but he -knew a great man when he saw him. He had known Edgar McClure; and when -he heard the circumstances of his death he sat down and wrote a brief -note. One sentence in it was worthy of Whittier or Emerson. It was -this: "Edgar McClure died as he had always lived--on the mountain -top." - -In transmitting his results to Horace McClure, brother of the deceased -scientist, Professor McAlister brings to a proper close a labor of -love, one that is as creditable to his scholarly culture as it is to -his unselfish and devoted friendship. - - HERBERT L. BRUCE. - - - LETTER OF TRANSMISSION - - University of Oregon, - Eugene, Or., October 28, 1897. - -MR. HORACE MCCLURE--Dear Sir: I herewith transmit to you for -publication my report upon the observations of your late brother, -Professor Edgar McClure, relative to the altitude of Mount Rainier, -the data having been referred to me for reduction and computation by -yourself and by the officials of the Mazama Club. - -It is but just to myself to say that the long delay in the appearance -of this report has been caused by unavoidable difficulties in the -collection of subsidiary data; in particular, the comparison sheet -showing the instrumental error of Professor McClure's barometer could -not be found until the 9th of this month, when it was discovered among -some effects left by him in Portland. A further delay has been -occasioned in obtaining a few other important data. A report -approximately correct could have been made some time ago, but I felt -it was due to the memory of Professor McClure's reputation for extreme -accuracy that no report whatever should be published until I was able -to state a result for which I could vouch as being the very best that -the observations were capable of affording. - -The thanks of all concerned are due to Mr. B. S. Pague, Director of -the Oregon Weather Bureau, for numerous courtesies and for his -efficient aid in the collection of data. - - Very respectfully, - - E. H. MCALISTER, - Professor of Applied Mathematics. - -THE RESULT - -For the benefit of those not interested in the scientific details of -this report, it may be stated at once that the summit of Mount -Rainier, according to Professor McClure's observations, is 14,528 feet -above sea level. The altitudes of various sub-stations occupied en -route will be found further on. An account of the data, with -description of the methods employed in reduction and computation, is -given, to indicate the degree of reliance to be placed upon the -result. - -The principal observation to which this report refers was made by -Professor Edgar McClure, of the University of Oregon, on the summit of -Mount Rainier, Washington, July 27, 1897, at 4:30 P.M., Pacific -standard time. The observation consists of a reading of Green's -standard mercurial barometer, No. 1612, together with readings of -attached and detached thermometers. It appears that the barometer, -which was suspended by a ring at the top, was allowed so to hang until -it had assumed the temperature of the surrounding air, before being -read; that the sky was clear at the time; and that the place of -observation, the highest on the mountain, is designated as Columbia -Crest. - -The barometric reading, corrected for instrumental error and -temperature, was 17.708 inches; the air temperature was 29 degrees -Fahrenheit. - -Concurrent observations were made at 9:30 A.M. and hourly during the -afternoon by the regular observers at Seattle, Portland, Fort Canby, -the University of Oregon at Eugene, Roseburg, and one observation at -Walla Walla at 5 P.M. - -In addition to these, during the week preceding the 27th Professor -McClure made numerous observations both of pressure and temperature at -various sub-stations in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, and -simultaneous observations are furnished from Seattle and Portland. - -At the very outset of the work of reduction it was evident that Eugene -and Roseburg were under an area of relatively low barometric pressure -on the 27th, representing atmospheric conditions that did not prevail -in the region of Mount Rainier. I therefore rejected the observations -at both these places, using only those at Seattle, Portland, Fort -Canby and Walla Walla. The strategic position of these four points -will be seen at once by a glance at the map. - -The method followed in making the reduction was, in brief, to deduce -from the observations at the four base stations surrounding the -mountain the actual atmospheric conditions prevailing in the -immediate region of the mountain. More specifically, the process -consisted in determining the atmospheric pressure and temperature at -an imaginary sea level vertically under the mountain, which level I -shall subsequently call the "mean base." - -In this I was greatly assisted by a careful study of the daily weather -charts issued by the government, Mr. Pague having kindly loaned me his -official file for July. I thus practically had at my disposal -observations from all the important points on the Coast, both before -and after the principal observation. With due regard to the position -and direction of the isobars, and giving proper weight to the -observations at each of the four base stations, I finally deduced -30.130 inches as the value of the pressure at the mean base which best -satisfied all the data. It ought to be said, perhaps, that this result -does not depend upon my judgment to any appreciable extent, but was -legitimately worked out from the observations and isobaric lines. - -In determining the mean temperature of the air column extending from -the mean base to the summit of the mountain, the observations made by -Professor McClure during the previous week in the vicinity were so -numerous and well timed as to leave far less than the usual amount of -uncertainty. Making due allowance for the moderate elevations of the -stations, these observations show clearly that the temperature about -the mountain at that time followed that of Seattle very closely, and -was also not much different from that of Portland, but departed -notably from both the heat of Walla Walla and the low temperature of -Fort Canby. Allowing proper weight to these facts, the observations at -the base stations, with that of Professor McClure at the summit, gave -49 degrees Fahrenheit as the mean temperature of the air column. - -I regard the method of reduction outlined above as possessing decided -advantages over any other that could be applied to the problem in -hand; especially because it admits of using the isobaric charts with -great freedom and effectiveness, thereby increasing the reliability of -the result to a marked extent. - -The reduction made, there remained for the final calculation the -following data: - - Barometric pressure at the summit of Rainier 17.708 inches - Barometric pressure at mean base 30.130 inches - Mean temperature of air column 49 deg. F. - Latitude of Mount Rainer 46 deg. 48 min. - -In making the calculation I used the amplified form of Laplace's -formula given in the recent publications of the Smithsonian -Institution, with the constants there adopted. Perhaps for the general -reader it may be important to remark that this formula, besides the -barometric pressures, contains corrections for the temperature of the -air column; for latitude, and for the variation of gravity with -altitude in its effect on the weight of the mercury in the barometer; -for the average humidity of the air; and for the variation of gravity -with altitude in its effect on the weight of the air. I used the -latest edition of the Smithsonian tables, but afterward verified the -result by a numerical solution of the formula--the altitude being, as -stated at the beginning, 14,528 feet above sea level. - -It should be noted as an evidence of the great care and foresight with -which Professor McClure planned his work and the success with which he -carried it out, that the result of his observations agrees within nine -feet with that obtained by the United States Geological Survey in -1895, using, as we may suppose, the most refined methods of -triangulation--the latter estimate being 14,519 feet. In connection -with so great an altitude, nine feet is an insignificant quantity, and -the close correspondence in the results of the two methods of -measurement is truly remarkable. I am not inclined to regard it as -accidental, but as due to the most careful work in both cases. - -Having a full knowledge of all the available data, I am perhaps better -prepared than anyone else to pass judgment upon the result set forth; -and while it would be folly to give a numerical estimate of the -probable error, I feel justified in saying that no single barometric -determination is ever likely to prove more accurate than this one of -Professor McClure's. At any rate, the outstanding error is now too -small to justify the hazard of any future attempts. - -From the observations made by Professor McClure while en route to the -summit, together with simultaneous records from Seattle and Portland, -the following altitudes are obtained: - - FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL - Eatonville 870 - Kernahan's ranch 1,880 - Longmire springs 2,850 - Mazama camp 5,932 - Camp-No-Camp 12,700 - South side Crater Rainier 14,275 - -The data in these cases were not sufficient to admit an elaborate -working-out of the altitude, so that the figures given are to be -regarded as rather close approximations, except in the case of Mazama -camp, the altitude of which rests upon four observations and is -correspondingly reliable. - -Professor McClure's barometer had a notable history in mountaineering. -To quote the professor's own words: - -"It has twice looked upon the beauties of the Columbia river from the -summit of Mount Hood. It was the first barometer taken to the top of -Mount Hood, and gave the true elevation, 11,225 feet, in place of -17,000 or 18,000 feet previously claimed. This barometric measurement -of Mount Hood was made in August, 1867, by a government party under -the direction of Lieutenant R. S. Williamson. The second barometric -measurement of Mount Hood was made with the same instrument in -August, 1870, by Professor George H. Collier." - -In August, 1891, the barometer was carried by Professor McClure to the -summit of Diamond Peak; in August, 1894, by the writer, to the summit -of the middle peak of the Three Sisters, in Oregon, giving an altitude -of 10,080 feet, not hitherto published; in July, 1895, Professor -McClure took it with the Mazamas to Mount Adams, and in July, 1897, to -the summit of Mount Rainier. - -A new tube was filled and inserted about two years ago, Professor -McClure preparing the mercury by distillation and the writer boiling -it in the tube. The vacuum was exceptionally perfect. The comparison -sheet previously mentioned showed that the instrument on the occasion -of its last trip read .005 inch above standard. - -In thus completing the labors of Professor McClure, with whom I was so -long and so intimately associated, I feel a very melancholy -satisfaction. For his sake, I have spared no pains in collecting all -the useful data that could be obtained, to make the result reliable to -the last degree possible in such a case. I leave that result as a -sufficient guarantee of the accuracy of the whole work from beginning -to end. - - - - - [Illustration: PROFESSOR HENRY LANDES.] - -XIII. FIELD NOTES ON MOUNT RAINIER, 1905 - -BY PROFESSOR HENRY LANDES - - - Henry Landes is Professor of Geology and Dean of the College - of Science, University of Washington, and he has also served - as State Geologist of Washington, since 1895. He was born at - Carroll, Indiana, on December 22, 1867. He graduated from the - University of Indiana in 1892 and obtained the Master of Arts - degree at Harvard University in 1893. He was assistant to the - State Geologist of New Jersey and Principal of the High - School at Rockland, Maine, before being elected to his - present professorship at the University of Washington in - 1895. For a year and a half, 1914-1915, he was Acting - President of the University of Washington. - - He has published many articles and pamphlets on geological - subjects. The one here given appeared in Mazama, published in - December, 1905, by the Mazamas in Portland, Oregon. It is - reproduced here with the permission of the author and of the - mountaineering club. - -The Columbia River afforded to the first people who came to Washington -and Oregon the easiest and most feasible route across the Cascade -Mountains. It was through this gateway that travel passed from one -side of the range to the other until the advent of the railways in -comparatively recent years. The early travelers along the river who -were of an observing or scientific bent, noted that the rocks were, in -general, dark, heavy and massive and of the class commonly known as -basalt. Here and there a sort of pudding stone or agglomerate was -observed, which in some instances might represent a sedimentary -deposit, but which here had clearly an igneous origin. - -The observations of the early travelers were supplemented later by the -further studies of geologists; and from the facts noted along the -Columbia River, the generalization holds good to a great extent on -the Oregon side, but it is by no means true on the Washington side, as -has been shown by later studies. Granite rocks are encountered within -a few miles of the Columbia River as one travels north along the -Cascade Range. Associated with these granite rocks are found rocks of -a metamorphic type, such as gneiss, schists, quartzites, crystalline -limestone, slate, etc. Such rocks exist south of Mount Rainier, but -are not conspicuous. North of this point, however, and throughout all -of the northern Cascades they form the great bulk of the rock. - -In other words, in the Cascades of Washington, igneous activity has -been much more common in the region south of Rainier than in that -north of the mountain. When the first observations were made upon the -great lava flows of southeastern Washington, which form a part of the -greatest lava plain in the world, it was supposed that the lava had -its origin in the volcanoes of the Cascades. Later investigations have -shown this view to be erroneous. The lava of the plain has come -directly from below through great longitudinal fissures instead of -through circular openings such as one finds in volcanoes. - -It is probable that the Cascades, like most other mountains, have had -several different periods of uplift. We have several notable examples -of mountains which have had an initial uplift and then have been -reduced to base by erosion. By a second upheaval the plain has been -converted into a plateau, and this in time assumes a very rugged, -mountainous character as a result of the combined forces of air and -water. Eventually these same forces would reduce the region to a plain -again. Just how many times this thing has happened in the Cascades we -do not know. Bailey Willis has shown that in the northern Cascades, at -least, the whole country was reduced to a plain prior to the last -uplift, which took place in comparatively recent times. Out of this -plateau, formed by the uplifting of the plain, has arisen through the -active attack of erosive forces the truly mountainous character of the -district. Erosion has been at the maximum in the mountains because of -the heavy precipitation. Precipitation in the high mountains being -chiefly in the form of snow has led to the formation of glaciers, -producing thereby a rapidity of erosion of the first order. The active -work of ice and running water has given to the mountains an extremely -rugged appearance, characterized by valleys of great depth extending -into the very heart of the mountains and with precipitous divides. - -It must be understood that the time consumed in the uplifting of the -Cascades, and the conversion from plain to plateau, was of -considerable duration. With the beginning of the uplift, the sluggish -streams of the plain became rejuvenated, and took up actively once -more the work of erosion. By the time the maximum uplift was reached, -the plateau had lost to a certain degree its character of extreme -levelness. The streams had already entrenched themselves in rather -conspicuous valleys. It is believed that the great volcanoes of -Washington--Rainier and its associates--began their activities about -the time the uplift described above reached its maximum height. In the -vicinity of Rainier the rock of the old plateau is granite; and the -volcano may be said to be built upon a platform of that material. On -the north side of the mountain granite appears conspicuously at a -height of about 7,000 feet; while on the south side it appears at -points varying from 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the sea. - -That the surface of the granite platform was irregular and uneven may -be seen in the walls of the Nisqually canyon, near the lower terminus -of the glacier. As one ascends the canyon to the glacier, the contact -between the lava rock and the granite shows quite plainly on both the -right and the left side. On the left the contact is at least 1,000 -feet above that on the right side. A little way above the lower end of -the glacier, on each side of the canyon, a good opportunity presents -itself to study the contact of the lava and granite. The granite at -this place shows clearly that it was once a land surface; and one may -note weathering for a distance downward of seventy-five or one hundred -feet. The upper portion of the granite shows the usual characteristics -of weathering, namely, the conversion of feldspar into kaolin, the -oxidation of iron, etc. At this point the lava overlying the granite -is quite basic and massive. The first flow reached a thickness here of -fully three hundred feet, and exhibits a fine development of basaltic -structure. - -In following up the canyon walls one observes that the activity of the -volcano for some time was characterized almost exclusively by lava -flows. In the main the lava is an andesite, and is very generally of a -porphyritic structure. Some of the lava flows were of great extent, -and reached points many miles distant from the center of the mountain. -While the earlier stages of the activity of the volcano were -characterized by lava flows of great thickness, by and by explosive -products began to appear, and interbedded with the sheets of lava one -finds bombs, lapilli, cinders, etc. - -It may be said in general that as the volcano grew in years it changed -more and more from eruptions of the quiet type to those of the -explosive character. It is plain that a long period of time was -consumed in the making of that great volcanic pile, and that the -eruptions were by no means continuous. It is clearly shown that after -certain outflows of lava, quietude reigned for a time; that at last -the surface of the rock became cool and that erosive agents broke it -up into great masses of loose stones. In later flows of lava these -stones were picked up and cemented into layers of pudding stone, which -are styled agglomerates. - -Rocks of an agglomerate type are well shown in the walls of -Gibraltar. This massive pile is largely made up of boulders, great and -small, rather loosely held together by a lava cement. The work of -frost and ice, expansion and contraction, loosens the boulders -readily, and their constant falling from the cliffs gives to this part -of the mountain's ascent its dangerous character. While this volcano -belongs to a very late period in the history of the earth, it is very -clear that there has been no marked activity for many thousands of -years. The presence of steam, which is emitted from the hundreds of -small openings about the crater, undoubtedly shows the presence of -heated rock at no great distance below the surface. Rock is a poor -conductor, however, and cooling takes place with very great slowness -after a depth of comparatively few feet is reached. - -Like most volcanoes, the composite character of the cone is shown on -Mount Rainier. After a certain height is reached in the building up of -a cone, the rising lava in the throat, or the explosive activities -within, sometimes produce an opening through the walls of the cone, -and a new outlet to the surface is formed. This often gives the -volcano a sort of hummocky or warty appearance, and produces a -departure from the symmetrical character. In the case of Rainier it -seems to the writer that upon the summit four distinct craters, or -outlets, are distinguishable. The first crater reached by the usual -route of ascent is the largest one, and may be styled the East crater. -It is nearly circular in outline, with a diameter of about one-half -mile. Its walls are bare of snow for nearly the whole of its -circumference, but the pit is filled with snow and ice. Going across -the crater to the westward, one passes over what is really the highest -point on the mountain, and then goes down into a smaller crater, or -the West crater. This is similar in character and outline to its -neighbor, but here the many jets of issuing steam are much more -prominent. At a point a few hundred feet lower on the mountain-side -there is a peak known as Liberty Cap. A cross-section of the cap is -in plain view and shows very clearly that this is a minor cone or -local point of eruption. It is made up of rock very similar to the -main mass of the mountain; and it is likely that the volcanic activity -of the mountain was centered here for some time. Looking directly -south from the West crater one sees at a distance of less than a mile -another peak which is entirely snow-covered; but which may represent -an instance parallel with that of the peak on the north side. - -Mount Rainier is so deeply covered with ice and snow that the glacial -aspects of the mountain are far more conspicuous than the volcanic -ones. The facts about the vulcanism and the history of the growth of -the mountain are very difficult to study; and it will be a long time -before they are fully known. The glaciers, on the other hand, are very -conspicuous, comparatively easy of access, and the many facts -concerning their extent, rate of motion, recession, or advance, may be -quite readily determined. The glaciers, while very prominent at the -present time, were at one time much larger than now. There are many -things which go to prove that they formerly reached much farther down -the valleys. - -From the top of the mountain one may see off to the westward for many -miles south of Puget Sound prairies of large size, covering a great -many square miles. These prairies represent the plains of gravel -derived from the melting glaciers, when these stood in their vicinity. -From these points of maximum extension the glaciers have slowly -receded to their present position. - -That the glaciers are receding at the present time is a matter of -common observation. At the lower end of the Nisqually glacier the -advancing line of vegetation is about one-fourth mile below the -present limit of the ice. It is the opinion of Mr. Longmire that the -glacier has retreated about that far since he first came to the -valley, twenty-five years ago. General Stevens was able to point out -several instances of notable shrinkages in the glaciers, especially in -the Paradise glacier, since his ascent of the mountain in 1870. It -will interest students of glaciers to know that some permanent -monuments have been set up at the lower end of the Nisqually glacier; -and that arrangements have been made whereby the retreat of the ice -may be accurately measured from year to year. - - - - - [Illustration: FRANCOIS EMILE MATTHES.] - -XIV. GLACIERS OF MOUNT RAINIER - -BY F. E. MATTHES - - - Francois Emile Matthes was born at Amsterdam, Holland, on - March 16, 1874. After pursuing studies in Holland, - Switzerland and Germany, he came to the United States in 1891 - and graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology - in 1895. Since 1896 he has been at work with the United - States Geological Survey, mostly in the field of topography. - He has been honored by and is a member of many scientific - societies. - - His topographic work on the maps of Yosemite and Mount - Rainier National Parks made for him many appreciative friends - on the Pacific Coast. His pamphlet on "Mount Rainier and Its - Glaciers" was published by the United States Department of - the Interior in 1914. He secured consent for its - republication in the present work. - -The impression still prevails in many quarters that true glaciers, -such as are found in the Swiss Alps, do not exist within the confines -of the United States, and that to behold one of these rare scenic -features one must go to Switzerland, or else to the less accessible -Canadian Rockies or the inhospitable Alaskan coast. As a matter of -fact, permanent bodies of snow and ice, large enough to deserve the -name of glaciers, occur on many of our western mountain chains, -notably in the Rocky Mountains, where only recently a national -reservation--Glacier National Park--was named for its ice fields; in -the Sierra Nevada of California, and farther north, in the Cascade -Range. It is on the last-named mountain chain that glaciers especially -abound, clustering as a rule in groups about the higher summits of the -crest. But this range also supports a series of huge, extinct -volcanoes that tower high above its sky line in the form of isolated -cones. On these the snows lie deepest and the glaciers reach their -grandest development. Ice clad from head to foot the year round, these -giant peaks have become known the country over as the noblest -landmarks of the Pacific Northwest. Foremost among them are Mount -Shasta, in California (14,162 feet); Mount Hood, in Oregon (11,225 -feet); Mount St. Helens (9,697 feet), Mount Adams (12,307 feet), Mount -Rainier (14,408 feet), and Mount Baker (10,730 feet), in the State of -Washington. - -Easily king of all is Mount Rainier. Almost 250 feet higher than Mount -Shasta, its nearest rival in grandeur and in mass, it is -overwhelmingly impressive, both by the vastness of its glacial mantle -and by the striking sculpture of its cliffs. The total area of its -glaciers amounts to no less than 45 square miles, an expanse of ice -far exceeding that of any other single peak in the United States. Many -of its individual ice streams are between 4 and 6 miles long and vie -in magnitude and in splendor with the most boasted glaciers of the -Alps. Cascading from the summit in all directions, they radiate like -the arms of a great starfish. All reach down to the foot of the -mountain and some advance considerably beyond. - -As for the plea that these glaciers lie in a scarcely opened, -out-of-the-way region, a forbidding wilderness as compared with -maturely civilized Switzerland, it no longer has the force it once -possessed. Rainier's ice fields can now be reached from Seattle or -Tacoma, the two principal cities of western Washington, in a -comfortable day's journeying, either by rail or by automobile. The -cooling sight of crevassed glaciers and the exhilarating -flower-scented air of alpine meadows need no longer be exclusive -pleasures, to be gained only by a trip abroad. - -Mount Rainier stands on the west edge of the Cascade Range, -overlooking the lowlands that stretch to Puget Sound. Seen from -Seattle or Tacoma, 60 and 50 miles distant, respectively, it appears -to rise directly from sea level, so insignificant seem the ridges -about its base. Yet these ridges themselves are of no mean height. -They rise 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the valleys that cut through them, -and their crests average 6,000 feet in altitude. Thus at the southwest -entrance of the park, in the Nisqually Valley, the elevation above sea -level, as determined by accurate spirit leveling, is 2,003 feet, while -Mount Wow (Goat Mountain), immediately to the north, rises to an -altitude of 6,045 feet. But so colossal are the proportions of the -great volcano that they dwarf even mountains of this size and give -them the appearance of mere foothills. In the Tatoosh Range Pinnacle -Peak is one of the higher summits, 6,562 feet in altitude. That peak -rises nearly 4,000 feet above the Nisqually River, which at Longmire -has an elevation of 2,700 feet, yet it will be seen that Mount Rainier -towers still 7,846 feet higher than Pinnacle Peak. - -From the top of the volcano one fairly looks down upon the Tatoosh -Range, to the south; upon Mount Wow, to the southwest; upon the Mother -Mountains, to the northwest, indeed, upon all the ridges of the -Cascade Range. Only Mount Adams, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Hood loom -like solitary peaks above the even sky line, while the ridges below -this line seem to melt together in one vast, continuous mountain -platform. And such a platform, indeed, one should conceive the Cascade -Range once to have been. Only it is now thoroughly dissected by -profound, ramifying valleys, and has been resolved into a sea of -wavelike crests and peaks. - -Mount Rainier stands, in round numbers, 10,000 feet high above its -immediate base, and covers 100 square miles of territory, or one-third -of the area of Mount Rainier National Park. In shape it is not a -simple cone tapering to a slender, pointed summit like Fuji Yama, the -great volcano of Japan. It is, rather, a broadly truncated mass -resembling an enormous tree stump with spreading base and irregularly -broken top. Its life history has been a varied one. Like all -volcanoes, Rainier has built up its cone with the material ejected by -its own eruptions--with cinders and bombs (steam-shredded particles -and lumps of lava), and with occasional flows of liquid lava that have -solidified into layers of hard, basaltic rock. At one time it attained -an altitude of not less than 16,000 feet, if one may judge by the -steep inclination of the lava and cinder layers visible in its flanks. -Then a great explosion followed that destroyed the top part of the -mountain, and reduced its height by some 2,000 feet. The volcano was -left beheaded, and with a capacious hollow crater, surrounded by a -jagged rim. - -Later on this great cavity, which measured nearly 3 miles across, from -south to north, was filled by two small cinder cones. Successive -feeble eruptions added to their height until at last they formed -together a low, rounded dome--the eminence that now constitutes the -mountain's summit. It rises only about 400 feet above the rim of the -old crater, and is an inconspicuous feature, not readily identifiable -from all sides as the highest point. In fact, so broad is the -mountain's crown that from no point at its base can one see the top. -The higher portions of the old crater rim, moreover, rise to -elevations within a few hundred feet of the summit, and, especially -when viewed from below, stand out boldly as separate peaks that mask -and seem to overshadow the central dome. Especially prominent are Peak -Success (14,150 feet) on the southwest side, and Liberty Cap (14,112 -feet) on the northwest side. - -The altitude of the main summit has for many years been in doubt. -Several figures have been announced from time to time, no two of them -in agreement with each other; but all of these, it is to be observed, -were obtained by more or less approximate methods. In 1913 the United -States Geological Survey, in connection with its topographic surveys -of the Mount Rainier National Park, was able to make a new series of -measurements by triangulation methods at close range. These give the -peak an elevation of 14,408 feet, thus placing it near the top of the -list of high summits of the United States. This last figure, it should -be added, is not likely to be in error by more than a foot or two and -may with some confidence be regarded as final. Greater exactness of -determination is scarcely practicable in the case of Mount Rainier, as -its highest summit consists actually of a mound of snow the height of -which naturally varies somewhat with the seasons and from year to -year. - -This crowning snow mound, which was once supposed to be the highest -point in the United States, still bears the proud name of Columbia -Crest. It is essentially a huge snowdrift or snow dune, heaped up by -the westerly winds. Driving furiously up through the great breach in -the west flank of the mountain, between Peak Success and Liberty Cap, -they eddy lightly as they shoot over the summit and there deposit -their load of snow. - -The drift is situated at the point where the rims of the two summit -craters touch, and represents the only permanent snow mass on these -rims, for some of the internal heat of the volcano still remains and -suffices to keep these rock-crowned curving ridges bare of snow the -better part of the year. It is intense enough, even, to produce -numerous steam jets along the inner face of the rim of the east -crater, which appears to be the most recently formed of the two. The -center of this depression, however, is filled with snow, so that it -has the appearance of a shallow, white-floored bowl some 1,200 feet in -diameter. Great caverns are melted out by the steam jets under the -edges of the snow mass, and these caverns afford shelters which, -though uninviting, are not to be despised. They have proved a -blessing to more than one party that has found itself compelled to -remain overnight on the summit, saving them from death in the icy -gales. - -That Mount Rainier should still retain so much of its internal heat is -not surprising in view of the recency of its eruptions. It is known to -have been active at intervals during the last century, and actual -record exists of slight eruptions in 1843, 1854, 1858, and 1870. -Indian legends mention a great cataclysmal outburst at an earlier -period. - -At present the volcano may be regarded as dormant and no apprehension -need be felt as to the possibility of an early renewal of its -activity. The steam jets in the summit crater, it is true, as well as -the hot springs at the mountain's foot (Longmire Springs), attest the -continued presence of subterranean fires, but they are only feeble -evidences as compared with the geysers, the steam jets, and the hot -springs of the Yellowstone National Park. Yet that region is not -considered any less safe to visit because of the presence of these -thermal phenomena. - -In spite of Mount Rainier's continued activity until within the memory -of man its sides appear to have been snow clad for a considerable -length of time. Indeed, so intense and so long-continued has been the -eroding action of the ice that the cone is now deeply ice-scarred and -furrowed. Most of its outer layers, in fact, appear already to have -been stripped away. Here and there portions of them remain standing on -the mountain's flanks in the form of sharp-crested crags and ridges, -and from these one may roughly surmise the original dimensions of the -cone. Mere details in the volcano's sculpture, these residual masses -are, some of them, so tall that, were they standing among ordinary -mountains, they would be reckoned as great peaks. Particularly -noteworthy is Little Tahoma, a sharp, triangular tooth on the east -flank, that rises to an elevation of 11,117 feet. In its steep, -ice-carved walls one may trace ascending volcanic strata aggregating -2,000 feet in thickness that point upward to the place of their -origin, the former summit of the mountain, which rose almost half a -mile higher than the present top. - -Nor is the great crater rim left by the explosion that carried off the -original summit preserved in its entirety. Peak Success and Liberty -Cap are the only two promontories that give trustworthy indication of -its former height and strength. Probably they represent the more -massive portions on the southwest and northwest sides, respectively, -while the weaker portions to the east and south have long since -crumbled away under the heavy ice cascades that have been overriding -them for ages. Only a few small rocky points remain upon which the -snows split in their descent. The most prominent, as well as the most -interesting, is the one on the southeast side, popularly known as -Gibraltar Rock. Really a narrow, wedge-shaped mass, it appears in -profile like a massive, square-cut promontory. The trail to the summit -of the mountain passes along its overhanging south face and then -ascends by a precipitous chute between ice and rock. It is this part -of the ascent that is reputed as the most precarious and hazardous. - -From the rim points downward the ice cover of the cone divides into a -number of distinct stream-like tongues or glaciers, each sunk in a -great hollow pathway of its own. Between these ice-worn trenches the -uneroded portions of the cone stand out in high relief, forming as a -rule huge triangular "wedges," heading at the sharp rim points and -spreading thence downward to the mountain's base. There they assume -the aspect of more gently sloping, grassy table-lands, the charming -alpine meadows of which Paradise Park and Spray Park are the most -famous. Separating these upland parks are the profound ice-cut -canyons which, beyond the glacier ends, widen out into densely -forested valleys, each containing a swift-flowing river. No less than -a dozen of these ice-fed torrents radiate from the volcano in all -directions, while numerous lesser streams course from the snow fields -between the glaciers. - -Thus the cone of Mount Rainier is seen to be dissected from its summit -to its foot. Sculptured by its own glacier mantle, its slopes have -become diversified with a fretwork of ridges, peaks, and canyons. - -The first ice one meets on approaching the mountain from Longmire -Springs lies in the upper end of the Nisqually Valley. The wagon road, -which up to this point follows the west side of the valley, winding in -loops and curves along the heavily wooded mountain flank, here -ventures out upon the rough bowlder bed of the Nisqually River and -crosses the foaming torrent on a picturesque wooden bridge. A scant -thousand feet above this structure, blocking the valley to a height of -some 400 feet, looms a huge shapeless pile of what seems at first -sight only rock debris, gray and chocolate in color. It is the -dirt-stained end of one of the largest glaciers--the Nisqually. From a -yawning cave in its front issues the Nisqually stream, a river full -fledged from the start. - -The altitude here, it should be noted, is a trifle under 4,000 feet -(elevation of bridge is 3,960 feet); hence the ice in view lies more -than 10,000 feet below the summit of the mountain, the place of its -origin. And in this statement is strikingly summed up the whole nature -and economy of a glacier such as the Nisqually. - -A glacier is not a mere stationary blanket of snow and ice clinging -inert to the mountain flank. It is a slowly moving streamlike body -that descends by virtue of its own weight. The upper parts are -continually being replenished by fresh snowfalls, which at those high -altitudes do not entirely melt away in summer; while the lower end, -projecting as it does below the snow line, loses annually more by -melting than it receives by precipitation, and is maintained only by -the continued accession of masses from above. The rate at which the -ice advances has been determined by Prof. J. N. Le Conte, of the -University of California. In 1903 he placed a row of stakes across the -glacier, and with the aid of surveying instruments obtained accurate -measurements of the distances through which they moved from day to -day. He found that in summer, when the movement is greatest, it -averages 16 inches per day. This figure, however, applies only to the -central portion of the glacier--the main current, so to speak--for the -margins necessarily move more slowly, being retarded by friction -against the channel sides. - -The snout of the Nisqually Glacier, accordingly, is really composed of -slowly advancing ice, but so rapid is the melting at this low altitude -that it effectually counterbalances the advance, and thus the ice -front remains essentially stationary and apparently fixed in place. -Actually, it is subject to slight back and forward movements, -amounting to a foot or more per day; for, as one may readily imagine, -fluctuations in snowfall and in temperature, above or below the -normal, are ever likely to throw the balance one way or another. - -A glacier may also make periodic advances or retreats on a larger -scale in obedience to climatic changes extending over many years. Thus -all the glaciers on Mount Rainier, as well as many in other parts of -the world, are at present, and have been for some time, steadily -retreating as the result of milder climate or of a lessening in snow -supply. Only so recently as 1885 the Nisqually Glacier reached down to -the place now occupied by the bridge, and it is safe to say that at -that time no engineer would have had the daring to plan the road as it -is now laid. In the last 25 years, however, the Nisqually Glacier has -retreated fully 1,000 feet. - -Evidences of similar wholesale recession are to be observed at the -ends of the other glaciers of Mount Rainier, but the measure of their -retreat is not recorded with the precision that was possible in the -case of the Nisqually Glacier. Eyewitnesses still live at Longmire -Springs who can testify to the former extension of the Nisqually -Glacier down to the site of the wagon bridge. - -As one continues the ascent by the wagon road a partial view of the -glacier's lower course is obtained, and there is gained some idea of -its stream-like character. More satisfying are the views from Paradise -Park. Here several miles of the ice stream (its total length is nearly -5 miles) lie stretched out at one's feet, while looking up toward the -mountain one beholds the tributary ice fields and ice streams, -pouring, as it were, from above, from right and left, rent by -innumerable crevasses and resembling foaming cascades suddenly -crystallized in place. The turmoil of these upper branches may be too -confusing to be studied with profit, but the more placid lower course -presents a favorable field for observation, and a readily accessible -one at that. - -A veritable frozen river it seems, flowing between smooth, parallel -banks, half a mile apart. Its surface, in contrast to the glistening -ice cascades above, has the prevailingly somber tint of old ice, -relieved here and there by bright patches of last winter's snow. These -lie for the most part in gaping fissures or crevasses that run athwart -the glacier at short intervals and divide its body into narrow slices. -In the upper course, where the glacier overrides obstacles in its bed, -the crevasses are particularly numerous and irregularly spaced, -sometimes occurring in two sets intersecting at right angles, and -producing square-cut prisms. Farther down the ice stream's current is -more sluggish and the crevasses heal up by degrees, providing a united -surface, over which one may travel freely. - -Gradually, also, the glacier covers itself with debris. Angular rock -fragments, large and small, and quantities of dust, derived from the -rock walls bordering the ice stream higher up, litter its surface and -hide the color of the ice. At first only a narrow ridge of such -material--a moraine, as it is called--accompanies the ice river on -each side, resembling a sharp-crested embankment built by human hands -to restrain its floods; but toward the lower end of the glacier, as -the ice wastes away, the debris contained in it is released in masses, -and forms brown marginal bands, fringing the moraines. In fact, from -here on down it becomes difficult to tell where the ice of the glacier -ends at the sides and where the moraines begin. - -The lower part of the glacier also possesses a peculiar feature in the -form of a debris ridge about midway on its back--a medial moraine. -Most of the way it stretches like a slender, dark ribbon, gradually -narrowing upstream. One may trace it with the eye up to its point of -origin, the junction of the two main branches of the glacier, at the -foot of a sharp rock spur on the mountain's flank. - -In the last mile of the Nisqually's course, this medial moraine -develops from a mere dirt band to a conspicuous embankment, projecting -40 feet above the ice. Not the entire body of the ridge, however, is -made up of rock debris. The feature owes its elevation chiefly to the -protective influence of the debris layer on its surface, which is -thick enough to shield the ice beneath from the hot rays of the sun, -and greatly retards melting, while the adjoining unprotected ice -surfaces are rapidly reduced. - -A short distance above the glacier's terminus the medial moraine and -the ever-broadening marginal bands come together. No more clear ice -remains exposed, irregular mounds and ridges of debris cover the -entire surface of the glacier, and the moraine-smothered mass assumes -the peculiar inchoate appearance that is so striking upon first view. - -In utter contrast with the glacier's dying lower end are the bright -snow fields on the summit in which it commences its career. Hard by -the rock rim of the east summit crater the snows begin, enwrapping in -an even, immaculate layer the smooth sides of the cinder cone. Only a -few feet deep at first, they thicken downward by degrees, until, a -thousand feet below the crater, they possess sufficient depth and -weight to acquire movement. Occasional angular crevasses here -interrupt the slope and force the summit-bound traveler to make -wearying detours. - -Looking down into a gash of this sort one beholds nothing but clean -snow, piled in many layers. Only a faint blue tinges the crevasse -walls, darkening but slowly with the depth, in contrast to the intense -indigo hue characteristic of the partings in the lower course of the -glacier. There the material is a dense ice, more or less crystalline -in texture; here it is scarcely more than snow, but slightly compacted -and loosely granular--what is generally designated by the Swiss term -"neve." - -For several thousand feet down, as far as the 10,000-foot level, in -fact, does the snow retain this granular consistency. One reason for -the slowness with which it compacts is found in the low temperatures -that prevail at high altitudes and preclude any considerable melting. -The air itself seldom rises above the freezing point, even in the -middle of the day, and as a consequence the snow never becomes soft -and mushy, as it does at lower levels. - -When snow assumes the mushy, "wet-sugar" state, it is melting -internally as well as at its outer surface, owing both to the water -that soaks into it and to the warming of the air inclosed within its -innumerable tiny pores (which tiny air spaces, by the way, give the -snow its brilliant whiteness). Snow in this condition has, paradoxical -though it may sound, a temperature a few tenths of a degree higher -than the melting point--a fact recently established by delicate -temperature measurements made on European glaciers. It is this -singular fact, no doubt, that explains how so many minute organisms -are able to flourish and propagate in summer on the lower portions of -many glaciers. It may be of interest to digress here briefly in order -to speak of these little known though common forms of life. - -Several species of insects are among the regular inhabitants of -glaciers. Most of them belong to a very low order--the Springtails, or -_Thysanura_--and are so minute that in spite of their dark color they -escape the attention of most passers-by. If one looks closely, -however, they may readily be observed hopping about like miniature -fleas or wriggling deftly into the cavities of the snow. It seems to -incommode them but little if in their acrobatic jumps they -occasionally alight in a puddle or in a rill, for they are thickly -clad with furry scales that prevent them from getting wet--just as a -duck is kept dry by its greasy feathers. - -Especially plentiful on the lower parts of the Rainier glaciers, and -more readily recognized, are slender dark-brown worms of the genus -_Mesenchytraeus_, about 1 inch in length. Millions and millions of -them may be seen on favorable days in July and August writhing on the -surface of the ice, evidently breeding there and feeding on organic -matter blown upon the glacier in the form of dust. So essential to -their existence is the chill of the ice that they enter several -inches, and sometimes many feet below the surface on days when the sun -is particularly hot, reappearing late in the afternoon. - -Mention also deserves to be made of that microscopic plant -_Protococcus nivalis_, which is responsible for the mysterious pink or -light, rose-colored patches so often met with on glaciers--the "red -snow" of a former superstition. Each patch represents a colony or -culture comprising billions of individuals. It is probable that they -represent but a small fraction of the total microflora thriving on -the snow, the other species remaining invisible for lack of a -conspicuous color. - -To return to the frigid upper neves, it is not to be supposed that -they suffer no loss whatever by melting. The heat radiated directly to -them by the sun is alone capable of doing considerable damage, even -while the air remains below the freezing point. At these high -altitudes the sun heat is astonishingly intense, as more than one -uninitiated mountain climber has learned to his sorrow by neglecting -to take the customary precaution of blacking his face before making -the ascent. In a few hours the skin is literally scorched and begins -to blister painfully. - -At the foot of the mountain the sun heat is relatively feeble, for -much of it is absorbed by the dust and vapor in the lower layers of -the atmosphere, but on the summit, which projects 2 miles higher, the -air is thin and pure, and lets the rays pass through but little -diminished in strength. - -The manner in which the sun affects the snow is peculiar and -distinctive. Instead of reducing the surface evenly, it melts out many -close-set cups and hollows, a foot or more in diameter and separated -by sharp spires and crests. No water is visible anywhere, either in -rills or in pools, evaporation keeping pace with the reduction. If the -sun's action is permitted to continue uninterrupted for many days, as -may happen in a hot, dry summer, these snow cups deepen by degrees, -until at length they assume the aspect of gigantic bee cells, several -feet in depth. Snow fields thus honeycombed may be met with on the -slopes above Gibraltar Rock. They are wearisome to traverse, for the -ridges and spines are fairly resistant, so that one must laboriously -clamber over them. Most exasperating, however, is the going after a -snowstorm has filled the honeycombs. Then the traveler, waist deep in -mealy snow, is left to flounder haphazard through a hidden labyrinth. - -Of interest in this connection is the great snow cliff immediately -west of Gibraltar Rock. Viewed from the foot of that promontory, the -sky line of the snow castle fairly bristles with honeycomb spines; -while below, in the face of the snow cliff, dark, wavy lines, roughly -parallel to the upper surface, repeat its pattern in subdued form. -They represent the honeycombs of previous seasons, now buried under -many feet of snow, but still traceable by the dust that was imprisoned -with them. - -The snow cliff west of Gibraltar Rock is of interest also for other -reasons. It is the end of a great snow cascade that descends from the -rim of the old crater. Several such cascades may be seen on the south -side of the mountain, separated by craggy remnants of the crater rim. -Above them the summit neves stretch in continuous fields, but from the -rim on down, the volcano's slopes are too precipitous to permit a -gradual descent, and the neves break into wild cascades and falls. -Fully two to three thousand feet they tumble, assembling again in -compact, sluggish ice fields on the gentler slopes below. - -Of the three cascades that feed the Nisqually Glacier only the central -one, it is to be observed, forms a continuous connection between the -summit neves and the lower ice fields. The two others, viz. the one -next to Gibraltar and the westernmost of the three, terminate in -vertical cliffs, over great precipices of rock. From them snow masses -detach at intervals and produce thundering avalanches that bound far -out over the inclined ice fields below. Especially frequent are the -falls from the cliff near Gibraltar. They occur hourly at certain -times, but as a rule at periods of one or more days. - -From the westernmost cascade avalanches are small and rare. Indeed, as -one watches them take place at long intervals throughout a summer one -can not but begin to doubt whether they are in themselves really -sufficient to feed and maintain so extensive an ice field as lies -stretched out under them. Surely much more snow must annually melt -away from the broad surface of that field, exposed as it lies to the -midday sun, than the insignificant avalanches can replace. Were they -its only source of supply, the ice field, one feels confident, would -soon cease to exist. - -The fact is that the ice field in question is not dependent for its -support on the avalanches from above. It may receive some -contributions to its volume through them, but in reality it is an -independent ice body, nourished chiefly by direct snow precipitation -from the clouds. And this is true, in large measure, of all the ice -fields lying under the ice cascades. The Nisqually Glacier, -accordingly, is not to be regarded as composed merely of the cascading -neves, reunited and cemented together, but as taking a fresh start at -these lower levels. Improbable though this may seem at first, it is -nevertheless a fact that is readily explained. - -The winter snows on Mount Rainier are heaviest in the vicinity of its -base; indeed, the snowfall at those low levels is several times -greater than that on the summit. This in itself may seem anomalous. So -accustomed is one to think that the snowfall on high mountains -increases with the altitude that it seems strange to find a case in -which the opposite is true. Yet Mount Rainier stands by no means alone -in this regard. The Sierra Nevada and the Andes, the Himalayas and the -Alps, all show closely analogous conditions. - -In each of these lofty mountain regions the precipitation is known to -be heaviest at moderate altitudes, while higher up it decreases -markedly. The reason is that the storm clouds--the clouds that carry -most of the rain and snow--hang in a zone of only moderate elevation, -while higher up the atmosphere contains but little moisture and seldom -forms clouds of any great density. - -In the Rainier region the height of the storm clouds is in large -measure regulated by the relief of the Cascade Range; for it is really -this cooling mountain barrier that compels the moisture-laden winds -from the Pacific Ocean to condense and to discharge. It follows that -the storm clouds are seldom much elevated above the sky line of the -Cascade Mountains; they cling, so to speak, to its crest and ridges, -while the cone of Mount Rainier towers high above them into serener -skies. Many a day may one look down from the summit, or even from a -halfway point, such as Camp Muir (10,062 feet), upon the upper surface -of the clouds. Like a layer of fleecy cotton they appear, smothering -the lower mountains and enveloping the volcano's base. - -Clouds, it is true, are frequently seen gathering about the mountain's -crown, usually in the form of a circular cap or hood, precursor of a -general storm, but such clouds yield but very little snow. - -No accurate measurements have been made of the snowfall at the -mountain's foot, but in the Nisqually Valley, at Longmire Springs, the -winter snows are known often to exceed 20 feet in depth. The summer -heat at this low level (2,762 feet) is, of course, abundantly able to -remove all of it, at least by the end of May. But higher up every -thousand feet of elevation suffices to prolong appreciably the life of -the snowy cover. In Paradise Park, for instance, at altitudes between -5,000 and 6,000 feet, huge snowdrifts encumber the flowering meadows -until far into July. Above an altitude of 6,000 feet permanent drifts -and snow fields survive in certain favored spots, while at the -7,000-foot level the snow line, properly speaking, is reached. Above -this line considerable snow remains regularly from one winter to the -next, and extensive ice fields and glaciers exist even without -protection from the sun. - -It is between the 8,000 and 10,000 foot levels, however, that one -meets with the conditions most favorable for the development of -glaciers. Below this zone the summer heat largely offsets the heavy -precipitation, while above it the snowfall itself is relatively scant. -Within the belt the annual addition of snow to the ice fields is -greater than anywhere else on Mount Rainier. The result is manifest in -the arrangement and distribution of the glaciers on the cone. By far -the greater number originate in the vicinity of the 10,000-foot level, -while those ice streams which cascade from the summit, such as the -Nisqually, are in a sense reborn some 4,000 feet lower down. - -A striking example of an ice body nourished wholly by the snows -falling on the lower slope of Mount Rainier is the Paradise Glacier. -In no wise connected with the summit neves, it makes its start at an -elevation of less than 9,000 feet. Situated on the spreading slope -between the diverging canyons of the Nisqually on the west and of the -Cowlitz on the northeast, it constitutes a typical "interglacier," as -intermediate ice bodies of this kind are termed. - -Its appearance is that of a gently undulating ice field, crevassed -only toward its lower edge and remarkably clean throughout. No -debris-shedding cliffs rise anywhere along its borders, and this fact, -no doubt, largely explains its freedom from morainal accumulations. - -The absence of cliffs also implies a lack of protecting shade. -Practically the entire expanse of the glacier lies exposed to the full -glare of the sun. As a consequence its losses by melting are very -heavy, and a single hot summer may visibly diminish the glacier's -bulk. Nevertheless it seems to hold its own as well as any other -glacier on Mount Rainier, and this ability to recuperate finds its -explanation in the exceeding abundance of fresh snows that replenish -it every winter. - -The Paradise Glacier, however, is not the product wholly of direct -precipitation from the clouds. Much of its mass is supplied by the -wind, and accumulates in the lee of the high ridge to the west, over -which the route to Camp Muir and Gibraltar Rock is laid. The westerly -gales keep this ridge almost bare of snow, permitting only a few -drifts to lodge in sheltered depressions. But east of the ridge there -are great eddies in which the snow forms long, smooth slopes that -descend several hundred feet to the main body of the glacier. These -slopes are particularly inviting to tourists for the delightful -"glissades" which they afford. Sitting down on the hard snow at the -head of such a slope, one may indulge in an exhilarating glide of -amazing swiftness, landing at last safely on the level snows beneath. - -The generally smooth and united surface of the Paradise Glacier, it -may be added, contributes not a little to its attractiveness as a -field for alpine sports. On it one may roam at will without -apprehension of lurking peril; indeed one can journey across its -entire width, from Paradise Park to the Cowlitz Rocks, without -encountering a single dangerous fissure. This general absence of -crevasses is accounted for largely by the evenness of the glacier's -bed and by its hollow shape, owing to which the snows on all sides -press inward and compact the mass in the center. Only toward its -frontal margin, where the glacier plunges over an abrupt rock step, as -well as in the hump of that part known as Stevens Glacier, is the ice -rent by long crevasses and broken into narrow blades. Here it may be -wise for the inexperienced not to venture without a competent guide, -for the footing is apt to be treacherous, and jumping over crevasses -or crossing them by frail snow bridges are feats never accomplished -without risk. - -In the early part of summer the Paradise Glacier has the appearance of -a vast, unbroken snow field, blazing, immaculate, in the sun. But -later, as the fresh snows melt away from its surface, grayish patches -of old crystalline ice develop in places, more especially toward the -glacier's lower margin. Day by day these patches expand until, by the -end of August, most of the lower ice field has been stripped of its -brilliant mantle. Its countenance, once bright and serene, now assumes -a grim expression and becomes crisscrossed by a thousand seams, like -the visage of an aged man. - -Over this roughened surface trickle countless tiny rills which, -uniting, form swift rivulets and torrents, indeed veritable river -systems on a miniature scale that testify with eloquence to the -rapidity with which the sun consumes the snow. Strangely capricious in -course are these streamlets, for, while in the main gravitating with -the glacier's slope, they are ever likely to be caught and deflected -by the numerous seams in the ice. These seams, it should be explained, -are lines of former crevasses that have healed again under pressure in -the course of the glacier's slow descent. As a rule they inclose a -small amount of dirt, and owing to its presence are particularly -vulnerable to erosion. Along them the streamlets rapidly intrench -themselves--perhaps by virtue of their warmth, what little there is of -it, as much as by actual abrasion--and hollow out channels of a -freakish sort, here straight and canal-like, there making sharp zigzag -turns; again broadening into profound, canoe-shaped pools, or emptying -into deeper trenches by little sparkling cataracts, or passing under -tiny bridges and tunnels--a veritable toy land carved in ice. - -But unfortunately these pretty features are ephemeral, many of them -changing from day to day; for, evenings, as the lowering sun withdraws -its heat, the melting gradually comes to a halt, and the little -streams cease to flow. The soft babbling and gurgling and the often -exquisitely melodious tinkle of dripping water in hidden glacial wells -are hushed, and the silent frost proceeds to choke up passages and -channels, so that next day's waters have to seek new avenues. - -In the region where the new crevasses open the surface drainage comes -abruptly to an end. Here gaping chutes of deepest azure entrap the -torrents and the waters rush with musical thunder to the interior of -the glacier and finally down to its bed. - -At its lower border the Paradise Glacier splits into several lobes. -The westernmost sends forth the Paradise River, which, turning -southwestward, plunges over the Sluiskin Fall (named for the Klickitat -Indian who guided Van Trump and Hazard Stevens to the mountain in -1870, when they made the first successful ascent) and runs the length -of Paradise Valley. The middle lobe has become known as Stevens -Glacier (named for Hazard Stevens) and ends in Stevens Creek, a stream -which almost immediately drops over a precipice of some 600 feet--the -Fairy Falls--and winds southeastward through rugged Stevens Canyon. -The easternmost lobes, known collectively as Williwakas Glacier, send -forth two little cascades, which, uniting, form Williwakas Creek. This -stream is a tributary of the Cowlitz River, as is Stevens Creek. - -Immediately adjoining the Paradise Glacier on the northeast, and not -separated from it by any definite barrier, lies the Cowlitz Glacier, -one of the stateliest ice streams of Mount Rainier. It flows in a -southeasterly direction, and burrows its nose deeply into the -forest-covered hills at the mountain's foot. Its upper course consists -of two parallel-flowing ice streams, intrenched in profound troughs, -which they have enlarged laterally until now only a narrow, ragged -crest of rock remains between them, resembling a partition a thousand -feet in height. At the upper end of this crest stands Gibraltar Rock. - -At the point of confluence of the two branches there begins a long -medial moraine that stretches like a black tape the whole length of -the lower course. To judge by its position midway on the glacier's -back, the two tributaries must be very nearly equal in strength, yet, -when traced to their sources, they are found to originate in widely -different ways. The north branch, named Ingraham Glacier (after Maj. -E. S. Ingraham, one of Rainier's foremost pioneers), comes from the -neves on the summit; while the south branch heads in a pocket -immediately under Gibraltar. No snow comes to it from the summit; -hence we can not escape the conclusion that it receives through direct -precipitation and through wind drifting about as much snow as its -sister branch receives from the summit regions. Like the glacier -troughs below, the pocket appears to have widened laterally under the -influence of the ice, and is now separated from the Nisqually ice -fields to the west by only a narrow rock partition, the Cowlitz -Cleaver, as it is locally called. Up this narrow crest the route to -Gibraltar Rock ascends. The name "cleaver," it may be said in passing, -is most apt for the designation of a narrow rock crest of this sort, -and well deserves to be more generally used in the place of awkward -foreign terms, such as arrete and grat. - -Both branches of the Cowlitz Glacier cascade steeply immediately above -their confluence, but the lower glacier has a gentle gradient and a -fairly uneventful course. Like the lower Nisqually, it is bordered by -long morainal ridges, and toward its end acquires broad marginal dirt -bands. For nearly a mile these continue, leaving a gradually narrowing -lane of clear ice between them. Then they coalesce and the whole ice -body becomes strewn with rock debris. - -The Cowlitz Glacier, including its north branch, the Ingraham Glacier, -measures slightly over 6 miles in length. Throughout that distance the -ice stream lies sunk in a steep-walled canyon of its own carving. -Imposing cliffs of columnar basalt, ribbed as if draped in corduroy, -overlook its lower course. Slender waterfalls glide down their -precipitous fronts, like silver threads, guided by the basalt -flutings. - -From the end of the glacier issues the Muddy Fork of the Cowlitz -River, which, joining the Ohanapecosh, forms the Cowlitz River proper, -one of the largest streams of the Cascade Range. For nearly a hundred -miles the Cowlitz River follows a southwesterly course, finally -emptying in the Columbia River a short distance below Portland, -Oregon. - -The name Muddy Fork is a most apt one, for the stream leaves the -glacier heavily charged with debris and mud, and while it gradually -clears itself as it proceeds over its gravelly bed, it is still turbid -when it reaches the Ohanapecosh. That stream is relatively clear, for -it heads in a glacier of small extent and little eroding power, and -consequently begins its career with but a moderate load; furthermore -it receives on its long circuitous course a number of tributaries from -the Cascade Range, all of them containing clear water. - -The name Muddy, however, might with equal appropriateness be given to -every one of the streams flowing from the ice fields of Mount Rainier. -So easily disintegrated are the volcanic materials of which that peak -is composed, that the glaciers are enabled to erode with great -rapidity, even in their present shrunken state. They consequently -deliver to the streams vast quantities of debris, much of it in the -form of cobbles and bowlders, but much of it also in the form of "rock -flour." - -A considerable proportion of a glacier's erosional work is performed -by abrasion or grinding, its bed being scoured and grooved by the rock -blocks and smaller debris held by the passing ice. As a result glacier -streams ordinarily carry much finely comminuted rock, or rock flour, -and this, because of its fineness, remains long in suspension and -imparts to the water a distinctive color. In regions of light-colored -rocks the glacier streams have a characteristic milky hue, which, as -it fades out, passes over into a delicate turquoise tint. But the -lavas of Mount Rainier produce for the most part dark-hued flour, and -as a consequence the rivers coming from that peak are dyed a somber -chocolate brown. - -A word may not be out of place here about the sharp daily fluctuations -of the ice-fed rivers of the Mount Rainier National Park, especially -in view of the difficulties these streams present to crossing. There -are fully a score of turbulent rivers radiating from the peak, and as -a consequence one can not journey far through the park without being -obliged to cross one of them. On all the permanent trails substantial -bridges obviate the difficulty, but in the less developed portions of -the park, fording is still the only method available. It is well to -bear in mind that these rivers, being nourished by melting snow, -differ greatly in habit from streams in countries where glaciers are -absent. Generally speaking, they are highest in summer and lowest in -winter; also, since their flow is intimately dependent upon the -quantity of snow being melted at a given time, it follows that in -summer when the sun reaches its greatest power they swell daily to a -prodigious volume, reaching a maximum in the afternoon, while during -the night and early morning hours they again ebb to a relatively -moderate size. In the forenoon of a warm summer day one may watch them -grow hourly in volume and in violence, until toward the middle of the -day they become raging torrents of liquid mud in which heavy cobbles -and even bowlders may be heard booming as they roll before the -current. It would be nothing short of folly to attempt to ford under -these conditions, whether on horseback or on foot. In the evening, -however, and still better, in the early morning, one may cross with -safety; the streams then have the appearance of mere mountain brooks -wandering harmlessly over broad bowlder beds. - -High above the Ingraham Glacier towers that sharp, residual mass of -lava strata known as Little Tahoma (11,117 feet), the highest -outstanding eminence on the flank of Mount Rainier. It forms a -gigantic "wedge" that divides the Ingraham from the Emmons Glacier to -the north. So extensive is this wedge that it carries on its back -several large ice fields and interglaciers, some of which, lying far -from the beaten path of the tourist, are as yet unnamed. Separating -them from each other are various attenuated, pinnacled crests, all of -them subordinate to a main backbone that runs eastward some 6 miles -and terminates in the Cowlitz Chimneys (7,607 feet), a group of tall -rock towers that dominate the landscape on the east side of Mount -Rainier. - -Most of the ice fields, naturally, lie on the shady north slope of the -main backbone; in fact, a series of them extends as far east as the -Cowlitz Chimneys. One of the lesser crests, however, that running -southeastward to the upland region known as Cowlitz Park, also gives -protection to an ice body of some magnitude, the Ohanapecosh Glacier. -Considerably broader than it is long in the direction of its flow, -this glacier lies on a high shelf a mile and a half across, whence it -cascades down into the head of a walled-in canyon. Formerly, no doubt, -it more than filled this canyon, but now it sends down only a shrunken -lobe. The stream that issues from it, the Ohanapecosh River, is really -the main prong and head of the Cowlitz River. - -The largest and most elevated of the ice fields east of Little Tahoma -is known for its peculiar shape as Fryingpan Glacier. It covers fully -3 square miles of ground and constitutes the most extensive and most -beautiful interglacier on Mount Rainier. It originates in the hollow -east side of Little Tahoma itself and descends rapidly northward, -overlooking the great Emmons Glacier and finally reaching down almost -to its level. It is not a long time since the two ice bodies were -confluent. - -The eastern portion of the Fryingpan Glacier drains northeastward and -sends forth several cascading torrents which, uniting with others -coming from the lesser ice fields to the east, form the Fryingpan -River, a brisk stream that joins White River several miles farther -north. - -Below the Fryingpan Glacier there lies a region of charming -flower-dotted meadows named Summerland, a most attractive spot for -camping. - -Cloaking almost the entire east side of Mount Rainier is the Emmons -Glacier, the most extensive ice stream on the peak (named after Samuel -F. Emmons, the geologist and mountaineer who was the second to conquer -the peak in 1870). About 5-1/2 miles long and 1-3/4 miles wide in its -upper half, it covers almost 8 square miles of territory. It makes a -continuous descent from the summit to the base, the rim of the old -crater having almost completely broken down under its heavy neve -cascades. But two small remnants of the rim still protrude through the -ice and divide it into three cascades. From each of these dark rock -islands trails a long medial moraine that extends in an -ever-broadening band down to the foot of the glacier. - -Conspicuous lateral moraines accompany the ice stream on each side. -There are several parallel ridges of this sort, disposed in successive -tiers above each other on the valley sides. Most impressively do they -attest the extent of the Emmons Glacier's recent shrinking. The -youngest moraine, fresh looking as if deposited only yesterday, lies -but 50 feet above the glacier's surface and a scant 100 feet distant -from its edge; the older ridges, subdued in outline, and already -tinged with verdure, lie several hundred feet higher on the slope. - -The Emmons Glacier, like the Nisqually and the Cowlitz, becomes -densely littered with morainal debris at its lower end, maintaining, -however, for a considerable distance a central lane of clear ice. The -stream which it sends forth, White River, is the largest of all the -ice-fed streams radiating from the peak. It flows northward and then -turns in a northwesterly direction, emptying finally in Puget Sound -at the city of Seattle. - -On the northeast side of the mountain, descending from the same high -neves as the Emmons Glacier, is the Winthrop Glacier. Not until -halfway down, at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, does it detach -itself as a separate ice stream. The division takes place at the apex -of that great triangular interspace so aptly named "the Wedge." Upon -its sharp cliff edge, Steamboat Prow, the descending neves part, it -has been said, like swift-flowing waters upon the dividing bow of a -ship at anchor. The simile is an excellent one; even the long foam -crest, rising along the ship's side, is represented by a wave of ice. - -Undoubtedly the Wedge formerly headed much higher up on the mountain's -flank. Perhaps it extended upward in the form of a long, attenuated -"cleaver." It is easy to see how the ice masses impinging upon it have -reduced it to successively lower levels. They are still unrelentingly -at work. It is on the back of the Wedge, it may be added here, that is -situated that small ice body which Maj. Ingraham named the -"Interglacier." That name has since been applied in a generic sense to -all similar ice bodies lying on the backs of "wedges." - -Of greatest interest on the Winthrop Glacier are the ice cascades and -domes. Evidently the glacier's bed is a very uneven one, giving rise -to falls and pools, such as one observes in a turbulent trout stream. -The cascades explain themselves readily enough, but the domes require -a word of interpretation. They are underlain by rounded bosses of -especially resistant rock. Over these the ice is lifted, much as is -the water of a swift mountain torrent over submerged bowlders. -Immediately above each obstruction the ice appears compact and free -from crevasses, but as it reaches the top and begins to pour over it -breaks, and a network of intersecting cracks divides it into erect, -angular blocks and fantastic obelisks. Below each dome there is, as a -rule, a deep hollow partly inclosed by trailing ice ridges, analogous -to the whirling eddy that occurs normally below a bowlder in a brook. -Thus does a glacier simulate a stream of water even in its minor -details. - -The domes of the Winthrop Glacier measure 50 to 60 feet in height. A -sample of the kind of obstruction that produces them appears, as if -specially provided to satisfy human curiosity, near the terminus of -the glacier. There one may see, close to the west wall of the -troughlike bed, a projecting rock mass, rounded and smoothly polished, -over which the glacier rode but a short time ago. - -Another feature of interest sometimes met with on the Winthrop -Glacier, and for that matter also on the other ice streams of Mount -Rainier, are the "glacier tables." These consist of slabs of rock -mounted each on a pedestal of snow and producing the effect of huge -toadstools. The slabs are always of large size, while the pedestals -vary from a few inches to several feet in height. - -The origin of the rocks may be traced to cliffs of incoherent volcanic -materials that disintegrate under the frequent alternations of frost -and thaw and send down periodic rock avalanches, the larger fragments -of which bound out far upon the glacier's surface. - -The snow immediately under these large fragments is effectually -protected from the sun and does not melt, while the surrounding snow, -being unprotected, is constantly wasting away, often at the rate of -several inches per day. Thus in time each rock is left poised on a -column of its own conserving. There is, however, a limit to the height -which such a column can attain, for as soon as it begins to exceed a -certain height the protecting shadow of the capping stone no longer -reaches down to the base of the pedestal and the slanting rays of the -sun soon undermine it. More commonly, however, the south side of the -column becomes softened both by heat transmitted from the sun-warmed -south edge of the stone, as well as by heat reflected from the -surrounding glacier surface, and as a consequence the table begins to -tilt. On very hot days, in fact, the inclination of the table keeps -pace with the progress of the sun, much after the manner of a -sun-loving flower, the slant being to the southeast in the forenoon -and to the southwest in the afternoon. As the snow pillar increases in -height it becomes more and more exposed and the tilting is -accentuated, until at last the rock slides down. - -In its new position the slab at once begins to generate a new -pedestal, from which in due time it again slides down, and so the -process may be repeated several times in the course of a single -summer, the rock shifting its location by successive slips an -appreciable distance across the glacier in a southerly direction. - -As has been stated, the slabs on glacier tables are always of large -size. This is not a fortuitous circumstance; rocks under a certain -size, and especially fragments of little thickness, cannot produce -pedestals; in fact, far from conserving the snow under them, they -accelerate its melting and sink below the surface. This is especially -true of dark-colored rocks. Objects of dark color, as is well known to -physicists, have a faculty for absorbing heat, whereas light-colored -objects, especially white ones, reflect it best. Dark-colored -fragments of rock lying on a glacier, accordingly, warm rapidly at -their upper surface and, if thin, forthwith transmit their heat to the -snow under them, causing it to melt much faster than the surrounding -clean snow, which, because of its very whiteness, reflects a large -percentage of the heat it receives from the sun. As a consequence each -small rock fragment and even each separate dust particle on a glacier -melts out a tiny well of its own, as a rule not vertically downward -but at a slight inclination in the direction of the noonday sun. And -thus, in some localities, one may behold the apparently incongruous -spectacle of large and heavy rocks supported on snow pillars alongside -of little fragments that have sunk into the ice. - -There is also a limit to the depth which the little wells may attain; -as they deepen, the rock fragment at the bottom receives the sun heat -each day for a progressively shorter period, until at last it receives -so little that its rate of sinking becomes less than that of the -melting glacier surface. Nevertheless it will be clear that the -presence of scattered rock debris on a glacier must greatly augment -the rate of melting, as it fairly honeycombs the ice and increases the -number of melting surfaces. Wherever the debris is dense, on the other -hand, and accumulates on the glacier in a heavy layer, its effect -becomes a protective one and surface melting is retarded instead of -accelerated. The dirt-covered lower ends of the glaciers of Mount -Rainier are thus to be regarded as in a measure preserved by the -debris that cloaks them; their life is greatly prolonged by the -unsightly garment. - -In many ways the most interesting of all the ice streams on Mount -Rainier is the Carbon Glacier, the great ice river on the north side, -which flows between those two charming natural gardens, Moraine Park -and Spray Park. The third glacier in point of length, it heads, -curiously, not on the summit, but in a profound, walled-in -amphitheater, inset low into the mountain's flank. This amphitheater -is what is technically known as a glacial cirque, a horseshoe-shaped -basin elaborated by the ice from a deep gash that existed originally -in the volcano's side. It has the distinction of being the largest of -all the ice-sculptured cirques on Mount Rainier, and one of the -grandest in the world. It measures more than a mile and a half in -diameter, while its head wall towers a sheer 3,600 feet. So well -proportioned is the great hollow, however, and so simple are its -outlines that the eye finds difficulty in correctly estimating the -dimensions. Not until an avalanche breaks from the 300-foot neve cliff -above and hurls itself over the precipice with crashing thunder, does -one begin to realize the depth of the colossal recess. The falling -snow mass is several seconds in descending, and though weighing -hundreds of tons, seemingly floats down with the leisureliness of a -feather. - -These avalanches were once believed to be the authors of the cirque. -They were thought to have worn back the head wall little by little, -even as a waterfall causes the cliff under it to recede. But the real -manner in which glacial cirques evolve is better understood to-day. It -is now known that cirques are produced primarily by the eroding action -of the ice masses embedded in them. Slowly creeping forward, these ice -masses, shod as they are with debris derived from the encircling -cliffs, scour and scoop out their hollow sites, and enlarge and deepen -them by degrees. Seconding this work is the rock-splitting action of -water freezing in the interstices of the rock walls. This process is -particularly effective in the great cleft at the glacier's head, -between ice and cliff. This abyss is periodically filled with fresh -snows, which freeze to the rock; then, as the glacier moves away, it -tears or plucks out the frost-split fragments from the wall. Thus the -latter is continually being undercut. The overhanging portions fall -down, as decomposition lessens their cohesion, and so the entire cliff -recedes. - -A glacier, accordingly, may be said, literally, to gnaw headward into -the mountain. But, as it does so, it also attacks the cliffs that -flank it, and as a consequence, the depression in which it lies tends -to widen and to become semicircular in plan. In its greatest -perfection a glacial cirque is horseshoe-shaped in outline. The Carbon -Glacier's amphitheater, it will be noticed, consists really of two -twin cirques, separated by an angular buttress. But this projection, -which is the remnant of a formerly long spur dividing the original -cavity, is fast being eliminated by the undermining process, so that -in time the head wall will describe a smooth, uninterrupted horseshoe -curve. - -In its headward growth the Carbon Glacier, as one may readily observe -on the map, has encroached considerably upon the summit platform of -the mountain, the massive northwest portion of the crater rim of which -Liberty Cap is the highest point. In so doing it has made great -inroads upon the neve fields that send down the avalanches, and has -reduced this source of supply. On the other hand, by deploying -laterally, the glacier has succeeded in capturing part of the neves -formerly tributary to the ice fields to the west, and has made good -some of the losses due to its headward cutting. But, after all, these -are events of relatively slight importance in the glacier's career; -for like the lower ice fields of the Nisqually, and like most glaciers -on the lower slopes of the mountain, the Carbon Glacier is not wholly -dependent upon the summit neves for its supply of ice. The avalanches, -imposing though they are, contribute but a minor portion of its total -bulk. Most of its mass is derived directly from the low hanging snow -clouds, or is blown into the cirque by eddying winds. How abundantly -capable these agents are to create large ice bodies at low altitudes -is convincingly demonstrated by the extensive neve fields immediately -west of the Carbon Glacier, for which the name Russell Glacier has -recently been proposed. It is to be noted, however, that these ice -fields lie spread out on shelves fairly exposed to sun and wind. How -much better adapted for the accumulation of snow is the Carbon -Glacier's amphitheater! Not only does it constitute an admirably -designed catchment basin for wind-blown snow, but an effective -conserver of the neves collecting in it. Opening to the north only, -its encircling cliffs thoroughly shield the contained ice mass from -the sun. By its very form, moreover, it tends to prolong the -glacier's life, for the latter lies compactly in the hollow with a -relatively small surface exposed to melting. The cirque, therefore, is -at once the product of the glacier and its generator and conserver. - -Of the lower course of the Carbon Glacier little need here be said, as -it does not differ materially from the lower courses of the glaciers -already described. It may be mentioned, however, that toward its -terminus the glacier makes a steep descent and develops a series of -parallel medial moraines and that it reaches down to an elevation of -3,365 feet, almost 600 feet lower than any other ice stream on Mount -Rainier. A beautiful cave usually forms at the point of exit of the -Carbon River. - -West of the profound canyon of the Carbon River, there rises a craggy -range which the Indians have named the Mother Mountains. From its -narrow backbone one looks down on either side into broadly open, -semicircular valley heads. Some drain northward to the Carbon River, -some southward to the Mowich River. Encircling them run attenuated -rock partitions, surmounted by low, angular peaks; while cutting -across their stairwise descending floors are precipitous steps of -rock, a hundred feet in height. On the treads lie scattered shallow -lakelets, strung together by little silvery brooks trickling in -capricious courses. - -Most impressive is the basin that lies immediately under the west end -of the range. Smoothly rounded like a bowl, it holds in its center an -almost circular lake of vivid emerald hue--that mysterious body of -water known as Crater Lake. Let it be said at once that this -appellation is an unfortunate misnomer. The basin is not of volcanic -origin. It lies in lava and other volcanic rocks, to be sure, but -these are merely spreading layers of the cone of Mount Rainier. Ice is -the agent responsible for the carving of the hollow. It was once the -cradle of a glacier, and that ice mass, gnawing headward and deploying -even as the Carbon Glacier does to-day, enlarged its site into a -horseshoe basin, a typical glacial cirque. The lake in the center is a -strictly normal feature; many glacial cirques possess such bowls, -scooped out by the eroding ice masses from the weaker portions of the -rock floor; only it is seldom that such features acquire the symmetry -of form exhibited by Crater Lake. The lakelets observed in the -neighboring valley heads--all of which are abandoned cirques--are of -similar origin. - -As for the skeleton character of the dividing crests, it will be -readily seen to be the outcome of the headward gnawing of opposing -cirques. In some places, even, the deploying process has attenuated -the ridges sufficiently to break them through. West of Crater Lake is -an instance of a crest that has thus been breached. - -It is a significant fact that the empty cirques about the Mother -Mountains lie at elevations ranging between 4,500 and 6,000 feet; that -is, on an average 5,000 feet lower than the cirques on Mount Rainier -which now produce glaciers. Evidently the snow line in glacial times -lay at a much lower level than it does to-day, and the ice mantle of -Mount Rainier expanded not merely by the forward lengthening of its -ice tongues but by the birth of numerous new glaciers about the -mountain's foot. The large size of the empty cirques and canyons, -moreover, leads one to infer that many of these new glaciers far -exceeded in volume the ice streams descending the volcano's sides. The -latter, it is true, increased considerably in thickness during glacial -times, but not in proportion to the growth of the low-level glaciers. -Nor is this surprising in view of the heavy snow falls occurring on -the mountain's lower slopes. There is good reason to believe, -moreover, that the cool glacial climate resulted in a general lowering -of the zone of heaviest snowfall. It probably was depressed to levels -between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Not only the cirque glaciers about the -Mother Mountains, but all the neighboring ice streams of the glacial -epoch originated within this zone, as is indicated by the altitudes of -the cirques throughout the adjoining portions of the Cascade Range. By -their confluence these ice bodies produced a great system of glaciers -that filled all the valleys of this mountain belt and even protruded -beyond its western front. - -To these extensive valley glaciers the ice flows of Mount Rainier -stood in the relation of mere tributaries. They descended from regions -of rather scant snowfall, for the peak in those days of frigid climate -rose some 10,000 feet above the zone of heaviest snowfall, into -atmospheric strata of relative dryness. It may well be, indeed, that -it carried then but little more snow upon its summit than it does -to-day. - -The North Mowich Glacier is the northernmost of the series of ice -bodies on the west flank of Mount Rainier. Like the Carbon Glacier, it -heads in a cirque at the base of the Liberty Cap massif, fed by direct -snow precipitation, by wind drifting, and by avalanches. The cirque is -small and shallow, not as capacious even as either of the twin -recesses in the Carbon Glacier's amphitheater. As a consequence the -ice stream issuing from it is of only moderate volume; nevertheless it -attains a length of 3-3/4 miles. This is due in part to the heavy -snows that reenforce it throughout its middle course and in part to -overflows from the ice fields bordering it on the south. These ice -fields, almost extensive enough to be considered a distinct glacier, -are separated from the North Mowich Glacier only by a row of -pinnacles, the remnants evidently of a narrow rock partition or -"cleaver," now demolished by the ice. The lowest and most prominent of -the rock spires bears the appropriate name of "The Needle" (7,587 -feet). - -The debris-covered lower end of the glacier splits into two short -lobes on a rounded boss in the middle of the channel. This boss, but a -short time ago, was overridden by the glacier and then undoubtedly -gave rise to an ice dome of the kind so numerous farther up on the -North Mowich Glacier and also characteristic of the Winthrop Glacier. - -Separated from the ice fields of the North Mowich Glacier by a great -triangular ice field (named Edmunds Glacier) lies the South Mowich -Glacier, also a cirque-born ice stream, heading against the base of -the Liberty Cap massif. It is the shortest of the western glaciers, -measuring only a scant 3 miles. Aside from the snows accumulating in -its ill-shaped cirque it receives strong reenforcements from its -neighbor to the south--the Puyallup Glacier. - -Toward its lower end it splits into two unequal lobes, the -southernmost of which is by far the longer. Sharp cut rock wedges -beyond its front show that when the glacier extended farther down it -split again and again. - -The north lobe is of interest because the stream that cascades from -the Edmunds Glacier runs for a considerable distance under it. In the -near future the lobe is likely to recede sufficiently to enable the -torrent to pass unhindered by its front. - -What especially distinguishes the Puyallup Glacier from its neighbors -to the north is the great elevation of its cirque. The Carbon, North -Mowich, and South Mowich Glaciers all head at levels of about 10,000 -feet. The amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier, on the contrary, opens -a full 2,000 feet higher up. Encircled by a great vertical wall that -cuts into the Liberty Cap platform from the south, it has evidently -developed through glacial sapping from a hollow of volcanic origin. -From this great reservoir the Puyallup Glacier descends by a rather -narrow chute. Then it expands again to a width of three-fourths of a -mile and sends a portion of its volume to the South Mowich Glacier. In -spite of this loss it continues to expand, reaching a maximum width -of a mile and a total length of 4 miles. No doubt this is accounted -for by the heavy snowfalls that replenish it throughout its course. - -Its lower end consists of a tortuous ice lobe that describes a -beautiful curve, flanked on the north by a vertical lava cliff. A -lesser lobe splits off to the south on a wedge of rock. - -Immediately south of the elevated amphitheater of the Puyallup Glacier -the crater rim of the volcano is breached for a distance of half a -mile. Through this gap tumbles a voluminous cascade from the neve -fields about the summit, and this cascade, reenforced by a flow from -the Puyallup cirque, forms the great Tahoma Glacier, the most -impressive ice stream on the southwest side. Separated from its -northern neighbor by a rock cleaver of remarkable length and -straightness, it flows in a direct course for a distance of 5 miles. -Its surface, more than a mile broad in places, is diversified by -countless ice falls and cataracts. - -A mere row of isolated pinnacles indicates its eastern border, and -across the gaps in this row its neves coalesce with those of the South -Tahoma Glacier. Farther down the two ice streams abruptly part company -and flow in wide detours around a cliff-girt, castellated rock -mass--Glacier Island it has been named. The Tahoma Glacier, about a -mile above its terminus, spits upon a low, verdant wedge and sends a -lobe southward which skirts the walls of this island rock, and at its -base meets again the South Tahoma Glacier. From here on the two ice -streams merge and form a single densely debris-laden mass, so chaotic -in appearance that one would scarcely take it for a glacier. Numerous -rivulets course over its dark surface only to disappear in mysterious -holes and clefts. Profound, circular kettles filled with muddy water -often develop on it during the summer months, and after a brief -existence empty themselves again by subglacial passages or by a newly -formed crevasse. So abundant is the rock debris released by melting -that the wind at times whips it up into veritable dust storms. - -Beautifully regular moraines accompany the ice mass on both sides, -giving clear evidence of its recent shrinking. - -The partner of the Tahoma Glacier, known as the South Tahoma Glacier, -heads in a profound cirque sculptured in the flanks of the great -buttress that culminates in Peak Success (14,150 feet). It is -interesting chiefly as an example of a cirque-born glacier, nourished -almost exclusively by direct snowfalls from the clouds and by eddying -winds. In spite of its position, exposed to the midday sun, it attains -a length of nearly 4 miles, a fact which impressively attests the -ampleness of its ice supply. - -In glacial times the glacier had a much greater volume and rose high -enough to override the south half of Glacier Island, as is clearly -shown by the glacial grooves and the scattered ice-worn bowlders on -that eminence. As the glacier shrank it continued for some time to -send a lobe through the gulch in the middle of the island. Even now a -portion of this lobe remains, but it no longer connects with the -Tahoma Glacier. - -An excellent nearby view of the lower cascades of the South Tahoma -Glacier may be had from the ice-scarred rock platform west of Pyramid -Rock. From that point, as well as from the other heights of [Indian] -Henrys Hunting Ground, one may enjoy a panorama of ice and rock such -as is seen in only few places on this continent. - -East of the South Tahoma Glacier, heading against a great cleaver that -descends from Peak Success, lies a triangular ice field, or -interglacier, named Pyramid Glacier. It covers a fairly smooth, gently -sloping platform underlain by a heavy lava bed, and breaking off at -its lower edge in precipitous, columnar cliffs. Into this platform a -profound but narrow box canyon has been incised by an ice stream -descending from the summit neves east of Peak Success. This is the -Kautz Glacier, an ice stream peculiar for its exceeding slenderness. -On the map it presents almost a worm-like appearance, heightened -perhaps by its strongly sinuous course. In spite of its meager width, -which averages about 1,000 feet, the ice stream attains a length of -almost 4 miles and descends to an altitude of 4,800 feet. This no -doubt is to be attributed in large measure to the protecting influence -of the box canyon. - -It receives one tributary of importance, the Success Glacier, which -heads in a cirque against the flanks of Peak Success. This ice stream -supplies probably one-third of the total bulk of the Kautz Glacier, as -one may infer from the position of the medial moraine that develops at -the point of confluence. In the lower course of the glacier this -medial moraine grows in width and height until it assumes the -proportions of a massive ridge, occupying about one-third of the -breadth of the ice stream's surface. - -A singularly fascinating spectacle is that which the moraine-covered -lower end of the glacier presents from the heights of Van Trump Park. -A full 1,000 feet down one looks upon the ice stream as it curves -around a sharp bend in its canyon. - -A short distance below the glacier's terminus, the canyon contracts -abruptly to a gorge only 300 feet in width. So resistant is the -columnar basalt in this locality that the ice has been unable to hew -out a wider passage. Not its entire volume, however, was squeezed -through the narrow portal; there is abundant evidence showing that in -glacial times when the ice stream was more voluminous it overrode the -rock buttresses on the west side of the gorge. - -The name of P. B. Van Trump, the hardy pioneer climber of Mount -Rainier, has been attached to the interglacier situated between the -Kautz and the Nisqually Glaciers. This ice body lies on the uneven -surface of an extensive wedge that tapers upward to a sharp point--one -of the remnants of the old crater rim. A number of small ice fields -are distributed on this wedge, each ensconced in a hollow inclosed -more or less completely by low ridges. By gradually deploying each of -these ice bodies has enlarged its site, and thus the dividing ridges -have been converted into slender rock walls or cleavers. In many -places they have even been completely consumed and the ice fields -coalesce. The Van Trump Glacier is the most extensive of these -composite ice fields. The rapid melting which it has suffered in the -last decades, however, has gone far toward dismembering it; already -several small ice strips are threatening to become separated from the -main body. - -In glacial times the Van Trump Glacier sent forth at least six lobes, -most of which converged farther down in the narrow valleys traversing -the attractive alpine region now known as Van Trump Park. This upland -park owes its scenic charm largely to its manifold glacial features -and is diversified by cirques, canyons, lakelets, moraines, and -waterfalls. - -In the foregoing descriptions the endeavor has been to make clear how -widely the glaciers of Mount Rainier differ in character, in -situation, and in size. They are not to be conceived as mere ice -tongues radiating down the slopes of the volcano from an ice cap on -its crown. There is no ice cap, properly speaking, and there has -perhaps never been one at any time in the mountain's history, not even -during the glacial epochs. - -Several of the main ice streams head in the neves gathering about the -summit craters, but a larger number originate in profound -amphitheaters carved in the mountain's flanks, at levels fully 4,000 -feet below the summit. In the general distribution of the glaciers the -low temperatures prevailing at high altitudes have, of course, been a -controlling factor; nevertheless in many instances their influence has -been outbalanced by topographic features favoring local snow -accumulation and by the heavy snowfalls occurring on the lower -slopes. - - - - - [Illustration: GEORGE OTIS SMITH.] - -XV. THE ROCKS OF MOUNT RAINIER - -BY GEORGE OTIS SMITH - - - Director George Otis Smith of the United States Geological - Survey was born at Hodgdon, Maine, on February 22, 1871. He - graduated from Colby College in 1893 and obtained his Doctor - of Philosophy degree from Johns Hopkins University in 1896. - He had begun his geological work in 1893 and from 1896 to - 1907 he was assistant geologist and geologist of the United - States Geological Survey. Since 1907 he has been director of - that important branch of the Government work. - - He had been studying the rocks of Mount Rainier before he - joined Professor Russell in the explorations of 1896. The - record of those studies was published at the same time as - Professor Russell's report in the Eighteenth Annual Report of - the United States Geological Survey for 1896-1897. With his - permission the record is here reproduced in full. So far as - is known to the present editor it is the most complete study - yet published on the rocks of Mount Rainier. - -The earliest geological observations on the structure of Mount Rainier -were made in 1870 by S. F. Emmons, of the Geological Exploration of -the Fortieth Parallel. The rock specimens collected at this time were -studied later by Messrs. Hague and Iddings, of the United States -Geological Survey.[27] This petrographical study showed that "Mount -Rainier is formed almost wholly of hypersthene andesite, with -different conditions of groundmass and accompanied by hornblende and -olivine in places." The only other petrographical study of these -volcanics is that of Mr. K. Oebbeke, of Munich,[28] upon a small -collection made on Mount Rainier by Professor Zittel in 1883. - -On the reconnaissance trips on the northern and eastern slopes of -Mount Rainier, during the seasons of 1895 and 1896, the writer had -opportunity to make some general observations on the rocks of this -mountain, and the petrographical material then collected has since -been studied. The observations and collections were of necessity -limited, both by the reconnaissance character of the examination and -by the mantle of snow and ice which covers so large a part of this -volcanic cone. - -Two classes of rock are to be discussed as occurring on Mount Rainier: -the lavas and pyroclastics which compose the volcanic cone and the -granitic rocks forming the platform upon which the volcano was built -up. - - -VOLCANIC ROCKS - -GEOLOGIC RELATIONS - -On Crater Peak a dark line of rock appears above the snow, and here -the outer slope of the crater rim is found to be covered with blocks -of lava. A black, loose-textured andesite is most abundant, and from -its occurrence on the edge of this well-defined crater may be regarded -as representing the later eruptions of Rainier. Lower down on the -slopes of the mountain opportunities for the study of the structure of -the volcanic cone are found in the bold rock masses that mark the -apexes of the interglacial areas. Examples of these are Little Tahoma, -Gibraltar, Cathedral Rock, the Wedge, and the Guardian Rocks. These -remnants of the old surface of the cone, together with the cliffs that -bound the lower courses of the glaciers, exhibit the structural -relations very well. - -Even when viewed from a distance these cliffs and peaks are seen to be -composed of bedded material. Projecting ledges interrupt the talus -slopes and express differences of hardness in the several beds, while -variations in color also indicate separate lava flows and agglomeratic -deposits. Gibraltar is thus seen to be composed of interbedded lavas -and pyroclastics, and on the Wedge a similar alternation is several -times repeated, a pink agglomerate being exceptionally striking in -appearance. - -These lava flows and beds of volcanic ejectamenta thus exposed dip -away from the summit at a low angle. The steepest dip observed was in -the amphitheater at the head of Carbon Glacier, where in the dividing -spur the dip to the northeast is about 30 deg. Some exceptions in the -inclination of the beds were noted on the southeastern slope, where in -a few cases the layers are horizontal, or even dip toward the central -axis of the cone. In general, however, the volcanics composing Mount -Rainier may be said to dip away from the summit at an angle somewhat -lower than that of the slopes of the present cone. In the outlying -ridges to the north, the Mother Range, Crescent Mountain, and the -Sluiskin Mountains, the structure seems to be that of interbedded -volcanics approximately horizontal. The extent of the volcanics from -the center of eruption has not been determined. Similar lava extends -to the south, beyond the Tattoosh Range, and volcanics of similar -composition occur to the north, in the Tacoma quadrangle. The latter -lavas and tuffs may have originated from smaller and less important -cones, now destroyed by erosion. - -A radial dike was observed at only one locality, near the base of -Little Tahoma. In several cases the lava masses, as seen in cross -section, are lens-shaped, and where associated with fragmental beds -have unconformable relations. This shows that some of the lava flows -took the form of streams, relatively narrow, rather than of broad -sheets. Such a feature is in accord with the distribution of rock -types. Thus along Ptarmigan Ridge for considerable vertical and -horizontal range the rock shows only slight variation. The -distribution of rock types will be more fully discussed in a later -paragraph. - -Of how large a part of the lava flows the crater still remaining was -the point of origin is a question to be answered only after more -detailed observation has been made. The best section for the study of -the succession of flows and ejectamenta is the amphitheater at the -head of the Carbon Glacier. The 4,000 feet of rock in this bold wall -would afford an excellent opportunity for this were it not that -frequent avalanches preclude the possibility of geologic study except -at long range. - -MEGASCOPIC CHARACTERS - -The volcanic rocks of Rainier are of varying color and texture. Dense -black rocks with abundant phenocrysts of glassy feldspars, rough and -coarse lavas of different tints of pink, red, and purple, and compact -light-gray rocks are some of the types represented upon the slopes of -this volcanic cone. In color, the majority of the rocks may be grouped -together as light gray to dark gray. The black and red lavas are less -common. In texture, the Rainier lavas are, for the most part, compact. -Slaggy and scoriaceous phases are common, but probably represent only -a small part of the different flows. Near the Guardian Rocks large -masses of ropy lava are found which suggest ejected bombs. -Agglomeratic and tuffaceous rocks are of quite common occurrence, -although less important than the lavas. Vesicular lavas occur at -several localities, and fragments of a light-olive pumice, many as -large as a foot in diameter, wholly cover some of the long, gentle -slopes southeast of Little Tahoma and in Moraine Park. - -Contraction parting or jointing is often observed, being especially -characteristic of the basaltic types. The platy parting is the more -common, but the columnar or prismatic parting is well exhibited at -several localities. The black basaltic lava east of Cowlitz Glacier -shows the latter structure in a striking manner. The blocks resemble -pigs of iron in size and shape, and where exposed in a vertical cliff -these seem to be piled in various positions. - -The rocks on the higher slopes of Mount Rainier are in general very -fresh in appearance. An exception may be noted in the case of the -rocks at the base of Little Tahoma, where some alteration is evident. -The bright coloring of the surfaces of the lava blocks and the general -appearance of the face of the cliff may indicate fumarole action at -this point. There is also some decomposition along the inner edge of -the crater rim, near the steam vents. On the lower slopes, some -distance below the snow line, the freshness of the rock is not a -noticeable feature, and it is seen that here weathering is of the -nature of chemical decomposition as well as of mechanical -disintegration. - -MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS - -Microscopically these lavas show more uniformity than is apparent -megascopically. Rocks which in color and texture appear quite diverse -are found to be mineralogical equivalents. The majority of these rocks -are andesites, the hypersthene-andesites predominating, as was shown -by Hague and Iddings; but over large areas the andesites are decidedly -basaltic, and, indeed, many of the lavas are basalts. The megascopic -differences are mostly referable to groundmass characters, the color -of the rock being dependent upon the color and proportion of glassy -base present. Therefore the degree of crystallization of groundmass -constituents is of more importance in determining the megascopic -appearance than is the mineralogical composition, and the basaltic -lavas are for the most part light gray in color, while the more acid -hypersthene-andesites are often black or red. - -In petrographic character the lavas range from hypersthene-andesite to -basalt. This variation is dependent upon the ferromagnesian -silicates, and four rock types are represented--hypersthene-andesite, -pyroxene-andesite, augite-andesite, and basalt--any of which may carry -small amounts of hornblende. A rigid separation of these rock types, -however, is impossible, since insensible gradations connect the most -acid with the most basic. In the same flow hypersthene-andesite may -occur in one portion, while in close proximity the lava is an -augite-andesite. - -These lavas have groundmass textures that vary from almost -holo-crystalline to glassy. The felted or hyalopilitic texture is the -most common, and plagioclase is the principal groundmass constituent. -The feldspars are lath-shaped, often with castellated terminations. In -the more basic phases anhedrons of augite and of olivine appear, and -magnetite grains are usually present. Flowage is often beautifully -expressed by the arrangement of the slender laths of feldspar. - -Among the phenocrysts feldspar is the most prominent. It has the usual -twinning characteristic of plagioclase and belongs to the -andesine-labradorite series, extinction angles proving basic andesine -and acid labradorite to be the most common. Zonal structure is -characteristic, being noticeable even without the use of polarized -light. Zonal arrangement of glass inclusions testifies to the -vicissitudes of crystallization, and often the core of a feldspar -phenocryst is seen to have suffered corrosion by the magma and -subsequently to have been repaired with a zone of feldspar more acid -in composition. - -Of the darker phenocrysts, the pyroxenes are more abundant than the -olivine or hornblende. Hypersthene and augite occur alone or together, -and are readily distinguished by their different crystallographic -habits as well as by their optical properties. The hypersthene is -usually more perfectly idiomorphic and occurs in long prisms, with the -pinacoidal planes best developed, while the augite is in stout -prisms, usually twinned. Both are light colored, and the pleochroism -of the hypersthene is sometimes quite faint. According to the relative -importance of these two pyroxenes, the lavas belong to different -types, hypersthene-andesite, pyroxene-andesite, or augite-andesite. - -Olivine occurs in certain of the Rainier lavas, in stout prisms -somewhat rounded and often with reddened borders. The usual -association with apatite and magnetite crystals is noted. The olivine -varies much in relative abundance, so as to be considered now an -accessory and now an essential constituent, and in the latter case the -rock is a basalt. - -Hornblende is not abundant in any of the rocks studied, although -typical hornblende-andesite has been described among the specimens -collected by Professor Zittel. Where it occurs it is in brown -crystals, which have usually suffered magmatic alteration. In one -case, where this alteration is less marked, the idiomorphic hornblende -is found to inclose a crystal of labradorite, and thus must have been -one of the latest phenocrysts to crystallize. It also surrounds -olivine in this same rock,[29] which is a hypersthene-andesite, the -hornblende and olivine being only accessory. - -The different textures of these lavas are doubtless expressive -primarily of diversity in the physical conditions of consolidation, -but also in part of variations in chemical composition. The variations -in mineralogical composition are likewise referable to these two -factors, but here the latter is the more important. The -hypersthene-augite olivine variation, already referred to, doubtless -well expresses the chemical composition of the magma, and deserves to -be taken as the chief criterion in the classification of the lavas. As -was noted by Hague and Iddings, the hypersthene and olivine play a -like role, the former occurring when the silica percentage is somewhat -higher than in basalt. It is exceptional to find the two in the same -specimen, the one being absent whenever the other is present. The -following analysis[30] of the typical hypersthene-andesite from Crater -Peak shows the lava to be a comparatively acid andesite: - -ANALYSIS OF HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE FROM CRATER PEAK, MOUNT RAINIER - - PER CENT. - SiO_{2} 61.62 - Al_{2}O_{3} 16.86 - FeO 6.61 - CaO 6.57 - MgO 2.17 - Na_{2}O 3.93 - K_{2}O 1.66 - ----- - 99.42 - -An analysis[31] of one of the light-gray, olivine-bearing rocks on the -northern slope of the mountain gives a silica percentage of 54.86, and -is doubtless representative of the more basic of the Rainier lavas. - -The sporadic occurrence of hornblende in these andesites is -principally the result of physical conditions rather than of chemical -composition. The magmatic alteration of the phenocrysts of hornblende -affords evidence of this variation in consolidation conditions, a -diminution of pressure with continuance of slow cooling giving rise to -the magmatic alteration of the hornblende. That this change took place -during the later stages of consolidation is shown by the relative age -of the hornblende, noted above, and also by the fact that in one case -a phenocryst of augite, where it abuts against the hornblende, has -protected the latter from this alteration. The alteration is in part -pseudomorphic, the hornblende retaining its characteristic outlines, -but often there has been resorption. In one andesite the abundance of -these remnants of hornblende and also of augite anhedrons in the -groundmass may justify the conclusion that this augite andesite is of -derivative origin, of the class described by Washington.[32] It may be -noted also that hypersthene shows a tendency to magmatic alteration, -although only rarely. - -In a basal flow in Moraine Park, the slaggy and compact phases show -differences in phenocrysts as well as in groundmass. The glassy rock -has hypersthene as the predominant phenocryst, while feldspar is the -more important in the compact and more crystalline andesite. - -The distribution of the rock types described above is of interest. On -the northern slope of the mountain, between Willis and Carbon -glaciers, the characteristic lava is a gray andesite, smooth to rough -in texture, and showing platy and columnar parting. Hypersthene is not -the prevailing pyroxene, and olivine is usually present, often in such -abundance as to make the rock a basalt. - -In Moraine Park gray andesites also predominate, with both pyroxenes -as phenocrysts, but here hypersthene is the more important. On the -eastern slope on the Wedge, between Winthrop and Emmons glaciers, the -lavas are pyroxene-andesites and vary much in megascopic appearance, -although little in microscopic characters. These rocks are quite -distinct from any seen to the north. The nunatak in Emmons Glacier is -composed of hypersthene-andesite, but on Little Tahoma the lava shows -more variety. Both augite-andesite and hypersthene-andesite occur, -while at the southern end of this interglacial rock mass, just east of -Cowlitz Glacier, the cliffs are composed of the prismatic black -basalt. On Crater Peak, and below on Gibraltar, hypersthene andesite -occurs with considerable variation of color and texture. On the spurs -west of Nisqually Glacier the andesites contain both pyroxenes, the -augite being somewhat the more important. - -The distribution of the volcanic rocks, as determined in the study of -reconnaissance collections, indicates that the cone has been built up -by eruptions of lava and of fragmental material. The successive lava -streams were doubtless of considerable thickness, but were limited in -lateral extent. The beds of fragmental material are of the nature of -flow breccias and of coarse agglomerates on the higher slopes, while -tuffs occur at a greater distance from the center of eruption. This -composite cone appears to be remarkably free from radial dikes, which -may indicate that the volcanic energy was expended chiefly at the -crater. The variation in rock types on different sides of the volcanic -cone may be evidence of changes in position of the center of eruption. -The destruction of an earlier crater and the eccentric position of a -later would give rise to such a radial distribution of lavas as has -been described above. - - -GRANITE - -OCCURRENCE - -The presence of an acid holocrystalline rock on the slopes of Mount -Rainier was first reported by Lieutenant Kautz in 1857, from whose -accounts Dr. George Gibbs was led to announce the occurrence of -granite as a dike in recent lavas.[33] Emmons in 1870 observed a cliff -of "beautiful white syenitic granite" rising above the foot of -Nisqually Glacier and correctly interpreted the geologic relations. In -1895, on a reconnaissance trip, the writer identified granite among -the bowlders composing the lateral moraines of Carbon Glacier, as -well as on the surface of the glacier itself, and in the following -season bowlders of granite were found to be plentiful in the river bed -at the foot of this glacier. This anomaly of granite bowlders coming -from a volcanic peak was also noted in the canyon of the Nisqually by -Emmons. - -In the somewhat more careful study of the Mount Rainier rocks, search -was made and the granite was found in place at several points on the -northeastern slope. A biotite-hornblende-granite was observed on -Carbon River at the mouth of Canada Creek, about 12 miles from the -summit of Mount Rainier, and at Chenuis Falls, 2 miles up the river, a -finer grained holocrystalline rock occurs, apparently an aplitic phase -of the granite. In the lower portion of Carbon Glacier, near its -eastern edge, a nunatak of granite can be seen, while the same rock -occurs farther to the east, beyond the older of the lateral moraines. -Higher on the slopes of Rainier a more marked ridge of granite was -traced. A knob rises above the eastern moraine of Carbon Glacier at an -altitude of between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, and the more prominent -features to the east in Moraine Park also owe their survival to the -greater erosion-resisting power of the granite. - -PETROGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION - -These granites have few features worthy of special mention. Hornblende -and biotite are the ferromagnesian constituents and vary much in -relative importance. The variations from hornblende-granite to -biotite-granite occur in the same knob or ridge, and considering all -occurrences the two varieties seem to be of equal development. There -is also some variation in the amount of quartz present, and in the -relative importance of the orthoclase and plagioclase. All of these -characters are also found in the granites of the Northern Cascades. - -RELATION TO THE VOLCANIC ROCKS - -Along the side of the knob overlooking Carbon Glacier the granite as -seen from a distance appears to be intrusive. Blocks of andesite cover -the slope, deposited there by the glacier at a time when it possessed -greater lateral extent, and the granite talus from above crosses this -same slope in a narrow band. The relations prove less deceptive on -close examination, and the granite is seen to constitute an older -ridge. Farther along this ridge, at the cliffs on the north-eastern -edge of Moraine Park, the granitic rock is found over-lain by the -lava. The actual contact of the two rocks is concealed by soil filling -the crevice left by disintegration along the contact plane. The -granite, however, exhibits no intrusive characters, while the -overlying andesite becomes scoriaceous in its lower portion, although -compact immediately above. This contact is on the southern side of the -granite ridge, the crest of which is approximately east-west. This -position of the lava contact considerably below the highest occurrence -of the granite indicates that the topographic features of this old -granite ridge were even more marked at the time of the eruption of the -lavas and the building of the volcanic cone. Above this ridge of -granite on the one side tower the cliffs of bedded volcanics which -compose the Sluiskin Mountains, and on the other is the andesite ridge -bounding the canyon of Winthrop Glacier. Thus Mount Rainier, although -a volcanic peak, rests upon an elevated platform of granite which is -exposed by erosion at a few points on the slopes of the mountain. - - -SUMMARY - -The volcanic rocks of Mount Rainier include both lavas and -pyroclastics. The breccias, agglomerates, and tuffs, although of -striking appearance, are, perhaps, less important elements in the -construction of the composite cone. - -The lavas vary much in color and texture, but these megascopic -differences are referable rather to the degree of crystallization of -the magma than to its chemical character. The variation in the chemical -composition of the lavas expresses itself in mineralogical differences, -and thus four rock types are distinguished--hypersthene-andesite, -pyroxene-andesite, augite-andesite, and basalt. The distribution of -these types indicates a radial arrangement of lava streams, and -hypersthene-andesite is the more abundant variety of lava. - -Granite is exposed on the slopes of Rainier where erosion has cut away -the overlying lava, and it is plain that the volcanic cone rests upon -an elevated platform of older rock, approximately 8,000 feet above sea -level. - - - - - [Illustration: _Copyright by Harris & Ewing, Washington, D. C._ - PROFESSOR CHARLES VANCOUVER PIPER] - -XVI. THE FLORA OF MOUNT RAINIER - -BY PROFESSOR CHARLES V. PIPER - - - Charles Vancouver Piper was born on Vancouver Island, at - Victoria, British Columbia, on June 16, 1867. He graduated - from the University of Washington in 1885 and since then has - received degrees and honors from other institutions and - learned societies. He was professor of botany and zoology at - the Washington Agricultural College (now State College of - Washington) from 1892 to 1903. He has been agrostologist in - charge of forage crop investigations for the Bureau of Plant - Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, since - 1903. - - He has discovered many new forms of plant life and has - published many monographs and books in the field of botany. - This account of the flora of Mount Rainier was first - published in The Mazama (Portland, Oregon) in two articles, - one in Volume II, Number 2 (April, 1901), and the other in - Volume II, Number 4 (December, 1905). They are reproduced - with the consent of the editor of The Mazama, and Professor - Piper has revised and amplified them for this purpose. - -Up to an elevation of 4,000 feet or more the flanks of Mount Rainier -are clothed in a continuous belt of somber forest, broken only where -glaciers and their nascent streams have hewn pathways, or where, alas, -fire has left desolate slopes marked here and there by the whitened, -weather-worn shaft of some old tree, a dreary monument to its -destroyed fellows. This forest is composed in its lower reaches -largely of Douglas spruce. Scattered through it in smaller quantities -one finds Lovely fir, Western white pine, Western hemlock, a few -Engelmann spruces, and on the stream banks cedar and yew, and now and -then a little cottonwood. - -At about the 3,500-foot level the character of the forest changes. The -Western hemlock gives way to the larger-coned Black hemlock; the -Douglas spruce and Lovely fir are replaced by the Noble fir; and the -ragged-barked Alaska cedar greets the eye. Another thousand feet and -the Subalpine fir replaces its two near relatives. From this point -upward, the forest, now composed only of Black hemlock, Alaska cedar -and Subalpine fir, to which in some places the White-bark pine must be -added, is confined largely to the crests of ridges and straggles up -the mountain in irregular broken lines. Between these timbered ridges -extensive grassy slopes appear, veritable flower gardens when in their -glory. - -At 6,500 feet elevation the timber ceases to be. Scraggly prostrate -firs and hemlocks, sprawling as it were on the earth for shelter, mark -sharply the limit of their endurance. Here, too, the continuous carpet -of grass and flowers ceases--and a soil of volcanic sand or powdered -pumice supports a very different vegetation. At 10,000 feet the -toughest mountaineer of all the flowering plants, _Smelowskia ovalis_, -still appears. Far above this, however, even to the crater's rim, -lichens trace their hieroglyphics on the rocks; and on the -steam-warmed rocks of the crater two mosses find lodgment, _Hypnum -elegans_ Hooker?, and _Philonotis fontana_ Bridel, the latter even in -fruit. - -Few plants grow in the dense shades of the lower forests, and these -are mainly ericaceous. Most plentiful are _Vaccinium ovalifolium_, _V. -macrophyllum_, _Gaultheria ovatifolia_, _Menziesia ferruginea_, -_Pachystima myrsinites_, _Cornus canadensis_ and _Clintonia uniflora_. -Here, too, occur several weird-looking whitish or reddish saprophytes, -_Monotropa hypopitys_, _Pterospora andromedea_, and _Corallorhiza -mertensiana_. - -On the drier portions of the grassy slopes _Lupinus subalpinus_, -_Castilleja oreopola_, _Potentilla flabellifolia_, _Pulsatilla -occidentalis_, _Erigeron salsuginosus_, _Polygonum bistortoides_, -_Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Cassiope mertensiana_ and _Vaccinium -deliciosum_ are the most attractive plants. Where the ground is -springy _Veratrum viride_ occurs in great clumps and _Dodecatheon -jeffreyi_, _Caltha leptosepala_ and _Ranunculus suksdorfii_ are -plentiful. - -In the shelter of the Alpine trees _Rhododendron albiflorum_, _Ribes -howellii_ and _Arnica latifolia_ flourish. Along the rills _Gentiana -calycosa_, _Arnica chamissonis_ and _Mimulus lewisii_ form banks of -color. On the cliffs _Chelone nemorosa_, _Spiraea densiflora_, -_Polemonium humile_ and _Castilleja rupicola_ are perhaps most -conspicuous. - -Above the limit of trees, in what have been called "pumice fields," a -characteristic series of plants appears. This belt ranges in altitude -from 6,500 to 10,000 feet. It is best developed on the east side of -the mountain, where the avalanches from Little Tahoma have covered -great areas with more or less finely divided basalt. Conspicuous -plants of this region are _Lupinus lyallii_, _Spraguea multiceps_, -_Polemonium elegans_, _Hulsea nana_, _Erigeron aureus_, _Oreostemma -alpigena_, _Polygonum newberryi_, _Poa suksdorfii_, _Draba aureola_ -and _Smelowskia ovalis_. The last three ascend to above Camp Muir, -altitude 10,000 feet. - -The first botanist to visit Mount Rainier was Dr. William F. Tolmie, -surgeon of the Hudson's Bay Company, who reached the mountain in 1833. -He made considerable collections, which were sent to Sir William -Hooker. Among Tolmie's plants were several not previously known. - -The writer collected on the mountain in 1888 and again in 1889 and -1895. Since then the following botanists have made collections on -Mount Rainier: Rev. E. C. Smith, in 1889 and 1890; Dr. E. L. Greene, -in 1889; Mr. J. B. Flett in 1895, 1896 and since; Mr. M. W. Gorman in -1897; and Mr. O. D. Allen from 1895 to about 1905. - -Most of the work done thus far has been in Paradise Park and its -immediate vicinity. Next to this, the flora of Spray Park is best -known. The east slopes of the peak have been partially explored, but -to the knowledge of the writer no botanist has ever yet collected on -the west slopes. - -The list of plants here given numbers 315 species. In preparing it, -Longmire Springs, altitude 2,850 feet, has been selected as the -lowermost limit on the south side of the mountain, and Crater Lake, -altitude about 3,500 feet, as the limit on the north side. It is quite -certain that a considerable number of lowland plants will have to be -added to the list here given, and it is possible that a few have been -included that will have to be dropped, as the exact place of -collection of some species is not clearly indicated on the labels of -the specimens. Unless otherwise stated, the notes are based on the -writer's observations and specimens, and refer mainly to the Paradise -Park region. - -There yet remains much to be done in the study of the Mount Rainier -flora. A particularly interesting phase of it lies in the matter of -altitudinal distribution of the various species. - -No attempt is here made to list the plants lower than the ferns. The -writer has made considerable collections of the fungi, liverworts and -mosses; and Mr. O. D. Allen has also collected the mosses. These -plants should receive a larger amount of attention from botanists who -visit the mountain in the future. - -The following plants were first described from specimens obtained on -Mount Rainier: - - =Petasites nivalis= Greene. - =Luina piperi= Robinson. - =Prenanthes stricta= Greene. - =Oreostemma alpigena= (Torrey & Gray) Greene. - =Aster amplifolius= Greene. - =Arnica aspera= Greene. - =Castilleja rupicola= Piper. - =Mimulus caespitosus= Greene. - =Veronica allenii= Greenman. - =Pedicularis ornithorhyncha= Bentham. - =Pedicularis contorta= Bentham. - =Pentstemon tolmiei= Hooker. - =Pentstemon newberryi rupicola= Piper. - =Gentiana calycosa= Grisebach. - =Gentiana calycosa stricta= Grisebach. - =Hydrophyllum congestum= Wiegand. - =Polemonium elegans= Greene. - =Polemonium bicolor= Greenman. - =Dodecatheon crenatum= Greene. - =Vaccinium deliciosum= Piper. - =Ligusticum purpureum= Coulter & Rose. - =Hesperogenia stricklandi= Coulter & Rose. - =Lupinus volcanicus= Greene. - =Stellaria washingtoniana= Robinson. - =Potentilla flabellifolia= Hooker. - =Luzula arcuata major= Hooker. - =Sitanion rigidum= J. G. Smith. - =Sitanion rubescens= Piper. - =Poa saxatilis= Scribner & Williams. - -The type specimens of _Saxifraga tolmiei_ were collected by Tolmie on -the "N. W. Coast." It is altogether probable that he got them on Mount -Rainier, where the plant is so abundant. - - -LIST OF SPECIES - -=COMPOSITAE.= (Aster Family.) - -=Scorzonella borealis= (Bongard) Greene. - -A plant much resembling a dandelion, occurring on the north side of -the mountain. - -=Troximon alpestre= Gray. - -A plant much resembling the dandelion, frequent on the grassy slopes -at 5,500 feet altitude. - -=Troximon aurantiacum= Hooker. - -This species has entire mostly basal leaves, and bears a single head -of orange or purple flowers. Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet. - -=Troximon glaucum asperum= (Rydberg) Piper. (_Agoseris leontodon -asperum_ Rydberg.) - -A species with large lemon-yellow flowers and hoary pubescent leaves. -It occurs in the pumice and lava at 7,500 feet altitude and is quite -abundant near the base of Little Tahoma. - -=Hieracium albiflorum= Hooker. - -A tall plant with hairy entire leaves and a rather ample corymb of -white flowers. Essentially a lowland plant, but occurring up to 5,500 -feet altitude, especially in burnt ground. - -=Hieracium gracile= Hooker. - -A small hawkweed with yellow flowers in black hairy involucres. A -common plant at 5,500 to 6,500 feet altitude. - -=Cirsium edule= Nuttall. - -Plentiful on the ridges of Moraine Park at the limit of trees. Also -reported by Gorman as occurring in open woods near the timber line in -Cowlitz canyon. This thistle is abundant at the sea level, and the -roots were formerly a favorite food of the Indians. - -=Saussurea americana= D. C. Eaton. - -A peculiar plant with leafy stems, two to four feet high, bearing a -dense cluster of elongate rayless heads of purple flowers. Found only -on the high ridge north of the foot of Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Senecio ochraceus= Piper. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 230. - -=Senecio triangularis= Hooker. - -A tall species with triangular coarsely dentate leaves and numerous -rather small heads of yellow flowers. Abundant in the marsh at -Longmire Springs and in wet places on the mountain slopes up to 6,000 -feet altitude. - -=Senecio ductoris= Piper. - -A low species with thickish crenate leaves and deep yellow heads. -Found only on the moraine on the south side of Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Senecio flettii= Wiegand. - -Found near Cowlitz Chimneys by Miss Winona Bailey, in 1915; previously -known only from the Olympic Mountains. - -=Arnica latifolia= Bongard. - -A smooth cordate leaved plant with one to five heads, resembling small -sunflowers. Not uncommon up to 6,000 feet altitude, especially in the -shelter of timber. - -=Arnica mollis= Hooker. - -Similar to the preceding, but the leaves oblong, nearly entire, and -viscid glandular. Abundant along the rivulets, 4,000 to 6,000 feet -altitude. - -=Arnica aspera= Greene. - -Described from specimens collected in Spray Park. It is very similar -to _A. mollis_ Hooker, but the pubescence is coarser. - -=Arnica eradiata= (Gray) Heller. - -Closely related to the preceding but easily recognized by its rayless -heads. It occurs on the steep slopes above Sluiskin Falls. - -=Luina hypoleuca= Bentham. - -A beautiful suffruticose plant, six to twelve inches high, with -entire oval leaves shining green above and white tomentose beneath. It -was originally discovered by Dr. Lyall, of the International Boundary -Survey, in the Cascade Mountains at the 49th parallel. It is not -uncommon about Mount Rainier, occurring on perpendicular cliffs along -the Cowlitz Glacier; in similar places on the banks of the Nisqually -at Longmire Springs; and on the gravel bars of the same river. The -flowers are cream-colored. - -=Rainiera stricta= Greene. - (_Prenanthes stricta_ Greene.) - (_Luina piperi_ Robinson.) - (_Luina stricta_ Robinson.) - -A tall plant with large oblong entire leaves and a long raceme of -yellowish, rayless heads. Professor Greene makes it the type of a new -genus _Rainiera_, while Dr. Robinson refers it to _Luina_. The plant -has been collected in Spray Park by Professor Greene; on the Goat -Mountains, Allen; near Mount Adams, Henderson; head of Naches River, -Vasey; and on the high ridge northeast of the foot of Cowlitz Glacier -by the writer. The statement that the plant has milky juice is an -error. - -=Petasites speciosa= (Nuttall) Piper. - (_Nardosmia speciosa_ Nuttall.) - -Abundant along streams up to 3,000 feet altitude. Easily recognized by -its large palmate leaves, which frequently measure a foot or more in -diameter. The flowers appear very early in spring with the leaves and -have an odor suggesting violets. This species is clearly distinct from -the Eastern _P. palmata_ (Aiton) Gray and was long ago well -characterized by Nuttall. - -=Petasites frigida= (Linnaeus) Fries. - (_Petasites nivalis_ Greene). - -Common along rivulets 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. Resembling the -preceding species, but much smaller and with quite different leaves. - -=Achillea lanulosa= Nuttall. - -An Alpine form of the common Western yarrow. Not rare in the decayed -lava at 6,000 to 7,000 feet altitude. - -=Hulsea nana= Gray. - -A sticky plant with pinnatifid leaves and large yellow heads. -Plentiful on the east side of the mountain near the base of Little -Tahoma in the pumice fields. This seems to be the northernmost limit -of the plant. - -=Anaphalis margaritacea occidentalis= Greene. - -The well-known "Everlasting Flower," which occurs in dry or burnt -woods up to 4,000 feet altitude. - -=Antennaria media= Greene. - -A small depressed cudweed, only an inch or two high. Common at 6,000 -feet altitude. - -=Antennaria lanata= (Hooker) Greene. - -Like the preceding but larger and more hairy. Grassy slopes at 6,000 -feet. Common. - -=Antennaria racemosa= Hooker. - -Collected by Allen in the "upper valley of the Nisqually." A much -larger and greener plant than the preceding species. - -=Erigeron salsuginosus= (Richardson) Gray. - -The common pink aster or "daisy" of the grassy slopes. One of the most -conspicuous plants at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude, but even ascending -to 7,000 feet in a much dwarfed form. - -=Erigeron acris debilis= Gray. - -An insignificant white-flowered species, rare at about 7,500 feet -altitude. - -=Erigeron compositus trifidus= (Hooker) Gray. - -A small pinkish aster, with the leaves cut into linear lobes. Growing -in decayed lava at 7,500 feet altitude. - -=Erigeron speciosus= De Candolle. - -A handsome species with entire ciliate leaves and rather numerous -heads, with deep violet rays. Collected by Allen in the Goat -Mountains, No. 222. - -=Erigeron aureus= Greene. - (_Aplopappus brandegei_ Gray.) - -A beautiful little aster with bright golden rays, the solitary heads -on scapes two or three inches tall. Abundant in the pumice, -7,500-8,000 feet altitude. - -=Aster ledophyllus= Gray. - -A tall species with leafy stems, and numerous middle-sized heads with -pink-purple rays. The leaves are entire, pubescent on the under side. -Not uncommon on the grassy slopes at 5,000 feet altitude. - -=Aster foliaceus frondeus= Gray. - (_Aster amplifolius_ Greene.) - -A species with broad half-clasping leaves and deep-violet-colored -rays. Professor Greene's type came from Mount Rainier, but his species -seems not to differ from the plant earlier described by Dr. Gray. - -=Oreostemma alpigena= (Torrey & Gray) Greene. - (_Aster pulchellus_ D. C. Eaton.) - -A low plant with narrow tufted leaves, the scapes bearing one or -rarely two large heads. The rays are deep violet. The plant is common -in the pumice fields at 7,000-8,000 feet altitude, but, strange to -say, also occurs on the borders of small lakes at the foot of Pinnacle -Peak at 4,500 feet elevation. In exposed places at high altitudes the -leaves are often curiously twisted. It was originally described from -the specimen collected on Mount Rainier by Tolmie. - -=Solidago algida= Piper. - -A small goldenrod, two to twelve inches tall, occurring ordinarily on -the faces of perpendicular cliffs at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. - -=Artemisia borealis wormskioldii= Besser. - -A silky canescent wormwood about one foot high, its leaves pinnate; -found on the north side of the mountain by Flett. - -=Artemisia richardsoniana= Besser. - -In the Synoptical Flora, Vol. II, p. 371, this species is stated to -have been collected on Mount Rainier by Tolmie. On the sheet in the -Gray Herbarium Dr. Gray has indicated that this is an error, the -specimens having really been collected in the Rocky Mountains by -Burke. - - -=CAMPANULACEAE.= (Bellflower Family.) - -=Campanula rotundifolia= Linnaeus. - -This charming and familiar blue bell is abundant on the cliffs near -the foot of Cowlitz Glacier. - - -=VALERIANACEAE.= (Valerian Family.) - -=Valeriana sitchensis= Bongard. - -An abundant plant at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. The leaves are -pinnately compound, the rather large leaflets repandly dentate. The -flowers are whitish, usually pink tinged. Like other species, this -valerian has a decidedly unpleasant odor, that is difficult to compare -with any other. To the writer the odor is always associated with -mountain meadows, doubtless because it so frequently predominates in -such places. - - -=RUBIACEAE.= (Madder Family.) - -=Galium triflorum= Michaux. - -A very common species of bedstraw which ascends on the lower slopes of -the mountain. - -=Galium oreganum= Britton. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 296. - - -=SCROPHULARIACEAE.= (Figwort Family.) - -=Chelone nemorosa= Douglas. - -A handsome plant with opposite serrate leaves and corymbs of -purple-red flowers somewhat like those of the foxglove. Dry cliffs and -slopes at 5,000 feet altitude. Also reported by Gorman as occurring at -Longmire Springs. - -=Pentstemon confertus= Douglas. - -A species with entire leaves and dense clusters of small pale yellow -flowers. In its typical form the species is one to two feet tall, but -on Mount Rainier, where it occurs at from 7,000 to 8,000 feet -elevation, it is reduced to two to four inches high, but otherwise not -differing from the type. - -=Pentstemon procerus= Douglas. - -Like the above, but blue flowered. It occurs at 8,000 feet and on -Rainier is scarcely two inches tall, while at lower altitudes it is -frequently as many feet high. This dwarf Alpine form has been -described by Professor Greene as a new species under the name of -_Pentstemon pulchellus_. It is an interesting fact that Tolmie long -ago collected on Mount Rainier a dwarf species which Hooker named -_Pentstemon tolmiei_. But alas, the specimens are in fruit, and it is -past finding out now whether his plant was the yellow-flowered or the -blue-flowered form. Most likely, however, it was the latter, as that -is far more frequent than the yellow-flowered form. - -=Pentstemon diffusus= Douglas. - -A handsome species with serrate leaves and blue-purple flowers. Mount -Rainier, Piper 2068. Goat Mountains, Allen 129. - -=Pentstemon ovatus= Douglas. - -Much like the preceding plant, differing essentially in the anthers. -Collected by Allen "mountains near the upper valley of the Nisqually," -and by the writer on the slopes of Mount Rainier. - -=Pentstemon menziesii= Hooker. - -A dwarf prostrate plant with thickish evergreen toothed leaves and -dull purple flowers, abundant on the rocks at 8,000 feet elevation. A -variety with the leaves entire instead of denticulate, _P. davidsonii_ -Greene, also occurs on the mountain. - -=Pentstemon rupicola= (Piper) Howell. - -Much like the preceding, but with glaucous leaves and rose-colored -larger flowers. The writer found it originally on the perpendicular -cliffs, at the limit of trees above "Camp of the Clouds." - -=Collinsia tenella= (Pursh) Piper. - -Collected by Flett on an old moraine along the Carbon Glacier. - -=Mimulus lewisii= Pursh. - -Abundant along rills, 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. Easily known by -its opposite dentate leaves, viscid pubescence and rose-purple -corollas. The original specimens were collected in Idaho by the Lewis -and Clark expedition. - -=Mimulus breweri= (Greene) Rydberg. - (_Eunanus breweri_ Greene.) - -A minute species with pale purple flowers, abundant on dry cliffs near -"Camp of the Clouds." - -=Mimulus alpinus= (Gray) Piper. - (_M. luteus alpinus_ Gray.) - (_M. scouleri caespitosus_ Greene.) - -A dwarf plant with matted stolons, the bright yellow flowers painting -the cliffs wherever there is dripping water. The Mount Rainier plants -match closely the original types collected by Dr. Parry in Wyoming, so -that Professor Greene's name is clearly a synonym of the earlier one -of Gray. - -=Veronica alpina= Linnaeus. - -A small plant two or three inches high, with several pairs of small, -ovate, pubescent leaves, and a terminal raceme of small blue flowers. -Common at 4,500 to 5,500 feet altitude. - -=Veronica cusickii= Gray. - -A very similar plant to the above, but with larger blue flowers and -smooth leaves. Abundant just above "Camp of the Clouds." - -=Veronica allenii= Greenman. - -Much like the preceding species, but with smaller white flowers. A new -species discovered by Allen "near Paradise River at 5,400 feet -elevation." - -=Castilleja miniata= Douglas. - -This vivid scarlet "Painted Cup" or "Indian Pink" is easily known by -its entire leaves. Not infrequent at 5,000 to 6,000 feet; also -occurring at lower altitudes down to sea-level. - -=Castilleja angustifolia hispida= (Bentham) Fernald. - -Very similar to the last, but the flower spikes shorter and the leaves -cut-lobed. Bear Prairie, Allen. - -=Castilleja rupicola= Piper. - -Like the last, but smaller, the leaves usually purplish and deeply -cut, the flowers intensely scarlet and with very long beaks. On the -cliffs on both sides of Sluiskin Falls, whence the original specimens -were obtained. - -=Castilleja oreopola= Greenman. - -The common species of the grassy slopes, the flowers reddish-purple or -occasionally white. - -=Pedicularis bracteosa= Bentham. - -A tall "lousewort," with fern-like leaves and a long terminal spike of -greenish-white flowers. Frequent in wet places up to 5,500 feet -altitude. - -=Pedicularis contorta= Douglas. - -A yellow-flowered species not rare at 7,000 feet elevation along the -Nisqually Glacier. First found by Tolmie on Mount Rainier. - -=Pedicularis surrecta= Bentham. - -The reddish flowers with long, coiled beaks easily distinguish this -plant. Common in wet meadows at 4,000 feet altitude. - -=Pedicularis ornithorhyncha= Bentham. - -Much like the preceding but with beakless flowers. Originally -described from Mount Rainier specimens collected by Tolmie in 1833, -and not again seen until the writer collected them in the same place -in 1888. The plant has since been found at two or three places north -of Mount Rainier, but all in Washington. - -=Pedicularis racemosa= Douglas. - -The commonest species, easily known by its half prostrate habit, -lanceolate leaves, and short clusters of white or pinkish twisted -flowers. Ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 feet elevation. - - -=PINGUICULACEAE.= (Butterwort Family.) - -=Pinguicula vulgaris= Linnaeus. - -The butterwort, with its greasy entire leaves in a rosette and -solitary violet flowers is not rare on moist cliffs. - - -=LABIATAE.= (Mint Family.) - -=Madronella discolor= Greene. - -A very sweet-smelling plant, the only mint as yet found on the -mountain. Occurs on the talus of the high cliffs on the north side of -Cowlitz Glacier. - - -=BORAGINACEAE.= (Borage Family.) - -=Mertensia laevigata= Piper. - -A handsome branched herb, two feet high or more. The large entire -leaves and the cluster of small blue tubular flowers make it readily -recognizable. Frequent at 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. - -=Cryptantha muriculata= (A. De Candolle) Greene. - -Goat Mountains, Flett; a small common lowland plant with white -flowers. - - -=HYDROPHYLLACEAE.= (Waterleaf Family.) - -=Hydrophyllum albifrons= Heller. - (_Hydrophyllum congestum_ Wiegand.) - -On the meadows near Van Trump Glacier. - -=Romanzoffia sitchensis= Bongard. - -A handsome little plant with orbicular coarsely dentate leaves and a -loose cluster of small white flowers. In habit much like some -saxifrages. Rare on wet cliffs near Sluiskin Falls. - -=Phacelia nemoralis= Greene. - -This plant occurs on rock talus along the north side of Cowlitz -Glacier. - -=Phacelia sericea= Gray. - -A handsome species with silvery leaves and dense clusters of purple -flowers. Collected somewhere on the mountain by Rev. E. C. Smith in -1890. - - -=POLEMONIACEAE.= (Phlox Family.) - -=Phlox diffusa= Bentham. - -A prostrate plant with acerose leaves, when in bloom forming dense -masses of pale blue. Common at 5,500 to 6,500 feet altitude, in rocky -soil. - -=Gilia gracilis= (Douglas) Hooker. - -Growing on an old moraine along Carbon Glacier, Flett. - -=Gilia nuttallii= Gray. - -A white-flowered species found by Rev. E. C. Smith in 1890 somewhere -on the southwest slopes of the mountain. - -=Collomia debilis= (Watson) Greene. - -Not rare in talus at the base of basalt cliffs on the east side of the -mountain at 7,000 feet altitude. - -=Collomia heterophylla= Hooker. - -Found by Mr. Gorman on the gravelly banks of the Nisqually at Longmire -Springs; also by Flett; a common lowland plant. - -=Polemonium humile= Roemer & Schultes. - -A handsome plant with pinnate leaves and corymbs of pale blue flowers. -Common on the rocks at 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Polemonium elegans= Greene. - (_P. bicolor_ Greenman.) - -Similar to the preceding, but smaller and very glandular, the blue -flowers having a large yellow center. Rather rare in pumice at 7,500 -feet elevation. - -=Polemonium viscosum pilosum= Greenman. - -Very much like the preceding plant. Discovered by Allen on the Goat -Mountains, No. 261. - - -=GENTIANACEAE.= (Gentian Family.) - -=Gentiana calycosa= Grisebach. - -An elegant plant with deep blue bell-shaped flowers. Abundant along -the rills at 5,000 feet. The species was described from Mount Rainier -specimens collected by Tolmie in 1833. Grisebach also described a -variety _stricta_, based on very trivial characters. - - -=PRIMULACEAE.= (Primrose Family.) - -=Dodecatheon jeffreyi= Van Houtte. - (_D. crenatum_ Greene.) - (_D. viviparum_ Greene.) - -Plentiful in wet places at 4,500 to 5,500 feet elevation. Professor -Greene's types came from Spray Park. - -=Douglasia laevigata= Gray. - -A handsome little plant forming broad mats and bearing blood-red -flowers in corymbs. Goat Mountains, Allen. - -=Trientalis latifolia= Hooker. - -Gorman reports this plant as occurring in coniferous woods between -Longmire Springs and Paradise Park. - - -=PYROLACEAE.= (Indian Pipe Family.) - -=Chimaphila umbellata= (Linnaeus) Nuttall. - -Reported by Gorman "on the trail above Longmire Springs, in coniferous -woods." - -=Chimaphila menziesii= (R. Brown) Sprengel. - -In deep coniferous woods, 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation. - -=Pyrola secunda= Linnaeus. - -Growing with the preceding. - -=Pyrola bracteata= Hooker. - -Reported by Gorman "in coniferous woods along the Nisqually River at -2,850 feet." - -=Moneses uniflora= (Linnaeus) Gray. - -In woods near the base of the mountain. - -=Monotropa hypopitys= Linnaeus. - -Common in the dense shade of conifers along the trail above -Longmire's. - -=Pterospora andromedea= Nuttall. - -This peculiar plant occurs along the Nisqually trail at about 3,000 -feet altitude. - -=Allotropa virgata= Torrey & Gray. - -This queer plant is abundant in coniferous woods on the north side of -the mountain, but it is doubtful whether it comes within our limits. - - -=ERICACEAE.= (Heath Family.) - -=Menziesia glabella= Gray. - -A shrub four to eight feet high, much resembling a huckleberry, but -the fruit is dry. - -=Kalmia polifolia microphylla= (Hooker) Piper. - -In wet places at 7,000 feet altitude near Nisqually Glacier. - -=Phyllodoce empetriformis= (Smith) D. Don. - -The common red-flowered heather, abundant on dryish slopes at 5,000 to -6,000 feet elevation. - -=Phyllodoce glanduliflora= (Hooker) Coville. - -Much like the preceding, but the flowers yellowish-white and -glandular. Frequent at 6,500 to 7,500 feet elevation. - -=Cassiope mertensiana= (Bongard) Donn. - -A low shrub growing with _Phyllodoce empetriformis_, and having small -pendent, bell-shaped white flowers. - -=Harrimanella stelleriana= (Pallas) Coville. - -On the moist cliffs overlooking the Nisqually Glacier, at 5,500 feet -elevation. This is the southernmost known station for the plant. - -=Gaultheria shallon= Pursh. - -The salal-berry is reported by Gorman to occur in coniferous woods -between Longmire Springs and Paradise Park. - -=Gaultheria ovatifolia= Gray. - -This species resembles a diminutive plant of the preceding, but the -berries are red and spicy, and borne singly in the axils of the -leaves. Abundant in the coniferous woods at 3,000 to 3,500 feet -elevation. - -=Gaultheria humifusa= (Graham) Rydberg. - -Much like a small plant of the preceding species, and only an inch or -two high. Not rare on the slopes near Sluiskin Falls. - -=Rhododendron albiflorum= Hooker. - (_Cladothamnus campanulatus_ Greene). - -The white-flowered azalea so common in the shelter of trees at 5,000 -to 5,500 feet elevation. - -=Arctostaphylos uva-ursi= Linnaeus. - -The kinnikinnik, essentially a lowland plant, covers the rocks at -8,000 feet altitude near Nisqually Glacier. - -=Arctostaphylos nevadensis= Gray. - -On the gravel bars of the Nisqually at Longmire Springs. - -=Vaccinium macrophyllum= (Hooker) Piper. - -The most valuable of all the native huckleberries. Easily recognized -by the nearly black, not glaucous berries, and finely serrate leaves. -Plentiful at 3,000 to 4,000 feet altitude. - -=Vaccinium ovalifolium= Smith. - -Much like the preceding, but taller, the leaves entire, and the -glaucous black berries not nearly so sweet. - -=Vaccinium myrtillus microphyllum= Hooker. - (_V. scoparium_ Leiberg.) - -A low, broom-like species, with small leaves and red or wine-colored -berries. On dry ridges, 4,000 to 5,000 feet altitude. - -=Vaccinium deliciosum= Piper. - -This is the common bilberry of the alpine meadows of the Cascade and -Olympic Mountains in Washington, where it is abundant at 4,500 to -5,500 feet altitude. In habit and fruit it resembles _V. caespitosum_, -but in floral characters _V. ovalifolium_, to which Dr. Gray rather -hesitatingly referred it. From this last it may readily be -distinguished by its serrulate leaves and low habit, its relatively -longer filaments, which in _V. ovalifolium_ are only one half as long -as the anthers, and its small-seeded fruit of very different flavor. -Very young leaves have the serrulations tipped with small glandular -appendages. - - -=UMBELLIFERAE.= (Parsley Family.) - -=Ligusticum purpureum= Coulter & Rose. - -A tall "wild parsnip," with fern-like leaves and small whitish or -purple-tinged flowers. Everywhere on the slopes, 4,000 to 6,000 feet -elevation. - -=Lomatium angustatum= Coulter & Rose. - -In rock talus near Sluiskin Falls. - -=Lomatium triternatum= Coulter & Rose. - -A form of this variable species was found on the Goat Mountains by -Allen, No. 257. - -=Angelica lyallii= Watson. - -Paradise Park, 5,000 feet elevation. Also common near the foot of -Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Sanicula septentrionalis= Greene. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 254. - -=Osmorhiza ambigua= (Gray) Coulter & Rose. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 256. - -=Heracleum lanatum= Michaux. - -Common at 4,000 feet elevation. - -=Hesperogenia stricklandi= Coulter & Rose. - -An interesting plant, the type of a new genus, found in Paradise Park -by Allen and by Strickland. Also collected on the mountain by Flett. -Occurs at 6,500 feet elevation. - - -=HALORAGIDACEAE.= (Water Milfoil Family.) - -=Hippuris vulgaris= Linnaeus. - -Found by Allen at Longmire Springs. - -=Hippuris montana= Ledebour. - -An interesting little species much resembling some mosses. It -frequently mats the ground in wet places at 4,500 feet elevation. - - -=ONAGRACEAE.= (Evening Primrose Family.) - -=Epilobium spicatum= Lamarck. - -The common "fireweed," reported by Gorman on the "grassy slopes, 5,000 -to 6,000 feet altitude." - -=Epilobium latifolium= Linnaeus. - -A species with flowers like the preceding, but only four to six inches -tall. Found by Rev. E. C. Smith near the Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Epilobium luteum= Pursh. - -A yellow-flowered species common along streams, 3,000 to 5,000 feet -elevation. - -=Epilobium alpinum= Linnaeus. - (_E. hornemanni_ Reichenbach.) - -Common at 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Epilobium anagallidifolium= Lamarck. - -A minute species found on the Tatoosh Mountains by Allen. - -=Epilobium clavatum= Trelease. - -Gravelly slopes at 5,000 feet. Plentiful along the Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Epilobium fastigiatum= (Nuttall) Piper. - -A glaucous-leaved small species, on the gravel bars of the Nisqually, -and up to 4,500 feet elevation. - -=Gayophytum ramosissimum= Torrey & Gray. - -On gravelly slopes near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier. - - -=VIOLACEAE.= (Violet Family.) - -=Viola palustris= Linnaeus. - -The common swamp violet was found at Narada Falls by Flett. - -=Viola adunca= Smith. - -Rare in rock crevices near Sluiskin Falls. Flowers deep violet. - -=Viola montanensis= Rydberg. - -Like the preceding, but the leaves puberulent. Near Van Trump Glacier, -at 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Viola glabella= Nuttall. - -A yellow-flowered species common along streams and in rich woods up to -3,000 feet altitude. - - -=HYPERICACEAE.= (St. Johnswort Family.) - -=Hypericum bryophytum= Elmer. - -A diminutive plant along rills at 5,000 feet elevation. - - -=ACERACEAE.= (Maple Family.) - -=Acer douglasii= Hooker. - -The smooth maple is common on the headwaters of the Nisqually. - - -=CELASTRACEAE.= (Staff Tree Family.) - -=Pachystima myrsinites= (Pursh) Rafinesque. - -An evergreen shrub two or three feet high, having considerable -resemblance to a huckleberry. Common in coniferous woods at 3,000 to -4,000 feet elevation. - - -=EMPETRACEAE.= (Crowberry Family.) - -=Empetrum nigrum= Linnaeus. - -A prostrate cespitose shrub with yew-like leaves and black berries. -Common on the rocks at 7,500 feet altitude. - - -=OXALIDACEAE.= (Oxalis Family.) - -=Oxalis oregana= Nuttall. - -Common in rich, moist woods up to 3,000 feet altitude. - -=Oxalis trilliifolia= Hooker. - -With the preceding, which it resembles. It may be distinguished by its -scapes bearing several flowers, instead of only one, and by its narrow -pods. - - -=LEGUMINOSAE.= (Pea Family.) - -=Lupinus subalpinus= Piper & Robinson. - -The common lupine of the grassy slopes, 4,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Lupinus volcanicus= Greene. - -A small species, with hairy pubescence, growing above the limit of the -preceding and below that of the following. - -=Lupinus lyallii= Watson. - -A lovely little plant with silvery foliage. Abundant in the pumice -fields at 7,000 to 8,000 feet altitude. - -=Lathyrus pauciflorus= Fernald. - -A wild pea with purple flowers collected by Allen in the Goat -Mountains. - -=Lathyrus nevadensis= Watson. - -Very like the preceding but with white flowers. Collected by Allen, -No. 297, on mountains near the upper valley of the Nisqually. - -=Oxytropis cusickii= Greenman. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 245. - - -=ROSACEAE.= (Rose Family.) - -=Spiraea densiflora= Nuttall. - -A low shrub with dense corymbs of rose-colored flowers. Common in bogs -at 4,500 feet, and on rock cliffs up to 6,000 feet elevation. - -=Eriogynia pectinata= (Pursh) Hooker. - -A little shrub only two or three inches tall, forming dense mats. The -plant should easily be recognized by its sharply cleft leaves and -dense erect racemes of white flowers. Abundant at 5,000 to 6,000 feet -elevation. Gorman reports it from near the "Sphinx," 8,500 feet. - -=Rubus nivalis= Douglas. - -A trailing vine, with glossy, green, simple leaves. Common in the -coniferous forests at 3,000 feet altitude, where it seldom blooms. On -exposed rocks and banks one rarely finds its dull red flowers or -bright red, raspberry-like, sour fruit. - -=Rubus pedatus= Smith. - -A trailing herbaceous plant, with palmately compound leaves and -strawberry-like blossoms. The smooth red fruit is sour, and consists -of only a few large drupelets. Common in the woods up to 4,000 feet -altitude. - -=Rubus lasiococcus= Gray. - -Much like the preceding, but with simple leaves and pubescent fruit. -Grows with the preceding, and up to 5,000 feet or more. - -=Potentilla flabellifolia= Hooker. - -The common cinquefoil of the meadows, with bright yellow -buttercup-like flowers. Plentiful at 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Potentilla dissecta= Pursh. - -This has been collected by Allen on the Goat Mountains, No. 251. - -=Potentilla glaucophylla= Lehmann. - -Near the foot of Gibraltar, at 8,500 feet altitude. - -=Potentilla villosa= Pallas. - -A species with silvery strawberry-like leaves and bright yellow -flowers. On the cliffs near the foot of Little Tahoma, at 7,500 feet -elevation. - -=Potentilla fruticosa tenuifolia= (Willdenow) Lehmann. - -This shrubby cinquefoil occurs along White River Glacier. - -=Sibbaldia procumbens= Linnaeus. - -Abundant on the ridge near Sluiskin Falls. - -=Dryas octopetala= Linnaeus. - -Found in talus between Urania and White Glaciers by Professor Flett. -This is the southernmost known station in the Cascade Mountains. - -=Pyrus occidentalis= Watson. - -This mountain ash occurs at 4,500 to 5,000 feet altitude, usually -forming dense clumps. It is seldom over four feet high. From related -species its dull purple glaucous fruit and dull green leaves, serrate -only near the apex, easily distinguish it. - -=Pyrus sitchensis= (Roemer) Piper. - (_Sorbus sitchensis_ Roemer.) - -This species grows from four to fifteen feet high, and is easily known -by its intense scarlet fruit and shining leaflets, which are sharply -serrate to the base. The plant of the Cascade Mountains matches -exactly with the type from Sitka, and we can detect no differences in -the shrub common in the Blue Mountains and in Western Idaho. This -shrub has heretofore been known as _Pyrus sambucifolia_ Chamisso & -Schlechtendahl, but authentic Kamtschatka specimens of this last are -clearly different from our plant. - -=Rosa nutkana= Presl. - -This common wild rose has been collected by Allen on the Goat -Mountains, at 4,500 feet elevation. - - -=SAXIFRAGACEAE.= (Saxifrage Family.) - -=Ribes howellii= Greene. - (_Ribes acerifolium_ Howell.) - -A small currant, two to four feet high, with pendent racemes of -flowers and glaucous black fruit. Common in the shelter of trees up to -their limit. - -=Ribes bracteosum= Douglas. - -A currant with very large leaves and long, erect racemes of greenish -flowers; fruit black. It is common along streams at low altitudes, and -is locally known as "stink currant." Gorman reports it from Cowlitz -Canyon, near the timber line. - -=Ribes lacustre= (Persoon) Poiret. - -This very prickly gooseberry is reported by Gorman from the same -locality as the preceding. - -=Leptarrhena amplexifolia= (Sternberg) Seringe. - -A handsome plant, with a radical tuft of oblong crenate evergreen -leaves, and an erect scape of small greenish flowers in a corymb. The -pods when mature are usually deeply tinged with purple. Common on the -borders of rills at 5,000 feet, and on the wet cliffs near Sluiskin -Falls. Also reported by Professor Greene from Spray Park. - -=Tiarella unifoliata= Hooker. - -Common in rich woods up to 3,500 feet elevation. - -=Mitella breweri= Watson. - -In the shelter of trees, common at 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Mitella pentandra= Hooker. - -Much like the preceding and found in similar places. - -=Mitella trifida= Graham. - -Found on Mount Rainier and on Goat Mountains by Allen. - -=Parnassia fimbriata= Koenig. - -A plant with radical reniform leaves and one-flowered scapes. The -petals are white and fringed. Not rare in moist places near Sluiskin -Falls; also at Crater Lake. - -=Heuchera glabra= Willdenow. - -On the cliffs near Camp of the Clouds. - -=Heuchera micrantha= Douglas. - -Mount Rainier, _Tolmie_, according to Hooker. - -=Elmera racemosa= (Watson) Rydberg. - (_Heuchera racemosa_ Watson.) - -Rock crevices at the base of Little Tahoma; rare. - -=Suksdorfia ranunculifolia= (Hooker) Engler. - -Rock Cliffs near Camp of the Clouds. - -=Saxifraga bongardi= Presl. - -Common along rills, 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. - -=Saxifraga bronchialis austromontana= (Wiegand) Piper. - -Abundant on rock cliffs near Longmire Springs, and frequent up to -6,000 feet altitude. - -=Saxifraga marshallii= Greene. - -Rare on the cliffs near Sluiskin Falls. Also collected on the Goat -Mountains by Mr. Allen. - -=Saxifraga odontoloma= Piper. - -A species with reniform, coarsely dentate leaves. Common along the -rivulets, 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Saxifraga nelsoniana= D. Don. - -Much like the preceding, but the petals oval instead of orbicular and -clawed. Near Camp of the Clouds; rare. - -=Saxifraga mertensiana= Bongard. - -Much like _S. odontoloma_, but the leaves doubly dentate, and usually -bearing bulblets among the flowers. North side of Cowlitz Glacier; -rare. - -=Saxifraga tolmaei= Torrey & Gray. - -Abundant at 5,000 to 7,500 feet elevation, blooming as soon as the -snow melts. Easily known by its small, thick, entire leaves, and small -white flowers, solitary on scapes an inch or two high. Originally -found by Tolmie, from whose specimens the species was described. - -=Saxifraga debilis= Engelmann. - -Found on Mount Rainier by Mr. Allen. This is the first record of the -plant west of Colorado. - -=Saxifraga caespitosa= Linnaeus. - -Collected by Flett and by Allen. Leaves 3 to 5-lobed. - - -=CRASSULACEAE.= (Stonecrop Family.) - -=Sedum divergens= Watson. - -This species is easily known by its small globular leaves. Common on -the cliffs near Sluiskin Falls. - - -=CRUCIFERAE.= (Mustard Family.) - -=Draba aureola= Watson. - -A viscid yellow-flowered species, rather rare at and near Camp Muir. - -=Draba lonchocarpa= Rydberg. - -In pumice sand at 8,500 feet altitude. - -=Arabis lyallii= Watson. - -Common along Paradise River, at 5,000 feet altitude, but also -occurring in the pumice at 7,500 feet. - -=Arabis drummondii= Gray. - -Piper No. 2065, referable to this species, is from Mount Rainier. -Collected near the Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Cardamine kamtschatica= (Regel) Schulz. - (_C. umbellata_ Greene.) - -A small "bitter-cress," not rare along rills at 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Erysimum asperum= (Nuttall) De Candolle. - -A yellow-flowered plant much like a wallflower, rare at 6,000 feet -altitude. It occurs also in loose rock near Interglacier. - -=Smelowskia ovalis= Jones. - -A small, white-flowered, canescent plant, interesting because it -ascends Mount Rainier higher than any other flowering plant. Common -from 8,000 to 10,000 feet altitude. One specimen was collected quite -at the base of "The Sphinx." - - -=FUMARIACEAE.= (Bleeding-heart Family.) - -=Corydalis scouleri= Hooker. - -Common along streams at low elevations. - - -=BERBERIDACEAE.= (Barberry Family.) - -=Achlys triphylla= (Smith) De Candolle. - -Reported by Mr. Gorman "on the trail from Longmire Springs to the -Park." The sweet-smelling leaves of this plant have suggested the name -of "vanilla leaf." - - -=RANUNCULACEAE.= (Buttercup Family.) - -=Thalictrum occidentale= Gray. - -This meadow-rue is not rare near the foot of Van Trump Glacier. - -=Anemone drummondii= Watson. - -Collected by Flett, No. 2171, on the north side of the mountain at -7,000 feet altitude. - -=Anemone hudsoniana= (De Candolle) Richardson. - -Collected on the Goat Mountains by Mr. Allen, No. 250. - -=Pulsatilla occidentalis= (Watson) Freyn. - -Common on the dry slopes 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. Flowers large, -white or bluish, developing a large head of tailed carpels, which has -much the appearance of a hussar's cap. - -=Trautvetteria grandis= Nuttall. - -A tall plant with large maple-like leaves and loose corymbs of -delicate white flowers. Abundant in shady woods up to 4,000 feet -elevation. The pallid blossoms, in sharp contrast to the shade they -dwell in, has prompted the name of "ghost flower." - -=Ranunculus suksdorfii= Gray. - -A bright-flowered buttercup, not rare in moist places at 5,500 feet -elevation. - -=Ranunculus verecundus= Robinson. - -On rocky ridges at 7,000 feet altitude, Flett. - -=Caltha leptosepala= De Candolle. - (_C. macounii_ Greene.) - -Wet places, 4,000 to 6,000 feet; plentiful. - -=Aquilegia formosa= Fisher. - -The common scarlet and yellow columbine of the lowland, found on the -grassy slopes at 5,500 feet elevation. - -=Delphinium bicolor= Nuttall. - -A handsome blue and white-flowered larkspur, found in the Goat -Mountains by Mr. Allen, No. 146. - -=Delphinium glaucum= Watson. - -This larkspur is tall, three to four feet high, with rather many large -leaves, and long racemes of pale blue small flowers. Collected by Mr. -Allen in the Upper Nisqually Valley, and by the writer near Crater -Lake. - - -=CARYOPHYLLACEAE.= (Pink Family.) - -=Silene lyallii= Watson. - (_S. macounii_ Watson.) - (_S. douglasii viscida_ Robinson.) - -Distinguished from its near allies by its four-lobed petals. Not rare -at 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Silene suksdorfii= Robinson. - -A low species, with scapes mostly one-flowered. Rather rare in the -loose basalt talus near the base of Little Tahoma. - -=Silene acaulis= Linnaeus. - -The "moss campion" of Europe, and common in the Rocky Mountains. -Collected by Mr. Flett near the Mowich Glacier. - -=Stellaria borealis= Bigelow. - -A prostrate chickweed, common along the Paradise River, at 5,000 feet -elevation. - -=Stellaria washingtoniana= Robinson. - -Described from specimens collected by Allen on the slopes of the -mountain at the head of Nisqually River in alder woods. - -=Sagina occidentalis= Watson. - -A small species of pearlwort, doubtfully referred here, occurs rarely -along rivulets in Paradise Park. - -=Cerastium arvense= Linnaeus. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 237. - -=Arenaria capillaris= Poiret. - -Common on the rocks at 5,000 to 7,000 feet elevation. The form with -curved leaves, variety _nardifolia_ Regel, is more frequent than the -type. - -=Arenaria verna= Linnaeus. - -Rather rare in the pumice on the east side of the mountain. - -=Arenaria macrophylla= Hooker. - -In dry woods at low altitudes. - - -=PORTULACACEAE.= (Purslane Family.) - -=Spraguea multiceps= Howell. - -A handsome plant, with entire spatulate leaves and dense heads of pink -or purple flowers. Common in the pumice fields. - -=Claytonia sibirica= Linnaeus. - -Collected by Flett somewhere near the base of the mountain. The -commonest lowland "spring beauty." - -=Claytonia asarifolia= Bongard. - -A plant with fleshy entire leaves and small racemes of white flowers. -Occasional along the rivulets at 4,000 to 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Claytonia parvifolia= Mocino. - -On the rocks at 3,000 to 4,000 feet altitude. - -=Claytonia lanceolata= Pursh. - -Common in the grassy meadows. The tuberous root is edible. - -=Lewisia columbiana= (Howell) Robinson. - -Goat Mountains, Allen. Leaves fleshy, flowers rose-purple, showy. - - -=POLYGONACEAE.= (Buckwheat Family.) - -=Oxyria digyna= (Linnaeus) Hill. - -A small plant with reniform entire leaves, and flowers and fruit like -those of the common docks. Not rare in rock crevices at 5,000 to 6,000 -feet elevation. - -=Polygonum minimum= Watson. - -Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet altitude. - -=Polygonum douglasii= Greene. - -On a gravelly slope near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Polygonum newberryi= Small. - -Common in the pumice fields, where it is a characteristic plant. - -=Polygonum bistortoides= Pursh. - -Very plentiful on the grassy slopes, where it is conspicuous by its -dense white-flowered spikes an inch long, borne singly on slender -stems a foot or two high. - -=Eriogonum compositum= Douglas. - -A form of this variable species occurs on the talus at the foot of the -cliffs on the north side of Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Eriogonum pyrolaefolium coryphaeum= Torrey & Gray. - -Plentiful in the pumice fields. - - -=BETULACEAE.= (Birch Family.) - -=Alnus sinuata= (Regel) Rydberg. - -Sitka alder. A small alder, seldom over ten or twelve feet high. -Common along the streams at low altitude. - - -=SALICACEAE.= (Willow Family.) - -=Salix scouleriana= Barratt. - -The common upland willow; not rare up to 3,500 feet elevation. - -=Salix sitchensis= Sanson. - -The "silky willow" is plentiful along the Nisqually at Longmire -Springs. - -=Salix barclayi= Anderson. - -=Salix commutata= Bebb. - -These two willows make thickets along the rills at about 6,000 feet -altitude. The leaves in the former are smooth above and glaucous -beneath; in the latter pubescent on both sides. - -=Salix nivalis= Hooker. - -A very dwarf willow, with obtuse leaves, growing only a few inches -high. Found on the north side of the mountain by Flett. - -=Salix saximontana= Rydberg. - -Very similar to _Salix nivalis_, but larger in every way. Also found -by Flett on the north side of the mountain. - -=Salix cascadensis= Cockerell. - (_S. tenera_ Andersson.) - -A very dwarf rare willow with leaves acute at each end. North slope of -the mountain, collected by Flett. - -=Populus trichocarpa= Torrey & Gray. - -The cottonwood occurs along the Nisqually to some distance above -Longmire Springs. - - -=ORCHIDACEAE.= (Orchis Family.) - -=Corallorhiza maculata= Rafinesque. - -Common in the coniferous woods at low altitudes. - -=Corallorhiza mertensiana= Bongard. - -Frequent in the dense coniferous woods up to 3,500 feet. - -=Spiranthes romanzoffiana= Chamisso. - -A small form of this species was found in a bog on the summit of the -ridge overlooking the foot of the Nisqually Glacier. - -=Peramium decipiens= (Hooker) Piper. - -On the trail above Longmire Springs, according to Mr. Gorman. - -=Limnorchis stricta= (Lindley) Rydberg. - -A tall plant with long spikes of greenish flowers. Not rare in wet -places at 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Listera caurina= Piper. - -Common in mossy woods up to 3,500 feet. - -=Listera convallarioides= (Swartz) Torrey. - -Growing in moist woods near the foot of the mountain. - - -=LILIACEAE.= (Lily Family.) - -=Allium validum= Watson. - -This wild onion has rootstock-like bulbs. It has been found on the -north side of the mountain, and only by Mr. Flett. - -=Vagnera sessilifolia= (Baker) Greene. - -Common in moist woods up to 3,000 feet altitude. - -=Streptopus curvipes= Vail. - -Common in moist woods at 3,000 feet. Distinguished from the Eastern -_S. roseus_ by its small size, simple stems, and creeping rootstocks. - -=Lilium columbianum= Hanson. - -The wild tiger lily occurs on dry slopes near Longmire Springs and in -Paradise Park, at 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Fritillaria lanceolata= Pursh. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, No. 235. - -=Erythronium montanum= Watson. - -The white-flowered adder's tongue, so abundant in Paradise Park, up to -5,500 feet altitude. - -=Erythronium parviflorum= (Watson) Goodding. - -Much like the preceding, but the flowers yellow. Frequent along rills -at 5,500 feet. - -=Clintonia uniflora= (Schultes) Kunth. - -Abundant in the coniferous forests at 2,000 to 4,000 feet altitude. -Easily recognized by its tuft of two to four radical leaves, which are -oblong in form, and its delicate scapes, three or four inches high, -bearing a single white flower. The berry is blue. - -=Trillium ovatum= Pursh. - -The wake-robin is plentiful at 3,000 feet altitude. - -=Tofieldia intermedia= Rydberg. - -This species has been confused with both _T. glutinosa_ and _T. -occidentalis_. From the former it differs principally in its seed -characters, otherwise being so similar that there are no -distinguishing characters in the flowering specimens. All the Cascade -Mountain specimens apparently belong to _T. intermedia_, because no -plant with the seed character of _T. glutinosa_ has as yet been found -in that range of mountains. - -=Veratrum viride= Aiton. - -The green hellebore forms considerable clumps, three or four feet -high. It is frequent on moist slopes in Paradise Park. - -=Stenanthium occidentale= Gray. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, 233. Also collected on Mount Rainier by Rev. E. -C. Smith, in 1890. - -=Xerophyllum tenax= (Pursh) Nuttall. - -The so-called pine-lily or bear-grass is not rare in gravelly soil in -rather open woods. Straggling specimens are found up to 5,500 feet -altitude. - - -=JUNCACEAE.= (Rush Family.) - -=Juncoides glabratum= (Hooker) Sheldon. - -Dry, grassy slopes at 5,000 feet. - -=Juncoides majus= (Hooker) Piper. - (_Luzula arcuata major_ Hooker.) - (_Juncoides piperi_ Coville.) - -The plants referred here occur at 7,000 feet altitude, in springy -places. Allen, No. 44, and Piper, 2172, are identical with Tolmie's -Mount Rainier specimens. - -=Juncoides parviflorum= (Ehrhart) Coville. - -Common on dry slopes up to 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Juncoides spicata= (Linnaeus) Kuntze. - -Rather rare in damp places in the pumice fields, at 8,000 feet -altitude. - -=Juncus subtriflorus= (E. Meyer) Coville. - -Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. - -=Juncus parryi= Engelmann. - -Much like the preceding, and growing along with it. - -=Juncus mertensianus= Bongard. - -Frequent along rills even up to 8,000 feet altitude. - - -=CYPERACEAE.= (Sedge Family.) - -=Eriophorum polystachion= Linnaeus. - -This "cotton-grass" occurs in the low ground around the lakes near the -base of Pinnacle Peak. - -=Carex paddoensis= Suksdorf. - -Springy places at 8,000 feet altitude; Allen, 172; Piper, 2541. - -=Carex pyrenaica= Wahlenberg. - -With the preceding; Allen, 171; Piper, 2540. - -=Carex phaeocephala= Piper. - -Dryish places at 7,500 feet elevation; Piper, 2535. - -=Carex preslii= Bailey. - -Common at 5,000 feet, along streams. - -=Carex pachystachya= Chamisso. - -This species occurs along rills in Paradise Park. - -=Carex nigricans= Meyer. - -Common at 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. - -=Carex rossii= Boott. - -On the grassy ridge above Sluiskin Falls. - -=Carex geyeri= Boott. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, 169. - -=Carex mertensii= Prescott. - -Rare along stream banks at about 4,000 feet altitude. Some of our -specimens came from near the foot of Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Carex spectabilis= Dewey. - (_C. invisa_ Bailey.) - -In wet meadows at 4,000 feet elevation. - -=Carex scopulorum= Holm. - -With the preceding. - -=Carex ablata= Bailey. - -Frequent in the meadows of Paradise Park. - -=Carex accedens= Holm. - -Paradise Park; Piper, 2550. - -=Carex arcta= Boott. - -Mount Rainier, 4,000 feet altitude; Allen 271. - -=Carex atrata= Linnaeus. - -Collected by Allen, August 14, 1895. - -=Carex laeviculmis= Meinschausen. - -In swamps near the foot of the mountain. - -=Carex hepburnii= Boott. - -A handsome little plant common at 8,000 feet altitude. - -=Carex kelloggii= W. Boott. - -Along Paradise River; Piper, 2548. - -=Carex rigida= Goodenough. - -Allen, 269, and Piper, 2533, are referred here. The last-named -specimens are from near the foot of Pinnacle Peak. - - -=GRAMINEAE.= (Grass Family.) - -=Phleum alpinum= Linnaeus. - -The "mountain timothy" is of frequent occurrence at 5,000 to 6,000 -feet altitude. - -=Agrostis geminata= Trinius. - -Collected by Allen, in 1894. - -=Agrostis aequivalvis= Trinius. - -The plant referred here is common on the banks of the Paradise River -up to 5,000 feet. - -=Agrostis rossae= Vasey. - -Slopes at 6,000 feet elevation; common. - -=Agrostis humilis= Vasey. - -Abundant in springy places at 8,500 feet elevation. - -=Calamagrostis vaseyi= Beal. - -Goat Mountains, Allen, and common on the rocky ridges north of Cowlitz -Glacier. - -=Calamagrostis scabra= Presl. - -Not rare at 5,500 feet elevation; near Sluiskin Falls, Piper; Tatoosh -Mountains, Allen. - -=Deschampsia atropurpurea= (Wahlenberg) Scheele. - -Common at 5,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. - -=Danthonia intermedia= Vasey. - -Common at about 5,000 feet altitude. - -=Trisetum cernuum= Trinius. - -Moist places up to 5,000 feet altitude. - -=Trisetum spicatum= (Linnaeus) Richter. - -Rare on the ridge near Camp of the Clouds. - -=Cinna latifolia= (Treviranus) Grisebach. - -Common in wet ground about Longmire Springs. - -=Poa arctica= R. Brown. - -A grass doubtfully referred to this species is common at 5,500 feet -elevation. - -=Poa paddensis= Williams. - -One of the most frequent grasses at 5,000 to 6,000 feet. - -=Poa saxatilis= Scribner & Williams. - -On rock cliffs at 6,000 feet. The type of this species is Piper No. -1964, from above Camp of the Clouds. - -=Poa suksdorfii= Vasey. - -Rather rare in the pumice at 9,000 feet elevation. - -=Poa lettermani= Vasey. - -On the slopes near Camp Muir, growing with the preceding. - -=Festuca viridula= Vasey. - -The finest grass on the slopes. Abundant at 5,000 feet elevation. - -=Festuca ovina supina= (Schur) Hackel. - -In the pumice fields at 8,000 feet altitude. - -=Festuca subulata= Trinius. - -Longmire Springs, in moist places. - -=Bromus marginatus= Nees. - -A species doubtfully referred here was collected on the mountains in -1890 by Rev. E. C. Smith. No specimens of it are now in our -possession. - -=Sitanion rigidum= J. G. Smith. - -Pumice fields at 8,000 feet. - -=Sitanion glabrum= J. G. Smith. - -Common on the rocky ridges north of Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Sitanion rubescens= Piper. - -Dry slopes on the south side of the mountain. - - -=SPARGANIACEAE.= (Bur-reed Family.) - -=Sparganium minimum= Fries. - -Collected in 1890 by Rev. E. C. Smith, in one of the small lakes near -the base of Pinnacle Peak. - - -=TAXACEAE.= (Yew Family.) - -=Taxus brevifolia= Nuttall. Western Yew. - -The yew is not uncommon along the trail from Longmire Springs to -Paradise Park. It does not ascend much above 3,000 feet elevation. - - -=PINACEAE.= (Pine Family.) - -=Juniperus sibirica= Burgsdorff. Mountain Juniper. - -The alpine juniper occurs on the banks of the Nisqually, near Longmire -Springs, and is common on the rocks up to 7,500 feet elevation. - -=Chamaecyparis nootkatensis= (Lambert) Spach. Alaska Cedar. - -The Alaska cedar ranges on the mountain slopes from 3,500 feet up to -6,000 feet altitude. It is far more abundant on the north side of the -peak than on the south. Few, if any, specimens exceed four feet in -diameter, and where the trees are most abundant the trunks are only -one or two feet through. - -=Abies grandis= Lindley. White Fir. - -Some trees, without cones, which were observed on the trail above -Longmire Springs, are doubtfully referred here. They are more likely -to belong to the following species. - -=Abies amabilis= (Douglas) Forbes. Lovely Fir. - -The Lovely fir is abundant at from 2,500 to 3,500 feet elevation. It -is usually but a small tree, with beautifully symmetrical form. Except -when fruiting, it is difficult to distinguish from the lowland white -fir. - -=Abies nobilis= Lindley. Noble Fir. - -The finest of all the firs, frequently four to six feet in diameter, -without a single branch for a hundred feet or more. Easily known by -the deep red color of the bark when chopped into, and by the large -cones, covered with reflexed bracts. Abundant at 4,000 to 5,000 feet. - -=Abies lasiocarpa= (Hooker) Nuttall. Subalpine Fir. - -This is the primly conical little fir so common in Paradise Park. It -rarely occurs below 4,500 feet elevation. Its dark purple pubescent -cones, only two or three inches long, readily distinguish it from the -preceding species. - -=Pseudotsuga mucronata= (Rafinesque) Sudworth. Douglas Spruce. - -The Douglas spruce is common up to 3,500 feet elevation. There is a -marked tendency of the cones to be relatively shorter and thicker at -this altitude, but otherwise the tree shows little variation from its -lowland typical form. - -=Tsuga heterophylla= Rafinesque. Western Hemlock. - -The Western hemlock is abundant at 3,000 feet altitude, but usually -much smaller than when growing near the sea level. - -=Tsuga mertensiana= (Bongard) Carriere. Black Hemlock. - -The Black hemlock is frequent from 4,000 to 6,000 feet elevation. On -the higher slopes it commonly forms clumps with the Subalpine fir. -When this is the case, the irregular form and dark foliage of the -hemlock, usually festooned with lichens, form a pleasing contrast to -the conical form and lighter foliage of the fir. - -=Pinus albicaulis= Engelmann. White-bark Pine. - -This white-barked nut pine is abundant on the high ridge north of the -Cowlitz Glacier. It also occurs above Camp of the Clouds. It rarely -fruits, and when it does the cones, with their sweet edible seeds, are -quickly torn to pieces by Clark's crow. The trunk and branches are -frequently adorned with the bright yellow lichen, _Evernia vulpina_. - -=Pinus monticola= Douglas. Western White Pine. - -Not uncommon at low elevations. The narrow cones, six to twelve inches -long, are characteristic. - -=Pinus contorta= Douglas. Lodgepole Pine. - -Reported by Mr. Gorman "on the moraines of the Nisqually." - -=Picea engelmanni= Parry. Engelmann Spruce. - -Rather a rare tree about Mount Rainier, at 3,500 feet elevation. In -the Sitka or Tideland spruce the leaves are decidedly flattened; in -the Engelmann spruce they are nearly square in cross section. - - -=ISOETACEAE.= (Quillwort Family.) - -=Isoetes echinospora braunii= Engelmann. - -Common in the small lakes near the foot of Pinnacle Peak. - - -=LYCOPODIACEAE.= (Club-moss Family.) - -=Lycopodium annotinum= Linnaeus. - -A large patch of this handsome species occurs at the point where the -trail first crosses Paradise River above Longmire Springs. - -=Lycopodium sitchense= Ruprecht. - -Common on the meadows at 4,000 feet elevation. - - -=EQUISETACEAE.= (Horsetail Family.) - -=Equisetum limosum= Linnaeus. - -This species occurs in the bog on top of the ridge above the foot of -Nisqually Glacier. The old trail to the park led through this bog. - -=Equisetum arvense= Linnaeus. - -Sterile fronds of this plant were observed at Longmire Springs. - -=Equisetum robustum= A. Braun. - -Common in damp places up to 3,000 feet elevation. Readily eaten by -cayuses. - - -=POLYPODIACEAE.= (Fern Family.) - -=Polypodium hesperium= Maxon. - -Not rare in rock crevices on the cliffs overlooking the lakes at the -foot of Pinnacle Peak. - -=Phegopteris dryopteris= (Linnaeus) Fee. - -The pretty "oak-fern" is abundant along the trail above Longmire's, in -deep woods. - -=Phegopteris alpestris= (Hoppe) Mettenius. - -Forming crown-like tufts in the talus at the foot of cliffs in -Paradise Park. - -=Dryopteris spinulosa dilatata= (Hoffman) Underwood. - -The common wood-fern is frequent in the forests at 3,000 feet -altitude. - -=Polystichum lonchitis= (Linnaeus) Roth. - -Specimens of this species are in my possession from Mount Rainier, but -the exact place of collection has passed my recollection. Presumably -it was found in or near Paradise Park. - -=Filix fragilis= (Linnaeus) Underwood. - -Diminutive specimens of this fern were collected on the cliffs at -8,000 feet altitude. Rev. E. C. Smith found much finer examples at a -lower elevation. - -=Cryptogramma acrostichoides= R. Brown. - -Common in the coarse gravel on the bars of the Nisqually, occurring -even at the foot of the glacier. - - -=OPHIOGLOSSACEAE.= (Adder's Tongue Family.) - -=Botrychium lunaria= (Linnaeus) Swartz. - -Specimens were collected by Rev. E. C. Smith on the north side of the -mountain in 1888. - -=Botrychium lanceolatum= (S. G. Gmelin) Angstroem. - -Longmire Springs, Allen, not otherwise known on the Pacific Coast. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[27] Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, Vol. XXVI, 1883, pp. 222-235. - -[28] Neues Jahrbuch fuer Min., etc., Vol. I, 1885, pp. 222-226. - -[29] Observed by Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. -612. - -[30] Hague and Iddings: Twelfth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 225. - -[31] Oebbeke, _op. cit._, p. 226. - -[32] Jour. Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, p. 276. - -[33] Emmons, Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., 1877, No. 4, p. 45. - - - - -XVII. CREATION OF MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK - -MEMORIAL BY SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES - - - A surprisingly wide interest was awakened by the proposal to - create a national park to include the great mass of Mount - Rainier and its immediate surroundings. Five societies - appointed committees to cooperate in securing the needed - legislation from Congress. Those committees prepared a - memorial. The Senate Miscellaneous Document, number 247, - Fifty-third Congress, second session, shows that the memorial - was introduced on July 16, 1894, by Senator Watson C. Squire - from the State of Washington. The memorial was deemed of - sufficient importance to be republished in the Eighteenth - Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey for - 1896-1897. It is here reproduced from that publication. - - With all the interest thus manifested, it required nearly - five years from the introduction of the memorial to witness - the achievement of its purpose. The act of Congress creating - the Mount Rainier National Park bears the date of March 2, - 1899. - - - _To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United - States of America in Congress assembled:_ - -At a meeting of the Geological Society of America, in Madison, Wis., -August 15, 1893, a committee was appointed for the purpose of -memorializing the Congress in relation to the establishment of a -national park in the State of Washington to include Mount Rainier, -often called Mount Tacoma. The committee consists of Dr. David T. Day, -Mr. S. F. Emmons, and Mr. Bailey Willis. - -At a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of -Science, in Madison, Wis., August 21, 1893, a committee was appointed -by that body for the same purpose as above mentioned, consisting of -Maj. J. W. Powell, Prof. Joseph Le Conte, Prof. I. C. Russell, Mr. B. -E. Fernow, and Dr. C. H. Merriam. - -At a meeting of the National Geographic Society, held in Washington, -D. C., on October 13, 1893, there was appointed a committee for the -purpose above mentioned, consisting of Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, Hon. -Watson C. Squire, Mr. John W. Thompson, Miss Mary F. Waite, and Miss -Eliza R. Scidmore. - -At a meeting of the Sierra Club, held in San Francisco December 30, -1893, a committee for the same purpose was appointed, composed of Mr. -John Muir, President D. S. Jordan, Mr. R. M. Johnson, Mr. George B. -Bayley, Mr. P. B. Van Trump. - -At a meeting of the Appalachian Mountain Club, held in Boston April -11, 1894, a similar committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. John -Ritchie, Jr., Rev. E. C. Smith, Dr. Charles E. Fay. - -The committees thus appointed were instructed by the several bodies to -which they belong to cooperate in the preparation of a memorial to -Congress, setting forth the substantial reasons for the establishment -of such park. - -Pursuant to their instructions, the committees present the following -memorial to the Congress, and pray that such action may be taken by -the honorable Senators and Representatives as will secure to the -people of the United States the benefits of a national park which -shall include the area mentioned above. In support of their prayer -they beg to submit the following statement: - -By proclamation of the President, in compliance with the statutes -provided therefor, a Pacific Forest Reserve has been established in -the State of Washington, the western portion of which is nearly -coincident with the tract of land to be included in the national park -for which your memorialists pray. - -The western part of this reserve includes many features of unique -interest and wonderful grandeur, which fit it peculiarly to be a -national park, forever set aside for the pleasure and instruction of -the people. The region is one of such exceptional rainfall and -snowfall that the preservation of its forests is of unusual importance -as a protection against floods in the lower valleys; but the scenic -features, which mark it out for a national park, attract tourists, who -set fire to the timber. This destruction goes on notwithstanding it is -a forest reserve, and will continue until protection is afforded by -adequate supervision of the area, whether as a reserve or park. - -The reserve is traversed through the middle from north to south by the -crest of the Cascade Range, which has an elevation varying from 5,300 -to 6,800 feet. This is the divide between tributaries of Puget Sound, -flowing west, and those of Yakima River, flowing east. Mount Rainier, -the isolated volcanic peak, 14,400 feet high, stands 12 miles west of -the divide, from which it is separated by a deep valley. - -The eastern half of the reserve differs from the western in climate, -in flora, and in fauna, in geographic and geologic features, and in -aspects of scenery. The eastern slope of the Cascade Range within the -reserve is a mountainous region, with summits rising to a general -elevation of 6,500 to 7,600 feet above the sea. It is forest covered -and presents many attractions to the tourist and hunter; but it is not -peculiar among the mountain regions of America either for grandeur or -interest, and it is not an essential part of the area to be set apart -as a national park. - -The western slope of the Cascades within the reserve is short and -steep as compared with the eastern. Much of it is precipitous, -particularly opposite Mount Rainier, where its bare walls would appear -most grand were they not in the shadow of that overpowering peak. -North and south of Rainier this slope is more gradual and densely -wooded. - -The western half of the Pacific reserve, that portion which it is -proposed shall be made a national park, is characterized by Mount -Rainier, whose summit is but 4 miles from the western boundary of the -reserve and whose glaciers extend beyond its limits. - -Mount Tacoma is not simply a volcanic cone, peculiar for its hugeness. -It was formerly a vast volcanic dome, 30 miles in radius to the north, -west, and south; but rivers have cut deep canyons, glaciers have -carved ample amphitheaters back into the mass, and now many serrate -ridges rising from a few hundred to 10,000 feet above the sea converge -at that altitude to support the central pyramid, which towers more -than 4,000 feet above its base. - -This grand mountain is not, like Mount Blanc, merely the dominant peak -of a chain of snow mountains; it is the only snow peak in view, Mount -St. Helens and Mount Adams being, like it, isolated and many miles -distant. Rainier is majestic in its isolation, reaching 6,000 to 8,000 -feet above its neighbors. It is superb in its boldness, rising from -one canyon 11,000 feet in 7 miles. Not only is it the grandest -mountain in this country, it is one of the grand mountains of the -world, to be named with St. Elias, Fusiyama, and Ararat, and the most -superb summits of the Alps. Eminent scientists of England and Germany, -who, as members of the Alpine Club of Switzerland and travelers of -wide experience, would naturally be conservative in their judgment, -have borne witness to the majesty of the scenery about Rainier. - -In 1883 Professor Zittel, a well-known German geologist, and Prof. -James Bryce, member of Parliament and author of the American -Commonwealth, made a report on the scenery about Mount Rainier. Among -other things, they said: - -"The scenery of Mount Rainier is of rare and varied beauty. The peak -itself is as noble a mountain as we have ever seen in its lines and -structure. The glaciers which descend from its snow fields present -all the characteristic features of those in the Alps, and though less -extensive than the ice streams of the Mount Blanc or Monta Rosa groups -are in their crevasses and seracs equally striking and equally worthy -of close study. We have seen nothing more beautiful in Switzerland or -Tyrol, in Norway or in the Pyrenees, than the Carbon River glaciers -and the great Puyallup glaciers; indeed, the ice in the latter is -unusually pure, and the crevasses unusually fine. The combination of -ice scenery with woodland scenery of the grandest type is to be found -nowhere in the Old World, unless it be in the Himalayas, and, so far -as we know, nowhere else on the American Continent." - -These eminent and experienced observers further say: - -"We may perhaps be permitted to express a hope that the suggestion -will at no distant date be made to Congress that Mount Rainier should, -like the Yosemite Valley and the geyser region of the Upper -Yellowstone, be reserved by the Federal Government and treated as a -national park." - -But Mount Tacoma is single not merely because it is superbly majestic; -it is an arctic island in a temperate zone. In a bygone age an arctic -climate prevailed over the Northwest, and glaciers covered the Cascade -Range. Arctic animals and arctic plants then lived throughout the -region. As the climate became milder and glaciers melted, the -creatures of the cold climate were limited in their geographic range -to the districts of the shrinking glaciers. On the great peak the -glaciers linger still. They give to it its greatest beauty. They are -themselves magnificent, and with them survives a colony of arctic -animals and plants which can not exist in the temperate climate of the -less lofty mountains. These arctic forms are as effectually isolated -as shipwrecked sailors on an island in mid-ocean. There is no refuge -for them beyond their haunts on ice-bound cliffs. But even there the -birds and animals are no longer safe from the keen sportsman, and the -few survivors must soon be exterminated unless protected by the -Government in a national park. - -The area of the Pacific forest reserve includes valuable timber and -important water supplies. It is said to contain coal, gold, and -silver. - -The timber on the western slope differs from that on the eastern in -size and density of growth and in kinds of trees. The forests of Puget -Sound are world-renowned for the magnitude and beauty of their -hemlocks, cedars, and firs. Their timber constitutes one of the most -important resources of the State. Nowhere are they more luxuriant than -on the foothills west and north of Mount Rainier. But their value as -timber is there subordinate to their value as regulators of floods. -The Puyallup River, whose lower valley is a rich hop garden, is even -now subject to floods during the rapid melting of the snow on Mount -Rainier in the limited area above timber line. In the broader area -below timber line, but above 3,000 feet in elevation, the depth of -snow in the winter of 1893 was 9 to 15 feet. Protected by the dense -canopy of the fir and hemlock trees this snow melts slowly and the -river is high from March to June. But let the forest be once destroyed -by fire or by lumbermen and the snows of each winter, melting in early -spring, will annually overwhelm the Puyallup Valley and transform it -into a gravelly waste. The same is true of White River and the -Nisqually. - -The forests of the eastern slope, tributary to the Yakima, are of even -greater importance as water preservers. They constitute a great -reservoir, holding back the precipitation of the wet season and -allowing it to filter down when most needed by crops. In the Yakima -Valley water gives to land its value. Storage of flood waters and -extensive distribution by canals is necessary. The forests being -preserved to control the water, the natural storage basins should be -improved and canals built. For these reasons it is most important -that no part of the forest reserve should be sacrificed, even though -the eastern half is not included in the national park. - -The boundaries of the proposed national park have been so drawn as to -exclude from its area all lands upon which coal, gold, or other -valuable minerals are supposed to occur, and they conform to the -purpose that the park shall include all features of peculiar scenic -beauty without encroaching on the interests of miners or settlers. - -None save those who can march and camp in the primeval forest can now -visit Mount Rainier; but it is the wilderness, not the distance, that -makes it difficult of approach. On the west the distance up the -Nisqually River from the railroad at Yelm Prairie to the reserve is -but 40 miles. Though heavily timbered, the valley of the Nisqually -affords an easy route for a railroad. The Cowlitz Valley also offers a -line of approach without difficulty by rail, it being about 50 miles -from the railroad to the reserve. - -On the northwest the railroad at Wilkeson is but 23 miles from the -summit of Mount Rainier, and the glaciers can be reached by riding 25 -miles through the great forest. - -On the north the Cascade branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad -crosses the range, only 13 miles in a direct line and 19 miles along -the summit from the northern limit of the reserve. - -On the east the city of North Yakima is but 62 miles from the summit -of Mount Rainier. - -The proposed park covers a mountain region which lies across the line -of travel from east to west. The railroad winds northward; the travel -down the Columbia River turns southward to avoid it. The great current -of tourists which flows north and south through Portland, Tacoma, -Seattle, Vancouver, and Alaska passes to the west within sight of -Mount Rainier, and when the grand old mountain is obscured by clouds -the travelers linger to see it, or, passing regretfully on their way, -know that they have missed the finest view of their trip. - -When a railroad is built up the Nisqually or Cowlitz Valley to the -park and connection by stages is assured northward to the Cascade -branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad and eastward to Yakima, the -flood of travel will be diverted through the park. - -The point which combines accessibility with surroundings of great -beauty, and which is therefore most appropriate as a hotel site, is -southeast of Mount Rainier, on one of the spurs of the Tatoosh -Mountains, near the Cowlitz Valley. To open this region to travel it -would be sufficient to establish the hotel and its connections down -the Nisqually or Cowlitz Valley, together with trails to points of -interest within the park. From the hotel a principal trail would -extend north to the Emmons and White River glaciers, which would thus -be easily accessible, and thence the railroad at Wilkeson could -readily be reached on horseback over the old Northern Pacific trail. -In the future, stage roads, or possibly a railroad, would be extended -over the Cowlitz Pass to the eastern slope, North Yakima would be -reached via the Tieton or Tannum Valley, and Tannum Lake would become -a favorite resort. - -But the highway which would challenge the world for its equal in grand -scenery would extend from the Cowlitz Pass northward along the crest -of the range to the Cascade branch. The distance is 50 miles, 31 in -the park and 19 beyond it to the railroad. Within the reserve the -summit is open and park-like. On the east is a sea of mountains; on -the west is a bold descent of 3,000 feet to the valleys of Cowlitz and -White rivers, beyond which Tacoma rises in overpowering grandeur, -8,000 feet above the road and only 12 miles distant. - -A committee of your memorialists has carefully examined the existing -maps of the State of Washington with special reference to the -position of this reserve, and finds that the boundaries of the -reserve are farther east, in relation to Mount Rainier, than was -supposed. The western boundary traverses the slope of Mount Rainier -at altitudes of 7,000 to 9,000 feet, and the glaciers extend several -miles beyond it. In order to include all of the glacial area and the -immediately adjacent forest on the west, your memorialists -respectfully recommend that the western boundary of the park be -drawn one range west of that of the reserve, viz., at the range line -between ranges 6 and 7 east of the Willamette meridian. By this -change no part of the Wilkeson-Carbonado coal field would be -included in the park. - -Your memorialists find, as already stated, that it is not necessary to -include the eastern slope of the Cascades in the park, and furthermore -that it is desirable to leave the Natchez Pass on the north and the -Cowlitz Pass on the south open for the construction of railroads. Your -memorialists therefore pray that the park be defined by the following -boundaries: Beginning at the northwest corner of sec. 19, T. 18 N., R. -7 E. of the Willamette meridian; thence south 24 miles more or less to -the southwest corner of sec. 18, T. 14 N., R. 7 E.; thence east 27 -miles more or less to the summit of the Cascade Range; thence in a -northerly direction to a point east of the place of beginning, and -thence west 26 miles more or less to the place of beginning. - -Your memorialists respectfully represent that-- - -Railroad lines have been surveyed and after the establishment of a -national park would soon be built to its boundaries. The concessions -for a hotel, stopping places, and stage routes could be leased and the -proceeds devoted to the maintenance of the park. The policing of the -park could be performed from the barracks at Vancouver by details of -soldiers, who would thus be given useful and healthful employment from -May to October. - -The establishment of a hotel would afford opportunity for a weather -station, which, in view of the controlling influence exerted by Mount -Rainier on the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific, would be -important in relation to local weather predictions. - -Your memorialists further represent that this region of marvelous -beauty is even now being seriously marred by careless camping parties. -Its valuable forests and rare animals are being injured and will -certainly be destroyed unless the forest reserve be policed during the -camping seasons. But efficient protection of the undeveloped -wilderness is extraordinarily difficult and in this case practically -impossible. - -Therefore, for the preservation of the property of the United States, -for the protection from floods of the people of Washington in the -Yakima, Cowlitz, Nisqually, Puyallup, and White River valleys, and for -the pleasure and education of the nation, your memorialists pray that -the area above described be declared a national park forever. - -For the National Geographic Society: - - GARDINER G. HUBBARD, - _President._ - -For the American Association for the Advancement of Science: - - J. W. POWELL. - -For the Geological Society of America: - - BAILEY WILLIS. - -For the Sierra Club: - - JOHN MUIR. - -For the Appalachian Mountain Club: - - JOHN RITCHIE, JR. - -WASHINGTON, D.C., _June 27, 1894_. - - - - -XVIII. MOUNT RAINIER IS 14,408 FEET HIGH - -BY THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY - - - The United States Geological Survey issued a bulletin for - newspaper publication on January 22, 1914, giving the height - of the mountain as determined by the most accurate and - definitive methods known. That bulletin is here given as it - was then issued. At the same time F. E. Matthes, topographer - with the Survey, sent additional comment to the Sierra Club - of California, by whom it was published in the Sierra - Bulletin for January, 1914. This comment is now reproduced by - permission of the Sierra Club. - -The height of the summit of Mount Rainier, Washington, has been -determined by the United States Geological Survey to be 14,408 feet -above mean sea level. This elevation now officially displaces the -former supposed height of the mountain of 14,363 feet and accords to -Mount Rainier the distinction of being the second highest mountain -peak in the United States, Mount Whitney, California, being the -highest. The correct height of Rainier was determined by a party of -topographic engineers of the Survey in connection with the mapping of -the Mount Rainier National Park, which was completed last summer. The -topographic survey of the park was begun in 1910 by F. E. Matthes, -continued in 1911 by Mr. Matthes and George R. Davis, and finished in -1913 by C. H. Birdseye, W. O. Tufts, O. G. Taylor, and S. E. Taylor. - -In the mapping of the summit of the mountain a terrific blizzard was -encountered; in fact, two ascents of the upper portion of the mountain -were necessary. The first ascent of the upper 5,450 feet was begun at -5 o'clock A.M., August 16 [1913], and dawn broke with every indication -of developing into a beautiful day. On reaching the summit the men -encountered a terrific gale, clouds enveloped the mountain, preventing -observations, and by noon snow began to fall. A descent was attempted, -but the party became hopelessly lost in a labyrinth of crevasses, the -storm developing into a blizzard. To descend further was impossible; -to remain was suicide. Consequently a return to the crater was -ordered, and the men reached it after a two hours' climb, utterly -exhausted and nearly frozen. Here they sought shelter in one of the -steam caves, where during the long night they were thoroughly steamed -and half frozen in turn. Strenuous measures were employed by the men -to keep from falling asleep and freezing to death. As it was, their -fingers and ears were badly frozen. Finally, with a rising barometer, -they succeeded in descending 9,000 feet to a temporary camp, making -the descent in three hours. Here they recuperated and prepared for -another ascent, which was accomplished on August 20, the start being -made at 1 o'clock in the morning. Good weather was encountered and the -mapping of the entire summit was finished by 1 o'clock. - -"If anyone thinks that American glaciers are play glaciers, or that -the weather which may be encountered at the summit of Mount Rainier in -August is uniformly balmy and springlike," said Mr. Birdseye, whose -fingers and ears were badly frosted, "let him climb Mount Rainier -during one of its summer blizzards. The steam caves in the crater are -not the pleasantest places imaginable to spend the night in, but had -they not been there, not one of us would be alive today to tell the -tale." - - -COMMENT BY F. E. MATTHES - -The mountaineers of the Pacific Northwest will no doubt jubilate at -the above announcement by the United States Geological Survey of the -new figure for the altitude of Mount Rainier. It places that peak -close to the top of the list of high mountains in the United States. -Mount Rainier's closest rival on the Pacific coast, Mount Shasta, it -so happens, has just recently been beheaded by the United States Coast -and Geodetic Survey, and now can claim no more than 14,162 feet, that -is, 218 feet less than it once boasted. The great volcano of Puget -Sound is thus left well in the lead. - -A review of the different figures that have been announced in the past -for each of the higher peaks of the United States would almost justify -one to infer that these summits have a peculiar habit of fluctuating -in height from time to time. Both Rainier and Shasta have been -notorious for their inconstancy; so much so indeed that it is to be -feared that the public will lose faith somewhat in the trustworthiness -of altitude determinations in general. There is good reason to -believe, however, that the last announcements for these two peaks are -not likely to be changed again. About Mount Shasta, perhaps the Coast -Survey is the only party able to speak positively; but as regards -Mount Rainier, the Geological Survey feels satisfied that the new -figure is the best that can be obtained with modern methods and -instruments. - -The elevation of Mount Whitney (14,501 ft.), it may be remembered, was -determined by actual leveling, but such procedure would have been -impossible on Mount Rainier, as the most practicable route to its -summit leads over many miles of snow and ice, and up a precipitous -chute several hundred feet in height. On thawing snow accurate -leveling is out of the question, for the instrument can not be set up -so firmly that it will not settle slightly between back and fore -sights. To execute this pottering kind of work in freezing weather -would entail both hardship and great expense. But the obstacle that -would have proved entirely insuperable to levels on Mount Rainier and -led to the abandoning of that method is the dreaded Gibraltar Rock, -well known to many who read this magazine [Sierra Club Bulletin]. To -carry levels up its precipitous side is for practical considerations -all but impossible. - -It was necessary, in the case of Mount Rainier, to resort to -long-distance methods of angulation. That is to say, sights were taken -to its summit from neighboring peaks, six to eight miles distant, the -altitudes of which had been carefully determined, and the positions of -which with respect to the mountain's summit had been computed from a -scheme of triangulation. - -It is not possible to execute vertical-angle measurements of this sort -with the precision obtainable by leveling; at the same time by -providing a sufficient number of checks and repeating each measurement -many times a result can be attained that can be relied on within a -foot or two. And closer than that the determination of a snowcapped -peak, such as Mount Rainier, need scarcely be; for its actual height -is bound to fluctuate by several feet from year to year and even from -month to month. - -It is gratifying to note how closely the new trigonometric -determination of Mount Rainier accords with the barometric one of -Prof. Alexander McAdie (14,394 ft.). It is hoped that this agreement -between the results of two fundamentally different methods will -strengthen public faith in their reliability, and lead to the -discarding of other figures (some of them much exaggerated) that have -appeared in print from time to time. - -In closing, it may be said, that the Geological Survey's bulletin -little more than hints at the fortitude and pluck of Mr. Birdseye and -his party in their almost disastrous experiences on the peak. Survey -men are so frequently confronted by peril in their daily work, that -they are not apt to write or talk about it, and as a consequence the -public seldom learns the intimate details. It is to be hoped that the -history of this undertaking will some day appear in full. - - - - - [Illustration: PETER RAINIER. - Admiral of the Blue, Royal Navy. ] - -XIX. PLACE NAMES AND ELEVATIONS IN MOUNT RAINIER NATIONAL PARK - - - Place names within a region like the Mount Rainier National - Park are produced by three causes: The first and most - important is the actual need of such names by those who work - within the Park and by those who report upon or write about - it. The second is the natural desire to honor those - individuals whose achievements are worthy of commemoration. - The third cause is found in the vanity of visitors. This is - sometimes manifested in the harmless and often helpful desire - just to be the one to name something, but usually it takes - the form of a desire of visitors to write the names of - themselves or their friends upon the map. - - The ranger who discovers from a look-out peak a distant fire - near some unnamed lake or cliff hastens to a telephone, but - finds his work of sending fire fighters to the place of - danger much more difficult than if he could use some definite - place name. Trail builders and patrols continually find a - similar need for names. For their own use they proceed to - invent names which often stick. The Mountaineers in 1915 - found that a trail builder had supplied such a need by giving - a beautiful waterfall near his trail the name of his favorite - brand of canned peaches. More care of such matters is now - being exercised by those interested working through the - United States Geographic Board. - - The elevations given are taken from the official map and - other Government publications. In time all important heights - will be definitely determined and marked. - - It is hoped that this compilation of the names may be - improved from year to year. Further facts about any of the - names would be welcomed by the editor of this work. - -=Ada Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek near the northern -boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Adelaide Lake.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. Origin -of name not ascertained. - -=Affi Falls.= In Lodi Creek, in the north-central portion of the Park. -Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Alice Falls.= In Spukwush Creek, in the northwestern portion of the -Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Alki Crest.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. The name is from -the Chinook jargon meaning "by and by." - -=Allen Lake.= See Lake Allen. - -=Alta Vista.= A point near the snow line on the south-central slope. -It was named by John P. Hartman, who visited the place with a Tacoma -party in 1889. The name is Spanish and means "high view." - -=Anvil Rock.= On the southern slope, near the upper Cowlitz Glacier. -The name is descriptive, but who suggested it has not been -ascertained. Elevation, 9,584 feet above sea level. - -=Arthur Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name -not ascertained. - -=August Peak.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of -name not ascertained. - -=Avalanche Camp.= On the north slope. Named by a member of The -Mountaineers, during that club's first ascent in 1909. Elevation, -10,900 feet above sea level. - -=Baker Point.= Outjutting portion of Goat Island Mountain, overlooking -Emmons Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Bald Rock.= On the southeastern slope, near the Cowlitz Divide. The -name is descriptive. - -=Barnes Pass.= On western edge of the Park. Named in honor of the -photographer, C. A. Barnes, who discovered it while with J. H. Weer -and J. B. Flett. - -=Barrier Peak.= A prolongation of Governors Ridge near the -east-central boundary of the Park. - -=Basaltic Falls.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain. One of -the features of Cowlitz Park. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett and H. H. -Garretson. - -=Bear Park.= In the northeastern corner of the Park. - -=Bee Flat.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, just south of -Chenuis Mountain. - -=Beehive.= Large rock on the southeast slope. It was named by Major E. -S. Ingraham in 1888, who says: "It reminded me of one of those -old-fashioned beehives." Elevation, 11,033 feet above sea level. - -=Beljica.= An interesting peak near the road leading from Ashford to -the Park. The name is a composite made up of initials. In July, 1897, -a party of nine young people visiting the peak provided the name. The -B was for Burgon D. Mesler, the e for any one of three--Elizabeth -Drabe, Elizabeth Sharp and Elizabeth Mesler, the l for Lucy K. -LaWall, the j for Jessie K. LaWall, the i for Isabel Mesler, the c -for Clara Mesler, and the a for Alexander Mesler. - -=Bench Lake.= In the southern portion of the Park. The land lying -above the lake is called The Bench. Elevation of the lake, 4,500 feet -above sea level. - -=Berkeley Park.= In the north-central portion of the Park, between -Burroughs and Skyscraper Mountains. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Berry Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. - -=Boulder Creek.= A tributary of Ohanapecosh River, in the park of the -same name, on the eastern slope of the mountain. - -=Boundary Peak.= Appropriately named, as it lies on the southern -boundary line of the Park. - -=Brown Peak.= In the northeastern corner of the Park. - -=Buel Peak.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. Origin of -name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,933 feet above sea level. - -=Burnt Park.= In the northeastern corner of the Park. - -=Burroughs Mountain.= On the northeast slope. It was named for the -naturalist and was at first called John Burroughs Mountain. - -=Butter Creek.= Flowing from the Tatoosh Range across the southern -boundary of the Park. - -=Camp Curtis.= On the northeast slope. Named by The Mountaineers in -1909 in honor of Asahel Curtis, leader of that club's first ascent. -Elevation, 9,000 feet above sea level. - -=Camp Delight.= See Camp of the Stars. - -=Camp Misery.= On the southern slope of the mountain at the base of -the Beehive. The name is descriptive. Elevation, 11,033 feet above sea -level. - -=Camp Muir.= On the southeast slope. Named by Major E. S. Ingraham, in -honor of the naturalist, John Muir, who selected the temporary camping -place during their ascent in 1888, because the presence of pumice -indicated a shelter from strong winds. Elevation, 10,062 feet above -sea level. - -=Camp No Camp.= On the southeastern slope, near the summit of the -mountain. It is in the saddle near the summit of Gibraltar. The name -indicates a disappointed attempt at rest. Elevation, 12,550 feet above -sea level. - -=Camp of the Clouds.= On the south slope above Paradise Valley. Named -on August 12, 1886, by Charles E. Kehoe, Charles A. Billings and -George N. Talcott of Olympia. During their visit there the heavy banks -of clouds parted and gave them a superb mountain view. Elevation, -5,947 feet above sea level. - -=Camp of the Stars.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, near -the foot of Gibraltar. It is a narrow shelf of rocks, affording space -for a dozen climbers when crowded together and "feet hanging over." It -was used by one of the Ingraham parties, and H. E. Holmes says they at -first called it Camp Delight on account of their joy at the first rays -of morning. Elevation, about 12,000 feet above sea level. - -=Canyon Bridge.= In the southeastern part of the Park. The Muddy Fork -of the Cowlitz River rushes through a very narrow and deep rift in the -rocks. The spanning bridge gives an attractive view. - -=Carbon Glacier.= This glacier begins at the foot of Willis Wall on -the north face of the mountain. - -=Carbon River.= About 1876 coal was discovered on the banks of this -river suggesting the name, which was also later given to the glacier -from which the river has its source. - -=Carter Falls.= One of the beautiful features of the lower Paradise -River. Named for an early guide who built the first trail to Paradise -Valley. For years the Longmires collected a fee of fifty cents from -each one using the trail. It was willingly paid when it was explained -that the money went to the builder of the trail. - -=Castle Rock.= In the northwestern portion of the Park. Named from its -resemblance to an old castle. Elevation, 6,116 feet above sea level. - -=Cataract Basin.= See Mist Park. - -=Cataract Creek.= Flows from Mist Park to the Carbon River in the -northwestern portion of the Park. About midway in its course are the -beautiful Cataract Falls. - -=Cathedral Rocks.= Extending southeast from the summit. It is an -extensive cleaver between the upper Cowlitz and Ingraham Glaciers. Who -first suggested the name has not been ascertained. Elevation, 8,262 -feet above sea level. - -=Chenuis Mountain.= An extensive ridge near the northern boundary of -the Park. On the shoulders of the mountain rest three little lakes -called Chenuis Lakes. From the northern slopes of the mountain there -rises Chenuis Creek, which, near its junction with the Carbon River at -the northwestern boundary of the Park, produces the beautiful Chenuis -Falls. The name seems to be Indian, but its origin has not been -ascertained. Elevation of the ridge, from 4,000 to 6,000 feet above -sea level. - -=Christine Falls.= On the lower portion of Van Trump creek. Mr. Van -Trump says the falls "were named after my daughter, Christine Louise, -by a friend John Hayes, of Yelm." Elevation, 3,667 feet above sea -level. - -=Cliff Lake.= In the south-central portion of the Park, between the -Tatoosh Range and the boundary. - -=Clover Lakes.= In White River Park, in the northwestern part of the -Park. - -=Cold Basin.= In the northern portion of the Park, just south of Grand -Park. - -=Colonnade.= The ridge lying between the South Mowich and the Puyallup -Glaciers on the west-central slope of the mountain. - -=Columbia Crest.= Name suggested by H. E. Holmes of the Ingraham party -in 1891. They had spent two nights in the crater and before leaving -voted on a name for the highest part of the summit, with Columbia -Crest as the result. It has occasionally been called The Dome. By -Stevens and Van Trump it was called Crater Peak. Elevation, 14,408 -feet above sea level. - -=Comet Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in Van Trump -Park. Elevation, 5,200 feet above sea level. - -=Cougar Falls.= Near the southern boundary of the Park, in the Nickel -Creek tributary of the Cowlitz River. - -=Cowlitz Chimneys.= Pointed and columnar rocks on the east-central -slope. Though not adjacent to the glacier or river of that name, they -undoubtedly got their name from one or the other. Elevation 7,607 feet -above sea level. - -=Cowlitz Cleaver.= Near the southern peak of the summit. It is -appropriately named, as it cleaves the higher streams of ice part of -which flow into Puget Sound and the rest into the Columbia River. - -=Cowlitz Divide.= A ridge running from north to south in the -southeastern corner of the Park. - -=Cowlitz Glacier.= Named by General Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump -in 1870 when they discovered it to be the source of the river by that -name. It has its beginning from a group of smaller glaciers on the -southeast slope of the mountain. Above the glaciers lies Cowlitz Park. - -=Cowlitz River.= The name appears as early as the Lewis and Clark -reports, 1805-1806, where it is spelled Coweliskee. In varying forms -it appears in the writings of all subsequent explorers. A tribe of -Indians by that name inhabited its valleys. The river finally flows -southward into the Columbia River. - -=Cowlitz Rocks.= A mass of rocks on the southeast slope, between the -Paradise and Cowlitz Glaciers. The rocks were named in 1907 by the -veteran guide, Jules Stampfler, who found a name necessary to satisfy -the curiosity of his companies of tourists. Elevation, 7,457 feet -above sea level. - -=Crater Lake.= On the northwest slope. Bailey Willis gave the name in -1883. He recently wrote: "The amphitheatres which the young geologist -mistook for craters are now known to be glacier basins eroded by -ice." Elevation, 4,929 feet above sea level. - -=Crater Peak.= See Columbia Crest. - -=Crescent Mountain.= On the northern slope. The name was used by -Bailey Willis in 1883. Near the foot of this mountain lies Crescent -Lake. - -=Cress Falls.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, near Spukwush -Creek. - -=Crystal Mountain.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, -overlooking Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. Elevation, 6,300 feet above -sea level. - -=Cushman Crest.= On the southern slope, overlooking Nisqually Glacier. -Named in honor of the late Congressman F. W. Cushman, of Tacoma. - -=Dege Peak.= Overlooking Yakima Park in the northern part of the Park. -Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Denman Falls.= On the western slope, in St. Andrews Creek. Named by -Ben Longmire in honor of A. H. Denman of Tacoma, enthusiastic -mountaineer and photographer. - -=Devils Dream Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, a -tributary of Pyramid Creek. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Dick Creek.= Flowing from Elysian Fields to the Carbon River in the -northwestern portion of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Division Rock.= At the lower end of North Mowich Glacier, on the -northwestern slope of the mountain. - -=Doe Creek.= A tributary of Ipsut Creek in the northwestern portion of -the Park. - -=Double Peak.= Near the southeastern boundary of the Park. The height -is marked at 6,200 feet. The name was suggested by its form. - -=Eagle Cliff.= Overlooking Spray Creek in the northwestern portion of -the Park. - -=Eagle Peak.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. Elevation, -5,955 feet above sea level. - -=Echo Cliffs.= In the northwestern portion of the Park above Cataract -Creek. - -=Echo Rock.= On the northwest slope near Russell Glacier. Major E. S. -Ingraham named it Seattle Rock because it may be seen from that city. -He does not know who changed the name. - -=Edith Creek.= On the southern slope, a tributary of the Paradise -River. In 1907, Jules Stampfler, the guide, was getting out a series -of stereopticon views and he needed a name for that creek. He does not -remember Edith's full name. She was a member of one of his parties. - -=Edmunds Glacier.= On the western slope. In June, 1883, the glaciers -were visited by Vice President Oakes of the Northern Pacific Railroad -Company and United States Senator George F. Edmunds of Vermont. One -result of that trip was an order to build what has since been known as -the Bailey Willis trail to the northwestern slopes of the mountain. -Another subsequent result was the naming of the glacier in honor of -Senator Edmunds. - -=Elizabeth Ridge.= Near Crater Lake in the northwestern corner of the -Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Elysian Fields.= One of the beautiful park regions on the northern -slope. The name was given by Major E. S. Ingraham in 1888. Elevation, -5,700 feet above sea level. - -=Emerald Ridge.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, dividing -the lower parts of the Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers. The name is -descriptive, but by whom it was first suggested has not been -ascertained. - -=Emmons Glacier.= On the northeastern slope. This is the largest -glacier on the mountain. For a long time it was called White Glacier -because it gave rise to the river of that name. The river's name came -from the glacial whiteness of its waters. The present name is in honor -of S. F. Emmons, who, with A. D. Wilson, made the second successful -ascent of the mountain in 1870. - -=Eunice Lake.= In the northwest corner of the Park near Tolmie Peak. -Bailey Willis named it Tolmie Lake in 1883; but it was not so mapped -officially, and the name was changed to honor Mrs. W. H. Gilstrap of -Tacoma. She and her husband were frequent visitors to the Crater Lake -region. - -=Fairy Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in the upper waters of -Stevens Creek. Elevation, 5,500 feet above sea level. - -=Falls Creek.= Rises in North Park and flows across the boundary at -the northwestern corner of the Park. - -=Fay Peak.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking -Crater Lake. Elevation, 6,500 feet above sea level. The name was given -in honor of Miss Fay Fuller of Tacoma, who in 1890 was the first of -her sex to attain the summit of Mount Rainier. - -=Fir Lake.= A small lake in the southeastern corner of the Park. - -=Fish Creek.= A tributary of Tahoma Creek in the southwestern corner -of the Park. - -=Fishers Hornpipe Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, a -tributary of Pyramid creek. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Flett Glacier.= Near Ptarmigan Ridge on the northwestern slope. The -name is in honor of Professor J. B. Flett of Tacoma, one of the most -enthusiastic explorers of the mountain. - -=Florence Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of -name not ascertained. - -=Frog Heaven.= On the south-central slope of the mountain, to the west -of Narada Falls. - -=Frozen Lake.= In the northern portion of the Park, just south of -Mount Fremont. - -=Fryingpan Glacier.= There are two conflicting theories about this -name. One is that some campers lost a frying pan in the river, giving -it that name, which was later extended to the glacier. The other is -that Professor I. C. Russell named the glacier from its fancied -resemblance to a frying pan, and that the name was later extended to -the river. On the east-central slope of the mountain. - -=Garda Falls.= In Granite Creek, a tributary of Winthrop Creek, in the -north-central portion of the Park. Named by C. A. Barnes in honor of -Miss Garda Fogg of Tacoma. - -=George Lake.= See Lake George. - -=Gibraltar.= This famous and forbidding cliff of rock just southeast -of the summit was named by the Ingraham party in 1889. Elevation, -12,679 feet above sea level. - -=Glacier Basin.= On the northern slope of the mountain. It is a rather -steep but attractive little park, with a small lake and good spring -water. Inter Glacier is at its head and Inter Fork passes through it. -Miners at Starbo Camp maintain a little waterpower sawmill, and they -have for years worked at prospective mines on the slopes of the Basin. -They have built a wagon road to their camp, by use of which tourists -will soon become well acquainted with the beauties of Glacier Basin -and the surrounding regions. Elevation, 6,000 feet above sea level. - -=Glacier Island.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain. The name -is descriptive, as the island lies between the lower parts of Tahoma -and South Tahoma Glaciers. - -=Goat Island Mountain.= On the northeastern slope of the mountain, -between Emmons Glacier and Summer Land. - -=Goat Island Rock.= In the lower portion of Carbon Glacier, in the -northwestern portion of the Park. - -=Golden Lakes.= A cluster of beautiful lakes in and near Sunset Park, -close to the west-central boundary of the Park. At sundown they glow -like molten gold. - -=Gove Peak.= In the northwestern portion of the Park. Origin of name -not ascertained. - -=Governors Ridge.= Toward the east-central boundary of the Park. The -name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen of the Park. - -=Grand Park.= A high and extensive area in the northern portion of the -Park. The miles of relatively level ground, flower-strewn and -ornamented with circular groves of alpine firs and hemlocks, with -deer abundant every summer, make the name an appropriate one. -Elevation, 5,700 feet above sea level. - -=Granite Creek.= In the north-central portion of the Park. It is a -tributary of Winthrop Creek. - -=Grant Creek.= A tributary to Spray Creek in the northwestern portion -of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Green Lake.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. - -=Green Park.= North of Sourdough Mountains, in the northeastern part -of the Park. - -=Hall's Camp.= See Wigwam Camp. - -=Hayden Creek.= A tributary of Meadow Creek in the northwestern corner -of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Henrys Hunting Ground.= See Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. - -=Hessong Rock.= On the northwest slope overlooking Spray Park. It was -named in honor of a photographer who lived at Lake Kapowsin. - -=Hidden Lake.= Near White River Park, in the northeastern part of the -Park. - -=Howard Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name -not ascertained. - -=Huckleberry Creek.= Takes its rise in the Sourdough Mountains and -flows northward across the boundary of the Park. - -=Huckleberry Park.= At the headwaters of Huckleberry Creek in the -northeastern part of the Park. - -=Independence Ridge.= Extending from Chenuis Mountain to the northern -boundary of the Park. - -=Indian Bar.= A large gravel bar in Ohanapecosh Park on the eastern -slope of the mountain. - -=Indian Henrys Hunting Ground.= About 1870, a Cowlitz Indian began -hunting mountain goats in that region. Henry Winsor, a pioneer mail -carrier, asked his name and got an unpronounceable answer. "That's no -name," said Winsor, "your name is Indian Henry." His playful joke -stuck. On the map the word "Indian" is omitted, but the United States -Geographic Board has voted to restore it. P. B. Van Trump said the -Indian's name was Sotolick. - -=Ingraham Glacier.= This beautiful glacier lies between Cathedral -Rocks and Little Tahoma on the southeast slope. It was named by -Professor I. C. Russell in 1896 in honor of Major E. S. Ingraham of -Seattle. - -=Inter Glacier.= On the northeast slope. It was named by Major E. S. -Ingraham in 1886 when he attempted but failed to ascend the mountain -from the north side. The name was suggested by the glacier being -hemmed in by a rim of rocks. - -=Ipsut Pass.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Flowing from it -to the Carbon River is a stream called Ipsut Creek. The word is said -to be a form of an Indian word meaning "bear." - -=Iron Mountain.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, -overlooking Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. The name describes the -masses of supposed iron stain. Elevation, 6,200 feet above sea level. - -=Jeanette Heights.= On the west-central slope overlooking Edmunds -Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Josephine Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek, taking its rise -in Green Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=June Creek.= Flows across the boundary in the northwestern corner of -the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Kautz Glacier.= This glacier begins at the foot of Peak Success, the -southern summit. It was named in honor of Lieutenant (afterwards -General) A. V. Kautz, who attempted an ascent in 1857. The creek -flowing from the glacier bears the same name. - -=Klapatche Ridge.= Near the west-central boundary of the Park, between -the North Puyallup River and St. Andrews Creek. Origin of name not -ascertained. - -=Knapsack Pass.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, a pass -between Fay Peak and Mother Mountain from Mist Park to Crater Lake. - -=Kotsuck Creek.= Flows across the east-central boundary of the Park. -Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Lake Allen.= On the west slope of Mount Wow in the southwestern -corner of the Park. To avoid confusion, it was originally named Lake -O. D. Allen. The name was given in honor of the veteran botanist, who -was at one time a professor at Yale University. - -=Lake Eleanor.= Near the northern boundary of the Park. Origin of name -not ascertained. - -=Lake Ethel.= In the north-central portion of the Park, with outlet -into the West Fork of White River. The name was suggested by The -Mountaineers in 1912 as a compliment to the daughter of Park Ranger -Thomas E. O'Farrell. - -=Lake George.= On the western slope of Mount Wow in the southwestern -corner of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Lake James.= In the north-central portion of the Park, with outlet -into Van Horn Creek. The name was suggested by The Mountaineers in -1912 as a compliment to the young son of Thomas E. O'Farrell, Park -Ranger. - -=Lake Tom.= A small lake near Arthur Peak in the northwestern corner -of the Park. - -=Landslide.= On the northwest of Slide Mountain, in the northeastern -corner of the Park. - -=Lee Creek.= A tributary of Crater Creek in the northwestern portion -of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Liberty Cap.= The northern peak of the summit of Mount Rainier. It -has been claimed that Stevens and Van Trump gave this name at the time -of their first ascent in 1870, but Mr. Van Trump says they called it -Tahoma Peak. One of the early uses of the present name was by Bailey -Willis, who wrote in 1883: "Over the trees near the outlet, just to -the right of this pinnacle, a pure white peak towers up into the -heavens; it is the northern summit of Mount Tacoma,--the Liberty Cap." -Elevation, 14,112 feet above sea level. - -=Liberty Ridge.= To the west of Willis Wall and overlooking the head -of Carbon Glacier near the northern summit. The name was adopted in -1914 by the engineers of the United States Geological Survey who made -the official map of the Park. It was suggested by John H. Williams, -author of the book entitled "The Mountain That Was God." - -=Little Tahoma Peak.= A towering and rugged peak on the east flank of -Mount Rainier. Very few adventuresome climbers have as yet attained -its summit. Elevation, 11,117 feet above sea level. The only ascent -known was made by Prof. J. B. Flett and H. H. Garretson. - -=Lodi Creek.= A tributary of White River, in the north-central portion -of the Park. The name is said to have been given by early prospectors -for minerals. - -=Longmire Springs.= Near the southeastern boundary of the Park. The -springs were discovered by the pioneer, James Longmire, who acquired -title to the property and lived there until his death on September 17, -1897. Members of his family still maintain a resort there. The -National Park Inn, a postoffice, Park offices, and other conveniences -make Longmire the capital of the Park. Elevation, 2,761 feet above sea -level. - -=Lost Creek.= Flows across the northeastern boundary of the Park. - -=Louise Lake.= In the south-central portion of the Park between Mazama -Ridge and Tatoosh Range. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=McClure Rock.= On the southeastern slope near Paradise Glacier. It -marks the place of the tragic death of Professor Edgar McClure, of the -University of Oregon, in 1897, while descending after taking -barometric measurements at the summit. Elevation, 7,384 feet above sea -level. - -=McNealey Peak.= A part of Sourdough Mountains in the northern part of -the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Madcap Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in the Paradise -River between Narada Falls and Carter Falls. - -=Maple Falls.= In a creek of the same name, near the southern boundary -of the Park. The creek is a tributary of Stevens Creek. - -=Marcus Peak.= A part of Sourdough Mountains in the northeastern part -of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Margaret Falls.= On the southeast slope, between Cowlitz Park and -Cowlitz Glacier. The name was in honor of one of the daughters of E. -S. Hall, former Superintendent of the Park. - -=Marie Falls.= On the southeast slope, in the upper waters of Nickel -Creek. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Marjorie Lakes.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. Origin -of name not ascertained. - -=Marmot Creek.= A tributary of Cataract Creek, draining Seattle Park, -in the northwestern portion of the Park. The name is for the whistling -marmot, so plentiful in that region. - -=Marsh Lakes.= In the southern part of the Park. - -=Martha Falls.= On the southeast slope. The falls were named in honor -of the wife of the late Elcaine Longmire, by Ben Longmire, the son. - -=Martin Peak.= On the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of -name not ascertained. - -=Mary Belle Falls.= On the southeast slope in the upper waters of -Nickel Creek. The name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in -honor of one of the daughters of E. S. Hall, former Superintendent of -the Park. - -=Mazama Ridge.= On the southern slope of the mountain, beginning at -Sluiskin Falls. Named for the Oregon mountain climbing club whose main -camp was pitched there in 1905. - -=Meadow Creek.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. It rises -near Tolmie Peak and was named by Bailey Willis in 1883. - -=Mildred Point.= On the southwest slope, overlooking the foot of Kautz -Glacier. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Mineral Mountain.= On the north-central slope of the mountain, -overlooking Mystic Lake. The name tells the hopes of early prospectors -who worked there before the National Park was created. - -=Mirror Lakes.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, in Indian -Henrys Hunting Ground. - -=Mist Park.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, on the shoulders -of Mother Mountain. Elevation, 6,000 feet above sea level. This park -is also known as Cataract Basin. - -=Moraine Park.= On the northern slope, bordering Carbon Glacier. It -was named by Professor I. C. Russell. - -=Mosquito Flat.= In the north-central portion of the Park, near Lakes -James and Ethel. The name indicates that the place was first visited -at an unfortunate season. Elevation, 4,400 feet above sea level. - -=Mother Mountain.= An extensive ridge in the northwestern portion of -the Park. The name came from the figure of a woman in the rock on the -northeastern summit of the ridge clearly seen silhouetted against the -sky by those traveling on the Carbon River trail. Elevation, 6,540 -feet above sea level. - -=Mount Ararat.= On the southwest slope, overlooking Indian Henrys -Hunting Ground. Ben Longmire writes: "I named it because I found there -some long slabs of wood that had turned to stone and I thought they -might have been part of old Noah's boat. I also found a stump with a -ring around it as if his rope might have been tied there. It was all -stone." Elevation, 5,996 feet above sea level. - -=Mount Fremont.= In the northern portion of the Park at the western -extremity of Sourdough Mountains. The origin of the name has not been -ascertained. Elevation, 7,300 feet above sea level. - -=Mount Pleasant.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking -Mist and Spray Parks. - -=Mount Rainier.= Named for Admiral Peter Rainier of the British Navy -by Captain George Vancouver in 1792. For his own account of the -discovery and naming of the mountain, see Chapter I of this book. -Elevation, 14,408 feet above sea level. - -=Mount Ruth.= On the northeastern slope of the mountain, overlooking -the Inter and Emmons Glaciers. The name was given in honor of Ruth -Knapp, daughter of the prospector who built "Knapp's Cabin," a -landmark for tourists in the Glacier Basin region. Elevation, 8,700 -feet above sea level. - -=Mount Wow.= In the southwestern corner of the Park. It is sometimes -called Goat Mountain. Elevation, 6,045 feet above sea level. - -=Mountain Meadows.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. The name -originated with Bailey Willis in 1883. Elevation, 4,000 feet above sea -level. - -=Mowich Glaciers.= On the western and northwestern slopes of the -mountain are two beautiful glaciers known as North and South Mowich. -The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning "deer." Who first -suggested the name has not been ascertained. Each glacier has its -draining stream. These flow together, making Mowich River, which -crosses the northwestern boundary of the Park. North Mowich was once -called Willis Glacier and South Mowich was called Edmunds Glacier. - -=Muddy Fork.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain. One of -several sources of the Cowlitz River, it drains from the foot of the -large Cowlitz Glacier. - -=Myrtle Falls.= On the southern slope in Edith Creek, a tributary of -the Paradise River. The name was given by Jules Stampfler, the guide, -in 1907. Myrtle was a member of one of his parties, but he has -forgotten the rest of her name. - -=Mystic Lake.= On the northern slope of the mountain, between the -Winthrop and Carbon Glaciers. It is a favorite place for campers who -expect to attempt the ascent of the mountain on its northern slopes. -Elevation, 5,750 feet above sea level. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett and -H. H. Garretson on account of a mysterious temporary whirlpool seen -near its outlet. - -=Nahunta Falls.= On the south slope. At one time the falls had the -name Marie, but it was changed at the suggestion of Secretary Josephus -Daniels of the United States Navy Department. He says: "The name was -familiar to me as one given by the Carolina Tuscarora to a river in -North Carolina and also to their largest fort or 'head town.'" -Secretary Daniels obtained from the Bureau of American Ethnology -information that the name has appeared under various spellings and may -mean "tall trees" or "tall timbers." - -=Narada Falls.= On the south-central slope, the principal feature of -the lower Paradise River. An effort was recently made to change the -name to Cushman Falls in honor of the late Congressman F. W. Cushman, -a strong friend of the Park. The present name is of Theosophical -origin. Narada was a spiritual being worshipped by the Brahman people -in India by reason of his service to the first race of men. Among -modern Theosophists the word has become a metaphysical subject, the -greater part of which is given to esoteric students and cannot be -revealed. The word itself means "uncontaminated." The wonderful beauty -of the scene, in its pure and original form, suggested the name to an -early group of visitors, Theosophists, consisting of the following -persons: Professor E. O. Schwaegerl, Mr. and Mrs. George A. Sheffield, -Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Knight, Miss Ida Wright (now Mrs. Vern Mudgett), -Mrs. Addie G. Barlow and Mr. Henry Carter. Elevation, 4,572 feet above -sea level. - -=National Park Inn.= At Longmire Springs near the southwestern -entrance to the Park. This attractive hotel has frequently been so -overrun with guests that numerous tents have been used for sleeping -quarters. These are placed in the groves of pines and firs on the bank -of the Nisqually River. Many trips to interesting parts of the -mountain are made from the Inn. Elevation, 2,761 feet above sea level. - -=Natural Bridge.= In the north-central portion of the Park. Many -photographers have scrambled to the scene of this natural curiosity. -Elevation, 5,400 feet above sea level. - -=Needle Creek.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. It is a -tributary of Kotsuck Creek and takes its rise near the sharp cliffs of -Cowlitz Chimneys, which may have suggested the name "Needle." - -=Needle Rock.= On the northwest slope, overlooking the North Mowich -Glacier. The name was given by Professor J. B. Flett from its supposed -resemblance to Cleopatra's Needle. Elevation, 7,587 feet above sea -level. - -=Nisqually Glacier.= The large glacier flowing from the southern flank -of Mount Rainier. It was named by Stevens and Van Trump in 1870 when -they found it to be the source of Nisqually River. - -=Nisqually River.= Rising at the foot of Nisqually Glacier, it flows -southwesterly through the Park and empties into Puget Sound between -Tacoma and Olympia. It was mentioned in the Journal of John Work of -the Hudson's Bay Company, as early as 1824. The first settlement by -white men on Puget Sound was made by the Hudson's Bay Company near its -mouth in May, 1833. That trading post was called Nisqually House. Rev. -Myron Eells, the talented missionary, says the word comes from the -native word, "Squally-o-bish," from the tribe of that name. - -=North Mowich.= See Mowich. - -=North Park.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Elevation, about -5,000 feet above sea level. - -=Northern Crags.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, overlooking -Elysian Fields. - -=Observation Rock.= On the northwest slope near Flett Glacier. In 1885 -it was named Observation Point by Prof. L. F. Henderson. An extensive -view of western Washington is to be had from its top. Elevation, 8,364 -feet above sea level. - -=Ohanapecosh Glacier.= On the east-central slope of the mountain. -Below the glacier lies the beautiful Ohanapecosh Park, from which -flows the river of the same name, which passes out of the Park at the -northeastern corner of the boundary. The name is Indian, but its -meaning has not been ascertained. - -=Old Desolate.= A ridge in the northwestern portion of the Park -between Moraine and Vernal Parks. - -=Ollala Creek.= In the southeastern corner of the Park. The name is -from the Chinook jargon, meaning "berries." - -=Owyhigh Lakes.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. The -Yakima had a great war leader, Chief Owhigh, and this is apparently an -honor for him. See narrative by Theodore Winthrop in this book, -Chapter IV. - -=Panhandle Gap.= On the east-central slope of the mountain, above the -Sarvent Glaciers. Elevation, about 7,000 feet above sea level. - -=Panorama Point.= On the southern slope of the mountain, overlooking -Nisqually Glacier. - -=Paradise Glacier.= On the southeast slope. In 1870, Stevens and Van -Trump called it Little Nisqually Glacier. - -=Paradise River.= Stevens and Van Trump called the river Glacier Creek -in 1870. - -=Paradise Valley.= On the south-central slope. This is the best known -part of the Park. David Longmire says that his mother (wife of the -pioneer, James Longmire) and a Mrs. Jameson were the first women to -visit the region. As they wound up the zigzag trail through the forest -they were suddenly in the midst of most wonderful mountain scenery. -"O, what a paradise!" exclaimed one. "Yes, a real paradise," answered -the other. That was in 1885, and the name Paradise has remained in use -for the valley and has also been extended to the river and the glacier -from which it takes its source. - -=Paul Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name -not ascertained. - -=Peak Success.= The southern summit of Mount Rainier. It was named in -1870 by Stevens and Van Trump on the occasion of their making the -first ascent of the mountain. The new map calls it Point Success. -Elevation, 14,150 feet above sea level. - -=Pearl Creek.= On the southern slope of the mountain, draining Pyramid -Glacier into Kautz Creek. About midway in its course the creek plunges -over what are known as Pearl Falls. - -=Pigeon Creek.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. - -=Pinnacle Peak.= One of the most dominant peaks of the Tatoosh Range -in the south-central portion of the Park. Its height is marked at -6,562 feet. On its northern slope lies an ice field called Pinnacle -Glacier. The ascent of this peak is attempted by many visitors -starting from Paradise Valley. - -=Plummer Peak.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. The name -was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in honor of the late Fred -G. Plummer, Geographer of the United States Forest Service. - -=Point Success.= See Peak Success. - -=Prospector Creek.= A tributary of Huckleberry Creek in the -northeastern part of the Park. - -=Ptarmigan Ridge.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain, lying -north of the North Mowich Glacier and south of the Flett and Russell -Glaciers. The name was given on account of the large number of -ptarmigan families found there each summer. Named by Prof. J. B. Flett -and H. H. Garretson. - -=Puyallup Cleaver.= The large ridge of rocks on the western slope of -the mountain, dividing the Puyallup and Tahoma Glaciers. - -=Puyallup Glacier.= On the western slope. Its name comes from the fact -that it feeds one of the branches of the Puyallup River. - -=Puyallup River.= Two forks of this river rise from the glaciers on -the western and southwestern slopes of the mountain. The river empties -into Puget Sound at Tacoma Harbor. There have been many spellings of -the word in early annals. Rev. Myron Eells says the tribe of Indians -living on the river called themselves "Puyallupnamish." - -=Pyramid Park.= On the southern slope of the mountain, adjacent to -Pyramid Peak. From the park flows a stream called Pyramid Creek, and -above the park lies Pyramid Glacier, between South Tahoma and Kautz -Glaciers. - -=Pyramid Peak.= On the southwestern slope, overlooking Indian Henrys -Hunting Ground. It was named by James L. Mosman, of Yelm, because of -its resemblance to a perfect pyramid. The same name has been extended -to a small park and glacier to the northeastward of the peak. -Elevation, 6,937 feet above sea level. - -=Rainier.= See Mount Rainier. - -=Rampart Ridge.= On the southern slope of the mountain. This ridge is -a prominent group of crags rising above Longmire Springs. Elevation, -3,800 feet above sea level. The nearer and higher portion of the ridge -is known as The Ramparts. The name is an old one, but who first -suggested it has not been ascertained. Elevation of The Ramparts, -4,080 feet above sea level. - -=Ranger Creek.= In the northwestern corner of the Park, flowing into -Carbon River near the Ranger Station at the boundary of the Park. - -=Redstone Peak.= In the north-central portion of the Park, between the -headwaters of Van Horn Creek and White River. - -=Reese's Camp.= On the south-central slope of the mountain, in -Paradise Park. For a number of years John L. Reese has accommodated -visitors in a log and canvas hotel with numerous tents for sleeping -rooms. The name of his camp has grown so familiar that other names are -forgotten. The site of his hotel was once known as Theosophy Ridge. -Beginning with 1916, the Rainier National Park Company, a new -corporation composed of prominent citizens, will supplant Reese's Camp -with a modern hotel and will provide garages, lunch-stations and other -conveniences for the tourists. The elevation at Reese's Camp is 5,557 -feet above sea level. - -=Reflection Lakes.= On the south-central slope of the mountain. These -lakes are visited by all who make the trip to Pinnacle Peak from -Paradise Valley. Elevation, 4,861 feet above sea level. - -=Register Rock.= On the rim of the crater, where there is securely -fastened in the rocks a record on which all successful climbers by -way of the Gibraltar route sign their names. Elevation, 14,161 feet -above sea level, or 247 feet below Columbia Crest, the actual summit. - -=Ricksecker Point.= On the southern slope. It was named in honor of -Eugene Ricksecker, the engineer, who had charge of building the -government road in the Park. Elevation, 4,212 feet above sea level. - -=Round Pass.= Near the southwestern boundary of the Park. It is -understood that the name is to be changed to Halls Pass in honor of -former Superintendent E. S. Hall. - -=Rushingwater Creek.= Flows from the Golden Lakes across the -west-central boundary of the Park. - -=Russell Cliff.= At the summit, east of Liberty Cap. It was named by -The Mountaineers Club, during an ascent in 1909, in honor of Professor -I. C. Russell. - -=Russell Glacier.= On the northern slope, just west of Carbon Glacier. -It was named in honor of Professor I. C. Russell. - -=Rust Ridge.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. - -=St. Andrews Park.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain. Among -the first campers in that region was a group of choir boys from St. -Mark's (Episcopal) Church of Seattle. It is said that they called the -place St. Andrews Park. The stream flowing out of it is now called St. -Andrews Creek, and high up on the western slope is St. Andrews Rock, -at the entrance to Sunset Amphitheatre. - -=St. Elmo Pass.= On the north slope, through the ridge that divides -the Winthrop and Inter Glaciers. It was named by Major E. S. Ingraham, -who says: "In 1887, I camped on the ridge with my party. During the -night a great thunderstorm arose and we could hear the peals of -thunder below. A couple of boys who were with the party were sleeping -above us. Suddenly they called out that the storm was over because -they could see the stars. I, too, saw stars, but I did not think they -were real. I got up and began to investigate. What the boys thought -were stars was St. Elmo fire which had settled on their alpenstocks. -Even the cooking utensils were aflame with it, and our heads shone. I -explained the phenomenon and the place was called St. Elmo Pass." -Elevation, 7,415 feet above sea level. - -=St. Jacobs Lake.= A small lake in the southeastern corner of the -Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Sarvent Glaciers.= Two small but interesting glaciers on the -east-central slope, draining into Fryingpan Creek. They were named in -honor of Henry M. Sarvent, the engineer, who made the first detailed -map of the mountain. - -=Scarface.= Near the north-central boundary of the Park. The name is -descriptive. Elevation, 6,100 feet above sea level. - -=Seattle Park.= A small but beautiful area in the northwestern portion -of the Park between the Russell and Carbon Glaciers. It was named for -the City of Seattle. - -=Shadow Lake.= On the east-central slope of the mountain, east of -Burroughs Mountain. Elevation, 6,200 feet above sea level. - -=Shaw Creek.= A tributary of White River near the eastern boundary of -the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Silvan Island.= On the south side of Emmons Glacier. Named by Prof. -J. B. Flett. - -=Silver Falls.= In the southeastern corner of the Park. - -=Skyscraper Mountain.= In the north-central portion of the Park, -overlooking Berkeley Park. It is a recent name and comes from its -supposed resemblance to a modern style of architecture. Elevation, -7,650 feet above sea level. - -=Slide Mountain.= In the northeastern corner of the Park. Elevation, -6,630 feet above sea level. - -=Sluiskin Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in the upper waters of -Paradise River. Named by Stevens and Van Trump, in 1870, in honor of -their Indian guide. Elevation, 5,900 feet above sea level. - -=Sluiskin Mountain.= In the north-central portion of the Park, -overlooking Vernal Park. Evidently an additional, though later, honor -for the Indian guide of Stevens and Van Trump. Elevation, 7,015 feet -above sea level. - -=Snow Lake.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. - -=Sotolick Point.= On the southwest slope. The name is spelled -"Satulick" on the map. It was suggested by P. B. Van Trump, who says -Sotolick was the name of Indian Henry. Elevation, 5,574 feet above sea -level. - -=South Mowich.= See Mowich. - -=South Tahoma.= See Tahoma. - -=Spray Falls.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain. The highest -and most beautiful falls on the north side of the mountain. It was -probably named when the Bailey Willis trail was built by it in 1883. -The abundant water breaks into a mass of spray. Elevation, 5,300 feet -above sea level. - -=Spray Park.= Above Spray Falls lies this extensive and most beautiful -park. Its elevation is from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level. -Several lakes drain into Spray Creek, which produces Spray Falls. The -name originated at the falls and was later extended to the creek and -park. - -=Spukwush Creek.= Flowing from Chenuis Mountain to Carbon River in the -northwestern portion of the Park. The name seems to be Indian, but its -origin has not been ascertained. - -=Squaw Lake.= On the southwestern slope of the mountain, near the -entrance to Indian Henrys Hunting Ground. It is said that the Squaw -camped there while her hunter husband went further up the slopes for -his game. - -=Starbo Camp.= In Glacier Basin, on the northern slope of the -mountain. It is named for the miner who has maintained a camp there -for a number of years. Further information is given under the head of -Glacier Basin. - -=Steamboat Prow.= On the north slope of the mountain. The -appropriateness of this name is apparent to any who have visited the -upper ice fields of the Winthrop and Emmons Glaciers. The pointed -cliff seems to be buffeting a sea of ice. Elevation, 9,500 feet above -sea level. - -=Stevens Glacier.= On the southeastern slope, adjoining Paradise -Glacier. The name is in honor of General Hazard Stevens who, with P. -B. Van Trump, made the first ascent of the mountain in 1870. The creek -flowing from the glacier is called Stevens Creek; its deep bed is -Stevens Canyon, and the overlooking crags are Stevens Ridge. - -=Stevens Peak.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. The name is -probably an additional honor for General Hazard Stevens. Elevation, -6,511 feet above sea level. - -=Success Glacier.= On the southern slope of the mountain, flowing into -Kautz Glacier. Between Success Glacier and South Tahoma Glacier lies a -ridge called Success Cleaver. For the origin of the name see Peak -Success. - -=Summer Land.= One of the mountain's most beautiful parks, on the -east-central slope, above Fryingpan Creek. It was named by Major E. S. -Ingraham in 1888. - -=Sunbeam Falls.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in a tributary -of Stevens Creek. - -=Sunrise Ridge.= Appropriately named as being at the northeastern edge -of the Park. A stream flowing from the ridge is called Sunrise Creek. -Elevation, about 6,000 feet above sea level. - -=Sunset Amphitheatre.= A huge cirque extending up toward Liberty Cap -on the western side of the mountain. From it flow the Puyallup and -Tahoma Glaciers. - -=Sunset Park.= So named because it extends to the west-central -boundary of the Park. - -=Sweet Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. Origin of name -not ascertained. Elevation, 4,500 feet above sea level. - -=Sylvia Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in Stevens Creek. Ben -Longmire, who is quite a wag, says: "Bill Stafford named some falls, -Sylvia Falls, after his sweetheart, and she has not spoken to him -since." - -=Tahoma Glacier.= On the southwest slope of the mountain, beginning -at Sunset Amphitheatre and draining into the South Fork of the -Puyallup River. Just south of this glacier is another called South -Tahoma Glacier, which drains into Tahoma Creek, which in turn flows -into the Nisqually River at the southwestern corner of the Park. The -name is one of the forms of the word Tacoma. Stevens and Van Trump -gave the name to what is now known as Liberty Cap at the summit. The -name is also applied to a most prominent peak on the eastern slope of -the mountain. See Little Tahoma. - -=Tamanos Mountain.= Near the east-central boundary of the Park. The -name is apparently one way of spelling the Chinook jargon word meaning -"spirit." - -=Tato Falls.= On the southern slope, near the foot of Nisqually -Glacier. The name was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen. - -=Tatoosh Range.= Near the south-central boundary of the Park. The -Indian word is said to mean "nourishing breast." A stream from the -mountains is called Tatoosh Creek. Highest elevation, at Unicorn Peak, -6,939 feet above sea level. - -=Tenas Creek.= Flowing from Mount Wow across the boundary in the -southwest corner of the Park. The name is from the Chinook jargon -meaning "little." - -=The Burn.= Near the southern boundary of the Park. The name is too -suggestive of a departed forest. - -=The Castle.= A part of the Tatoosh Range, in the southern portion of -the Park. - -=The Fan.= On the southeastern slope, just south of the lower part of -Cowlitz Glacier. It is a lake whose name was suggested by its shape. - -=The Palisades.= A ridge jutting northwestward from Sourdough -Mountains, in the northeastern part of the Park. - -=The Ramparts.= See Rampart Ridge. - -=The Wedge.= On the north slope of the mountain, between the Winthrop -and Emmons Glaciers. A large mass with Steamboat Prow at the upper or -"sharpened" edge. Named by Prof. I. C. Russell and his party in 1896. - -=Theosophy Ridge.= See Reese's Camp. - -=Tilicum Point.= On the northwestern slope of the mountain, a part of -Ptarmigan Ridge. The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning -"friend." Elevation, 6,654 feet above sea level. - -=Tirzah Peak.= A portion of Chenuis Mountain near the northwestern -boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,212 -feet above sea level. - -=Tokaloo Rock.= On the western slope, at the lower end of Puyallup -Cleaver. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 7,675 feet above -sea level. - -=Tolmie Peak.= In the northwestern corner of the Park. It is named in -honor of Dr. William Fraser Tolmie, the Hudson's Bay Company surgeon, -who was the first white man to approach the mountain. It was in 1833 -that he climbed this peak. In 1883, Bailey Willis wrote: "The point -remained unvisited for fifty years; last summer I was able to identify -it and named it Tolmie Peak." A near-by stream is called Tolmie Creek. -Elevation of the peak, 5,939 feet above sea level. - -=Trixie Falls.= On the southeastern slope, in Cowlitz Park. The name -was suggested by Superintendent Ethan Allen in honor of one of the -daughters of former Superintendent E. S. Hall. - -=Tumtum Peak.= In the southwestern corner of the Park, visible to all -on the road to and from Longmire. The name is from the Chinook jargon, -meaning "heart," and was suggested by the form of the mountain. -Elevation, 4,678 feet above sea level. - -=Twin Falls.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, in the lower -part of Cowlitz Park. - -=Tyee Peak.= A part of Chenuis Mountain in the northwestern portion of -the Park. The name is from the Chinook jargon, meaning "chief." -Elevation, 6,030 feet above sea level. - -=Unicorn Peak.= Where the Tatoosh Range approaches the south-central -boundary of the Park, this peak rises to a height of 6,939 feet. On -its western flank is an ice field called Unicorn Glacier. - -=Van Horn Creek.= On the northern slope, toward the boundary of the -Park. The name was suggested by Thomas E. O'Farrell, Park Ranger, in -honor of Rev. F. J. Van Horn, one of The Mountaineers' party of 1909. -The beautiful falls in the creek received the same name. Elevation of -the falls, about 4,400 feet above sea level. - -=Van Trump Glacier.= On the southern slope. It is named in honor of P. -B. Van Trump who, with General Hazard Stevens, made the first ascent -of the mountain in 1870. The creek flowing from the glacier has the -same name, and the flower-strewn region above the creek is called Van -Trump Park. Elevation of the park, about 5,500 feet above sea level. - -=Vernal Park.= In the north-central portion of the Park, just south of -Sluiskin Mountain. - -=Virginia Peak.= Near the northwestern boundary of the Park. Origin of -name not ascertained. Elevation, 4,934 feet above sea level. - -=Wahpenayo Peak.= Between the Tatoosh Range and the south-central -boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 6,234 -feet above sea level. - -=Wallace Peak.= A portion of Chenuis Mountain near the northwestern -boundary of the Park. Origin of name not ascertained. Elevation, 5,800 -feet above sea level. - -=Wapowety Cleaver.= On the southern slope, overlooking Kautz Glacier. -Mr. Van Trump says that Wapowety was the Indian guide of Lieutenant A. -V. Kautz during his attempted ascent in 1857. Elevation, about 9,500 -feet above sea level. - -=Washington Cascades.= On the southern slope of the mountain, in the -Paradise River above Narada Falls. - -=Wauhaukaupauken Falls.= On the east slope, in Ohanapecosh Park. This -is one of the remarkable features of the mountain streams. The meaning -and origin of the Indian name have not been ascertained. - -=Weer Rock.= On the western slope. The name does not appear on the -map, but it is said to have been agreed upon as an honor to J. H. -Weer, of Tacoma, who has done extensive exploration work upon and -around the mountain. He was leader of The Mountaineers, in 1915, when -the first large party encircled the mountain at snow-line. - -=White River.= This river drains most of the glaciers on the -northeastern slopes of the mountain. With a grand sweep around the -mountain, the river flows through its valley to unite with the Black -River near Seattle, becoming the Duwamish River, which empties into -Puget Sound at Seattle Harbor. Its name came from the glacial -character of the water. - -=White River Park.= Lying between Sourdough Mountains and Sunrise -Ridge in the northeastern part of the Park. - -=Whitman Glacier.= On the eastern slope of the mountain flowing from -the side of Little Tahoma. The name is in honor of Doctor Marcus -Whitman, who gave his life as a missionary among the Indians. He, his -wife, and twelve others were murdered by the Indians near Walla Walla -in 1847. The ridge of rocks east of the glacier is called Whitman -Crest. - -=Wigwam Camp.= In Indian Henrys Hunting Ground, on the southwestern -slope of the mountain. For several years a tent and log-cabin camp has -been maintained here by George B. Hall for the accommodation of -visitors. Elevation, 5,300 feet above sea level. - -=Willis Wall.= On the northern face of the mountain at the head of -Carbon Glacier. The great vertical cliff, 3,600 feet high, over which -avalanches of snow crash throughout the summer months, is one of the -attractive features of the great mountain. It was named in honor of -Bailey Willis, on account of his extensive explorations in 1883. - -=Williwakas Glacier.= On the southeastern slope of the mountain, -flowing from Paradise Glacier. The stream draining the glacier is -known as Williwakas Creek. Origin of name not ascertained. - -=Wilson Glacier.= On the southern slope, above Nisqually Glacier. It -was named in honor of A. D. Wilson, who, with S. F. Emmons, made the -second ascent of the mountain in 1870. - -=Windy Gap.= In the northern portion of the Park, between the ridges -of Chenuis and Crescent Mountains. - -=Winthrop Glacier.= On the northern slope, where its head joins that -of Emmons Glacier. It is named in honor of Theodore Winthrop, who -passed close by the mountain in 1853 and recorded his observations in -his book entitled "The Canoe and the Saddle." The same name is given -to a creek that drains this glacier into White River. The glacier was -formerly mapped as White Glacier. - -=Wright Creek.= A tributary of Fryingpan Creek, taking its rise near -the Cowlitz Chimneys, on the eastern slope of the mountain. Origin of -name not ascertained. - -=Yakima Park.= On the northeastern slope, on the shoulders of -Sourdough Mountains. The name is that of a tribe of Indians living -east of the Cascade Mountains. It has there been used as the name of a -county and a city. - -=Yellowstone Cliffs.= In the northwestern portion of the Park, at the -southeastern end of Chenuis Mountain. - - -Printed in the United States of America. - - - - - The following pages contain advertisements of - books by the same author or on kindred subjects. - - - _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_ - - =Vancouver's Discovery of Puget Sound= - - BY EDMOND S. MEANY - - _Illustrated, 8vo, $2.50_ - -A carefully edited and extra-illustrated reproduction of the 1801 -edition of Vancouver's "Journal" of discoveries on the Northwest -Coast. This is preceded by a life of the great navigator, and accounts -of others who made explorations in that region. A large number of -portrait-plates additional to the reproduction of those in the -original Journal, and several maps, embellish the work. - - "A remarkably interesting volume--the most valuable addition - to American history that ever came out of the Pacific - Northwest, if not indeed from the whole Pacific - Coast."--_Seattle Daily Times._ - - "A noteworthy addition to the subject of Americana in its - largest sense."--_Review of Reviews._ - - "An excellent specimen of the best historical work, written - with fairness and impartiality."--_San Francisco Chronicle._ - - - _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_ - - =United States History for Schools= - - BY EDMOND S. MEANY - - _Cloth, 12mo, $1.00_ - -A complete and well-balanced treatment of United States history. -Industrial and social changes, rather than the traditional grouping of -topics on changes of administration, etc., have determined the -division of the subject into periods and of the periods into chapters. -The space devoted to wars has been reduced to the minimum and more -space has been given to the record of the nation's political, -industrial, and social progress, emphasizing the advancement of the -United States within the last fifty years. It presents American -history as a part of world history. The treatment covers all the -important points required by the Committee of Eight in its Report to -the American Historical Association. The style is vivid and -interesting; the sentences are short and vigorous and the paragraphs -are topical units. The book abounds in illuminating "side lights" -always interesting and relevant. Suggestions for collateral study and -reading are provided and study questions are given at the close of -each chapter. - - - _BY THE SAME AUTHOR_ - - =A History of the State of Washington= - - BY EDMOND S. MEANY - - _Illustrated, decorated cloth, 8vo, $2.25_ - _School edition. Ill., 12mo, $1.25_ - -An interesting and valuable work on the growth and development of the -State of Washington, especially timely on account of the present -exposition. It is not, however, an account of the isolated growth of -one state, but in a great measure the history of the whole Pacific -slope. - - "It would be difficult to exaggerate the interest and charm of - these vivid pages, written, as they were, under the spell and - inspiration of a new world."--_Literary Digest._ - - - _By WILLIAM HERBERT HOBBS_ - Professor of Geology, University of Michigan - - =Earth Features and their Meaning= - -=A Textbook for Cultural Courses on General Geology= - - _Profusely illustrated, 8vo, $3.00_ - - "The purpose of 'Earth Features and their Meaning,' by - Professor W. H. Hobbs, is primarily to furnish a readable work - on miscellaneous topics of modern geology and physical - geography. In his preface the author lays stress on the fact - that the book is a series of readings to stimulate the - traveler to appreciate the landscape wherever he may go. A - special emphasis is laid upon earthquakes, volcanoes, the work - of water, desert processes, and glaciers.... - - "The book is noteworthy for the importance given to the - experimental method in geology, for good reading references at - the end of each chapter, for an unusually good analysis of - weathering and the surface processes of dry regions, such as - dune accumulations in the deserts, and for original treatment - of glaciation."--_Nation._ - - "The subject matter is presented in such an interesting and - intelligent manner that the general reader and student will - receive from its study such an understanding of the subject - that he will be able, in his travels, to recognize many of the - earth's features about which he has read. The landscapes which - are represented are very largely those which are along the - routes of travel. Much stress has been placed on the - dependence of the chief geological processes of a region, upon - the general climatic conditions there existing.... - - "This is a book which should be possessed by every teacher of - earth science and geology, whether in secondary school or - college. It deserves and doubtless will have a large - circulation."--_School Science and Mathematics._ - - "The book is an excellent reference volume for students who - are interested in a simple outline of geology. 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