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diff --git a/42317-8.txt b/42317-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index b2da994..0000000 --- a/42317-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8510 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Industrial Arts Design, by William H. Varnum - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Industrial Arts Design - A Textbook of Practical Methods for Students, Teachers, and Craftsmen - -Author: William H. Varnum - -Release Date: March 12, 2013 [EBook #42317] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Mark Young and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -[Illustration: Firing the Kiln - -_Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries_] - - - - - VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES - - SUPERVISING EDITOR - FRED D. CRAWSHAW, M.E. - - PROFESSOR OF MANUAL ARTS, THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN - - INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - - A TEXTBOOK OF PRACTICAL METHODS FOR STUDENTS, - TEACHERS, AND CRAFTSMEN - - BY - - WILLIAM H. VARNUM - - ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF DRAWING AND DESIGN - UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN - - SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY - - CHICAGO NEW YORK - - - - - Copyright 1916 by - SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY - - - - -PREFACE - - -_Place for the Book._ As a textbook, INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN is a -practical guide for designing in wood, clay, and base and precious -metals. It is intended for individual student use in the High Schools, -Normal Schools, and Colleges and as a reference book for elementary -school teachers. Its more complex problems are intended as definite -helps to the industrial arts designer or craftsman. The wood problems -are treated with special reference to their adaptability to bench and -cabinet work. - -_Need of the Book._ It has been written to fill a decided demand for a -textbook that shall, without loss of time, directly apply -well-recognized principles of general design to specific materials and -problems encountered in the Industrial Arts. A brief description of the -decorative processes adapted to the materials under discussion with the -design principles directly applying to these processes, insures designs -that may be worked out in the studio or shop. It is hoped that this -provision will eliminate the large number of impractical designs that -are frequently entirely unfitted to the technic of the craft. This lack -of mutual technical understanding between the teacher of design and the -shop work instructor is the cause of friction that it is hoped will be -removed by the methods advocated in these pages. - -_The Author's Motive._ It has been the intention to reduce unrelated and -abstract theories to a minimum and reach directly rules and conclusions -that shall be applicable to typical materials in common use in the -schools and industries. The original conception materialized in the -publication of a series of articles upon Design in the _Industrial Arts -Magazine_, in 1915. These articles were favorably received and their -results in the schools proved highly satisfactory. Through this -encouragement, the articles have been reprinted in book form, enriched -by the addition of illustrations, review questions, and three chapters -on color with its applications. - -INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN develops the principles of industrial design in a -new and logical form which, it is believed, will simplify the teaching -of craft design. Chapters I to V deal with the elementary problems -confronting the designer as he begins the first steps on his working -drawing; Chapters VI to VIII show the methods by which he may express -his individuality through contour or outline enrichment, while Chapters -IX to XVII explain the treatment of the most difficult form of -decoration, that of surface enrichment. - -_The Appendix._ The appendix is added to show the manner in which the -rules may be directly applied to a course of study in either pottery or -art metal. The present work is not intended to include the chemistry of -glaze mixing or other technical requirements to which reference is made -in the appendix; consequently the reader is referred to "The Potter's -Craft" by C.F. Binns and "Pottery" by George J. Cox for fuller -explanations of the formulae and technicalities of the craft. - -_Source of Principles._ The principles herein advocated are directly -related to architectural design which is to be regarded as the standard -authority for the industrial arts designer. It was necessary to state -these principles in the form of sufficiently flexible rules which would -allow the student to use his own judgment, but at the same time, -restrict him to the essential principles of good design. - -_Rules._ This presentation of the principles of design by means of -flexible rules in concrete form, serves to vitalize design by virtue of -their immediate application to the material. The rules likewise save -time for both pupil and instructor. This is regarded as an important -factor, inasmuch as the amount of time usually allotted to classroom -teaching of design is limited. - -While these rules are applied to the specific materials, the designer -may readily adjust them to other materials and find them equally -applicable. Direct copying of designs from the illustrations is a -dangerous expedient and is to be discouraged as a form of plagiarism -which will eventually destroy the student's initiative, originality, and -reputation for creative work. - -_Results_. From the tests so far observed, it has been seen that under -design guidance, the projects become more noticeably individual in -character, lighter and better in construction, and more fully adjusted -to their environment. The student's interest and initiative in his work -are strengthened, and he completes the truly valuable cycle of the -educative process of evolving his own idea and crystallizing it in the -completed work. It is hoped that this book will tend to develop higher -standards of good design in schools, industrial establishments, and the -home. - -In conclusion, the author expresses his thanks to the following for -their valuable suggestions and assistance in contributed illustrations: -Miss D.F. Wilson, Miss Edna Howard, Miss Elizabeth Upham, Miss A.M. -Anderson, Mr. J.M. Dorrans, Mr. J.B. Robinson, author of "Architectural -Composition," and others to whom reference is made in the text. - - WILLIAM HARRISON VARNUM. - - _Madison, Wisconsin. - April, 1916._ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN 7 - - II. THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS 13 - - III. HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS 19 - - IV. VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS 33 - - V. APPENDAGES AND THE RULES GOVERNING THEM 43 - - VI. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD 57 - - VII. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN CLAY 77 - - VIII. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN BASE - AND PRECIOUS METALS 87 - - IX. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD 99 - - X. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD. - (Continued) 117 - - XI. SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE - PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD 133 - - XII. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY 145 - - XIII. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS. SMALL FLAT PLANES 160 - - XIV. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND - PRECIOUS METALS 179 - - XV. COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS 194 - - XVI. COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN. LARGE - SURFACES OF WOOD; WALL AND CEILING AREAS 201 - - XVII. COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN. SMALL - SURFACES IN CLAY AND METAL 209 - - COMPLETE SUMMARY OF RULES 218 - - APPENDIX 223 - - (_a_) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts - in Thin Base and Precious Metals. Relation of the - Rules to the Problems 224 - - (_b_) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts - in Pottery. Relation of the Rules to the Problems 237 - - INDEX 245 - - - - -INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - - -[Sidenote: Non-technical Criticism] - -This book has been written with the view of presenting design from the -standpoint of the industrial arts. An instructor generally experiences -difficulty in finding the exact word to use when criticizing a student's -drawing. The student has equal difficulty in understanding the -criticism. There is little wonder that he is confused, when the rather -ambiguous terms "good-looking," "ugly," "squatty," and "stiff" are used -to express qualities that can be expressed only in terms of design. - -[Sidenote: Intelligent Analysis] - -The lack of understanding between the pupil and the teacher may be -compared to the attitude of the average individual "who knows what he -likes." He is on an equally insecure footing regarding industrial -design. His reason for liking or disliking a certain thing may depend -upon some whim or fancy, the popular fashion of the times, or a desire -to possess a duplicate of something he has seen. As a consumer with -purchasing power, he should have the ability to _analyze intelligently_ -the contents of catalogs and store windows with the thought of securing -the best in industrial art--something that may be accepted as standard -one hundred years from now. - -It is, therefore, the intention to present design of industrial -character in its simplest form, freed from technicalities or ambiguous -statements. It is intended to give the average individual not -particularly interested in drawing or design a knowledge of the subject, -based upon principles that have survived for hundreds of years in -architectural monuments and history. - -[Sidenote: Results of Clear Criticism] - -[Illustration: THE FIRST MAJOR DIVISION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - -PLATE 1] - -It is possible that the presentation of these principles may enable the -instructor in the public schools to guide his pupil away from the heavy -and expensive stereotyped designs, and by clear and simple criticism, -lead him to better forms of construction. He may also be helped to -lead the pupil to design problems in harmony with his home surroundings -and thus avoid the introduction of an inharmonious element into what may -possibly be a harmonious setting. The teacher, pupil, or layman should -use his knowledge of the subject as a basis for criticism or -appreciation of the field of the industrial arts. - -[Sidenote: Requirements of an Industrial Problem] - -In order to start successfully upon a design, it is necessary to know -what qualities a good industrial article should possess. Whether one is -designing a bird-house, a chocolate set, or a gold pendant, the article -must meet three needs: (1) It must be of service to the community or to -the individual; (2) It must be made of some durable material; (3) It -must possess beauty of proportion, outline, and color. - -Ruskin said that a line of beauty must also be a line of service. The -"stream line body" in automobile construction is the result of the -automobile maker's attempt to combine beauty with service. This is the -attitude that should govern the union of beauty and service in all of -the industrial arts. - -[Sidenote: Divisions in Design Evolution and Enrichment] - -There are three divisions or phases in the designing of a structure and -its enrichment. These are: (1) Structural Design; (2) Contour -Enrichment; (3) Surface Enrichment. Some objects are carried through -only one of these divisions, while others are developed through all -three of them. - -[Sidenote: First Major Division] - -Plate 1, illustrative of the first division, deals naturally enough with -the planning of the constructive or utilitarian lines of an object and -its parts. It may be termed Structural or Constructive Design. Questions -of how high or how long an object should be, to harmonize with its -width, the proper placing of rails, shelves, and brackets, the -determination of the greatest and least diameter of vase forms have to -be decided in this period of Proportions and Space Relations. - -The knowledge of tools and materials, and of the manner in which they -may be used for constructive purposes, influences the solution of these -questions and others which we shall shortly discuss. Strictly -utilitarian objects are seldom carried past this stage of development. - -[Sidenote: Second Major Division] - -[Illustration: THE SECOND MAJOR DIVISION IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - -PLATE 2] - -Plate 2 indicates the next logical division--Contour Enrichment--or the -period of the enrichment of the structural outline or contour. The -bounding lines, or contours, of the structure may be enriched in many -ways, as, for example, curving certain portions to soften the severity -of the plain structure. The garden urn and small stool have contours -treated in this manner. Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite -furniture, simplified to the accepted range of shop technic, vary the -straight lines of mission furniture and come within the possible -developments of this division. - -[Sidenote: Effects of Second Division] - -The cement fence post at _C_, Plate 2, is a strict utilitarian problem -without interest. The post at _D_, enriched by a bevel, has equal -utilitarian and increased aesthetic interest and value. - -[Sidenote: Third Major Division] - -Plate 3 illustrates the last division of evolution and concerns itself -with the application of design to the surface of the otherwise complete -structure. This division is commonly called applied surface design or -decorative design. It is readily seen that this division should be -considered after the structure has been carefully planned. To separate -this division from the period of structural or contour enrichment we -will call it Surface Enrichment. - -[Sidenote: Steps in Design Evolution] - -It may be seen from the foregoing discussion that a design may be -carried through the following steps: (1) Blocking in the enclosing lines -of the design, as at Figure B, Plate 2, adding to this whatever may be -needed for structural purposes, keeping the lines as nearly vertical and -horizontal as possible; (2) Enriching and varying the outline or -contour. It is well for elementary wood workers to use this step with -extreme caution, while less reserve is necessary in clay and metal; (3) -After careful consideration in determining the need of additional -decoration, the last step, surface enrichment, should be used. The -following chapters will take up these steps in the order stated above. - -[Sidenote: Ideal Correlation] - -The ideal method of developing the principles set forth in this chapter -includes correlated activity in the shop by working out the project in -the required material. As the technic of the individual improves, the -larger range of design principles will be found to accompany and -parallel his increasing skill. - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What three requirements should be met in a well designed - industrial article? - - 2. State three major divisions in industrial arts design. - - 3. State briefly the problems to be considered in each - division. - - 4. What is the last and ideal step for the designer? - -[Illustration: THE THIRD MAJOR DIVISION IN INDUSTRIAL ART DESIGN - -PLATE 3] - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS - - -[Sidenote: The Architectural Method] - -Upon first observing a building, one seldom notices details of -structure. He sees the large mass as it is silhouetted against the sky. -Nearer approach discloses mouldings, cornices, and doorways; while -careful analytical study shows the technical points of construction. The -architect, in his original planning, thinks in terms of masses, widths, -and heights, disregarding at first the details and color. As -architecture stands for parent design principles and represents some of -the world's best examples of composition and design, industrial design -should be based upon the best examples of architectural design. To a -certain degree, also, the methods of the industrial arts designer should -be those of the architect. - -[Sidenote: The Industrial Arts Method] - -It is necessary to think at first of our problem as a single mass or -solid, bounded by enclosing dimensions of width, height, and thickness. -Details like a mirror, handles, brackets, or knobs may project outside -of this mass, but for the time being, they may be disregarded. Figure B, -Plate 2, shows this manner of thinking, and will enable us to regard the -problem as a big, simple mass so that the entire object, unobstructed by -small details, may be seen. - -[Sidenote: The Primary Mass] - -This is the method of _thinking_ about the problem which should precede -the drawing. To further describe this mass, which will be called the -single or Primary Mass, it is necessary to think of the intended service -of the project. A rather hazy idea of making a vase or a stool to be put -to no particular use, may have been the original motive. Now the exact -service should be defined as it will have a marked effect upon the shape -of this primary mass. - -[Sidenote: Service] - -Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according -to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements._ -Service is an important factor inasmuch as it limits the intended use of -the mass. A mass is horizontal when its largest dimension is horizontal. -When the horizontal dimension of this mass is reduced until the main -vertical dimension is longer than the main horizontal one, it becomes a -vertical mass. As an example, a davenport is generally a horizontal mass -intended to hold a number of people. When the mass is narrowed to the -point where the vertical dimension exceeds the horizontal, it becomes a -chair for one person. A low bowl may be intended for pansies, but as -soon as the service changes and we design it for goldenrod, it becomes a -vertical mass. The fable of the fox who, upon being invited to dine with -the stork, found the tall vases unfitted for his use illustrates the -change of mass with the change of service. - -[Illustration: ANALYSIS OF THE PRIMARY MASS - -PLATE 4] - -[Sidenote: Horizontal and Vertical Primary Masses] - -Figures 1 and 4, Plate 4, are examples of horizontal masses with the -dark lines indicating the dominance of the horizontal lines and planes. -The shelter house contains a long bench, making necessary the long -horizontal lines of the building. The calendar holder has to be a -horizontal mass because of the restrictions imposed by the shape of the -calendar pad. - -Figures 2 and 3 are vertical masses. The vase is intended for tall -flowers, while the chair, as has already been mentioned, must meet the -needs of a single person. Utility and service then have been found to -give the primary mass a given direction or dominance. - -[Sidenote: Drawing the Primary Mass] - -The designer now represents this mass by drawing a rectangle similar to -the block outline of Figure B, Plate 2. It is now necessary to see if -the foundation stones of this rectangle have been laid correctly; in -other words, to test the proportions of the primary vertical or -horizontal mass. - -[Sidenote: Proportions of the Primary Masses] - -Rule 1b. _A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to -four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar -proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze._ -Proportions are generally expressed in terms of ratios. A surface of -five by eight inches would give a ratio of five to eight; ten by sixteen -feet is reducible to the same ratio. Certain ratios are monotonous and -offend the eye by their lack of variety. Ratios such as one to one or -one to two are of this class and should be avoided. If these ratios -could speak they would resemble people talking in a low monotonous tone -of voice. - -[Illustration: PROPORTIONATE RATIOS - -PROCESS OF DESIGNING - -PLATE 5] - -[Sidenote: Unsatisfactory Ratios] - -Certain other ratios are weak and indeterminate, showing a lack of clear -thinking. They are like people with no definite or cleancut ideas upon -a subject they discuss. Examples in this class show ratios of two to two -and one-eighth, or three to three and one-fourth, neither positively -square nor frankly rectangular. They hide around the corner, as it were, -waiting to be anything. Figure 5, Plate 5, is an example of -unsatisfactory proportionate ratios of the primary mass. The blotting -tablet is nearly square, while the candlestick and sconce, which should -have been designed with strongly vertical masses, lack the type of -definite thinking that results in a decided vertical dimension. - -Disregarding the improvement in technic, Figure 6 shows problems -designed with a definite knowledge of proportion. The metal objects are -refined in their dimensions, and pleasing to the eye. Tests have been -made with the idea of determining what the eye considers perfectly -natural and agreeable proportion. This has been found to be the ratio of -two to three. Consequently, it is clear why Figure 6 shows objects more -pleasing than those in Figure 5. - -It may be felt that too much space is being given to this subject of -proportion. It should be remembered, however, that the industrial arts -are intimately associated with daily life and that unless proportions -are pleasing to our aesthetic sense, many articles of common use shortly -become intolerable. - -[Sidenote: Preliminary Thinking in Terms of Design] - -This preliminary portion of the designer's task has been given to -thinking out the problem and drawing one rectangle. There is a tendency -to start the design by pushing the pencil over the paper with a forlorn -hope that a design may be evolved with little mental effort. This should -be regarded as illogical and unworthy of the desired end. A rectangle of -the most prominent surface of the problem, based upon the desired -service of the project, and the best proportions which our knowledge of -design and understanding of the limitations of construction will permit, -should be the final result of the first study. From now on through the -succeeding steps, the details of the problem will become more and more -clear, as the technical limitations of the tools and materials governing -the designer's ideas and controlling and shaping the work are better -understood, until all governing factors become crystallized in the form -of a working drawing or model. This is a strictly professional practice -as illustrated in Figure 7, which shows the skilled Rookwood potter -developing a vase form, the definite embodiment of correct thinking in -terms of the material which is constantly before him. - - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal - according to the intended service, unless prohibited by - technical requirements._ - - Rule 1b. _A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, - three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or - some similar proportion difficult for the eye to readily detect - and analyze._ - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. How does the architect first plan his elevations? - - 2. How should the designer first think of his problem? - - 3. Define a horizontal primary mass. - - 4. Define a vertical primary mass. - - 5. State some desirable ratios to be used in designing the - proportions of the primary mass. Explain. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS - - -In the second chapter we discussed the nature of the primary mass in its -relation to the intended service or duty it has to perform. It was found -that the demands of service usually cause the primary mass to be -designed with either a strong vertical or horizontal tendency. - -[Sidenote: Divisions of the Primary Mass] - -It now becomes imperative to carry the designing processes still further -and divide the vertical or horizontal primary mass into parts or -divisions, demanded either by structural requirements or because the -appearance of the object would be materially improved by their presence. -This latter point is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic requirement -of the problem. There are two simple types of divisions, those crossing -the primary mass horizontally and those crossing the primary mass in a -vertical direction. This chapter will be limited to the subject of -horizontal divisions. - -[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Horizontal Space Divisions] - -If a city purchases a piece of land for park purposes, presumably a -landscape architect is assigned the task of laying out the paths and -drives. He does this by crossing his plan at intervals with lines to -represent paths connecting important points. Under favorable conditions -the architect is free to curve his path to suit his ideas. He has -considerable freedom in selecting his design but the paths or roads must -dip and curve in sympathy with the contour of the land and in accord -with the aesthetic requirements. - -While the landscape designer has a broad latitude in his treatment of -land divisions, the industrial designer or architect is restricted, on -the other hand, by the structural requirements of the object and by his -materials. He must cross his spaces or areas by horizontal shelves, or -rails, or bands of metal that hold the structure together. As -architecture is of fundamental importance in industrial design, let us -see what the architect has in mind in designing a structure. - -[Illustration: STEPS ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF HORIZONTAL -SPACE DIVISIONS FROM PRIMARY MASS TO THE STRUCTURE - -PLATE 6] - -[Sidenote: Architectural Horizontal Divisions] - -The architect has the surface of the ground with which to start. This -gives him a horizontal line as the base of his building. He considers it -of major importance in his design. We find him crossing the front of his -building with horizontal moulding or long bands of colored brick, -paralleling the base line and otherwise interestingly dividing the -vertical face of the front and sides. His guide is the bottom line of -his primary mass or the line of the ground which binds the different -parts of the building into a single unit. It can be readily seen that if -he shifted the position of his mouldings up or down with the freedom of -the landscape architect in locating his roads, he would not be planning -his horizontal divisions in sympathy with the structural requirements of -his primary mass. - -These horizontal divisions or lines have a tendency to give apparent -added length to an object. Thus by their judicious use a designer may -make a building or room look longer than it really is. - -Let us now turn to the simpler objects with which we may be more -directly concerned. The piano bench has horizontal lines crossing it, -giving an effect quite similar to that of horizontal mouldings crossing -a building. There may also be ornamental inlaid lines crossing the bench -and intended to beautify the design, but it is to be remembered that at -present we are considering the _structural divisions_ only. - -[Sidenote: Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions] - -Plate 6 represents a concrete example of the methods to be used in -designing the horizontal divisions of a piano bench. The steps may be -divided as follows: - -(_a_) The height of a piano bench may be determined either from -measurement of a similar bench or from one of the books on furniture -design now on the market. The scale of one inch or one and one-half -inches to the foot may be adopted. Two horizontal lines should be drawn, -one for the bottom and one for the top of the bench. The distance -between these lines we will arbitrarily fix at twenty inches. - -(_b_) Many objects are designed within rectangles which enclose their -main or over-all proportions. With this in view, and keeping in mind the -width of the bench necessary to the accommodation of two players and the -requirements of a well proportioned primary mass (Rule 1b), the lines -are now drawn completing the rectangular boundaries of the primary -mass. The limitations of service and the restrictions of good designing -give the width of the primary mass so designed as three feet and two -inches, with a ratio of height to length of five to eight and one-half. -It is simpler to design first the most prominent face of the object to -be followed by other views later in the designing process. - -[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN - -PRINCIPLE 1: A. PROPORTIONS OF THE SINGLE PRIMARY MASS WITH DOMINANCE OF -THE HORIZONTAL DIVISION - -PRINCIPLE 2: A. RELATION OF HORIZONTAL SUBDIVISIONS - -PROBLEM: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS CLASSES 1 2 3 - -PLATE 7] - -[Sidenote: Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions--(_Continued_)] - -(_c_) By observing benches similar to the one being designed it will be -seen that the horizontal divisions will take the form of a rail and a -shelf, making two crossings of the primary mass dividing it into three -horizontal spaces. Several trial arrangements of these structural -elements are now made with the thought of making them conform to the -rule governing three horizontal spaces. Rule 2b. We shall later discuss -this rule and its applications fully. - -(_d_) By selecting the best sketch of many which the designer will make -he has the basis for the application of Rule 2b for the structural -elements. The project now begins to take on concrete form. The top board -may project slightly beyond the primary mass without materially -affecting the value of the designed proportions. - -[Sidenote: Value of a Full Size Drawing] - -(_e_) The last step is the designing of the side view in relation to the -front view. This enables the designer to comprehend the project as a -whole. It is strongly urged that the final or shop drawing be of full -size. In more elaborate designs the finer proportions are lost in the -process of enlargement from a small sketch, often hurriedly executed in -the shop. Again much time is lost by necessary enlargement, whereas a -full size curved detail may be quickly transferred to wood by carbon -paper or by holes pricked in the paper. It is not expensive or difficult -to execute full size drawings; it is in accord with shop practice and -the custom should be encouraged and followed on all possible occasions. -See Figure 102a. - -The process of designing round objects is identical to that just -described as illustrated by the low round bowl in Plate 7. It should be -designed in a rectangle of accepted proportions. Rule 1b. The primary -mass may have excellent proportions and yet the vase or bowl may remain -devoid of interest. It may be commonplace. - -[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN WOOD - -PLATE 8] - -As will shortly be shown, the rules governing horizontal divisions serve -as a check on the commonplace. A horizontal division generally marks the -point where the outward swell of the vase contour reaches its maximum -width. If this widest point in the primary mass (X-Plate 7) is -pleasingly located between the top and bottom of a vase form the contour -will be found satisfactory. - -[Sidenote: Architectural Precedent for Horizontal Divisions] - -It is possible to continue _ad infinitum_ with these illustrations but -horizontal space divisions are nearly always present in some form, due -to structural necessity or aesthetic requirements. It is an easy matter -to say that these lines must divide the primary mass into "interesting" -spaces, well related to each other, or "pleasingly located," but the -designer must have some definite yet flexible rule to govern his work. -From the analysis of many famous historic buildings and well designed -industrial projects it has been found that all horizontal masses may be -analyzed as dividing the primary mass into either _two_ or _three_ -divisions or spaces, regardless of the complexity of the project. - - -ANALYSIS OF HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS - -[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Space Divisions] - -Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions, -the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section._ Plate -7 shows this division of the primary mass--the simplest division of the -space. A space divided just half way from top to bottom would be -monotonous and expressive of the ratio of one to one. This arrangement -as we have already discovered in the second chapter is not conducive to -good design. - -By the stated rule, 2a, the varied adjustment of this double horizontal -division affords all possible latitude for constructive purposes. It is -better to place the division in such a manner that the upper division -(or lower) will not appear pinched or dwarfed by comparison with the -remaining area. Thus a ratio of one to three, or three to five, or five -to eight is better than a ratio of one to one or one to eighteen, but -there is no exact or arbitrary ruling on this point. - -[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Wood] - -Figure 8 illustrates two horizontal divisions in wood construction and -also the freedom of choice as to exact proportions. The eye will be -found a good judge of the proper spacings subject to the limitations -already mentioned. - -[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY - -PLATE 9] - -It is best to keep the design within the limits of two horizontal -space divisions in designing cylindrical clay forms, particularly in the -elementary exercises. Enough variety will be found to make pleasing -arrangements, and the technical results obtained by two divisions are -much better than those obtained from a greater number of divisions. - -[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Clay] - -Figures 14, 15, and 16, Plate 9, are clay forms with the dominance -placed in either the upper or lower portion of the primary mass. Figure -13 has been used to illustrate the fact that horizontal space division -principles are applicable to any material. The horizontal divisions in -Figure 13 are due to structural needs. A horizontal line carries this -division across to Figure 14, a clay vase. The horizontal division line -now becomes the one which marks the widest part of the vase. It gives -the same relation between the top and bottom horizontal spaces as in -Figure 13. It marks an aesthetic point in the design of the vase, or a -variation of the contour, introduced by reason of its effect upon the -beauty of the vase, not called for by the needs of actual service. - -A musical composition is often played in an orchestra first by the wood -instruments, taken up and repeated by the brasses, then by the strings, -and finally played as an harmonious whole by the entire orchestra. There -is a close parallel in Figure 12, an adaptation of one of Gustav -Stickley's designs. The two-division rule is used in the relations of -the plaster and wainscoting; again in the plaster over, and the cement -or tile around the fireplace. It is repeated in the arrangement of the -copper and cement of the fireplace facing and hood and in the door -panels. By repeating again and again similar space divisions the wall -space becomes a unified and harmonious whole. Variety is secured by the -introduction of three horizontal divisions in the details of the -wainscoting. This method of repeating similar space divisions is called -"echoing" and is one of the most effective means known for securing the -effect of _unity_. - -[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Metal] - -The horizontal subdivisions in metal are usually made for service. -Figures 17, 18, and 19, Plate 10, are examples of such divisions. The -location of the clock face in Figure 18 calls for the placing of its -horizontal axis in accordance with Rule 2a. The lamp in Figure 19 shows -an instance where the entire design once divided by Rule 2a, may be -again subdivided into a similar series of divisions. This arrangement -is quite similar to the system of repetitions seen in Figure 12 and -termed "echoing" the original divisions. - -[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN METAL - -PLATE 10] - -[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Space Divisions] - -Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions -or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section with -varying widths in the upper and lower thirds._ - -When it becomes necessary to divide the primary mass into more than two -sections the designer's problem becomes more difficult. With the -addition of a greater number of horizontal divisions there is a manifest -tendency for the design to become cut up into so many small sections -that the simplicity of the whole mass is lost. Here, as elsewhere, that -principle which we call _unity_ or the quality of "holding together" is -necessary and should be the constant test of the design. The instant any -part of the design seems to fly apart from the main mass it becomes the -designer's duty to simplify the design or pull the parts together and -thus restore the lost unity. - -As a restriction against loss of unity it is necessary to group all of -the minor horizontal divisions into a system of two or three large -horizontal divisions. Referring to Rule 2b, it is seen that when three -divisions are used, it becomes the practice to accentuate the center -section by making it larger. This arrangement is designed to give weight -to the center portion and by this big stable division to hold the other -subdivisions together and in unity. - -[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Wood] - -Two horizontal masses and one vertical mass shown in Figures 9, 10, and -11, Plate 8, illustrate the application of this three-division rule to -wood construction. It is seen that the construction of rails, doors, and -shelves is responsible for the fixing of all of these divisions. It may -also be seen that three divisions are applicable to either the vertical -or the horizontal primary mass. Figure 10 illustrates the violation of -this type of spacing at the point _A_, where the shelves are no more -pleasingly arranged than the rounds of a ladder. Later on we shall be -able to rearrange these shelves in a pleasing manner but at present it -is better to relieve the monotony by omitting the center shelf. This -applies the three division rule to the satisfactory appearance of the -desk at _B_. - -Similar monotony in spacing is seen in the screen, Figure 11. The -correction in _B_ appeals at once as a far more satisfactory arrangement -than that secured by placing the cross bar half way up as in _A_. There -are no infallible rules for this readjustment beyond those already -stated. The eye must in part be depended upon to guide the artistic -sense aright. - -[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Clay] - -It is suggested that it is desirable to keep clay forms within the -limitations of two divisions. Rectangular posts, pedestals, and other -vertical forms in cement may be developed by the application of Rule 2a -or 2b, if care is taken to group all minor divisions well within the -limitations of these rules. - -[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Metal] - -The statement just made in reference to simplified groupings is -illustrated in the candlestick and cup in Figures 20 and 21, Plate 10. -The construction based upon the three functions performed by the cup, -the handle, and the base, suggests the use of these horizontal -divisions. The minor curves have been subordinated to, and kept within, -these three divisions. The final result gives a distinct feeling of -unity impossible under a more complex grouping. The Greek column will -afford an architectural illustration of a similar grouping system. - -The lathe bed of Figure 22 shows one of innumerable examples of space -violations in the industrial arts. A slight lowering of the cross brace -would add materially to the appearance and strength of the casting. -Figure 23 is a copper box with the following more or less common faults -of design: commonplace ratio of length and width (2:1) partially -counteracted, however, by a more pleasing ratio of the vertical -dimension, equal spacing in the width of cover of box and box body, and -equal spacing of the hinges of the box from the ends of the box and from -each other. By applying the two and three horizontal division rules -these errors may be avoided. - -[Sidenote: Freehand Curves] - -Figure 24 shows a low bowl with a compass curve used in designing the -contour. This has brought the widest part of the design in the exact -center of the bowl which makes it commonplace. In addition to this the -top and bottom are of the same width, lacking variety in this respect. -Correction is readily made by applying a freehand curve to the contour, -raising or lowering the widest point (_F_), at the same time designing -the bottom either larger or smaller than the top. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 7 is a sheet suggestive of the application of Rules 1a, - 1b, 2a, and 2b, with an indication of the type of problem to be - required. The steps of the designing processes in either wood - (class 1), clay (class 2), or metal (class 3), are summarized - as follows: - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical - or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable - proportions. It is better to select a typical view (Plate 6, - _D_), preferably a front elevation. - - (_b_) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural - sections; horizontal in character. Make two or three trial - freehand sketches for varied proportions and select the most - pleasing one in accordance with Rules 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b. - - (_c_) Translate the selected sketch to a full size mechanical - drawing or at least to a reasonably large scale drawing. The - structural elements: _i.e._, legs, rails, posts, etc., should - be added and other additional views made. - - (_d_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop - purposes. - - (_e_) Construct the project. - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design a nasturtium bowl, applying Rules 1a, 1b, 2a. Design a - writing table 2 feet 6 inches high with three horizontal - divisions. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal - divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the - lower section._ - - Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal - divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the - center section with varying widths in the upper and lower - thirds._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. State two methods of subdividing the primary mass. - - 2. Define the nature and need of horizontal space divisions. - - 3. Give five steps to be used in designing a foot stool or - piano bench. - - 4. What point constitutes a horizontal division in the contour - of a simple clay bowl? - - 5. State the rule governing two horizontal space divisions and - furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. - - 6. Give the rule governing three horizontal space divisions and - supply illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. - - 7. State five steps in the designing of a project in the - industrial arts involving the use of horizontal structural - divisions. - -[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN - -PRINCIPLE 3: VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE SINGLE H OR V PRIMARY MASS. - -PROBLEM: VERTICAL SUB DIVISIONS IN CLASSES 1 2 3. THEY ARE USED TO BREAK -OR VARY LARGE AREAS OF HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL MASSES. - -PLATE 11] - - - - -Chapter IV - -VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS - - -[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Vertical Space Division] - -The design of the primary mass has now been considered under Rules 1a -and 1b, and its horizontal divisions under Rules 2a and 2b. The next -logical step is the consideration of the nature of the lines that cross -the primary mass in a vertical direction. In the original planning of -the primary mass it was found that the horizontal bounding lines and the -horizontal divisions were parallel to the base line of an object and -that the base line was necessary to ensure stability. Vertical lines are -necessary and equally important to give the needed vertical support to -an object. - -So accustomed is the eye to vertical lines in tree trunks, tall -buildings, and thousands of other examples that the upward eye movement -in viewing an object, having a predominance of vertical elements, -seemingly adds to its height. - -The designer thus has a most useful device with which to increase the -apparent height of an object that, for structural or other reasons, must -in reality not have great height. Chapter III drew attention to the -influence of horizontal lines on a project. Vertical lines on an object -are found to produce an analogous effect vertically. - -[Sidenote: Architectural Precedent for Vertical Divisions] - -Gothic cathedral builders used the vertical line, repeated again and -again in buttresses, pinnacles, and spires to give great apparent height -to a building and to make it a unified vertical mass of great beauty. -The modern church spire, together with the long, vertical interior -columns, similarly affects our present day church edifices. - -[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN CLASS 1 (WOOD). -THE DIVISIONS OF THIS CLASS ARE GENERALLY BASED UPON THE STRUCTURAL -REQUIREMENTS. - -PLATE 12] - -This idea of repeating the vertical bounding lines of the primary mass -by cutting the mass into vertical spaces is also useful in breaking up -or destroying the monotony of large unbroken surfaces. Pilasters may cut -the front of a building into interesting spaces; piers may break up the -regularity of a long fence; legs and panels may, each for the same -purpose, cross a cabinet. While some of these may be structurally -necessary and some not, they are all witnesses to the desire to produce -beauty in design. As these examples are so numerous in the industrial -arts, it is well to study in detail their proper adaptation to our -needs. - -[Sidenote: One Vertical Space Division] - -Upon analyzing one vertical space division, it will be found to be a -primary mass, vertical in character and governed by Rule 1a. Figure 25, -Plate 12, illustrates one vertical division. The foot is an appendage to -be considered in Chapter V. - -[Sidenote: Two Vertical Space Divisions] - -Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions, -the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form._ Exception -may be made in case of structural requirements. By imagining two -adjacent doors of equal size, the design effect of two vertical -divisions may be made clear. Plate 11 illustrates a rectangle (_A_) -divided in this manner, preliminary to the development of a problem. -Figure 27, Plate 12, represents the type of object to which the -exception to the rule may be applied. In the design of this desk, the -structure practically prohibits two equal vertical divisions, -necessitating an unequal division in the section occupied by the -drawers. - -In Plate 12, Figure 26, the designer had his vertical spacings dictated -by service in the form of two doors. As service demands a tall vertical -primary mass, it is but natural to design the doors to conform with the -primary mass. This gives a monotonously long space for the glass panels -and suggests structural weakness. To relieve this the designer applied -Rule 2a and crossed the vertical panels by horizontal subdivisions, -relieving the monotony and still retaining the unity of the primary -mass. - -[Sidenote: Two Vertical Divisions in Wood] - -In Figure 27 his problem was a variation of that presented in Figure 26. -Structural limitations called for unequal divisions of the vertical -space arrangement. The left portion of the desk becomes dominant as -demanded by service. The drawer or brace is necessary in this design as -it acts as a sort of link, binding the two vertical legs together. The -omission of the drawer would destroy the unity of the mass. - -[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN CLASS 2. CLAY AND -CEMENT. - -PLATE 13] - -[Sidenote: Two Vertical Divisions in Clay] - -As vertical space divisions are principally applicable to rectilinear or -flat objects and moreover as it is in such forms only that they have -structural value, they are not commonly met in cylindrical pottery ware. -Vertical divisions are, however, occasionally used in architectural -tiles and other flat wall objects. As three divisions are much more -commonly used in clay and cement, this material will now be left for -later consideration in this chapter. - -[Sidenote: Vertical Divisions in Metal] - -Vertical spacings in metal are quite similar to space divisions in wood. -Wrought iron fences are, by reason of structural limitations composed of -vertical and horizontal lines, varied by the introduction of piers and -curved members. As they are typical of a certain branch of iron -construction, two designs of the Anchor Post Iron Company have been -introduced. Figure 32, Plate 14, represents two equal vertical divisions -made so because of structural and aesthetic demands. The piers in this -instance form a part of the general design of the entire gate and must -be considered accordingly. - -The vertical subdivision in Figure 32, Plate 14, has been repeated or -echoed by the long vertical bars, alternating with the shorter ones and -producing pleasing variety. The horizontal divisions are designed -according to Rule 2b. In designing the newel lantern in Figure 34 the -designer was required to form a vertical primary mass to conform with -the similar mass of the post. This he determined to subdivide vertically -in practically the same manner as the cabinet in Figure 26. Threatened -with the same monotony he met the situation by subdividing the vertical -sections into three horizontal divisions in accordance with Rule 2b. The -structural supports, however, rising up in the center of this mass, -destroy its unity. They would have carried out the lines of the -structure of the newel post and continued the lines of the lantern -better, if they had been attached to the corners rather than to the -sides of the newel post. - -[Sidenote: Three Vertical Space Divisions] - -Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions, -the center division should be the larger, with the remaining divisions -of equal size._ A large building with a wing on either side will give an -idea of this form of spacing. The size of the main building holds the -wings to it, thus preserving the unity of the structure, while equal -divisions on either side give balance. Plate 11 (_B_) gives an example -of a rectangle divided in this manner. This three-division motive is a -very old one. In the middle ages painters and designers used three -divisions or a triptych, as it is called, in their altar decorations. A -painting of the Virgin was usually placed in the center division with a -saint in each of the remaining panels to the right and left. Designers -and mural decorators have been using the triptych ever since that -period. - -[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF TWO AND THREE VERTICAL SUBDIVISIONS IN CLASS -3 (METAL). - -PLATE 14] - -[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Wood] - -The desk in Figure 28, Plate 12, is a good example of the three-vertical -space rule. The drawer in the center forms the mid or dominant section -and by its greater length holds the two smaller sections together. This -design is better than Figure 27, which has a similar mass. The prominent -vertical lines in Figure 27 counteract and destroy the effect of the -long horizontal dominant lines of the table top, whereas in Figure 28, -the vertical lines in the center of the design are so short that they do -not interfere with the horizontal lines of the table top. Figure 28 -supports the horizontal tendency of the primary mass while Figure 27 -neutralizes or practically destroys its character. - -[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Clay and Cement] - -Figure 30, Plate 13, represents an overmantle by the Rookwood Potteries. -It is typical of a class of overmantles which may be developed in tiles -or in cement, forming an agreeable contrast with the brick of a large -fireplace. The three divisions or triptych should be proportionately -related to the opening of the fireplace and to the enclosing mass of -brick or wood work. We will consider Figure 29 to show how this may be -carried out. - -Figure 29 bears a strong resemblance to Figure 12, Plate 9, and is an -elaboration of a simple three-division theme of spacing. The design -seems to be complex until it is analyzed into two rules. The primary -mass of the entire fireplace motive (including the surrounding -panelling) has first been planned with strong and prominent horizontal -lines. This was then divided vertically (_A_) to conform with Rule 3b, -the three-division theme, giving the divisions for the bookcases and -mantle. The horizontal divisions (_B_) were then constructed within the -remaining space, affecting the distance from the picture moulding to the -mantle and from the mantle to the floor line, in accordance with Rule -2a. That left the space of the width of the cement work (_C_) to be -subdivided again by Rule 3b, while the top of the wainscoting panels -re-echoed the previous horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. The fireplace -opening merely carries out at _D_ the same proportionate relation that -dominates all vertical divisions, Rule 3b, while the wainscoting follows -the general horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. By this method we have -variety in spacing and unity through repetition of similar proportions. - -[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF A DESIGN INVOLVING THE USE OF TWO -HORIZONTAL AND THREE VERTICAL SUBDIVISIONS - -PLATE 15] - -The cement bench, Figure 31, has a three-division arrangement to break -up the monotony of the long rail, and at the same time to repeat the -characteristics of a horizontal primary mass. - -[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Metal] - -Figure 33, Plate 14, is a common example of three vertical divisions in -metal suggested by the needs of service. Figures 35 and 36 are thin -metal problems. The familiar pen tray is primarily a horizontal mass, so -determined by its required service as a pen holder. The projecting -handles form the outer divisions, and the spacing motive, Rule 3b, has -been repeated in the raised projection, decorating the handles. The book -rack in Figure 36 is an example of the manner in which a nearly square -mass, so designed for structural reasons, may, by Rules 3b and 2a, be -broken into a fairly pleasing arrangement of divisions. - -[Sidenote: More Than Three Divisions] - -Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions -are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze into Rules 3a and -3b, or be exactly similar._ The eye becomes confused by a multitude of -vertical divisions and it is much better designing to keep them within -the number stated in this chapter. There are instances, however, when -this is impossible. Under such conditions the following treatment should -be adopted: - -Unless, as stated, a large number of vertical divisions may be grouped -into two or three vertical divisions it is better to make all of the -divisions of the same size. This does not fatigue the eye as much as -would the introduction of a number of complex spacings. This solution -enables the amateur designer to deal with complex problems with an -assurance of securing a degree of unity. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 15 is practically self-explanatory and shows the order in - which the various divisions, so far considered, are to be - introduced into the design together with the grouping of - details within those divisions. Figure D introduces the - additional element termed the appendage to be considered in - Chapter V. - - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical - or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable - proportions. Select the most prominent surface for this - rectangle, preferably the front elevation. - - (_b_) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural - sections, horizontal and vertical in character. Make two or - three trial freehand sketches on cross section paper for varied - proportions and select the most pleasing in accordance with - rules. - - (_c_) Translate the selected sketch into a scale or full size - drawing and add additional views to complete the requirements - of a working drawing. Add additional structural elements: legs, - rails, etc. - - (_d_) For shop purposes, enlarge a scale drawing to full size, - dimension and otherwise prepare it for actual use. See Figure - 102a, page 68, for character of this change. - - (_e_) Construct the project. - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design a fire screen with two horizontal and three vertical - major subdivisions. - - Design a bookcase 4 feet 2 inches high with three horizontal - and two vertical major subdivisions. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical - divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in - form._ - - Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical - divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the - remaining divisions of equal size._ - - Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical - divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze - into Rules 3a and 3b, or be exactly similar._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What is the nature and need of vertical space divisions? - - 2. State the rule governing the use of two vertical space - divisions and give illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. - - 3. Give the rule relating to the use of three vertical space - divisions and furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. - - 4. What is the treatment of more than three vertical divisions? - Why? - - - - -Chapter V - -APPENDAGES AND RULES GOVERNING THEM - - -[Sidenote: Use of the Appendage] - -An appendage is a member added to the primary mass for utilitarian -purposes. In the industrial arts, when an appendage is added merely for -the purpose of decoration, it is as useless and functionless as the -human appendix and, as a source of discord, should be removed. - -An appendage in industrial arts may be, among other things, a plate -rail, bracket, spout, cover, or handle, all of which are capable of -service either for or with the primary mass. In architecture it may be a -wing or ell added to the mass of the building. Simple as its design may -seem, it is often so placed in relation to the main or primary mass that -it does not seem to "fit" or to be in unity with that mass. - -[Sidenote: Designing an Appendage] - -Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and -proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the -primary mass, but subordinated to it._ - -Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly -and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._ - -Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat some lines -similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass._ - -[Sidenote: Violations of Appendage Design] - -All of the foregoing rules are intended to promote the sense of unity -between the primary mass and its appendages. If a mirror on a dresser -looks top-heavy it is generally due to the fact that it has not been -subordinated in size to the primary mass. Rule 4a. If the handle -projects from the primary mass of an object similar to the handle on a -pump, it has not been designed in accordance with Rules 4b and 4c. -Again, if the appendage projects from a primary mass like a tall chimney -from a long flat building, it has violated Rule 4a and has not been -proportionately related to the character of the vertical or horizontal -proportions of the primary mass. - -[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 1 (WOOD) ADDED TO THE -PRIMARY MASS FOR UTILITARIAN PURPOSES. THEY SHOULD ALWAYS BE RELATED -TO THE PRIMARY MASS BY TANGENTS, PARALLELS OR BOTH. - -PLATE 16] - -It should be readily seen that if the primary mass has one dominant -proportion while the appendage has another, there will be a serious -clash and the final result will be the neutralization of both motives, -resulting in either an insipid and characterless design or a downright -lack of unity. - -[Sidenote: Appendages in Wood] - -The design of the small dressing table, Figure 37, Plate 16, with the -mirror classing as an appendage, is an excellent illustration of Rule -4a. The main mass of the table is vertical in character and the mirror -carries out or repeats the character of the primary mass by having a -similar but subordinate vertical mass. In this instance it is so large -that it has nearly the effect of a second primary mass. - -As tangential junctions are difficult to arrange in wood construction -and particularly in furniture, the break between the table top and the -mirror has been softened by the introduction of a bracket or connecting -link. The curves of the link cause the eye to move freely from the -primary mass to the appendage and thus there is a sense of oneness or -unity between the two masses. - -The lantern in Figure 38 becomes an appendage and is subordinated to the -large pedestal or support. The tangential junction has in this case been -fully possible and the eye moves freely from the vertical lines of the -base to the similar vertical mass of the lantern without noticeable -break. - -[Sidenote: Unifying Appendage and Primary Mass] - -The service of the dressing table, Figure 39, with its three-division -mirror makes the problem of adaptation of the appendage to the mass of -the table, in accordance with the rules, much more difficult. Under the -circumstances, about the best that can be done, at the same time keeping -within the limitations of desired service, is to plan the mirrors in -accordance with Rule 3b, with the dominant section in the center. To -secure an approach to unity, each section of the mirror should echo the -vertical proportion of the primary mass of the table. - -The top of the writing stand, in Figure 40, is an example of a -horizontal appendage which repeats the horizontal character of the front -or typical face of the primary mass of the table. The small drawers and -divisions again take up and repeat the horizontal motive of the table, -while the entire appendage may be subdivided under Rule 3b, giving the -dominance to the center portion. The short curves in the appendage all -tend to lead the eye in a satisfactory and smooth transition from one -mass to the other or from the table top to the appendage. The -proportions of the small drawers are similar to the proportions of the -table drawers. Rule 4c. All of these points of similarity bring the -masses into close unity or oneness of appearance. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 41a] - -The table legs, in Figure 41, are more difficult to adjust -satisfactorily. The idea of the designer is, however, apparent. The legs -leave the column of the table with a tangential curve and, sweeping out -with a strong curve, repeat the horizontal line of the table top in the -horizontal lines of their bottom surfaces. - -[Sidenote: Industrial Applications] - -Figure 41a, a modification of Figure 39, shows close unity between the -three divisions of the mirror due to the pleasing curve of the center -section with its tendency to bind the other sections to it. Again, the -echoing of the spacings of the three drawers in the similar spacings of -the three mirrors, makes the bond of unity still closer to the ideal -arrangement. Rule 4c. - -Figures 41b and 41c are, in a way, parallel to Figure 41. The eye moves -freely from the feet (appendages) along the smooth and graceful curves -to the tall shaft or column of the primary mass. The turned fillets, -introduced at the junction of the appendage and the primary mass, in -Figure 41c, have a tendency to check this smooth passage making the -arrangement in Figure 41b preferable. The hardware for the costumers is -well chosen and in sympathy with the vertical proportions of the design. - -[Sidenote: Appendages in Clay] - -With the word "clay" all difficulties in the treatment of appendages -vanish. It is by far the easiest medium for the adaptation of the -appendage to the primary mass. Covers, handles, and spouts are a few of -the more prominent parts falling under this classification. - -The process of the designer is to create the primary rectangle, -subdivide it into two horizontal subdivisions in accordance with Rule -2a, and proceed to add the desired number of appendages. The result may -be suggested by the following illustrations. In Figure 43, Plate 17, the -cover is a continuation of the curve of the top of the bowl, Rule 4a; -the tops of the handles are continuations of the horizontal line in the -top contour of the bowl, while the lower portions of the handles seem to -spring or grow from the lower part of the bowl with a tangential curve. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 41b - -FIGURE 41c] - -[Sidenote: Covers, Spouts, and Handles] - -Figure 44 is a horizontal primary mass with the horizontal subdivision -in the upper section of that mass. The spout and handle spring naturally -from the body and balance each other in proportion, while the cover -handle rises smoothly from the primary mass. The horizontal character of -the primary mass is consistently carried out in the appendages. - -The handle, in Figure 45, leaving the body at a tangent, rises with a -long straight curve to turn suddenly and join the pitcher in harmony -with its top. The apparent abruptness of the junction is softened by the -rounded corners typical of clay construction. - -The Rookwood set, Figure 42, represents three similar primary masses. -The proportionate ratios and the horizontal subdivisions are the same -throughout. The handle for the teapot has been curved in the center to -give variety to the handle. This variation is a difficult thing to -manage without consequent loss of unity as by this variation Rule 4a is -violated. One thing may be said in its favor. It brings the hand closer -to the spout and thus supports the pouring weight. But the unusual in -design is to be discouraged until sufficient skill in simple designing -has been acquired. - -In designing handle appendages for clay, they should be so placed that -they readily control the weight of the material in the container and -afford room for the fingers. Thus, it is better to have the larger -portion of the handle opening at the top of the primary mass. The spout -in all instances should continue sufficiently high to allow the -container to be filled to its full capacity without danger of the -contents running out of the spout. The glaze runs into rounded corners -much more freely than into square ones, hence it is preferable to use -rounded corners wherever possible. - -[Sidenote: Requirements for Appendage Design] - -It is the unexpected curve that is welcome in all designing, provided it -supports the structure and conforms to established rules. After -completing a design involving appendages it should be checked from three -points of view; (1) service, (2) unity between the primary mass and the -appendages, and (3) variety of curvature. On this last point it is -needless to say that compass curves are not desirable except in rounding -small corners or in using fillets. It is well known that compass curves -are difficult to assimilate into pleasing tangential effects. They are -inclined to be monotonous and regular with a "made by the thousand" -appearance to them. One should trust to freehand sweeps, drawn freely -with a full arm movement when possible. All curves should spring -naturally from the primary mass. Blackboard drawing is excellent -practice for the muscles used in this type of designing. In a short time -it will be found possible to produce the useful long, rather flat curve -with its sudden turn (the curve of force) that will make the compass -curve tame and commonplace by comparison. - -[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 2 (POTTERY) ADDED TO THE -PRIMARY MASS FOR UTILITARIAN PURPOSES. THE PLASTICITY OF CLAY ALLOWS A -PERFECT TANGENTIAL UNION WITH THE BODY - -PLATE 17] - -[Sidenote: Freehand Curves] - -[Sidenote: Appendages in Metal] - -Figures 55, 56, and 57, Plate 18, show the close bond between the -appearance of the appendage in clay, and the one in metal. While it is -technically more difficult to adapt metal to the rules governing -appendages than is the case with clay, the final results are, in most -instances, equally pleasing to the eye. - -In most of the figures showing examples in metal, the appendages have to -be secured to the primary mass by screws, rivets, or solder, whereas in -clay they may be moulded _into_ the primary mass. This tends to secure a -more unified appearance; but in metal, the junction of the handle and -the primary mass is often made a decorative feature of the design and -gives added interest and variety to the project. - -The simple primary mass, Figure 58, has a horizontal space division in -the lower portion of the mass. This point of variation of the contour -has been used in the primary masses in Figures 55, 56, and 57, also as -the starting point of that dominant appendage, the handle. Springing -tangentially from the body, it rises in a straight line of extreme value -in service, then with a slight turn it parallels and joins the top of -the bowl, thus fulfilling the design functions of an appendage from both -points of service and beauty. The spout and lid, Figure 55, may be -likewise analyzed. - -[Sidenote: Tangential Junctions] - -The points of tangency, in Figure 54, become a decorative feature of the -design. The handles in the parts of the fire set, Figures 48 and 49, -offer different problems. It is difficult to analyze the latter figures -to determine the appendages as they are in such thorough unity with the -handles and are practically subdivisions of the primary mass. But -referring to the rule stating the fact that the appendages are -subordinated to and attached to the primary mass, it may justly be -stated that the shovel portion of the design may legitimately be -classed as an appendage. This will explain the need of a curve at the -junction points and the feature of the decorative twists in Figure 49. -Both designs may be analyzed into three horizontal divisions. - -[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 3. METAL ... SEE -"A" ... NOTE THE TANGENTIAL RELATION BETWEEN THE APPENDAGE AND PRIMARY -MASS AT "T" - -PLATE 18] - -[Sidenote: Andiron Design] - -The andirons, Figures 50 to 53, illustrate interesting transitions in -wrought iron from the primary mass to the appendage. The vertical shaft -of wrought iron has been treated as a primary mass while the feet may be -classed as appendages. In Figure 50 we have an example of a frankly -square junction point. Figure 51 discloses a weld with rounded corners, -forming a more pleasing junction than does the abrupt angle of Figure -50. This conforms to Rule 4b. The appendage legs echo or repeat the -vertical lines of the primary mass and there is consequently a sense of -unity between them. - -In Figure 52 the appendage foot is curved, and the primary mass has a -similar curve on the top of the vertical column to apply Rule 4c to -repeat the curve. The small links at _X_ indicate an attempt to make the -junction point more pleasing to the eye, but the link is too large to -accomplish the desired result successfully. In Figure 53 the links have -been materially reduced in size and in the amount of curvature. In this -example the eye goes unhampered from appendage to primary or back again, -without perceptible interruption and the unity of the mass, seriously -threatened in Figure 52, is restored in Figure 53. - -In Figure 46 there is an example of a link becoming large enough to be -classed as an appendage connecting two primary masses, _e.g._, the -lantern and the wall. Under these conditions, one end of the appendage -harmonizes with the lantern and the other end with the wall. Figure 47 -shows a cast brass candlestick which is an excellent example, from the -Studio, of tangential junction. - -[Sidenote: Influence of Tools and Materials] - -Clay may readily stand as the most adaptable material for appendages, -with metal ranking second, and wood third. The grain of wood seems to -interfere with the tangential junction of the appendage and primary -mass. Appendages of wood are, however, quite necessary at times. Their -use is merely a matter of lessening the contrast of conflicting lines in -an addition of this nature. - -The band and bracket saws are required in many instances to construct -the connecting link between opposing masses of wood. - -[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN - -PRINCIPLE 4. RELATION OF PRIMARY MASS TO APPENDAGES - -PROBLEM: APPLICATION TO CLASSES 2 AND 3 - -PLATE 19] - -[Sidenote: Influence of Tools and Materials (_Continued_)] - -Hand building or casting is the means used to construct the appendages -in plastic materials. Appendages in cement are seen in the uprights for -cement seats and are generally translated into the primary mass by means -of mouldings or curves. - -Forging or thin and raised metal construction affords many examples of -the adaptability of material in constructing appendages. Rivets form -decorative features at the junction points and should be placed with -great care and relation to the decoration and the point of tangency. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR CLASS PRESENTATION - - The typical views to be used in classroom work, with the - ordinary range of problems, are shown on Plate 19. These - typical views should be supplemented by dimensions, cross - sections, and other views whenever necessary. Wood construction - has been omitted from this sheet, but its development in design - is quite similar to the steps indicated in the summary. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle. - - (_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into two or three horizontal and, - if necessary, vertical divisions. - - (_c_) Estimate the dimensions of the appendage necessary to - perform the desired service in the best manner. - - (_d_) If the appendage is a handle, place it in such a position - that it not only appears to but actually does support the - weight of the primary mass. - - (_e_) Complete the contour curves of the primary mass based - upon the horizontal division which acts as a unit of - measurement or a turning point. - - (_f_) Join the appendages to the primary mass by means of - tangential curves. - - (_g_) Establish unity between the primary mass and the - appendages by applying Rules 4a, 4b, and 4c. - - (_h_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. - See Plate 26. - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design a sugar bowl, cream pitcher, and teapot. Consider them - as different members of one set. - - Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack, the - design to contain two vertical and two horizontal divisions - exclusive of the appendage. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and - proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal - character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it._ - - Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing - smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._ - - Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat - some lines similar in character and direction to those of the - primary mass._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. State the nature and use of the appendage. - - 2. What is the relation of the size of the appendage to the - size of the primary mass? - - 3. How should the appendage be attached to the primary mass? - - 4. How does Rule 4c help to secure unity between the appendage - and the primary mass? - - 5. Are compass curves permissible in appendage design? - - 6. State influence of tools and materials upon appendage - design. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD - - -With this chapter we introduce contour enrichment, the second major -division of industrial arts design. - -[Sidenote: Need and Value of Enrichment] - -A critic of furniture designed by the average manual arts student has -stated frankly that while it might have been honestly constructed it -was, in the first place, too heavy for a woman to move about the house -and, in the second place, it represented a decidedly uneconomical use of -that valuable material, wood. That there is a basis in fact for this -statement cannot be denied. Is it true, then, that furniture must of -necessity be clumsy and heavy when it is sufficiently simplified in -constructive processes for school work? We may say emphatically, "No!" - -One may correct the proportions of an object and reduce the size of the -materials in it to a minimum but still fail to secure the desirable -elements of lightness and interest. The object may still _look_ heavy -and remain a box-like structure void of the grace synonymous with the -best in design. It is, however, possible to correct the clumsy and heavy -appearances by imparting to the design elements of grace and lightness. -Two methods may be used, singly or together: (1) Enrichment of the -Functional Outlines or Contours; (2) Surface Enrichment sometimes called -Space Filling. These may be roughly classified respectively as three and -two dimension enrichment. - -[Sidenote: Contour Enrichment] - -The first, or outline enrichment, concerns itself with the structural -lines. As all designing processes should start with the structure, it -will be our policy to do so. The present chapter will deal only with -enrichment of outlines of wood projects. - -Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the -structure._ - -Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and variety to -the design._ - -[Illustration: COMMON ERRORS IN CONTOUR ENRICHMENT - -STAMP BOXES - -PLATE 19a] - -[Sidenote: Purpose of Contour Enrichment] - -[Sidenote: Requirements of Contour Enrichment] - -It is the purpose of enrichment to add to the problem (1) grace; (2) -lightness; (3) variety; (4) unity. If it is applied in a proper manner -it should likewise add to the apparent structural strength. We should -carefully guard the design, therefore, against (1) enrichment that has a -tendency to obscure or destroy the structural lines; in other words, -enrichment that is not subordinated to the structure, and (2) enrichment -that adds nothing to the structure by its application; that is, one -which does not increase either the apparent strength or the beauty of -the object. - -As an example of this first point, the turned candlestick with the -candle supported by a stack of turned balls alternating with tauri or -thin discs tends to obscure completely the sense of support. Again, the -landscape gardener feels that he is violating a fundamental principle in -design if by planting vines to grow around a building, he obscures the -foundation, and the roof appears, consequently, to rest on and be -supported by the stems and leaves of the vines. Thus it is seen that the -eye registers a sense of structural weakness when the main supports of -an object disappear and are no longer to be traced under the enrichment. - -Under the second point falls the indiscriminate placing of unrelated -objects in the contour enrichment. Naturalistic objects similar to the -claw foot and the human head, for example, should give way to natural -curves that add to the appearance of total strength. Where are we to -find these curves suited to our purpose? - -[Sidenote: Valuable Curves for Outline Enrichment] - -Up to this point emphasis has been placed upon straight and curved lines -immediately connected with pure service. For grace and lightness it is -necessary to depart at times from the rigidity of straight lines. To -understand the character of this departure let us consider a simple -bracket as a support for a shelf. - -This bracket acts as a link, connecting a vertical wall or leg with a -horizontal member or shelf. A bracket shaped like a 45-degree triangle, -Figure 10, page 24, gives one the sense of clumsiness. If the feeling of -grace is to be imparted the eye must move smoothly along the outline of -the bracket, giving one a sensation of aesthetic pleasure. A curved line -will produce this effect more completely than will a straight line. One -must likewise get the feeling that the curve of the bracket is designed -to support the shelf. - -[Illustration: NATURAL AND GEOMETRIC CURVES WITH THEIR USE IN FUNCTIONAL -OUTLINE ENRICHMENT - -PLATE 20] - - -THE CURVE OF FORCE - -[Sidenote: Valuable Curves] - -Turning to Figure 70, Plate 20, we find that whenever nature desires to -support a weight she is inclined to use a peculiar curve seen at _F_. -Possibly through continued observation the eye has associated this curve -with strength or supporting power. Figure 71 has detailed this curve. It -is found to consist of a long, rather flat portion with a quick and -sudden turn at its end. The curve is known to designers as the Curve of -Force and is most valuable in all forms of enrichment. Designers even in -early ages used it in some form as will be noted from the fragment of -Greek sculpture in Figure 72. Its beauty rests in its variety. A circle -has little interest due to its rather monotonous curvature. The eye -desires variety and the curve of force administers to this need and -gives a sense of satisfaction. As designers on wood, how are we to -utilize this curve for purposes of outline enrichment? - -[Sidenote: An Approximate Curve of Force] - -For approximate similarity of curvature an ellipse constructed as shown -in Figure 73 will be found convenient. By drawing several ellipses of -varying sizes upon sheets of tin or zinc, a series of templates of -utmost practical value may be formed and used as was done in securing -the curves of force in Figures 74 and 75. If the rail or shelf is longer -than the post, measured downward from the rail to the floor or to the -next shelf, the ellipse should be used with its major axis placed in a -horizontal position, Figure 75. If, on the contrary, the post is longer -than the shelf the ellipse should have its major axis in a vertical -position, Figure 74. Figures 76 and 77 show other instances of the use -of the approximate curve of force. Many similar practical applications -will occur to the designer. - -[Sidenote: Mouldings] - -We have classed the bracket as a link connecting a vertical and -horizontal structure. Mouldings may likewise be considered as links -connecting similar horizontal or vertical surfaces by bands of graded -forms. Inasmuch as they effect the outline they are considered in this -chapter. As the mouldings are to assist the eye to make the jump from -one surface to another by easy steps, the position from which the -mouldings are to be seen determines to some extent their design. - -[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOUR OR OUTLINE BY MOULDINGS APPLIED -TO WOOD ... TYPES OF MOULDING ... WOOD TURNING PROBLEMS - -PLATE 21] - -[Sidenote: Mouldings (_Continued_)] - -Figure 78 shows the relation of the spectator to three types of -mouldings at _A_, _B_, and _C_. The top or _crown_ (_A_) is to be seen -from below. On a large project the angle of the mouldings with the -body of the object should be approximately 45 degrees. The -_intermediate_ moulding (_B_) is lighter than the crown and forms a -transitional link that may be seen from either above or below. The lower -or _base_ moulding (_C_) is the widest member of the group as demanded -by our sense of stability. It is seen from above. Both for sanitary and -structural reasons it projects but slightly from the base. With this -grouping in mind it is needless to say that a faulty moulding is one, -some portion of which, hidden by intervening moulding, cannot be seen by -the spectator. - -Architectural design and history have formulated a series of curves, -geometric in character, that are regarded as standards in the Industrial -Arts. Some of the more prominent curves with their constructions are -shown in Figure 79. The horizontal divisions are analyzed in accordance -with Rules 2a and 2b. It is noticed that the Scotia possesses a curve -having the shape of the curve of force, while the two Cymas are saved -from monotonous division by means of their reversed curves, illustrating -the contrast of direction. The curves of Figure 80 are excellent lines -for freehand practice in designing mouldings and will develop the -principle of continuity of curvature or the smooth transition of one -curve into the next. - -[Sidenote: Continuity and Contrast] - -To keep this continuity from the monotony of a Marcel Wave it is -customary to break continuous curves by a fillet such as a straight line -as shown at _D_, Figures 81, 82, and 83. When the desired outside -diameter has been reached, contrast of direction is necessary and -pleasing as a return, Figure 82. A glance at the curves so far -considered will quickly determine whether they are fitted for the crown, -intermediate or base mouldings. A curve should join a straight line with -either a tangential or right angle junction, which makes for -positiveness in contour expression. - -[Sidenote: Grouping of Curves] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 85.--Modern Candlesticks] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 86.--Modern Book Trough] - -Application of these curves to outline enrichment for wood turning -projects is to be governed by a strict adherence to Rules 2a or 2b, -otherwise confusion and lack of unity will result. Figure 83 shows a -major grouping under Rule 2b with the subdivisions and minor curves -arranged under Rules 2a and 2b. Figure 84 shows a disregard for rules -and the result is an undesirable monotony of contour. If smooth and even -continuity of curvature is given considerable thought, together with -that for systematic grouping and variety, a pleasing result from wood -turning (a much abused but pleasing form of outline enrichment) may be -secured. Figures 85 and 86 are illustrations from the industrial field -with moulding curves grouped, following and supporting the structural -lines of the object. The columns in Figure 86 might, however, be -advantageously reversed. - -[Sidenote: Materials] - -Large objects designed to be seen from a distance require larger space -divisions for their mouldings than do small objects seen from a nearer -point. Material affects the curve somewhat. Smaller mouldings are more -suited to the expensive woods like mahogany while larger curves may be -used in pine or oak. - -[Sidenote: Evolution of Enriched Outline Design] - -We now have at our command a number of interesting and serviceable -curves suited to the material. Plate 22 is a sheet of applications. -Figures 87 to 94 deal with the book-rack end and in this, as in the -initial chapter, architecture is referred to as the source for many laws -of industrial design. It has seemed wise to illustrate some of these -important parallels as follows: - -We will assume the type of joint construction of the book-rack end as -settled and the question of enrichment to be under consideration. - -Figure 87 is a simple primary mass without enrichment. It is comparable -to the plain box-like structure with monotonous outline and without -interest. The eye follows the outline in the direction of the arrows, -pausing at the square corners, which interrupt a free movement by a -harsh right angle. The base (an appendage) repeats in each instance the -lines of the primary mass. - -Figure 88. Round corners, by freeing the design from the right angles, -accelerate the eye movement and give a sense of added interest and grace -to the contour. - -Figure 89. The cornice of a building suggests a similar arrangement -which may be added to the primary mass. It adds the element of contrast -of direction and variety of widths. - -[Sidenote: Variations] - -Figure 90. The main primary mass of a building with two equal appendages -will suggest the enrichment of the outline in sympathy with three -vertical divisions. Rule 3b. The rounded corners again assist the eye to -travel freely around the contours, thus giving a sense of unity to the -entire form. - -[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE FUNCTIONAL OUTLINES OR CONTOURS AS -APPLIED TO WOOD - -THE EVOLUTION OF OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF A BOOK RACK END WITH CROSS -REFERENCES TO PARALLELS IN ARCHITECTURE - -PLATE 22] - -[Illustration: FIGURES 101 and 102] - -Figure 91. The pediment of a Greek temple with the interest centered at -the top of the pediment (_x_) causes a similar concentration of interest -in the book-rack end. The slight inclination of the sides supplies -variety of widths. The architect considers an object with the interest -centered in this manner in the upper portion, as possessing more -individuality than a motive with purely horizontal lines across the top -boundary. - -[Illustration: FOLDING SCREEN - -FIGURE 102a] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 103.--A Modern Telephone Stand and Stool] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 104.--Modern Chair] - -Figure 92. In this figure the curved inclination facilitates the upward -movement of the eye, at the same time supplying variety of width. - -Figure 93. The addition of an appendage to the outline of the Greek -temple suggests a slight drop or variation in the top edge of the -book-rack end which gives increased interest and grace through variety. - -Figure 94. Contrast of direction is supplied in this suggestion but it -is questionable whether we are adding much to the interest by the -corner. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 105.--A Modern Serving Table] - -Figures 95 to 98 are variations of one theme, the foot stool, and Figure -99 adds suggestive designs for rails. _D_ in Figure 99 shows the -enrichment line cut to a depth which threatens the structural value of -the rail. This is corrected in Figure 103. Figure 100 is an application -of the curve of force to a chair leg _B_, with other possibilities -at _A_ and _C_. Numerous applications of the varied curves under -consideration are found throughout this sheet. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 105a] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 106.--Sheraton Table] - -Before closing with enriched outlines it is well to consider flagrant -violations of this enrichment now on the market. Figure 101 shows a -typical example of complete lack of unity and simplicity. It is a type -of design often associated with cheaply constructed furniture. It is an -ornate parody on outline enrichment. The curves of extravagance are well -shown in Figure 102 where large bulbous curves with no systematic -grouping combine disastrous waste of material with lack of grace or -lightness. It is excellent practice to redesign such examples as those -shown in Figures 101 and 102 with special reference to Rule 5c. - -Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a sense of -oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent members together._ - -[Illustration: INSTRUCTION SHEET - -CONTOUR ENRICHMENT OF WOOD - -DRAWN AND DESIGNED BY JEANNETTE E. FITCH - -U. OF W.] - -Illustrations 103 to 106 are typical forms of present day outline -enrichment. Limitations of space will not permit reference to the use of -Period furniture. Sheraton and Hepplewhite designs are most adaptable -for school uses as may be seen by comparing the Sheraton desk (Figure -106) with the foot stool in Figure 96. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Figure 83 and Plates 22 and 23 are indicative of what might be - obtained from a class. The problem represented on Plate 23 is - advantageously colored with the intended stain and with a small - section of side wall and trim visible. See Chapter 16, Figures - 458 to 463. Figure 102a shows the method of enlarging a design - into a full size working drawing for shop purposes. - - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle. - - (_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into vertical and horizontal - divisions. - - (_c_) Determine parts to be treated by contour enrichment. - - (_d_) Determine method suited to the project: wood turning, - moulding, etc. - - (_e_) Group the wood turning curves under a definite system - included under Rules 2a and 2b. Group the mouldings under - crown, intermediate, and base classifications. Add this - enrichment to the primary mass or make other simple variations - that will not destroy the unity of the project. - - (_f_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. - - (_g_) Construct the project. - - _Note_.--If the designer is not properly equipped to prepare - his own mouldings, he should consult moulding catalogs or the - stock of some local lumber company. - - -ADDITIONAL SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design a wood pedestal with the curves grouped into three - horizontal divisions. - - Design a hall table 2 feet 10 inches high and add simple - contour enrichment. - - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and - support the structure._ - - Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and - variety to the design._ - - Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a - sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent - members together._ - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. State nature and need of enrichment. - - 2. What two forms of enrichment are commonly used in industrial - arts design? - - 3. What four qualities are added to industrial design by - contour enrichment? - - 4. What disturbing elements should be guarded against in the - application of contour enrichment? - - 5. Describe the curve of force and its function in the contour - enrichment of wood. - - 6. What are mouldings? Name three types of mouldings, their - positions with relation to the eye level, and some curves used - in their design. - - 7. Give examples of curves of continuity and contrast. By what - means should two contrasting curves be separated? - - 8. How should a curve join a straight line? - - 9. Explain the grouping of contour curves in wood turning - projects similar to a round leg or candlestick. - - 10. Present five designs for book-racks, enriched by changes of - the contour. Give architectural cross references for each - design. - - 11. Present three well designed table or chair legs and top and - bottom rails and assemble one of these in a design. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN CLAY - - -[Sidenote: Need of Enrichment] - -In the medium we are now about to consider there is a tendency for the -enthusiastic beginner to over-elaborate the outline into meaningless -forms. This possibly is due to the ease with which clay is manipulated. -It would be well then to ask two questions before starting with the work -of enriching the simple structure. First, why should it be enriched--is -there a positive gain by so doing? Second, (if the decision is favorable -to enrichment) where should it be enriched? Let us co-ordinate the parts -to assist in this process. - -[Sidenote: Parts Differing in Function] - -[Sidenote: Unity] - -Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should differ in -appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design._ As a suggestion -to guide one in enriching an object it is necessary to consider that -parts differing in function may differ in appearance, but as members of -one family they should still be related to the whole. For example, a -spout, handle, and lid may differ in design from that of the body of a -pitcher because they differ from it in function. Again, the rim and foot -of a vase may be slightly changed or individually accented because of -their respective duties. The base and holder of a candlestick may vary -in design from the central part or handle, as each has a special -function to perform. This rule of the change of appearance with the -change of functional service (Rule 5d), is found throughout -architectural design. The variation in design in the base, shaft, and -capital of a column is possibly one of the most common examples. While -differing in function they still _must have unity and "hold together."_ - -These functional parts of one design, differing in service rendered, -form centers of construction and may receive emphasis in outline -enrichment. Corners and terminal points are likewise available for -decoration and will be discussed at length later. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 107.--Clay Outline Enrichment in the Rookwood -Potteries] - -Enrichment in clay and metal generally means a substitution of curved -for straight lines in the enriched portions of the design. These curves -have the ability to impart grace, lightness, and variety to an object -provided they are based upon constructive features of the problem. They -must have a unit of measurement and must likewise be appropriate to the -material. It is therefore necessary to deal with clay in this chapter -and follow with a consideration of metal in another chapter. - -In Figures 109 to 123, Plate 24, we have a number of examples of -variation of practically the same primary enclosing rectangle. Figure -108 represents a "squarely" proportioned circular bowl lacking both -refinement of proportion and enrichment. Figure 109 has added refinement -of proportions. Figures 110 and 111 have introduced an outline enriched -to the extent of a simple curve. The base is the dominant width in the -first, and the top dominates in width in the second. The outline in -Figure 112, while similar to 110 for a portion of its length, departs at -a stated point and by curving in toward the base supplies more variety -to the contour. We have already said that this outline curve should have -a unit of measurement and by referring to Rules 2a and 2b we are able to -formulate the following: - -[Sidenote: Unit of Measurement for Curves in Outline Enrichment] - -Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency -should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance -with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b._ Figures 112 and 113 -have as their unit of measurement two horizontal spaces formed in -accordance with Rule 2a, while Figures 116 and 117 have still more -variety by the addition of a compound curve with its turning points or -unit of measurement based upon Rule 2b. Figures 114 and 115 with -outlines similar to those in Figures 112 and 113, respectively, have an -additional enrichment, the foot and rim accentuation. - -[Sidenote: Accentuation of Functional Parts in Clay] - -The new element of enrichment consists of accenting by adding to the -design a modeled rim and a base or foot, as it is technically known. -This not only strengthens the structure at these two functional points -but, by adding a small section of shadow, it tends to break up the -surface, Figure 127, and add to the variety of enrichment. Figures 124 -to 127 show the building processes connected with this interesting and -constructive addition. - -[Sidenote: Appendages] - -Figures 116 to 119 show variations of the preceding figures while -Figures 120 to 123 introduce the appendages to preceding figures. As in -the designing of all appendages, discussed in Chapter V, it is the -designer's intention to balance spout and handle to avoid a one-sided or -top-heavy appearance. - -One of the principal difficulties that confronts the amateur designer is -the failure to secure variety while retaining unity. This is largely due -to a lack of ideas upon the subject and a marked lack of systematic -development of one theme. - -Attention is directed to the diagram in the lower portion of Plate 24. -The idea is to start with some simple form in columns _A_, _B_, _C_, -_D_, _E_, _F_, Figure 128. Figure 129 introduces _two_ horizontal -divisions. Rule 2a. The _black_ portion is the dominant section. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY - -GOOD CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN IS "A FREE AND ADEQUATE EMBODIMENT OF AN IDEA -IN A FORM PECULIARLY APPROPRIATE TO THE IDEA ITSELF" HEGEL - -PLATE 24] - -[Sidenote: Systematic Development of Outline Enrichment in Clay] - -Notice the change in outlines based upon this division. Figure 130 -raises the division point of the two subdivisions into the upper half of -the object. This brings out the need of an accented foot which is, -however, not of sufficient prominence to be considered as a horizontal -spacing. Figure 131 raises the horizontal division points, again causing -the introduction of a larger foot and now qualifying it as a division of -the whole mass. This then makes our design a three-division problem, -Rule 2b, and places it under the restrictions of Rule 5e. - -The feet of all of the bowls have been systematically decreased in width -by the converging lines _C-C_ while the tops have been maintained -constant in width. By this simple diagram an infinite number of designs -may be formed and the choice of selection from the series, thoughtfully -exercised, will supply the ideal bowl, ready to be translated into a -full size working drawing. It is not the idea, however, to guarantee a -perfect design in each one of these divisions as that would be -practically impossible, but we have systematically applied a method of -determination for stimulating the imagination. A series of articles by -F.H. Rhead in the Keramic Studio first suggested the system of -development by means of graded rectangles. - -[Sidenote: Candlesticks] - -Plate 25 shows a further elaboration of the succeeding themes. The -candlestick series, Figures 132 to 138, introduces two or three-space -division problems with contour turning points at _A_, Rule 5e, and with -accented or embryonic feet and rims. The change from the purely -functional and unenriched member of Figure 132 through the series shows -the enrichment changing slightly to meet the needs of the three -functional parts: the base, the handle, and the candle socket. Rule 5d. - -[Sidenote: Containers] - -Figure 139 shows a series of illustrations representing variations for -containers. The first figure is without enrichment, followed by -variations of the outline in the manner already suggested. - -[Sidenote: Pourers] - -Figure 140 indicates a series of pourers with the least attractive -design on the left end. This unsatisfactory design is found, upon -analysis, to be due to centrally placed horizontal division violating -Rule 2a. The design of the appendages in this series will again be found -to conform with the rules in Chapter V. The units of measurement for the -curves may be readily ascertained from observation. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY WITH -METHODS OF SECURING VARIETY - -PLATE 25] - -[Sidenote: Similarity with Varying Primary Masses] - -Figure 141 is useful for the following purpose. It is desirable at times -to develop a number of similar forms for a set, with a gradually -increasing ratio of proportions, either in height or width. Figure 141 -shows how the _height_ may be increased while maintaining a common -width. Notice the gradual proportionate increase of the height of the -neck _A-B_ as well as that of the body. The line _X_ is of the utmost -value in ascertaining the height of the intermediate bowls. The eye -should now be so trained that the height of the neck _A-B_ on the last -bowl can be readily proportioned by _eye measurement_ to that of the -first bowl. A line similar to _X_ will give the intermediate points. - -Figure 142 varies the _width_ in a similar manner. Notice the gradually -decreasing distances _C-D-E-F_, the spaces for which may be determined -by the eye. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 26 suggests the sequential progression of steps leading - to the potter's working drawing. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle. - - (_b_) Add limits of functional parts: handle, spout, cover, etc. - - (_c_) Establish unit of measurement for primary rectangle contour - curves. - - (_d_) Design contour of primary mass and add the appendages to it, - observing the rules pertaining to appendages and unit of - measurement. - - (_e_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for the potter's - use. This includes the planning of a working drawing, one-eighth - larger in all directions than the preliminary design, to allow for - the shrinkage of the clay body. The working drawing should also be - in partial sections to show the construction of the interior of the - ware. - -SUGGESTED PROBLEM - - Design a teapot, tea caddy, and cup showing a common unity in - contour design. (Plate 82.) - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should - differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire - design._ - - Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical - tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement - in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b._ - -[Illustration: RULES 5D AND 5E CONTOUR OR OUTLINE ENRICHMENT. CLAY. -INSTRUCTION SHEET - -PLATE 26] - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. Give and illustrate the rule governing the change in the - appearance of the design with the change of functional service. - - 2. What is the aesthetic value of curves in outline enrichment? - - 3. Correlate the rule governing the unit of measurement for - vertical contour curves with the rules controlling horizontal - divisions. - - 4. Show, by a diagram, the method of systematically varying the - contours of circular forms: (_a_) by changing the horizontal - divisions; (_b_) by varying the proportion of the primary mass. - - 5. What is the value of accenting the functional parts in clay - design? - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of James Milliken University_ - -FIGURE 142a.--Outline and Surface Enrichment in College Pottery] - -[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASSES OF THE -BASER METALS - -ENRICHMENT OF EDGES, CORNERS, INTERMEDIATE POINTS, APPENDAGES. SEE -PLATE 28 FOR TERMINALS, LINKS, DETAILS. - -PLATE 27] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN BASE AND PRECIOUS -METALS - - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of the Base Metals--Iron, Copper, Brass, Bronze] - -The contours of clay forms are generally free to follow the curves and -take the direction dictated by the knowledge and taste of the designer. -Metal outlines are more restricted in this respect. Metal is frequently -associated with service and consequently its design is often governed by -its intended use. For example, if we were to design a metal drawer pull -for a buffet, it would have to be considered in relation to the -character and shape of the buffet. Again, the screws with which it is -attached to the buffet would influence its outline design. It is, in -other words, a _dependent_ outline. - -[Sidenote: Free and Dependent Outlines] - -To distinguish between an unrestricted outline and one bound by other -considerations we will term the restricted outline a _dependent -outline_, for its enrichment must be related to other forms either -within or without its surface. A _free outline_ on the other hand is one -in which the designer is free to use his ideas unrestricted by any other -outside consideration, except service and design consistent with the -material. - -In order to emphasize the nature of a dependent outline we have Rule 5f. -_Dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a -design and influenced by their forms and functions; it must be -consistent with the idea of the subject._ - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Edges] - -We will start with the simplest form of outline enrichment of base -metals, the decoration of an edge. It is contrary to the laws of service -to leave sharp edges on articles intended for intimate household use, -except where cutting edges are required. The rounding of sharp edges is -likewise dictated by the laws of beauty. The transition from one plane -surface to another is assisted by a rounded edge, as the eye takes -kindly to the softened play of light and shade. - -This gives us the simplest form of enrichment--the beveled, chamfered, -or rounded edge, Figures 143 and 144, Plate 27. The rim of a thin -18-gauge plate is likewise improved and strengthened by lapping the edge -as shown in Figure 145, giving the rounded effect shown in Figure 144. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Functional Parts] - -There are six important functional parts with which we are brought into -common contact in industrial design of base metals. There are many more, -but these are the most common and consequently are of the utmost -importance to the designer as design centers. These parts are itemized -as follows: (1) Corners, (2) Appendages, (3) Intermediate Points, (4) -Terminals, (5) Links, (6) Details. As the decorative treatment of each -part varies with the functional duty, Rule 5d, separate treatment and -consideration of each part will be necessary. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Corners] - -Corners, as extreme turning points of a design, are often found -convenient for the location of screw holes, rivets, etc. These important -construction elements become prominent functional parts of the design -and by custom and the laws of design, Rule 5d, they are capable of -receiving outline enrichment. But the contour of the corner must be -related to the screws or rivets, particularly if they are near the edge, -hence our outline becomes a _dependent outline_ and as such must be -related to the rivets or screws by Rule 5f. - -Figures 146 to 149 show various arrangements of this type of design. The -unity of the design is not lost, and the functional parts are enriched -by contours related to the elements of service (rivets). Figure 153 -shows another but slightly modified example of the same laws applied to -hinge construction. The enriched outline in this case is closely -associated with the holes in the hinge. The hinges in turn must be -related to the object for which they are designed. Figure 150 gives a -common example of corner enrichment by means of varying the edge at the -corners, _i.e._, by rounding the tray corners. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Appendages] - -As appendages have distinct functional duties their design may vary as -the design of the arm of the human figure differs from the head. Yet, as -parts of the same body, they must fit the shape of the object to which -they are attached. The candle holder and handle as appendages in Figure -150 are designed in sympathetic relation by means of tangential and -similar curves sufficiently varied to give the eye a feeling of variety -in the design. The novel single flower holders, Figures 151 and 152, -with the glass test tube acting as a container show other possible -forms of the appendage design. The first is informal while the second is -formal, but both adhere to the first simple rules of appendage design. -Rule 4a, etc. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Intermediate Points] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 156a.--Candlestick, Rendered by E.R.] - -The enrichment of center or intermediate points should be handled with -great care and with a definite reason. Careless handling may cause the -design to lack unity. Figures 154 and 155 show a simple twist as -enrichment. The serviceable reason for this is to obtain a grip at the -point of the twist. Again, it varies the character of the straight edges -and adds interest without loss of compactness or unity. If one is -desirous of widening a vertical or horizontal rod, the enrichment made -by welding a number of small rods together with a spreading twist gives -a pleasing and serviceable handle. Figure 156. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Terminals] - - -[Sidenote: Free and Dependent Contour Enrichment] - -As the public demands a happy ending to a story or a play, so does the -eye demand a well-designed ending to a design. The part that terminal -enrichment plays in industrial design is, therefore, to say the least, -important to us as designers. Figure 157 illustrates terminals in thin -metal and is shown by courtesy of the _School Arts Magazine_ from one -of the articles by Mr. Augustus Rose. The outlines are in part dependent -in character, controlled by rivets. Notice the change of curve as the -function changes from the _dependent curve_ of the rivet area to the -_free outline_ of the handle and again from the handle to the cutting -blade; a functional change of marked character, but in thorough unity -with the entire design. It is again emphasized that whether the design -possesses a free or a dependent outline, or a combination of both types, -all parts of the design must be held together by entire _unity_. The -rivets are occasionally placed toward the edge and a domed boss is used -to accent the center as is shown in Figure 158. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN THE BASER -METALS. THE ENRICHMENT OF TERMINALS, LINKS, AND DETAILS. FREE OUTLINES - -PLATE 28] - - -THE IONIC VOLUTE - -[Sidenote: Terminal Enrichment in Wrought Metal] - -As the Curve of Force was a valuable curve in wood construction, so we -find it an equally valuable curve for wrought metal. Its recurrence -again and again in industrial design leads us to appreciate its value in -the arts. It is the Ionic volute handed down to us in its present form -from the time of the Greeks, who developed it to a high state of -perfection. - -[Sidenote: Curve of Beauty] - -While its geometric development is a tedious process, it may be easily -constructed for practical purposes by the following method. In Figure -159, _P_ represents a small cylinder of wood, possibly a dowel. A strong -piece of thread, or fine wire, is wrapped around the base of the dowel a -number of times and a loop is formed in the free end. A pencil with a -sharp point is inserted in the loop and the pencil and dowel are placed -together on a sheet of paper. As the thread unwinds from the dowel the -point of the pencil will describe a volute which may be developed -indefinitely. It will be noticed that no corresponding parts of the -curve are concentric and it thus has constant variety. It has been -termed the CURVE OF BEAUTY and is found in nature in the wonderfully -designed shell of the nautilus. - -It is advisable to form several templates for the volute out of bent -wrought iron, of different sizes, and to practice drawing the curve many -times to accustom the hand and the eye to its changes of direction. The -"eye" or center portion is sometimes terminated by thinning and -expanding in the manner shown in Figure 160. - -[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN PRECIOUS -METALS. SILVER. A DEPENDENT OUTLINE RELATED TO AND ENCLOSING A -SEMI-PRECIOUS STONE. - -PLATE 29] - -[Sidenote: Greek Scroll] - -One form of application of the volute is shown in the terminal points of -the candlestick in Figure 161. It is here shown combined with the second -volute in the form of a reverse curve. In Figure 162, it has been -combined with a smaller but reversed volute at the upper end. The entire -and combined curve is commonly known as a Greek Scroll. In Figure 163 -the Greek Scroll has been combined with the reverse curve of Figure 161 -to form a portion of the bracket. In this figure we find the familiar -curve of force faithfully serving its function as a supporting member -for the top portion of the bracket. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Links] - -A link is a convenient filler in connecting parts of a right angle. It -likewise serves as a brace in connecting several disconnected parts and -is useful in maintaining the unity of a design. Figure 164 shows a -common form of link with its ends thinned and expanded as shown in -Figure 160. This construction may, however, be disregarded as it is -technically quite difficult to accomplish. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment of Details] - -Details are the smaller portions of a design and are similar to the -trimmings and minor brackets of a building in relative importance. They -enter to a considerable extent into wrought metal grille design, and are -generally formed of the link, Greek scroll, or the Ionic volute, so as -to be in harmony with the other parts of the design outline. Rule 5f. -Their presence and use may be readily detected on Plate 28. - -Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a tangential -or right angle junction._ - -[Sidenote: Summary of Wrought Metal Free Outline Enrichment] - -As we are now familiar with continuity in wood moulding curves we should -feel, in reviewing the figures in this chapter, the value of flowing -continuity and tangential junction points (Rule 5g) necessary in wrought -metal enrichment. The curves that we have considered are adapted to the -materials and a comparatively large and new field of design is opened to -the designer through a combination of curves mentioned. Plate 30 is -self-explanatory and brings out the general application of the foregoing -principles as applied to cast bronze hardware. It is interesting to -notice the change of enrichment paralleling the change of function as -outlined in Rule 5d. - - -OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS - -[Sidenote: Outline Enrichment of Silver] - -[Sidenote: Stones and Their Cuttings] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_ - -PLATE 30] - -Little has been written regarding the designing of jewelry. As can be -readily seen, a semi-precious stone is the controlling factor in the -major portion of the designs with silver as a background. Any enrichment -merely accentuates the beauty of the setting. This statement would lead -us to consider the outline as _dependent_ in character and thoroughly -related to the stone. It is necessary then to take the stone as a point -of departure. The standard stone cuttings used in simple jewelry are -shown in Figures 166 to 170. The first three and the last are cabochon -cut, elliptical in contour with flat bottoms. The long axes have been -drawn in each instance. - -[Sidenote: Relation of Stone to Contour] - -With Figures 171 to 174 we begin to see the close relation between the -stone and its enclosing form. Rule 5f. A longer major axis in the stone -calls for an increased length in the corresponding axis of the silver -foundation or background. It is really a re-echo of the proportions of -the primary mass of the stone in the mass of the silver. It is well for -the beginner to make the axis of the stone and the silver blank coincide -and to use this long axis as a basis for future enrichment. In a -vertical primary mass, similar to the one shown in Figure 180, it is -better design to place the stone a short distance above the geometric -center of the mass as it insures a sense of stability and balance. A -stone when placed toward the bottom of a design of this nature is -inclined to give a feeling of "settling down" or lost balance. - -Figure 176 varies the design shown in Figure 171. The two circles -related to the stone are connected by four silver grains or balls. -Figure 177 shows an attempt to enrich the contour of the silver, but -there is a resulting tendency to detract from the simplicity of the -unbroken outline and, as a result, little is gained by its attempted -enrichment. Figures 178 and 179 show a better form of enrichment by -accentuating the outline. This may be accomplished either by engraving a -single line paralleling the contour or by soldering a thin wire around -the outline. - -[Sidenote: Need of Top and Side Views] - -While the top view of an article of jewelry may have been carefully -designed the side view in most instances is totally neglected. The side -view should show a steady graduation from the surface of the silver to -the outline of the stone. This prevents the stone from bulging from the -surface like a sudden and unusual growth. Doming, small wedges of -silver, or a twist around the bezel may accomplish this as can be -readily seen in Figures 181, 182, and 183. - -[Illustration: RULES 5D 5E 5F 5G. CONTOUR OR OUTLINE ENRICHMENT. CLAY. -METAL. INSTRUCTION SHEET. - -PLATE 31] - -[Sidenote: Motives for Outline Enrichment in Silver] - -While emphasis should be placed upon simplicity of outline, certain well -regulated forms of enrichment may be added to the contour and enhance -the beauty of the stone. Such motives with constructive steps are shown -in Figure 184 and their application in Figures 185 to 188. It will be -noticed that the enrichment _invariably leads up to the stone_ which is -the center of interest in the design. The ornament is likewise based -upon the prominent axes of the stone. - -[Sidenote: Free Outline Enrichment in Silver] - -Figures 189, 190, and 191 are types of beaten and raised silver work and -show characteristic forms in silver, with two examples of accented -outline enrichment. As they are curvilinear forms, their design is -similar in many ways to clay forms of similar proportions and uses. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 31 shows the design steps necessary to the evolution of a - lamp in two materials. A full size working drawing should - follow Figure D. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw the unenriched primary mass. - - (_b_) For dependent contours, locate the elements of service - within the primary mass. This may be interpreted to mean - rivets, screw holes, semi-precious stones, etc. - - (_c_) Determine upon the portion of the contours to be - enriched, gauged by its need for grace, lightness, and variety. - This enrichment is preferably concentrated at the following - points: edges, corners, appendages, intermediate points, - terminals, links, and details. These points may be combined - provided the result does not violate the simplicity of the - structural lines. - - (_d_) Draw the enrichment in the predetermined area, causing it - to be in harmony with such interior functional parts as screw - holes, rivets, semi-precious stones, etc. Utilize suggested - curves. - - (_e_) Review all of the contour curves added to the design. Are - they feeble compass curves or do they have the character of - long sweeping curves with short "snappy" turns for variety? - - (_f_) Test the entire design for unity. Does the eye move - smoothly through all parts of the contour? Does the design - "hold together"? Are all links and appendages joined to the - primary mass in a graceful tangential manner? - - (_g_) Dimension, add additional views, and details, if - necessary, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. - - SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design an electric table lamp with square copper rod as a support, - feet, and copper shade. - - Design a hinge for a cedar chest. - - SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 5f. _Dependent outline enrichment should be related to - essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and - functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject._ - - Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a - tangential or right angle junction._ - - REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. Contrast contour enrichment of wood, clay, and metal. - - 2. Define free and dependent outline in contour enrichment of base - metal. - - 3. Describe and explain the use of the Ionic volute in contour - enrichment of metal. - - 4. Define and present illustrations of contour enrichment designed - for edges, corners, appendages, intermediate points, terminals, - links, and other details in base metal. - - 5. Define and illustrate free and dependent contour enrichment of - precious metal. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 190a.--Union of Outline Enrichment on Clay and -Metal] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - - -With this chapter we enter upon a consideration of the third and last -major division of Industrial Arts Design, that of Surface Enrichment. - -[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Surface Enrichment] - -We have considered in previous chapters the subject of contour or -outline enrichment. Now consider for a moment the fact that articles -such as a square box, or tile, are not suited to outline enrichment, yet -they have large, flat, and rather monotonous surfaces capable of -decoration. It is readily seen that such surfaces will admit of further -elaboration which we will distinguish from contour enrichment by using -the term Surface Enrichment. As in contour enrichment, so in surface -enrichment, the added element of design not only increases the beauty of -the object but it likewise, if properly applied, gives apparent added -strength to the structure. - -Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._ - -[Sidenote: When and Where to Enrich a Surface] - -Strictly utilitarian articles should not be ornamented by surface -enrichment. As an example, a wooden mixing spoon, bowl, or wooden knife -handle should not be enriched by carving, as the carving would interfere -with the proper cleansing of the article. A surface exposed to -considerable wear should not be enriched. Objects not strictly in the -utilitarian class, such as a paper knife, book stall, envelope holder, -or library table may be appropriately enriched in an unostentatious -manner so that they will harmonize with their surroundings. But the -enrichment should first be placed upon the surface in such a manner that -it will not interfere with the functional use of the article for -service. Large projections upon the back of a chair or upon the handle -of a paper cutter are unpleasant and interfere with intended uses. - -[Illustration: FIGURE 191a.--Structure Obscured by Surface and Contour -Enrichment] - -Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours -but must not obscure the actual structure._ - -Careful consideration should be given to the often-mentioned law that -the surface enrichment must be thoroughly related to structure and -contour but not so as to obscure either. We must keep in mind the fact -that it is necessary to support the structure, not to cover it up by -related ornament, as in Figure 191a. - -[Sidenote: Conservative Use of Ornament] - -Most critics of industrial design complain of an overwhelming desire -upon the part of the designer to over-decorate the structure. Surface -enrichment runs wild over steam radiators, stoves, and wooden rocking -chairs. Reserve is the watchword recommended as of extreme importance. -The illustrations in this chapter are restricted to a limited range of -design motives for the express purpose of simplifying the number of -recommended methods. - -Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._ - -[Sidenote: Relation of Enrichment to Material] - -The close-fibered woods with smooth, even textures are capable of more -delicate enrichment than woods of coarser grain. Small articles are -generally seen from a close range and should, therefore, be ornamented -with finer decoration than large articles, such as a piece of furniture -that is to be seen from a distance. The latter should have surface -enrichment of sufficient boldness to "carry" or to be distinct from a -distant point. Furthermore the enrichment should not have a "stuck on" -appearance, but be an integral part of the original mass. - -[Sidenote: Appropriate Methods of Surface Enrichment for Wood] - -There are three distinct means of ornamenting wood: (1) inlaying, -depending for interest upon the difference in value and hue of the -different inlaying woods used; (2) carved enrichment, depending upon -line and mass for its beauty and made visible by contrasts of light and -shade; (3) painting or staining of the surface with the interest -dependent upon the colors or stains and their relation to each other and -to the hue of the wood. It has been deemed wise to consider the first -two types in the present chapter, and leave the last type for later -consideration. In Chapters XV, XVI, and XVII, accentuation has been -placed on wood coloring. The designer is advised to read those chapters -before attempting to stain or color his problem. - -[Sidenote: Inlaying] - -Treating surface enrichment in its listed order we find that inlaying is -one of the most common and best forms of enrichment for wood work. As -inlaying readily adapts itself to bands and borders, emphasis is placed -upon them. - -[Illustration: STRAIGHT LINE SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF A SMALL PRIMARY MASS -IN WOOD - -BANDS AND BORDERS - -FOR INLAYING, CARVING, STAINING - -PLATE 32] - -Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring -contrasts with the parent surface._ - -[Sidenote: Errors in Wood Inlay] - -Two conspicuous errors are often associated with inlaid designs. The -first is the use of woods affording a glaring contrast with that of the -project. Figure 209, Page 106. The right contrast of value is -established when the inlay seems neither to rise from the surface nor -sink through it. It should remain _on the surface_ of the plane to be -enriched, for it is surface enrichment. Figures 210, 211, and 212 are -illustrative of pleasing contrasts. - -The second specific glaring error is the use of unrelated inlay. As an -example, an Indian club is created by gluing many varicolored woods -around a central core. The result of the pattern so formed has little -relation to the structural lines, fails entirely to support them; and, -as a result, should be discarded. - -[Sidenote: Carving] - -Carving is difficult for the average beginner in wood working design, -therefore merely the simplest forms of the craft are suggested as -advisable. Figure 205a. If an elaborate design is desired (Figure 205c), -it should be first drawn in outline and finally modeled in relief by -Plastelene. This model is then an effective guide for the carver, -supplementing the original outline drawing. - -[Sidenote: Divisions of Carving] - -Carving may be roughly divided into the following groups: (1) high -relief carving similar to heads, human figures, and capitals; (2) low -relief carving in which the planes have been flattened to a -comparatively short distance above the original block of wood, such as -panels, which are good examples of this group; (3) pierced carving where -the background has been entirely cut away in places, such as screens, -which illustrate this type; (4) incised carving in which the design has -been depressed _below_ the surface of the wood. Geometric chip carving -is a representative type of this group. There are possible variations -and combinations of these groups. - -Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of -belonging to the parent mass._ - -_The central governing thought_ in all carved designs is to show an -interesting proportion of light and shade coupled with a unity between -the raised portion of the design and the background. If the carving -has a glued on appearance it becomes mechanical and resembles a stamped -or machine-produced ornament. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD WITH -BORDERS OF CURVED AND STRAIGHT LINES - -FOR INLAYING, CARVING, STAINING - -PLATE 33] - -[Sidenote: Steps Taken in Carving] - -A typical carved enrichment is carried through four steps: (1) the -design is transferred to the wood surface by means of carbon paper; (2) -the design is "set in" or separated from the ground by means of a -grooved chisel; (3) the wood is cut away from the back of the design by -a process of grounding; (4) the leaves and flowers or other elements of -the design are modeled. The designer should keep these processes in mind -when developing his design. - -[Sidenote: The Designer's Vocabulary] - -It is now essential to find the extent of the vocabulary possible for -the designer of surface enrichment. He has three large sources of -information: first, geometric forms and abstract spots; second, natural -organic objects such as flowers, leaves, animals, etc.; third, -artificial objects, pots, jars, ink bottles, and other similar objects. - -He may assemble or group these objects or elements for future designs -into four typical systems: first, bands or borders; second, panels; -third, free ornament; and fourth, the diaper or all-over patterns. - - -DESIGNING BANDS ON BORDERS - -Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, that is, -onward movement._ - -Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary -motion, opposed to the main forward movement._ - -[Sidenote: Bands] - -Bands are particularly suitable for inlaying. They are composed of -straight lines arranged in some orderly and structurally related manner. -They are used for bordering, framing, enclosing, or connecting. They -give a decided _onward_ motion which tends to increase the apparent -length of the surface to which they are applied. Referring to Plate 32, -Figure 192, we find three typical bands, _A_, _B_, and _C_. It is often -the custom to limit the width of the inlayed bands to the width of the -circular saw cut. To secure unity, the center band in _C_ is wider than -the outside sections. - -[Sidenote: Accenting] - -A possible variation of motive in band designing may be secured by -accenting. The single band has been broken up at _D_ into geometric -sections of pleasing length. But while this design gives variety, it -also destroys the unity of a single straight line. Unity may, however, -be restored by the addition of the top and bottom bands at _E_. This -method of restoring unity is of extreme value in all border arrangements -and is constantly used by the designer. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -APPLICATION OF BANDS AND BORDERS - -PLATE 34] - -Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison with the -main movement of the border._ - -[Sidenote: Borders] - -Bands, as has just been stated, give distinctly "onward" movement. -Borders are merely bands combined with other motives from the designer's -vocabulary. As will be seen, bands, by their onward movement, tend to -hold the other elements of the border together. Figure 193 is a border -design without variety, unity, or interest. Figure 194 has added unity -to a similar border by the addition of the double bands, but monotony is -still present. Figure 195 suggests a method of relieving the monotony by -accentuating every other repeat, thus supplying variety and creating an -analogy to march-time music. Figure 196 has accentuated the monotonous -border in Figure 194 by omitting every other square. This makes a simple -and effective inlay pattern and suggests a large number of possible -variations that could be applied to accented band motives. - -[Sidenote: Moorish Ornament] - -Figures 197 and 198 are border motives of geometric derivation taken -from the historic schools of ornament. Figure 198 illustrates the "strap -ornament" of the Moorish school. The simple underlying geometric net -upon which these designs are based may be found in Meyer's Handbook of -Ornament. - - -INCEPTIVE AXES - -Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly -upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the -lateral movement dominates._ - -[Sidenote: Upward and Onward Borders] - -In addition to the purely onward borders we now come to a variety with a -distinctly _upward_ movement as well. While this new feature adds -materially to the interest of the border, it also adds to the difficulty -of designing. The upward movement is often centered about an axis termed -the Axis of Symmetry or Inceptive Axis, about which are grouped and -balanced the different elements from the designer's vocabulary. When -both sides are alike, the unit so formed is called a _bilateral unit_. -Figure 199 shows the formation of a bilateral unit by means of grouping, -accenting, and balancing straight lines over an inceptive axis. By -adding bands above and below and doubling these vertical lines to gain -width, we form at _A_ and _B_, Figure 199, inlaid designs with an upward -and onward tendency or movement. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 215.--Inlaid Band Border] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 216.--Single and Double Band Inlaid Border] - -The introduction of curved lines and natural units allows us to add more -grace to these combined movements. The leading lines of a small border, -designed to be seen at close range, are planned in Figure 200. The -central line or inceptive axis is repeated at regular intervals and the -leading or skeleton lines are balanced to the right and left of this -axis. These leading lines, as can be readily seen, have an upward and -onward movement. To insure continuity, a small link and the top and -bottom bands have been added to complete the onward movement. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ - -FIGURE 216a.--Work of High School Students] - -Material for straight borders may be derived from geometry, nature, or -artificial forms, but for borders designed in curves, nature is -generally selected as a source. - -Figure 201 illustrates a crude and uninteresting form, unsuited to -outline enrichment. Figure 202 has brought Figure 201 into some -semblance of order, but as can be readily seen by the primary outline -which encloses it, the widest point occurs exactly midway from top to -bottom, which makes the form monotonous. This defect has been remedied -in Figure 203 and an interesting and varied area appears for the first -time. What Dr. Haney calls "the feebly flapping curve" of Figure 202 has -been replaced by the vigorous and "snappy" curve of Figure 203, which -gives what is termed a dynamic or rhythmic value in surface enrichment. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ - -FIGURE 216b.--Work of High School Students] - -Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic -and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the border._ - -Any form which causes the eye to move in a given direction is strongly -_dynamic_, and is opposed to the _static_ form which does not cause a -marked eye movement. A circle is symbolic of the static form, while a -triangle is dynamic. In the designer's nomenclature, the term "rhythmic" -may be used synonymously with "dynamic." - -Dynamic areas or forms should carry out the upward and onward movement -of the leading lines. Figure 204 shows how closely dynamic areas are -connected with nature's units for design motives. A slight change in the -contour may transform a leaf into excellent material with which to -clothe the leading lines. The curve of force, the cyma, and other curves -described in previous chapters should be recognized by the designer and -utilized in the contours of dynamic forms. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ - -FIGURE 216c.--Instruction Sheet Problem] - -The leading lines of the border in Figure 200 are shown clothed or -enriched in Figure 205. Vigorous dynamic spots, conventionalized from -natural units, continue the upward and onward movement of the original -leading lines. As will be noted, the background has been treated to -allow the spots to appear in relief. Small "fussy" spots or areas have -been omitted and the units, varied in size and strongly dynamic in form, -balance over an inceptive axis. The small link reaches out its helping -hand to complete the onward movement without loss of unity, while the -bands above and below bind the design together and assist in the lateral -movement. Figure 205 shows three methods of treatment: simple spots -without modeling, from _A_ to _B_; slight indications of modeling, from -_B_ to _C_; full modeling of the entire unit at _C_. The choice of -treatment depends, of course, upon the skill of the craftsman. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 217.--Carved and Accented Border and Triple Carved Band] - -Figure 206 shows a design varied from formal balance over a central axis -of symmetry or an inceptive axis. It has a decided onward movement with -the leaves balanced above and below the stem which is the axis. The -"repeat" has been reversed at _B_ and is more pleasing than the portion -at _A_. The area of the background, in its relation to that used for -ornamentation or "filling," cannot be predetermined with exactness. -There should be no blank spaces for the eye to bridge. Some designers -allow about one-third ground for two-thirds filling or enrichment. -This proportion gives a full and rich effect and may be adopted in most -instances as satisfactory. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ - -PLATE 35.--Instruction Sheet] - -[Sidenote: Point of Concentration--Effect upon Structure] - -When a border is used to parallel a rectangle it is customary to -strengthen the border at the corners for two reasons: first, to -strengthen, apparently, the structure at these points; second, to assist -the eye in making the sudden turn at the corner. The corner enforcement -affords momentary resting points for the eye, and adds pleasing variety -to the long line of border. The strengthened point is called the _point -of concentration_ or point of force. Its presence and effect may be -noted by the symbol P.C. in Figures 207, 208, 213, and 214. - -[Sidenote: Chip Carving] - -Figure 213 represents the rather angular and monotonous chip carving -motive. It is, however, a simple form of carved enrichment for wood -construction. Figure 214 shows the more rhythmic flow of a carved and -modeled enrichment. Two methods of leaf treatment are given at _A_ and -_B_. - -Figures 215, 216, and 217 are industrial and public school examples of -the forms of surface enrichment treated in this chapter. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 35 shows the necessary working drawings for wood inlay - and is supplied as a typical high school problem by Mr. C.E. - Partch of Des Moines, Iowa. See Figure 216c. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle, appendage, etc. - - (_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into its horizontal and vertical - subdivisions. - - (_c_) Design very simple contour enrichment. - - (_d_) Determine the location of zone of enrichment, and the - amount and method of enriching the surface. - - (_e_) Make several preliminary sketches to determine the best - design and add the one finally selected to the structure. - Correlate with contour enrichment. - - (_f_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare - the drawing for shop use. - -SUGGESTED PROBLEM - - Design a walnut side table 3 feet high and enrich with a double - band inlay of ebony. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._ - - Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural - contours but must not obscure the actual structure._ - - Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._ - - Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, - that is, onward movement._ - - Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent - contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement._ - - Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison - with the main movement of the border._ - - Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly - dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movement of the - border._ - - Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a - strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, - provided the lateral movement dominates._ - - Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or - glaring contrasts with the parent surface._ - - Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance - of belonging to the parent mass._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - 1. Give the reasons why surface enrichment may be used as - decoration. - - 2. State an original example illustrating when and where to use - surface enrichment. - - 3. Name an object from the industrial arts in which the - structure has been weakened or obscured by the application of - surface enrichment. Name an example of the correct use of - surface enrichment and state wherein it has been correctly - applied. - - 4. How should surface enrichment of small masses differ from - that applied to larger masses; in what manner does the fiber of - the wood affect the design? - - 5. Name three means of enriching the surface of wood. Briefly - describe the processes of inlaying and carving, with the design - restrictions governing each. - - 6. Give three sources of ornament open to the designer of - surface enrichment. - - 7. Draw an accented triple band motive for inlay. - - 8. What is the inceptive axis; a bilateral unit? What are - leading lines; dynamic forms; points of concentration? - - 9. Design an upward and onward continuous carved border for - wood and base it upon a vertical inceptive axis. Treat as in A, - Figure 205. - - 10. Illustrate the manner in which structure may be apparently - strengthened by a band or border. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD--Continued - -ENCLOSED AND FREE ORNAMENT - - -[Sidenote: Enclosed Ornament (Panels)] - -Chapter IX dealt with methods of developing continuous or repeating -ornament (bands or borders). This leaves enclosed and free forms of -surface enrichment to be considered in this chapter. - -As an enclosed form, a panel may be enriched by geometric, natural, or -artificial ornament. It is enclosed in a definite boundary of bands or -lines and may be a square or other polygon, circle, ellipse, lunette, -spandrel, lozenge, or triangle. As the decoration does not have the -continuous repeating movement of the border and as it covers an enclosed -area, it is necessarily treated in a different manner from either band -or border. Its object is to decorate a plane surface. The enrichment may -be made by means of carving, inlaying, or painting. - -[Sidenote: Free Ornament] - -Free ornament means the use of motives not severely enclosed by bands or -panels. Free ornament is generally applied to centers or upper portions -of surfaces to relieve a monotonous area not suited to either panel or -border treatment. It may have an upward or a radial movement dependent -upon the character of the member to be enriched. - -[Sidenote: Summary] - -We then have three forms of possible surface enrichment: repeating or -continuous motives, enclosed motives, and free motives. Our next point -is to consider where the last two may be used appropriately in surface -enrichment. - -[Sidenote: Zone of Enrichment] - -The panel of a small primary mass of wood may be enriched at any one of -three places: first, at the margins; second, at the center; third, over -the entire surface. The exact position is a matter to be determined by -the structural design and the utilitarian requirements of the problem. -For example, a bread board or taboret top would require the enrichment -in the margin with the center left free. A table leg might require an -enrichment in the center of the upper portion of the leg, while a square -panel to be inserted in a door, Figure 233, Page 124, might require full -surface treatment. - -[Sidenote: Structural Reinforcement] - -Each area of panel enrichment should have one or more accented points -known as points of concentration. The design should become more -prominent at these places and cause the eye to rest for a moment before -passing to the next point of prominence. The accented portion of the -design at these points should be so related to the structure that it -apparently reinforces the structure as a whole. Corners, centers of -edges, and geometric centers are salient parts of a structure; we shall -therefore be likely to find our points of concentration coinciding with -them. Let us then consider the first of these arrangements as applied to -enclosed enrichment. - - -MARGINAL PANEL ENRICHMENT - -ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES - -Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the -outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich._ - -Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed -(1) preferably at the corner or (2) in the center of each margin._ - -Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing -the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be -related to the panel contour and to each other._ - -[Sidenote: Marginal Zone Enrichment] - -The marginal method of enrichment may be used when it is impossible to -enrich the entire surface because the center is to be used for -utilitarian purposes or because it would be aesthetically unwise to -enrich the entire surface. The marginal zone is adapted to enriching box -tops, stands, table tops, and similar surfaces designed preferably with -the thought of being seen from above. We shall call such surfaces -horizontal planes. - -As the design is to be limited to the margin, the panel outline is bound -to parallel the contours, or outlines, of the surface to be enriched. It -is well to begin the design by creating a panel parallel to the outlines -of the enriched surface. Figure 218. The next step is to place the point -of concentration in the marginal zone and within this figure. Common -usage dictates the _corners_ as the proper points. [Sidenote: Points of -Concentration] - -[Sidenote: Points of Concentration in the Corner of Margin] - -It may be the designer's practice to use the single or double bands, -Figures 218, 219, 220, with a single accentuation at the corners. The -spots composing the point of concentration must have unity with the -enclosing contours and with the remainder of the enrichment. Figure 220 -is, in this respect, an improvement over Figure 219. But these examples -are not _true_ enclosed panel enrichment. They are the borders of -Chapter IX acting as marginal enrichment. It is not until we reach -Figure 221 that the true enclosed enrichment appears, when the panel -motive is clearly evident. In this figure a single incised band -parallels the contours of the figure until the corner is reached. Here -we find it turning, gracefully widening to give variety, and supporting -the structure by its own increased strength. The single band in Figure -221 acts as a bridge, leads the eye from one point of concentration to -the next similar point, forms a compact mass with the point of -concentration, and parallels the enclosing contours of the enriched -surface. - -[Sidenote: Points of Concentration in the Center of Margin] - -In Figure 222 the point of concentration is to be found in the _center_ -of each margin. This bilateral unit is clearly designed on and about the -center lines of the square panel. These points of concentration take the -place of previous concentrations at the _corners_ which were based upon -the square's diagonals. While accenting based upon the center lines is -acceptable, this means of concentration does not seem so successfully to -relate the accented part to the structural outlines as that of -concentration based upon the diagonals. The latter, therefore, is -recommended for beginners. The corners of Figure 222 are, however, -slightly accented by means of the bridging spots _x-x_. - -[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes or Balancing Lines] - -The diagonals and center lines of the surface enriched squares of -Figures 221 and 222 and similar structural lines are _inceptive axes_, -as they are center lines for new design groups. It may then be said that -a strong basic axis or similar line depending upon the structure, may -become the center line or inceptive axis upon which to construct a -bilateral design. It is only necessary to have this inceptive axis pass -through the enrichment zone of the panel. Hereafter in the drawings, -inceptive axes will be designated by the abbreviation I.A. while the -point of concentration will be indicated by the abbreviation P.C. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -MARGINAL ENRICHMENT OF SQUARE AREAS - -SYMBOLS: {PC} POINT OF CONCENTRATION; {IA} INCEPTIVE AXIS - -TOOL PROCESSES. INLAYING AND CARVING - -PLATE 36] - -[Sidenote: Inceptive Axis] - -The strongest plea for the inceptive axis is the fact that it interlocks -surface enrichment with the structure, insuring a degree of unity that -might otherwise be unattainable. - -The carved enrichment of Figure 223 fully illustrates this point. The -analytical study of Figure 224 shows the diagonal used as an inceptive -axis, with the leading lines grouped about it at the corner point of -concentration. - - -FREE ENRICHMENT - -Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be -based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure._ - -Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the -structural surfaces._ - -Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically -placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and -above or below the geometric center of the design._ - -[Sidenote: Center Zone Enrichment] - -This method of surface enrichment is used to relieve the design of heavy -members in the structure or to distribute ornament over the surface of -lighter parts in a piece of furniture. An example is noted in Figure -246, Page 128, where the upper portion of the legs has center -enrichment. As can be readily seen, the enrichment is generally free in -character with little or no indication of enclosure. Figure 225 shows -the application of free enrichment to a paneled screen or hinged door. -The P.C. is in the upper portion of the door and is re-echoed in the -door frames, while the ornament itself is strongly dynamic in movement -with a decided upward tendency in sympathy with the proportions of the -door. This motive might be developed by inlay, carving, or paint. - -Figure 226 is a carved Gothic leaf, appropriately used as enrichment of -heavy furniture. The unit may be raised above the surface or, even more -easily, depressed or incised into the surface. The small corner spot is -added with the intention of bringing the leaf into sympathetic -conformity with the contours. Note how the center line of both units in -Figures 225 and 226 coincides with the inceptive axis of the structure. -Let it again be reiterated that this binding of the surface enrichment -to the structure by means of the coincidence of the axes of symmetry -and the inceptive axes causes the most positive kind of unity. No part -of this form of enrichment should be carved sufficiently high to give it -the appearance of being separated from the main surface. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -FREE CENTER ENRICHMENT FOR VERTICAL AREAS - -TOOL PROCESSES: INLAYING, LOW RELIEF CARVING - -PLATE 37] - -[Sidenote: Examples of Free Enrichment] - -Figures 227 and 228 are additional examples of free enrichment. Figure -228 has introduced by its monogram the individual touch of ownership so -essential to the success of school designing. The monogram represents -free enrichment while the border is marginal decoration with the point -of concentration in the center of the top edge. Both types of enrichment -are related to each other and to the structural contours. - -[Sidenote: Pierced Free Enrichment] - -[Sidenote: Errors in the Use of Pierced Enrichment] - -Figure 229 is typical free _pierced_ enrichment. The wood in the -enriched portion is removed and the resulting figure supplies added -lightness of construction and variety to the surface. One encounters -this form of enrichment in the average school project with greater -frequency than either inlaying or carving. It is with the thought of -adding to the possibilities of school project decoration that the latter -forms have been introduced. A word regarding the errors often -encountered in pierced enrichment of the character of Figure 229 may not -be amiss. Pupils, believing the square to be the last word in this form -of enrichment, place the figure on the member to be enriched with little -thought of its possible relation to the structural contours; the result -is the un-unified design illustrated in Figure 230. To correct this, -reference should be made to Rule 8b. - - -FULL PANEL ENRICHMENT - -Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the -outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._ - -[Sidenote: Full Surface Enrichment] - -This is the richest and most elaborate form of enrichment when carried -to its full perfection. It generally takes the form of a panel filled -with appropriate design material. This panel may be used to enrich the -plain end of a project such as a book stall and thus cover the entire -surface, or it may be inserted into a large primary mass and accentuate -its center as in a door, in a manner similar to Figure 233. Its use, -whatever its position, leads us to the consideration of methods of -designing full panels. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT: SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR PANELS--TOOL PROCESSES -CARVING, INLAYING - -PLATE 38] - -Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel -may be in its center or in its outer margin._ - -[Sidenote: Square Panels] - -In planning designs for full panels, it would be well to consider: -first, square panels; second, rectangular panels; third, varied panels. -The point of concentration may be kept in the _corners_ of a square -panel, as designed in Figure 231, or it may be placed in the _center_, -as shown in Figure 232. The effects, when assembled, are indicated in -Figure 233. - -To secure these effects, a square panel is commonly divided into quarter -sections by center lines. The diagonals of each quarter should be drawn -before proceeding with the details of the design. These diagonals and -center lines are the building lines or leading _axes_ of the pattern. -The _leading lines and details_ are then grouped around these center and -diagonal axes in a manner quite similar to the method used in Figures -223 and 224. These leading lines are then _clothed with enrichment_ by -applying the processes indicated in Chapter IX. - -[Sidenote: Steps in Panel Designing] - -Without going into detail we may say that it is good practice: first, to -draw the square panel; second, to draw the center lines and diagonals; -third, to locate points of concentration; fourth, to make the leading -lines move inwardly to center concentration or outwardly to corner -concentration; fifth, to clothe these lines with ornament having -strongly dynamic movement corresponding to the leading lines; sixth, to -fill in remaining space with ornament, supporting the movement toward -points of concentration, even though slight and minor contrasts of -direction are added to give variety. When the entire design is completed -one should ask the following questions: Does the design have unity? Does -it seem too thin and spindling? And most of all, do the points of -concentration and shape of the panel fit the structural outlines and -proportions? We cannot fit a square peg into a round hole; neither can -we fit a square panel into a circular or rectangular mass without -considerable change to the panel. - -Figures 234 and 235 have been drawn with the idea of suggesting a simple -and modified form of panel enrichment which may be readily handled by -the beginner. The tree as a decorative symbol is appropriate to wood, -and its adaption to a square panel is drawn at Figure 235. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -ENCLOSED PANEL ENRICHMENT--FORMAL AND FREE BALANCE - -APPLICATION OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MOTIVES - -PLATE 39] - -[Sidenote: Rectangular Panels] - -While a rectangular panel may be divided into sections by a number of -different methods, it is well for the beginner in design to treat it as -a vertical mass, designed to enrich a vertical surface. This vertical -panel may then be divided into halves by the axis of symmetry, which -should coincide with an inceptive axis, but it is not essential to -balance the enrichment exactly in each half. Small deviations from exact -symmetry sometimes give added variety to the design. Figure 235. - -Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical -panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._ - -[Sidenote: Vertical Panels] - -The point of concentration in vertical panels should be in the upper -portion, and all parts of the design, both leading lines and clothing, -should have a strong upward tendency. Figure 236 is a vertical panel -from historic ornament. The heavier parts have been designed at the -bottom for stability and the lighter and more intricate members have -been placed at the top. - -Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed -in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of -the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure._ - -To see how to apply rectangular panels to wood surfaces, let us look at -Figure 240. This is a simple design with an incised background and might -be used for enriching a narrow paneled door, newel post, or frame. The -large areas are at the bottom; the point of concentration is at the top, -and the entire design balances over the inceptive axis. The point of -concentration consists of the geometrically treated small flower form, -with its original lines modified to simplify the carving processes. The -stem coincides with the inceptive axis, while narrow and sympathetically -related minor panels fill in the background and keep the design from -appearing weak and thin. - -[Sidenote: Adapting Data to Material] - -Figure 237 is an accurate rendering of the flower form and is the _data -or record of facts_ for Figure 240. Figure 238 introduces the method of -plotting the areas from these facts. Variety of form and area is, at -this stage, desirable. Figure 239 has assembled these areas into orderly -balance over the axis of symmetry. Figure 240 has again slightly -modified them to apply to the vertical panel in wood. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ - -FIGURE 246.--Example of Free and Marginal Enrichment] - - -VARIED PANELS - -[Sidenote: Panels of Varied Shapes] - -The panels under consideration up to this time have been designed to -harmonize with square and rectangular contours. The panel may, however, -become a most flexible and sympathetic element, changing its form to -suit the ever-changing contours. But though change of shape affects the -contents of the panel to a certain extent the points of concentration -and the inceptive axes still act as our guide. Objects are arranged -formally on each side of the inceptive axes and the space filling is -approximately the same as in former examples. - -[Sidenote: Use of Artificial Objects] - -The still life sketches of the art class may be conventionalized into -appropriate motives for utilitarian objects as shown in Figure 241. This -use of still life suggests a most desirable correlation and a welcome -one to many drawing teachers. Three points should be kept in mind: -first, adaptability of the object, its decorative possibilities, and -appropriateness to service; second, adjustment of the panel to contours; -third, adjustment of the object to the wood panel. - -Some portion of the object should be designed to parallel the panel. -Small additional spots may assist in promoting harmony between the -object and the panel boundary. These three considerations are -essentially necessary factors in the design of enclosed enrichment. -Figures 242 and 243 are other adaptations of panel design to varied -contours. - -[Sidenote: Free Balance] - -In the foregoing examples the designs are more or less rigidly balanced -over the inceptive axis or axis of symmetry. Imaginary axis it is, but, -acting with the panel, it nevertheless arbitrarily limits the position -of all parts within the panel. By removing this semblance of formal -balance, we approach what is termed _free balance_. In this we find that -the designer attempts to balance objects informally over the geometric -center of the panel or combined panels. As the arrow points in Figure -244 indicate, the problem is to balance the trees in an informal and -irregular manner, avoiding "picket fence" regularity. In all of this -freedom there is a sense of order, since a mass of trees on one side of -the geometric center is balanced by a similar mass on the other side. -Indeed, in Figure 244 this may be carried even to the point of -duplicating in reverse order the outside panels of the Triptych. - -[Illustration: RULES 7D TO 7E--ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH -APPLICATION OF STILL LIFE TO A FULLY ENRICHED SURFACE - -PLATE 40] - -Figure 245 again reverts to artificial motives, illustrated in free -balance. The jet of steam is the unifying factor which brings the cup -into harmony with the enclosing space. Figure 246 shows illustrations of -free balance and border enrichment from the industrial market. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 40 indicates the necessary design steps for a panel - surface enrichment correlating with still life drawing. Note - the connection between the ink bottle, pen, and book as used to - decorate a book stall. - - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - FOR SQUARE PANEL SURFACE ENRICHMENT - - (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle of the principal surface, - appendages, etc. - - (_b_) Subdivide into major vertical and horizontal divisions. - - (_c_) Design simple contour enrichment. Determine location of - zone of enrichment (the panel), the amount and method of - enriching the surface. - - (_d_) Draw outline of the panel which should be sympathetically - related to the contours. - - (_e_) Draw diameters, diagonals, or center lines of the panel. - Regard these as possible inceptive axes. - - (_f_) Locate points of concentration on either diameters, - diagonals, or center lines. - - (_g_) Draw leading lines in sympathy with the contours of the - panel, the inceptive axis, and the point of concentration. - - (_h_) Clothe the leading lines with enrichment that shall be - appropriate to the structure, the material, and the intended - service. Note the result. Is the panel agreeably filled without - appearing overcrowded or meager? Several preliminary sketches - should be made. - - (_i_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare - the drawing for shop use. - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEM - - Design a glove box and enrich the cover with a simple carved - panel with marginal panel enrichment. - - -SUMMARY OF RULES - -ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED PANELS - - Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be - related to the outlines of the primary mass, and to the panel - it is to enrich._ - - Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be - placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of - each margin._ - - Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements - composing the points of concentration and the links connecting - them must be related to the panel contour and to each other._ - - - ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT FOR FULLY ENRICHED PANELS - - Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel - the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._ - - Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched - square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin._ - - Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched - vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._ - - Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be - designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with - the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis - of the structure._ - - - FREE SURFACE ENRICHMENT - - Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces - should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the - structure._ - - Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to - the structural surfaces._ - - Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of - vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the - inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the - design._ - - Postulate: _Surface enrichment should be inseparably linked to - the surface and to the outlines or contours_. - - - REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What is a panel? - - 2. State three sections or areas at which a panel may be - enriched. Give reasons for selecting a given area. - - 3. Explain relation of point of concentration to each section. - - 4. In marginal enrichment, is it preferable to locate the point - of concentration in the center or corner of the margin? Why? - - 5. What is the value of an inceptive axis with relation to the - unity of a design? What is its relation to the structure? - - 6. Give the characteristics and use of free enrichment. - - 7. State the use of full panel enrichment. - - 8. Where may the point of concentration be located in full - square panel enrichment? - - 9. Name six steps essential to the designing of a square panel. - - 10. For what specific purpose is a vertical rectangular panel - adapted? - - 11. Where should the point of concentration be located in a - vertical rectangular panel? - - 12. Draw a flower form and adapt it to a carved enrichment in - wood. - - 13. To what uses are panels of varied shapes adapted? - - 14. How may artificial objects be adapted to surface - enrichment? - - 15. Explain the term "free balance." - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN -WOOD - - -[Sidenote: Minor Subdivisions] - -This article is, in part, a brief summary and review of Rules 2a, 2b, -3a, 3b, 3c (vertical and horizontal major divisions) with application to -minor subdivisions. By minor spacings or subdivisions in wood work we -refer to the areas occupied by drawers, doors, shelves, and other small -parts subordinated in size to the large or major divisions such as large -front or side panels, etc. These smaller or minor subdivisions in wood -work are bounded by runners, rails, guides, and stiles depending upon -the form of construction and character of the minor subdivision. Major -divisions are often bounded by legs, table tops, and principal rails. - -It is an interesting and useful fact that rules governing major -divisions generally apply equally well to minor ones. There are a few -exceptions and additions to be noted in their appropriate places. - -When minor subdivisions are well planned they supply one of the most -interesting forms of surface enrichment or treatment, for if we consider -paneling an appropriate form of decoration, we are equally privileged to -feel that each small drawer or door adds its quota of interest to the -sum total of the entire mass. We are equally justified in accenting -these drawers or doors with panel decoration or other forms of surface -enrichment provided that harmony is maintained. - -These minor subdivisions, properly enriched, may become equalizers, or -elements which adjust the design to the character of the surroundings -destined to receive the project of which they are a part. - -[Sidenote: Vertical Sections and Their Divisions] - -With reference to the illustrations, Figure 247, Plate 41, shows a -simple minor panel treatment falling under Rule 3a. Single or preferably -double band inlay might have been suitably substituted for the sunken -panels. As many craftsmen are not properly equipped to produce inlays, -it is practicable to use stock inlays, thus simplifying the process. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SPACE DIVISIONS FOR -LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD. - -ACCENTUATION OF MINOR VERTICAL DIVISIONS - -PLATE 41] - -[Sidenote: Minor Subdivisions of Three Vertical Major Parts or -Divisions] - -In a three-part design it is the designer's desire to gain the effect of -lightness and height by the use of Rule 3b. As a simple treatment of a -three-part design, Figure 248 needs little comment. Figures 249 and 250 -are examples of dividing, by means of minor divisions, the outer -sections of a three-part design. - -The small drawers in the right and left sections of Figure 250 might -have been improved in proportion by again applying Rule 2a to their -design, thereby varying the measure of their heights. The enclosed panel -enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise unvaried front -panels. Rule 7g. - -[Sidenote: Unbroken Vertical Divisions] - -Figures 251 and 252 show unbroken drawer runners continuing through all -three vertical sections, thus definitely binding these sections -together. It is seen that this device is conducive to unity, whenever -two or three vertical divisions have been used. - -Figure 252 is a repetition of Figure 251, but shows the echo or -continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the -appendage. The use of the single or double band enrichment still further -binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal unity with -the appendage. - - -SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS - -Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller -horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at -the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass -toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the -mass._ - -[Sidenote: Sequential Arrangement of Minor Horizontal Divisions] - -Rule 2c. Let us now imagine the center section of a three-part design to -be removed and extended upward. Its transformation by this process into -a cabinet or chiffonier similar to Figure 253, Plate 42, introduces the -new principle of _sequential progression_. Instead of adhering to the -limitation of Rules 2a and 2b, this arrangement shows that the -horizontal divisions may be gradually decreased in height from the -bottom toward the top of the primary mass. By this rhythmic decrease in -the measure of the height, the eye is led through an orderly gradation -through lesser areas to the top, thus giving a pleasing sensation of -lightness and variety to the structure. By this method, also, the large -areas are retained at the bottom to give stability and solidity to the -structure. A quick test of these conditions may be made by reversing -Figure 254, thus producing a more decidedly pleasing effect. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SPACE DIVISIONS FOR LARGE -PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -SEQUENTIAL ARRANGEMENT OF MINOR HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS IN ONE OR THREE -VERTICAL DIVISIONS - -PLATE 42] - -[Sidenote: Sequential Arrangements--(_Continued_)] - -This orderly gradation or sequence of heights need not be carried out -with absolute mathematical precision such as 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1. -Arrangements similar to the following progression make for equally -pleasing and more varied effect: 9-1/4 - 8 - 6-3/4 - 6 - 5 - 4-3/4. Many -designers repeat similar heights for two neighboring horizontal spaces -as, 6 - 5 - 5 - 4-3/4, but the upward gradation should be apparent. -Figure 255, an Austrian motive, shows a strongly marked sequence with -the top division broken by Rule 3b. It is better practice to keep such -attempts confined to the bottom or top members of the sequence or loss -of unity may be the final result. - -By applying this principle to the center section of a three-part design, -we now have illustrated in Figure 256 the new sequence in its -application, and Figures 257 and 258 are variations of the same idea. - -[Sidenote: Two Horizontal and Three Vertical Divisions] - -We now come to the transitional type of design where three _vertical_ -sections begin to lose their dominance as major divisions, but still -retain their places in the design as minor sections. Replacing these in -prominence is the _horizontal_ major section or division. The first -immediate result of this change as shown in Plate 43 is to produce a -more compact surface with a greater impression of length because of the -presence of strongly accented horizontal lines which are always -associated with horizontal divisions. This transitional style with its -minor but dominant horizontal divisions would harmonize with the long -horizontal lines of a room or similar lines in the furniture. The full -expression of this style or type will be readily seen by comparing -Plates 43 and Figures 251 and 252, Plate 41. Several styles of period -furniture have been introduced in Plate 43 to prove the universality of -these principles of space divisions. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SUB DIVISIONS FOR LARGE -PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -THREE VERTICAL DIVISIONS CROSSED BY TWO HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS - -PLATE 43] - -[Sidenote: Dominance of Lower or Upper Sections] - -Figures 259, 260, and 262, Plate 43, are divided by three minor vertical -sections cut by two minor horizontal divisions with the dominance in the -_lower section_. Rule 2a. The arrangement of the small central drawers -could have been more varied by the application of the principle of -sequential progression. Figures 261 and 263 show similar vertical -spacings with a difference in the arrangements of the horizontal -divisions. In these figures the dominance has been placed in the _upper -section_ of the primary mass by the division created by the runner above -the lower drawer. It is likewise seen that Figure 263 needs a top -appendage to bind the top into closer unity with minor spacings. - -[Sidenote: Transitional Types] - -In carrying the transitional type to which we have referred in the -previous paragraphs from the vertical space influence toward the -horizontal, we are gradually approaching _three minor horizontal -divisions_, still maintaining three minor vertical divisions in a -modified and less prominent form. Figure 264 is an approach toward three -horizontal divisions. As only one clear-cut horizontal space division is -visible, this figure is not a pure example. The upper horizontal space -division is broken up into a three-part design by the drawer guides. It -is not until we reach Figure 266 that three horizontal divisions are -clearly evident. - - -HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS - -[Sidenote: Three Minor Horizontal Divisions Cut by Varying Numbers of -Vertical Divisions] - -The horizontal minor divisions in furniture are generally drawer runners -and the vertical minor divisions are often drawer guides. The horizontal -divisions may be arranged in either one of two ways: first, by the -application of Rule 2b; or second, by applying Rule 2c, the rule of -sequential progression. Figures 266, 267, and 268, Plate 44, are -representative of the former while Figures 269 and 270 are typical of -the latter. The result in either case is a compactly designed and solid -mass of simple structural lines. On some occasions we find the -three-part rule used for minor divisions within the horizontal sections, -while again the two-part rule is used. The method depends upon the -desired use and appearance. In either case the long areas and large -masses are to be retained as far as possible near the bottom of each -primary mass, as this custom tends to give a sense of solidity to the -design. - -[Sidenote: Four Vertical Divisions] - -Figure 271 is a rare reversion to more than three vertical divisions. In -this case, Rule 3c has been observed and we find all of the panels are -of equal size. Variety has been secured by means of the horizontal -spacings. - - -FREE BALANCE - -[Sidenote: Free Minor Space Treatment] - -[Sidenote: Free Balance] - -This form of design is inherent in the Japanese system. It consists in -the planning and balancing of unequal areas over a geometric center. It -is not subject to definite rules as is the more formal balancing. The -reader is referred to Mr. Arthur Dow's excellent book on Composition for -further discussion of the subject. Figure 272, Plate 45, is an example -of partly formal and partly free balance and its method of treatment. - -[Sidenote: Carving and Piercing as Applied to Large Masses] - -Figures 273 and 274 are pierced designs, thoroughly related to the -structure and in no way weakening it. Figure 273 is representative of a -type which, if carried to extremes, will cause the structure to become -too weak for service; it is, therefore, necessary to guard and restrict -this form of enrichment. The carving of Figure 275, combined with the -contour enrichment, forms a pleasing variation to this common type of -furniture design. - -Small minor details in furniture construction should be designed with as -much care as the larger major or minor parts. The larger areas or spaces -in small details similar to stationery shelves and pigeon holes must -harmonize in proportion with the space in which they are placed and of -which they are a part. - -[Sidenote: Small Minor Details of Large Primary Masses] - -The three-part or three-vertical division system, Rule 3b, is generally -used to design the small details in furniture as may be seen in Figures -276, 277, 278, and 279; while the rule of sequence, Rule 2c, may be -employed again to subdivide these small details in a horizontal -direction with as much variety as is consistent with unity. Figure 280 -is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors. Note the leading lines -of the enrichment as they parallel the dominant proportions of the panel -opening. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 46 is a typical high school sheet of design problems, - with the masses accentuated by pen shading. See Plate 15. - - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) to (_e_). See similar steps in Chapter IV. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SUB DIVISIONS FOR LARGE -PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD - -FREE MINOR SPACINGS. APPENDAGES. PIERCED AND CARVED ENRICHMENT. - -PLATE 45] - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEM - - Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack. The - primary mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and - three minor vertical divisions, with the horizontal divisions - accented. - - -SUMMARY OF RULES - -SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS - - Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more - smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger - mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the - height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or - divisions to be located at the top of the mass._ - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What are minor subdivisions in wood construction? - - 2. What is the effect of a design with dominant vertical major - divisions? State its use. - - 3. Show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major - divisions into minor subdivisions. - - 4. State the rule of sequential progression. Give illustrations - from the industrial arts. - - 5. Describe the transitional stage between the point where the - dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal - influence begins. - - 6. What is the effect of a design with dominant horizontal - major divisions? State its use. - - 7. Show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major - divisions into minor subdivisions. - - 8. What should be the relation in a design between the details - of a project and the divisions of the primary mass? - -[Illustration: INSTRUCTION SHEET - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE MASSES IN WOOD - -DRAWING AND DESIGN BY A. J. FOX. U. OF W. - -PLATE 46] - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY - - -[Sidenote: Limitations for Surface Enrichment] - -In some respects the surface enrichment of clay is similar to that of -wood as, for example, the similarity produced by inlays in clay and in -wood. On the other hand the enrichment of clay is unhampered by the -restricting effects of unequal resistance of the material, such as the -grain of wood. Again it _is_ limited to those effects or forms of -enrichment that are capable of withstanding the intense heat to which -ceramic decoration is subjected. See Frontispiece. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries_ - -FIGURE 281.--Filling the Saggars before Firing] - -[Sidenote: Decorative Processes of Surface Enrichment] - -Before proceeding with a design it is well for one to understand clearly -the possibilities of clay enrichment. He must know what kind of designs -are best suited to clay as a medium, to the intended service, and to the -ultimate application of the heat of the pottery kiln. Without entering -into technicalities let us briefly discuss the following processes. -The first three deal with finger and tool manipulation of the clay body -and are consequently the simpler of the processes. The last five are -concerned chiefly with the addition of coloring pigments either to the -clay or to the glaze and are, therefore, more complex in character. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Rookwood Potteries_ - -FIGURE 282.--Stacking the Kiln] - -[Sidenote: Forms of Manipulation] - - -PROCESSES - -Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able -to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted._ - -Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be -simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material._ - -[Sidenote: Incising] - -1. This is the simplest form of enrichment, a process familiar to the -earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for beginners. It -consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into the clay body -to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. These lines -or planes should be bold and broad. They may be made with a blunt pencil -or a flat pointed stick. A square, rectangular, or round stick may be -used as a stamp with which to form a pattern for incising. Illustrations -of simple incising may be found in Figures 283, 284, 295, 319, 330. The -tiles shown are about six inches square. - -[Sidenote: Piercing] - -2. This process is less common and, as its name implies, is carried out -by cutting through the clay. It may be done with a fine wire. Either the -background or the design itself may be thus removed. The effect produced -is that of lightening an object such as the top of a hanging flower -holder, a window flower box, or a lantern shade. - -[Sidenote: Modeling] - -3. By adding clay to the main body, and by working this clay into low -relief flower or geometric forms, one has the basic process of modeling. -The slightly raised areas of clay form a pleasing play of light and -shade that varies the otherwise plain surface of the ware. The process -should be used with caution, for over-modeling, Figure 325, will -obstruct the structural outlines and, because of its over prominence as -decoration, will cease to be _surface enrichment_. In the technical -language of the designer over-modeling is an enrichment which is not -subordinated to the surface. In articles intended for service this high -relief modeling is unsanitary and unsatisfactory. - -Figures 286 and 287 show incising with slight modeling, while 324, 328, -and 329 are examples of more complex enrichment. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY - -RECTANGULAR AND SQUARE AREAS - -PLATE 47] - -[Sidenote: Introduction of Coloring Pigments] - -With the introduction of the second group comes an added interest and -difficulty, that of the introduction of color. Pigments that will -withstand the application of heat are suggested at different points. - -[Sidenote: Inlay] - -4. This process consists of removing certain areas from the clay body to -the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the depression with tinted -clay. Tints formed by the addition of ten per cent or less of burnt -umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will give interesting -effects. Figures 284, 285, 320, and 321 show forms which may be -developed by this process. - -Sgraffito, an Italian process, is more difficult than inlaying, but the -effect is similar. A thin layer of colored clay is placed over the -natural clay body, and the design is developed by cutting away this -colored coating in places, thus exposing the natural clay body. Figure -306. There are variations of this plan that may be attempted by the -advanced designer. - -[Sidenote: Slip Painting] - -5. Slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency of cream. For slip -painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not more than ten per -cent of coloring pigment as represented by the underglaze colors of the -ceramist. This thick, creamy, colored slip is then painted on the -surface of the clay body while damp, much as the artist would apply oil -colors. The ware, when thoroughly dried, is glazed and fired, which -produces the effect shown in Figures 290, 291, and 327. The color range -is large; almost any color may be used with the exception of reds and -strong yellows. A colorless transparent glaze should be used over -beginner's slip painting. - -[Sidenote: Colored Glazes] - -6. This process refers to the direct introduction of the colored pigment -into the glaze. By varying the glaze formula we may have a clear, -transparent, or glossy glaze similar to Figure 317, a dull surfaced -opaque effect, termed a matt glaze, Figure 332; or a glossy but opaque -faience glaze similar to the blue and white Dutch tiles. There are other -forms such as the crystalline and "reduced" glazes, but these as a rule -are far beyond the ability of the beginning craftsman in ceramics. - -[Sidenote: Combinations] - -It is possible to use these three types of glazed surface in various -ways. For example, a vase form with an interesting contour may be left -without further surface enrichment except that supplied by clear glaze -or by a colored matt similar to certain types of Teco Ware. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY - -SHALLOW CIRCULAR FORMS: PLATES, ETC - -PLATE 48] - -It is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised -designs, inlay or slip painting, increasing their beauty and the -serviceability of the ware. A semi-transparent glaze is sometimes placed -over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the Vellum Ware of the -Rookwood Potteries. Figure 332. Greens, blues, yellows, and browns, with -their admixtures, are the safest combinations for the craftsman who -desires to mix his own glazes. - -[Sidenote: Underglaze Painting] - -7. This process may be seen in the examples of Newcomb Pottery -illustrated particularly in Figure 314 or 326. The underglaze pigment is -thinly painted upon the fired "biscuit," or unglazed ware. A thin, -transparent glaze is then placed _over_ the color, and in the final -firing the underneath color shows through this transparent coating, thus -illustrating the origin of the name underglaze or under-the-glaze -painting. Sage-green and cobalt-blue underglaze colors are frequently -used in Newcomb designs with harmonious results. The outline of the -design is often incised and the underglaze color, settling into these -channels, helps to accentuate the design. Figure 314. - -[Sidenote: Porcelain or Overglaze Painting] - -8. This is popularly known as china painting and consists of painting -directly upon the glazed surface of the ware and placing it in a china -kiln where a temperature between 600 degrees and 900 degrees C. is -developed. At this point the coloring pigment melts or is fused into the -porcelain glaze, thus insuring its reasonable permanence. Figure 302. - -The eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on the -plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which number -the processes and are added to each figure number. Two processes are -sometimes suggested as possible for one problem. - -[Sidenote: Classification of Structural Clay Forms] - -Different clay forms require different modes of treatment. To simplify -these treatments will now be our problem. It has been found convenient -to form four divisions based upon the general geometric shape of the -ware. The first, Plate 47, includes rectangular and square areas; the -second, Plate 48, shallow and circular forms; the third, Plate 49, low -cylindrical forms; and the fourth, Plate 50, high cylindrical forms. The -first three divisions have distinct modes of design treatment, while the -fourth interlocks to a considerable extent with the third method. We -shall now consider each plate with reference to its use and possible -forms of enrichment. For the sake of brevity, the results have been -condensed into tabulated forms. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY - -LOW CYLINDRICAL FORMS - -PLATE 49] - -Each geometric form or type on these plates has not only distinctive -methods of design treatment but characteristic locations for placing the -design as well. These places or zones of enrichment have been indicated -in the following tabulated forms by the letters in parentheses. There -are a number of zones for each plate. For example, Plate 47 has its -distinctive problems as tiles, weights, etc., and five characteristic -zones of enrichment described on pages 153-155 and indicated by the -letters A, B, C, D, E, followed by a brief description of that zone. -Each zone is still further analyzed into its accompanying type of -design, inceptive axis, point of concentration, and illustrations. Each -plate has the proper zone of enrichment immediately following the figure -number and in turn followed by the process number. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Square and Rectangular Areas, Plate 47] - -_Problems_: Tiles for tea and coffee pots, paper weights, window boxes; -architectural tiles for floors, and fire places. - - * * * * * - - (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: In the margin. - - _Reason for Choice_: Central area to be devoted to zone of - service requiring simplicity in design. - - [Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] - - _Type of Design_: Bands or borders. - - _Inceptive Axis_: For corners; the bisector of the angle. - - _Points of Concentration_: The corners and, if desired, at - equal intervals between the corners. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 283, 284, 286, 287, 288. - - * * * * * - - (_B_) _Zone of Enrichment_: center of surface, free ornament. - - [Sidenote: Center Enrichment] - - _Type of Design_: Initials, monograms, street numbers, - geometric patterns, and other examples for free ornament. A - star or diamond is _not_ appropriate enrichment for a square - area unless properly related to the contour by connecting - areas. - - _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical or horizontal diameters or - diagonals. - - _Points of Concentration_: Center of embellishment. - - _Illustrations_: Figure 285. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY - -HIGH CYLINDRICAL FORMS. VASES, PITCHERS, ETC - -PLATE 50] - - (_C_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface enrichment in a - horizontal position. - - _Type of Design_: A symmetrical pattern generally radiating - from the geometric center of the surface and covering at least - two-thirds of the surface. - - [Sidenote: Full Vertical Surface Enrichment] - - _Inceptive Axes_: Diameters or diagonals of the area. - - _Points of Concentration_: At the corners or the center of the - outer margin; at geometric center, as in a rosette. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 283, 289, and 291. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Full Horizontal Surface Enrichment] - - (_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface enrichment in a - vertical position. - - _Type of Design_: A symmetrical pattern with a strong upward - movement and covering more than one-half of the surface. - - _Inceptive Axis_: The vertical center line. - - _Point of Concentration_: Upper section of the surface. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 290 and 292. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Free Balance] - - (_E_) _Zone of Enrichment_: free balance over full surface. - - _Type of Design_: Semi-decorative motive preferably covering - the entire surface. - - _Inceptive Axis_: Masses freely balanced over the geometric - center of the area. - - _Point of Concentration_: Near, but not in the exact center. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298. - - _Note_: The points of concentration should be accented by - slight contrast of value and hue. See chapters on color. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 48] - - _Problems_: Plates, saucers, ash trays, card receivers, almond - and candy bowls. - - * * * * * - - (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: margin of interior surface; margin - of exterior surface. - - _Type of Design_: Bands or borders thoroughly related to the - structural contours. Bands for exterior enrichment may be - placed directly on the contour, Figures 299 and 301, thus - forming an - -[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN - -RULE 9: ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS BY A BORDER - -PROBLEM: ENRICHMENT OF CLASS 2 (POTTERY) - -PLATE 51.--Instruction Sheet] - -[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] - - accented contour (_F_) or slightly removed from it, as in - Figure 300. - - _Inceptive Axes_: For interior surfaces, the radii of the - contour circle generally supply the axes of symmetry. - - _Points of Concentration_: For interior surfaces, the points of - concentration may be placed in or near the radii of the area. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 302, 303, 304, 305, 306. - - * * * * * - - _Problems_: Cups, pitchers, steins, nut and rose bowls, low - vase forms. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 49] - - (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: upper margin of exterior. - - [Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] - - _Type of Design_: Borders of units joining each other or - connected by bands or spots acting as connecting links. Rule - 9c. - - _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of the exterior surface. - Elements are imaginary lines dividing the exterior surface into - any given number of vertical sections. Elements used as center - lines form the axes of symmetry about which the butterfly of - Figure 308 and similar designs are constructed. - - _Points of Concentration_: On each vertical element. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 316. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Full Vertical Surface Enrichment] - - (_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full vertical surface. - - _Type of Design_: Extended borders with strongly developed - vertical lines or forms. Less than one-half of the surface may - be covered. - - _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements. - - _Points of Concentration_: In upper portion of vertical - elements, hence in upper portion of area. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 307, 314, 317, 318. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: High Cylindrical Forms, Plate 50] - - (_E_) _Zone of Enrichment_: free balance of full surface. (See - _D_, above). - - _Illustration_: Figure 315. - - * * * * * - - _Problems_: Vases, jars, pitchers, tall flower holders, covered - jars for tea, crackers, or tobacco. - -[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] - - (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: margin of exterior. - - _Type of Design_: Borders of geometric units, freely balanced - floral units, and other natural motives placed in upper margin - of mass. - - _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of cylinder. - - _Points of Concentration_: In upper portion of vertical - elements. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 319, 320, 321, 327, 331, 332. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Full Surface Enrichment] - - (_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface of exterior. - - _Type of Design_: Free of formal conventionalized unit repeated - on each vertical element. The units may be juxtaposed or may be - connected by bands or similar links. - - _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of cylinder. - - _Point of concentration_: In upper portion of vertical - elements. - - _Illustrations_: Figures 322, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: Types of Commercial Pottery] - -The reader should carefully consider the postulate and various divisions -of Rule 7 and try to apply them to the material now under consideration. -Acknowledgment is made for material supplied by the Rookwood Potteries -for Figures 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 297, 298, 315; 327 and 332; Newcomb -Potteries, Figures 314, 316, 317, 318, 326; Teco Potteries, 329; Keramic -Studio Publishing Company, 302, 307, 308, 310, 312. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plate 51 illustrates the marginal surface enrichment of low - cylindrical forms, with part surface enrichment of two higher - forms. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw primary mass: - - For square or rectangular areas draw square rectangle, etc. - - For shallow circular forms draw a circle. - - For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if - desired by a unit of measurement into two horizontal divisions. - - For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if - desired by a unit of measurement into two or three horizontal - divisions. Rule 5e. - - (_b_) Design simple contour enrichment based upon these units - of measurement. - - (_c_) Locate zone of enrichment. - - (_d_) Draw inceptive axes: - - For square or rectangular areas draw diameters, diagonals, or - both. - - For shallow circular forms draw radii of the primary circle; - concentric circles for bands. - - For low cylindrical forms draw the elements of the underlying - cylindrical form for extended borders or lines paralleling the - top or bottom of the primary mass for bands. - - For high cylindrical forms draw inceptive axes similar to low - cylindrical forms. - - (_e_) Locate points of concentration in these inceptive axes. - - (_f_) Determine manner and amount of surface enrichment. - - (_g_) Add leading lines and develop these into surface - enrichment. - - (_h_) Make potter's working drawing, full size (See Plate 26). - Add the necessary amount for shrinkage and otherwise prepare - the drawing for potter's use. - - (_i_) Make a paper tracing of the surface enrichment for - transfer to clay body and cut a zinc or tin template as a - contour guide in building the form. - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design a cider or chocolate set with appropriate surface - enrichment. - - Design an architectural tile 6 in. by 9 in. for accenting a - brick fireplace in the home. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to - be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must - be submitted._ - - Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay - should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of - the material._ - - Rule 9c. _A border should not be located at the point of - greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The - contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that - point._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. Compare the surface enrichment of clay with that of wood. - - 2. State a major requirement of a good pottery design. - - 3. Give the broad divisions into which it is possible to divide - the decorative processes of clay surface enrichment. - - 4. Name and briefly describe eight methods of enriching the - surface of clay. - - 5. What precautions should be exercised with regard to the use - of incised, pierced, and modeled decoration? - - 6. Should a border be placed at the point of greatest curvature - of the contour? Give reasons. - - 7. Name method of classifying structural forms in clay into - four groups. - - 8. State problems and possible zones of enrichment in each - group. Give reasons for choice. - - 9. State type of design unit, conventionalized, natural or - artificial forms, location of inceptive axis, points of - concentration, and process for each zone of enrichment. - - 10. What is an element of a cylindrical surface? - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS - -SMALL FLAT PLANES - - -[Sidenote: Base and Precious Metals] - -Chapter XII referred to clay as a free and plastic material adapted to a -wide range of surface enrichment processes. Metal as a more refractory -material offers greater resistance to the craftsman and is relatively -more limited in its capacity for surface enrichment. As was the case in -the consideration of contour enrichment for designing purposes, it is -necessary in the consideration of surface enrichment to divide metal -into two groups: precious and base metals. As the field of design in -both base and precious metals is large, we shall consider the surface -enrichment of _precious metals only_ in this chapter. - -[Sidenote: Divisions for Enrichment] - -Following an order similar in character to that used in clay designing, -problems in both base and precious metals may be divided into four -classified groups as follows: flat, square, rectangular, or irregular -planes; shallow circular forms; low cylindrical forms; high cylindrical -forms. Designs included in the first group, flat planes, comprise such -problems as are typically represented by tie pins, fobs, rings, and -pendants. The design problems presented by these examples are so -important that it is wise to restrict this chapter to _flat planes_. - -Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one -axis of a stone, and at the same time be sympathetically related to the -structure._ - -Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by: -(1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, (2) character of -the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion._ - -[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes and Points of Concentration] - -The semi-precious or precious stone is commonly found to be the point of -concentration of these designs. The inceptive axes of tie pins, -pendants, and fobs are generally vertical center lines because of the -vertical positions of the objects when worn. The inceptive axes, -moreover, should pass through the point of concentration and, at the -same time, be sympathetically related to the structure. Rings and bar -pins are frequently designed with horizontal inceptive axes, so -determined by their horizontal characteristics and positions. - -The point of concentration for tie pins, pendants, and fobs in formal -balance, in addition to coinciding with the inceptive axis, is generally -located above or below the geometric center of the primary mass. The -point of concentration for rings and bar pins is placed in the -horizontal inceptive axis and centrally located from left to right. - -[Sidenote: Typical Processes of Enrichment] - -[Sidenote: Economy of Material] - -As a step preliminary to designing, and in order that the enrichment may -be conventionalized or adapted to conform to the requirements of tools, -processes, and materials, it is now imperative to become familiar with a -number of common forms of surface enrichment in metal. There are eight -processes frequently encountered in the decoration of silver and gold: -piercing, etching, chasing or repousséing, enameling, inlaying, stone -setting, building, carving. To these may be added planishing, frosting -or matting, and oxidizing as methods employed to enrich the entire -surface. Economy of material is of prime importance in the designing of -precious metal and, particularly in gold projects, conservation of the -metals should be an urgent consideration in all designs. - -Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount -of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: -(1) good taste; (2) economy of material._ - -[Sidenote: Evolution and Technical Rendering of Processes] - -A non-technical and brief description of each process follows. All -designs in this chapter may be identified by referring to the process -numbers after the figure description as 1, 3, 5; 2, 4, 6, corresponding -to the key numbers on Plate 52. A design to be submitted to the -craftsman should be a graphic _record of technical facts_ in addition to -good design, which requires that we should have an expressive _technical -means of rendering each process_. The last column, on Plate 52, -indicates this rendering. In addition to this rendering each one of the -eight technical processes has been carried through three design steps. -1. (first column, Plate 52) Planning the original primary mass, with its -inceptive axis suggested by the structure and intended use. It passes -through the point of concentration. 2. (second column, Plate 52). The -division of the primary mass into zones of service and enrichment with -the suggestion of the leading lines which, at some points, are parallel -to the contours and lead up to the point of concentration. The contours -in this column have, in several instances, been changed to add lightness -and variety to the problem. 3. The last step (column three, Plate 52) -shows the design with graphic rendering suggestive of the completed -process. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN METAL WITH -EVOLUTION AND RENDERING OF EIGHT PROCESSES OF ENRICHMENT - -PLATE 52] - - -TECHNICAL PROCESSES AND METHODS OF ILLUSTRATING SAME IN A DESIGN - -[Sidenote: Piercing] - -1. Removal of design unit or background by means of the jeweler's saw. -Bridges of metal should be left to support firmly all portions of the -design. Test this by careful study of the design. Rendering--shade all -pierced portions of the design in solid black. Slightly tint portions of -the design passing under other parts. Illustration, Figure 336. - -Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of -compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to -avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without -thought to their coherence._ - -[Sidenote: Etching] - -2. Coating either design or background with an acid resistant, to be -followed by immersion of the article in an acid bath. Allow the -unprotected portion to be attacked and eaten by the acid to a slight -depth. Rendering--slightly tint all depressed or etched parts of the -design. Illustration, Figure 339. - -[Sidenote: Chasing or Repousséing] - -3. The embossing and fine embellishment of a metal surface by the -application of the hammer and punches. The work is conducted mainly from -the top surface. Rendering--stipple all parts of the background not -raised by the process. Chasing should seem an integral part of the -background and not appear stuck upon it. Illustration, Figure 342. Rule -10k. - -[Sidenote: Enameling (Champleve)] - -4. A process of enameling over metal in which the ground is cut away -into a series of shallow troughs into which the enamel is melted. -Exercise reserve in the use of enamel. Over-decoration tends to cheapen -this valuable form of decoration. Rendering--shade the lower and -right-hand sides of all enameled areas to suggest relief. Illustration, -Figure 345. If possible render in tempera color. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS -METAL - -CONTOUR AND SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF FLAT PLANES PINS AND BROOCHES - -PLATE 53] - -Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. -Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and -design._ - -Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should be -narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of -the primary mass._ - -[Sidenote: Inlaying] - -5. The process of applying wire, etc., to an incision on metal either by -burnishing or fusing the metal into the cavities. Rendering--tint the -darker metal or, if possible, render in color. Illustration, Figure 348. - -[Sidenote: Stone Cutting] - -6. An enrichment of the surface by the addition of semi-precious or -precious stones. Other enrichment is generally subordinated to the stone -which then becomes the point of concentration. All enrichment should -lead toward the stone. Small stones may, however, be used to accentuate -other points of concentration in surface enrichment. Rendering--shade -the lower and right-side of the stone to suggest relief. Pierced -subordinate enrichment should be shaded in solid black. A concentric -line should be drawn outside of the contour of the stone to designate -the thin holding band, or bezel, enclosing the stone on all sides. -Illustration, Figure 351. - -Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours -of both primary mass and point of concentration, especially whenever the -latter is a stone or enamel._ - -Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of -concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive -setting, or background._ - -Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form -contrast with the metal, either in color, brilliancy, or value, or all -three combined._ - -[Sidenote: Building] - -7. The process of applying leaves, wire, grains, and other forms of -surface enrichment to the plane of the metal. These may afterwards be -carved or chased. Rendering--shade the lower and right-hand lines; -slightly tint the lower planes of the metal. Illustration, Figure 354. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ - -Figure 372a.--Tie Pins] - -8. The process of depressing or raising certain portions of the metal -surface by means of chisels and gravers. By the use of these tools the -surface is modeled into planes of light and shade, to which interest -is added if the unaggressive tool marks are permitted to remain on the -surface. Rendering--shade the raised and depressed portions to express -the modeling planes. As this is a difficult technical process the -designer is advised to model the design in plastelene or jewelers' wax -first. Illustration, Figure 357. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ - -FIGURE 372b.--Tie Pins] - -[Sidenote: Carving] - -Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher -planes near the point of concentration. It is well to have the stone as -the highest point above the primary mass. When using this form of -enrichment, the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the -primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes._ - -[Sidenote: Planishing] - -9. The process of smoothing and, at the same time, hardening the surface -of the metal with a steel planishing hammer. The hammer strokes give an -interesting texture to the surface which may be varied, from the heavily -indented to the smooth surface, at the will of the craftsman. The more -obvious hammer strokes are not to be desired as they bring a tool -process into too much prominence for good taste. Rendering--print -desired finish on the drawing. - -[Sidenote: Frosting] - -10. A process of sand blasting or scratch brushing a metal surface to -produce an opaque or "satin" finish. Rendering--similar to planishing. - -[Sidenote: Oxidizing] - -11. A process of darkening the surface of metal by the application of -chemicals. Potassium sulphite will supply a deep, rich black to silver -and copper. Rendering--see Planishing. - -[Sidenote: Design of Pins and Brooches] - -The eleven processes mentioned above are among those which, by recent -common practice, have become familiar to the craftsman in precious -metals. While they do not cover the entire field, they at least give the -beginner an opportunity to design intelligently in terms of the -material. - -[Sidenote: Dependent Surface Enrichment for Pins] - -Plate 53 is mainly the enrichment of the flat plane by the addition of -semi-precious stones (process six). Whatever surface enrichment is added -to this design becomes _dependent_ enrichment and quite analogous to -_dependent_ contour enrichment, Plate 29, inasmuch as it has to be -designed with special reference to the shape and character of the stone. -Figures 358 to 363 are examples of _dependent contour_ enrichment; -Figures 364 to 371 are examples of _dependent surface_ enrichment. -Figures 358 to 367 are based upon _vertical_ inceptive axes as -appropriate to their intended service. The point of concentration may -be located at practically any point on this inceptive axis, provided the -major axis of the stone coincides with the inceptive axis. The best -results are obtained by placing the stone a little above or below the -exact geometrical center of the primary mass. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS -METALS - -CONTOUR AND SURFACE ENRICHMENT APPLIED TO FOBS - -MAINLY FULL SURFACE ENRICHMENT BASED UPON VERTICAL INCEPTIVE AXES - -PLATE 54] - -[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes for Pins] - -Figures 368 to 372 show articles based upon a horizontal inceptive axis. -The stone, in accordance with formal balance, is in the geometric center -from left to right. One notices the important fact that the surface -enrichment must bring the stone and contour together in sympathetic -relation and, at the same time, be related to both stone and contour. -This again brings out the meaning of _dependent_ surface enrichment. The -contour enrichment is to be kept as simple as possible and the interest -concentrated upon the surface enrichment. The _accentuation of both -surface and contour enrichment_ in a single design marks the height of -bad taste in design. - -Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete -for attention in the same design._ - -[Sidenote: Fobs] - -Plate 54 shows flat planes, the service of which suggests vertical -inceptive axes. Figure 380 is noted as an exception to this vertical -inceptive axis as it possesses a vertical primary mass but with radial -inceptive axes. The interesting manner by which the dynamic leaves of -the outer border transmit their movement to the inner border, which in -turn leads toward the point of concentration, is worthy of attention. -The points of concentration in other designs on this plate are all -contained in the vertical inceptive axes. - -[Sidenote: Rings] - -Plate 55, at first thought, would seem to fall under the classification -of low cylindrical forms but when reference is made to Figure 385 it is -readily seen that the ring has to be first developed as a flat plane, to -be afterwards bent into the required form. Care should be taken to keep -the design narrow enough to be visible when the ring is in position on -the finger. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS -METAL - -ENRICHMENT OF FLAT PLANES - -RINGS - -PLATE 55] - -The long horizontal band of the ring supplies the motive for the -horizontal inceptive axis as a common basis or starting point for a -large number of designs. If the designer so desires, the vertical axis -of the finger is authority for an elliptical stone to be placed with its -major axis as a vertical line in harmony with the finger axis. In any -instance the designer seeks to lead the eye from the horizontal portion -of the ring (the finger band) toward the point of concentration (the -stone), by means of surface enrichment. A long sloping contour curve -helps, as a transition line in the boundary, to carry the attention from -the stone to the finger band. A great number of devices are used to -complete a similar transition in the surface enrichment. Figure 390a. -Too much piercing weakens the structure, and it is therefore to be -avoided. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ - -FIGURE 390a.--Rings] - -Plate 56 suggests some vertical flat planes for pendants. While no -definite rule can be stated for the location of the stone, from past -experience, it is easier for beginners to place the stone on the -vertical inceptive axis slightly above the geometric center of the -primary mass. Figures 391 to 395. A design thus formed is less likely to -appear heavy, although there is nothing arbitrary about the suggestion. - -Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should differ in -appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design._ - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS -METAL - -ENRICHMENT OF FLAT PLANES OF PENDANTS, CHAINS, LOCKETS - -PLATE 56] - -[Sidenote: Pendants and Chains] - -In pendant design the surface enrichment generally carries the attention -from the contour of the pendant to the stone, thus insuring unity at -this point, while the contour lines often lead the attention from the -pendant to the chain. The eye should move in unbroken dynamic movement -from pendant to chain. The chain may have points of accent designed to -vary the even distribution of the links. These accents are frequently -composed of small stones with surface enrichment sympathetically -designed in unity with pendant, chain, and stone. Figure 401 shows -examples of this arrangement and similarly the need of a horizontal -inceptive axis to harmonize with the length of the chain. These small -accents are quite similar in design to bar pin motives. - -Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in -the same design._ - -[Sidenote: Relation of Stones to Metal] - -For the designer's purposes we may consider two kinds of stones, the -transparent and the opaque. These should not be mixed in one design. The -most favorable stones are those forming contrasts of value or brilliancy -with the metal as, for example, the amethyst, lapis lazuli, or New -Zealand jade, with silver; or the dark topaz, or New Zealand jade, with -gold. Lack of these contrasts gives dull, monotonous effects that fail -to make the stone the point of concentration. Figure 467. These effects -may be partially overcome by frosting, plating, or oxidizing the metal, -thus forming stronger contrasts of value. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plates 52 and 57 are representative of the steps, processes, and - problems for school use. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw the primary mass. - - (_b_) Locate the inceptive axis in this primary mass with its - direction determined by the ultimate use or position of the - primary mass and its general shape. - - (_c_) Locate zone of enrichment. - - (_d_) Locate point of concentration in the zone of enrichment - and in the inceptive axis. - - (_e_) Design simple contour enrichment. - - (_f_) Design leading lines in sympathy with the contour and - leading toward the point of concentration. - - (_g_) Elaborate the leading lines in sympathy with the - material, the type of enrichment, the contours, and the - inceptive axis. - - (_h_) Render in the technical manner suggested by Plate 52, - dimension the primary mass, and otherwise prepare the drawing - for shop use. - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ - -FIGURE 401a.--Pendants] - -[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ - -FIGURE 402.--Pendants] - -SUGGESTED PROBLEM - - Design a built-up ring using an elliptical cabochon cut stone as - the point of concentration. The inceptive axis is vertical. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - SMALL FLAT PLANES - - Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the - minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the - designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of - material._ - - Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear - to compete for attention in the same design._ - - Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should - differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire - design._ - - Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the - contours of both primary mass and point of concentration, - especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel._ - - Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point - of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an - unobtrusive setting, or background._ - - Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration - should form contrast with the metal, either in color, - brilliancy, or value, or all three combined._ - - Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide - with one axis of a stone, and at the same time be - sympathetically related to the structure._ - - Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be - determined by (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar - pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or - horizontal in proportion._ - - Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use - of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen - both process and design._ - -[Illustration: RULES 10 A TO M: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL -FLAT PLANES OF PRECIOUS METAL - -{IA} INCEPTIVE AXIS - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - -PENDANTS, RINGS AND FOBS IN SLIVER - -DESIGNED BY MISS GERTRUDE EVANS - -U. OF W. - -PLATE 57] - - Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of - compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used - as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the - surface without thought to their coherence._ - - Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the - higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to - have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. - When using this form of enrichment the stone should never - appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be - approached by a series of rising planes._ - - Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should - be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the - contour of the primary mass._ - - Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not - be used in the same design._ - - Postulate.--_The design should conform to the limitations and - requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be - durable and suitable for service._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What is often used as a point of concentration in the - surface enrichment of precious metals? Why? - - 2. State direction of the inceptive axis for problems similar - to: (_a_) tie pins, (_b_) pendants, (_c_) fobs, (_d_) rings, - (_e_) bar pins? Why? Under what grouping of planes may they be - placed? - - 3. State the relation between the point of concentration and - the inceptive axis. - - 4. Give three steps in the design evolution of surface - enrichment for small flat planes. - - 5. Describe briefly eleven decorative processes for the surface - enrichment of precious metals with the technical rendering of - each. - - 6. Illustrate examples of dependent contour and dependent - surface enrichment of precious metals. - - 7. Where should a stone in a design similar to a pin or brooch - be placed with reference to the inceptive axis and the - geometric center of the primary mass? - - 8. Illustrate manner of planning primary mass, inceptive axis, - point of concentration, contour, and surface enrichment of: - (_a_) pins, (_b_) fobs, (_c_) rings, (_d_) pendants and chains. - - 9. State the relation of stone or enamel to metal. - - 10. What rule should govern the amount of metal used in a - design? - - 11. State the objection to a design with contour and surface - enrichment equally elaborated. - - 12. Is it possible to vary the design motive of a chain from - that of a pendant? Why and how? - - 13. Give illustration and requirements of a good design in - champleve enamel. - - 14. What precautions should be exercised in designing pierced - enrichment? - - 15. What rules should be observed in designing a built-up or - carved design? - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS -METALS - -TREATMENT OF FLAT AND SEMI-FLAT SURFACES - -WORK OF STUDENTS OF MILWAUKEE-DOWNER COLLEGE - -PLATE 58] - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS - - -[Sidenote: Enrichment for Small Areas] - -The surface enrichment of small, flat primary masses treated in Chapter -XIII emphasized the designer's tendency for _full_ surface enrichment of -small areas. Such treatment has proved satisfactory because the eye can -readily and immediately observe and comprehend or assimilate an -enrichment upon a small area. For larger enriched areas considered in -this chapter, full surface enrichment becomes a questionable policy for -the following reasons. - -[Sidenote: Enrichment for Large Areas] - -It is true that the old time craftsman with consummate skill fully -enriched large surfaces, but two factors interfere with this mode of -treatment today. The first factor is the decidedly practical nature of -the problem. The service to which the modern industrial project is put -interferes with the use of full surface enrichment. The second is the -lack of skill on the part of the modern amateur designer. It is a sound -policy to avoid the ornateness that frequently accompanies a large and -unskillfully planned area. In place of this, we should limit the -enrichment of large masses to a few salient areas which are well related -to the structural lines. - -Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of surface -enrichment of large masses. Its use should:_ (1) _lighten or soften -necessarily heavy construction;_ (2) _support or apparently strengthen -good structure;_ (3) _add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting -surfaces._ - -[Sidenote: Essentials of Good Surface Enrichment] - -These salient areas should determine the surface enrichment appropriate -to the structure, so that the enrichment: (1) will lighten or soften -necessarily heavy construction as in Figure 403; (2) support or -apparently strengthen good structure, Figure 413; (3) add interest to -large unbroken or otherwise uninteresting surfaces as illustrated in -Figure 405. To aid in producing the desired results, we have the -technical processes mentioned in Chapter XIII as follows: (1) Piercing; -(2) Etching; (3) Chasing; (4) Enameling; (5) Inlaying; (6) Stone -setting; (7) Building; (8) Carving; (9) Planishing; (10) Frosting; (11) -Oxidizing. On the plates for this chapter, the figure generally -following the cut number refers to the process, as: Figure 446, 3. - -[Illustration: Figure 406a.--Mainly Objects Designed to be Seen from -Above] - -SURFACE DESIGN EVOLUTION - -Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be -thought out before they are drawn._ - -A designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of -thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper. -In the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him -both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution, provided -his thinking is systematic. A sequential order of points to be observed -is given below. The object of systematic thought is to form a mental -picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and -construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes -and to the contours. The unenriched mass has been designed and we are -now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following -order. - -[Sidenote: Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment] - -(_a_) _Placing the Zone of Service._ - -1. Where is the zone of service? - - * * * * * - -(_b_) _Classification of Form_. - -1. Is the object flat, shallow and circular, low and cylindrical, high -and cylindrical? - - * * * * * - -(_c_) _Placing the Zone of Enrichment._ - -1. Is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side? See Figure -406a. - -2. What point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface -enrichment? Is it the primary mass, appendages, terminals, links, or -details? Let the area selected become the zone of enrichment. - -(_d_) _Amount of Enrichment._ - -1. Will the enrichment cover the full surface, part surface (center or -margin), or accented outline? - -(_e_) _Location of Inceptive Axis._ - -1. Is the zone of enrichment associated with a square, rectangle, -hexagon, or irregularly shaped flat plane, circular or cylindrical -surface? Figure 470. - -2. How should the inceptive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to -harmonize with the structural forms suggested by 1 (e) and the point -from which it is viewed 1 (c)? See the violation of this latter point in -Figure 439. Presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center -line, horizontal center line, diagonal, diameter, radius, the element of -a cylinder, or a dynamic curve for a free border. - -(_f_) _Point of Concentration._ - -[Sidenote: Surface Enrichment] - -1. Where should the point of concentration be located upon the inceptive -axis? - -(_g_) _Unison of Enrichment and Materials._ - -1. What decorative process will be adaptable to service, the material, -and the contemplated design? - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE METALS - -TREATMENT OF FLAT AND SEMI-FLAT SURFACES - -_Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_ - -PLATE 59] - -[Sidenote: Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment] - -(_h_) _Type of Units_. - -1. What design units are suited to the process selected in (_g_), -appropriate to the texture and structural lines of the form to be -enriched and to its ultimate service? Choice may be made from nature, -geometric pattern, or historic ornament. - -The above points may all be _thought out_. Now, with some assurance, the -designer may take his pencil and begin to _draw_ the units in their -proper position upon or about the inceptive axis with the point of -concentration correctly placed in position in the inceptive axis. Rules -and suggestions for this execution have been previously given. - - * * * * * - -(_i_) _Designing of the Units_. - -1. How should the units be drawn to be in harmony with the inceptive -axis, the contours, and to each other? - -The above points of approach to surface enrichment represent a logical -reasoning process which supplies a line of sequential and developmental -pictures that will reduce to a minimum the element of doubt and fog -through which the average designer approaches his problem. The steps -will, in time, become practically automatic and may be thought out in a -surprisingly short period of time. - -Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder -than similar designs for small primary masses._ - -[Sidenote: Large Masses and Their Treatment] - -As may be expected from briefly considering the illustrations for this -chapter as compared with those for small primary masses, Chapter XIII, -it is seen that the units for base and precious metals are larger and -bolder than those used for smaller masses. The more effective designs -are those whose appropriateness, simplicity, and correct structural -proportions and relations appeal to our sense of fitness and beauty. - -Figures 403, 404, and 406 are composed of projects designed mainly on -vertical inceptive axes or center lines. The freely balanced natural -units in Figure 403 have the zone of enrichment in the upper portion of -the appendage (handles), and the point of concentration in the upper -portion of the zone of enrichment. Formal symmetrical balance controls -the placing of enrichment in Figure 404. Initial letters, through lack -of consideration of design principles, are frequently misplaced on -masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations -with the structural contours. As a contrast to this, notice the -carefully considered relations between the letter _W_ on the tea -strainer in Figure 404 and its adaptation to the contours of the -appendage. The stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in -Figure 404 in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is -therefore appropriate as surface enrichment. - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE METAL - -TREATMENT OF FLAT PLANES IN CAST BRONZE - -_Door Plates, Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_ - -PLATE 60] - -[Sidenote: Large Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Precious Metal, Plate -58] - -The pierced enrichment of the silver box in Figure 405 contains vertical -and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into -harmonious relation with the structural contours. Figure 406 shows both -formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of -enrichment. _C_ and _D_ could have been improved by a more strongly -marked point of concentration which would have added more character to -the designs. - -[Sidenote: Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Base Metal, Plate 59] - -In Chapter VIII, the contour terminal enrichment problem was described -at some length. Many illustrations on Plates 58, 59, and 60 are, in a -way, similar in their type of surface decoration, which is termed -_surface terminal enrichment_. The "happy ending" mentioned in Chapter -VIII as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary -mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface -enrichment, particularly shown in Figures 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, and -410. The terminal is quite common as a zone of enrichment. - -[Sidenote: Contour _Versus_ Surface Enrichment] - -It is readily seen that when surface enrichment is the prevailing -decorative theme it becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment -to it, Rule 10b, otherwise the strife for dominance arising between -these two forms of enrichment will lead to poor and ornate design, -Figure 417. Whatever contour enrichment is used must be chosen to accord -with the surface enrichment, Rule 10d, as noted in the preceding figures -and in Figure 411. Here we find the closest connection, as the chased -forms of the surface at many points merge into the contour. Thus surface -and contour are bound together in unity with the surface enrichment, -which maintains its dominance throughout. - -The simple and dignified treatment of the fire set in Figure 413 is -synonymous with the finest type of enrichment for service and beauty, -Rule 11b. The peacock motives of Figures 414 and 415 are applied to the -desk set. The motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to -their respective areas and inceptive axes. - -[Sidenote: Surface Enrichment of Hardware, Plate 60] - -Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface -enrichment._ - -Figure 417 is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface -and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence. In -the combat, the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for -irrelevant and disconnected ornament. Figure 418 illustrates correctly -related surface ornament, with a dominance of the latter form, Rule 10b. -Figure 419 represents a type of decoration presumably roughened to meet -the needs of service. It proves, however, to be unpleasant to the touch -and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way. The -naturalistic snake motive of Figure 421 is repulsive to many people; -this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to -the more conventionalized pattern of Figure 422, Rule 11f. - -Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced -into the same design._ - -[Sidenote: Historic Ornament Applied to Period Hardware Design Door -Plates] - -It is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the -influence of the great schools of architectural history upon -contemporary design. There is a growing tendency for manufacturers to -use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design -of the building. A Colonial building frequently calls for Colonial -hardware, a Gothic church for corresponding surface enrichment of that -period. - -As introductory illustrations, Figure 423 stands as a simple example of -accented (beveled) contour while Figure 424 has been accented with -reminiscent moulding appropriate to Colonial architecture. They might, -however, be used with many simply designed articles of furniture. From -this slight indication or portion of a style, we have a more pronounced -beginning in Figure 425 with its clearly marked Greek egg and dart -ornamental border. The acanthus leaf of the Byzantine school, Figure -426, changes to the geometric arabesques of the Moorish school in Figure -427. The Gothic arch, cusps, and quatrefoil of Figure 428 are changed to -the classic acanthus foliage of the French Renaissance period. Figure -429. Figures 430 and 431 are later developments of the Renaissance. The -heavily enriched Flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use -of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs. Only a small -number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown. - -[Sidenote: Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 61] - -With circular plates and trays, the enrichment normally takes the form -of a border (marginal enrichment), with the inceptive axes or center -lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle. -Figures 433, 435, 436, 437, 438, and 439. An elliptical form frequently -calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by Figure 434. - -Both Figures 437 and 438 have divided points of concentration and would -be materially improved by the omission of the center unit _A_. The small -tree used as a connecting link in the border of Figure 437 should be -reversed, as it now possesses a motion or growth contrary to the larger -tree units. The contour enrichment in Figure 438 could well be omitted -or moved around to support the surface enrichment. The pierced -enrichment _A_, Figure 439, is incorrectly used as it is not designed to -be seen from above, the normal viewpoint of the tray. The design should -have been based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to -Figure 439 at _B_. - -[Sidenote: Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 62] - -Differing from the shallow plate, with the increased height of the low -cylindrical forms of Plate 62, there now develops the possibility of -enriching the sides of this class of project: a zone of enrichment not -readily accessible in the shallow plate form. In addition to the sides -there remain the appendages, quite capable of carrying enrichment to -advantage. One should control the zone of enrichment in such a manner -that the attention will not be equally drawn to both appendage and -primary mass. Two points of enrichment, both calling for equal -attention, divide the interest in the problem, and cause a lack of unity -or oneness. - -Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of -enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminals, -links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area._ - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND -PRECIOUS METAL - -TREATMENT OF SHALLOW CIRCULAR FORMS - -PLATE 61] - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND -PRECIOUS METAL - -TREATMENT OF LOW CIRCULAR FORMS - -PLATE 62] - -[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND -PRECIOUS METALS - -TREATMENT OF HIGH CYLINDRICAL FORMS - -PLATE 63] - -Enrichment upon the appendages may be found in Figures 440, 441, 442, -445, and on the upper portion of the straight sides of the primary mass -in Figures 443 and 444. The decorative units composing the border on -these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the -underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis. The enrichment for -the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is -commonly based upon the center line of the appendage. - -[Sidenote: Cylindrical Forms, Plate 63] - -The principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways -closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms. The -inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of Figures 446 and 447 -may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the cylinder. Figures -448 and 449 are quite rare exceptions of the accentuation of the -_vertical_ lines of the cylinder. Horizontal bands similar to Figures -444 and 447 are more common interpretations of cylinder enrichment. -Figure 450 marks a successful combination of two dissimilar materials -with the shade (appendage) as the dominating enriched member. Rule 10c. - -The small chased bosses used as enrichment in Figure 452 are re-echoed -on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity. -The top portion of the primary mass seems to need some form of -enrichment, as the contour adds little to the beauty of that part. The -symbol _X_ could have been better located by being moved to that place. -The point of concentration should be placed in the upper portion of a -large mass whenever that arrangement is possible. - -It is in every way desirable that all designs should be executed full -size and in full accord with the requirements of a shop working drawing. -In addition the technical rendering suggested in Chapter XIII should be -carefully used in each drawing. - - -INSTRUCTION SHEET - - Plates 68 and 72 show problems suitable for class presentation. The - method of development is similar to that presented on Plate 52. - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Draw a primary mass with reference to its proper grouping - as follows: - - For flat areas draw square, rectangle, etc. - - For shallow circular forms draw a circle. - - For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with horizontal - proportions. - - For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical - proportions. - - (_b_) Locate zone of service. - - (_c_) Locate zone of enrichment: appendages, terminals, - margins, full surface, etc. - - (_d_) Determine amount of enrichment. - - (_e_) Locate inceptive axes. - - (_f_) Place point of concentration in the inceptive axis where - it traverses the zone of enrichment. - - (_g_) Select the decorative process suited to the material and - contemplated motive. - - (_h_) Draw leading lines toward the point of concentration. - - (_i_) Draw conventionalized design motives based upon the - leading lines, converging toward the point of concentration. - Vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design - motives, provided such variation of the original primary mass - is necessary to complete unity. - - (_j_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare - the drawing for shop use. - -SUGGESTED PROBLEM - - Design a copper nut bowl and spoon. Enrich with a chased border - appropriate to the subject. Enrich spoon, using fitting method of - enrichment. The bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation. - -SUMMARY OF RULES - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES - - Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment - should be thought out before they are drawn._ - - Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of - surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten - or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or - apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large - unbroken and uninteresting surfaces._ - - Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be - bolder than similar designs for small primary masses._ - - Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of - enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, - terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be - subordinate to this area._ - - Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be - introduced into the same design._ - - Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into - surface enrichment._ - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. Contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of - base and precious metals. Illustrate. What is the character of - surface enrichment for large areas? - - 2. Name three essentials to good surface design for base and - precious metals. Illustrate each. - - 3. Give nine steps necessary for the complete evolution of - surface enrichment. - - 4. Name method of classifying the structural forms of metal - into four groups. How does this compare with the classification - of clay forms? - - 5. Between which two groups does the transition from a - horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur? - - 6. Is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment - paralleling this change in proportions of the primary mass? - - 7. In which group or groups is the relation between surface and - contour enrichment closest? - - 8. Give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for - flat or semi-flat planes. - - 9. State the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone. - - 10. Discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware - and their correction. - - 11. In what manner does historic ornament influence industrial - design? Why? - - 12. Give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for, - (_a_) large, shallow circular forms; (_b_) large, low - cylindrical forms; (_c_) large, high cylindrical forms. - - 13. How does the point from which the article is to be seen - affect the character of the design? - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS - - -[Sidenote: Need of Harmonious Color] - -In the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with -proportions, contours, and surface enrichment. The use of color, -particularly in surface enrichment, is equally important inasmuch as its -use is often necessary to bring the project, as for example a piece of -furniture, into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final -color environment. The incorrect use of color may seriously mar a -project otherwise correctly designed in line and form, and may also -weaken its influence in a particular setting. - -[Sidenote: Use of Color Systems] - -While there are a number of excellent systems of color notation, it is -well to bear in mind that a color system, however excellent, is a good -servant but a poor master. It is nevertheless considered as essential to -have a definite knowledge of some systematically developed color system -in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form -with some degree of certainty. - -[Sidenote: Color Pigments for Design Rendering] - -For rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is -suggested that the beginner use the tempera, or opaque colors now on the -market. These colors readily adapt themselves to the average problem, -while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the -ordinary water colors. Tubes of cobalt blue, ultramarine, light chrome -yellow, vermilion, emerald green, crimson madder, black, and white will -serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter. - -[Sidenote: Application of Pigment] - -White is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments, which should -be mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and applied to cover -well the surface of the paper. One should guard against a thin, -transparent wash, as the desired effect is a velvety opaque and evenly -tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color. The -pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied. -The usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering -wood stains. These pigments may be used in thin flat washes and will -exhibit a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain. -The natural color of wood may be first represented and, when dry, -followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain. - -[Sidenote: Rendering of Wood Stains] - -Lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards, it now -becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms -necessary to the designer. - -[Sidenote: Hue and Hue Rectangles] - -_Hue_ is the technical name for color; a change of color means a change -of hue. For the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded -colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues. Each hue -will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations, which is a -sufficient number for our purpose. These gradations are to be -graphically recorded by and contained in a diagram to be known as a _hue -rectangle_. There are twelve of these rectangles, one for each of the -selected hues, and they are found arranged in sequence in Figure 454. - -[Sidenote: Standard Hues] - -[Sidenote: Full Chromatic Intensity] - -By referring to Figure 455, it is seen that the twelve selected standard -hues are represented at what is termed _full chromatic intensity_, -which, to the designer, means hues of the full strength of his color -pigment. This is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum, -but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve -as standards for comparison and classification. The hues should be -evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without -noticeable unevenness in the gradations. Red violet is the link which -connects the right end with the left, thus completing the circuit of the -twelve hues. The following pigment table gives name and symbol of -various hues. - -[Sidenote: Approximate Related Standard Hues] - - --------------+-----------------------------------+------------+------- - HUES | PIGMENTS | VALUES |SYMBOLS - --------------+-----------------------------------+------------+------- - Red | Pure crimson madder | High dark | R-HD - Orange | Crimson madder and vermilion | Middle | OR-M - Orange | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Low light | O-LL - Orange yellow | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Light | OY-L - Yellow | Pure light chrome yellow | High light | Y-HL - Yellow green | Light chrome yellow and | | - | emerald green | Light | YG-L - Green | Pure emerald green | Low light | G-LL - Green blue | Emerald green and cobalt blue | Middle | GB-M - Blue | Pure cobalt blue | High dark | B-HD - Blue violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | BV-D - Violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Low dark | V-LD - Red violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | RV-D - --------------+-----------------------------------+------------+------- - -[Sidenote: Locating Standard Hues] - -It now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite -place in each rectangle. This invariably occurs at a predetermined point -in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue. From -inspection of Figure 455, it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the -darkest hue; yellow the lightest, with the others between these hues. -This variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their -proper placing in the hue rectangle. - -[Sidenote: Values and Horizontal Value Lines] - -_Value_ is that quality by which we may distinguish a dark hue from a -light one. For design purposes we will imagine the hue rectangle to -grade from white at the top to black at the bottom. We will draw -horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle, marking nine even value -steps from white to black; the top one to be termed White (W), followed -by High Light (HL); Light (L); Low Light (LL); Middle (M); High Dark -(HD); Dark (D); Low Dark (LD); and Black (B). These value steps may be -thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the _right -boundary_ of the hue rectangle. They have been roughly indicated in the -hue rectangle at the left of Figure 454. - -[Sidenote: Relation of the Standard Hue to the Hue Rectangle] - -Each standard hue may now be located in the _left boundary_ of its hue -rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right -boundary. If the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer, -it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the -"value" column of the pigment table. The small arrows leading from -Figure 455 to 454 show where four standard hues are located; the -remaining hues are located in the left circle of each successive row in -the remaining rectangles, and upon their respective value lines. -Standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the _right column_ of the -pigment table. - -[Sidenote: Tints] - -Each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten -it, forming what is known as a tint of that hue. Red, in Figure 454, -reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value High Dark, may be -lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white. Each step is -to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle -above the standard hue, and is to be recorded by the symbols, R-M: R-LL: -R-L: R-HL. Orange yellow has only one possible tint. Strawberry, light -lavender, rose, etc., are merely nicknames for various tints. - -[Sidenote: Shades] - -Each standard hue may be darkened by the application of black, thus -forming shades of that hue. Red is capable of producing two shades, R-D -and R-LD, which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle -below the standard hue. Browns, russets, and dark tans are shades of -different hues. - -These modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to -the designer simple variations of his too brilliant standards. But even -these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting -large wood or wall surfaces. There is a brilliancy and glare about -certain tints which require modification. The shades are safer for use -on large areas. The remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle -is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue. - -[Sidenote: Chroma] - -_Chroma_ is the strength of a color. It is the quality by which we -distinguish a strong color from a weak one. The standard hue is -approximately full chromatic intensity. Likewise each tint and shade is -considered to be of its full chromatic intensity, making the left-hand -boundary of the rectangle the area of full chroma. - -From this boundary, each tint, standard, and shade _fades out or loses -chroma_ until the right boundary of the rectangle is reached. In this -boundary each tint, standard, and shade has faded out of its gray -equivalent, but without changing its original value; in other words it -has traveled along its horizontal value line to a complete grayness. The -right-hand boundary of the rectangle may then be represented by a gray -value scale of nine steps, including white and black. - -[Sidenote: Vertical Chroma Lines] - -It becomes necessary to record at regular intervals, this loss of -chroma. For this purpose, we have cut the hue rectangle by three -vertical lines. The first vertical line from the left boundary of the -rectangle marks the position where the standard with its tints and -shades have been grayed to the point where only three-fourths of the -original of hue remains. Similarly, the center and right vertical lines -mark the points where one-half and one-fourth, respectively, of the -color have been retained. These losses of chroma are recorded by similar -fractions. With possible modifications of value and chroma each hue now -has twenty-seven possible changes. - -The full hue title or symbol may now be written as follows: (1) hue -name, (2) amount of chroma, (3) value. Examples: GB [Sidenote: Full Hue -Symbols] - -3/4D-V1/2HL. We are now in a position to write whatever color we may -have in mind and another person will understand it, provided the other -person adopts our standard. Through the teachings of Dr. D.W. Ross, Mr. -A.H. Munsell, and others, the symbols and standards are now quite -generally understood and have, in a slightly modified form been accepted -in several standard color industries. - -[Sidenote: Technical Practice] - -[Sidenote: Warm and Cold Colors] - -To familiarize oneself with the mixing of the various hues, it is -excellent practice to form a vertical gray scale of the -three-quarter-inch squares. There should be nine steps from white to -black; an enlarged duplication of the right boundary of the hue -rectangle. The warm standard hues at their full standard intensities; -RV-R-OR-O-OY-Y, may be formed and placed opposite their gray equivalents -on the left side of the gray scale, while the remaining or cold colors -may be similarly placed with relation to the gray scale but upon the -right of it. - -[Sidenote: Scales of Color] - -A vertical scale of tints and shades of one of the hues, duplicating the -left side of the rectangle gives the character of the tints and shades. -One shade and one tint should then be carried along a horizontal value -line through three steps of loss of chroma to complete grayness, but -without change of the original value. Yellow, by the addition of black -becomes a false greenish shade which may be corrected by the addition of -a small amount of vermilion. - -[Sidenote: Wood Stains] - -A large percentage of natural wood hues are to be found between the hue -rectangles, Red-Orange, Yellow and Green, or in the warm portion of the -spectrum. As a wood stain must blend harmoniously with the natural wood -color, it is reasonable to expect the best results from stains with a -predominance of warm hues or warm grays in their composition. - -[Sidenote: Basic Primary Hues] - -It is possible to duplicate _nearly all_ the twelve standard hues of -Figure 455 with mixtures of the three so-called primary hues of red, -yellow, and blue. It makes a fairly approximate scale which is, however, -not sufficiently accurate for standardizing purposes. The scale is -formed by mixing red and yellow in varying proportions for the -intermediate hues of orange, yellow, and blue for the greens, and blue -and red for the violets. This practice of mixing three primary colors -together serves as an important step, governing wood stain mixing for -beginners. - -[Sidenote: Three Basic Aniline Wood Dyes] - -Developing this idea further, we may select aniline brilliant scarlet as -approximating red; metanil yellow, approximating yellow; and acid green -as a substitute for blue. These stains are shown in the top portion of -Figure 456. By comparison with Figure 455, scarlet is found to be orange -red; metanil yellow, orange, and acid green to be true standard green. -These basic stains have been located in their proper positions with -regard to their hue, value, and chroma. Their positions are located by -the large circles in the hue diagrams of Figure 456. - -[Sidenote: Wood Stain Mixing] - -These stains are modified and reduced in chroma and value by mixing them -with nigrosene black, an aniline dye of blue black appearance, which -fills all the needs of an ivory black in water or oil color pigment. -With these four stains, almost any commercial stain may be duplicated. -Aniline dye for water stains readily dissolves in water while a special -aniline for oil staining is first cut with naphtha. - -[Sidenote: Dark Mahogany Stain] - -Dark mahogany stain in Figure 456 is orange red, ¾HD, and is indicated -by the circle _A_ in the same figure. To duplicate this stain we have as -the nearest base stain, brilliant scarlet, which corresponds to orange -red. This is placed at its full intensity in the circle OR on the middle -horizontal value line. To duplicate dark mahogany stain it will be -necessary to reduce in value a strong solution of brilliant scarlet, -slightly more than one horizontal value step, by the addition of -nigrosene. We shall then add a small amount of some thinning medium, oil -or water, to reduce slightly the stain in chroma. - -[Sidenote: Flemish Oak Stain] - -Flemish oak stain is orange ¾D. This calls for a mixture of metanil -yellow and brilliant scarlet aniline to form the orange hue. We must -then add nigrosene to reduce the value to D, and add a small amount of -thinner to produce the necessary reduction in chroma. - -[Sidenote: Fumed Oak Stain] - -This is commonly produced by fuming the wood with ammonia. The hue may -however be closely duplicated by a mixture of brilliant scarlet, metanil -yellow, and nigrosene. It is practically the same as Flemish oak, but -possesses one-quarter more color as can be seen on the orange hue -rectangle. - -[Sidenote: Olive Green Stain] - -The circle _D_ shows this stain to be slightly below yellow green, ¾M, -in value and chroma. The hue rectangle containing it is nearer the green -than the orange yellow rectangle; hence in mixing the stain we should -keep the green hue dominant by adding more of it than of metanil -yellow. As in other stains, nigrosene is added to reduce the full -chromatic intensities of the aniline to the proper value and chroma of -olive green stain. - -[Sidenote: Light Weathered Oak Stain] - -This stain is practically blue, 1/4M, and is formed by thinning -nigrosene to the proper value. - -[Sidenote: Color Changes of the Stain] - -Aniline dyes are apt to fade if exposed to full sunlight. There are, -however, certain preventives that are beyond the scope of this book to -treat in detail. The natural color of the wood is inclined to make a -stain warmer than when originally mixed. This should be allowed for. -Wood filler, the wood grain, porosity, qualities, and hue of the wood, -all influence the final value of the stain. It frequently becomes darker -in value as may be seen by comparing Figure 456 and Figures 458 to 461. -It is good policy to test the stain upon different woods to observe the -final effect. The tests may be kept for future reference. - -It is readily seen from the few examples in Figure 456 that, with the -three basic stains, almost any other stains may be produced, thus -affording a broad field for harmonious selection and adaptation to the -environment. The next chapters will take up the question of color -harmony and its application to wood, wall surfaces, clay, and metal. - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - See paragraph upon "Technical Practice" in this chapter, page - 198. - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What pigments are best adapted to rendering design problems? - What pigments are particularly adapted to the rendering of wood - stains? How should each be applied? - - 2. What are standard hues? Why do we need standards of hue? - - 3. Define the term _values_. - - 4. What are tints and shades? - - 5. Define fully the term _chroma_. - - 6. Bound the hue rectangle and trace the value and chroma - changes occurring on its vertical and horizontal lines. - - 7. Locate in its proper hue rectangle (Figure 455) the - following hues: OY 3/4HD; YG 1/2LL; RV 3/4M; YL. - - 8. Name the three primary hues. How may an approximate scale of - twelve hues be prepared from them? - - 9. Name the three basic aniline wood dyes and give their - relation to the three primary hues. What is the practical use - of nigrosene in stain mixing? - - 10. Give the symbol and explain the method of mixing Flemish - oak wood stain. Name and explain the method of mixing two - others. - - 11. How does its application to wood effect the color and value - of aniline stain? - -[Illustration: PLATE 64] - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - -LARGE SURFACES OF WOOD; WALL AND CEILING AREAS - - -[Sidenote: Color Harmony] - -In the preceding chapter, the classification and standardization of -color were emphasized as preliminary to the study of color harmony. -Color harmony is obtained by the proper balancing of value, hue, and -chroma upon a surface or surfaces to give a pleasing reaction to the -eye, and through the eye to the intellect. - -We are now ready to familiarize ourselves with the specific applications -of these factors to practical design problems. Too many pieces of -furniture are stained with no thought as to the final adaptation in the -school or home. This is not wise, either from the standpoint of a -complete educative process or of good taste. Figures 458, 459, 460, 461, -show stains of Plate 64 applied to wood. Two new stains have been added, -sage green and silver gray. These six stains are representative ones and -act as a typical data for study of color harmony. - - -FURNITURE--TRIM--SIDE WALLS--CEILINGS - -[Sidenote: Backgrounds] - -The side walls of a room form the background for furniture; trim, wall -brackets, and similarly related objects; therefore the _closest relation -and harmony_ should be maintained between them. - -[Sidenote: Value Range of Wood Stains] - -The wood stains 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18, Plate 65, as they appear on -various kinds of wood are, in part, duplicates of the unapplied stains -of Plate 64, Figure 456. The effect of the wood has changed their values -and in some instances their color as can be seen by comparing the two -plates. Their _new relations_ have been plotted on the hue rectangles of -Figure 457, Plate 65, and the results joined by a dotted line. The -circles in the diagrams contain cross reference figures in order that -the stains may be traced without difficulty. The highest value is near -middle (18), and the lowest is low dark (6), showing a value range of -four steps. - -[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls] - -The side walls, taken from well-known wall tint catalogs have been -similarly plotted in Figure 457, and the results joined together by a -heavy black line. The lightest value is light (11), and the darkest is -middle value (14), an average range of three steps slightly above middle -value. - -[Sidenote: Value Range of Ceilings] - -Ceilings are the lightest of the surfaces considered. Their range is -from slightly below white (10), to light (16), a range of two values. -From the results, as plotted in Figure 457, it is seen that there is a -tendency to keep the ceilings within a close range of values. The -results have been joined together by means of a double black line. There -are exceptions to these results, but it is quite safe to keep well -within the suggested range for harmonious results. We may now draw the -following rules as a result of an empirical method of deduction. - -Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the values -middle and low dark._ - -Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the values -light and middle._ - -Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values -white (minus) and light._ - -[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls and Wood Work] - -Averaging the value range between the wood work which includes the -furniture, trim, and the side walls of Figures 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, -and 463, we find that the range varies from five values in Figures 459 -to slightly more than one in Figure 463. As the side walls and furniture -are to be regarded as unobtrusive settings for pictures and people it is -well to be very conservative with the use of values. A wide range of -values will cause a lack of unity. In this respect Figure 459 may be -regarded as approaching the extreme limit of contrasts of value -compatible with good taste. Let us, therefore, limit the value range to -four values, as, for example: low light for side walls and dark for -stain. - -Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, trim, -etc., should be retained within the range of four values or less, as low -light and dark._ - -[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls and Ceilings] - -The ceiling and side walls in Figure 459 are four values apart and in -Figure 463 this has been reduced to a one-value step. There seems to be -a common average of three values as an acceptable and agreeable -contrast. For dark rooms this would well be increased. For rooms with -light side walls the contrast would be considerably lessened. - -Rule 12e. _The relation between side walls and ceiling should be within -the range of three values or less, as high light and low light._ - - -HUE GROUPINGS - -[Sidenote: Hue Range for Wood Work and Walls] - -A wood stain should be closely related to the natural color of the wood. -As this is usually a warm color we naturally find most of the wood -stains included between the red and the yellow hue rectangles, inclusive -of red and yellow green. Walnut then may be stained a deep shade of -orange or red, but would not be adapted to a blue green stain. This -arbitrary but wide range of hues of stained wood naturally affects the -hue of the side walls. The plotting of the hues for the side walls, -Figure 457, shows a close relation to the hues of the stain to the wall. -In no instance do we find the hue rectangle of the wood work more than -three hues away from that of the walls. In four instances they are -within two hue rectangles of each other and in one instance they are -both within the same rectangle. This develops the fact that _analogous_ -or neighboring groupings of hues prevail in relating the hues of wood -work and side walls. - -[Sidenote: Analogous Hues] - -An _analogous_ group of hues is an arrangement based upon a selection of -tints and shades within three rectangles of each other, as orange and -yellow. These harmonize because yellow is mixed with and becomes a hue -common to both. While the analogous arrangement of hues seems to be most -commonly used, and with a result that seems to justify its adoption into -general practice, there are other arrangements that are pleasing to the -eye. - -[Sidenote: Contrasted Hues] - -Figure 458 illustrates what is commonly known as a _contrasted_ grouping -or arrangement of hues. It consists of the tints or shades of one or -more hues and gray. It is the basis of color harmony between silver and -semi-precious stones. If two hues are used, one of them should be -reduced in chroma to nearly gray. - -[Sidenote: Dominant Hue] - -Figure 463 is typical of still another form of positive hue grouping. By -consulting the yellow hue rectangle of Figure 457 it is noted that the -wood work, side walls, and ceiling of Figure 463 _are all contained in -one rectangle_. This classes this color scheme as an example of -_dominant_ arrangement which may be simply defined as the _tints and -shades of one hue_. The arrangement does not have the variety supplied -by analogous grouping, introducing as it does, two hues from different -rectangles, but for large surfaces dominant grouping is a conservative -and safe arrangement. Its tendency toward monotony should be guarded -against by the introduction of some object high in chroma in the room -decorative scheme. A bright colored vase will accomplish this -successfully. Rule 12o, Chapter XVII. - -Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably -be selected from one of the following groupings: analogous, contrasted, -or dominant arrangements of hues. Analogous grouping is preferable where -variety of hue is desirable._ - -[Sidenote: Special Arrangements] - -The above rule is not to be taken as arbitrary. In the hands of -competent designers attractive color schemes are developed that differ -materially from the above suggestions. But, for the usual home setting, -the above arrangement may be regarded as satisfactory, and is given with -the idea of bringing the school shop work and the home environment into -closer color harmony. A specimen of special arrangement is given by the -Circle 3A. This is delft blue, which harmonizes with dark mahogany in a -satisfactory manner. - -[Sidenote: Hue Range for Side Walls and Ceilings] - -In adjusting the hues for side walls and ceilings, the relations should -be of the closest. The plotting of ceiling hues in Figure 457 shows a -strong tendency for the ceiling to be colored with a tint of the side -walls (dominant arrangement), or by a tint selected from the next -rectangle (analogous arrangement). Yellow or yellow-green, very light -and much reduced in chroma, seems to be the almost universal custom. -This is due to the strongly _light reflecting_ qualities of yellow. - -Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side -walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._ - -[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Stains] - -Stains, as they occupy a comparatively limited area in the room color -scheme, are of their full chroma value or reduced to three-fourths -chroma. In only one instance (18), Figure 463, do we find a reduction -to one-fourth chroma, demanded by the nearly gray color scheme of the -walls. We find it to be an established fact that small areas are capable -of enrichment by colors of greater purity and higher chroma than larger -surfaces. A silver pin may be designed to contain a stone of high -brilliancy, but a wall surface has to be materially reduced in chroma to -possess color harmony. - -[Illustration: PLATE 65] - -[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Stain] - -Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths -chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, however, call for a -reduction to one-fourth intensity._ - -[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Walls] - -As the walls occupy a large proportionate area of the color scheme of -the room we find it necessary to reduce them in chroma in order to -soften the glare of too brilliant colors. Figure 457 shows only one -instance (14) of a hue unreduced in chroma. It is retained at the full -chroma for that value on account of the brightness of the sage green -wood stain. The other hues represented in the diagram are grayed or -reduced in chroma from three-fourths to less than one-fourth, or to -nearly neutral gray. - -Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a -minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma._ - -[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Ceilings] - -The same tendency toward chromatic reduction is to be seen in ceilings, -although we have two examples in Figure 457 (10 and 13) of nearly white -and high light ceilings that have not been reduced. To avoid crudity a -reduction in chroma by the addition of gray is to be desired. - -Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths -intensity with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum -reduction._ - -[Sidenote: Summary] - -With a single exception (3A), the stains and wall tints have been -selected between and including the red and green rectangles. This is -customary and gives safe hue range as it insures the retention of wall -and ceiling hues in unified conformity with the warm tints of the -natural wood and its equally dark hued stains. - -[Sidenote: Wall and Ceiling Pigments] - -The following is a list of dry colors which may be purchased at a paint -or hardware store for a few cents a pound. It is suggested for the -designer or craftsman who desires to tint his own wall or ceiling. While -oil paint is to be preferred, these colors are readily and quickly -applied and form serviceable backgrounds. - -[Sidenote: Calcimine] - -The pigments are white, yellow ochre, chrome yellow light, chrome yellow -medium, and chrome yellow dark, burnt and raw sienna, turkey and raw -umber, ultramarine and ivory black. The greens are preferably mixed by -adding ultramarine to one of the chromes. Shades are formed by the -addition of the siennas, umbers, or black. Black and white, mixed to a -gray, are useful in reducing the chroma of a hue. The stains should be -mixed with hot water and a small amount of glue for a binder. White -occasionally comes prepared with glue in its composition. - -[Sidenote: Opaque Wood Finishes] - -While this chapter has emphasized the transparent finish for wood -treatment, as a method best fitted for woods with a distinct grain, it -is realized that oil painting of wood surfaces has a distinct and -important part to play in the interior decorative scheme of a room. This -latter method is adapted to soft woods without a strongly marked grained -surface. The warm hued rectangle of the spectrum: red, orange, and -yellow with their associated hues, which are so intimately connected -with the natural wood colors and their stains, no longer stand as a -limiting factor in controlling the color of the wood or the side walls. -The opaque nature of oil paints allows us to disregard the color of the -wood, and thus select any hue of oil paint which harmonizes with the -walls and decorative scheme of the room. The rules stated herein are -equally applicable to opaque colors. It may be necessary to reduce oil -paints in chroma beyond the point indicated in Rule 12h. - -While it is not within the scope of this chapter to enter into a -complete discussion of the subject of interior decoration, the following -suggestions are considered as applying to our subject: viz., the surface -enrichment of large areas. Complete color harmony in interior decoration -generally demands the presence of the three so-called primary hues: red, -yellow, and blue, in some form in the wall color scheme. While this is -not always possible, two may be introduced as follows. - -[Sidenote: Northern Exposure] - -The light from the north, northeast, or northwest is cold blue, -supplying blue in the decorative scheme of three primary colors: blue, -red, and yellow. The wall tints should then be composed of combinations -of red and yellow, the remaining primaries. These may be applied to the -walls by means of tints of yellow and orange reduced in chroma, or -shades of orange and orange-red. No greens or blues should be used. - -[Sidenote: Southern Exposure] - -The light from the south, southeast, and southwest supplies plenty of -yellow. It is, then, necessary to add the remaining primaries or at -least one of them in the form of gray-blue, orange, or orange-yellow, -reduced to one-fourth chroma and practically to neutrality or -grayish-reds and greens, well reduced in chroma. Any hue strongly yellow -should be avoided. - -[Sidenote: Effects of Hue upon Apparent Size] - -Certain hues materially affect the apparent size of a room. If the room -is small certain values and hues will make it appear much smaller. Dark -values, as a rule, make the room look smaller by seemingly drawing the -walls closer together. Red contracts the apparent size of a room, while -yellow and blue expand it. Green and shades of yellow and red-orange, if -not too dark, have little effect upon the apparent size of a room. - - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - (_a_) Determine, by its exposure, the kind of light the room - receives. - - (_b_) Choose a hue for the walls embodying one or both of the - primary hues not represented by this daylight. - - (_c_) Select a value and chroma for this hue in accordance with - Rules 12b and 12i. - - (_d_) Select a hue, value, and chroma for the ceiling in - accordance with Rules 12g, 12e, and 12j. - - (_e_) Select the correct hue, value, and chroma for paint or - stain for the wood work in accordance with Rules 12f, 12a, and - 12h. - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Develop the color scheme for the walls, ceiling, and wood work - of a room with a northern exposure; southern exposure. Mix the - stain for a piece of oak to harmonize with the wood work and - walls of the living room of your home. - - Determine the wall tints to harmonize with dark weathered oak. - Mix them from dry colors. - - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the - values middle and low dark._ - - Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the - values light and middle._ - - Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the - values white (minus) and light._ - - Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, - trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values - or less, as low light and dark._ - - Rule 12e. _The relation between the side walls and ceiling - should be within the range of three values or less, as high - light and low light._ - - Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should - preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: - analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. - Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is - desirable._ - - Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the - side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._ - - Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below - three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, - however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity._ - - Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths - chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth - chroma._ - - Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to - three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth - chroma as a minimum reduction._ - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. What should we have in mind when staining furniture for the - home? - - 2. Why are the side walls important when considering the color - scheme of a room? - - 3. Give the value range for the average wood stains, side - walls, and ceiling. - - 4. State the value range to include wood work, furniture, trim, - and side walls. - - 5. State the value range that includes side walls and ceilings. - - 6. Give the hue range for wood work and side walls. - - 7. Explain the analogous, contrasted, and dominant groupings of - hues and name two examples of each. - - 8. Give the hue range for side walls and ceilings. Name several - good combinations. - - 9. Give range of chroma for wood work, side walls, and ceiling. - Explain the reasons for each change of chroma. - - 10. What experience have you had in mixing calcimine for wall - decoration? - - 11. Discuss opaque finishes for wood. - - 12. Give the hues for rooms with northern and southern - exposures. Why? - - 13. State the effect of hues upon the apparent size of a room. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN - - -SMALL SURFACES IN CLAY AND METAL - -Before proceeding to the discussion of the application of color to clay -it becomes necessary to determine what technical possibilities are -presented. - -[Sidenote: Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Clay] - -Plain glazing of the entire surface is a common form of pottery -enrichment. A piece of ware, thus glazed, may become a point of -concentration in the color arrangement of a room, and should be -definitely located in that arrangement. The ware may harmonize with the -background (side wall) by analogy, dominance, or contrast or through -complementary coloring. Rule 12o. A glaze from the diagram in Figure 464 -should be selected as forming a part in the selected arrangement. Side -wall (11), Figure 457, would harmonize with glaze C9 by virtue of its -dominant relation or with M7 through analogy. The glaze selected should -be higher in chroma than the side wall and will be found to form a -cheerful and brilliant element in the room color scheme. The definite -linking of these different factors of interior decoration into unity has -been earnestly advocated in these chapters. Figures 457 and 464 show the -possibilities of cross references. - -[Sidenote: Stains for Glazes] - -It soon becomes apparent because of the coloring of clay ware that the -designer must know something of the color possibilities of glazed -pottery forms. The decorative processes were explained at some length in -Chapter XII, wherein we described the common types of surface -enrichment. As we are now primarily considering the question of color, -we first regard the ware as uniformly glazed with either clear or matt -glaze. The former is brilliant, of high chroma, and has a highly -polished surface, while the latter is dull surfaced glaze of lower -chroma. - -[Sidenote: Metallic Oxides] - -Metallic oxides are used to stain or color clear glazes, while -underglaze colors are ordinarily used for matts. The percentage of -stains to be added to the dry glazes is stated in Figure 464 where they -can be readily traced to their approximate locations in the hue -rectangles by the reference letters M1, C1, etc. Certain oxides are weak -coloring agents and require larger amounts of oxide to color the glaze -perceptibly. - -Iron and copper oxide may be mixed to produce a large variety of yellow -greens; other combinations will suggest themselves. It is possible to -use oxides as well as underglaze colors for staining matt glazes. - -[Sidenote: Harmony of Color] - -We have, to this point, considered the enrichment of large surfaces -whose areas were arbitrarily determined by construction, as, for -example, the extent of wall surface, ceiling, or wood trim and -furniture. The essential element in this type of problem is the -selection of a one, two, or three-hued color arrangement that would -harmoniously link ceiling, wall, and wood together. If we had introduced -stencilling or figured wall paper it would have immediately called for -the solution of another problem, the factor of _how much_ strong color -to use. In other words, it would have introduced the question of -_proportionate distribution_ of color upon a given area. It was thought -best to limit the subject of proportionate distribution to small areas, -where the designer is often forced to make decisions and to divide -surfaces into proportionate color parts for his surface enrichment. - -We may now repeat the definition of harmony with the accentuation placed -upon a certain wording directly applicable to small surfaces. Harmony is -obtained by the proper balancing and _proportionate distribution_ of -value, hue, and chroma upon a surface to give a unified and pleasing -reaction to the eye and intellect. - -[Sidenote: Proportionate Distribution of Color for Small Areas] - -Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma in -surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, and -contrasting in value to the rest of the surface but harmonizing with it. -This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas -are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight -contrast with the background._ - -[Sidenote: Examples of Proportionate Distribution] - -Figure 465 illustrates some of the salient factors of distribution of -values and hues. Hues of or near standard chromatic intensity should be -used in _small quantities_ and should accentuate the point of -concentration. These small areas are to be regarded as giving brilliancy -and life to the surface and to hold the eye at the point of -concentration. Very small surfaces are capable of sustaining spots of -high chroma, as is shown in the silver pin of Figure 468. The remaining -portions of the surface enrichment should be kept subordinated in hue -and value to the point of concentration, _but related to it_. The bands -of Figure 465 are well reduced in value and make little contrast with -the background, thus forming true surface enrichment or that which -neither rises above or apparently falls through the surface. The point -of concentration is higher in chroma than the surrounding areas. - -Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all -color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue -related to the other hues by (1) contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) -analogous, (4) complementary relations. This hue should make slightly -stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues._ - -Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to -supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint -in the use of values is essential._ - -Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the -decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under -Rule 12o._ - -[Sidenote: Value and Hue and Chroma Range for Small Areas] - -In the vase, Figure 464A, the designer selected hues from neighboring or -analogous rectangles green and blue-green. The value range is restricted -to four steps and the areas of concentration are placed at the top of -the vase by the stronger value and hue contrasts of the foliage of the -trees and dark blue rim. In both Figures, 464A and 465, the designer has -used analogous hue arrangements. This is suggested to the beginner as -serviceable for objects exceeding the dimensions of jewelry and includes -such problems as vase forms, book stalls, and brackets. Contrasted and -dominant arrangements are also good, safe, and sound arrangements, but -fail to give the variety of color to small objects afforded by analogous -grouping. At a later point in this chapter the subject of complementary -coloring will suggest a new arrangement to the reader, but this scheme -is to be left until he has sufficiently mastered the possibilities of -the arrangements just indicated. - -Five values form a safe value range for small objects. It is good -practice to keep the larger areas, including the background, within -three steps of each other and to allow the point of concentration to -form the strongest value contrast. - -[Sidenote: Over Reduction in Chroma] - -The chroma may range from full to three-quarters intensity. Reduction to -one-half or one-fourth intensity is inclined to make a small object -appear washed out or chalky. Shades, at their full intensity, are good -colors to use for small surfaces in wood. Small enameled objects may be -developed in full chroma, while pottery forms range from full chroma to -one-half chroma in forms of slip and underglaze painting. - -[Sidenote: Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Metal] - -It is interesting to note the gradually increasing chroma percentage of -the different coloring media in direct proportion to the reduction of -the area of the surface to be enriched. By comparing the diagrams of -Figures 464 and 457 it will be seen that there is a steady movement -toward the left sides of the hue rectangles or toward stronger -intensity. The wall areas are shown to be lowest in chroma, followed by -the increasing intensity of wood stains, glazes, and enamels. - -[Sidenote: Enamels] - -Enamels, commonly used to enrich metal surfaces, are highest in chroma -of the decorative materials under discussion and are to be treated with -nearly as much restraint as one would use in enriching a surface with -semi-precious stones, for strong hues are cheapened by excessive use. -The plate in Figure 436 has small circles filled with enamel and a large -field of chased or uncolored design. - -[Sidenote: Transparent Enamels] - -Transparent enamels are comparable to clear glazes and the coloring -medium is the same. Their preparation is difficult and therefore trade -names have been given in the table of Figure 464. As will be seen by -consulting the diagram of Figure 464, T1, T2, T3, etc., they are all at -their full value intensity. Enamels, as supplied by the trade, are much -too intense for use in enrichment and consequently are applied over a -coating of colorless clear enamel, technically named flux or fondant. As -the thickness of coating of enamel may vary, the hue classification is -to be regarded as approximate. - -[Illustration: PLATE 66] - -[Sidenote: Opaque Enamels] - -Opaque enamels may be compared with matt glazes, for, while the texture -of the surface has a distinct gloss, the enamels themselves are not -so strong in hue as the transparent enamels. By referring to the diagram -of Figure 464, it may be seen that many of the opaque enamels are -reduced in chroma, thus accounting for their softened hue. - -[Sidenote: Oxidation] - -Metals are capable of considerable change of color by the application of -chemicals to the surface. Potassium sulphuret will lower the surface -value of silver or copper to a rich velvety black associated with -antiques. This may be removed in places naturally subjected to wear, -thus varying the dead black appearance. Copper and brass may be coated -with salt and vinegar or verdigris to give the surface a corroded and -greenish appearance. Heating is a fugitive method of coloring and is, -therefore, not considered. - -[Sidenote: Harmony through Oxidation] - -These surface changes may be utilized to harmonize metal and its -environment, as, for example, copper trimmings and a shade for a pottery -lamp; or it may be used to reduce the brightness of the natural copper -surface. - -The surfaces of metals may be changed with actual manipulation of the -surface by frosting or sanding and plating. Gold may be readily plated -with gold to bring it into closer harmony with the stone. Plating, -applied to base metals, merely to give the impression of a more -expensive metal, is to be discouraged. - -[Sidenote: Metal Backgrounds] - -One has to consider metal as a background in much the same manner as we -considered wall surfaces as a background for stained furniture. Whatever -color is applied to the surface must harmonize in proportionate -distribution as well as hue, value, and chroma. We have a small amount -of leeway for varying the background by the different processes of -oxidation and plating. - -[Sidenote: Enamel on a Copper Background] - -As one of the more common processes, let us consider the application of -enamel to copper in the form of champleve enrichment. Our first thought -would be the analysis of the natural copper color. It is found to be a -shade of orange-red and will, therefore, readily harmonize with the -_analogous_ oranges and reds, as they both have the common hue of red. -There should be a slight contrast of value between these enamels and the -background. If this contrast is not present, it is well to oxidize -slightly the copper to lower its value and thus produce the contrast. - -[Sidenote: Complementary Arrangement] - -The fourth harmonious hue combination, that of complementary arrangement -or grouping, has been left to the last as its use is more closely -associated with small multi-colored projects and small areas. A hue -approximately complementary to the initial hue is found by counting -seven rectangles to the right or left of that hue; this will give the -hue complementary to the initial hue. Thus, starting with red and moving -through seven rectangles toward the right, we find the complement to be -green. Any two hues so selected will be found to enhance the brilliancy -of each other. The best results are secured when one hue dominates the -color scheme by its increased area. Pottery may be adapted to a -complementary color scheme by Rule 12i. - -Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used -as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a -contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side -walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the -side walls._ - -[Sidenote: The Relation of Colored Glazes to Interior Decoration of a -Room] - -To find a glaze that will harmonize with the side walls of a room by -complementary arrangement of hues, select the desired wall tint from the -diagram in Figure 457. Find the similar hue rectangle in the diagram of -Figure 464 and, starting with this rectangle as one, count seven hues -from the side wall rectangle in either direction. In the seventh -rectangle or in a neighboring one will usually be found a number of -glazes answering the requirements and bearing a complementary relation -to the side walls. Select a glaze from these that will make a contrast -of chroma or value with the side wall. Example: background or side wall, -Figure 457, No. 8, is in the orange yellow rectangle. Counting seven -from this in Figure 464 we find the complement to be blue violet. As -there is no glaze in this rectangle we will move to its neighbor on the -left. This gives us clear glaze, C1, containing one and one-half per -cent black oxide of cobalt, or a matt glaze containing seven per cent -mazarine blue. - -Glazes that will harmonize with side wall 8 through dominant -arrangements are found in the same rectangle, O Y, and are numbered M5, -M6, C7, C8. Glazes that will harmonize by analogy are C9 and M7, and are -found in the left and right neighboring rectangles. - -In Figure 466, the copper fob, R O, is combined with its complementary -blue-green. Let us look at Figure 464. Counting seven intervals or hue -rectangles to the right of the orange red rectangle we find T4 which is -transparent blue green enamel. We may associate with this an analogous -enamel from the green rectangle; this proves to be T5 medium green -transparent enamel. - -[Sidenote: Development of Design for Enamel on Metal] - -The point of concentration may now be emphasized by an enamel -complementary to the blue green hue. Counting seven rectangles to the -_left_ we again encounter the red orange rectangle. Here there are no -enamels but in the red hue rectangle we find T7 which is slightly -orange-red. A small portion of this, Rule 12k, is applied and is found -to center the design at the point of concentration in a satisfactory -manner. Slight oxidation brings out the colors of the enamels. - -Upon attempting to develop the same figure in opaque enamels it is soon -seen that there are no pleasing complementary enamels of this type, but -many analogous combinations. Autumn brown with the point of -concentration developed in orange (O5) would be an excellent compromise. - -Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither -apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied, -but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma -range will accomplish this._ - -[Sidenote: Color for Silver Enrichment] - -The gray-blue color of silver lends itself to a great number of gem -stones, forming examples of contrasted arrangements. Care should be -taken to form contrasts of _value_. Figure 467 is an example of a weak -and insipid combination, lacking in value and hue contrast. The amethyst -of Figure 468 corrects this error, while the oxidation of Figure 469 has -partially corrected the lack of contrast shown in Figure 467. These -illustrations tend to show that even stronger contrasts may be attempted -with small gems and semi-precious stones than with enamels. This again -proves the rule that the smaller areas are capable of sustaining -stronger contrasts of hue, value, and chroma than are large ones. - - -SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS - - The outline of the surface enrichment is considered as - complete. - - (_a_) METAL OR WOOD. Analyze the background into its hue, - value, and chroma. CLAY. Select a background that will - harmonize with the controlling hue or hues of the proposed - color scheme. Rule 12o. If this is a one hued color scheme - without gradation or surface enrichment the design steps may - terminate at this point. - - (_b_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select the extreme value range of - the color scheme, considering, if possible, the background as a - balancing or pivotal value point upon which the values may - balance above and below. As the side walls formed a balancing - point for the ceiling and furniture or wood work, so may the - background of metal, wood, or colored clay become a similar - balancing factor for small surfaces. Rule 12m. - - (_c_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select a hue or hues which will - harmonize with the background through dominant, contrasting, or - analogous relations. Rule 12l. In selecting the hues consider - the final placing of the object. - - (_d_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select a chroma range. Allow the - point or area of concentration to have a slightly higher - chromatic relation than the other hues. The point of - concentration may be one of the hues already selected or it may - bear a _complementary_ relation to them. The hues may be - averaged and a complementary to the average selected. Rule 12n. - - (_e_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Apply the rule of proportionate - distribution, Rule 12k. - - (_f_) METAL AND WOOD. Using the pigments suggested in Chapter - XV, design the problem. Test the result by applying Rule 12p. - - (_g_) CLAY. If the design has been developed in slip or - underglaze painting, select a glaze for an overglaze coating - that will harmonize with the prevailing hues by _dominance or - analogy_. Other arrangements may destroy the hues of the - original color scheme. - - (_h_) Develop the problem in its material. - - -SUGGESTED PROBLEMS - - Design a bowl for nasturtiums; make the color arrangement - harmonize through analogy with the hues of the flowers. - - Design a vase for chrysanthemums; make the surface enrichment - and the color arrangement harmonize through dominance with the - hues of the flowers. - - Design a hat pin for a blue hat; materials, copper, and - transparent enamels. - - Design a brooch to be worn with a gray dress. - - Design a pottery and copper lamp with amber art glass in the - shade. Through oxidation and glazing, bring the lamp into color - unity. - - -SUMMARY OF RULES - - Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma - in surface enrichment calls for a small area high in chroma and - contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but - harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of - concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced - in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the - background._ - - -HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS - - Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should - dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be - emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) - contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, or (4) complementary - relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and - chroma contrast than the remaining hues._ - - -VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS - - Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally - sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its - value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential._ - - -CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS - - Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion - to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made - to this under Rule 12o._ - - Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to - be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room - should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary - relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much - higher in chroma than the side walls._ - - Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither - apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is - applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. - Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this._ - - -REVIEW QUESTIONS - - 1. State the value of mono-hued pottery in the decorative - scheme of a room. - - 2. What are generally used as stains for clear glazes; matt - glazes? - - 3. What is highest in chroma--matt, or clear glaze? - - 4. Make a table of metallic oxides and the hues produced by - them. - - 5. Why will iron and copper oxides produce a yellow green - stain? What stains will be produced by cobalt and copper - oxides; cobalt and manganese oxides; cobalt and nickel oxides? - - 6. Describe the type of room which you regard as best fitted - for clear glazed pottery forms; matt glazed pottery forms. - - 7. Define harmony of color. - - 8. What is meant by proportionate distribution? Describe - proportionate distribution. - - 9. Give the value, hue, and chroma range for small areas. See - Rules 12l, 12m, and 12n. - - 10. How does the size of the area to be enriched by color - affect the color medium, _i.e._, stains, glazes, enamels, etc.? - - 11. Describe enamels, their types, characteristics, and range - of hues. Consult catalogs for fuller possibilities. - - 12. What is the effect of oxidation; what is its value? - - 13. Describe fully complementary arrangements and give - illustrations for enamel on silver or copper. - - 14. State the color scheme for a fob to be worn with a - blue-green dress; with a gray suit for a man. - - 15. Select a stone for a silver brooch that would harmonize - with a light blue dress; for a dress of orange dark hue and - value. See catalogs of dealers in semi-precious stones for - color of stones. - - 16. What problems of hue, value, and chroma would arise in - Question 15? - - - - -SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL AND SPECIAL RULES IN THE PRECEEDING -CHAPTERS - - -HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PRIMARY MASSES - - Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal - according to the intended service, unless prohibited by - technical requirements._ - - -PROPORTIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS - - Rule 1b. _The primary mass should have the ratio of one to - three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to - ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect - readily and analyze._ - - -HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS - - Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal - divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the - lower section._ - - Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal - divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the - center section with varying widths in the upper and lower - thirds._ - - -SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS - - Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more - smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger - mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the - height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or - divisions to be located at the top of the mass._ - - -VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS - - Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical - divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in - form._ - - Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical - divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the - remaining divisions of equal size._ - - Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical - divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze - into Rules 3a, and 3b, or be exactly similar._ - - -APPENDAGES - - Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and - proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal - character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it._ - - Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing - smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._ - - Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat - some lines similar in character and direction to those of the - primary mass._ - - -OUTLINE OR CONTOUR ENRICHMENT - - Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and - support the structure._ - - Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and - variety to the design._ - - Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a - sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent - members together._ - - Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should - differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire - design._ - - Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical - tendency should have their turning points or units of - measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of - Rules 2a and 2b._ - - Rule 5f. _Dependent outline enrichment should be related to - essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and - functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject._ - - Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a - tangential or right angle junction._ - - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT - - Postulate. _The design should conform to the limitations and - requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be - durable and suitable for service._ - - Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._ - - Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural - contours but must not obscure the actual structure._ - - Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._ - - -CONTINUOUS BANDS AND BORDERS FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES - - Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, - that is, onward movement._ - - Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent - contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement._ - - Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison - with the main movement of the border._ - - Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly - dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the - border._ - - Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a - strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, - provided the lateral movement dominates._ - - Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or - glaring contrasts with the parent surface._ - - Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance - of belonging to the parent mass._ - - -ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT--PARTLY ENRICHED PANELS FOR SURFACE ENRICHMENT - - Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be - related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it - is to enrich._ - - Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be - placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of - each margin._ - - Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements - composing the point of concentration and links connecting them - must be related to the panel contour and to each other._ - - -ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT--FULLY ENRICHED PANELS FOR SURFACE ENRICHMENT - - Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel - the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._ - - Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched - square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin._ - - Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched - vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._ - - Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be - designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with - the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis - of the structure._ - - -FREE ORNAMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES - - Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces - should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the - structure._ - - Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to - the structural surfaces._ - - Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of - vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the - inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the - design._ - - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY - - Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to - be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must - be submitted._ - - Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay - should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of - the material._ - - Rule 9c. _A border should not be located at the point of - greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The - contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that - point._ - - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS FOR SMALL MASSES - - Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the - minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the - designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of - material._ - - Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear - to compete for attention in the same design._ - - Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should - differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire - design._ - - Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the - contours of both primary mass and point of concentration - especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel._ - - Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point - of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an - unobtrusive setting, or background._ - - Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration - should form contrast with the metal, either in color, - brilliancy, or value, or all three combined._ - - Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide - with one axis of a stone and at the same time be - sympathetically related to the structure._ - - Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be - determined by: (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar - pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or - horizontal in proportion._ - - Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use - of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen - both process and design._ - - Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of - compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used - as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the - surface without thought to their coherence._ - - Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the - higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to - have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. - When using this form of enrichment, the stone should never - appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be - approached by a series of rising planes._ - - Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should - be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the - contour of the primary mass._ - - Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not - be used in the same design._ - - -SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS FOR LARGE PRIMARY MASSES - - Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment - should be thought out before they are drawn._ - - Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of - surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten - or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or - apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large - unbroken and uninteresting surfaces._ - - Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be - bolder than similar designs for small primary masses._ - - Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of - enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, - terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be - subordinate to this area._ - - Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be - introduced into the same design._ - - Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into - surface enrichment._ - - -APPLICATION OF COLOR TO LARGE AREAS VALUES - - Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the - values middle and low dark._ - - Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the - values light and middle._ - - Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the - values white (minus) and light._ - - Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, - trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values - or less, as low light and dark._ - - Rule 12e. _The relation between the side walls and ceiling - should be within the range of three values or less, as high - light and low light._ - - -HUES - - Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should - preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: - analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. - Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is - desirable._ - - Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the - side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._ - - -CHROMA - - Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below - three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, - however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity._ - - Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths - chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth - chroma._ - - Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to - three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth - chroma as a minimum reduction._ - - -DISTRIBUTION - - Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma - in surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, - and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but - harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of - concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced - in chroma and value to form slight contrast with the - background._ - - -HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS - - Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should - dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be - emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) - contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, (4) complementary - relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and - chroma contrast than the remaining hues._ - - -VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS - - Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally - sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its - value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential._ - - -CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS - - Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion - to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made - to this under Rule 12o._ - - Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to - be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room - should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary - relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much - higher in chroma than the side walls._ - - Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither - apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is - applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. - Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this._ - - - - -APPENDIX - - -The following plates comprise complete courses for applied art problems -in thin metal (copper and silver), and clay. The problems are based upon -what is known as the "group system." The process forms the basis for -each group in each course. The stated problem in each group is merely -one of many that might be selected which involves the process of the -group. - -The design rule that should be applied to each problem has been -indicated by its proper figure and letter on each plate, as 10a, etc. -The plates are sequentially arranged in order of the difficulty of the -process and may be summarized as follows. - - -THIN METAL - - Plate 67: Bending. Sawing. Riveting. - Plate 68: Bending. Soft Soldering. - Plate 69: Raising. Piercing. Etching. - Plate 70: Raising and Planishing. - Plate 71: Bending. Piercing. Etching. Hard Soldering. - Plate 72: Hinge Construction. - Plate 73: Raising. Planishing. Hard Soldering. - Plate 74: Raising. Planishing. - Plate 75: Champleve Enamelling. - Plate 76: Precious Stone Mounting; Pins. - Plate 77: Precious Stone Mounting; Rings. - Plate 78: Precious Stone Mounting; Pendants. - - -POTTERY - - Plate 79: Hand Built Tile. - Plate 80: Hand Built Bowl, Coil and Strip Method. - Plate 81: Same with Appendage Added. - Plate 82: Hand Building; Spouts, Lids, Handles. - Plate 83: Poured Forms and Mould Making. - Plate 84: Slip Painting. - Plate 85: Glaze Testing. - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 1. BENDING, SAWING, RIVETING - -PLATE 67] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 2: BENDING AND SOFT SOLDERING - -PLATE 68] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 3: RAISING, PIERCING, ETCHING - -PLATE 69] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 3: RAISING, PLANISHING: TRAYS - -PLATE 70] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 4: BENDING, PIERCING, ETCHING, HARD SOLDERING - -PLATE 71] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 5: HINGE CONSTRUCTION - -PLATE 72] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 6: RAISING, PLANISHING, SOLDERING - -PLATE 73] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 7: RAISING, PLANISHING - -PLATE 74] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 8: CHAMPLEVE ENAMELLING. - -PLATE 75] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 9: SEMI-PRECIOUS STONE MOUNTING - -PLATE 76] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS: 10: SOLDERING, CARVING, STONE MOUNTING - -PLATE 77] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL - -PROCESS 11: PENDANT CONSTRUCTION, CHAIN MAKING - -PLATE 78] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 470.--Inceptive Axes. Partial Illustration of the -Metal Course] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY - -PROCESS 1: HAND BUILT TILE. CUT FROM FLAT PIECE - -PLATE 79] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY - -PROCESS 2: HAND BUILDING. COIL AND STRIP - -PLATE 80] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY - -PROCESS 3: HAND BUILDING, SPOUT, HANDLE, LID - -PLATE 81] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY - -PROCESS 3: HAND BUILDING: SPOUT, HANDLE, LID - -PLATE 82] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY - -PROCESS 4: POURED FORMS. TWO AND THREE PIECE MOULDS - -PLATE 83] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY - -PROCESS 5: SLIP PAINTING (UNDER GLAZE DECORATION) - -PLATE 84] - -[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY - -PROCESS 6: GLAZE TESTING - -PLATE 85] - -[Illustration: FIGURE 471.--Results of the Pottery Course] - -Figure 471 shows the actual results produced by the preceding course. -The process to which the individual pieces belong is indicated by the -small figure placed on the table and in front of the ware. The preceding -sheets should be regarded in the light of suggestions for original -thinking on the part of the student. They merely suggest technical -guidance, in order that his progress may be sequential and fitted to his -increasing skill. - -The glazes are stated in the terms of the ceramist with the proportions -of base, alumina, and acid content of each glaze clearly stated. By -referring to the textbooks mentioned in the preface, these glazes may be -developed into the potter's formulae. - -In both metal and pottery courses, two or more types are frequently -represented upon one plate. These types will allow the teacher to assign -a more difficult problem to the student with some previous experience. - - - - -INDEX - - - PAGE - - Accenting bands in wood, 105 - - Accentuation of functional parts, 79 - - Adapting data to material, 127 - - Analogous hues, 203 - - Analysis, intelligent, 7 - - Andiron design, 53 - - Aniline wood dyes, 199 - - Appendage design, 43-49 - - Appendage, use of, 43 - - Appendages, 43 - - Appendages and primary mass, 45 - - Appendages, contour enrichment of, 88 - - Appendages, design violations, 43 - - Appendages in clay, 47 - - Appendages, industrial applications, 47 - - Appendages, influence of tools and materials, 53 - - Appendages in metal, 51 - - Appendages in wood, 45 - - Artificial objects, 129 - - Architectural, horizontal divisions for, 21 - - - Bands, wood inlay, 105 - - Backgrounds, 113, 201 - - Base metals, enrichment of, 87 - - Base and precious metals, surface enrichment of, 160, 163, 165, 167 - - Borders for wood, 107 - - Building, 165 - - - Candlesticks, 81 - - Carving, 103 - - Carving and piercing, 141 - - Carving, design steps for, 105 - - Ceilings, 202-205 - - Center zone enrichment, 121 - - Chasing, 163 - - Chip carving, 115 - - Chroma, 197 - - Chromatic intensity, full, 195 - - Clay, coloring for underglaze, 151 - - Clay, decorative processes, 145 - - Clay, incising, 147 - - Clay, inlay, 149 - - Clay, introduction of pigments, 149 - - Clay, modeling, 147 - - Clay, piercing, 147 - - Clay, slip painting, 149 - - Clay, surface enrichment for, 145 - - Clay, surface enrichment, structural classification for, 151 - - Clay, underglaze painting, 151 - - Color for clay enrichment, 209 - - Color for small areas, 210 - - Color harmony, 201 - - Color pigments, 194 - - Color pigments, application of, 194 - - Color symbols, 198 - - Color systems, 194 - - Commercial pottery, 158 - - Complementary hues, 214 - - Conservative use of ornament, 101 - - Contrasted hues, 203 - - Containers, 81 - - Continuity and contrast, 63 - - Contour enrichment, influence of materials, 65 - - Contour enrichment, methods of varying, 70 - - Contour enrichment of clay, need of, 77 - - Contour enrichment, evolution of, 65 - - Contour enrichment, purpose of, 59 - - Contour enrichment, requirements of, 59 - - Contour enrichment, systematic development of, 81 - - - Contour versus surface enrichment, 185 - - Corners, contour enrichment of, 88 - - Correlation, ideal, 11 - - Covers, design for, 49 - - Criticism, clear, 7 - - Criticism, non-technical, 7 - - Curve of beauty, 91 - - Curve of force, 61 - - Curve of force, approximate, 61 - - Curves for contour enrichment, 59 - - Curves, grouping of, 63 - - Curves of extravagance, 73 - - - Dependent surface enrichment, 167 - - Details, contour enrichment of, 93 - - Design evolution, major divisions, 9 - - Design evolution, steps in, 11 - - Design, preliminary thought, 17 - - Dominant hue, 204 - - Dynamic curves and areas, 111 - - - Edges, contour enrichment of, 87 - - Elements, 157 - - Enameling, 163, 212, 213, 215 - - Enrichment for small metal areas, 179 - - Enrichment, need and value of, 57 - - Enrichment of large metal areas, 179, 183 - - Enrichment, types of, 57 - - Essentials of good surface enrichment, 179 - - Exposures, 206, 207 - - - Flat surfaces in base and precious metal, 185 - - Fobs, design of, 169 - - Four vertical minor divisions, 139 - - Free balance, 129 - - Free enrichment, 121 - - Free minor division treatment, 141 - - Free ornament, 117 - - Freehand curves, 30, 51, 63 - - Full size drawing, value of, 23 - - Functional parts, enrichment of, 88 - - - Glazes for pottery, 149 - - Glazes related to interior decoration, 214 - - Glazes, stains for, 209 - - Greek scroll, 93 - - - Handles, design for, 49 - - Harmonious color, need of, 194 - - Harmony of color, 210 - - High cylindrical forms in clay, 157 - - High cylindrical forms in metal, 191 - - Historic ornament in hardware, 186 - - Horizontal and vertical minor divisions, 137 - - Horizontal divisions, architectural precedent, 25 - - Horizontal divisions, nature and need of, 19 - - Horizontal divisions, steps in designing, 21 - - Horizontal minor divisions, 139 - - Hue and hue rectangles, 195 - - Hue groupings, 203 - - - Industrial problems, requirements of, 9 - - Inceptive axes, 107, 121, 161 - - Inceptive axes for marginal enrichment, 119 - - Inlaying, 101-103 - - Intermediate points, contour enrichment of, 89 - - Ionic volute, 91 - - - Leading lines, curved, 108 - - Links, 45 - - Links, contour enrichment of, 93 - - Low cylindrical forms in clay, 157 - - Low cylindrical forms in metal, 187 - - - Major design division, first, 9 - - Major design division, second, 9 - - Major design division, third, 11 - - Marginal zone enrichment, 118 - - Material, adapting data to, 127 - - Material, economy of, 161 - - - Material, relation to surface enrichment, 101 - - Metallic oxides, 210 - - Methods, architectural design, 13 - - Methods, industrial design, 13 - - Minor details, 141 - - Minor subdivisions in wood, 133 - - Moorish ornament, 107 - - Mouldings, 61 - - - One vertical division, 35 - - Outlines, free and dependent, 87, 91 (See Contours.) - - Oxidation, 213 - - - Panels, 117, 123, 125, 127, 129 - - Panel design, steps in, 125 - - Parts differing in function, 77 - - Pendants and chains, design of, 173 - - Pierced enrichment, 123 - - Pigment table, 195 - - Pigments, wall and ceiling, 205 - - Pins and brooches, design of, 167 - - Point of concentration, 115, 161 - - Point of concentration for marginal enrichment, 119 - - Porcelain painting, 151 - - Pourers, 81 - - Precious metals, processes of enrichment, 161, 163, 165, 169 - - Primary hues, 198 - - Primary masses, 13 - - Primary mass, drawing of, 15 - - Primary mass, divisions of, 19 - - Primary masses, vertical and horizontal, 15 - - Primary masses, proportions of, 15 - - Proportionate distribution, 210 - - - Ratios, unsatisfactory, 17 - - Rectangular panels, 127 - - Rings, design of, 169 - - - Sequential progression, 135 - - Service, influence of, 9, 13, 15 - - Sets, designing of, 83 - - Shades, 197 - - Shallow circular forms in clay, 155 - - Shallow circular forms in metal, 187 - - Side walls, 202-205 - - Silver, color for, 215 - - Silver, contour enrichment of, 93 - - Silver, free outline enrichment, 97 - - Silver, motives for contour enrichment, 97 - - Spouts, design of, 49 - - Square and rectangular areas in clay, 153 - - Square panels, 125 - - Standard hues, 195 - - Standard hues, locating, 196 - - Stones, cutting, 95 - - Stones, relation to contour, 95 - - Stones, relation to metal, 173 - - Structural forms, classification, 160 - - Structural forms, classification for clay surface enrichment, 151 - - Structural reinforcement, 118 - - Surface design evolution, 180 - - Surface enrichment, nature and need of, 99 - - Surfaces, when and where to enrich, 99 - - - Tangential junctions, 51, 93 - - Technical processes for metal, 163 - - Technical rendering, 161 - - Terminals, contour enrichment of, 89-91 - - Three horizontal divisions, 29 - - Three horizontal divisions in clay, 30 - - Three horizontal divisions in metal, 30 - - Three horizontal divisions in wood, 29 - - Three vertical divisions, 37 - - Three vertical divisions in clay, 39 - - Three vertical divisions in metal, 41 - - Three vertical divisions in wood, 39 - - - Tints, 196 - - Transitional types in furniture, 139 - - Two horizontal divisions, 25 - - Two horizontal divisions in clay, 27 - - Two horizontal divisions in metal, 27 - - Two horizontal divisions in wood, 25 - - Two vertical divisions, 35 - - Two vertical divisions in clay, 37 - - Two vertical divisions in metal, 37 - - Two vertical divisions in wood, 35 - - - Unit of measurement for vertical curves, 79 - - Unity, 29 - - Unity in clay design curves, 77 - - - Value lines, 196 - - Varied panels, 129 - - Vertical divisions, architectural precedent, 33 - - Vertical divisions, more than three, 41 - - Vertical divisions, nature and need, 33 - - Vertical and horizontal division evolution, 40 - - Vertical sections and their minor divisions, 133-135 - - Vocabulary, designer's, 105 - - - Walls and ceilings, 203-204 - - Walls and wood work, 202-203 - - Warm and cold colors, 198 - - Wood finishes, opaque, 206 - - Wood, methods of surface enrichment, 101 - - Wood stains, 198 - - Wood stains, chroma range, 205 - - Wood stain mixing, 199, 200 - - Wood stain rendering, 195 - - Wood stains, value range, 201 - - Wrought iron enrichment, 91 - - - Zones of enrichment, 118 - - - * * * * * - - - Transcriber's Notes - - Inconsistent hyphenation and obvious punctuation and spelling errors - have been corrected. - - {PC} and {IA} have been used to represent the letters P and C or - I and A overlaid on one another to label the "Point of - Concentration" and "Inceptive Axis" respectively. - - Although referred to on page 75, no illustration is captioned as - "Plate 23" in the original text. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Industrial Arts Design, by William H. 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