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diff --git a/42317-0.txt b/42317-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..16194cc --- /dev/null +++ b/42317-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8118 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42317 *** + +[Illustration: Firing the Kiln + +_Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries_] + + + + + VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES + + SUPERVISING EDITOR + FRED D. CRAWSHAW, M.E. + + PROFESSOR OF MANUAL ARTS, THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN + + INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + + A TEXTBOOK OF PRACTICAL METHODS FOR STUDENTS, + TEACHERS, AND CRAFTSMEN + + BY + + WILLIAM H. VARNUM + + ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF DRAWING AND DESIGN + UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN + + SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY + + CHICAGO NEW YORK + + + + + Copyright 1916 by + SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY + + + + +PREFACE + + +_Place for the Book._ As a textbook, INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN is a +practical guide for designing in wood, clay, and base and precious +metals. It is intended for individual student use in the High Schools, +Normal Schools, and Colleges and as a reference book for elementary +school teachers. Its more complex problems are intended as definite +helps to the industrial arts designer or craftsman. The wood problems +are treated with special reference to their adaptability to bench and +cabinet work. + +_Need of the Book._ It has been written to fill a decided demand for a +textbook that shall, without loss of time, directly apply +well-recognized principles of general design to specific materials and +problems encountered in the Industrial Arts. A brief description of the +decorative processes adapted to the materials under discussion with the +design principles directly applying to these processes, insures designs +that may be worked out in the studio or shop. It is hoped that this +provision will eliminate the large number of impractical designs that +are frequently entirely unfitted to the technic of the craft. This lack +of mutual technical understanding between the teacher of design and the +shop work instructor is the cause of friction that it is hoped will be +removed by the methods advocated in these pages. + +_The Author's Motive._ It has been the intention to reduce unrelated and +abstract theories to a minimum and reach directly rules and conclusions +that shall be applicable to typical materials in common use in the +schools and industries. The original conception materialized in the +publication of a series of articles upon Design in the _Industrial Arts +Magazine_, in 1915. These articles were favorably received and their +results in the schools proved highly satisfactory. Through this +encouragement, the articles have been reprinted in book form, enriched +by the addition of illustrations, review questions, and three chapters +on color with its applications. + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN develops the principles of industrial design in a +new and logical form which, it is believed, will simplify the teaching +of craft design. Chapters I to V deal with the elementary problems +confronting the designer as he begins the first steps on his working +drawing; Chapters VI to VIII show the methods by which he may express +his individuality through contour or outline enrichment, while Chapters +IX to XVII explain the treatment of the most difficult form of +decoration, that of surface enrichment. + +_The Appendix._ The appendix is added to show the manner in which the +rules may be directly applied to a course of study in either pottery or +art metal. The present work is not intended to include the chemistry of +glaze mixing or other technical requirements to which reference is made +in the appendix; consequently the reader is referred to "The Potter's +Craft" by C.F. Binns and "Pottery" by George J. Cox for fuller +explanations of the formulae and technicalities of the craft. + +_Source of Principles._ The principles herein advocated are directly +related to architectural design which is to be regarded as the standard +authority for the industrial arts designer. It was necessary to state +these principles in the form of sufficiently flexible rules which would +allow the student to use his own judgment, but at the same time, +restrict him to the essential principles of good design. + +_Rules._ This presentation of the principles of design by means of +flexible rules in concrete form, serves to vitalize design by virtue of +their immediate application to the material. The rules likewise save +time for both pupil and instructor. This is regarded as an important +factor, inasmuch as the amount of time usually allotted to classroom +teaching of design is limited. + +While these rules are applied to the specific materials, the designer +may readily adjust them to other materials and find them equally +applicable. Direct copying of designs from the illustrations is a +dangerous expedient and is to be discouraged as a form of plagiarism +which will eventually destroy the student's initiative, originality, and +reputation for creative work. + +_Results_. From the tests so far observed, it has been seen that under +design guidance, the projects become more noticeably individual in +character, lighter and better in construction, and more fully adjusted +to their environment. The student's interest and initiative in his work +are strengthened, and he completes the truly valuable cycle of the +educative process of evolving his own idea and crystallizing it in the +completed work. It is hoped that this book will tend to develop higher +standards of good design in schools, industrial establishments, and the +home. + +In conclusion, the author expresses his thanks to the following for +their valuable suggestions and assistance in contributed illustrations: +Miss D.F. Wilson, Miss Edna Howard, Miss Elizabeth Upham, Miss A.M. +Anderson, Mr. J.M. Dorrans, Mr. J.B. Robinson, author of "Architectural +Composition," and others to whom reference is made in the text. + + WILLIAM HARRISON VARNUM. + + _Madison, Wisconsin. + April, 1916._ + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN 7 + + II. THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS 13 + + III. HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS 19 + + IV. VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS 33 + + V. APPENDAGES AND THE RULES GOVERNING THEM 43 + + VI. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD 57 + + VII. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN CLAY 77 + + VIII. ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN BASE + AND PRECIOUS METALS 87 + + IX. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD 99 + + X. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD. + (Continued) 117 + + XI. SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE + PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD 133 + + XII. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY 145 + + XIII. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS. SMALL FLAT PLANES 160 + + XIV. SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND + PRECIOUS METALS 179 + + XV. COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS 194 + + XVI. COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN. LARGE + SURFACES OF WOOD; WALL AND CEILING AREAS 201 + + XVII. COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN. SMALL + SURFACES IN CLAY AND METAL 209 + + COMPLETE SUMMARY OF RULES 218 + + APPENDIX 223 + + (_a_) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts + in Thin Base and Precious Metals. Relation of the + Rules to the Problems 224 + + (_b_) A Complete Course of Study for the Applied Arts + in Pottery. Relation of the Rules to the Problems 237 + + INDEX 245 + + + + +INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + + + + +CHAPTER I + +DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + + +[Sidenote: Non-technical Criticism] + +This book has been written with the view of presenting design from the +standpoint of the industrial arts. An instructor generally experiences +difficulty in finding the exact word to use when criticizing a student's +drawing. The student has equal difficulty in understanding the +criticism. There is little wonder that he is confused, when the rather +ambiguous terms "good-looking," "ugly," "squatty," and "stiff" are used +to express qualities that can be expressed only in terms of design. + +[Sidenote: Intelligent Analysis] + +The lack of understanding between the pupil and the teacher may be +compared to the attitude of the average individual "who knows what he +likes." He is on an equally insecure footing regarding industrial +design. His reason for liking or disliking a certain thing may depend +upon some whim or fancy, the popular fashion of the times, or a desire +to possess a duplicate of something he has seen. As a consumer with +purchasing power, he should have the ability to _analyze intelligently_ +the contents of catalogs and store windows with the thought of securing +the best in industrial art--something that may be accepted as standard +one hundred years from now. + +It is, therefore, the intention to present design of industrial +character in its simplest form, freed from technicalities or ambiguous +statements. It is intended to give the average individual not +particularly interested in drawing or design a knowledge of the subject, +based upon principles that have survived for hundreds of years in +architectural monuments and history. + +[Sidenote: Results of Clear Criticism] + +[Illustration: THE FIRST MAJOR DIVISION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + +PLATE 1] + +It is possible that the presentation of these principles may enable the +instructor in the public schools to guide his pupil away from the heavy +and expensive stereotyped designs, and by clear and simple criticism, +lead him to better forms of construction. He may also be helped to +lead the pupil to design problems in harmony with his home surroundings +and thus avoid the introduction of an inharmonious element into what may +possibly be a harmonious setting. The teacher, pupil, or layman should +use his knowledge of the subject as a basis for criticism or +appreciation of the field of the industrial arts. + +[Sidenote: Requirements of an Industrial Problem] + +In order to start successfully upon a design, it is necessary to know +what qualities a good industrial article should possess. Whether one is +designing a bird-house, a chocolate set, or a gold pendant, the article +must meet three needs: (1) It must be of service to the community or to +the individual; (2) It must be made of some durable material; (3) It +must possess beauty of proportion, outline, and color. + +Ruskin said that a line of beauty must also be a line of service. The +"stream line body" in automobile construction is the result of the +automobile maker's attempt to combine beauty with service. This is the +attitude that should govern the union of beauty and service in all of +the industrial arts. + +[Sidenote: Divisions in Design Evolution and Enrichment] + +There are three divisions or phases in the designing of a structure and +its enrichment. These are: (1) Structural Design; (2) Contour +Enrichment; (3) Surface Enrichment. Some objects are carried through +only one of these divisions, while others are developed through all +three of them. + +[Sidenote: First Major Division] + +Plate 1, illustrative of the first division, deals naturally enough with +the planning of the constructive or utilitarian lines of an object and +its parts. It may be termed Structural or Constructive Design. Questions +of how high or how long an object should be, to harmonize with its +width, the proper placing of rails, shelves, and brackets, the +determination of the greatest and least diameter of vase forms have to +be decided in this period of Proportions and Space Relations. + +The knowledge of tools and materials, and of the manner in which they +may be used for constructive purposes, influences the solution of these +questions and others which we shall shortly discuss. Strictly +utilitarian objects are seldom carried past this stage of development. + +[Sidenote: Second Major Division] + +[Illustration: THE SECOND MAJOR DIVISION IN INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + +PLATE 2] + +Plate 2 indicates the next logical division--Contour Enrichment--or the +period of the enrichment of the structural outline or contour. The +bounding lines, or contours, of the structure may be enriched in many +ways, as, for example, curving certain portions to soften the severity +of the plain structure. The garden urn and small stool have contours +treated in this manner. Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite +furniture, simplified to the accepted range of shop technic, vary the +straight lines of mission furniture and come within the possible +developments of this division. + +[Sidenote: Effects of Second Division] + +The cement fence post at _C_, Plate 2, is a strict utilitarian problem +without interest. The post at _D_, enriched by a bevel, has equal +utilitarian and increased aesthetic interest and value. + +[Sidenote: Third Major Division] + +Plate 3 illustrates the last division of evolution and concerns itself +with the application of design to the surface of the otherwise complete +structure. This division is commonly called applied surface design or +decorative design. It is readily seen that this division should be +considered after the structure has been carefully planned. To separate +this division from the period of structural or contour enrichment we +will call it Surface Enrichment. + +[Sidenote: Steps in Design Evolution] + +It may be seen from the foregoing discussion that a design may be +carried through the following steps: (1) Blocking in the enclosing lines +of the design, as at Figure B, Plate 2, adding to this whatever may be +needed for structural purposes, keeping the lines as nearly vertical and +horizontal as possible; (2) Enriching and varying the outline or +contour. It is well for elementary wood workers to use this step with +extreme caution, while less reserve is necessary in clay and metal; (3) +After careful consideration in determining the need of additional +decoration, the last step, surface enrichment, should be used. The +following chapters will take up these steps in the order stated above. + +[Sidenote: Ideal Correlation] + +The ideal method of developing the principles set forth in this chapter +includes correlated activity in the shop by working out the project in +the required material. As the technic of the individual improves, the +larger range of design principles will be found to accompany and +parallel his increasing skill. + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What three requirements should be met in a well designed + industrial article? + + 2. State three major divisions in industrial arts design. + + 3. State briefly the problems to be considered in each + division. + + 4. What is the last and ideal step for the designer? + +[Illustration: THE THIRD MAJOR DIVISION IN INDUSTRIAL ART DESIGN + +PLATE 3] + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS + + +[Sidenote: The Architectural Method] + +Upon first observing a building, one seldom notices details of +structure. He sees the large mass as it is silhouetted against the sky. +Nearer approach discloses mouldings, cornices, and doorways; while +careful analytical study shows the technical points of construction. The +architect, in his original planning, thinks in terms of masses, widths, +and heights, disregarding at first the details and color. As +architecture stands for parent design principles and represents some of +the world's best examples of composition and design, industrial design +should be based upon the best examples of architectural design. To a +certain degree, also, the methods of the industrial arts designer should +be those of the architect. + +[Sidenote: The Industrial Arts Method] + +It is necessary to think at first of our problem as a single mass or +solid, bounded by enclosing dimensions of width, height, and thickness. +Details like a mirror, handles, brackets, or knobs may project outside +of this mass, but for the time being, they may be disregarded. Figure B, +Plate 2, shows this manner of thinking, and will enable us to regard the +problem as a big, simple mass so that the entire object, unobstructed by +small details, may be seen. + +[Sidenote: The Primary Mass] + +This is the method of _thinking_ about the problem which should precede +the drawing. To further describe this mass, which will be called the +single or Primary Mass, it is necessary to think of the intended service +of the project. A rather hazy idea of making a vase or a stool to be put +to no particular use, may have been the original motive. Now the exact +service should be defined as it will have a marked effect upon the shape +of this primary mass. + +[Sidenote: Service] + +Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal according +to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements._ +Service is an important factor inasmuch as it limits the intended use of +the mass. A mass is horizontal when its largest dimension is horizontal. +When the horizontal dimension of this mass is reduced until the main +vertical dimension is longer than the main horizontal one, it becomes a +vertical mass. As an example, a davenport is generally a horizontal mass +intended to hold a number of people. When the mass is narrowed to the +point where the vertical dimension exceeds the horizontal, it becomes a +chair for one person. A low bowl may be intended for pansies, but as +soon as the service changes and we design it for goldenrod, it becomes a +vertical mass. The fable of the fox who, upon being invited to dine with +the stork, found the tall vases unfitted for his use illustrates the +change of mass with the change of service. + +[Illustration: ANALYSIS OF THE PRIMARY MASS + +PLATE 4] + +[Sidenote: Horizontal and Vertical Primary Masses] + +Figures 1 and 4, Plate 4, are examples of horizontal masses with the +dark lines indicating the dominance of the horizontal lines and planes. +The shelter house contains a long bench, making necessary the long +horizontal lines of the building. The calendar holder has to be a +horizontal mass because of the restrictions imposed by the shape of the +calendar pad. + +Figures 2 and 3 are vertical masses. The vase is intended for tall +flowers, while the chair, as has already been mentioned, must meet the +needs of a single person. Utility and service then have been found to +give the primary mass a given direction or dominance. + +[Sidenote: Drawing the Primary Mass] + +The designer now represents this mass by drawing a rectangle similar to +the block outline of Figure B, Plate 2. It is now necessary to see if +the foundation stones of this rectangle have been laid correctly; in +other words, to test the proportions of the primary vertical or +horizontal mass. + +[Sidenote: Proportions of the Primary Masses] + +Rule 1b. _A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to +four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar +proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze._ +Proportions are generally expressed in terms of ratios. A surface of +five by eight inches would give a ratio of five to eight; ten by sixteen +feet is reducible to the same ratio. Certain ratios are monotonous and +offend the eye by their lack of variety. Ratios such as one to one or +one to two are of this class and should be avoided. If these ratios +could speak they would resemble people talking in a low monotonous tone +of voice. + +[Illustration: PROPORTIONATE RATIOS + +PROCESS OF DESIGNING + +PLATE 5] + +[Sidenote: Unsatisfactory Ratios] + +Certain other ratios are weak and indeterminate, showing a lack of clear +thinking. They are like people with no definite or cleancut ideas upon +a subject they discuss. Examples in this class show ratios of two to two +and one-eighth, or three to three and one-fourth, neither positively +square nor frankly rectangular. They hide around the corner, as it were, +waiting to be anything. Figure 5, Plate 5, is an example of +unsatisfactory proportionate ratios of the primary mass. The blotting +tablet is nearly square, while the candlestick and sconce, which should +have been designed with strongly vertical masses, lack the type of +definite thinking that results in a decided vertical dimension. + +Disregarding the improvement in technic, Figure 6 shows problems +designed with a definite knowledge of proportion. The metal objects are +refined in their dimensions, and pleasing to the eye. Tests have been +made with the idea of determining what the eye considers perfectly +natural and agreeable proportion. This has been found to be the ratio of +two to three. Consequently, it is clear why Figure 6 shows objects more +pleasing than those in Figure 5. + +It may be felt that too much space is being given to this subject of +proportion. It should be remembered, however, that the industrial arts +are intimately associated with daily life and that unless proportions +are pleasing to our aesthetic sense, many articles of common use shortly +become intolerable. + +[Sidenote: Preliminary Thinking in Terms of Design] + +This preliminary portion of the designer's task has been given to +thinking out the problem and drawing one rectangle. There is a tendency +to start the design by pushing the pencil over the paper with a forlorn +hope that a design may be evolved with little mental effort. This should +be regarded as illogical and unworthy of the desired end. A rectangle of +the most prominent surface of the problem, based upon the desired +service of the project, and the best proportions which our knowledge of +design and understanding of the limitations of construction will permit, +should be the final result of the first study. From now on through the +succeeding steps, the details of the problem will become more and more +clear, as the technical limitations of the tools and materials governing +the designer's ideas and controlling and shaping the work are better +understood, until all governing factors become crystallized in the form +of a working drawing or model. This is a strictly professional practice +as illustrated in Figure 7, which shows the skilled Rookwood potter +developing a vase form, the definite embodiment of correct thinking in +terms of the material which is constantly before him. + + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal + according to the intended service, unless prohibited by + technical requirements._ + + Rule 1b. _A primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, + three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or + some similar proportion difficult for the eye to readily detect + and analyze._ + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. How does the architect first plan his elevations? + + 2. How should the designer first think of his problem? + + 3. Define a horizontal primary mass. + + 4. Define a vertical primary mass. + + 5. State some desirable ratios to be used in designing the + proportions of the primary mass. Explain. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +HORIZONTAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS + + +In the second chapter we discussed the nature of the primary mass in its +relation to the intended service or duty it has to perform. It was found +that the demands of service usually cause the primary mass to be +designed with either a strong vertical or horizontal tendency. + +[Sidenote: Divisions of the Primary Mass] + +It now becomes imperative to carry the designing processes still further +and divide the vertical or horizontal primary mass into parts or +divisions, demanded either by structural requirements or because the +appearance of the object would be materially improved by their presence. +This latter point is sometimes referred to as the aesthetic requirement +of the problem. There are two simple types of divisions, those crossing +the primary mass horizontally and those crossing the primary mass in a +vertical direction. This chapter will be limited to the subject of +horizontal divisions. + +[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Horizontal Space Divisions] + +If a city purchases a piece of land for park purposes, presumably a +landscape architect is assigned the task of laying out the paths and +drives. He does this by crossing his plan at intervals with lines to +represent paths connecting important points. Under favorable conditions +the architect is free to curve his path to suit his ideas. He has +considerable freedom in selecting his design but the paths or roads must +dip and curve in sympathy with the contour of the land and in accord +with the aesthetic requirements. + +While the landscape designer has a broad latitude in his treatment of +land divisions, the industrial designer or architect is restricted, on +the other hand, by the structural requirements of the object and by his +materials. He must cross his spaces or areas by horizontal shelves, or +rails, or bands of metal that hold the structure together. As +architecture is of fundamental importance in industrial design, let us +see what the architect has in mind in designing a structure. + +[Illustration: STEPS ILLUSTRATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF HORIZONTAL +SPACE DIVISIONS FROM PRIMARY MASS TO THE STRUCTURE + +PLATE 6] + +[Sidenote: Architectural Horizontal Divisions] + +The architect has the surface of the ground with which to start. This +gives him a horizontal line as the base of his building. He considers it +of major importance in his design. We find him crossing the front of his +building with horizontal moulding or long bands of colored brick, +paralleling the base line and otherwise interestingly dividing the +vertical face of the front and sides. His guide is the bottom line of +his primary mass or the line of the ground which binds the different +parts of the building into a single unit. It can be readily seen that if +he shifted the position of his mouldings up or down with the freedom of +the landscape architect in locating his roads, he would not be planning +his horizontal divisions in sympathy with the structural requirements of +his primary mass. + +These horizontal divisions or lines have a tendency to give apparent +added length to an object. Thus by their judicious use a designer may +make a building or room look longer than it really is. + +Let us now turn to the simpler objects with which we may be more +directly concerned. The piano bench has horizontal lines crossing it, +giving an effect quite similar to that of horizontal mouldings crossing +a building. There may also be ornamental inlaid lines crossing the bench +and intended to beautify the design, but it is to be remembered that at +present we are considering the _structural divisions_ only. + +[Sidenote: Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions] + +Plate 6 represents a concrete example of the methods to be used in +designing the horizontal divisions of a piano bench. The steps may be +divided as follows: + +(_a_) The height of a piano bench may be determined either from +measurement of a similar bench or from one of the books on furniture +design now on the market. The scale of one inch or one and one-half +inches to the foot may be adopted. Two horizontal lines should be drawn, +one for the bottom and one for the top of the bench. The distance +between these lines we will arbitrarily fix at twenty inches. + +(_b_) Many objects are designed within rectangles which enclose their +main or over-all proportions. With this in view, and keeping in mind the +width of the bench necessary to the accommodation of two players and the +requirements of a well proportioned primary mass (Rule 1b), the lines +are now drawn completing the rectangular boundaries of the primary +mass. The limitations of service and the restrictions of good designing +give the width of the primary mass so designed as three feet and two +inches, with a ratio of height to length of five to eight and one-half. +It is simpler to design first the most prominent face of the object to +be followed by other views later in the designing process. + +[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN + +PRINCIPLE 1: A. PROPORTIONS OF THE SINGLE PRIMARY MASS WITH DOMINANCE OF +THE HORIZONTAL DIVISION + +PRINCIPLE 2: A. RELATION OF HORIZONTAL SUBDIVISIONS + +PROBLEM: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS CLASSES 1 2 3 + +PLATE 7] + +[Sidenote: Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions--(_Continued_)] + +(_c_) By observing benches similar to the one being designed it will be +seen that the horizontal divisions will take the form of a rail and a +shelf, making two crossings of the primary mass dividing it into three +horizontal spaces. Several trial arrangements of these structural +elements are now made with the thought of making them conform to the +rule governing three horizontal spaces. Rule 2b. We shall later discuss +this rule and its applications fully. + +(_d_) By selecting the best sketch of many which the designer will make +he has the basis for the application of Rule 2b for the structural +elements. The project now begins to take on concrete form. The top board +may project slightly beyond the primary mass without materially +affecting the value of the designed proportions. + +[Sidenote: Value of a Full Size Drawing] + +(_e_) The last step is the designing of the side view in relation to the +front view. This enables the designer to comprehend the project as a +whole. It is strongly urged that the final or shop drawing be of full +size. In more elaborate designs the finer proportions are lost in the +process of enlargement from a small sketch, often hurriedly executed in +the shop. Again much time is lost by necessary enlargement, whereas a +full size curved detail may be quickly transferred to wood by carbon +paper or by holes pricked in the paper. It is not expensive or difficult +to execute full size drawings; it is in accord with shop practice and +the custom should be encouraged and followed on all possible occasions. +See Figure 102a. + +The process of designing round objects is identical to that just +described as illustrated by the low round bowl in Plate 7. It should be +designed in a rectangle of accepted proportions. Rule 1b. The primary +mass may have excellent proportions and yet the vase or bowl may remain +devoid of interest. It may be commonplace. + +[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN WOOD + +PLATE 8] + +As will shortly be shown, the rules governing horizontal divisions serve +as a check on the commonplace. A horizontal division generally marks the +point where the outward swell of the vase contour reaches its maximum +width. If this widest point in the primary mass (X-Plate 7) is +pleasingly located between the top and bottom of a vase form the contour +will be found satisfactory. + +[Sidenote: Architectural Precedent for Horizontal Divisions] + +It is possible to continue _ad infinitum_ with these illustrations but +horizontal space divisions are nearly always present in some form, due +to structural necessity or aesthetic requirements. It is an easy matter +to say that these lines must divide the primary mass into "interesting" +spaces, well related to each other, or "pleasingly located," but the +designer must have some definite yet flexible rule to govern his work. +From the analysis of many famous historic buildings and well designed +industrial projects it has been found that all horizontal masses may be +analyzed as dividing the primary mass into either _two_ or _three_ +divisions or spaces, regardless of the complexity of the project. + + +ANALYSIS OF HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS + +[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Space Divisions] + +Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal divisions, +the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section._ Plate +7 shows this division of the primary mass--the simplest division of the +space. A space divided just half way from top to bottom would be +monotonous and expressive of the ratio of one to one. This arrangement +as we have already discovered in the second chapter is not conducive to +good design. + +By the stated rule, 2a, the varied adjustment of this double horizontal +division affords all possible latitude for constructive purposes. It is +better to place the division in such a manner that the upper division +(or lower) will not appear pinched or dwarfed by comparison with the +remaining area. Thus a ratio of one to three, or three to five, or five +to eight is better than a ratio of one to one or one to eighteen, but +there is no exact or arbitrary ruling on this point. + +[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Wood] + +Figure 8 illustrates two horizontal divisions in wood construction and +also the freedom of choice as to exact proportions. The eye will be +found a good judge of the proper spacings subject to the limitations +already mentioned. + +[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY + +PLATE 9] + +It is best to keep the design within the limits of two horizontal +space divisions in designing cylindrical clay forms, particularly in the +elementary exercises. Enough variety will be found to make pleasing +arrangements, and the technical results obtained by two divisions are +much better than those obtained from a greater number of divisions. + +[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Clay] + +Figures 14, 15, and 16, Plate 9, are clay forms with the dominance +placed in either the upper or lower portion of the primary mass. Figure +13 has been used to illustrate the fact that horizontal space division +principles are applicable to any material. The horizontal divisions in +Figure 13 are due to structural needs. A horizontal line carries this +division across to Figure 14, a clay vase. The horizontal division line +now becomes the one which marks the widest part of the vase. It gives +the same relation between the top and bottom horizontal spaces as in +Figure 13. It marks an aesthetic point in the design of the vase, or a +variation of the contour, introduced by reason of its effect upon the +beauty of the vase, not called for by the needs of actual service. + +A musical composition is often played in an orchestra first by the wood +instruments, taken up and repeated by the brasses, then by the strings, +and finally played as an harmonious whole by the entire orchestra. There +is a close parallel in Figure 12, an adaptation of one of Gustav +Stickley's designs. The two-division rule is used in the relations of +the plaster and wainscoting; again in the plaster over, and the cement +or tile around the fireplace. It is repeated in the arrangement of the +copper and cement of the fireplace facing and hood and in the door +panels. By repeating again and again similar space divisions the wall +space becomes a unified and harmonious whole. Variety is secured by the +introduction of three horizontal divisions in the details of the +wainscoting. This method of repeating similar space divisions is called +"echoing" and is one of the most effective means known for securing the +effect of _unity_. + +[Sidenote: Two Horizontal Divisions in Metal] + +The horizontal subdivisions in metal are usually made for service. +Figures 17, 18, and 19, Plate 10, are examples of such divisions. The +location of the clock face in Figure 18 calls for the placing of its +horizontal axis in accordance with Rule 2a. The lamp in Figure 19 shows +an instance where the entire design once divided by Rule 2a, may be +again subdivided into a similar series of divisions. This arrangement +is quite similar to the system of repetitions seen in Figure 12 and +termed "echoing" the original divisions. + +[Illustration: HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN METAL + +PLATE 10] + +[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Space Divisions] + +Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions +or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section with +varying widths in the upper and lower thirds._ + +When it becomes necessary to divide the primary mass into more than two +sections the designer's problem becomes more difficult. With the +addition of a greater number of horizontal divisions there is a manifest +tendency for the design to become cut up into so many small sections +that the simplicity of the whole mass is lost. Here, as elsewhere, that +principle which we call _unity_ or the quality of "holding together" is +necessary and should be the constant test of the design. The instant any +part of the design seems to fly apart from the main mass it becomes the +designer's duty to simplify the design or pull the parts together and +thus restore the lost unity. + +As a restriction against loss of unity it is necessary to group all of +the minor horizontal divisions into a system of two or three large +horizontal divisions. Referring to Rule 2b, it is seen that when three +divisions are used, it becomes the practice to accentuate the center +section by making it larger. This arrangement is designed to give weight +to the center portion and by this big stable division to hold the other +subdivisions together and in unity. + +[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Wood] + +Two horizontal masses and one vertical mass shown in Figures 9, 10, and +11, Plate 8, illustrate the application of this three-division rule to +wood construction. It is seen that the construction of rails, doors, and +shelves is responsible for the fixing of all of these divisions. It may +also be seen that three divisions are applicable to either the vertical +or the horizontal primary mass. Figure 10 illustrates the violation of +this type of spacing at the point _A_, where the shelves are no more +pleasingly arranged than the rounds of a ladder. Later on we shall be +able to rearrange these shelves in a pleasing manner but at present it +is better to relieve the monotony by omitting the center shelf. This +applies the three division rule to the satisfactory appearance of the +desk at _B_. + +Similar monotony in spacing is seen in the screen, Figure 11. The +correction in _B_ appeals at once as a far more satisfactory arrangement +than that secured by placing the cross bar half way up as in _A_. There +are no infallible rules for this readjustment beyond those already +stated. The eye must in part be depended upon to guide the artistic +sense aright. + +[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Clay] + +It is suggested that it is desirable to keep clay forms within the +limitations of two divisions. Rectangular posts, pedestals, and other +vertical forms in cement may be developed by the application of Rule 2a +or 2b, if care is taken to group all minor divisions well within the +limitations of these rules. + +[Sidenote: Three Horizontal Divisions in Metal] + +The statement just made in reference to simplified groupings is +illustrated in the candlestick and cup in Figures 20 and 21, Plate 10. +The construction based upon the three functions performed by the cup, +the handle, and the base, suggests the use of these horizontal +divisions. The minor curves have been subordinated to, and kept within, +these three divisions. The final result gives a distinct feeling of +unity impossible under a more complex grouping. The Greek column will +afford an architectural illustration of a similar grouping system. + +The lathe bed of Figure 22 shows one of innumerable examples of space +violations in the industrial arts. A slight lowering of the cross brace +would add materially to the appearance and strength of the casting. +Figure 23 is a copper box with the following more or less common faults +of design: commonplace ratio of length and width (2:1) partially +counteracted, however, by a more pleasing ratio of the vertical +dimension, equal spacing in the width of cover of box and box body, and +equal spacing of the hinges of the box from the ends of the box and from +each other. By applying the two and three horizontal division rules +these errors may be avoided. + +[Sidenote: Freehand Curves] + +Figure 24 shows a low bowl with a compass curve used in designing the +contour. This has brought the widest part of the design in the exact +center of the bowl which makes it commonplace. In addition to this the +top and bottom are of the same width, lacking variety in this respect. +Correction is readily made by applying a freehand curve to the contour, +raising or lowering the widest point (_F_), at the same time designing +the bottom either larger or smaller than the top. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 7 is a sheet suggestive of the application of Rules 1a, + 1b, 2a, and 2b, with an indication of the type of problem to be + required. The steps of the designing processes in either wood + (class 1), clay (class 2), or metal (class 3), are summarized + as follows: + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical + or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable + proportions. It is better to select a typical view (Plate 6, + _D_), preferably a front elevation. + + (_b_) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural + sections; horizontal in character. Make two or three trial + freehand sketches for varied proportions and select the most + pleasing one in accordance with Rules 1a, 1b, 2a, and 2b. + + (_c_) Translate the selected sketch to a full size mechanical + drawing or at least to a reasonably large scale drawing. The + structural elements: _i.e._, legs, rails, posts, etc., should + be added and other additional views made. + + (_d_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop + purposes. + + (_e_) Construct the project. + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design a nasturtium bowl, applying Rules 1a, 1b, 2a. Design a + writing table 2 feet 6 inches high with three horizontal + divisions. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal + divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the + lower section._ + + Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal + divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the + center section with varying widths in the upper and lower + thirds._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. State two methods of subdividing the primary mass. + + 2. Define the nature and need of horizontal space divisions. + + 3. Give five steps to be used in designing a foot stool or + piano bench. + + 4. What point constitutes a horizontal division in the contour + of a simple clay bowl? + + 5. State the rule governing two horizontal space divisions and + furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. + + 6. Give the rule governing three horizontal space divisions and + supply illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. + + 7. State five steps in the designing of a project in the + industrial arts involving the use of horizontal structural + divisions. + +[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN + +PRINCIPLE 3: VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS OF THE SINGLE H OR V PRIMARY MASS. + +PROBLEM: VERTICAL SUB DIVISIONS IN CLASSES 1 2 3. THEY ARE USED TO BREAK +OR VARY LARGE AREAS OF HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL MASSES. + +PLATE 11] + + + + +Chapter IV + +VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS + + +[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Vertical Space Division] + +The design of the primary mass has now been considered under Rules 1a +and 1b, and its horizontal divisions under Rules 2a and 2b. The next +logical step is the consideration of the nature of the lines that cross +the primary mass in a vertical direction. In the original planning of +the primary mass it was found that the horizontal bounding lines and the +horizontal divisions were parallel to the base line of an object and +that the base line was necessary to ensure stability. Vertical lines are +necessary and equally important to give the needed vertical support to +an object. + +So accustomed is the eye to vertical lines in tree trunks, tall +buildings, and thousands of other examples that the upward eye movement +in viewing an object, having a predominance of vertical elements, +seemingly adds to its height. + +The designer thus has a most useful device with which to increase the +apparent height of an object that, for structural or other reasons, must +in reality not have great height. Chapter III drew attention to the +influence of horizontal lines on a project. Vertical lines on an object +are found to produce an analogous effect vertically. + +[Sidenote: Architectural Precedent for Vertical Divisions] + +Gothic cathedral builders used the vertical line, repeated again and +again in buttresses, pinnacles, and spires to give great apparent height +to a building and to make it a unified vertical mass of great beauty. +The modern church spire, together with the long, vertical interior +columns, similarly affects our present day church edifices. + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN CLASS 1 (WOOD). +THE DIVISIONS OF THIS CLASS ARE GENERALLY BASED UPON THE STRUCTURAL +REQUIREMENTS. + +PLATE 12] + +This idea of repeating the vertical bounding lines of the primary mass +by cutting the mass into vertical spaces is also useful in breaking up +or destroying the monotony of large unbroken surfaces. Pilasters may cut +the front of a building into interesting spaces; piers may break up the +regularity of a long fence; legs and panels may, each for the same +purpose, cross a cabinet. While some of these may be structurally +necessary and some not, they are all witnesses to the desire to produce +beauty in design. As these examples are so numerous in the industrial +arts, it is well to study in detail their proper adaptation to our +needs. + +[Sidenote: One Vertical Space Division] + +Upon analyzing one vertical space division, it will be found to be a +primary mass, vertical in character and governed by Rule 1a. Figure 25, +Plate 12, illustrates one vertical division. The foot is an appendage to +be considered in Chapter V. + +[Sidenote: Two Vertical Space Divisions] + +Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions, +the divisions should be equal in area and similar in form._ Exception +may be made in case of structural requirements. By imagining two +adjacent doors of equal size, the design effect of two vertical +divisions may be made clear. Plate 11 illustrates a rectangle (_A_) +divided in this manner, preliminary to the development of a problem. +Figure 27, Plate 12, represents the type of object to which the +exception to the rule may be applied. In the design of this desk, the +structure practically prohibits two equal vertical divisions, +necessitating an unequal division in the section occupied by the +drawers. + +In Plate 12, Figure 26, the designer had his vertical spacings dictated +by service in the form of two doors. As service demands a tall vertical +primary mass, it is but natural to design the doors to conform with the +primary mass. This gives a monotonously long space for the glass panels +and suggests structural weakness. To relieve this the designer applied +Rule 2a and crossed the vertical panels by horizontal subdivisions, +relieving the monotony and still retaining the unity of the primary +mass. + +[Sidenote: Two Vertical Divisions in Wood] + +In Figure 27 his problem was a variation of that presented in Figure 26. +Structural limitations called for unequal divisions of the vertical +space arrangement. The left portion of the desk becomes dominant as +demanded by service. The drawer or brace is necessary in this design as +it acts as a sort of link, binding the two vertical legs together. The +omission of the drawer would destroy the unity of the mass. + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS IN CLASS 2. CLAY AND +CEMENT. + +PLATE 13] + +[Sidenote: Two Vertical Divisions in Clay] + +As vertical space divisions are principally applicable to rectilinear or +flat objects and moreover as it is in such forms only that they have +structural value, they are not commonly met in cylindrical pottery ware. +Vertical divisions are, however, occasionally used in architectural +tiles and other flat wall objects. As three divisions are much more +commonly used in clay and cement, this material will now be left for +later consideration in this chapter. + +[Sidenote: Vertical Divisions in Metal] + +Vertical spacings in metal are quite similar to space divisions in wood. +Wrought iron fences are, by reason of structural limitations composed of +vertical and horizontal lines, varied by the introduction of piers and +curved members. As they are typical of a certain branch of iron +construction, two designs of the Anchor Post Iron Company have been +introduced. Figure 32, Plate 14, represents two equal vertical divisions +made so because of structural and aesthetic demands. The piers in this +instance form a part of the general design of the entire gate and must +be considered accordingly. + +The vertical subdivision in Figure 32, Plate 14, has been repeated or +echoed by the long vertical bars, alternating with the shorter ones and +producing pleasing variety. The horizontal divisions are designed +according to Rule 2b. In designing the newel lantern in Figure 34 the +designer was required to form a vertical primary mass to conform with +the similar mass of the post. This he determined to subdivide vertically +in practically the same manner as the cabinet in Figure 26. Threatened +with the same monotony he met the situation by subdividing the vertical +sections into three horizontal divisions in accordance with Rule 2b. The +structural supports, however, rising up in the center of this mass, +destroy its unity. They would have carried out the lines of the +structure of the newel post and continued the lines of the lantern +better, if they had been attached to the corners rather than to the +sides of the newel post. + +[Sidenote: Three Vertical Space Divisions] + +Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions, +the center division should be the larger, with the remaining divisions +of equal size._ A large building with a wing on either side will give an +idea of this form of spacing. The size of the main building holds the +wings to it, thus preserving the unity of the structure, while equal +divisions on either side give balance. Plate 11 (_B_) gives an example +of a rectangle divided in this manner. This three-division motive is a +very old one. In the middle ages painters and designers used three +divisions or a triptych, as it is called, in their altar decorations. A +painting of the Virgin was usually placed in the center division with a +saint in each of the remaining panels to the right and left. Designers +and mural decorators have been using the triptych ever since that +period. + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF TWO AND THREE VERTICAL SUBDIVISIONS IN CLASS +3 (METAL). + +PLATE 14] + +[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Wood] + +The desk in Figure 28, Plate 12, is a good example of the three-vertical +space rule. The drawer in the center forms the mid or dominant section +and by its greater length holds the two smaller sections together. This +design is better than Figure 27, which has a similar mass. The prominent +vertical lines in Figure 27 counteract and destroy the effect of the +long horizontal dominant lines of the table top, whereas in Figure 28, +the vertical lines in the center of the design are so short that they do +not interfere with the horizontal lines of the table top. Figure 28 +supports the horizontal tendency of the primary mass while Figure 27 +neutralizes or practically destroys its character. + +[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Clay and Cement] + +Figure 30, Plate 13, represents an overmantle by the Rookwood Potteries. +It is typical of a class of overmantles which may be developed in tiles +or in cement, forming an agreeable contrast with the brick of a large +fireplace. The three divisions or triptych should be proportionately +related to the opening of the fireplace and to the enclosing mass of +brick or wood work. We will consider Figure 29 to show how this may be +carried out. + +Figure 29 bears a strong resemblance to Figure 12, Plate 9, and is an +elaboration of a simple three-division theme of spacing. The design +seems to be complex until it is analyzed into two rules. The primary +mass of the entire fireplace motive (including the surrounding +panelling) has first been planned with strong and prominent horizontal +lines. This was then divided vertically (_A_) to conform with Rule 3b, +the three-division theme, giving the divisions for the bookcases and +mantle. The horizontal divisions (_B_) were then constructed within the +remaining space, affecting the distance from the picture moulding to the +mantle and from the mantle to the floor line, in accordance with Rule +2a. That left the space of the width of the cement work (_C_) to be +subdivided again by Rule 3b, while the top of the wainscoting panels +re-echoed the previous horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. The fireplace +opening merely carries out at _D_ the same proportionate relation that +dominates all vertical divisions, Rule 3b, while the wainscoting follows +the general horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. By this method we have +variety in spacing and unity through repetition of similar proportions. + +[Illustration: THE EVOLUTION OF A DESIGN INVOLVING THE USE OF TWO +HORIZONTAL AND THREE VERTICAL SUBDIVISIONS + +PLATE 15] + +The cement bench, Figure 31, has a three-division arrangement to break +up the monotony of the long rail, and at the same time to repeat the +characteristics of a horizontal primary mass. + +[Sidenote: Three Vertical Divisions in Metal] + +Figure 33, Plate 14, is a common example of three vertical divisions in +metal suggested by the needs of service. Figures 35 and 36 are thin +metal problems. The familiar pen tray is primarily a horizontal mass, so +determined by its required service as a pen holder. The projecting +handles form the outer divisions, and the spacing motive, Rule 3b, has +been repeated in the raised projection, decorating the handles. The book +rack in Figure 36 is an example of the manner in which a nearly square +mass, so designed for structural reasons, may, by Rules 3b and 2a, be +broken into a fairly pleasing arrangement of divisions. + +[Sidenote: More Than Three Divisions] + +Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions +are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze into Rules 3a and +3b, or be exactly similar._ The eye becomes confused by a multitude of +vertical divisions and it is much better designing to keep them within +the number stated in this chapter. There are instances, however, when +this is impossible. Under such conditions the following treatment should +be adopted: + +Unless, as stated, a large number of vertical divisions may be grouped +into two or three vertical divisions it is better to make all of the +divisions of the same size. This does not fatigue the eye as much as +would the introduction of a number of complex spacings. This solution +enables the amateur designer to deal with complex problems with an +assurance of securing a degree of unity. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 15 is practically self-explanatory and shows the order in + which the various divisions, so far considered, are to be + introduced into the design together with the grouping of + details within those divisions. Figure D introduces the + additional element termed the appendage to be considered in + Chapter V. + + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical + or horizontal character of the primary mass with desirable + proportions. Select the most prominent surface for this + rectangle, preferably the front elevation. + + (_b_) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural + sections, horizontal and vertical in character. Make two or + three trial freehand sketches on cross section paper for varied + proportions and select the most pleasing in accordance with + rules. + + (_c_) Translate the selected sketch into a scale or full size + drawing and add additional views to complete the requirements + of a working drawing. Add additional structural elements: legs, + rails, etc. + + (_d_) For shop purposes, enlarge a scale drawing to full size, + dimension and otherwise prepare it for actual use. See Figure + 102a, page 68, for character of this change. + + (_e_) Construct the project. + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design a fire screen with two horizontal and three vertical + major subdivisions. + + Design a bookcase 4 feet 2 inches high with three horizontal + and two vertical major subdivisions. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical + divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in + form._ + + Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical + divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the + remaining divisions of equal size._ + + Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical + divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze + into Rules 3a and 3b, or be exactly similar._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What is the nature and need of vertical space divisions? + + 2. State the rule governing the use of two vertical space + divisions and give illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. + + 3. Give the rule relating to the use of three vertical space + divisions and furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. + + 4. What is the treatment of more than three vertical divisions? + Why? + + + + +Chapter V + +APPENDAGES AND RULES GOVERNING THEM + + +[Sidenote: Use of the Appendage] + +An appendage is a member added to the primary mass for utilitarian +purposes. In the industrial arts, when an appendage is added merely for +the purpose of decoration, it is as useless and functionless as the +human appendix and, as a source of discord, should be removed. + +An appendage in industrial arts may be, among other things, a plate +rail, bracket, spout, cover, or handle, all of which are capable of +service either for or with the primary mass. In architecture it may be a +wing or ell added to the mass of the building. Simple as its design may +seem, it is often so placed in relation to the main or primary mass that +it does not seem to "fit" or to be in unity with that mass. + +[Sidenote: Designing an Appendage] + +Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and +proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the +primary mass, but subordinated to it._ + +Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly +and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._ + +Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat some lines +similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass._ + +[Sidenote: Violations of Appendage Design] + +All of the foregoing rules are intended to promote the sense of unity +between the primary mass and its appendages. If a mirror on a dresser +looks top-heavy it is generally due to the fact that it has not been +subordinated in size to the primary mass. Rule 4a. If the handle +projects from the primary mass of an object similar to the handle on a +pump, it has not been designed in accordance with Rules 4b and 4c. +Again, if the appendage projects from a primary mass like a tall chimney +from a long flat building, it has violated Rule 4a and has not been +proportionately related to the character of the vertical or horizontal +proportions of the primary mass. + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 1 (WOOD) ADDED TO THE +PRIMARY MASS FOR UTILITARIAN PURPOSES. THEY SHOULD ALWAYS BE RELATED +TO THE PRIMARY MASS BY TANGENTS, PARALLELS OR BOTH. + +PLATE 16] + +It should be readily seen that if the primary mass has one dominant +proportion while the appendage has another, there will be a serious +clash and the final result will be the neutralization of both motives, +resulting in either an insipid and characterless design or a downright +lack of unity. + +[Sidenote: Appendages in Wood] + +The design of the small dressing table, Figure 37, Plate 16, with the +mirror classing as an appendage, is an excellent illustration of Rule +4a. The main mass of the table is vertical in character and the mirror +carries out or repeats the character of the primary mass by having a +similar but subordinate vertical mass. In this instance it is so large +that it has nearly the effect of a second primary mass. + +As tangential junctions are difficult to arrange in wood construction +and particularly in furniture, the break between the table top and the +mirror has been softened by the introduction of a bracket or connecting +link. The curves of the link cause the eye to move freely from the +primary mass to the appendage and thus there is a sense of oneness or +unity between the two masses. + +The lantern in Figure 38 becomes an appendage and is subordinated to the +large pedestal or support. The tangential junction has in this case been +fully possible and the eye moves freely from the vertical lines of the +base to the similar vertical mass of the lantern without noticeable +break. + +[Sidenote: Unifying Appendage and Primary Mass] + +The service of the dressing table, Figure 39, with its three-division +mirror makes the problem of adaptation of the appendage to the mass of +the table, in accordance with the rules, much more difficult. Under the +circumstances, about the best that can be done, at the same time keeping +within the limitations of desired service, is to plan the mirrors in +accordance with Rule 3b, with the dominant section in the center. To +secure an approach to unity, each section of the mirror should echo the +vertical proportion of the primary mass of the table. + +The top of the writing stand, in Figure 40, is an example of a +horizontal appendage which repeats the horizontal character of the front +or typical face of the primary mass of the table. The small drawers and +divisions again take up and repeat the horizontal motive of the table, +while the entire appendage may be subdivided under Rule 3b, giving the +dominance to the center portion. The short curves in the appendage all +tend to lead the eye in a satisfactory and smooth transition from one +mass to the other or from the table top to the appendage. The +proportions of the small drawers are similar to the proportions of the +table drawers. Rule 4c. All of these points of similarity bring the +masses into close unity or oneness of appearance. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 41a] + +The table legs, in Figure 41, are more difficult to adjust +satisfactorily. The idea of the designer is, however, apparent. The legs +leave the column of the table with a tangential curve and, sweeping out +with a strong curve, repeat the horizontal line of the table top in the +horizontal lines of their bottom surfaces. + +[Sidenote: Industrial Applications] + +Figure 41a, a modification of Figure 39, shows close unity between the +three divisions of the mirror due to the pleasing curve of the center +section with its tendency to bind the other sections to it. Again, the +echoing of the spacings of the three drawers in the similar spacings of +the three mirrors, makes the bond of unity still closer to the ideal +arrangement. Rule 4c. + +Figures 41b and 41c are, in a way, parallel to Figure 41. The eye moves +freely from the feet (appendages) along the smooth and graceful curves +to the tall shaft or column of the primary mass. The turned fillets, +introduced at the junction of the appendage and the primary mass, in +Figure 41c, have a tendency to check this smooth passage making the +arrangement in Figure 41b preferable. The hardware for the costumers is +well chosen and in sympathy with the vertical proportions of the design. + +[Sidenote: Appendages in Clay] + +With the word "clay" all difficulties in the treatment of appendages +vanish. It is by far the easiest medium for the adaptation of the +appendage to the primary mass. Covers, handles, and spouts are a few of +the more prominent parts falling under this classification. + +The process of the designer is to create the primary rectangle, +subdivide it into two horizontal subdivisions in accordance with Rule +2a, and proceed to add the desired number of appendages. The result may +be suggested by the following illustrations. In Figure 43, Plate 17, the +cover is a continuation of the curve of the top of the bowl, Rule 4a; +the tops of the handles are continuations of the horizontal line in the +top contour of the bowl, while the lower portions of the handles seem to +spring or grow from the lower part of the bowl with a tangential curve. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 41b + +FIGURE 41c] + +[Sidenote: Covers, Spouts, and Handles] + +Figure 44 is a horizontal primary mass with the horizontal subdivision +in the upper section of that mass. The spout and handle spring naturally +from the body and balance each other in proportion, while the cover +handle rises smoothly from the primary mass. The horizontal character of +the primary mass is consistently carried out in the appendages. + +The handle, in Figure 45, leaving the body at a tangent, rises with a +long straight curve to turn suddenly and join the pitcher in harmony +with its top. The apparent abruptness of the junction is softened by the +rounded corners typical of clay construction. + +The Rookwood set, Figure 42, represents three similar primary masses. +The proportionate ratios and the horizontal subdivisions are the same +throughout. The handle for the teapot has been curved in the center to +give variety to the handle. This variation is a difficult thing to +manage without consequent loss of unity as by this variation Rule 4a is +violated. One thing may be said in its favor. It brings the hand closer +to the spout and thus supports the pouring weight. But the unusual in +design is to be discouraged until sufficient skill in simple designing +has been acquired. + +In designing handle appendages for clay, they should be so placed that +they readily control the weight of the material in the container and +afford room for the fingers. Thus, it is better to have the larger +portion of the handle opening at the top of the primary mass. The spout +in all instances should continue sufficiently high to allow the +container to be filled to its full capacity without danger of the +contents running out of the spout. The glaze runs into rounded corners +much more freely than into square ones, hence it is preferable to use +rounded corners wherever possible. + +[Sidenote: Requirements for Appendage Design] + +It is the unexpected curve that is welcome in all designing, provided it +supports the structure and conforms to established rules. After +completing a design involving appendages it should be checked from three +points of view; (1) service, (2) unity between the primary mass and the +appendages, and (3) variety of curvature. On this last point it is +needless to say that compass curves are not desirable except in rounding +small corners or in using fillets. It is well known that compass curves +are difficult to assimilate into pleasing tangential effects. They are +inclined to be monotonous and regular with a "made by the thousand" +appearance to them. One should trust to freehand sweeps, drawn freely +with a full arm movement when possible. All curves should spring +naturally from the primary mass. Blackboard drawing is excellent +practice for the muscles used in this type of designing. In a short time +it will be found possible to produce the useful long, rather flat curve +with its sudden turn (the curve of force) that will make the compass +curve tame and commonplace by comparison. + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 2 (POTTERY) ADDED TO THE +PRIMARY MASS FOR UTILITARIAN PURPOSES. THE PLASTICITY OF CLAY ALLOWS A +PERFECT TANGENTIAL UNION WITH THE BODY + +PLATE 17] + +[Sidenote: Freehand Curves] + +[Sidenote: Appendages in Metal] + +Figures 55, 56, and 57, Plate 18, show the close bond between the +appearance of the appendage in clay, and the one in metal. While it is +technically more difficult to adapt metal to the rules governing +appendages than is the case with clay, the final results are, in most +instances, equally pleasing to the eye. + +In most of the figures showing examples in metal, the appendages have to +be secured to the primary mass by screws, rivets, or solder, whereas in +clay they may be moulded _into_ the primary mass. This tends to secure a +more unified appearance; but in metal, the junction of the handle and +the primary mass is often made a decorative feature of the design and +gives added interest and variety to the project. + +The simple primary mass, Figure 58, has a horizontal space division in +the lower portion of the mass. This point of variation of the contour +has been used in the primary masses in Figures 55, 56, and 57, also as +the starting point of that dominant appendage, the handle. Springing +tangentially from the body, it rises in a straight line of extreme value +in service, then with a slight turn it parallels and joins the top of +the bowl, thus fulfilling the design functions of an appendage from both +points of service and beauty. The spout and lid, Figure 55, may be +likewise analyzed. + +[Sidenote: Tangential Junctions] + +The points of tangency, in Figure 54, become a decorative feature of the +design. The handles in the parts of the fire set, Figures 48 and 49, +offer different problems. It is difficult to analyze the latter figures +to determine the appendages as they are in such thorough unity with the +handles and are practically subdivisions of the primary mass. But +referring to the rule stating the fact that the appendages are +subordinated to and attached to the primary mass, it may justly be +stated that the shovel portion of the design may legitimately be +classed as an appendage. This will explain the need of a curve at the +junction points and the feature of the decorative twists in Figure 49. +Both designs may be analyzed into three horizontal divisions. + +[Illustration: EXAMPLES OF APPENDAGES IN CLASS 3. METAL ... SEE +"A" ... NOTE THE TANGENTIAL RELATION BETWEEN THE APPENDAGE AND PRIMARY +MASS AT "T" + +PLATE 18] + +[Sidenote: Andiron Design] + +The andirons, Figures 50 to 53, illustrate interesting transitions in +wrought iron from the primary mass to the appendage. The vertical shaft +of wrought iron has been treated as a primary mass while the feet may be +classed as appendages. In Figure 50 we have an example of a frankly +square junction point. Figure 51 discloses a weld with rounded corners, +forming a more pleasing junction than does the abrupt angle of Figure +50. This conforms to Rule 4b. The appendage legs echo or repeat the +vertical lines of the primary mass and there is consequently a sense of +unity between them. + +In Figure 52 the appendage foot is curved, and the primary mass has a +similar curve on the top of the vertical column to apply Rule 4c to +repeat the curve. The small links at _X_ indicate an attempt to make the +junction point more pleasing to the eye, but the link is too large to +accomplish the desired result successfully. In Figure 53 the links have +been materially reduced in size and in the amount of curvature. In this +example the eye goes unhampered from appendage to primary or back again, +without perceptible interruption and the unity of the mass, seriously +threatened in Figure 52, is restored in Figure 53. + +In Figure 46 there is an example of a link becoming large enough to be +classed as an appendage connecting two primary masses, _e.g._, the +lantern and the wall. Under these conditions, one end of the appendage +harmonizes with the lantern and the other end with the wall. Figure 47 +shows a cast brass candlestick which is an excellent example, from the +Studio, of tangential junction. + +[Sidenote: Influence of Tools and Materials] + +Clay may readily stand as the most adaptable material for appendages, +with metal ranking second, and wood third. The grain of wood seems to +interfere with the tangential junction of the appendage and primary +mass. Appendages of wood are, however, quite necessary at times. Their +use is merely a matter of lessening the contrast of conflicting lines in +an addition of this nature. + +The band and bracket saws are required in many instances to construct +the connecting link between opposing masses of wood. + +[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN + +PRINCIPLE 4. RELATION OF PRIMARY MASS TO APPENDAGES + +PROBLEM: APPLICATION TO CLASSES 2 AND 3 + +PLATE 19] + +[Sidenote: Influence of Tools and Materials (_Continued_)] + +Hand building or casting is the means used to construct the appendages +in plastic materials. Appendages in cement are seen in the uprights for +cement seats and are generally translated into the primary mass by means +of mouldings or curves. + +Forging or thin and raised metal construction affords many examples of +the adaptability of material in constructing appendages. Rivets form +decorative features at the junction points and should be placed with +great care and relation to the decoration and the point of tangency. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR CLASS PRESENTATION + + The typical views to be used in classroom work, with the + ordinary range of problems, are shown on Plate 19. These + typical views should be supplemented by dimensions, cross + sections, and other views whenever necessary. Wood construction + has been omitted from this sheet, but its development in design + is quite similar to the steps indicated in the summary. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle. + + (_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into two or three horizontal and, + if necessary, vertical divisions. + + (_c_) Estimate the dimensions of the appendage necessary to + perform the desired service in the best manner. + + (_d_) If the appendage is a handle, place it in such a position + that it not only appears to but actually does support the + weight of the primary mass. + + (_e_) Complete the contour curves of the primary mass based + upon the horizontal division which acts as a unit of + measurement or a turning point. + + (_f_) Join the appendages to the primary mass by means of + tangential curves. + + (_g_) Establish unity between the primary mass and the + appendages by applying Rules 4a, 4b, and 4c. + + (_h_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. + See Plate 26. + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design a sugar bowl, cream pitcher, and teapot. Consider them + as different members of one set. + + Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack, the + design to contain two vertical and two horizontal divisions + exclusive of the appendage. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and + proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal + character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it._ + + Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing + smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._ + + Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat + some lines similar in character and direction to those of the + primary mass._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. State the nature and use of the appendage. + + 2. What is the relation of the size of the appendage to the + size of the primary mass? + + 3. How should the appendage be attached to the primary mass? + + 4. How does Rule 4c help to secure unity between the appendage + and the primary mass? + + 5. Are compass curves permissible in appendage design? + + 6. State influence of tools and materials upon appendage + design. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD + + +With this chapter we introduce contour enrichment, the second major +division of industrial arts design. + +[Sidenote: Need and Value of Enrichment] + +A critic of furniture designed by the average manual arts student has +stated frankly that while it might have been honestly constructed it +was, in the first place, too heavy for a woman to move about the house +and, in the second place, it represented a decidedly uneconomical use of +that valuable material, wood. That there is a basis in fact for this +statement cannot be denied. Is it true, then, that furniture must of +necessity be clumsy and heavy when it is sufficiently simplified in +constructive processes for school work? We may say emphatically, "No!" + +One may correct the proportions of an object and reduce the size of the +materials in it to a minimum but still fail to secure the desirable +elements of lightness and interest. The object may still _look_ heavy +and remain a box-like structure void of the grace synonymous with the +best in design. It is, however, possible to correct the clumsy and heavy +appearances by imparting to the design elements of grace and lightness. +Two methods may be used, singly or together: (1) Enrichment of the +Functional Outlines or Contours; (2) Surface Enrichment sometimes called +Space Filling. These may be roughly classified respectively as three and +two dimension enrichment. + +[Sidenote: Contour Enrichment] + +The first, or outline enrichment, concerns itself with the structural +lines. As all designing processes should start with the structure, it +will be our policy to do so. The present chapter will deal only with +enrichment of outlines of wood projects. + +Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the +structure._ + +Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and variety to +the design._ + +[Illustration: COMMON ERRORS IN CONTOUR ENRICHMENT + +STAMP BOXES + +PLATE 19a] + +[Sidenote: Purpose of Contour Enrichment] + +[Sidenote: Requirements of Contour Enrichment] + +It is the purpose of enrichment to add to the problem (1) grace; (2) +lightness; (3) variety; (4) unity. If it is applied in a proper manner +it should likewise add to the apparent structural strength. We should +carefully guard the design, therefore, against (1) enrichment that has a +tendency to obscure or destroy the structural lines; in other words, +enrichment that is not subordinated to the structure, and (2) enrichment +that adds nothing to the structure by its application; that is, one +which does not increase either the apparent strength or the beauty of +the object. + +As an example of this first point, the turned candlestick with the +candle supported by a stack of turned balls alternating with tauri or +thin discs tends to obscure completely the sense of support. Again, the +landscape gardener feels that he is violating a fundamental principle in +design if by planting vines to grow around a building, he obscures the +foundation, and the roof appears, consequently, to rest on and be +supported by the stems and leaves of the vines. Thus it is seen that the +eye registers a sense of structural weakness when the main supports of +an object disappear and are no longer to be traced under the enrichment. + +Under the second point falls the indiscriminate placing of unrelated +objects in the contour enrichment. Naturalistic objects similar to the +claw foot and the human head, for example, should give way to natural +curves that add to the appearance of total strength. Where are we to +find these curves suited to our purpose? + +[Sidenote: Valuable Curves for Outline Enrichment] + +Up to this point emphasis has been placed upon straight and curved lines +immediately connected with pure service. For grace and lightness it is +necessary to depart at times from the rigidity of straight lines. To +understand the character of this departure let us consider a simple +bracket as a support for a shelf. + +This bracket acts as a link, connecting a vertical wall or leg with a +horizontal member or shelf. A bracket shaped like a 45-degree triangle, +Figure 10, page 24, gives one the sense of clumsiness. If the feeling of +grace is to be imparted the eye must move smoothly along the outline of +the bracket, giving one a sensation of aesthetic pleasure. A curved line +will produce this effect more completely than will a straight line. One +must likewise get the feeling that the curve of the bracket is designed +to support the shelf. + +[Illustration: NATURAL AND GEOMETRIC CURVES WITH THEIR USE IN FUNCTIONAL +OUTLINE ENRICHMENT + +PLATE 20] + + +THE CURVE OF FORCE + +[Sidenote: Valuable Curves] + +Turning to Figure 70, Plate 20, we find that whenever nature desires to +support a weight she is inclined to use a peculiar curve seen at _F_. +Possibly through continued observation the eye has associated this curve +with strength or supporting power. Figure 71 has detailed this curve. It +is found to consist of a long, rather flat portion with a quick and +sudden turn at its end. The curve is known to designers as the Curve of +Force and is most valuable in all forms of enrichment. Designers even in +early ages used it in some form as will be noted from the fragment of +Greek sculpture in Figure 72. Its beauty rests in its variety. A circle +has little interest due to its rather monotonous curvature. The eye +desires variety and the curve of force administers to this need and +gives a sense of satisfaction. As designers on wood, how are we to +utilize this curve for purposes of outline enrichment? + +[Sidenote: An Approximate Curve of Force] + +For approximate similarity of curvature an ellipse constructed as shown +in Figure 73 will be found convenient. By drawing several ellipses of +varying sizes upon sheets of tin or zinc, a series of templates of +utmost practical value may be formed and used as was done in securing +the curves of force in Figures 74 and 75. If the rail or shelf is longer +than the post, measured downward from the rail to the floor or to the +next shelf, the ellipse should be used with its major axis placed in a +horizontal position, Figure 75. If, on the contrary, the post is longer +than the shelf the ellipse should have its major axis in a vertical +position, Figure 74. Figures 76 and 77 show other instances of the use +of the approximate curve of force. Many similar practical applications +will occur to the designer. + +[Sidenote: Mouldings] + +We have classed the bracket as a link connecting a vertical and +horizontal structure. Mouldings may likewise be considered as links +connecting similar horizontal or vertical surfaces by bands of graded +forms. Inasmuch as they effect the outline they are considered in this +chapter. As the mouldings are to assist the eye to make the jump from +one surface to another by easy steps, the position from which the +mouldings are to be seen determines to some extent their design. + +[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOUR OR OUTLINE BY MOULDINGS APPLIED +TO WOOD ... TYPES OF MOULDING ... WOOD TURNING PROBLEMS + +PLATE 21] + +[Sidenote: Mouldings (_Continued_)] + +Figure 78 shows the relation of the spectator to three types of +mouldings at _A_, _B_, and _C_. The top or _crown_ (_A_) is to be seen +from below. On a large project the angle of the mouldings with the +body of the object should be approximately 45 degrees. The +_intermediate_ moulding (_B_) is lighter than the crown and forms a +transitional link that may be seen from either above or below. The lower +or _base_ moulding (_C_) is the widest member of the group as demanded +by our sense of stability. It is seen from above. Both for sanitary and +structural reasons it projects but slightly from the base. With this +grouping in mind it is needless to say that a faulty moulding is one, +some portion of which, hidden by intervening moulding, cannot be seen by +the spectator. + +Architectural design and history have formulated a series of curves, +geometric in character, that are regarded as standards in the Industrial +Arts. Some of the more prominent curves with their constructions are +shown in Figure 79. The horizontal divisions are analyzed in accordance +with Rules 2a and 2b. It is noticed that the Scotia possesses a curve +having the shape of the curve of force, while the two Cymas are saved +from monotonous division by means of their reversed curves, illustrating +the contrast of direction. The curves of Figure 80 are excellent lines +for freehand practice in designing mouldings and will develop the +principle of continuity of curvature or the smooth transition of one +curve into the next. + +[Sidenote: Continuity and Contrast] + +To keep this continuity from the monotony of a Marcel Wave it is +customary to break continuous curves by a fillet such as a straight line +as shown at _D_, Figures 81, 82, and 83. When the desired outside +diameter has been reached, contrast of direction is necessary and +pleasing as a return, Figure 82. A glance at the curves so far +considered will quickly determine whether they are fitted for the crown, +intermediate or base mouldings. A curve should join a straight line with +either a tangential or right angle junction, which makes for +positiveness in contour expression. + +[Sidenote: Grouping of Curves] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 85.--Modern Candlesticks] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 86.--Modern Book Trough] + +Application of these curves to outline enrichment for wood turning +projects is to be governed by a strict adherence to Rules 2a or 2b, +otherwise confusion and lack of unity will result. Figure 83 shows a +major grouping under Rule 2b with the subdivisions and minor curves +arranged under Rules 2a and 2b. Figure 84 shows a disregard for rules +and the result is an undesirable monotony of contour. If smooth and even +continuity of curvature is given considerable thought, together with +that for systematic grouping and variety, a pleasing result from wood +turning (a much abused but pleasing form of outline enrichment) may be +secured. Figures 85 and 86 are illustrations from the industrial field +with moulding curves grouped, following and supporting the structural +lines of the object. The columns in Figure 86 might, however, be +advantageously reversed. + +[Sidenote: Materials] + +Large objects designed to be seen from a distance require larger space +divisions for their mouldings than do small objects seen from a nearer +point. Material affects the curve somewhat. Smaller mouldings are more +suited to the expensive woods like mahogany while larger curves may be +used in pine or oak. + +[Sidenote: Evolution of Enriched Outline Design] + +We now have at our command a number of interesting and serviceable +curves suited to the material. Plate 22 is a sheet of applications. +Figures 87 to 94 deal with the book-rack end and in this, as in the +initial chapter, architecture is referred to as the source for many laws +of industrial design. It has seemed wise to illustrate some of these +important parallels as follows: + +We will assume the type of joint construction of the book-rack end as +settled and the question of enrichment to be under consideration. + +Figure 87 is a simple primary mass without enrichment. It is comparable +to the plain box-like structure with monotonous outline and without +interest. The eye follows the outline in the direction of the arrows, +pausing at the square corners, which interrupt a free movement by a +harsh right angle. The base (an appendage) repeats in each instance the +lines of the primary mass. + +Figure 88. Round corners, by freeing the design from the right angles, +accelerate the eye movement and give a sense of added interest and grace +to the contour. + +Figure 89. The cornice of a building suggests a similar arrangement +which may be added to the primary mass. It adds the element of contrast +of direction and variety of widths. + +[Sidenote: Variations] + +Figure 90. The main primary mass of a building with two equal appendages +will suggest the enrichment of the outline in sympathy with three +vertical divisions. Rule 3b. The rounded corners again assist the eye to +travel freely around the contours, thus giving a sense of unity to the +entire form. + +[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE FUNCTIONAL OUTLINES OR CONTOURS AS +APPLIED TO WOOD + +THE EVOLUTION OF OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF A BOOK RACK END WITH CROSS +REFERENCES TO PARALLELS IN ARCHITECTURE + +PLATE 22] + +[Illustration: FIGURES 101 and 102] + +Figure 91. The pediment of a Greek temple with the interest centered at +the top of the pediment (_x_) causes a similar concentration of interest +in the book-rack end. The slight inclination of the sides supplies +variety of widths. The architect considers an object with the interest +centered in this manner in the upper portion, as possessing more +individuality than a motive with purely horizontal lines across the top +boundary. + +[Illustration: FOLDING SCREEN + +FIGURE 102a] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 103.--A Modern Telephone Stand and Stool] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 104.--Modern Chair] + +Figure 92. In this figure the curved inclination facilitates the upward +movement of the eye, at the same time supplying variety of width. + +Figure 93. The addition of an appendage to the outline of the Greek +temple suggests a slight drop or variation in the top edge of the +book-rack end which gives increased interest and grace through variety. + +Figure 94. Contrast of direction is supplied in this suggestion but it +is questionable whether we are adding much to the interest by the +corner. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 105.--A Modern Serving Table] + +Figures 95 to 98 are variations of one theme, the foot stool, and Figure +99 adds suggestive designs for rails. _D_ in Figure 99 shows the +enrichment line cut to a depth which threatens the structural value of +the rail. This is corrected in Figure 103. Figure 100 is an application +of the curve of force to a chair leg _B_, with other possibilities +at _A_ and _C_. Numerous applications of the varied curves under +consideration are found throughout this sheet. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 105a] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 106.--Sheraton Table] + +Before closing with enriched outlines it is well to consider flagrant +violations of this enrichment now on the market. Figure 101 shows a +typical example of complete lack of unity and simplicity. It is a type +of design often associated with cheaply constructed furniture. It is an +ornate parody on outline enrichment. The curves of extravagance are well +shown in Figure 102 where large bulbous curves with no systematic +grouping combine disastrous waste of material with lack of grace or +lightness. It is excellent practice to redesign such examples as those +shown in Figures 101 and 102 with special reference to Rule 5c. + +Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a sense of +oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent members together._ + +[Illustration: INSTRUCTION SHEET + +CONTOUR ENRICHMENT OF WOOD + +DRAWN AND DESIGNED BY JEANNETTE E. FITCH + +U. OF W.] + +Illustrations 103 to 106 are typical forms of present day outline +enrichment. Limitations of space will not permit reference to the use of +Period furniture. Sheraton and Hepplewhite designs are most adaptable +for school uses as may be seen by comparing the Sheraton desk (Figure +106) with the foot stool in Figure 96. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Figure 83 and Plates 22 and 23 are indicative of what might be + obtained from a class. The problem represented on Plate 23 is + advantageously colored with the intended stain and with a small + section of side wall and trim visible. See Chapter 16, Figures + 458 to 463. Figure 102a shows the method of enlarging a design + into a full size working drawing for shop purposes. + + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle. + + (_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into vertical and horizontal + divisions. + + (_c_) Determine parts to be treated by contour enrichment. + + (_d_) Determine method suited to the project: wood turning, + moulding, etc. + + (_e_) Group the wood turning curves under a definite system + included under Rules 2a and 2b. Group the mouldings under + crown, intermediate, and base classifications. Add this + enrichment to the primary mass or make other simple variations + that will not destroy the unity of the project. + + (_f_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. + + (_g_) Construct the project. + + _Note_.--If the designer is not properly equipped to prepare + his own mouldings, he should consult moulding catalogs or the + stock of some local lumber company. + + +ADDITIONAL SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design a wood pedestal with the curves grouped into three + horizontal divisions. + + Design a hall table 2 feet 10 inches high and add simple + contour enrichment. + + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and + support the structure._ + + Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and + variety to the design._ + + Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a + sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent + members together._ + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. State nature and need of enrichment. + + 2. What two forms of enrichment are commonly used in industrial + arts design? + + 3. What four qualities are added to industrial design by + contour enrichment? + + 4. What disturbing elements should be guarded against in the + application of contour enrichment? + + 5. Describe the curve of force and its function in the contour + enrichment of wood. + + 6. What are mouldings? Name three types of mouldings, their + positions with relation to the eye level, and some curves used + in their design. + + 7. Give examples of curves of continuity and contrast. By what + means should two contrasting curves be separated? + + 8. How should a curve join a straight line? + + 9. Explain the grouping of contour curves in wood turning + projects similar to a round leg or candlestick. + + 10. Present five designs for book-racks, enriched by changes of + the contour. Give architectural cross references for each + design. + + 11. Present three well designed table or chair legs and top and + bottom rails and assemble one of these in a design. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN CLAY + + +[Sidenote: Need of Enrichment] + +In the medium we are now about to consider there is a tendency for the +enthusiastic beginner to over-elaborate the outline into meaningless +forms. This possibly is due to the ease with which clay is manipulated. +It would be well then to ask two questions before starting with the work +of enriching the simple structure. First, why should it be enriched--is +there a positive gain by so doing? Second, (if the decision is favorable +to enrichment) where should it be enriched? Let us co-ordinate the parts +to assist in this process. + +[Sidenote: Parts Differing in Function] + +[Sidenote: Unity] + +Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should differ in +appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design._ As a suggestion +to guide one in enriching an object it is necessary to consider that +parts differing in function may differ in appearance, but as members of +one family they should still be related to the whole. For example, a +spout, handle, and lid may differ in design from that of the body of a +pitcher because they differ from it in function. Again, the rim and foot +of a vase may be slightly changed or individually accented because of +their respective duties. The base and holder of a candlestick may vary +in design from the central part or handle, as each has a special +function to perform. This rule of the change of appearance with the +change of functional service (Rule 5d), is found throughout +architectural design. The variation in design in the base, shaft, and +capital of a column is possibly one of the most common examples. While +differing in function they still _must have unity and "hold together."_ + +These functional parts of one design, differing in service rendered, +form centers of construction and may receive emphasis in outline +enrichment. Corners and terminal points are likewise available for +decoration and will be discussed at length later. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 107.--Clay Outline Enrichment in the Rookwood +Potteries] + +Enrichment in clay and metal generally means a substitution of curved +for straight lines in the enriched portions of the design. These curves +have the ability to impart grace, lightness, and variety to an object +provided they are based upon constructive features of the problem. They +must have a unit of measurement and must likewise be appropriate to the +material. It is therefore necessary to deal with clay in this chapter +and follow with a consideration of metal in another chapter. + +In Figures 109 to 123, Plate 24, we have a number of examples of +variation of practically the same primary enclosing rectangle. Figure +108 represents a "squarely" proportioned circular bowl lacking both +refinement of proportion and enrichment. Figure 109 has added refinement +of proportions. Figures 110 and 111 have introduced an outline enriched +to the extent of a simple curve. The base is the dominant width in the +first, and the top dominates in width in the second. The outline in +Figure 112, while similar to 110 for a portion of its length, departs at +a stated point and by curving in toward the base supplies more variety +to the contour. We have already said that this outline curve should have +a unit of measurement and by referring to Rules 2a and 2b we are able to +formulate the following: + +[Sidenote: Unit of Measurement for Curves in Outline Enrichment] + +Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical tendency +should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance +with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b._ Figures 112 and 113 +have as their unit of measurement two horizontal spaces formed in +accordance with Rule 2a, while Figures 116 and 117 have still more +variety by the addition of a compound curve with its turning points or +unit of measurement based upon Rule 2b. Figures 114 and 115 with +outlines similar to those in Figures 112 and 113, respectively, have an +additional enrichment, the foot and rim accentuation. + +[Sidenote: Accentuation of Functional Parts in Clay] + +The new element of enrichment consists of accenting by adding to the +design a modeled rim and a base or foot, as it is technically known. +This not only strengthens the structure at these two functional points +but, by adding a small section of shadow, it tends to break up the +surface, Figure 127, and add to the variety of enrichment. Figures 124 +to 127 show the building processes connected with this interesting and +constructive addition. + +[Sidenote: Appendages] + +Figures 116 to 119 show variations of the preceding figures while +Figures 120 to 123 introduce the appendages to preceding figures. As in +the designing of all appendages, discussed in Chapter V, it is the +designer's intention to balance spout and handle to avoid a one-sided or +top-heavy appearance. + +One of the principal difficulties that confronts the amateur designer is +the failure to secure variety while retaining unity. This is largely due +to a lack of ideas upon the subject and a marked lack of systematic +development of one theme. + +Attention is directed to the diagram in the lower portion of Plate 24. +The idea is to start with some simple form in columns _A_, _B_, _C_, +_D_, _E_, _F_, Figure 128. Figure 129 introduces _two_ horizontal +divisions. Rule 2a. The _black_ portion is the dominant section. + +[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY + +GOOD CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN IS "A FREE AND ADEQUATE EMBODIMENT OF AN IDEA +IN A FORM PECULIARLY APPROPRIATE TO THE IDEA ITSELF" HEGEL + +PLATE 24] + +[Sidenote: Systematic Development of Outline Enrichment in Clay] + +Notice the change in outlines based upon this division. Figure 130 +raises the division point of the two subdivisions into the upper half of +the object. This brings out the need of an accented foot which is, +however, not of sufficient prominence to be considered as a horizontal +spacing. Figure 131 raises the horizontal division points, again causing +the introduction of a larger foot and now qualifying it as a division of +the whole mass. This then makes our design a three-division problem, +Rule 2b, and places it under the restrictions of Rule 5e. + +The feet of all of the bowls have been systematically decreased in width +by the converging lines _C-C_ while the tops have been maintained +constant in width. By this simple diagram an infinite number of designs +may be formed and the choice of selection from the series, thoughtfully +exercised, will supply the ideal bowl, ready to be translated into a +full size working drawing. It is not the idea, however, to guarantee a +perfect design in each one of these divisions as that would be +practically impossible, but we have systematically applied a method of +determination for stimulating the imagination. A series of articles by +F.H. Rhead in the Keramic Studio first suggested the system of +development by means of graded rectangles. + +[Sidenote: Candlesticks] + +Plate 25 shows a further elaboration of the succeeding themes. The +candlestick series, Figures 132 to 138, introduces two or three-space +division problems with contour turning points at _A_, Rule 5e, and with +accented or embryonic feet and rims. The change from the purely +functional and unenriched member of Figure 132 through the series shows +the enrichment changing slightly to meet the needs of the three +functional parts: the base, the handle, and the candle socket. Rule 5d. + +[Sidenote: Containers] + +Figure 139 shows a series of illustrations representing variations for +containers. The first figure is without enrichment, followed by +variations of the outline in the manner already suggested. + +[Sidenote: Pourers] + +Figure 140 indicates a series of pourers with the least attractive +design on the left end. This unsatisfactory design is found, upon +analysis, to be due to centrally placed horizontal division violating +Rule 2a. The design of the appendages in this series will again be found +to conform with the rules in Chapter V. The units of measurement for the +curves may be readily ascertained from observation. + +[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN CLAY WITH +METHODS OF SECURING VARIETY + +PLATE 25] + +[Sidenote: Similarity with Varying Primary Masses] + +Figure 141 is useful for the following purpose. It is desirable at times +to develop a number of similar forms for a set, with a gradually +increasing ratio of proportions, either in height or width. Figure 141 +shows how the _height_ may be increased while maintaining a common +width. Notice the gradual proportionate increase of the height of the +neck _A-B_ as well as that of the body. The line _X_ is of the utmost +value in ascertaining the height of the intermediate bowls. The eye +should now be so trained that the height of the neck _A-B_ on the last +bowl can be readily proportioned by _eye measurement_ to that of the +first bowl. A line similar to _X_ will give the intermediate points. + +Figure 142 varies the _width_ in a similar manner. Notice the gradually +decreasing distances _C-D-E-F_, the spaces for which may be determined +by the eye. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 26 suggests the sequential progression of steps leading + to the potter's working drawing. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle. + + (_b_) Add limits of functional parts: handle, spout, cover, etc. + + (_c_) Establish unit of measurement for primary rectangle contour + curves. + + (_d_) Design contour of primary mass and add the appendages to it, + observing the rules pertaining to appendages and unit of + measurement. + + (_e_) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for the potter's + use. This includes the planning of a working drawing, one-eighth + larger in all directions than the preliminary design, to allow for + the shrinkage of the clay body. The working drawing should also be + in partial sections to show the construction of the interior of the + ware. + +SUGGESTED PROBLEM + + Design a teapot, tea caddy, and cup showing a common unity in + contour design. (Plate 82.) + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should + differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire + design._ + + Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical + tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement + in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b._ + +[Illustration: RULES 5D AND 5E CONTOUR OR OUTLINE ENRICHMENT. CLAY. +INSTRUCTION SHEET + +PLATE 26] + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. Give and illustrate the rule governing the change in the + appearance of the design with the change of functional service. + + 2. What is the aesthetic value of curves in outline enrichment? + + 3. Correlate the rule governing the unit of measurement for + vertical contour curves with the rules controlling horizontal + divisions. + + 4. Show, by a diagram, the method of systematically varying the + contours of circular forms: (_a_) by changing the horizontal + divisions; (_b_) by varying the proportion of the primary mass. + + 5. What is the value of accenting the functional parts in clay + design? + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of James Milliken University_ + +FIGURE 142a.--Outline and Surface Enrichment in College Pottery] + +[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASSES OF THE +BASER METALS + +ENRICHMENT OF EDGES, CORNERS, INTERMEDIATE POINTS, APPENDAGES. SEE +PLATE 28 FOR TERMINALS, LINKS, DETAILS. + +PLATE 27] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN BASE AND PRECIOUS +METALS + + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of the Base Metals--Iron, Copper, Brass, Bronze] + +The contours of clay forms are generally free to follow the curves and +take the direction dictated by the knowledge and taste of the designer. +Metal outlines are more restricted in this respect. Metal is frequently +associated with service and consequently its design is often governed by +its intended use. For example, if we were to design a metal drawer pull +for a buffet, it would have to be considered in relation to the +character and shape of the buffet. Again, the screws with which it is +attached to the buffet would influence its outline design. It is, in +other words, a _dependent_ outline. + +[Sidenote: Free and Dependent Outlines] + +To distinguish between an unrestricted outline and one bound by other +considerations we will term the restricted outline a _dependent +outline_, for its enrichment must be related to other forms either +within or without its surface. A _free outline_ on the other hand is one +in which the designer is free to use his ideas unrestricted by any other +outside consideration, except service and design consistent with the +material. + +In order to emphasize the nature of a dependent outline we have Rule 5f. +_Dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a +design and influenced by their forms and functions; it must be +consistent with the idea of the subject._ + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Edges] + +We will start with the simplest form of outline enrichment of base +metals, the decoration of an edge. It is contrary to the laws of service +to leave sharp edges on articles intended for intimate household use, +except where cutting edges are required. The rounding of sharp edges is +likewise dictated by the laws of beauty. The transition from one plane +surface to another is assisted by a rounded edge, as the eye takes +kindly to the softened play of light and shade. + +This gives us the simplest form of enrichment--the beveled, chamfered, +or rounded edge, Figures 143 and 144, Plate 27. The rim of a thin +18-gauge plate is likewise improved and strengthened by lapping the edge +as shown in Figure 145, giving the rounded effect shown in Figure 144. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Functional Parts] + +There are six important functional parts with which we are brought into +common contact in industrial design of base metals. There are many more, +but these are the most common and consequently are of the utmost +importance to the designer as design centers. These parts are itemized +as follows: (1) Corners, (2) Appendages, (3) Intermediate Points, (4) +Terminals, (5) Links, (6) Details. As the decorative treatment of each +part varies with the functional duty, Rule 5d, separate treatment and +consideration of each part will be necessary. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Corners] + +Corners, as extreme turning points of a design, are often found +convenient for the location of screw holes, rivets, etc. These important +construction elements become prominent functional parts of the design +and by custom and the laws of design, Rule 5d, they are capable of +receiving outline enrichment. But the contour of the corner must be +related to the screws or rivets, particularly if they are near the edge, +hence our outline becomes a _dependent outline_ and as such must be +related to the rivets or screws by Rule 5f. + +Figures 146 to 149 show various arrangements of this type of design. The +unity of the design is not lost, and the functional parts are enriched +by contours related to the elements of service (rivets). Figure 153 +shows another but slightly modified example of the same laws applied to +hinge construction. The enriched outline in this case is closely +associated with the holes in the hinge. The hinges in turn must be +related to the object for which they are designed. Figure 150 gives a +common example of corner enrichment by means of varying the edge at the +corners, _i.e._, by rounding the tray corners. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Appendages] + +As appendages have distinct functional duties their design may vary as +the design of the arm of the human figure differs from the head. Yet, as +parts of the same body, they must fit the shape of the object to which +they are attached. The candle holder and handle as appendages in Figure +150 are designed in sympathetic relation by means of tangential and +similar curves sufficiently varied to give the eye a feeling of variety +in the design. The novel single flower holders, Figures 151 and 152, +with the glass test tube acting as a container show other possible +forms of the appendage design. The first is informal while the second is +formal, but both adhere to the first simple rules of appendage design. +Rule 4a, etc. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Intermediate Points] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 156a.--Candlestick, Rendered by E.R.] + +The enrichment of center or intermediate points should be handled with +great care and with a definite reason. Careless handling may cause the +design to lack unity. Figures 154 and 155 show a simple twist as +enrichment. The serviceable reason for this is to obtain a grip at the +point of the twist. Again, it varies the character of the straight edges +and adds interest without loss of compactness or unity. If one is +desirous of widening a vertical or horizontal rod, the enrichment made +by welding a number of small rods together with a spreading twist gives +a pleasing and serviceable handle. Figure 156. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Terminals] + + +[Sidenote: Free and Dependent Contour Enrichment] + +As the public demands a happy ending to a story or a play, so does the +eye demand a well-designed ending to a design. The part that terminal +enrichment plays in industrial design is, therefore, to say the least, +important to us as designers. Figure 157 illustrates terminals in thin +metal and is shown by courtesy of the _School Arts Magazine_ from one +of the articles by Mr. Augustus Rose. The outlines are in part dependent +in character, controlled by rivets. Notice the change of curve as the +function changes from the _dependent curve_ of the rivet area to the +_free outline_ of the handle and again from the handle to the cutting +blade; a functional change of marked character, but in thorough unity +with the entire design. It is again emphasized that whether the design +possesses a free or a dependent outline, or a combination of both types, +all parts of the design must be held together by entire _unity_. The +rivets are occasionally placed toward the edge and a domed boss is used +to accent the center as is shown in Figure 158. + +[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN THE BASER +METALS. THE ENRICHMENT OF TERMINALS, LINKS, AND DETAILS. FREE OUTLINES + +PLATE 28] + + +THE IONIC VOLUTE + +[Sidenote: Terminal Enrichment in Wrought Metal] + +As the Curve of Force was a valuable curve in wood construction, so we +find it an equally valuable curve for wrought metal. Its recurrence +again and again in industrial design leads us to appreciate its value in +the arts. It is the Ionic volute handed down to us in its present form +from the time of the Greeks, who developed it to a high state of +perfection. + +[Sidenote: Curve of Beauty] + +While its geometric development is a tedious process, it may be easily +constructed for practical purposes by the following method. In Figure +159, _P_ represents a small cylinder of wood, possibly a dowel. A strong +piece of thread, or fine wire, is wrapped around the base of the dowel a +number of times and a loop is formed in the free end. A pencil with a +sharp point is inserted in the loop and the pencil and dowel are placed +together on a sheet of paper. As the thread unwinds from the dowel the +point of the pencil will describe a volute which may be developed +indefinitely. It will be noticed that no corresponding parts of the +curve are concentric and it thus has constant variety. It has been +termed the CURVE OF BEAUTY and is found in nature in the wonderfully +designed shell of the nautilus. + +It is advisable to form several templates for the volute out of bent +wrought iron, of different sizes, and to practice drawing the curve many +times to accustom the hand and the eye to its changes of direction. The +"eye" or center portion is sometimes terminated by thinning and +expanding in the manner shown in Figure 160. + +[Illustration: OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS IN PRECIOUS +METALS. SILVER. A DEPENDENT OUTLINE RELATED TO AND ENCLOSING A +SEMI-PRECIOUS STONE. + +PLATE 29] + +[Sidenote: Greek Scroll] + +One form of application of the volute is shown in the terminal points of +the candlestick in Figure 161. It is here shown combined with the second +volute in the form of a reverse curve. In Figure 162, it has been +combined with a smaller but reversed volute at the upper end. The entire +and combined curve is commonly known as a Greek Scroll. In Figure 163 +the Greek Scroll has been combined with the reverse curve of Figure 161 +to form a portion of the bracket. In this figure we find the familiar +curve of force faithfully serving its function as a supporting member +for the top portion of the bracket. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Links] + +A link is a convenient filler in connecting parts of a right angle. It +likewise serves as a brace in connecting several disconnected parts and +is useful in maintaining the unity of a design. Figure 164 shows a +common form of link with its ends thinned and expanded as shown in +Figure 160. This construction may, however, be disregarded as it is +technically quite difficult to accomplish. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment of Details] + +Details are the smaller portions of a design and are similar to the +trimmings and minor brackets of a building in relative importance. They +enter to a considerable extent into wrought metal grille design, and are +generally formed of the link, Greek scroll, or the Ionic volute, so as +to be in harmony with the other parts of the design outline. Rule 5f. +Their presence and use may be readily detected on Plate 28. + +Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a tangential +or right angle junction._ + +[Sidenote: Summary of Wrought Metal Free Outline Enrichment] + +As we are now familiar with continuity in wood moulding curves we should +feel, in reviewing the figures in this chapter, the value of flowing +continuity and tangential junction points (Rule 5g) necessary in wrought +metal enrichment. The curves that we have considered are adapted to the +materials and a comparatively large and new field of design is opened to +the designer through a combination of curves mentioned. Plate 30 is +self-explanatory and brings out the general application of the foregoing +principles as applied to cast bronze hardware. It is interesting to +notice the change of enrichment paralleling the change of function as +outlined in Rule 5d. + + +OUTLINE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS + +[Sidenote: Outline Enrichment of Silver] + +[Sidenote: Stones and Their Cuttings] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_ + +PLATE 30] + +Little has been written regarding the designing of jewelry. As can be +readily seen, a semi-precious stone is the controlling factor in the +major portion of the designs with silver as a background. Any enrichment +merely accentuates the beauty of the setting. This statement would lead +us to consider the outline as _dependent_ in character and thoroughly +related to the stone. It is necessary then to take the stone as a point +of departure. The standard stone cuttings used in simple jewelry are +shown in Figures 166 to 170. The first three and the last are cabochon +cut, elliptical in contour with flat bottoms. The long axes have been +drawn in each instance. + +[Sidenote: Relation of Stone to Contour] + +With Figures 171 to 174 we begin to see the close relation between the +stone and its enclosing form. Rule 5f. A longer major axis in the stone +calls for an increased length in the corresponding axis of the silver +foundation or background. It is really a re-echo of the proportions of +the primary mass of the stone in the mass of the silver. It is well for +the beginner to make the axis of the stone and the silver blank coincide +and to use this long axis as a basis for future enrichment. In a +vertical primary mass, similar to the one shown in Figure 180, it is +better design to place the stone a short distance above the geometric +center of the mass as it insures a sense of stability and balance. A +stone when placed toward the bottom of a design of this nature is +inclined to give a feeling of "settling down" or lost balance. + +Figure 176 varies the design shown in Figure 171. The two circles +related to the stone are connected by four silver grains or balls. +Figure 177 shows an attempt to enrich the contour of the silver, but +there is a resulting tendency to detract from the simplicity of the +unbroken outline and, as a result, little is gained by its attempted +enrichment. Figures 178 and 179 show a better form of enrichment by +accentuating the outline. This may be accomplished either by engraving a +single line paralleling the contour or by soldering a thin wire around +the outline. + +[Sidenote: Need of Top and Side Views] + +While the top view of an article of jewelry may have been carefully +designed the side view in most instances is totally neglected. The side +view should show a steady graduation from the surface of the silver to +the outline of the stone. This prevents the stone from bulging from the +surface like a sudden and unusual growth. Doming, small wedges of +silver, or a twist around the bezel may accomplish this as can be +readily seen in Figures 181, 182, and 183. + +[Illustration: RULES 5D 5E 5F 5G. CONTOUR OR OUTLINE ENRICHMENT. CLAY. +METAL. INSTRUCTION SHEET. + +PLATE 31] + +[Sidenote: Motives for Outline Enrichment in Silver] + +While emphasis should be placed upon simplicity of outline, certain well +regulated forms of enrichment may be added to the contour and enhance +the beauty of the stone. Such motives with constructive steps are shown +in Figure 184 and their application in Figures 185 to 188. It will be +noticed that the enrichment _invariably leads up to the stone_ which is +the center of interest in the design. The ornament is likewise based +upon the prominent axes of the stone. + +[Sidenote: Free Outline Enrichment in Silver] + +Figures 189, 190, and 191 are types of beaten and raised silver work and +show characteristic forms in silver, with two examples of accented +outline enrichment. As they are curvilinear forms, their design is +similar in many ways to clay forms of similar proportions and uses. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 31 shows the design steps necessary to the evolution of a + lamp in two materials. A full size working drawing should + follow Figure D. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw the unenriched primary mass. + + (_b_) For dependent contours, locate the elements of service + within the primary mass. This may be interpreted to mean + rivets, screw holes, semi-precious stones, etc. + + (_c_) Determine upon the portion of the contours to be + enriched, gauged by its need for grace, lightness, and variety. + This enrichment is preferably concentrated at the following + points: edges, corners, appendages, intermediate points, + terminals, links, and details. These points may be combined + provided the result does not violate the simplicity of the + structural lines. + + (_d_) Draw the enrichment in the predetermined area, causing it + to be in harmony with such interior functional parts as screw + holes, rivets, semi-precious stones, etc. Utilize suggested + curves. + + (_e_) Review all of the contour curves added to the design. Are + they feeble compass curves or do they have the character of + long sweeping curves with short "snappy" turns for variety? + + (_f_) Test the entire design for unity. Does the eye move + smoothly through all parts of the contour? Does the design + "hold together"? Are all links and appendages joined to the + primary mass in a graceful tangential manner? + + (_g_) Dimension, add additional views, and details, if + necessary, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. + + SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design an electric table lamp with square copper rod as a support, + feet, and copper shade. + + Design a hinge for a cedar chest. + + SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 5f. _Dependent outline enrichment should be related to + essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and + functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject._ + + Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a + tangential or right angle junction._ + + REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. Contrast contour enrichment of wood, clay, and metal. + + 2. Define free and dependent outline in contour enrichment of base + metal. + + 3. Describe and explain the use of the Ionic volute in contour + enrichment of metal. + + 4. Define and present illustrations of contour enrichment designed + for edges, corners, appendages, intermediate points, terminals, + links, and other details in base metal. + + 5. Define and illustrate free and dependent contour enrichment of + precious metal. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 190a.--Union of Outline Enrichment on Clay and +Metal] + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + + +With this chapter we enter upon a consideration of the third and last +major division of Industrial Arts Design, that of Surface Enrichment. + +[Sidenote: Nature and Need of Surface Enrichment] + +We have considered in previous chapters the subject of contour or +outline enrichment. Now consider for a moment the fact that articles +such as a square box, or tile, are not suited to outline enrichment, yet +they have large, flat, and rather monotonous surfaces capable of +decoration. It is readily seen that such surfaces will admit of further +elaboration which we will distinguish from contour enrichment by using +the term Surface Enrichment. As in contour enrichment, so in surface +enrichment, the added element of design not only increases the beauty of +the object but it likewise, if properly applied, gives apparent added +strength to the structure. + +Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._ + +[Sidenote: When and Where to Enrich a Surface] + +Strictly utilitarian articles should not be ornamented by surface +enrichment. As an example, a wooden mixing spoon, bowl, or wooden knife +handle should not be enriched by carving, as the carving would interfere +with the proper cleansing of the article. A surface exposed to +considerable wear should not be enriched. Objects not strictly in the +utilitarian class, such as a paper knife, book stall, envelope holder, +or library table may be appropriately enriched in an unostentatious +manner so that they will harmonize with their surroundings. But the +enrichment should first be placed upon the surface in such a manner that +it will not interfere with the functional use of the article for +service. Large projections upon the back of a chair or upon the handle +of a paper cutter are unpleasant and interfere with intended uses. + +[Illustration: FIGURE 191a.--Structure Obscured by Surface and Contour +Enrichment] + +Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours +but must not obscure the actual structure._ + +Careful consideration should be given to the often-mentioned law that +the surface enrichment must be thoroughly related to structure and +contour but not so as to obscure either. We must keep in mind the fact +that it is necessary to support the structure, not to cover it up by +related ornament, as in Figure 191a. + +[Sidenote: Conservative Use of Ornament] + +Most critics of industrial design complain of an overwhelming desire +upon the part of the designer to over-decorate the structure. Surface +enrichment runs wild over steam radiators, stoves, and wooden rocking +chairs. Reserve is the watchword recommended as of extreme importance. +The illustrations in this chapter are restricted to a limited range of +design motives for the express purpose of simplifying the number of +recommended methods. + +Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._ + +[Sidenote: Relation of Enrichment to Material] + +The close-fibered woods with smooth, even textures are capable of more +delicate enrichment than woods of coarser grain. Small articles are +generally seen from a close range and should, therefore, be ornamented +with finer decoration than large articles, such as a piece of furniture +that is to be seen from a distance. The latter should have surface +enrichment of sufficient boldness to "carry" or to be distinct from a +distant point. Furthermore the enrichment should not have a "stuck on" +appearance, but be an integral part of the original mass. + +[Sidenote: Appropriate Methods of Surface Enrichment for Wood] + +There are three distinct means of ornamenting wood: (1) inlaying, +depending for interest upon the difference in value and hue of the +different inlaying woods used; (2) carved enrichment, depending upon +line and mass for its beauty and made visible by contrasts of light and +shade; (3) painting or staining of the surface with the interest +dependent upon the colors or stains and their relation to each other and +to the hue of the wood. It has been deemed wise to consider the first +two types in the present chapter, and leave the last type for later +consideration. In Chapters XV, XVI, and XVII, accentuation has been +placed on wood coloring. The designer is advised to read those chapters +before attempting to stain or color his problem. + +[Sidenote: Inlaying] + +Treating surface enrichment in its listed order we find that inlaying is +one of the most common and best forms of enrichment for wood work. As +inlaying readily adapts itself to bands and borders, emphasis is placed +upon them. + +[Illustration: STRAIGHT LINE SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF A SMALL PRIMARY MASS +IN WOOD + +BANDS AND BORDERS + +FOR INLAYING, CARVING, STAINING + +PLATE 32] + +Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring +contrasts with the parent surface._ + +[Sidenote: Errors in Wood Inlay] + +Two conspicuous errors are often associated with inlaid designs. The +first is the use of woods affording a glaring contrast with that of the +project. Figure 209, Page 106. The right contrast of value is +established when the inlay seems neither to rise from the surface nor +sink through it. It should remain _on the surface_ of the plane to be +enriched, for it is surface enrichment. Figures 210, 211, and 212 are +illustrative of pleasing contrasts. + +The second specific glaring error is the use of unrelated inlay. As an +example, an Indian club is created by gluing many varicolored woods +around a central core. The result of the pattern so formed has little +relation to the structural lines, fails entirely to support them; and, +as a result, should be discarded. + +[Sidenote: Carving] + +Carving is difficult for the average beginner in wood working design, +therefore merely the simplest forms of the craft are suggested as +advisable. Figure 205a. If an elaborate design is desired (Figure 205c), +it should be first drawn in outline and finally modeled in relief by +Plastelene. This model is then an effective guide for the carver, +supplementing the original outline drawing. + +[Sidenote: Divisions of Carving] + +Carving may be roughly divided into the following groups: (1) high +relief carving similar to heads, human figures, and capitals; (2) low +relief carving in which the planes have been flattened to a +comparatively short distance above the original block of wood, such as +panels, which are good examples of this group; (3) pierced carving where +the background has been entirely cut away in places, such as screens, +which illustrate this type; (4) incised carving in which the design has +been depressed _below_ the surface of the wood. Geometric chip carving +is a representative type of this group. There are possible variations +and combinations of these groups. + +Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of +belonging to the parent mass._ + +_The central governing thought_ in all carved designs is to show an +interesting proportion of light and shade coupled with a unity between +the raised portion of the design and the background. If the carving +has a glued on appearance it becomes mechanical and resembles a stamped +or machine-produced ornament. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD WITH +BORDERS OF CURVED AND STRAIGHT LINES + +FOR INLAYING, CARVING, STAINING + +PLATE 33] + +[Sidenote: Steps Taken in Carving] + +A typical carved enrichment is carried through four steps: (1) the +design is transferred to the wood surface by means of carbon paper; (2) +the design is "set in" or separated from the ground by means of a +grooved chisel; (3) the wood is cut away from the back of the design by +a process of grounding; (4) the leaves and flowers or other elements of +the design are modeled. The designer should keep these processes in mind +when developing his design. + +[Sidenote: The Designer's Vocabulary] + +It is now essential to find the extent of the vocabulary possible for +the designer of surface enrichment. He has three large sources of +information: first, geometric forms and abstract spots; second, natural +organic objects such as flowers, leaves, animals, etc.; third, +artificial objects, pots, jars, ink bottles, and other similar objects. + +He may assemble or group these objects or elements for future designs +into four typical systems: first, bands or borders; second, panels; +third, free ornament; and fourth, the diaper or all-over patterns. + + +DESIGNING BANDS ON BORDERS + +Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, that is, +onward movement._ + +Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary +motion, opposed to the main forward movement._ + +[Sidenote: Bands] + +Bands are particularly suitable for inlaying. They are composed of +straight lines arranged in some orderly and structurally related manner. +They are used for bordering, framing, enclosing, or connecting. They +give a decided _onward_ motion which tends to increase the apparent +length of the surface to which they are applied. Referring to Plate 32, +Figure 192, we find three typical bands, _A_, _B_, and _C_. It is often +the custom to limit the width of the inlayed bands to the width of the +circular saw cut. To secure unity, the center band in _C_ is wider than +the outside sections. + +[Sidenote: Accenting] + +A possible variation of motive in band designing may be secured by +accenting. The single band has been broken up at _D_ into geometric +sections of pleasing length. But while this design gives variety, it +also destroys the unity of a single straight line. Unity may, however, +be restored by the addition of the top and bottom bands at _E_. This +method of restoring unity is of extreme value in all border arrangements +and is constantly used by the designer. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +APPLICATION OF BANDS AND BORDERS + +PLATE 34] + +Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison with the +main movement of the border._ + +[Sidenote: Borders] + +Bands, as has just been stated, give distinctly "onward" movement. +Borders are merely bands combined with other motives from the designer's +vocabulary. As will be seen, bands, by their onward movement, tend to +hold the other elements of the border together. Figure 193 is a border +design without variety, unity, or interest. Figure 194 has added unity +to a similar border by the addition of the double bands, but monotony is +still present. Figure 195 suggests a method of relieving the monotony by +accentuating every other repeat, thus supplying variety and creating an +analogy to march-time music. Figure 196 has accentuated the monotonous +border in Figure 194 by omitting every other square. This makes a simple +and effective inlay pattern and suggests a large number of possible +variations that could be applied to accented band motives. + +[Sidenote: Moorish Ornament] + +Figures 197 and 198 are border motives of geometric derivation taken +from the historic schools of ornament. Figure 198 illustrates the "strap +ornament" of the Moorish school. The simple underlying geometric net +upon which these designs are based may be found in Meyer's Handbook of +Ornament. + + +INCEPTIVE AXES + +Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly +upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the +lateral movement dominates._ + +[Sidenote: Upward and Onward Borders] + +In addition to the purely onward borders we now come to a variety with a +distinctly _upward_ movement as well. While this new feature adds +materially to the interest of the border, it also adds to the difficulty +of designing. The upward movement is often centered about an axis termed +the Axis of Symmetry or Inceptive Axis, about which are grouped and +balanced the different elements from the designer's vocabulary. When +both sides are alike, the unit so formed is called a _bilateral unit_. +Figure 199 shows the formation of a bilateral unit by means of grouping, +accenting, and balancing straight lines over an inceptive axis. By +adding bands above and below and doubling these vertical lines to gain +width, we form at _A_ and _B_, Figure 199, inlaid designs with an upward +and onward tendency or movement. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 215.--Inlaid Band Border] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 216.--Single and Double Band Inlaid Border] + +The introduction of curved lines and natural units allows us to add more +grace to these combined movements. The leading lines of a small border, +designed to be seen at close range, are planned in Figure 200. The +central line or inceptive axis is repeated at regular intervals and the +leading or skeleton lines are balanced to the right and left of this +axis. These leading lines, as can be readily seen, have an upward and +onward movement. To insure continuity, a small link and the top and +bottom bands have been added to complete the onward movement. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ + +FIGURE 216a.--Work of High School Students] + +Material for straight borders may be derived from geometry, nature, or +artificial forms, but for borders designed in curves, nature is +generally selected as a source. + +Figure 201 illustrates a crude and uninteresting form, unsuited to +outline enrichment. Figure 202 has brought Figure 201 into some +semblance of order, but as can be readily seen by the primary outline +which encloses it, the widest point occurs exactly midway from top to +bottom, which makes the form monotonous. This defect has been remedied +in Figure 203 and an interesting and varied area appears for the first +time. What Dr. Haney calls "the feebly flapping curve" of Figure 202 has +been replaced by the vigorous and "snappy" curve of Figure 203, which +gives what is termed a dynamic or rhythmic value in surface enrichment. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ + +FIGURE 216b.--Work of High School Students] + +Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic +and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the border._ + +Any form which causes the eye to move in a given direction is strongly +_dynamic_, and is opposed to the _static_ form which does not cause a +marked eye movement. A circle is symbolic of the static form, while a +triangle is dynamic. In the designer's nomenclature, the term "rhythmic" +may be used synonymously with "dynamic." + +Dynamic areas or forms should carry out the upward and onward movement +of the leading lines. Figure 204 shows how closely dynamic areas are +connected with nature's units for design motives. A slight change in the +contour may transform a leaf into excellent material with which to +clothe the leading lines. The curve of force, the cyma, and other curves +described in previous chapters should be recognized by the designer and +utilized in the contours of dynamic forms. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ + +FIGURE 216c.--Instruction Sheet Problem] + +The leading lines of the border in Figure 200 are shown clothed or +enriched in Figure 205. Vigorous dynamic spots, conventionalized from +natural units, continue the upward and onward movement of the original +leading lines. As will be noted, the background has been treated to +allow the spots to appear in relief. Small "fussy" spots or areas have +been omitted and the units, varied in size and strongly dynamic in form, +balance over an inceptive axis. The small link reaches out its helping +hand to complete the onward movement without loss of unity, while the +bands above and below bind the design together and assist in the lateral +movement. Figure 205 shows three methods of treatment: simple spots +without modeling, from _A_ to _B_; slight indications of modeling, from +_B_ to _C_; full modeling of the entire unit at _C_. The choice of +treatment depends, of course, upon the skill of the craftsman. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 217.--Carved and Accented Border and Triple Carved Band] + +Figure 206 shows a design varied from formal balance over a central axis +of symmetry or an inceptive axis. It has a decided onward movement with +the leaves balanced above and below the stem which is the axis. The +"repeat" has been reversed at _B_ and is more pleasing than the portion +at _A_. The area of the background, in its relation to that used for +ornamentation or "filling," cannot be predetermined with exactness. +There should be no blank spaces for the eye to bridge. Some designers +allow about one-third ground for two-thirds filling or enrichment. +This proportion gives a full and rich effect and may be adopted in most +instances as satisfactory. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of C.E. Partch_ + +PLATE 35.--Instruction Sheet] + +[Sidenote: Point of Concentration--Effect upon Structure] + +When a border is used to parallel a rectangle it is customary to +strengthen the border at the corners for two reasons: first, to +strengthen, apparently, the structure at these points; second, to assist +the eye in making the sudden turn at the corner. The corner enforcement +affords momentary resting points for the eye, and adds pleasing variety +to the long line of border. The strengthened point is called the _point +of concentration_ or point of force. Its presence and effect may be +noted by the symbol P.C. in Figures 207, 208, 213, and 214. + +[Sidenote: Chip Carving] + +Figure 213 represents the rather angular and monotonous chip carving +motive. It is, however, a simple form of carved enrichment for wood +construction. Figure 214 shows the more rhythmic flow of a carved and +modeled enrichment. Two methods of leaf treatment are given at _A_ and +_B_. + +Figures 215, 216, and 217 are industrial and public school examples of +the forms of surface enrichment treated in this chapter. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 35 shows the necessary working drawings for wood inlay + and is supplied as a typical high school problem by Mr. C.E. + Partch of Des Moines, Iowa. See Figure 216c. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle, appendage, etc. + + (_b_) Subdivide the rectangle into its horizontal and vertical + subdivisions. + + (_c_) Design very simple contour enrichment. + + (_d_) Determine the location of zone of enrichment, and the + amount and method of enriching the surface. + + (_e_) Make several preliminary sketches to determine the best + design and add the one finally selected to the structure. + Correlate with contour enrichment. + + (_f_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare + the drawing for shop use. + +SUGGESTED PROBLEM + + Design a walnut side table 3 feet high and enrich with a double + band inlay of ebony. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._ + + Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural + contours but must not obscure the actual structure._ + + Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._ + + Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, + that is, onward movement._ + + Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent + contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement._ + + Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison + with the main movement of the border._ + + Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly + dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movement of the + border._ + + Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a + strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, + provided the lateral movement dominates._ + + Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or + glaring contrasts with the parent surface._ + + Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance + of belonging to the parent mass._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + 1. Give the reasons why surface enrichment may be used as + decoration. + + 2. State an original example illustrating when and where to use + surface enrichment. + + 3. Name an object from the industrial arts in which the + structure has been weakened or obscured by the application of + surface enrichment. Name an example of the correct use of + surface enrichment and state wherein it has been correctly + applied. + + 4. How should surface enrichment of small masses differ from + that applied to larger masses; in what manner does the fiber of + the wood affect the design? + + 5. Name three means of enriching the surface of wood. Briefly + describe the processes of inlaying and carving, with the design + restrictions governing each. + + 6. Give three sources of ornament open to the designer of + surface enrichment. + + 7. Draw an accented triple band motive for inlay. + + 8. What is the inceptive axis; a bilateral unit? What are + leading lines; dynamic forms; points of concentration? + + 9. Design an upward and onward continuous carved border for + wood and base it upon a vertical inceptive axis. Treat as in A, + Figure 205. + + 10. Illustrate the manner in which structure may be apparently + strengthened by a band or border. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD--Continued + +ENCLOSED AND FREE ORNAMENT + + +[Sidenote: Enclosed Ornament (Panels)] + +Chapter IX dealt with methods of developing continuous or repeating +ornament (bands or borders). This leaves enclosed and free forms of +surface enrichment to be considered in this chapter. + +As an enclosed form, a panel may be enriched by geometric, natural, or +artificial ornament. It is enclosed in a definite boundary of bands or +lines and may be a square or other polygon, circle, ellipse, lunette, +spandrel, lozenge, or triangle. As the decoration does not have the +continuous repeating movement of the border and as it covers an enclosed +area, it is necessarily treated in a different manner from either band +or border. Its object is to decorate a plane surface. The enrichment may +be made by means of carving, inlaying, or painting. + +[Sidenote: Free Ornament] + +Free ornament means the use of motives not severely enclosed by bands or +panels. Free ornament is generally applied to centers or upper portions +of surfaces to relieve a monotonous area not suited to either panel or +border treatment. It may have an upward or a radial movement dependent +upon the character of the member to be enriched. + +[Sidenote: Summary] + +We then have three forms of possible surface enrichment: repeating or +continuous motives, enclosed motives, and free motives. Our next point +is to consider where the last two may be used appropriately in surface +enrichment. + +[Sidenote: Zone of Enrichment] + +The panel of a small primary mass of wood may be enriched at any one of +three places: first, at the margins; second, at the center; third, over +the entire surface. The exact position is a matter to be determined by +the structural design and the utilitarian requirements of the problem. +For example, a bread board or taboret top would require the enrichment +in the margin with the center left free. A table leg might require an +enrichment in the center of the upper portion of the leg, while a square +panel to be inserted in a door, Figure 233, Page 124, might require full +surface treatment. + +[Sidenote: Structural Reinforcement] + +Each area of panel enrichment should have one or more accented points +known as points of concentration. The design should become more +prominent at these places and cause the eye to rest for a moment before +passing to the next point of prominence. The accented portion of the +design at these points should be so related to the structure that it +apparently reinforces the structure as a whole. Corners, centers of +edges, and geometric centers are salient parts of a structure; we shall +therefore be likely to find our points of concentration coinciding with +them. Let us then consider the first of these arrangements as applied to +enclosed enrichment. + + +MARGINAL PANEL ENRICHMENT + +ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES + +Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the +outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich._ + +Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed +(1) preferably at the corner or (2) in the center of each margin._ + +Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing +the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be +related to the panel contour and to each other._ + +[Sidenote: Marginal Zone Enrichment] + +The marginal method of enrichment may be used when it is impossible to +enrich the entire surface because the center is to be used for +utilitarian purposes or because it would be aesthetically unwise to +enrich the entire surface. The marginal zone is adapted to enriching box +tops, stands, table tops, and similar surfaces designed preferably with +the thought of being seen from above. We shall call such surfaces +horizontal planes. + +As the design is to be limited to the margin, the panel outline is bound +to parallel the contours, or outlines, of the surface to be enriched. It +is well to begin the design by creating a panel parallel to the outlines +of the enriched surface. Figure 218. The next step is to place the point +of concentration in the marginal zone and within this figure. Common +usage dictates the _corners_ as the proper points. [Sidenote: Points of +Concentration] + +[Sidenote: Points of Concentration in the Corner of Margin] + +It may be the designer's practice to use the single or double bands, +Figures 218, 219, 220, with a single accentuation at the corners. The +spots composing the point of concentration must have unity with the +enclosing contours and with the remainder of the enrichment. Figure 220 +is, in this respect, an improvement over Figure 219. But these examples +are not _true_ enclosed panel enrichment. They are the borders of +Chapter IX acting as marginal enrichment. It is not until we reach +Figure 221 that the true enclosed enrichment appears, when the panel +motive is clearly evident. In this figure a single incised band +parallels the contours of the figure until the corner is reached. Here +we find it turning, gracefully widening to give variety, and supporting +the structure by its own increased strength. The single band in Figure +221 acts as a bridge, leads the eye from one point of concentration to +the next similar point, forms a compact mass with the point of +concentration, and parallels the enclosing contours of the enriched +surface. + +[Sidenote: Points of Concentration in the Center of Margin] + +In Figure 222 the point of concentration is to be found in the _center_ +of each margin. This bilateral unit is clearly designed on and about the +center lines of the square panel. These points of concentration take the +place of previous concentrations at the _corners_ which were based upon +the square's diagonals. While accenting based upon the center lines is +acceptable, this means of concentration does not seem so successfully to +relate the accented part to the structural outlines as that of +concentration based upon the diagonals. The latter, therefore, is +recommended for beginners. The corners of Figure 222 are, however, +slightly accented by means of the bridging spots _x-x_. + +[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes or Balancing Lines] + +The diagonals and center lines of the surface enriched squares of +Figures 221 and 222 and similar structural lines are _inceptive axes_, +as they are center lines for new design groups. It may then be said that +a strong basic axis or similar line depending upon the structure, may +become the center line or inceptive axis upon which to construct a +bilateral design. It is only necessary to have this inceptive axis pass +through the enrichment zone of the panel. Hereafter in the drawings, +inceptive axes will be designated by the abbreviation I.A. while the +point of concentration will be indicated by the abbreviation P.C. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +MARGINAL ENRICHMENT OF SQUARE AREAS + +SYMBOLS: {PC} POINT OF CONCENTRATION; {IA} INCEPTIVE AXIS + +TOOL PROCESSES. INLAYING AND CARVING + +PLATE 36] + +[Sidenote: Inceptive Axis] + +The strongest plea for the inceptive axis is the fact that it interlocks +surface enrichment with the structure, insuring a degree of unity that +might otherwise be unattainable. + +The carved enrichment of Figure 223 fully illustrates this point. The +analytical study of Figure 224 shows the diagonal used as an inceptive +axis, with the leading lines grouped about it at the corner point of +concentration. + + +FREE ENRICHMENT + +Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be +based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure._ + +Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the +structural surfaces._ + +Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically +placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and +above or below the geometric center of the design._ + +[Sidenote: Center Zone Enrichment] + +This method of surface enrichment is used to relieve the design of heavy +members in the structure or to distribute ornament over the surface of +lighter parts in a piece of furniture. An example is noted in Figure +246, Page 128, where the upper portion of the legs has center +enrichment. As can be readily seen, the enrichment is generally free in +character with little or no indication of enclosure. Figure 225 shows +the application of free enrichment to a paneled screen or hinged door. +The P.C. is in the upper portion of the door and is re-echoed in the +door frames, while the ornament itself is strongly dynamic in movement +with a decided upward tendency in sympathy with the proportions of the +door. This motive might be developed by inlay, carving, or paint. + +Figure 226 is a carved Gothic leaf, appropriately used as enrichment of +heavy furniture. The unit may be raised above the surface or, even more +easily, depressed or incised into the surface. The small corner spot is +added with the intention of bringing the leaf into sympathetic +conformity with the contours. Note how the center line of both units in +Figures 225 and 226 coincides with the inceptive axis of the structure. +Let it again be reiterated that this binding of the surface enrichment +to the structure by means of the coincidence of the axes of symmetry +and the inceptive axes causes the most positive kind of unity. No part +of this form of enrichment should be carved sufficiently high to give it +the appearance of being separated from the main surface. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +FREE CENTER ENRICHMENT FOR VERTICAL AREAS + +TOOL PROCESSES: INLAYING, LOW RELIEF CARVING + +PLATE 37] + +[Sidenote: Examples of Free Enrichment] + +Figures 227 and 228 are additional examples of free enrichment. Figure +228 has introduced by its monogram the individual touch of ownership so +essential to the success of school designing. The monogram represents +free enrichment while the border is marginal decoration with the point +of concentration in the center of the top edge. Both types of enrichment +are related to each other and to the structural contours. + +[Sidenote: Pierced Free Enrichment] + +[Sidenote: Errors in the Use of Pierced Enrichment] + +Figure 229 is typical free _pierced_ enrichment. The wood in the +enriched portion is removed and the resulting figure supplies added +lightness of construction and variety to the surface. One encounters +this form of enrichment in the average school project with greater +frequency than either inlaying or carving. It is with the thought of +adding to the possibilities of school project decoration that the latter +forms have been introduced. A word regarding the errors often +encountered in pierced enrichment of the character of Figure 229 may not +be amiss. Pupils, believing the square to be the last word in this form +of enrichment, place the figure on the member to be enriched with little +thought of its possible relation to the structural contours; the result +is the un-unified design illustrated in Figure 230. To correct this, +reference should be made to Rule 8b. + + +FULL PANEL ENRICHMENT + +Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the +outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._ + +[Sidenote: Full Surface Enrichment] + +This is the richest and most elaborate form of enrichment when carried +to its full perfection. It generally takes the form of a panel filled +with appropriate design material. This panel may be used to enrich the +plain end of a project such as a book stall and thus cover the entire +surface, or it may be inserted into a large primary mass and accentuate +its center as in a door, in a manner similar to Figure 233. Its use, +whatever its position, leads us to the consideration of methods of +designing full panels. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT: SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR PANELS--TOOL PROCESSES +CARVING, INLAYING + +PLATE 38] + +Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel +may be in its center or in its outer margin._ + +[Sidenote: Square Panels] + +In planning designs for full panels, it would be well to consider: +first, square panels; second, rectangular panels; third, varied panels. +The point of concentration may be kept in the _corners_ of a square +panel, as designed in Figure 231, or it may be placed in the _center_, +as shown in Figure 232. The effects, when assembled, are indicated in +Figure 233. + +To secure these effects, a square panel is commonly divided into quarter +sections by center lines. The diagonals of each quarter should be drawn +before proceeding with the details of the design. These diagonals and +center lines are the building lines or leading _axes_ of the pattern. +The _leading lines and details_ are then grouped around these center and +diagonal axes in a manner quite similar to the method used in Figures +223 and 224. These leading lines are then _clothed with enrichment_ by +applying the processes indicated in Chapter IX. + +[Sidenote: Steps in Panel Designing] + +Without going into detail we may say that it is good practice: first, to +draw the square panel; second, to draw the center lines and diagonals; +third, to locate points of concentration; fourth, to make the leading +lines move inwardly to center concentration or outwardly to corner +concentration; fifth, to clothe these lines with ornament having +strongly dynamic movement corresponding to the leading lines; sixth, to +fill in remaining space with ornament, supporting the movement toward +points of concentration, even though slight and minor contrasts of +direction are added to give variety. When the entire design is completed +one should ask the following questions: Does the design have unity? Does +it seem too thin and spindling? And most of all, do the points of +concentration and shape of the panel fit the structural outlines and +proportions? We cannot fit a square peg into a round hole; neither can +we fit a square panel into a circular or rectangular mass without +considerable change to the panel. + +Figures 234 and 235 have been drawn with the idea of suggesting a simple +and modified form of panel enrichment which may be readily handled by +the beginner. The tree as a decorative symbol is appropriate to wood, +and its adaption to a square panel is drawn at Figure 235. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +ENCLOSED PANEL ENRICHMENT--FORMAL AND FREE BALANCE + +APPLICATION OF NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MOTIVES + +PLATE 39] + +[Sidenote: Rectangular Panels] + +While a rectangular panel may be divided into sections by a number of +different methods, it is well for the beginner in design to treat it as +a vertical mass, designed to enrich a vertical surface. This vertical +panel may then be divided into halves by the axis of symmetry, which +should coincide with an inceptive axis, but it is not essential to +balance the enrichment exactly in each half. Small deviations from exact +symmetry sometimes give added variety to the design. Figure 235. + +Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical +panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._ + +[Sidenote: Vertical Panels] + +The point of concentration in vertical panels should be in the upper +portion, and all parts of the design, both leading lines and clothing, +should have a strong upward tendency. Figure 236 is a vertical panel +from historic ornament. The heavier parts have been designed at the +bottom for stability and the lighter and more intricate members have +been placed at the top. + +Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed +in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of +the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure._ + +To see how to apply rectangular panels to wood surfaces, let us look at +Figure 240. This is a simple design with an incised background and might +be used for enriching a narrow paneled door, newel post, or frame. The +large areas are at the bottom; the point of concentration is at the top, +and the entire design balances over the inceptive axis. The point of +concentration consists of the geometrically treated small flower form, +with its original lines modified to simplify the carving processes. The +stem coincides with the inceptive axis, while narrow and sympathetically +related minor panels fill in the background and keep the design from +appearing weak and thin. + +[Sidenote: Adapting Data to Material] + +Figure 237 is an accurate rendering of the flower form and is the _data +or record of facts_ for Figure 240. Figure 238 introduces the method of +plotting the areas from these facts. Variety of form and area is, at +this stage, desirable. Figure 239 has assembled these areas into orderly +balance over the axis of symmetry. Figure 240 has again slightly +modified them to apply to the vertical panel in wood. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of Berkey and Gay_ + +FIGURE 246.--Example of Free and Marginal Enrichment] + + +VARIED PANELS + +[Sidenote: Panels of Varied Shapes] + +The panels under consideration up to this time have been designed to +harmonize with square and rectangular contours. The panel may, however, +become a most flexible and sympathetic element, changing its form to +suit the ever-changing contours. But though change of shape affects the +contents of the panel to a certain extent the points of concentration +and the inceptive axes still act as our guide. Objects are arranged +formally on each side of the inceptive axes and the space filling is +approximately the same as in former examples. + +[Sidenote: Use of Artificial Objects] + +The still life sketches of the art class may be conventionalized into +appropriate motives for utilitarian objects as shown in Figure 241. This +use of still life suggests a most desirable correlation and a welcome +one to many drawing teachers. Three points should be kept in mind: +first, adaptability of the object, its decorative possibilities, and +appropriateness to service; second, adjustment of the panel to contours; +third, adjustment of the object to the wood panel. + +Some portion of the object should be designed to parallel the panel. +Small additional spots may assist in promoting harmony between the +object and the panel boundary. These three considerations are +essentially necessary factors in the design of enclosed enrichment. +Figures 242 and 243 are other adaptations of panel design to varied +contours. + +[Sidenote: Free Balance] + +In the foregoing examples the designs are more or less rigidly balanced +over the inceptive axis or axis of symmetry. Imaginary axis it is, but, +acting with the panel, it nevertheless arbitrarily limits the position +of all parts within the panel. By removing this semblance of formal +balance, we approach what is termed _free balance_. In this we find that +the designer attempts to balance objects informally over the geometric +center of the panel or combined panels. As the arrow points in Figure +244 indicate, the problem is to balance the trees in an informal and +irregular manner, avoiding "picket fence" regularity. In all of this +freedom there is a sense of order, since a mass of trees on one side of +the geometric center is balanced by a similar mass on the other side. +Indeed, in Figure 244 this may be carried even to the point of +duplicating in reverse order the outside panels of the Triptych. + +[Illustration: RULES 7D TO 7E--ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH +APPLICATION OF STILL LIFE TO A FULLY ENRICHED SURFACE + +PLATE 40] + +Figure 245 again reverts to artificial motives, illustrated in free +balance. The jet of steam is the unifying factor which brings the cup +into harmony with the enclosing space. Figure 246 shows illustrations of +free balance and border enrichment from the industrial market. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 40 indicates the necessary design steps for a panel + surface enrichment correlating with still life drawing. Note + the connection between the ink bottle, pen, and book as used to + decorate a book stall. + + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + FOR SQUARE PANEL SURFACE ENRICHMENT + + (_a_) Draw the primary rectangle of the principal surface, + appendages, etc. + + (_b_) Subdivide into major vertical and horizontal divisions. + + (_c_) Design simple contour enrichment. Determine location of + zone of enrichment (the panel), the amount and method of + enriching the surface. + + (_d_) Draw outline of the panel which should be sympathetically + related to the contours. + + (_e_) Draw diameters, diagonals, or center lines of the panel. + Regard these as possible inceptive axes. + + (_f_) Locate points of concentration on either diameters, + diagonals, or center lines. + + (_g_) Draw leading lines in sympathy with the contours of the + panel, the inceptive axis, and the point of concentration. + + (_h_) Clothe the leading lines with enrichment that shall be + appropriate to the structure, the material, and the intended + service. Note the result. Is the panel agreeably filled without + appearing overcrowded or meager? Several preliminary sketches + should be made. + + (_i_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare + the drawing for shop use. + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEM + + Design a glove box and enrich the cover with a simple carved + panel with marginal panel enrichment. + + +SUMMARY OF RULES + +ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED PANELS + + Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be + related to the outlines of the primary mass, and to the panel + it is to enrich._ + + Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be + placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of + each margin._ + + Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements + composing the points of concentration and the links connecting + them must be related to the panel contour and to each other._ + + + ENCLOSED SURFACE ENRICHMENT FOR FULLY ENRICHED PANELS + + Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel + the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._ + + Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched + square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin._ + + Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched + vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._ + + Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be + designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with + the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis + of the structure._ + + + FREE SURFACE ENRICHMENT + + Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces + should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the + structure._ + + Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to + the structural surfaces._ + + Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of + vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the + inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the + design._ + + Postulate: _Surface enrichment should be inseparably linked to + the surface and to the outlines or contours_. + + + REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What is a panel? + + 2. State three sections or areas at which a panel may be + enriched. Give reasons for selecting a given area. + + 3. Explain relation of point of concentration to each section. + + 4. In marginal enrichment, is it preferable to locate the point + of concentration in the center or corner of the margin? Why? + + 5. What is the value of an inceptive axis with relation to the + unity of a design? What is its relation to the structure? + + 6. Give the characteristics and use of free enrichment. + + 7. State the use of full panel enrichment. + + 8. Where may the point of concentration be located in full + square panel enrichment? + + 9. Name six steps essential to the designing of a square panel. + + 10. For what specific purpose is a vertical rectangular panel + adapted? + + 11. Where should the point of concentration be located in a + vertical rectangular panel? + + 12. Draw a flower form and adapt it to a carved enrichment in + wood. + + 13. To what uses are panels of varied shapes adapted? + + 14. How may artificial objects be adapted to surface + enrichment? + + 15. Explain the term "free balance." + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN +WOOD + + +[Sidenote: Minor Subdivisions] + +This article is, in part, a brief summary and review of Rules 2a, 2b, +3a, 3b, 3c (vertical and horizontal major divisions) with application to +minor subdivisions. By minor spacings or subdivisions in wood work we +refer to the areas occupied by drawers, doors, shelves, and other small +parts subordinated in size to the large or major divisions such as large +front or side panels, etc. These smaller or minor subdivisions in wood +work are bounded by runners, rails, guides, and stiles depending upon +the form of construction and character of the minor subdivision. Major +divisions are often bounded by legs, table tops, and principal rails. + +It is an interesting and useful fact that rules governing major +divisions generally apply equally well to minor ones. There are a few +exceptions and additions to be noted in their appropriate places. + +When minor subdivisions are well planned they supply one of the most +interesting forms of surface enrichment or treatment, for if we consider +paneling an appropriate form of decoration, we are equally privileged to +feel that each small drawer or door adds its quota of interest to the +sum total of the entire mass. We are equally justified in accenting +these drawers or doors with panel decoration or other forms of surface +enrichment provided that harmony is maintained. + +These minor subdivisions, properly enriched, may become equalizers, or +elements which adjust the design to the character of the surroundings +destined to receive the project of which they are a part. + +[Sidenote: Vertical Sections and Their Divisions] + +With reference to the illustrations, Figure 247, Plate 41, shows a +simple minor panel treatment falling under Rule 3a. Single or preferably +double band inlay might have been suitably substituted for the sunken +panels. As many craftsmen are not properly equipped to produce inlays, +it is practicable to use stock inlays, thus simplifying the process. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SPACE DIVISIONS FOR +LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD. + +ACCENTUATION OF MINOR VERTICAL DIVISIONS + +PLATE 41] + +[Sidenote: Minor Subdivisions of Three Vertical Major Parts or +Divisions] + +In a three-part design it is the designer's desire to gain the effect of +lightness and height by the use of Rule 3b. As a simple treatment of a +three-part design, Figure 248 needs little comment. Figures 249 and 250 +are examples of dividing, by means of minor divisions, the outer +sections of a three-part design. + +The small drawers in the right and left sections of Figure 250 might +have been improved in proportion by again applying Rule 2a to their +design, thereby varying the measure of their heights. The enclosed panel +enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise unvaried front +panels. Rule 7g. + +[Sidenote: Unbroken Vertical Divisions] + +Figures 251 and 252 show unbroken drawer runners continuing through all +three vertical sections, thus definitely binding these sections +together. It is seen that this device is conducive to unity, whenever +two or three vertical divisions have been used. + +Figure 252 is a repetition of Figure 251, but shows the echo or +continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the +appendage. The use of the single or double band enrichment still further +binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal unity with +the appendage. + + +SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS + +Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller +horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at +the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass +toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the +mass._ + +[Sidenote: Sequential Arrangement of Minor Horizontal Divisions] + +Rule 2c. Let us now imagine the center section of a three-part design to +be removed and extended upward. Its transformation by this process into +a cabinet or chiffonier similar to Figure 253, Plate 42, introduces the +new principle of _sequential progression_. Instead of adhering to the +limitation of Rules 2a and 2b, this arrangement shows that the +horizontal divisions may be gradually decreased in height from the +bottom toward the top of the primary mass. By this rhythmic decrease in +the measure of the height, the eye is led through an orderly gradation +through lesser areas to the top, thus giving a pleasing sensation of +lightness and variety to the structure. By this method, also, the large +areas are retained at the bottom to give stability and solidity to the +structure. A quick test of these conditions may be made by reversing +Figure 254, thus producing a more decidedly pleasing effect. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SPACE DIVISIONS FOR LARGE +PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +SEQUENTIAL ARRANGEMENT OF MINOR HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS IN ONE OR THREE +VERTICAL DIVISIONS + +PLATE 42] + +[Sidenote: Sequential Arrangements--(_Continued_)] + +This orderly gradation or sequence of heights need not be carried out +with absolute mathematical precision such as 7 - 6 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1. +Arrangements similar to the following progression make for equally +pleasing and more varied effect: 9-1/4 - 8 - 6-3/4 - 6 - 5 - 4-3/4. Many +designers repeat similar heights for two neighboring horizontal spaces +as, 6 - 5 - 5 - 4-3/4, but the upward gradation should be apparent. +Figure 255, an Austrian motive, shows a strongly marked sequence with +the top division broken by Rule 3b. It is better practice to keep such +attempts confined to the bottom or top members of the sequence or loss +of unity may be the final result. + +By applying this principle to the center section of a three-part design, +we now have illustrated in Figure 256 the new sequence in its +application, and Figures 257 and 258 are variations of the same idea. + +[Sidenote: Two Horizontal and Three Vertical Divisions] + +We now come to the transitional type of design where three _vertical_ +sections begin to lose their dominance as major divisions, but still +retain their places in the design as minor sections. Replacing these in +prominence is the _horizontal_ major section or division. The first +immediate result of this change as shown in Plate 43 is to produce a +more compact surface with a greater impression of length because of the +presence of strongly accented horizontal lines which are always +associated with horizontal divisions. This transitional style with its +minor but dominant horizontal divisions would harmonize with the long +horizontal lines of a room or similar lines in the furniture. The full +expression of this style or type will be readily seen by comparing +Plates 43 and Figures 251 and 252, Plate 41. Several styles of period +furniture have been introduced in Plate 43 to prove the universality of +these principles of space divisions. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SUB DIVISIONS FOR LARGE +PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +THREE VERTICAL DIVISIONS CROSSED BY TWO HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS + +PLATE 43] + +[Sidenote: Dominance of Lower or Upper Sections] + +Figures 259, 260, and 262, Plate 43, are divided by three minor vertical +sections cut by two minor horizontal divisions with the dominance in the +_lower section_. Rule 2a. The arrangement of the small central drawers +could have been more varied by the application of the principle of +sequential progression. Figures 261 and 263 show similar vertical +spacings with a difference in the arrangements of the horizontal +divisions. In these figures the dominance has been placed in the _upper +section_ of the primary mass by the division created by the runner above +the lower drawer. It is likewise seen that Figure 263 needs a top +appendage to bind the top into closer unity with minor spacings. + +[Sidenote: Transitional Types] + +In carrying the transitional type to which we have referred in the +previous paragraphs from the vertical space influence toward the +horizontal, we are gradually approaching _three minor horizontal +divisions_, still maintaining three minor vertical divisions in a +modified and less prominent form. Figure 264 is an approach toward three +horizontal divisions. As only one clear-cut horizontal space division is +visible, this figure is not a pure example. The upper horizontal space +division is broken up into a three-part design by the drawer guides. It +is not until we reach Figure 266 that three horizontal divisions are +clearly evident. + + +HORIZONTAL DIVISIONS + +[Sidenote: Three Minor Horizontal Divisions Cut by Varying Numbers of +Vertical Divisions] + +The horizontal minor divisions in furniture are generally drawer runners +and the vertical minor divisions are often drawer guides. The horizontal +divisions may be arranged in either one of two ways: first, by the +application of Rule 2b; or second, by applying Rule 2c, the rule of +sequential progression. Figures 266, 267, and 268, Plate 44, are +representative of the former while Figures 269 and 270 are typical of +the latter. The result in either case is a compactly designed and solid +mass of simple structural lines. On some occasions we find the +three-part rule used for minor divisions within the horizontal sections, +while again the two-part rule is used. The method depends upon the +desired use and appearance. In either case the long areas and large +masses are to be retained as far as possible near the bottom of each +primary mass, as this custom tends to give a sense of solidity to the +design. + +[Sidenote: Four Vertical Divisions] + +Figure 271 is a rare reversion to more than three vertical divisions. In +this case, Rule 3c has been observed and we find all of the panels are +of equal size. Variety has been secured by means of the horizontal +spacings. + + +FREE BALANCE + +[Sidenote: Free Minor Space Treatment] + +[Sidenote: Free Balance] + +This form of design is inherent in the Japanese system. It consists in +the planning and balancing of unequal areas over a geometric center. It +is not subject to definite rules as is the more formal balancing. The +reader is referred to Mr. Arthur Dow's excellent book on Composition for +further discussion of the subject. Figure 272, Plate 45, is an example +of partly formal and partly free balance and its method of treatment. + +[Sidenote: Carving and Piercing as Applied to Large Masses] + +Figures 273 and 274 are pierced designs, thoroughly related to the +structure and in no way weakening it. Figure 273 is representative of a +type which, if carried to extremes, will cause the structure to become +too weak for service; it is, therefore, necessary to guard and restrict +this form of enrichment. The carving of Figure 275, combined with the +contour enrichment, forms a pleasing variation to this common type of +furniture design. + +Small minor details in furniture construction should be designed with as +much care as the larger major or minor parts. The larger areas or spaces +in small details similar to stationery shelves and pigeon holes must +harmonize in proportion with the space in which they are placed and of +which they are a part. + +[Sidenote: Small Minor Details of Large Primary Masses] + +The three-part or three-vertical division system, Rule 3b, is generally +used to design the small details in furniture as may be seen in Figures +276, 277, 278, and 279; while the rule of sequence, Rule 2c, may be +employed again to subdivide these small details in a horizontal +direction with as much variety as is consistent with unity. Figure 280 +is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors. Note the leading lines +of the enrichment as they parallel the dominant proportions of the panel +opening. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 46 is a typical high school sheet of design problems, + with the masses accentuated by pen shading. See Plate 15. + + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) to (_e_). See similar steps in Chapter IV. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT AND MINOR SUB DIVISIONS FOR LARGE +PRIMARY MASSES IN WOOD + +FREE MINOR SPACINGS. APPENDAGES. PIERCED AND CARVED ENRICHMENT. + +PLATE 45] + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEM + + Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack. The + primary mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and + three minor vertical divisions, with the horizontal divisions + accented. + + +SUMMARY OF RULES + +SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS + + Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more + smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger + mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the + height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or + divisions to be located at the top of the mass._ + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What are minor subdivisions in wood construction? + + 2. What is the effect of a design with dominant vertical major + divisions? State its use. + + 3. Show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major + divisions into minor subdivisions. + + 4. State the rule of sequential progression. Give illustrations + from the industrial arts. + + 5. Describe the transitional stage between the point where the + dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal + influence begins. + + 6. What is the effect of a design with dominant horizontal + major divisions? State its use. + + 7. Show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major + divisions into minor subdivisions. + + 8. What should be the relation in a design between the details + of a project and the divisions of the primary mass? + +[Illustration: INSTRUCTION SHEET + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE MASSES IN WOOD + +DRAWING AND DESIGN BY A. J. FOX. U. OF W. + +PLATE 46] + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY + + +[Sidenote: Limitations for Surface Enrichment] + +In some respects the surface enrichment of clay is similar to that of +wood as, for example, the similarity produced by inlays in clay and in +wood. On the other hand the enrichment of clay is unhampered by the +restricting effects of unequal resistance of the material, such as the +grain of wood. Again it _is_ limited to those effects or forms of +enrichment that are capable of withstanding the intense heat to which +ceramic decoration is subjected. See Frontispiece. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries_ + +FIGURE 281.--Filling the Saggars before Firing] + +[Sidenote: Decorative Processes of Surface Enrichment] + +Before proceeding with a design it is well for one to understand clearly +the possibilities of clay enrichment. He must know what kind of designs +are best suited to clay as a medium, to the intended service, and to the +ultimate application of the heat of the pottery kiln. Without entering +into technicalities let us briefly discuss the following processes. +The first three deal with finger and tool manipulation of the clay body +and are consequently the simpler of the processes. The last five are +concerned chiefly with the addition of coloring pigments either to the +clay or to the glaze and are, therefore, more complex in character. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of The Rookwood Potteries_ + +FIGURE 282.--Stacking the Kiln] + +[Sidenote: Forms of Manipulation] + + +PROCESSES + +Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able +to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted._ + +Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be +simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material._ + +[Sidenote: Incising] + +1. This is the simplest form of enrichment, a process familiar to the +earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for beginners. It +consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into the clay body +to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. These lines +or planes should be bold and broad. They may be made with a blunt pencil +or a flat pointed stick. A square, rectangular, or round stick may be +used as a stamp with which to form a pattern for incising. Illustrations +of simple incising may be found in Figures 283, 284, 295, 319, 330. The +tiles shown are about six inches square. + +[Sidenote: Piercing] + +2. This process is less common and, as its name implies, is carried out +by cutting through the clay. It may be done with a fine wire. Either the +background or the design itself may be thus removed. The effect produced +is that of lightening an object such as the top of a hanging flower +holder, a window flower box, or a lantern shade. + +[Sidenote: Modeling] + +3. By adding clay to the main body, and by working this clay into low +relief flower or geometric forms, one has the basic process of modeling. +The slightly raised areas of clay form a pleasing play of light and +shade that varies the otherwise plain surface of the ware. The process +should be used with caution, for over-modeling, Figure 325, will +obstruct the structural outlines and, because of its over prominence as +decoration, will cease to be _surface enrichment_. In the technical +language of the designer over-modeling is an enrichment which is not +subordinated to the surface. In articles intended for service this high +relief modeling is unsanitary and unsatisfactory. + +Figures 286 and 287 show incising with slight modeling, while 324, 328, +and 329 are examples of more complex enrichment. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY + +RECTANGULAR AND SQUARE AREAS + +PLATE 47] + +[Sidenote: Introduction of Coloring Pigments] + +With the introduction of the second group comes an added interest and +difficulty, that of the introduction of color. Pigments that will +withstand the application of heat are suggested at different points. + +[Sidenote: Inlay] + +4. This process consists of removing certain areas from the clay body to +the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the depression with tinted +clay. Tints formed by the addition of ten per cent or less of burnt +umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will give interesting +effects. Figures 284, 285, 320, and 321 show forms which may be +developed by this process. + +Sgraffito, an Italian process, is more difficult than inlaying, but the +effect is similar. A thin layer of colored clay is placed over the +natural clay body, and the design is developed by cutting away this +colored coating in places, thus exposing the natural clay body. Figure +306. There are variations of this plan that may be attempted by the +advanced designer. + +[Sidenote: Slip Painting] + +5. Slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency of cream. For slip +painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not more than ten per +cent of coloring pigment as represented by the underglaze colors of the +ceramist. This thick, creamy, colored slip is then painted on the +surface of the clay body while damp, much as the artist would apply oil +colors. The ware, when thoroughly dried, is glazed and fired, which +produces the effect shown in Figures 290, 291, and 327. The color range +is large; almost any color may be used with the exception of reds and +strong yellows. A colorless transparent glaze should be used over +beginner's slip painting. + +[Sidenote: Colored Glazes] + +6. This process refers to the direct introduction of the colored pigment +into the glaze. By varying the glaze formula we may have a clear, +transparent, or glossy glaze similar to Figure 317, a dull surfaced +opaque effect, termed a matt glaze, Figure 332; or a glossy but opaque +faience glaze similar to the blue and white Dutch tiles. There are other +forms such as the crystalline and "reduced" glazes, but these as a rule +are far beyond the ability of the beginning craftsman in ceramics. + +[Sidenote: Combinations] + +It is possible to use these three types of glazed surface in various +ways. For example, a vase form with an interesting contour may be left +without further surface enrichment except that supplied by clear glaze +or by a colored matt similar to certain types of Teco Ware. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY + +SHALLOW CIRCULAR FORMS: PLATES, ETC + +PLATE 48] + +It is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised +designs, inlay or slip painting, increasing their beauty and the +serviceability of the ware. A semi-transparent glaze is sometimes placed +over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the Vellum Ware of the +Rookwood Potteries. Figure 332. Greens, blues, yellows, and browns, with +their admixtures, are the safest combinations for the craftsman who +desires to mix his own glazes. + +[Sidenote: Underglaze Painting] + +7. This process may be seen in the examples of Newcomb Pottery +illustrated particularly in Figure 314 or 326. The underglaze pigment is +thinly painted upon the fired "biscuit," or unglazed ware. A thin, +transparent glaze is then placed _over_ the color, and in the final +firing the underneath color shows through this transparent coating, thus +illustrating the origin of the name underglaze or under-the-glaze +painting. Sage-green and cobalt-blue underglaze colors are frequently +used in Newcomb designs with harmonious results. The outline of the +design is often incised and the underglaze color, settling into these +channels, helps to accentuate the design. Figure 314. + +[Sidenote: Porcelain or Overglaze Painting] + +8. This is popularly known as china painting and consists of painting +directly upon the glazed surface of the ware and placing it in a china +kiln where a temperature between 600 degrees and 900 degrees C. is +developed. At this point the coloring pigment melts or is fused into the +porcelain glaze, thus insuring its reasonable permanence. Figure 302. + +The eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on the +plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which number +the processes and are added to each figure number. Two processes are +sometimes suggested as possible for one problem. + +[Sidenote: Classification of Structural Clay Forms] + +Different clay forms require different modes of treatment. To simplify +these treatments will now be our problem. It has been found convenient +to form four divisions based upon the general geometric shape of the +ware. The first, Plate 47, includes rectangular and square areas; the +second, Plate 48, shallow and circular forms; the third, Plate 49, low +cylindrical forms; and the fourth, Plate 50, high cylindrical forms. The +first three divisions have distinct modes of design treatment, while the +fourth interlocks to a considerable extent with the third method. We +shall now consider each plate with reference to its use and possible +forms of enrichment. For the sake of brevity, the results have been +condensed into tabulated forms. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY + +LOW CYLINDRICAL FORMS + +PLATE 49] + +Each geometric form or type on these plates has not only distinctive +methods of design treatment but characteristic locations for placing the +design as well. These places or zones of enrichment have been indicated +in the following tabulated forms by the letters in parentheses. There +are a number of zones for each plate. For example, Plate 47 has its +distinctive problems as tiles, weights, etc., and five characteristic +zones of enrichment described on pages 153-155 and indicated by the +letters A, B, C, D, E, followed by a brief description of that zone. +Each zone is still further analyzed into its accompanying type of +design, inceptive axis, point of concentration, and illustrations. Each +plate has the proper zone of enrichment immediately following the figure +number and in turn followed by the process number. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Square and Rectangular Areas, Plate 47] + +_Problems_: Tiles for tea and coffee pots, paper weights, window boxes; +architectural tiles for floors, and fire places. + + * * * * * + + (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: In the margin. + + _Reason for Choice_: Central area to be devoted to zone of + service requiring simplicity in design. + + [Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] + + _Type of Design_: Bands or borders. + + _Inceptive Axis_: For corners; the bisector of the angle. + + _Points of Concentration_: The corners and, if desired, at + equal intervals between the corners. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 283, 284, 286, 287, 288. + + * * * * * + + (_B_) _Zone of Enrichment_: center of surface, free ornament. + + [Sidenote: Center Enrichment] + + _Type of Design_: Initials, monograms, street numbers, + geometric patterns, and other examples for free ornament. A + star or diamond is _not_ appropriate enrichment for a square + area unless properly related to the contour by connecting + areas. + + _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical or horizontal diameters or + diagonals. + + _Points of Concentration_: Center of embellishment. + + _Illustrations_: Figure 285. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY + +HIGH CYLINDRICAL FORMS. VASES, PITCHERS, ETC + +PLATE 50] + + (_C_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface enrichment in a + horizontal position. + + _Type of Design_: A symmetrical pattern generally radiating + from the geometric center of the surface and covering at least + two-thirds of the surface. + + [Sidenote: Full Vertical Surface Enrichment] + + _Inceptive Axes_: Diameters or diagonals of the area. + + _Points of Concentration_: At the corners or the center of the + outer margin; at geometric center, as in a rosette. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 283, 289, and 291. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Full Horizontal Surface Enrichment] + + (_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface enrichment in a + vertical position. + + _Type of Design_: A symmetrical pattern with a strong upward + movement and covering more than one-half of the surface. + + _Inceptive Axis_: The vertical center line. + + _Point of Concentration_: Upper section of the surface. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 290 and 292. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Free Balance] + + (_E_) _Zone of Enrichment_: free balance over full surface. + + _Type of Design_: Semi-decorative motive preferably covering + the entire surface. + + _Inceptive Axis_: Masses freely balanced over the geometric + center of the area. + + _Point of Concentration_: Near, but not in the exact center. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298. + + _Note_: The points of concentration should be accented by + slight contrast of value and hue. See chapters on color. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 48] + + _Problems_: Plates, saucers, ash trays, card receivers, almond + and candy bowls. + + * * * * * + + (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: margin of interior surface; margin + of exterior surface. + + _Type of Design_: Bands or borders thoroughly related to the + structural contours. Bands for exterior enrichment may be + placed directly on the contour, Figures 299 and 301, thus + forming an + +[Illustration: APPLIED AND CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN + +RULE 9: ENRICHMENT OF THE PRIMARY MASS BY A BORDER + +PROBLEM: ENRICHMENT OF CLASS 2 (POTTERY) + +PLATE 51.--Instruction Sheet] + +[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] + + accented contour (_F_) or slightly removed from it, as in + Figure 300. + + _Inceptive Axes_: For interior surfaces, the radii of the + contour circle generally supply the axes of symmetry. + + _Points of Concentration_: For interior surfaces, the points of + concentration may be placed in or near the radii of the area. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 302, 303, 304, 305, 306. + + * * * * * + + _Problems_: Cups, pitchers, steins, nut and rose bowls, low + vase forms. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 49] + + (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: upper margin of exterior. + + [Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] + + _Type of Design_: Borders of units joining each other or + connected by bands or spots acting as connecting links. Rule + 9c. + + _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of the exterior surface. + Elements are imaginary lines dividing the exterior surface into + any given number of vertical sections. Elements used as center + lines form the axes of symmetry about which the butterfly of + Figure 308 and similar designs are constructed. + + _Points of Concentration_: On each vertical element. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 316. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Full Vertical Surface Enrichment] + + (_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full vertical surface. + + _Type of Design_: Extended borders with strongly developed + vertical lines or forms. Less than one-half of the surface may + be covered. + + _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements. + + _Points of Concentration_: In upper portion of vertical + elements, hence in upper portion of area. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 307, 314, 317, 318. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: High Cylindrical Forms, Plate 50] + + (_E_) _Zone of Enrichment_: free balance of full surface. (See + _D_, above). + + _Illustration_: Figure 315. + + * * * * * + + _Problems_: Vases, jars, pitchers, tall flower holders, covered + jars for tea, crackers, or tobacco. + +[Sidenote: Marginal Enrichment] + + (_A_) _Zone of Enrichment_: margin of exterior. + + _Type of Design_: Borders of geometric units, freely balanced + floral units, and other natural motives placed in upper margin + of mass. + + _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of cylinder. + + _Points of Concentration_: In upper portion of vertical + elements. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 319, 320, 321, 327, 331, 332. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Full Surface Enrichment] + + (_D_) _Zone of Enrichment_: full surface of exterior. + + _Type of Design_: Free of formal conventionalized unit repeated + on each vertical element. The units may be juxtaposed or may be + connected by bands or similar links. + + _Inceptive Axes_: Vertical elements of cylinder. + + _Point of concentration_: In upper portion of vertical + elements. + + _Illustrations_: Figures 322, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329. + + * * * * * + +[Sidenote: Types of Commercial Pottery] + +The reader should carefully consider the postulate and various divisions +of Rule 7 and try to apply them to the material now under consideration. +Acknowledgment is made for material supplied by the Rookwood Potteries +for Figures 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 297, 298, 315; 327 and 332; Newcomb +Potteries, Figures 314, 316, 317, 318, 326; Teco Potteries, 329; Keramic +Studio Publishing Company, 302, 307, 308, 310, 312. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plate 51 illustrates the marginal surface enrichment of low + cylindrical forms, with part surface enrichment of two higher + forms. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw primary mass: + + For square or rectangular areas draw square rectangle, etc. + + For shallow circular forms draw a circle. + + For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if + desired by a unit of measurement into two horizontal divisions. + + For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if + desired by a unit of measurement into two or three horizontal + divisions. Rule 5e. + + (_b_) Design simple contour enrichment based upon these units + of measurement. + + (_c_) Locate zone of enrichment. + + (_d_) Draw inceptive axes: + + For square or rectangular areas draw diameters, diagonals, or + both. + + For shallow circular forms draw radii of the primary circle; + concentric circles for bands. + + For low cylindrical forms draw the elements of the underlying + cylindrical form for extended borders or lines paralleling the + top or bottom of the primary mass for bands. + + For high cylindrical forms draw inceptive axes similar to low + cylindrical forms. + + (_e_) Locate points of concentration in these inceptive axes. + + (_f_) Determine manner and amount of surface enrichment. + + (_g_) Add leading lines and develop these into surface + enrichment. + + (_h_) Make potter's working drawing, full size (See Plate 26). + Add the necessary amount for shrinkage and otherwise prepare + the drawing for potter's use. + + (_i_) Make a paper tracing of the surface enrichment for + transfer to clay body and cut a zinc or tin template as a + contour guide in building the form. + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design a cider or chocolate set with appropriate surface + enrichment. + + Design an architectural tile 6 in. by 9 in. for accenting a + brick fireplace in the home. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to + be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must + be submitted._ + + Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay + should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of + the material._ + + Rule 9c. _A border should not be located at the point of + greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The + contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that + point._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. Compare the surface enrichment of clay with that of wood. + + 2. State a major requirement of a good pottery design. + + 3. Give the broad divisions into which it is possible to divide + the decorative processes of clay surface enrichment. + + 4. Name and briefly describe eight methods of enriching the + surface of clay. + + 5. What precautions should be exercised with regard to the use + of incised, pierced, and modeled decoration? + + 6. Should a border be placed at the point of greatest curvature + of the contour? Give reasons. + + 7. Name method of classifying structural forms in clay into + four groups. + + 8. State problems and possible zones of enrichment in each + group. Give reasons for choice. + + 9. State type of design unit, conventionalized, natural or + artificial forms, location of inceptive axis, points of + concentration, and process for each zone of enrichment. + + 10. What is an element of a cylindrical surface? + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS + +SMALL FLAT PLANES + + +[Sidenote: Base and Precious Metals] + +Chapter XII referred to clay as a free and plastic material adapted to a +wide range of surface enrichment processes. Metal as a more refractory +material offers greater resistance to the craftsman and is relatively +more limited in its capacity for surface enrichment. As was the case in +the consideration of contour enrichment for designing purposes, it is +necessary in the consideration of surface enrichment to divide metal +into two groups: precious and base metals. As the field of design in +both base and precious metals is large, we shall consider the surface +enrichment of _precious metals only_ in this chapter. + +[Sidenote: Divisions for Enrichment] + +Following an order similar in character to that used in clay designing, +problems in both base and precious metals may be divided into four +classified groups as follows: flat, square, rectangular, or irregular +planes; shallow circular forms; low cylindrical forms; high cylindrical +forms. Designs included in the first group, flat planes, comprise such +problems as are typically represented by tie pins, fobs, rings, and +pendants. The design problems presented by these examples are so +important that it is wise to restrict this chapter to _flat planes_. + +Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one +axis of a stone, and at the same time be sympathetically related to the +structure._ + +Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by: +(1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, (2) character of +the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion._ + +[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes and Points of Concentration] + +The semi-precious or precious stone is commonly found to be the point of +concentration of these designs. The inceptive axes of tie pins, +pendants, and fobs are generally vertical center lines because of the +vertical positions of the objects when worn. The inceptive axes, +moreover, should pass through the point of concentration and, at the +same time, be sympathetically related to the structure. Rings and bar +pins are frequently designed with horizontal inceptive axes, so +determined by their horizontal characteristics and positions. + +The point of concentration for tie pins, pendants, and fobs in formal +balance, in addition to coinciding with the inceptive axis, is generally +located above or below the geometric center of the primary mass. The +point of concentration for rings and bar pins is placed in the +horizontal inceptive axis and centrally located from left to right. + +[Sidenote: Typical Processes of Enrichment] + +[Sidenote: Economy of Material] + +As a step preliminary to designing, and in order that the enrichment may +be conventionalized or adapted to conform to the requirements of tools, +processes, and materials, it is now imperative to become familiar with a +number of common forms of surface enrichment in metal. There are eight +processes frequently encountered in the decoration of silver and gold: +piercing, etching, chasing or repousséing, enameling, inlaying, stone +setting, building, carving. To these may be added planishing, frosting +or matting, and oxidizing as methods employed to enrich the entire +surface. Economy of material is of prime importance in the designing of +precious metal and, particularly in gold projects, conservation of the +metals should be an urgent consideration in all designs. + +Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount +of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: +(1) good taste; (2) economy of material._ + +[Sidenote: Evolution and Technical Rendering of Processes] + +A non-technical and brief description of each process follows. All +designs in this chapter may be identified by referring to the process +numbers after the figure description as 1, 3, 5; 2, 4, 6, corresponding +to the key numbers on Plate 52. A design to be submitted to the +craftsman should be a graphic _record of technical facts_ in addition to +good design, which requires that we should have an expressive _technical +means of rendering each process_. The last column, on Plate 52, +indicates this rendering. In addition to this rendering each one of the +eight technical processes has been carried through three design steps. +1. (first column, Plate 52) Planning the original primary mass, with its +inceptive axis suggested by the structure and intended use. It passes +through the point of concentration. 2. (second column, Plate 52). The +division of the primary mass into zones of service and enrichment with +the suggestion of the leading lines which, at some points, are parallel +to the contours and lead up to the point of concentration. The contours +in this column have, in several instances, been changed to add lightness +and variety to the problem. 3. The last step (column three, Plate 52) +shows the design with graphic rendering suggestive of the completed +process. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN METAL WITH +EVOLUTION AND RENDERING OF EIGHT PROCESSES OF ENRICHMENT + +PLATE 52] + + +TECHNICAL PROCESSES AND METHODS OF ILLUSTRATING SAME IN A DESIGN + +[Sidenote: Piercing] + +1. Removal of design unit or background by means of the jeweler's saw. +Bridges of metal should be left to support firmly all portions of the +design. Test this by careful study of the design. Rendering--shade all +pierced portions of the design in solid black. Slightly tint portions of +the design passing under other parts. Illustration, Figure 336. + +Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of +compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to +avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without +thought to their coherence._ + +[Sidenote: Etching] + +2. Coating either design or background with an acid resistant, to be +followed by immersion of the article in an acid bath. Allow the +unprotected portion to be attacked and eaten by the acid to a slight +depth. Rendering--slightly tint all depressed or etched parts of the +design. Illustration, Figure 339. + +[Sidenote: Chasing or Repousséing] + +3. The embossing and fine embellishment of a metal surface by the +application of the hammer and punches. The work is conducted mainly from +the top surface. Rendering--stipple all parts of the background not +raised by the process. Chasing should seem an integral part of the +background and not appear stuck upon it. Illustration, Figure 342. Rule +10k. + +[Sidenote: Enameling (Champleve)] + +4. A process of enameling over metal in which the ground is cut away +into a series of shallow troughs into which the enamel is melted. +Exercise reserve in the use of enamel. Over-decoration tends to cheapen +this valuable form of decoration. Rendering--shade the lower and +right-hand sides of all enameled areas to suggest relief. Illustration, +Figure 345. If possible render in tempera color. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS +METAL + +CONTOUR AND SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF FLAT PLANES PINS AND BROOCHES + +PLATE 53] + +Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. +Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and +design._ + +Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should be +narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of +the primary mass._ + +[Sidenote: Inlaying] + +5. The process of applying wire, etc., to an incision on metal either by +burnishing or fusing the metal into the cavities. Rendering--tint the +darker metal or, if possible, render in color. Illustration, Figure 348. + +[Sidenote: Stone Cutting] + +6. An enrichment of the surface by the addition of semi-precious or +precious stones. Other enrichment is generally subordinated to the stone +which then becomes the point of concentration. All enrichment should +lead toward the stone. Small stones may, however, be used to accentuate +other points of concentration in surface enrichment. Rendering--shade +the lower and right-side of the stone to suggest relief. Pierced +subordinate enrichment should be shaded in solid black. A concentric +line should be drawn outside of the contour of the stone to designate +the thin holding band, or bezel, enclosing the stone on all sides. +Illustration, Figure 351. + +Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours +of both primary mass and point of concentration, especially whenever the +latter is a stone or enamel._ + +Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of +concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive +setting, or background._ + +Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form +contrast with the metal, either in color, brilliancy, or value, or all +three combined._ + +[Sidenote: Building] + +7. The process of applying leaves, wire, grains, and other forms of +surface enrichment to the plane of the metal. These may afterwards be +carved or chased. Rendering--shade the lower and right-hand lines; +slightly tint the lower planes of the metal. Illustration, Figure 354. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ + +Figure 372a.--Tie Pins] + +8. The process of depressing or raising certain portions of the metal +surface by means of chisels and gravers. By the use of these tools the +surface is modeled into planes of light and shade, to which interest +is added if the unaggressive tool marks are permitted to remain on the +surface. Rendering--shade the raised and depressed portions to express +the modeling planes. As this is a difficult technical process the +designer is advised to model the design in plastelene or jewelers' wax +first. Illustration, Figure 357. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ + +FIGURE 372b.--Tie Pins] + +[Sidenote: Carving] + +Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher +planes near the point of concentration. It is well to have the stone as +the highest point above the primary mass. When using this form of +enrichment, the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the +primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes._ + +[Sidenote: Planishing] + +9. The process of smoothing and, at the same time, hardening the surface +of the metal with a steel planishing hammer. The hammer strokes give an +interesting texture to the surface which may be varied, from the heavily +indented to the smooth surface, at the will of the craftsman. The more +obvious hammer strokes are not to be desired as they bring a tool +process into too much prominence for good taste. Rendering--print +desired finish on the drawing. + +[Sidenote: Frosting] + +10. A process of sand blasting or scratch brushing a metal surface to +produce an opaque or "satin" finish. Rendering--similar to planishing. + +[Sidenote: Oxidizing] + +11. A process of darkening the surface of metal by the application of +chemicals. Potassium sulphite will supply a deep, rich black to silver +and copper. Rendering--see Planishing. + +[Sidenote: Design of Pins and Brooches] + +The eleven processes mentioned above are among those which, by recent +common practice, have become familiar to the craftsman in precious +metals. While they do not cover the entire field, they at least give the +beginner an opportunity to design intelligently in terms of the +material. + +[Sidenote: Dependent Surface Enrichment for Pins] + +Plate 53 is mainly the enrichment of the flat plane by the addition of +semi-precious stones (process six). Whatever surface enrichment is added +to this design becomes _dependent_ enrichment and quite analogous to +_dependent_ contour enrichment, Plate 29, inasmuch as it has to be +designed with special reference to the shape and character of the stone. +Figures 358 to 363 are examples of _dependent contour_ enrichment; +Figures 364 to 371 are examples of _dependent surface_ enrichment. +Figures 358 to 367 are based upon _vertical_ inceptive axes as +appropriate to their intended service. The point of concentration may +be located at practically any point on this inceptive axis, provided the +major axis of the stone coincides with the inceptive axis. The best +results are obtained by placing the stone a little above or below the +exact geometrical center of the primary mass. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS +METALS + +CONTOUR AND SURFACE ENRICHMENT APPLIED TO FOBS + +MAINLY FULL SURFACE ENRICHMENT BASED UPON VERTICAL INCEPTIVE AXES + +PLATE 54] + +[Sidenote: Inceptive Axes for Pins] + +Figures 368 to 372 show articles based upon a horizontal inceptive axis. +The stone, in accordance with formal balance, is in the geometric center +from left to right. One notices the important fact that the surface +enrichment must bring the stone and contour together in sympathetic +relation and, at the same time, be related to both stone and contour. +This again brings out the meaning of _dependent_ surface enrichment. The +contour enrichment is to be kept as simple as possible and the interest +concentrated upon the surface enrichment. The _accentuation of both +surface and contour enrichment_ in a single design marks the height of +bad taste in design. + +Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete +for attention in the same design._ + +[Sidenote: Fobs] + +Plate 54 shows flat planes, the service of which suggests vertical +inceptive axes. Figure 380 is noted as an exception to this vertical +inceptive axis as it possesses a vertical primary mass but with radial +inceptive axes. The interesting manner by which the dynamic leaves of +the outer border transmit their movement to the inner border, which in +turn leads toward the point of concentration, is worthy of attention. +The points of concentration in other designs on this plate are all +contained in the vertical inceptive axes. + +[Sidenote: Rings] + +Plate 55, at first thought, would seem to fall under the classification +of low cylindrical forms but when reference is made to Figure 385 it is +readily seen that the ring has to be first developed as a flat plane, to +be afterwards bent into the required form. Care should be taken to keep +the design narrow enough to be visible when the ring is in position on +the finger. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS +METAL + +ENRICHMENT OF FLAT PLANES + +RINGS + +PLATE 55] + +The long horizontal band of the ring supplies the motive for the +horizontal inceptive axis as a common basis or starting point for a +large number of designs. If the designer so desires, the vertical axis +of the finger is authority for an elliptical stone to be placed with its +major axis as a vertical line in harmony with the finger axis. In any +instance the designer seeks to lead the eye from the horizontal portion +of the ring (the finger band) toward the point of concentration (the +stone), by means of surface enrichment. A long sloping contour curve +helps, as a transition line in the boundary, to carry the attention from +the stone to the finger band. A great number of devices are used to +complete a similar transition in the surface enrichment. Figure 390a. +Too much piercing weakens the structure, and it is therefore to be +avoided. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ + +FIGURE 390a.--Rings] + +Plate 56 suggests some vertical flat planes for pendants. While no +definite rule can be stated for the location of the stone, from past +experience, it is easier for beginners to place the stone on the +vertical inceptive axis slightly above the geometric center of the +primary mass. Figures 391 to 395. A design thus formed is less likely to +appear heavy, although there is nothing arbitrary about the suggestion. + +Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should differ in +appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design._ + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS +METAL + +ENRICHMENT OF FLAT PLANES OF PENDANTS, CHAINS, LOCKETS + +PLATE 56] + +[Sidenote: Pendants and Chains] + +In pendant design the surface enrichment generally carries the attention +from the contour of the pendant to the stone, thus insuring unity at +this point, while the contour lines often lead the attention from the +pendant to the chain. The eye should move in unbroken dynamic movement +from pendant to chain. The chain may have points of accent designed to +vary the even distribution of the links. These accents are frequently +composed of small stones with surface enrichment sympathetically +designed in unity with pendant, chain, and stone. Figure 401 shows +examples of this arrangement and similarly the need of a horizontal +inceptive axis to harmonize with the length of the chain. These small +accents are quite similar in design to bar pin motives. + +Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in +the same design._ + +[Sidenote: Relation of Stones to Metal] + +For the designer's purposes we may consider two kinds of stones, the +transparent and the opaque. These should not be mixed in one design. The +most favorable stones are those forming contrasts of value or brilliancy +with the metal as, for example, the amethyst, lapis lazuli, or New +Zealand jade, with silver; or the dark topaz, or New Zealand jade, with +gold. Lack of these contrasts gives dull, monotonous effects that fail +to make the stone the point of concentration. Figure 467. These effects +may be partially overcome by frosting, plating, or oxidizing the metal, +thus forming stronger contrasts of value. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plates 52 and 57 are representative of the steps, processes, and + problems for school use. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw the primary mass. + + (_b_) Locate the inceptive axis in this primary mass with its + direction determined by the ultimate use or position of the + primary mass and its general shape. + + (_c_) Locate zone of enrichment. + + (_d_) Locate point of concentration in the zone of enrichment + and in the inceptive axis. + + (_e_) Design simple contour enrichment. + + (_f_) Design leading lines in sympathy with the contour and + leading toward the point of concentration. + + (_g_) Elaborate the leading lines in sympathy with the + material, the type of enrichment, the contours, and the + inceptive axis. + + (_h_) Render in the technical manner suggested by Plate 52, + dimension the primary mass, and otherwise prepare the drawing + for shop use. + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ + +FIGURE 401a.--Pendants] + +[Illustration: _Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony_ + +FIGURE 402.--Pendants] + +SUGGESTED PROBLEM + + Design a built-up ring using an elliptical cabochon cut stone as + the point of concentration. The inceptive axis is vertical. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + SMALL FLAT PLANES + + Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the + minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the + designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of + material._ + + Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear + to compete for attention in the same design._ + + Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should + differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire + design._ + + Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the + contours of both primary mass and point of concentration, + especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel._ + + Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point + of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an + unobtrusive setting, or background._ + + Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration + should form contrast with the metal, either in color, + brilliancy, or value, or all three combined._ + + Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide + with one axis of a stone, and at the same time be + sympathetically related to the structure._ + + Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be + determined by (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar + pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or + horizontal in proportion._ + + Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use + of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen + both process and design._ + +[Illustration: RULES 10 A TO M: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL +FLAT PLANES OF PRECIOUS METAL + +{IA} INCEPTIVE AXIS + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + +PENDANTS, RINGS AND FOBS IN SLIVER + +DESIGNED BY MISS GERTRUDE EVANS + +U. OF W. + +PLATE 57] + + Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of + compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used + as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the + surface without thought to their coherence._ + + Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the + higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to + have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. + When using this form of enrichment the stone should never + appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be + approached by a series of rising planes._ + + Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should + be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the + contour of the primary mass._ + + Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not + be used in the same design._ + + Postulate.--_The design should conform to the limitations and + requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be + durable and suitable for service._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What is often used as a point of concentration in the + surface enrichment of precious metals? Why? + + 2. State direction of the inceptive axis for problems similar + to: (_a_) tie pins, (_b_) pendants, (_c_) fobs, (_d_) rings, + (_e_) bar pins? Why? Under what grouping of planes may they be + placed? + + 3. State the relation between the point of concentration and + the inceptive axis. + + 4. Give three steps in the design evolution of surface + enrichment for small flat planes. + + 5. Describe briefly eleven decorative processes for the surface + enrichment of precious metals with the technical rendering of + each. + + 6. Illustrate examples of dependent contour and dependent + surface enrichment of precious metals. + + 7. Where should a stone in a design similar to a pin or brooch + be placed with reference to the inceptive axis and the + geometric center of the primary mass? + + 8. Illustrate manner of planning primary mass, inceptive axis, + point of concentration, contour, and surface enrichment of: + (_a_) pins, (_b_) fobs, (_c_) rings, (_d_) pendants and chains. + + 9. State the relation of stone or enamel to metal. + + 10. What rule should govern the amount of metal used in a + design? + + 11. State the objection to a design with contour and surface + enrichment equally elaborated. + + 12. Is it possible to vary the design motive of a chain from + that of a pendant? Why and how? + + 13. Give illustration and requirements of a good design in + champleve enamel. + + 14. What precautions should be exercised in designing pierced + enrichment? + + 15. What rules should be observed in designing a built-up or + carved design? + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN PRECIOUS +METALS + +TREATMENT OF FLAT AND SEMI-FLAT SURFACES + +WORK OF STUDENTS OF MILWAUKEE-DOWNER COLLEGE + +PLATE 58] + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS + + +[Sidenote: Enrichment for Small Areas] + +The surface enrichment of small, flat primary masses treated in Chapter +XIII emphasized the designer's tendency for _full_ surface enrichment of +small areas. Such treatment has proved satisfactory because the eye can +readily and immediately observe and comprehend or assimilate an +enrichment upon a small area. For larger enriched areas considered in +this chapter, full surface enrichment becomes a questionable policy for +the following reasons. + +[Sidenote: Enrichment for Large Areas] + +It is true that the old time craftsman with consummate skill fully +enriched large surfaces, but two factors interfere with this mode of +treatment today. The first factor is the decidedly practical nature of +the problem. The service to which the modern industrial project is put +interferes with the use of full surface enrichment. The second is the +lack of skill on the part of the modern amateur designer. It is a sound +policy to avoid the ornateness that frequently accompanies a large and +unskillfully planned area. In place of this, we should limit the +enrichment of large masses to a few salient areas which are well related +to the structural lines. + +Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of surface +enrichment of large masses. Its use should:_ (1) _lighten or soften +necessarily heavy construction;_ (2) _support or apparently strengthen +good structure;_ (3) _add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting +surfaces._ + +[Sidenote: Essentials of Good Surface Enrichment] + +These salient areas should determine the surface enrichment appropriate +to the structure, so that the enrichment: (1) will lighten or soften +necessarily heavy construction as in Figure 403; (2) support or +apparently strengthen good structure, Figure 413; (3) add interest to +large unbroken or otherwise uninteresting surfaces as illustrated in +Figure 405. To aid in producing the desired results, we have the +technical processes mentioned in Chapter XIII as follows: (1) Piercing; +(2) Etching; (3) Chasing; (4) Enameling; (5) Inlaying; (6) Stone +setting; (7) Building; (8) Carving; (9) Planishing; (10) Frosting; (11) +Oxidizing. On the plates for this chapter, the figure generally +following the cut number refers to the process, as: Figure 446, 3. + +[Illustration: Figure 406a.--Mainly Objects Designed to be Seen from +Above] + +SURFACE DESIGN EVOLUTION + +Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be +thought out before they are drawn._ + +A designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of +thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper. +In the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him +both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution, provided +his thinking is systematic. A sequential order of points to be observed +is given below. The object of systematic thought is to form a mental +picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and +construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes +and to the contours. The unenriched mass has been designed and we are +now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following +order. + +[Sidenote: Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment] + +(_a_) _Placing the Zone of Service._ + +1. Where is the zone of service? + + * * * * * + +(_b_) _Classification of Form_. + +1. Is the object flat, shallow and circular, low and cylindrical, high +and cylindrical? + + * * * * * + +(_c_) _Placing the Zone of Enrichment._ + +1. Is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side? See Figure +406a. + +2. What point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface +enrichment? Is it the primary mass, appendages, terminals, links, or +details? Let the area selected become the zone of enrichment. + +(_d_) _Amount of Enrichment._ + +1. Will the enrichment cover the full surface, part surface (center or +margin), or accented outline? + +(_e_) _Location of Inceptive Axis._ + +1. Is the zone of enrichment associated with a square, rectangle, +hexagon, or irregularly shaped flat plane, circular or cylindrical +surface? Figure 470. + +2. How should the inceptive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to +harmonize with the structural forms suggested by 1 (e) and the point +from which it is viewed 1 (c)? See the violation of this latter point in +Figure 439. Presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center +line, horizontal center line, diagonal, diameter, radius, the element of +a cylinder, or a dynamic curve for a free border. + +(_f_) _Point of Concentration._ + +[Sidenote: Surface Enrichment] + +1. Where should the point of concentration be located upon the inceptive +axis? + +(_g_) _Unison of Enrichment and Materials._ + +1. What decorative process will be adaptable to service, the material, +and the contemplated design? + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE METALS + +TREATMENT OF FLAT AND SEMI-FLAT SURFACES + +_Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_ + +PLATE 59] + +[Sidenote: Summary of Steps in Surface Enrichment] + +(_h_) _Type of Units_. + +1. What design units are suited to the process selected in (_g_), +appropriate to the texture and structural lines of the form to be +enriched and to its ultimate service? Choice may be made from nature, +geometric pattern, or historic ornament. + +The above points may all be _thought out_. Now, with some assurance, the +designer may take his pencil and begin to _draw_ the units in their +proper position upon or about the inceptive axis with the point of +concentration correctly placed in position in the inceptive axis. Rules +and suggestions for this execution have been previously given. + + * * * * * + +(_i_) _Designing of the Units_. + +1. How should the units be drawn to be in harmony with the inceptive +axis, the contours, and to each other? + +The above points of approach to surface enrichment represent a logical +reasoning process which supplies a line of sequential and developmental +pictures that will reduce to a minimum the element of doubt and fog +through which the average designer approaches his problem. The steps +will, in time, become practically automatic and may be thought out in a +surprisingly short period of time. + +Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder +than similar designs for small primary masses._ + +[Sidenote: Large Masses and Their Treatment] + +As may be expected from briefly considering the illustrations for this +chapter as compared with those for small primary masses, Chapter XIII, +it is seen that the units for base and precious metals are larger and +bolder than those used for smaller masses. The more effective designs +are those whose appropriateness, simplicity, and correct structural +proportions and relations appeal to our sense of fitness and beauty. + +Figures 403, 404, and 406 are composed of projects designed mainly on +vertical inceptive axes or center lines. The freely balanced natural +units in Figure 403 have the zone of enrichment in the upper portion of +the appendage (handles), and the point of concentration in the upper +portion of the zone of enrichment. Formal symmetrical balance controls +the placing of enrichment in Figure 404. Initial letters, through lack +of consideration of design principles, are frequently misplaced on +masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations +with the structural contours. As a contrast to this, notice the +carefully considered relations between the letter _W_ on the tea +strainer in Figure 404 and its adaptation to the contours of the +appendage. The stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in +Figure 404 in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is +therefore appropriate as surface enrichment. + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE METAL + +TREATMENT OF FLAT PLANES IN CAST BRONZE + +_Door Plates, Courtesy of P. and F. Corbin_ + +PLATE 60] + +[Sidenote: Large Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Precious Metal, Plate +58] + +The pierced enrichment of the silver box in Figure 405 contains vertical +and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into +harmonious relation with the structural contours. Figure 406 shows both +formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of +enrichment. _C_ and _D_ could have been improved by a more strongly +marked point of concentration which would have added more character to +the designs. + +[Sidenote: Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Base Metal, Plate 59] + +In Chapter VIII, the contour terminal enrichment problem was described +at some length. Many illustrations on Plates 58, 59, and 60 are, in a +way, similar in their type of surface decoration, which is termed +_surface terminal enrichment_. The "happy ending" mentioned in Chapter +VIII as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary +mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface +enrichment, particularly shown in Figures 403, 404, 407, 408, 409, and +410. The terminal is quite common as a zone of enrichment. + +[Sidenote: Contour _Versus_ Surface Enrichment] + +It is readily seen that when surface enrichment is the prevailing +decorative theme it becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment +to it, Rule 10b, otherwise the strife for dominance arising between +these two forms of enrichment will lead to poor and ornate design, +Figure 417. Whatever contour enrichment is used must be chosen to accord +with the surface enrichment, Rule 10d, as noted in the preceding figures +and in Figure 411. Here we find the closest connection, as the chased +forms of the surface at many points merge into the contour. Thus surface +and contour are bound together in unity with the surface enrichment, +which maintains its dominance throughout. + +The simple and dignified treatment of the fire set in Figure 413 is +synonymous with the finest type of enrichment for service and beauty, +Rule 11b. The peacock motives of Figures 414 and 415 are applied to the +desk set. The motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to +their respective areas and inceptive axes. + +[Sidenote: Surface Enrichment of Hardware, Plate 60] + +Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface +enrichment._ + +Figure 417 is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface +and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence. In +the combat, the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for +irrelevant and disconnected ornament. Figure 418 illustrates correctly +related surface ornament, with a dominance of the latter form, Rule 10b. +Figure 419 represents a type of decoration presumably roughened to meet +the needs of service. It proves, however, to be unpleasant to the touch +and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way. The +naturalistic snake motive of Figure 421 is repulsive to many people; +this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to +the more conventionalized pattern of Figure 422, Rule 11f. + +Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced +into the same design._ + +[Sidenote: Historic Ornament Applied to Period Hardware Design Door +Plates] + +It is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the +influence of the great schools of architectural history upon +contemporary design. There is a growing tendency for manufacturers to +use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design +of the building. A Colonial building frequently calls for Colonial +hardware, a Gothic church for corresponding surface enrichment of that +period. + +As introductory illustrations, Figure 423 stands as a simple example of +accented (beveled) contour while Figure 424 has been accented with +reminiscent moulding appropriate to Colonial architecture. They might, +however, be used with many simply designed articles of furniture. From +this slight indication or portion of a style, we have a more pronounced +beginning in Figure 425 with its clearly marked Greek egg and dart +ornamental border. The acanthus leaf of the Byzantine school, Figure +426, changes to the geometric arabesques of the Moorish school in Figure +427. The Gothic arch, cusps, and quatrefoil of Figure 428 are changed to +the classic acanthus foliage of the French Renaissance period. Figure +429. Figures 430 and 431 are later developments of the Renaissance. The +heavily enriched Flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use +of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs. Only a small +number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown. + +[Sidenote: Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 61] + +With circular plates and trays, the enrichment normally takes the form +of a border (marginal enrichment), with the inceptive axes or center +lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle. +Figures 433, 435, 436, 437, 438, and 439. An elliptical form frequently +calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by Figure 434. + +Both Figures 437 and 438 have divided points of concentration and would +be materially improved by the omission of the center unit _A_. The small +tree used as a connecting link in the border of Figure 437 should be +reversed, as it now possesses a motion or growth contrary to the larger +tree units. The contour enrichment in Figure 438 could well be omitted +or moved around to support the surface enrichment. The pierced +enrichment _A_, Figure 439, is incorrectly used as it is not designed to +be seen from above, the normal viewpoint of the tray. The design should +have been based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to +Figure 439 at _B_. + +[Sidenote: Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 62] + +Differing from the shallow plate, with the increased height of the low +cylindrical forms of Plate 62, there now develops the possibility of +enriching the sides of this class of project: a zone of enrichment not +readily accessible in the shallow plate form. In addition to the sides +there remain the appendages, quite capable of carrying enrichment to +advantage. One should control the zone of enrichment in such a manner +that the attention will not be equally drawn to both appendage and +primary mass. Two points of enrichment, both calling for equal +attention, divide the interest in the problem, and cause a lack of unity +or oneness. + +Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of +enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminals, +links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area._ + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND +PRECIOUS METAL + +TREATMENT OF SHALLOW CIRCULAR FORMS + +PLATE 61] + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND +PRECIOUS METAL + +TREATMENT OF LOW CIRCULAR FORMS + +PLATE 62] + +[Illustration: SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES IN BASE AND +PRECIOUS METALS + +TREATMENT OF HIGH CYLINDRICAL FORMS + +PLATE 63] + +Enrichment upon the appendages may be found in Figures 440, 441, 442, +445, and on the upper portion of the straight sides of the primary mass +in Figures 443 and 444. The decorative units composing the border on +these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the +underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis. The enrichment for +the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is +commonly based upon the center line of the appendage. + +[Sidenote: Cylindrical Forms, Plate 63] + +The principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways +closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms. The +inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of Figures 446 and 447 +may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the cylinder. Figures +448 and 449 are quite rare exceptions of the accentuation of the +_vertical_ lines of the cylinder. Horizontal bands similar to Figures +444 and 447 are more common interpretations of cylinder enrichment. +Figure 450 marks a successful combination of two dissimilar materials +with the shade (appendage) as the dominating enriched member. Rule 10c. + +The small chased bosses used as enrichment in Figure 452 are re-echoed +on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity. +The top portion of the primary mass seems to need some form of +enrichment, as the contour adds little to the beauty of that part. The +symbol _X_ could have been better located by being moved to that place. +The point of concentration should be placed in the upper portion of a +large mass whenever that arrangement is possible. + +It is in every way desirable that all designs should be executed full +size and in full accord with the requirements of a shop working drawing. +In addition the technical rendering suggested in Chapter XIII should be +carefully used in each drawing. + + +INSTRUCTION SHEET + + Plates 68 and 72 show problems suitable for class presentation. The + method of development is similar to that presented on Plate 52. + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Draw a primary mass with reference to its proper grouping + as follows: + + For flat areas draw square, rectangle, etc. + + For shallow circular forms draw a circle. + + For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with horizontal + proportions. + + For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical + proportions. + + (_b_) Locate zone of service. + + (_c_) Locate zone of enrichment: appendages, terminals, + margins, full surface, etc. + + (_d_) Determine amount of enrichment. + + (_e_) Locate inceptive axes. + + (_f_) Place point of concentration in the inceptive axis where + it traverses the zone of enrichment. + + (_g_) Select the decorative process suited to the material and + contemplated motive. + + (_h_) Draw leading lines toward the point of concentration. + + (_i_) Draw conventionalized design motives based upon the + leading lines, converging toward the point of concentration. + Vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design + motives, provided such variation of the original primary mass + is necessary to complete unity. + + (_j_) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare + the drawing for shop use. + +SUGGESTED PROBLEM + + Design a copper nut bowl and spoon. Enrich with a chased border + appropriate to the subject. Enrich spoon, using fitting method of + enrichment. The bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation. + +SUMMARY OF RULES + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES + + Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment + should be thought out before they are drawn._ + + Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of + surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten + or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or + apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large + unbroken and uninteresting surfaces._ + + Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be + bolder than similar designs for small primary masses._ + + Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of + enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, + terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be + subordinate to this area._ + + Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be + introduced into the same design._ + + Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into + surface enrichment._ + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. Contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of + base and precious metals. Illustrate. What is the character of + surface enrichment for large areas? + + 2. Name three essentials to good surface design for base and + precious metals. Illustrate each. + + 3. Give nine steps necessary for the complete evolution of + surface enrichment. + + 4. Name method of classifying the structural forms of metal + into four groups. How does this compare with the classification + of clay forms? + + 5. Between which two groups does the transition from a + horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur? + + 6. Is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment + paralleling this change in proportions of the primary mass? + + 7. In which group or groups is the relation between surface and + contour enrichment closest? + + 8. Give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for + flat or semi-flat planes. + + 9. State the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone. + + 10. Discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware + and their correction. + + 11. In what manner does historic ornament influence industrial + design? Why? + + 12. Give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for, + (_a_) large, shallow circular forms; (_b_) large, low + cylindrical forms; (_c_) large, high cylindrical forms. + + 13. How does the point from which the article is to be seen + affect the character of the design? + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS + + +[Sidenote: Need of Harmonious Color] + +In the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with +proportions, contours, and surface enrichment. The use of color, +particularly in surface enrichment, is equally important inasmuch as its +use is often necessary to bring the project, as for example a piece of +furniture, into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final +color environment. The incorrect use of color may seriously mar a +project otherwise correctly designed in line and form, and may also +weaken its influence in a particular setting. + +[Sidenote: Use of Color Systems] + +While there are a number of excellent systems of color notation, it is +well to bear in mind that a color system, however excellent, is a good +servant but a poor master. It is nevertheless considered as essential to +have a definite knowledge of some systematically developed color system +in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form +with some degree of certainty. + +[Sidenote: Color Pigments for Design Rendering] + +For rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is +suggested that the beginner use the tempera, or opaque colors now on the +market. These colors readily adapt themselves to the average problem, +while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the +ordinary water colors. Tubes of cobalt blue, ultramarine, light chrome +yellow, vermilion, emerald green, crimson madder, black, and white will +serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter. + +[Sidenote: Application of Pigment] + +White is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments, which should +be mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and applied to cover +well the surface of the paper. One should guard against a thin, +transparent wash, as the desired effect is a velvety opaque and evenly +tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color. The +pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied. +The usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering +wood stains. These pigments may be used in thin flat washes and will +exhibit a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain. +The natural color of wood may be first represented and, when dry, +followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain. + +[Sidenote: Rendering of Wood Stains] + +Lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards, it now +becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms +necessary to the designer. + +[Sidenote: Hue and Hue Rectangles] + +_Hue_ is the technical name for color; a change of color means a change +of hue. For the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded +colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues. Each hue +will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations, which is a +sufficient number for our purpose. These gradations are to be +graphically recorded by and contained in a diagram to be known as a _hue +rectangle_. There are twelve of these rectangles, one for each of the +selected hues, and they are found arranged in sequence in Figure 454. + +[Sidenote: Standard Hues] + +[Sidenote: Full Chromatic Intensity] + +By referring to Figure 455, it is seen that the twelve selected standard +hues are represented at what is termed _full chromatic intensity_, +which, to the designer, means hues of the full strength of his color +pigment. This is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum, +but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve +as standards for comparison and classification. The hues should be +evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without +noticeable unevenness in the gradations. Red violet is the link which +connects the right end with the left, thus completing the circuit of the +twelve hues. The following pigment table gives name and symbol of +various hues. + +[Sidenote: Approximate Related Standard Hues] + + --------------+-----------------------------------+------------+------- + HUES | PIGMENTS | VALUES |SYMBOLS + --------------+-----------------------------------+------------+------- + Red | Pure crimson madder | High dark | R-HD + Orange | Crimson madder and vermilion | Middle | OR-M + Orange | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Low light | O-LL + Orange yellow | Vermilion and light chrome yellow | Light | OY-L + Yellow | Pure light chrome yellow | High light | Y-HL + Yellow green | Light chrome yellow and | | + | emerald green | Light | YG-L + Green | Pure emerald green | Low light | G-LL + Green blue | Emerald green and cobalt blue | Middle | GB-M + Blue | Pure cobalt blue | High dark | B-HD + Blue violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | BV-D + Violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Low dark | V-LD + Red violet | Ultramarine and crimson madder | Dark | RV-D + --------------+-----------------------------------+------------+------- + +[Sidenote: Locating Standard Hues] + +It now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite +place in each rectangle. This invariably occurs at a predetermined point +in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue. From +inspection of Figure 455, it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the +darkest hue; yellow the lightest, with the others between these hues. +This variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their +proper placing in the hue rectangle. + +[Sidenote: Values and Horizontal Value Lines] + +_Value_ is that quality by which we may distinguish a dark hue from a +light one. For design purposes we will imagine the hue rectangle to +grade from white at the top to black at the bottom. We will draw +horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle, marking nine even value +steps from white to black; the top one to be termed White (W), followed +by High Light (HL); Light (L); Low Light (LL); Middle (M); High Dark +(HD); Dark (D); Low Dark (LD); and Black (B). These value steps may be +thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the _right +boundary_ of the hue rectangle. They have been roughly indicated in the +hue rectangle at the left of Figure 454. + +[Sidenote: Relation of the Standard Hue to the Hue Rectangle] + +Each standard hue may now be located in the _left boundary_ of its hue +rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right +boundary. If the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer, +it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the +"value" column of the pigment table. The small arrows leading from +Figure 455 to 454 show where four standard hues are located; the +remaining hues are located in the left circle of each successive row in +the remaining rectangles, and upon their respective value lines. +Standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the _right column_ of the +pigment table. + +[Sidenote: Tints] + +Each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten +it, forming what is known as a tint of that hue. Red, in Figure 454, +reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value High Dark, may be +lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white. Each step is +to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle +above the standard hue, and is to be recorded by the symbols, R-M: R-LL: +R-L: R-HL. Orange yellow has only one possible tint. Strawberry, light +lavender, rose, etc., are merely nicknames for various tints. + +[Sidenote: Shades] + +Each standard hue may be darkened by the application of black, thus +forming shades of that hue. Red is capable of producing two shades, R-D +and R-LD, which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle +below the standard hue. Browns, russets, and dark tans are shades of +different hues. + +These modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to +the designer simple variations of his too brilliant standards. But even +these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting +large wood or wall surfaces. There is a brilliancy and glare about +certain tints which require modification. The shades are safer for use +on large areas. The remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle +is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue. + +[Sidenote: Chroma] + +_Chroma_ is the strength of a color. It is the quality by which we +distinguish a strong color from a weak one. The standard hue is +approximately full chromatic intensity. Likewise each tint and shade is +considered to be of its full chromatic intensity, making the left-hand +boundary of the rectangle the area of full chroma. + +From this boundary, each tint, standard, and shade _fades out or loses +chroma_ until the right boundary of the rectangle is reached. In this +boundary each tint, standard, and shade has faded out of its gray +equivalent, but without changing its original value; in other words it +has traveled along its horizontal value line to a complete grayness. The +right-hand boundary of the rectangle may then be represented by a gray +value scale of nine steps, including white and black. + +[Sidenote: Vertical Chroma Lines] + +It becomes necessary to record at regular intervals, this loss of +chroma. For this purpose, we have cut the hue rectangle by three +vertical lines. The first vertical line from the left boundary of the +rectangle marks the position where the standard with its tints and +shades have been grayed to the point where only three-fourths of the +original of hue remains. Similarly, the center and right vertical lines +mark the points where one-half and one-fourth, respectively, of the +color have been retained. These losses of chroma are recorded by similar +fractions. With possible modifications of value and chroma each hue now +has twenty-seven possible changes. + +The full hue title or symbol may now be written as follows: (1) hue +name, (2) amount of chroma, (3) value. Examples: GB [Sidenote: Full Hue +Symbols] + +3/4D-V1/2HL. We are now in a position to write whatever color we may +have in mind and another person will understand it, provided the other +person adopts our standard. Through the teachings of Dr. D.W. Ross, Mr. +A.H. Munsell, and others, the symbols and standards are now quite +generally understood and have, in a slightly modified form been accepted +in several standard color industries. + +[Sidenote: Technical Practice] + +[Sidenote: Warm and Cold Colors] + +To familiarize oneself with the mixing of the various hues, it is +excellent practice to form a vertical gray scale of the +three-quarter-inch squares. There should be nine steps from white to +black; an enlarged duplication of the right boundary of the hue +rectangle. The warm standard hues at their full standard intensities; +RV-R-OR-O-OY-Y, may be formed and placed opposite their gray equivalents +on the left side of the gray scale, while the remaining or cold colors +may be similarly placed with relation to the gray scale but upon the +right of it. + +[Sidenote: Scales of Color] + +A vertical scale of tints and shades of one of the hues, duplicating the +left side of the rectangle gives the character of the tints and shades. +One shade and one tint should then be carried along a horizontal value +line through three steps of loss of chroma to complete grayness, but +without change of the original value. Yellow, by the addition of black +becomes a false greenish shade which may be corrected by the addition of +a small amount of vermilion. + +[Sidenote: Wood Stains] + +A large percentage of natural wood hues are to be found between the hue +rectangles, Red-Orange, Yellow and Green, or in the warm portion of the +spectrum. As a wood stain must blend harmoniously with the natural wood +color, it is reasonable to expect the best results from stains with a +predominance of warm hues or warm grays in their composition. + +[Sidenote: Basic Primary Hues] + +It is possible to duplicate _nearly all_ the twelve standard hues of +Figure 455 with mixtures of the three so-called primary hues of red, +yellow, and blue. It makes a fairly approximate scale which is, however, +not sufficiently accurate for standardizing purposes. The scale is +formed by mixing red and yellow in varying proportions for the +intermediate hues of orange, yellow, and blue for the greens, and blue +and red for the violets. This practice of mixing three primary colors +together serves as an important step, governing wood stain mixing for +beginners. + +[Sidenote: Three Basic Aniline Wood Dyes] + +Developing this idea further, we may select aniline brilliant scarlet as +approximating red; metanil yellow, approximating yellow; and acid green +as a substitute for blue. These stains are shown in the top portion of +Figure 456. By comparison with Figure 455, scarlet is found to be orange +red; metanil yellow, orange, and acid green to be true standard green. +These basic stains have been located in their proper positions with +regard to their hue, value, and chroma. Their positions are located by +the large circles in the hue diagrams of Figure 456. + +[Sidenote: Wood Stain Mixing] + +These stains are modified and reduced in chroma and value by mixing them +with nigrosene black, an aniline dye of blue black appearance, which +fills all the needs of an ivory black in water or oil color pigment. +With these four stains, almost any commercial stain may be duplicated. +Aniline dye for water stains readily dissolves in water while a special +aniline for oil staining is first cut with naphtha. + +[Sidenote: Dark Mahogany Stain] + +Dark mahogany stain in Figure 456 is orange red, ¾HD, and is indicated +by the circle _A_ in the same figure. To duplicate this stain we have as +the nearest base stain, brilliant scarlet, which corresponds to orange +red. This is placed at its full intensity in the circle OR on the middle +horizontal value line. To duplicate dark mahogany stain it will be +necessary to reduce in value a strong solution of brilliant scarlet, +slightly more than one horizontal value step, by the addition of +nigrosene. We shall then add a small amount of some thinning medium, oil +or water, to reduce slightly the stain in chroma. + +[Sidenote: Flemish Oak Stain] + +Flemish oak stain is orange ¾D. This calls for a mixture of metanil +yellow and brilliant scarlet aniline to form the orange hue. We must +then add nigrosene to reduce the value to D, and add a small amount of +thinner to produce the necessary reduction in chroma. + +[Sidenote: Fumed Oak Stain] + +This is commonly produced by fuming the wood with ammonia. The hue may +however be closely duplicated by a mixture of brilliant scarlet, metanil +yellow, and nigrosene. It is practically the same as Flemish oak, but +possesses one-quarter more color as can be seen on the orange hue +rectangle. + +[Sidenote: Olive Green Stain] + +The circle _D_ shows this stain to be slightly below yellow green, ¾M, +in value and chroma. The hue rectangle containing it is nearer the green +than the orange yellow rectangle; hence in mixing the stain we should +keep the green hue dominant by adding more of it than of metanil +yellow. As in other stains, nigrosene is added to reduce the full +chromatic intensities of the aniline to the proper value and chroma of +olive green stain. + +[Sidenote: Light Weathered Oak Stain] + +This stain is practically blue, 1/4M, and is formed by thinning +nigrosene to the proper value. + +[Sidenote: Color Changes of the Stain] + +Aniline dyes are apt to fade if exposed to full sunlight. There are, +however, certain preventives that are beyond the scope of this book to +treat in detail. The natural color of the wood is inclined to make a +stain warmer than when originally mixed. This should be allowed for. +Wood filler, the wood grain, porosity, qualities, and hue of the wood, +all influence the final value of the stain. It frequently becomes darker +in value as may be seen by comparing Figure 456 and Figures 458 to 461. +It is good policy to test the stain upon different woods to observe the +final effect. The tests may be kept for future reference. + +It is readily seen from the few examples in Figure 456 that, with the +three basic stains, almost any other stains may be produced, thus +affording a broad field for harmonious selection and adaptation to the +environment. The next chapters will take up the question of color +harmony and its application to wood, wall surfaces, clay, and metal. + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + See paragraph upon "Technical Practice" in this chapter, page + 198. + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What pigments are best adapted to rendering design problems? + What pigments are particularly adapted to the rendering of wood + stains? How should each be applied? + + 2. What are standard hues? Why do we need standards of hue? + + 3. Define the term _values_. + + 4. What are tints and shades? + + 5. Define fully the term _chroma_. + + 6. Bound the hue rectangle and trace the value and chroma + changes occurring on its vertical and horizontal lines. + + 7. Locate in its proper hue rectangle (Figure 455) the + following hues: OY 3/4HD; YG 1/2LL; RV 3/4M; YL. + + 8. Name the three primary hues. How may an approximate scale of + twelve hues be prepared from them? + + 9. Name the three basic aniline wood dyes and give their + relation to the three primary hues. What is the practical use + of nigrosene in stain mixing? + + 10. Give the symbol and explain the method of mixing Flemish + oak wood stain. Name and explain the method of mixing two + others. + + 11. How does its application to wood effect the color and value + of aniline stain? + +[Illustration: PLATE 64] + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + +LARGE SURFACES OF WOOD; WALL AND CEILING AREAS + + +[Sidenote: Color Harmony] + +In the preceding chapter, the classification and standardization of +color were emphasized as preliminary to the study of color harmony. +Color harmony is obtained by the proper balancing of value, hue, and +chroma upon a surface or surfaces to give a pleasing reaction to the +eye, and through the eye to the intellect. + +We are now ready to familiarize ourselves with the specific applications +of these factors to practical design problems. Too many pieces of +furniture are stained with no thought as to the final adaptation in the +school or home. This is not wise, either from the standpoint of a +complete educative process or of good taste. Figures 458, 459, 460, 461, +show stains of Plate 64 applied to wood. Two new stains have been added, +sage green and silver gray. These six stains are representative ones and +act as a typical data for study of color harmony. + + +FURNITURE--TRIM--SIDE WALLS--CEILINGS + +[Sidenote: Backgrounds] + +The side walls of a room form the background for furniture; trim, wall +brackets, and similarly related objects; therefore the _closest relation +and harmony_ should be maintained between them. + +[Sidenote: Value Range of Wood Stains] + +The wood stains 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18, Plate 65, as they appear on +various kinds of wood are, in part, duplicates of the unapplied stains +of Plate 64, Figure 456. The effect of the wood has changed their values +and in some instances their color as can be seen by comparing the two +plates. Their _new relations_ have been plotted on the hue rectangles of +Figure 457, Plate 65, and the results joined by a dotted line. The +circles in the diagrams contain cross reference figures in order that +the stains may be traced without difficulty. The highest value is near +middle (18), and the lowest is low dark (6), showing a value range of +four steps. + +[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls] + +The side walls, taken from well-known wall tint catalogs have been +similarly plotted in Figure 457, and the results joined together by a +heavy black line. The lightest value is light (11), and the darkest is +middle value (14), an average range of three steps slightly above middle +value. + +[Sidenote: Value Range of Ceilings] + +Ceilings are the lightest of the surfaces considered. Their range is +from slightly below white (10), to light (16), a range of two values. +From the results, as plotted in Figure 457, it is seen that there is a +tendency to keep the ceilings within a close range of values. The +results have been joined together by means of a double black line. There +are exceptions to these results, but it is quite safe to keep well +within the suggested range for harmonious results. We may now draw the +following rules as a result of an empirical method of deduction. + +Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the values +middle and low dark._ + +Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the values +light and middle._ + +Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values +white (minus) and light._ + +[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls and Wood Work] + +Averaging the value range between the wood work which includes the +furniture, trim, and the side walls of Figures 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, +and 463, we find that the range varies from five values in Figures 459 +to slightly more than one in Figure 463. As the side walls and furniture +are to be regarded as unobtrusive settings for pictures and people it is +well to be very conservative with the use of values. A wide range of +values will cause a lack of unity. In this respect Figure 459 may be +regarded as approaching the extreme limit of contrasts of value +compatible with good taste. Let us, therefore, limit the value range to +four values, as, for example: low light for side walls and dark for +stain. + +Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, trim, +etc., should be retained within the range of four values or less, as low +light and dark._ + +[Sidenote: Value Range of Side Walls and Ceilings] + +The ceiling and side walls in Figure 459 are four values apart and in +Figure 463 this has been reduced to a one-value step. There seems to be +a common average of three values as an acceptable and agreeable +contrast. For dark rooms this would well be increased. For rooms with +light side walls the contrast would be considerably lessened. + +Rule 12e. _The relation between side walls and ceiling should be within +the range of three values or less, as high light and low light._ + + +HUE GROUPINGS + +[Sidenote: Hue Range for Wood Work and Walls] + +A wood stain should be closely related to the natural color of the wood. +As this is usually a warm color we naturally find most of the wood +stains included between the red and the yellow hue rectangles, inclusive +of red and yellow green. Walnut then may be stained a deep shade of +orange or red, but would not be adapted to a blue green stain. This +arbitrary but wide range of hues of stained wood naturally affects the +hue of the side walls. The plotting of the hues for the side walls, +Figure 457, shows a close relation to the hues of the stain to the wall. +In no instance do we find the hue rectangle of the wood work more than +three hues away from that of the walls. In four instances they are +within two hue rectangles of each other and in one instance they are +both within the same rectangle. This develops the fact that _analogous_ +or neighboring groupings of hues prevail in relating the hues of wood +work and side walls. + +[Sidenote: Analogous Hues] + +An _analogous_ group of hues is an arrangement based upon a selection of +tints and shades within three rectangles of each other, as orange and +yellow. These harmonize because yellow is mixed with and becomes a hue +common to both. While the analogous arrangement of hues seems to be most +commonly used, and with a result that seems to justify its adoption into +general practice, there are other arrangements that are pleasing to the +eye. + +[Sidenote: Contrasted Hues] + +Figure 458 illustrates what is commonly known as a _contrasted_ grouping +or arrangement of hues. It consists of the tints or shades of one or +more hues and gray. It is the basis of color harmony between silver and +semi-precious stones. If two hues are used, one of them should be +reduced in chroma to nearly gray. + +[Sidenote: Dominant Hue] + +Figure 463 is typical of still another form of positive hue grouping. By +consulting the yellow hue rectangle of Figure 457 it is noted that the +wood work, side walls, and ceiling of Figure 463 _are all contained in +one rectangle_. This classes this color scheme as an example of +_dominant_ arrangement which may be simply defined as the _tints and +shades of one hue_. The arrangement does not have the variety supplied +by analogous grouping, introducing as it does, two hues from different +rectangles, but for large surfaces dominant grouping is a conservative +and safe arrangement. Its tendency toward monotony should be guarded +against by the introduction of some object high in chroma in the room +decorative scheme. A bright colored vase will accomplish this +successfully. Rule 12o, Chapter XVII. + +Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should preferably +be selected from one of the following groupings: analogous, contrasted, +or dominant arrangements of hues. Analogous grouping is preferable where +variety of hue is desirable._ + +[Sidenote: Special Arrangements] + +The above rule is not to be taken as arbitrary. In the hands of +competent designers attractive color schemes are developed that differ +materially from the above suggestions. But, for the usual home setting, +the above arrangement may be regarded as satisfactory, and is given with +the idea of bringing the school shop work and the home environment into +closer color harmony. A specimen of special arrangement is given by the +Circle 3A. This is delft blue, which harmonizes with dark mahogany in a +satisfactory manner. + +[Sidenote: Hue Range for Side Walls and Ceilings] + +In adjusting the hues for side walls and ceilings, the relations should +be of the closest. The plotting of ceiling hues in Figure 457 shows a +strong tendency for the ceiling to be colored with a tint of the side +walls (dominant arrangement), or by a tint selected from the next +rectangle (analogous arrangement). Yellow or yellow-green, very light +and much reduced in chroma, seems to be the almost universal custom. +This is due to the strongly _light reflecting_ qualities of yellow. + +Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side +walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._ + +[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Stains] + +Stains, as they occupy a comparatively limited area in the room color +scheme, are of their full chroma value or reduced to three-fourths +chroma. In only one instance (18), Figure 463, do we find a reduction +to one-fourth chroma, demanded by the nearly gray color scheme of the +walls. We find it to be an established fact that small areas are capable +of enrichment by colors of greater purity and higher chroma than larger +surfaces. A silver pin may be designed to contain a stone of high +brilliancy, but a wall surface has to be materially reduced in chroma to +possess color harmony. + +[Illustration: PLATE 65] + +[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Stain] + +Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths +chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, however, call for a +reduction to one-fourth intensity._ + +[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Walls] + +As the walls occupy a large proportionate area of the color scheme of +the room we find it necessary to reduce them in chroma in order to +soften the glare of too brilliant colors. Figure 457 shows only one +instance (14) of a hue unreduced in chroma. It is retained at the full +chroma for that value on account of the brightness of the sage green +wood stain. The other hues represented in the diagram are grayed or +reduced in chroma from three-fourths to less than one-fourth, or to +nearly neutral gray. + +Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a +minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma._ + +[Sidenote: Range of Chroma for Ceilings] + +The same tendency toward chromatic reduction is to be seen in ceilings, +although we have two examples in Figure 457 (10 and 13) of nearly white +and high light ceilings that have not been reduced. To avoid crudity a +reduction in chroma by the addition of gray is to be desired. + +Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths +intensity with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum +reduction._ + +[Sidenote: Summary] + +With a single exception (3A), the stains and wall tints have been +selected between and including the red and green rectangles. This is +customary and gives safe hue range as it insures the retention of wall +and ceiling hues in unified conformity with the warm tints of the +natural wood and its equally dark hued stains. + +[Sidenote: Wall and Ceiling Pigments] + +The following is a list of dry colors which may be purchased at a paint +or hardware store for a few cents a pound. It is suggested for the +designer or craftsman who desires to tint his own wall or ceiling. While +oil paint is to be preferred, these colors are readily and quickly +applied and form serviceable backgrounds. + +[Sidenote: Calcimine] + +The pigments are white, yellow ochre, chrome yellow light, chrome yellow +medium, and chrome yellow dark, burnt and raw sienna, turkey and raw +umber, ultramarine and ivory black. The greens are preferably mixed by +adding ultramarine to one of the chromes. Shades are formed by the +addition of the siennas, umbers, or black. Black and white, mixed to a +gray, are useful in reducing the chroma of a hue. The stains should be +mixed with hot water and a small amount of glue for a binder. White +occasionally comes prepared with glue in its composition. + +[Sidenote: Opaque Wood Finishes] + +While this chapter has emphasized the transparent finish for wood +treatment, as a method best fitted for woods with a distinct grain, it +is realized that oil painting of wood surfaces has a distinct and +important part to play in the interior decorative scheme of a room. This +latter method is adapted to soft woods without a strongly marked grained +surface. The warm hued rectangle of the spectrum: red, orange, and +yellow with their associated hues, which are so intimately connected +with the natural wood colors and their stains, no longer stand as a +limiting factor in controlling the color of the wood or the side walls. +The opaque nature of oil paints allows us to disregard the color of the +wood, and thus select any hue of oil paint which harmonizes with the +walls and decorative scheme of the room. The rules stated herein are +equally applicable to opaque colors. It may be necessary to reduce oil +paints in chroma beyond the point indicated in Rule 12h. + +While it is not within the scope of this chapter to enter into a +complete discussion of the subject of interior decoration, the following +suggestions are considered as applying to our subject: viz., the surface +enrichment of large areas. Complete color harmony in interior decoration +generally demands the presence of the three so-called primary hues: red, +yellow, and blue, in some form in the wall color scheme. While this is +not always possible, two may be introduced as follows. + +[Sidenote: Northern Exposure] + +The light from the north, northeast, or northwest is cold blue, +supplying blue in the decorative scheme of three primary colors: blue, +red, and yellow. The wall tints should then be composed of combinations +of red and yellow, the remaining primaries. These may be applied to the +walls by means of tints of yellow and orange reduced in chroma, or +shades of orange and orange-red. No greens or blues should be used. + +[Sidenote: Southern Exposure] + +The light from the south, southeast, and southwest supplies plenty of +yellow. It is, then, necessary to add the remaining primaries or at +least one of them in the form of gray-blue, orange, or orange-yellow, +reduced to one-fourth chroma and practically to neutrality or +grayish-reds and greens, well reduced in chroma. Any hue strongly yellow +should be avoided. + +[Sidenote: Effects of Hue upon Apparent Size] + +Certain hues materially affect the apparent size of a room. If the room +is small certain values and hues will make it appear much smaller. Dark +values, as a rule, make the room look smaller by seemingly drawing the +walls closer together. Red contracts the apparent size of a room, while +yellow and blue expand it. Green and shades of yellow and red-orange, if +not too dark, have little effect upon the apparent size of a room. + + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + (_a_) Determine, by its exposure, the kind of light the room + receives. + + (_b_) Choose a hue for the walls embodying one or both of the + primary hues not represented by this daylight. + + (_c_) Select a value and chroma for this hue in accordance with + Rules 12b and 12i. + + (_d_) Select a hue, value, and chroma for the ceiling in + accordance with Rules 12g, 12e, and 12j. + + (_e_) Select the correct hue, value, and chroma for paint or + stain for the wood work in accordance with Rules 12f, 12a, and + 12h. + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Develop the color scheme for the walls, ceiling, and wood work + of a room with a northern exposure; southern exposure. Mix the + stain for a piece of oak to harmonize with the wood work and + walls of the living room of your home. + + Determine the wall tints to harmonize with dark weathered oak. + Mix them from dry colors. + + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the + values middle and low dark._ + + Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the + values light and middle._ + + Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the + values white (minus) and light._ + + Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, + trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values + or less, as low light and dark._ + + Rule 12e. _The relation between the side walls and ceiling + should be within the range of three values or less, as high + light and low light._ + + Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should + preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: + analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. + Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is + desirable._ + + Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the + side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._ + + Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below + three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, + however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity._ + + Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths + chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth + chroma._ + + Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to + three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth + chroma as a minimum reduction._ + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. What should we have in mind when staining furniture for the + home? + + 2. Why are the side walls important when considering the color + scheme of a room? + + 3. Give the value range for the average wood stains, side + walls, and ceiling. + + 4. State the value range to include wood work, furniture, trim, + and side walls. + + 5. State the value range that includes side walls and ceilings. + + 6. Give the hue range for wood work and side walls. + + 7. Explain the analogous, contrasted, and dominant groupings of + hues and name two examples of each. + + 8. Give the hue range for side walls and ceilings. Name several + good combinations. + + 9. Give range of chroma for wood work, side walls, and ceiling. + Explain the reasons for each change of chroma. + + 10. What experience have you had in mixing calcimine for wall + decoration? + + 11. Discuss opaque finishes for wood. + + 12. Give the hues for rooms with northern and southern + exposures. Why? + + 13. State the effect of hues upon the apparent size of a room. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN + + +SMALL SURFACES IN CLAY AND METAL + +Before proceeding to the discussion of the application of color to clay +it becomes necessary to determine what technical possibilities are +presented. + +[Sidenote: Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Clay] + +Plain glazing of the entire surface is a common form of pottery +enrichment. A piece of ware, thus glazed, may become a point of +concentration in the color arrangement of a room, and should be +definitely located in that arrangement. The ware may harmonize with the +background (side wall) by analogy, dominance, or contrast or through +complementary coloring. Rule 12o. A glaze from the diagram in Figure 464 +should be selected as forming a part in the selected arrangement. Side +wall (11), Figure 457, would harmonize with glaze C9 by virtue of its +dominant relation or with M7 through analogy. The glaze selected should +be higher in chroma than the side wall and will be found to form a +cheerful and brilliant element in the room color scheme. The definite +linking of these different factors of interior decoration into unity has +been earnestly advocated in these chapters. Figures 457 and 464 show the +possibilities of cross references. + +[Sidenote: Stains for Glazes] + +It soon becomes apparent because of the coloring of clay ware that the +designer must know something of the color possibilities of glazed +pottery forms. The decorative processes were explained at some length in +Chapter XII, wherein we described the common types of surface +enrichment. As we are now primarily considering the question of color, +we first regard the ware as uniformly glazed with either clear or matt +glaze. The former is brilliant, of high chroma, and has a highly +polished surface, while the latter is dull surfaced glaze of lower +chroma. + +[Sidenote: Metallic Oxides] + +Metallic oxides are used to stain or color clear glazes, while +underglaze colors are ordinarily used for matts. The percentage of +stains to be added to the dry glazes is stated in Figure 464 where they +can be readily traced to their approximate locations in the hue +rectangles by the reference letters M1, C1, etc. Certain oxides are weak +coloring agents and require larger amounts of oxide to color the glaze +perceptibly. + +Iron and copper oxide may be mixed to produce a large variety of yellow +greens; other combinations will suggest themselves. It is possible to +use oxides as well as underglaze colors for staining matt glazes. + +[Sidenote: Harmony of Color] + +We have, to this point, considered the enrichment of large surfaces +whose areas were arbitrarily determined by construction, as, for +example, the extent of wall surface, ceiling, or wood trim and +furniture. The essential element in this type of problem is the +selection of a one, two, or three-hued color arrangement that would +harmoniously link ceiling, wall, and wood together. If we had introduced +stencilling or figured wall paper it would have immediately called for +the solution of another problem, the factor of _how much_ strong color +to use. In other words, it would have introduced the question of +_proportionate distribution_ of color upon a given area. It was thought +best to limit the subject of proportionate distribution to small areas, +where the designer is often forced to make decisions and to divide +surfaces into proportionate color parts for his surface enrichment. + +We may now repeat the definition of harmony with the accentuation placed +upon a certain wording directly applicable to small surfaces. Harmony is +obtained by the proper balancing and _proportionate distribution_ of +value, hue, and chroma upon a surface to give a unified and pleasing +reaction to the eye and intellect. + +[Sidenote: Proportionate Distribution of Color for Small Areas] + +Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma in +surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, and +contrasting in value to the rest of the surface but harmonizing with it. +This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas +are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight +contrast with the background._ + +[Sidenote: Examples of Proportionate Distribution] + +Figure 465 illustrates some of the salient factors of distribution of +values and hues. Hues of or near standard chromatic intensity should be +used in _small quantities_ and should accentuate the point of +concentration. These small areas are to be regarded as giving brilliancy +and life to the surface and to hold the eye at the point of +concentration. Very small surfaces are capable of sustaining spots of +high chroma, as is shown in the silver pin of Figure 468. The remaining +portions of the surface enrichment should be kept subordinated in hue +and value to the point of concentration, _but related to it_. The bands +of Figure 465 are well reduced in value and make little contrast with +the background, thus forming true surface enrichment or that which +neither rises above or apparently falls through the surface. The point +of concentration is higher in chroma than the surrounding areas. + +Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all +color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue +related to the other hues by (1) contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) +analogous, (4) complementary relations. This hue should make slightly +stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues._ + +Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to +supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint +in the use of values is essential._ + +Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the +decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under +Rule 12o._ + +[Sidenote: Value and Hue and Chroma Range for Small Areas] + +In the vase, Figure 464A, the designer selected hues from neighboring or +analogous rectangles green and blue-green. The value range is restricted +to four steps and the areas of concentration are placed at the top of +the vase by the stronger value and hue contrasts of the foliage of the +trees and dark blue rim. In both Figures, 464A and 465, the designer has +used analogous hue arrangements. This is suggested to the beginner as +serviceable for objects exceeding the dimensions of jewelry and includes +such problems as vase forms, book stalls, and brackets. Contrasted and +dominant arrangements are also good, safe, and sound arrangements, but +fail to give the variety of color to small objects afforded by analogous +grouping. At a later point in this chapter the subject of complementary +coloring will suggest a new arrangement to the reader, but this scheme +is to be left until he has sufficiently mastered the possibilities of +the arrangements just indicated. + +Five values form a safe value range for small objects. It is good +practice to keep the larger areas, including the background, within +three steps of each other and to allow the point of concentration to +form the strongest value contrast. + +[Sidenote: Over Reduction in Chroma] + +The chroma may range from full to three-quarters intensity. Reduction to +one-half or one-fourth intensity is inclined to make a small object +appear washed out or chalky. Shades, at their full intensity, are good +colors to use for small surfaces in wood. Small enameled objects may be +developed in full chroma, while pottery forms range from full chroma to +one-half chroma in forms of slip and underglaze painting. + +[Sidenote: Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Metal] + +It is interesting to note the gradually increasing chroma percentage of +the different coloring media in direct proportion to the reduction of +the area of the surface to be enriched. By comparing the diagrams of +Figures 464 and 457 it will be seen that there is a steady movement +toward the left sides of the hue rectangles or toward stronger +intensity. The wall areas are shown to be lowest in chroma, followed by +the increasing intensity of wood stains, glazes, and enamels. + +[Sidenote: Enamels] + +Enamels, commonly used to enrich metal surfaces, are highest in chroma +of the decorative materials under discussion and are to be treated with +nearly as much restraint as one would use in enriching a surface with +semi-precious stones, for strong hues are cheapened by excessive use. +The plate in Figure 436 has small circles filled with enamel and a large +field of chased or uncolored design. + +[Sidenote: Transparent Enamels] + +Transparent enamels are comparable to clear glazes and the coloring +medium is the same. Their preparation is difficult and therefore trade +names have been given in the table of Figure 464. As will be seen by +consulting the diagram of Figure 464, T1, T2, T3, etc., they are all at +their full value intensity. Enamels, as supplied by the trade, are much +too intense for use in enrichment and consequently are applied over a +coating of colorless clear enamel, technically named flux or fondant. As +the thickness of coating of enamel may vary, the hue classification is +to be regarded as approximate. + +[Illustration: PLATE 66] + +[Sidenote: Opaque Enamels] + +Opaque enamels may be compared with matt glazes, for, while the texture +of the surface has a distinct gloss, the enamels themselves are not +so strong in hue as the transparent enamels. By referring to the diagram +of Figure 464, it may be seen that many of the opaque enamels are +reduced in chroma, thus accounting for their softened hue. + +[Sidenote: Oxidation] + +Metals are capable of considerable change of color by the application of +chemicals to the surface. Potassium sulphuret will lower the surface +value of silver or copper to a rich velvety black associated with +antiques. This may be removed in places naturally subjected to wear, +thus varying the dead black appearance. Copper and brass may be coated +with salt and vinegar or verdigris to give the surface a corroded and +greenish appearance. Heating is a fugitive method of coloring and is, +therefore, not considered. + +[Sidenote: Harmony through Oxidation] + +These surface changes may be utilized to harmonize metal and its +environment, as, for example, copper trimmings and a shade for a pottery +lamp; or it may be used to reduce the brightness of the natural copper +surface. + +The surfaces of metals may be changed with actual manipulation of the +surface by frosting or sanding and plating. Gold may be readily plated +with gold to bring it into closer harmony with the stone. Plating, +applied to base metals, merely to give the impression of a more +expensive metal, is to be discouraged. + +[Sidenote: Metal Backgrounds] + +One has to consider metal as a background in much the same manner as we +considered wall surfaces as a background for stained furniture. Whatever +color is applied to the surface must harmonize in proportionate +distribution as well as hue, value, and chroma. We have a small amount +of leeway for varying the background by the different processes of +oxidation and plating. + +[Sidenote: Enamel on a Copper Background] + +As one of the more common processes, let us consider the application of +enamel to copper in the form of champleve enrichment. Our first thought +would be the analysis of the natural copper color. It is found to be a +shade of orange-red and will, therefore, readily harmonize with the +_analogous_ oranges and reds, as they both have the common hue of red. +There should be a slight contrast of value between these enamels and the +background. If this contrast is not present, it is well to oxidize +slightly the copper to lower its value and thus produce the contrast. + +[Sidenote: Complementary Arrangement] + +The fourth harmonious hue combination, that of complementary arrangement +or grouping, has been left to the last as its use is more closely +associated with small multi-colored projects and small areas. A hue +approximately complementary to the initial hue is found by counting +seven rectangles to the right or left of that hue; this will give the +hue complementary to the initial hue. Thus, starting with red and moving +through seven rectangles toward the right, we find the complement to be +green. Any two hues so selected will be found to enhance the brilliancy +of each other. The best results are secured when one hue dominates the +color scheme by its increased area. Pottery may be adapted to a +complementary color scheme by Rule 12i. + +Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used +as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a +contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side +walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the +side walls._ + +[Sidenote: The Relation of Colored Glazes to Interior Decoration of a +Room] + +To find a glaze that will harmonize with the side walls of a room by +complementary arrangement of hues, select the desired wall tint from the +diagram in Figure 457. Find the similar hue rectangle in the diagram of +Figure 464 and, starting with this rectangle as one, count seven hues +from the side wall rectangle in either direction. In the seventh +rectangle or in a neighboring one will usually be found a number of +glazes answering the requirements and bearing a complementary relation +to the side walls. Select a glaze from these that will make a contrast +of chroma or value with the side wall. Example: background or side wall, +Figure 457, No. 8, is in the orange yellow rectangle. Counting seven +from this in Figure 464 we find the complement to be blue violet. As +there is no glaze in this rectangle we will move to its neighbor on the +left. This gives us clear glaze, C1, containing one and one-half per +cent black oxide of cobalt, or a matt glaze containing seven per cent +mazarine blue. + +Glazes that will harmonize with side wall 8 through dominant +arrangements are found in the same rectangle, O Y, and are numbered M5, +M6, C7, C8. Glazes that will harmonize by analogy are C9 and M7, and are +found in the left and right neighboring rectangles. + +In Figure 466, the copper fob, R O, is combined with its complementary +blue-green. Let us look at Figure 464. Counting seven intervals or hue +rectangles to the right of the orange red rectangle we find T4 which is +transparent blue green enamel. We may associate with this an analogous +enamel from the green rectangle; this proves to be T5 medium green +transparent enamel. + +[Sidenote: Development of Design for Enamel on Metal] + +The point of concentration may now be emphasized by an enamel +complementary to the blue green hue. Counting seven rectangles to the +_left_ we again encounter the red orange rectangle. Here there are no +enamels but in the red hue rectangle we find T7 which is slightly +orange-red. A small portion of this, Rule 12k, is applied and is found +to center the design at the point of concentration in a satisfactory +manner. Slight oxidation brings out the colors of the enamels. + +Upon attempting to develop the same figure in opaque enamels it is soon +seen that there are no pleasing complementary enamels of this type, but +many analogous combinations. Autumn brown with the point of +concentration developed in orange (O5) would be an excellent compromise. + +Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither +apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is applied, +but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma +range will accomplish this._ + +[Sidenote: Color for Silver Enrichment] + +The gray-blue color of silver lends itself to a great number of gem +stones, forming examples of contrasted arrangements. Care should be +taken to form contrasts of _value_. Figure 467 is an example of a weak +and insipid combination, lacking in value and hue contrast. The amethyst +of Figure 468 corrects this error, while the oxidation of Figure 469 has +partially corrected the lack of contrast shown in Figure 467. These +illustrations tend to show that even stronger contrasts may be attempted +with small gems and semi-precious stones than with enamels. This again +proves the rule that the smaller areas are capable of sustaining +stronger contrasts of hue, value, and chroma than are large ones. + + +SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS + + The outline of the surface enrichment is considered as + complete. + + (_a_) METAL OR WOOD. Analyze the background into its hue, + value, and chroma. CLAY. Select a background that will + harmonize with the controlling hue or hues of the proposed + color scheme. Rule 12o. If this is a one hued color scheme + without gradation or surface enrichment the design steps may + terminate at this point. + + (_b_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select the extreme value range of + the color scheme, considering, if possible, the background as a + balancing or pivotal value point upon which the values may + balance above and below. As the side walls formed a balancing + point for the ceiling and furniture or wood work, so may the + background of metal, wood, or colored clay become a similar + balancing factor for small surfaces. Rule 12m. + + (_c_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select a hue or hues which will + harmonize with the background through dominant, contrasting, or + analogous relations. Rule 12l. In selecting the hues consider + the final placing of the object. + + (_d_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Select a chroma range. Allow the + point or area of concentration to have a slightly higher + chromatic relation than the other hues. The point of + concentration may be one of the hues already selected or it may + bear a _complementary_ relation to them. The hues may be + averaged and a complementary to the average selected. Rule 12n. + + (_e_) METAL, WOOD, AND CLAY. Apply the rule of proportionate + distribution, Rule 12k. + + (_f_) METAL AND WOOD. Using the pigments suggested in Chapter + XV, design the problem. Test the result by applying Rule 12p. + + (_g_) CLAY. If the design has been developed in slip or + underglaze painting, select a glaze for an overglaze coating + that will harmonize with the prevailing hues by _dominance or + analogy_. Other arrangements may destroy the hues of the + original color scheme. + + (_h_) Develop the problem in its material. + + +SUGGESTED PROBLEMS + + Design a bowl for nasturtiums; make the color arrangement + harmonize through analogy with the hues of the flowers. + + Design a vase for chrysanthemums; make the surface enrichment + and the color arrangement harmonize through dominance with the + hues of the flowers. + + Design a hat pin for a blue hat; materials, copper, and + transparent enamels. + + Design a brooch to be worn with a gray dress. + + Design a pottery and copper lamp with amber art glass in the + shade. Through oxidation and glazing, bring the lamp into color + unity. + + +SUMMARY OF RULES + + Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma + in surface enrichment calls for a small area high in chroma and + contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but + harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of + concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced + in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the + background._ + + +HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS + + Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should + dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be + emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) + contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, or (4) complementary + relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and + chroma contrast than the remaining hues._ + + +VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS + + Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally + sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its + value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential._ + + +CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS + + Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion + to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made + to this under Rule 12o._ + + Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to + be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room + should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary + relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much + higher in chroma than the side walls._ + + Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither + apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is + applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. + Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this._ + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + 1. State the value of mono-hued pottery in the decorative + scheme of a room. + + 2. What are generally used as stains for clear glazes; matt + glazes? + + 3. What is highest in chroma--matt, or clear glaze? + + 4. Make a table of metallic oxides and the hues produced by + them. + + 5. Why will iron and copper oxides produce a yellow green + stain? What stains will be produced by cobalt and copper + oxides; cobalt and manganese oxides; cobalt and nickel oxides? + + 6. Describe the type of room which you regard as best fitted + for clear glazed pottery forms; matt glazed pottery forms. + + 7. Define harmony of color. + + 8. What is meant by proportionate distribution? Describe + proportionate distribution. + + 9. Give the value, hue, and chroma range for small areas. See + Rules 12l, 12m, and 12n. + + 10. How does the size of the area to be enriched by color + affect the color medium, _i.e._, stains, glazes, enamels, etc.? + + 11. Describe enamels, their types, characteristics, and range + of hues. Consult catalogs for fuller possibilities. + + 12. What is the effect of oxidation; what is its value? + + 13. Describe fully complementary arrangements and give + illustrations for enamel on silver or copper. + + 14. State the color scheme for a fob to be worn with a + blue-green dress; with a gray suit for a man. + + 15. Select a stone for a silver brooch that would harmonize + with a light blue dress; for a dress of orange dark hue and + value. See catalogs of dealers in semi-precious stones for + color of stones. + + 16. What problems of hue, value, and chroma would arise in + Question 15? + + + + +SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL AND SPECIAL RULES IN THE PRECEEDING +CHAPTERS + + +HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL PRIMARY MASSES + + Rule 1a. _A primary mass must be either vertical or horizontal + according to the intended service, unless prohibited by + technical requirements._ + + +PROPORTIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS + + Rule 1b. _The primary mass should have the ratio of one to + three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to + ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect + readily and analyze._ + + +HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS + + Rule 2a. _If the primary mass is divided into two horizontal + divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the + lower section._ + + Rule 2b. _If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal + divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the + center section with varying widths in the upper and lower + thirds._ + + +SEQUENTIAL PROGRESSION OF MINOR HORIZONTAL SPACE DIVISIONS + + Rule 2c. _A primary mass may be divided into three or more + smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger + mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the + height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or + divisions to be located at the top of the mass._ + + +VERTICAL SPACE DIVISIONS + + Rule 3a. _If the primary mass is divided into two vertical + divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar in + form._ + + Rule 3b. _If the primary mass is divided into three vertical + divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the + remaining divisions of equal size._ + + Rule 3c. _In elementary problems, if more than three vertical + divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze + into Rules 3a, and 3b, or be exactly similar._ + + +APPENDAGES + + Rule 4a. _The appendage should be designed in unity with, and + proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal + character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it._ + + Rule 4b. _The appendage should have the appearance of flowing + smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass._ + + Rule 4c. _The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat + some lines similar in character and direction to those of the + primary mass._ + + +OUTLINE OR CONTOUR ENRICHMENT + + Rule 5a. _Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and + support the structure._ + + Rule 5b. _Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and + variety to the design._ + + Rule 5c. _Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a + sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent + members together._ + + Rule 5d. _Parts of one design differing in function should + differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire + design._ + + Rule 5e. _In cylindrical forms outline curves with a vertical + tendency should have their turning points or units of + measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of + Rules 2a and 2b._ + + Rule 5f. _Dependent outline enrichment should be related to + essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and + functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject._ + + Rule 5g. _A curve should join a straight line with either a + tangential or right angle junction._ + + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT + + Postulate. _The design should conform to the limitations and + requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be + durable and suitable for service._ + + Rule 6a. _Surfaces to be enriched must admit of enrichment._ + + Rule 6b. _Surface enrichment must be related to the structural + contours but must not obscure the actual structure._ + + Rule 6c. _The treatment must be appropriate to the material._ + + +CONTINUOUS BANDS AND BORDERS FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES + + Rule 6d. _Bands and borders should have a consistent lateral, + that is, onward movement._ + + Rule 6e. _Bands and borders should never have a prominent + contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement._ + + Rule 6f. _All component parts of a border should move in unison + with the main movement of the border._ + + Rule 6g. _Each component part of a border should be strongly + dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main movements of the + border._ + + Rule 6h. _Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a + strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, + provided the lateral movement dominates._ + + Rule 6i. _Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or + glaring contrasts with the parent surface._ + + Rule 6j. _Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance + of belonging to the parent mass._ + + +ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT--PARTLY ENRICHED PANELS FOR SURFACE ENRICHMENT + + Rule 7a. _Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be + related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it + is to enrich._ + + Rule 7b. _Marginal points of concentration in panels should be + placed (1) preferably at the corners or (2) in the center of + each margin._ + + Rule 7c. _To insure unity of design in panels, the elements + composing the point of concentration and links connecting them + must be related to the panel contour and to each other._ + + +ENCLOSED ENRICHMENT--FULLY ENRICHED PANELS FOR SURFACE ENRICHMENT + + Rule 7d. _The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel + the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions._ + + Rule 7e. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched + square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin._ + + Rule 7f. _The points of concentration for a fully enriched + vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel._ + + Rule 7g. _The fully enriched panel and its contents should be + designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with + the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis + of the structure._ + + +FREE ORNAMENT FOR PARTLY ENRICHED SURFACES + + Rule 8a. _Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces + should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the + structure._ + + Rule 8b. _Free ornament should be related and subordinated to + the structural surfaces._ + + Rule 8c. _Points of concentration in free enrichment of + vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the + inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the + design._ + + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY + + Rule 9a. _Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to + be able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must + be submitted._ + + Rule 9b. _Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay + should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of + the material._ + + Rule 9c. _A border should not be located at the point of + greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The + contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that + point._ + + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS FOR SMALL MASSES + + Rule 10a. _Designs in precious metals should call for the + minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the + designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; (2) economy of + material._ + + Rule 10b. _Contour and surface enrichment should never appear + to compete for attention in the same design._ + + Rule 10c. _Parts of a design differing in function should + differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire + design._ + + Rule 10d. _Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the + contours of both primary mass and point of concentration + especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel._ + + Rule 10e. _In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point + of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an + unobtrusive setting, or background._ + + Rule 10f. _Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration + should form contrast with the metal, either in color, + brilliancy, or value, or all three combined._ + + Rule 10g. _The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide + with one axis of a stone and at the same time be + sympathetically related to the structure._ + + Rule 10h. _The position of the inceptive axis should be + determined by: (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar + pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or + horizontal in proportion._ + + Rule 10i. _Caution should be exercised with regard to the use + of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen + both process and design._ + + Rule 10j. _All surface enrichment should have an appearance of + compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used + as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the + surface without thought to their coherence._ + + Rule 10k. _Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the + higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to + have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. + When using this form of enrichment, the stone should never + appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be + approached by a series of rising planes._ + + Rule 10l. _The lanes or margins between enameled spots should + be narrower than the lane or margin between the enamel and the + contour of the primary mass._ + + Rule 10m. _Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not + be used in the same design._ + + +SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF BASE AND PRECIOUS METALS FOR LARGE PRIMARY MASSES + + Rule 11a. _The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment + should be thought out before they are drawn._ + + Rule 11b. _Conservative application should mark the use of + surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten + or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or + apparently strengthen good structure; (3) add interest to large + unbroken and uninteresting surfaces._ + + Rule 11c. _The type of design unit for large masses should be + bolder than similar designs for small primary masses._ + + Rule 11d. _The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of + enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, + terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be + subordinate to this area._ + + Rule 11e. _Two periods of historic ornament should not be + introduced into the same design._ + + Rule 11f. _Repulsive forms should not be introduced into + surface enrichment._ + + +APPLICATION OF COLOR TO LARGE AREAS VALUES + + Rule 12a. _An average wood stain is to be retained between the + values middle and low dark._ + + Rule 12b. _An average wall hue is to be retained between the + values light and middle._ + + Rule 12c. _An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the + values white (minus) and light._ + + Rule 12d. _The relation between the side walls and furniture, + trim, etc., should be retained within the range of four values + or less, as low light and dark._ + + Rule 12e. _The relation between the side walls and ceiling + should be within the range of three values or less, as high + light and low light._ + + +HUES + + Rule 12f. _Color schemes for wood work and side walls should + preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: + analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. + Analogous grouping is preferable where variety of hue is + desirable._ + + Rule 12g. _Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the + side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue._ + + +CHROMA + + Rule 12h. _Stains are usually not reduced to below + three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, + however, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity._ + + Rule 12i. _Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths + chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth + chroma._ + + Rule 12j. _Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to + three-fourths intensity, with slightly less than one-fourth + chroma as a minimum reduction._ + + +DISTRIBUTION + + Rule 12k. _Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma + in surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, + and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but + harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of + concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced + in chroma and value to form slight contrast with the + background._ + + +HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS + + Rule 12l. _One hue, or a group of analogous hues should + dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be + emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) + contrasted, (2) dominant, (3) analogous, (4) complementary + relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and + chroma contrast than the remaining hues._ + + +VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS + + Rule 12m. _An extreme range of five values is generally + sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its + value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential._ + + +CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS + + Rule 12n. _The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion + to the decrease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made + to this under Rule 12o._ + + Rule 12o. _Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to + be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room + should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary + relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much + higher in chroma than the side walls._ + + Rule 12p. _Correct color for surface enrichment should neither + apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to which it is + applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. + Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this._ + + + + +APPENDIX + + +The following plates comprise complete courses for applied art problems +in thin metal (copper and silver), and clay. The problems are based upon +what is known as the "group system." The process forms the basis for +each group in each course. The stated problem in each group is merely +one of many that might be selected which involves the process of the +group. + +The design rule that should be applied to each problem has been +indicated by its proper figure and letter on each plate, as 10a, etc. +The plates are sequentially arranged in order of the difficulty of the +process and may be summarized as follows. + + +THIN METAL + + Plate 67: Bending. Sawing. Riveting. + Plate 68: Bending. Soft Soldering. + Plate 69: Raising. Piercing. Etching. + Plate 70: Raising and Planishing. + Plate 71: Bending. Piercing. Etching. Hard Soldering. + Plate 72: Hinge Construction. + Plate 73: Raising. Planishing. Hard Soldering. + Plate 74: Raising. Planishing. + Plate 75: Champleve Enamelling. + Plate 76: Precious Stone Mounting; Pins. + Plate 77: Precious Stone Mounting; Rings. + Plate 78: Precious Stone Mounting; Pendants. + + +POTTERY + + Plate 79: Hand Built Tile. + Plate 80: Hand Built Bowl, Coil and Strip Method. + Plate 81: Same with Appendage Added. + Plate 82: Hand Building; Spouts, Lids, Handles. + Plate 83: Poured Forms and Mould Making. + Plate 84: Slip Painting. + Plate 85: Glaze Testing. + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 1. BENDING, SAWING, RIVETING + +PLATE 67] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 2: BENDING AND SOFT SOLDERING + +PLATE 68] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 3: RAISING, PIERCING, ETCHING + +PLATE 69] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 3: RAISING, PLANISHING: TRAYS + +PLATE 70] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 4: BENDING, PIERCING, ETCHING, HARD SOLDERING + +PLATE 71] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 5: HINGE CONSTRUCTION + +PLATE 72] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 6: RAISING, PLANISHING, SOLDERING + +PLATE 73] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 7: RAISING, PLANISHING + +PLATE 74] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 8: CHAMPLEVE ENAMELLING. + +PLATE 75] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 9: SEMI-PRECIOUS STONE MOUNTING + +PLATE 76] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS: 10: SOLDERING, CARVING, STONE MOUNTING + +PLATE 77] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: THIN METAL + +PROCESS 11: PENDANT CONSTRUCTION, CHAIN MAKING + +PLATE 78] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 470.--Inceptive Axes. Partial Illustration of the +Metal Course] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY + +PROCESS 1: HAND BUILT TILE. CUT FROM FLAT PIECE + +PLATE 79] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY + +PROCESS 2: HAND BUILDING. COIL AND STRIP + +PLATE 80] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY + +PROCESS 3: HAND BUILDING, SPOUT, HANDLE, LID + +PLATE 81] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: CLAY. POTTERY + +PROCESS 3: HAND BUILDING: SPOUT, HANDLE, LID + +PLATE 82] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY + +PROCESS 4: POURED FORMS. TWO AND THREE PIECE MOULDS + +PLATE 83] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY + +PROCESS 5: SLIP PAINTING (UNDER GLAZE DECORATION) + +PLATE 84] + +[Illustration: APPLIED ARTS: POTTERY + +PROCESS 6: GLAZE TESTING + +PLATE 85] + +[Illustration: FIGURE 471.--Results of the Pottery Course] + +Figure 471 shows the actual results produced by the preceding course. +The process to which the individual pieces belong is indicated by the +small figure placed on the table and in front of the ware. The preceding +sheets should be regarded in the light of suggestions for original +thinking on the part of the student. They merely suggest technical +guidance, in order that his progress may be sequential and fitted to his +increasing skill. + +The glazes are stated in the terms of the ceramist with the proportions +of base, alumina, and acid content of each glaze clearly stated. By +referring to the textbooks mentioned in the preface, these glazes may be +developed into the potter's formulae. + +In both metal and pottery courses, two or more types are frequently +represented upon one plate. These types will allow the teacher to assign +a more difficult problem to the student with some previous experience. + + + + +INDEX + + + PAGE + + Accenting bands in wood, 105 + + Accentuation of functional parts, 79 + + Adapting data to material, 127 + + Analogous hues, 203 + + Analysis, intelligent, 7 + + Andiron design, 53 + + Aniline wood dyes, 199 + + Appendage design, 43-49 + + Appendage, use of, 43 + + Appendages, 43 + + Appendages and primary mass, 45 + + Appendages, contour enrichment of, 88 + + Appendages, design violations, 43 + + Appendages in clay, 47 + + Appendages, industrial applications, 47 + + Appendages, influence of tools and materials, 53 + + Appendages in metal, 51 + + Appendages in wood, 45 + + Artificial objects, 129 + + Architectural, horizontal divisions for, 21 + + + Bands, wood inlay, 105 + + Backgrounds, 113, 201 + + Base metals, enrichment of, 87 + + Base and precious metals, surface enrichment of, 160, 163, 165, 167 + + Borders for wood, 107 + + Building, 165 + + + Candlesticks, 81 + + Carving, 103 + + Carving and piercing, 141 + + Carving, design steps for, 105 + + Ceilings, 202-205 + + Center zone enrichment, 121 + + Chasing, 163 + + Chip carving, 115 + + Chroma, 197 + + Chromatic intensity, full, 195 + + Clay, coloring for underglaze, 151 + + Clay, decorative processes, 145 + + Clay, incising, 147 + + Clay, inlay, 149 + + Clay, introduction of pigments, 149 + + Clay, modeling, 147 + + Clay, piercing, 147 + + Clay, slip painting, 149 + + Clay, surface enrichment for, 145 + + Clay, surface enrichment, structural classification for, 151 + + Clay, underglaze painting, 151 + + Color for clay enrichment, 209 + + Color for small areas, 210 + + Color harmony, 201 + + Color pigments, 194 + + Color pigments, application of, 194 + + Color symbols, 198 + + Color systems, 194 + + Commercial pottery, 158 + + Complementary hues, 214 + + Conservative use of ornament, 101 + + Contrasted hues, 203 + + Containers, 81 + + Continuity and contrast, 63 + + Contour enrichment, influence of materials, 65 + + Contour enrichment, methods of varying, 70 + + Contour enrichment of clay, need of, 77 + + Contour enrichment, evolution of, 65 + + Contour enrichment, purpose of, 59 + + Contour enrichment, requirements of, 59 + + Contour enrichment, systematic development of, 81 + + + Contour versus surface enrichment, 185 + + Corners, contour enrichment of, 88 + + Correlation, ideal, 11 + + Covers, design for, 49 + + Criticism, clear, 7 + + Criticism, non-technical, 7 + + Curve of beauty, 91 + + Curve of force, 61 + + Curve of force, approximate, 61 + + Curves for contour enrichment, 59 + + Curves, grouping of, 63 + + Curves of extravagance, 73 + + + Dependent surface enrichment, 167 + + Details, contour enrichment of, 93 + + Design evolution, major divisions, 9 + + Design evolution, steps in, 11 + + Design, preliminary thought, 17 + + Dominant hue, 204 + + Dynamic curves and areas, 111 + + + Edges, contour enrichment of, 87 + + Elements, 157 + + Enameling, 163, 212, 213, 215 + + Enrichment for small metal areas, 179 + + Enrichment, need and value of, 57 + + Enrichment of large metal areas, 179, 183 + + Enrichment, types of, 57 + + Essentials of good surface enrichment, 179 + + Exposures, 206, 207 + + + Flat surfaces in base and precious metal, 185 + + Fobs, design of, 169 + + Four vertical minor divisions, 139 + + Free balance, 129 + + Free enrichment, 121 + + Free minor division treatment, 141 + + Free ornament, 117 + + Freehand curves, 30, 51, 63 + + Full size drawing, value of, 23 + + Functional parts, enrichment of, 88 + + + Glazes for pottery, 149 + + Glazes related to interior decoration, 214 + + Glazes, stains for, 209 + + Greek scroll, 93 + + + Handles, design for, 49 + + Harmonious color, need of, 194 + + Harmony of color, 210 + + High cylindrical forms in clay, 157 + + High cylindrical forms in metal, 191 + + Historic ornament in hardware, 186 + + Horizontal and vertical minor divisions, 137 + + Horizontal divisions, architectural precedent, 25 + + Horizontal divisions, nature and need of, 19 + + Horizontal divisions, steps in designing, 21 + + Horizontal minor divisions, 139 + + Hue and hue rectangles, 195 + + Hue groupings, 203 + + + Industrial problems, requirements of, 9 + + Inceptive axes, 107, 121, 161 + + Inceptive axes for marginal enrichment, 119 + + Inlaying, 101-103 + + Intermediate points, contour enrichment of, 89 + + Ionic volute, 91 + + + Leading lines, curved, 108 + + Links, 45 + + Links, contour enrichment of, 93 + + Low cylindrical forms in clay, 157 + + Low cylindrical forms in metal, 187 + + + Major design division, first, 9 + + Major design division, second, 9 + + Major design division, third, 11 + + Marginal zone enrichment, 118 + + Material, adapting data to, 127 + + Material, economy of, 161 + + + Material, relation to surface enrichment, 101 + + Metallic oxides, 210 + + Methods, architectural design, 13 + + Methods, industrial design, 13 + + Minor details, 141 + + Minor subdivisions in wood, 133 + + Moorish ornament, 107 + + Mouldings, 61 + + + One vertical division, 35 + + Outlines, free and dependent, 87, 91 (See Contours.) + + Oxidation, 213 + + + Panels, 117, 123, 125, 127, 129 + + Panel design, steps in, 125 + + Parts differing in function, 77 + + Pendants and chains, design of, 173 + + Pierced enrichment, 123 + + Pigment table, 195 + + Pigments, wall and ceiling, 205 + + Pins and brooches, design of, 167 + + Point of concentration, 115, 161 + + Point of concentration for marginal enrichment, 119 + + Porcelain painting, 151 + + Pourers, 81 + + Precious metals, processes of enrichment, 161, 163, 165, 169 + + Primary hues, 198 + + Primary masses, 13 + + Primary mass, drawing of, 15 + + Primary mass, divisions of, 19 + + Primary masses, vertical and horizontal, 15 + + Primary masses, proportions of, 15 + + Proportionate distribution, 210 + + + Ratios, unsatisfactory, 17 + + Rectangular panels, 127 + + Rings, design of, 169 + + + Sequential progression, 135 + + Service, influence of, 9, 13, 15 + + Sets, designing of, 83 + + Shades, 197 + + Shallow circular forms in clay, 155 + + Shallow circular forms in metal, 187 + + Side walls, 202-205 + + Silver, color for, 215 + + Silver, contour enrichment of, 93 + + Silver, free outline enrichment, 97 + + Silver, motives for contour enrichment, 97 + + Spouts, design of, 49 + + Square and rectangular areas in clay, 153 + + Square panels, 125 + + Standard hues, 195 + + Standard hues, locating, 196 + + Stones, cutting, 95 + + Stones, relation to contour, 95 + + Stones, relation to metal, 173 + + Structural forms, classification, 160 + + Structural forms, classification for clay surface enrichment, 151 + + Structural reinforcement, 118 + + Surface design evolution, 180 + + Surface enrichment, nature and need of, 99 + + Surfaces, when and where to enrich, 99 + + + Tangential junctions, 51, 93 + + Technical processes for metal, 163 + + Technical rendering, 161 + + Terminals, contour enrichment of, 89-91 + + Three horizontal divisions, 29 + + Three horizontal divisions in clay, 30 + + Three horizontal divisions in metal, 30 + + Three horizontal divisions in wood, 29 + + Three vertical divisions, 37 + + Three vertical divisions in clay, 39 + + Three vertical divisions in metal, 41 + + Three vertical divisions in wood, 39 + + + Tints, 196 + + Transitional types in furniture, 139 + + Two horizontal divisions, 25 + + Two horizontal divisions in clay, 27 + + Two horizontal divisions in metal, 27 + + Two horizontal divisions in wood, 25 + + Two vertical divisions, 35 + + Two vertical divisions in clay, 37 + + Two vertical divisions in metal, 37 + + Two vertical divisions in wood, 35 + + + Unit of measurement for vertical curves, 79 + + Unity, 29 + + Unity in clay design curves, 77 + + + Value lines, 196 + + Varied panels, 129 + + Vertical divisions, architectural precedent, 33 + + Vertical divisions, more than three, 41 + + Vertical divisions, nature and need, 33 + + Vertical and horizontal division evolution, 40 + + Vertical sections and their minor divisions, 133-135 + + Vocabulary, designer's, 105 + + + Walls and ceilings, 203-204 + + Walls and wood work, 202-203 + + Warm and cold colors, 198 + + Wood finishes, opaque, 206 + + Wood, methods of surface enrichment, 101 + + Wood stains, 198 + + Wood stains, chroma range, 205 + + Wood stain mixing, 199, 200 + + Wood stain rendering, 195 + + Wood stains, value range, 201 + + Wrought iron enrichment, 91 + + + Zones of enrichment, 118 + + + * * * * * + + + Transcriber's Notes + + Inconsistent hyphenation and obvious punctuation and spelling errors + have been corrected. + + {PC} and {IA} have been used to represent the letters P and C or + I and A overlaid on one another to label the "Point of + Concentration" and "Inceptive Axis" respectively. + + Although referred to on page 75, no illustration is captioned as + "Plate 23" in the original text. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Industrial Arts Design, by William H. Varnum + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42317 *** |