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diff --git a/42741-8.txt b/42741-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 96518a3..0000000 --- a/42741-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11345 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Earth and Man, by J. W. Dawson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Story of the Earth and Man - -Author: J. W. Dawson - -Release Date: May 20, 2013 [EBook #42741] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE EARTH AND MAN *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas using scanned images and materials -obtained from The Internet Archive. - - - - - - - - - -The Story of the Earth and Man. - - -By J. W. DAWSON - - - - - DIAGRAM OF THE EARTH'S HISTORY. - - -------------------------------------------------------- - ANIMALS ROCK FORMATIONS PLANTS - -------------------------------------------------------- - - Age N Modern Age - of E T Post-pliocene of - Man O i Pliocene Angiosperms - (Upper Z m Pliocene and - Strata) O e Miocene Plants - and I Eocene - Mammals C - - -------------------------------------------------------- - M - Age E Cretaceous Age - S T of - of O i Jurassic Cycads - Z m and - Reptiles O e Triassic Pines - I - C - -------------------------------------------------------- - - Permian Age of - Age of P - Amphibians A Carboniferous Acrogens - and Fishes L T - Æ i Erian or and - ------ O m - Z e Devonian Gymnosperms - Age of O - Mollusks I Silurian ------ - Corals C - and Siluro- Age - Crustaceans Cambrian - of - Cambrian - Algæ - Huronian? - - ------------------------------------------------------ - - Age of E Laurentian Plants - Protozoa O T - Z i not - O m - I e determinable - C - -Harper & Brothers New York. - - - - - -THE STORY - - -OF - - -THE EARTH AND MAN, - - -BY - - -J. W. DAWSON, LL.D., F.K.S., F.G.S., - -PRINCIPAL AND VICE-CHANCELLOR OF McGILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL, AUTHOR -OF "ARCHAIA," "ACADIAN GEOLOGY," ETC. - - - NEW YORK: - HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, - FRANKLIN SQUARE - - - - - -PREFACE - - -The science of the earth as illustrated by geological research, is one -of the noblest outgrowths of our modern intellectual life. -Constituting the sum of all the natural sciences in their application -to the history of our world, it affords a very wide and varied scope -for mental activity, and deals with some of the grandest problems of -space and time and of organic existence. It invites us to be present -at the origin of things, and to enter into the very workshop of the -Creator. It has, besides, most important and intimate connection with -the industrial arts and with the material resources at the disposal of -man. Its educational value, as a means of cultivating the powers of -observing and reasoning, and of accustoming the mind to deal with -large and intricate questions, can scarcely be overrated. - -But fully to serve these high ends, the study of geology must be based -on a thorough knowledge of the subjects which constitute its -elementary data. It must be divested as far as possible of merely -local colouring, and of the prejudices of specialists. It must be -emancipated from the control of the bald metaphysical speculations so -rife in our time, and above all it must be delivered from that -materialistic infidelity, which, by robbing nature of the spiritual -element, and of its presiding Divinity, makes science dry, barren, and -repulsive, diminishes its educational value, and even renders it less -efficient for purposes of practical research. - -That the want of these preliminary conditions mars much of the popular -science of our day is too evident; and I confess that the wish to -attempt something better, and thereby to revive the interest in -geological study, to attract attention to its educational value, and -to remove the misapprehensions which exist in some quarters respecting -it, were principal reasons which induced me to undertake the series of -papers for the _Leisure Hour_, which are reproduced, with some -amendments and extension, in the present work. How far I have -succeeded, I must leave to the intelligent and, I trust, indulgent -reader to decide. In any case I have presented this many-sided subject -in the aspect in which it appears to a geologist whose studies have -led him to compare with each other the two great continental areas -which are the classic ground of the science, and who retains his faith -in those unseen realities of which the history of the earth itself is -but one of the shadows projected on the field of time. - -To geologists who may glance at the following pages, I would say -that, amidst much that is familiar, they will find here and there some -facts which may be new to them, as well as some original suggestions -and conclusions as to the relations of things, which though stated in -familiar terms, I have not advanced without due consideration of a -wide range of facts, To the general reader I have endeavoured to -present the more important results of geological investigation -divested of technical difficulties, yet with a careful regard to -accuracy of statement, and in such a manner as to invite to the -farther and more precise study of the subject in nature, and in works -which enter into technical details. I have endeavoured as far as -possible to mention the authors of important discoveries; but it is -impossible in a work of this kind to quote authority for every -statement, while the omission of much important matter relating to the -topics discussed is also unavoidable. Shortcomings in these respects -must be remedied by the reader himself, with the aid of systematic -text-books. Those who may desire any farther explanation of the -occasional allusions to the record of creation in Genesis, will find -this in my previously published volume entitled "Archaia." - - J. W. D, - - McGill College, Montreal, - _January, 1873_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - PAGE - - Chapter I.--The Genesis Of The Earth. - - Uniformity and Progress.--Internal Heat.--Nebular - Theory.--Probable Condition of the Primitive World 1 - - - Chapter II.--The Eozoic Ages. - - The Laurentian Rocks.--Their Character and - Distribution.--The Conditions of their Deposition.--Their - Metamorphism.--Eozoon Canadense.--Laurentian Vegetation 17 - - - Chapter III.--The Primordial or Cambrian Age. - - Connection of the Laurentian and Primordial.--Animals - of the Primordial Seas.--Lingula, Trilobites, Oldhamia, - etc.--The terms Cambrian and Silurian.--Statistics of - Primordial Life 36 - - - Chapter IV.--The Silurian Ages. - - Geography of the Continental Plateaus.--Life of the - Silurian.--Reign of Invertebrates.--Corals, Crinoids, - Mollusks, Crustaceans.--The First Vertebrates. - Silurian Fishes.--Land Plants 56 - - - Chapter V.--The Devonian or Erian Age. - - Physical Character of the Age.--Difference of Deposits in - Marginal and Continental Areas.--Specialisation of - Physical Geography.--Corals, Crustaceans, Fishes, - Insects, Plants 81 - - Chapter VI.--The Carboniferous Age. - - Perfection of Palæozoic Life.--Carboniferous - Geography.--Colours of Sediments.--Vegetation.--Origin - of Coal.--Land Life.--Reptiles, Land Snails, Millipedes, - etc.--Oceanic Life 109 - - - Chapter VII.--The Permian Age. - - Movements of the Land.--Plication of the Crust.--Chemical - Conditions of Dolomite, etc.--Geographical - Results of Permian Movements.--Life of the Period. - Summary of Palæozoic History 160 - - - Chapter VIII.--The Mesozoic Ages. - - Characters of the Trias.--Summary of Changes in the - Triassic and Cretaceous Periods.--Changes of the - Continental Plateaus.--Relative Duration of the - Palæozoic and Mesozoic.--Mesozoic Forests.--Land - Animals.--The reign of Reptiles.--Early Mammals - and Birds 188 - - - Chapter IX.--The Mesozoic Ages (continued). - - Animals of the Sea.--Great Sea Lizards, Fishes, - Cephalopods, etc.--Chalk and its History.--Tabular - View of the Mesozoic Ages 211 - - - Chapter X.--The Neozoic Ages. - - Physical Changes at the end of Mesozoic.--Subdivisions - of the Neozoic.--Great Eocene Seas.--Land Animals - and Plants. Life of the Miocene.--Reign of Mammals 235 - - - Chapter XI.--The Neozoic Ages (_continued_). - - Later Vegetation.--The Animals of the Pliocene Period. - Approach of the Glacial Period.--Character of the - Post-pliocene or Glacial 258 - - - Chapter XII.--Close of the Post-pliocene, and Advent or Man. - - Connection of Geological and Human History.--The Post-glacial - Period.--Its Relations to the Pre-Historic Human - Period.--Elevation of Post-Pliocene Land.--Introduction of - Man.--Subsidence and Re-elevation.--Calculations as to - Time.--Tabular View of the Neozoic Ages 282 - - - Chapter XIII.--Advent Of Man (_continued_). - - Relations of Post-pliocene and Modern Animals.--Cavern - Deposits.--Kent's Cave.--General Remarks. 299 - - - Chapter XIV.--Primitive Man. - - Theory of Evolution as applied to Man.--Its Demands.--Its - Deficiencies.--Fallacious Character of Arguments of - Derivationists. Hypothesis of Creation.--Its Demands - and Advantages 316 - - - Chapter XV.--Primitive Man (_continued_). - - Geological Conditions of Man's Introduction.--His Modern - Date.--His Isolated Position.--His Higher - Powers.--Pictures of Primitive Man according to Evolution - and Creation.--General Conclusion 350 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - PAGE - - Ideal Sections Illustrating the Genesis or the Earth 8 - - America In The Laurentian Period 18 - - Eozoon Canadense 24 - - Life in the Primordial Age 40 - - Organic Limestone of the Silurian 63 - - Life in the Silurian 66 - - Life in the Devonian 88 - - Vegetation of the Devonian 103 - - Carboniferous Plants 126 - - Oldest Land Snails 139 - - Carboniferous Reptiles 146 - - Foldings of the Crust in the Permian Period 162 - - Curves of Elevation and Depression 179 - - Culmination of Types of Palæozoic Animals 183 - - Land Animals of the Mesozoic 194 - - Aquatic Animals of the Mesozoic 219 - - Foraminiferal Rock-builders 243 - - Miocene Mammals 253 - - Britain in the Post-pliocene 301 - - - - -THE STORY OF THE EARTH AND MAN. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE GENESIS OF THE EARTH. - - -The title of this work is intended to indicate precisely its nature. -It consists of rough, broad sketches of the aspects of successive -stages in the earth's history, as disclosed by geology, and as they -present themselves to observers at the present time. The last -qualification is absolutely necessary, when dealing with a science -whose goal to-day will be its starting point to-morrow, and in whose -view every geological picture must have its light and shaded portions, -its clear foreground and its dim distance, varying according to the -lights cast on them by the progress of investigation, and according to -the standpoint of the observer. In such pictures results only can be -given, not the processes by which they have been obtained; and with -all possible gradations of light and distance, it may be that the -artist will bring into too distinct outline facts still only dimly -perceived, or will give too little prominence to others which, should -appear in bold relief. He must in this judge for himself; and if the -writer's impressions do not precisely correspond with those of others, -he trusts that they will allow something for difference of vision and -point of view. - -The difficulty above referred to perhaps rises to its maximum in the -present chapter. For how can any one paint chaos, or give form and -filling to the formless void? Perhaps no word-picture of this period -of the first phase of mundane history can ever equal the two negative -touches of the inspired penman--"without form and void"--a world -destitute of all its present order, and destitute of all that gives it -life and animation. This it was, and not a complete and finished -earth, that sprang at first from its Creator's hand; and we must -inquire in this first chapter what information science gives as to any -such condition of the earth. - -In the first place, the geological history of the earth plainly -intimates a beginning, by utterly negativing the idea that "all things -continue as they were from the creation of the world." It traces back -to their origin not only the animals and plants which at present live, -but also their predecessors, through successive dynasties emerging in -long procession from the depths of a primitive antiquity. Not only so; -it assigns to their relative ages all the rocks of the earth's crust, -and all the plains and mountains built up of them. Thus, as we go back -in geological time, we leave behind us, one by one, all the things -with which we are familiar, and the inevitable conclusion gains on us -that we must be approaching a beginning, though this may be veiled -from us in clouds and thick darkness. How is it, then, that there are -"Uniformitarians" in geology, and that it has been said that our -science shows no traces of a beginning, no indications of an end? The -question deserves consideration; but the answer is not difficult. In -all the lapse of geological time there has been an absolute uniformity -of natural law. The same grand machinery of force and matter has been -in use throughout all the ages, working out the great plan. Yet the -plan has been progressive and advancing, nevertheless. The uniformity -has been in the methods, the results have presented a wondrous -diversity and development. Again, geology, in its oldest periods, -fails to reach the beginning of things. It shows us how course after -course of the building has been laid, and how it has grown to -completeness, but it contains as yet no record of the laying of the -foundation-stones, still less of the quarry whence they were dug. -Still the constant progress which we have seen points to a beginning -which we have not seen; and the very uniformity of the process by -which the edifice has been erected, implies a time when it had not -been begun, and when its stones were still reposing in their native -quarry. - -What, then, is the oldest condition of the earth actually shown to us -by geology,--that which prevailed in the Eozoic or Laurentian period, -when the oldest rocks known, those constituting the foundation-stones -of our present continents, were formed and laid in their places? With -regard to physical conditions, it was a time when our existing -continents were yet in the bosom of the waters, when the ocean was -almost universal, yet when sediments were being deposited in it as at -present, while there were also volcanic foci, vomiting forth molten -matter from the earth's hidden interior. Then, as now, the great -physical agencies of water and fire were contending with one another -for the mastery, doing and undoing, building up and breaking down. But -is this all? Has the earth no earlier history? that it must have had, -we may infer from many indications; but as to the nature of these -earlier states, we can learn from conjecture and inference merely, and -must have recourse to other witnesses then those rocky monuments which -are the sure guides of the geologist. - -One fact bearing on these questions which has long excited attention, -is the observed increase in temperature in descending into deep mines, -and in the water of deep artesian wells--an increase which may be -stated in round numbers at one degree of heat of the centigrade -thermometer for every 100 feet of depth from the surface. These -observations apply of course to a very inconsiderable depth, and we -have no certainty that this rate continues for any great distance -towards the centre of the earth. If, however, We regard it as -indicating the actual law of increase of temperature, it would result -that the whole crust of the earth is a mere shell covering a molten -mass of rocky matter. Thus a very slight step of imagination would -carry us back to a time when this slender crust had not yet formed, -and the earth rolled through space an incandescent globe, with all its -water and other vaporisable matters in a gaseous state. Astronomical -calculation has, however, shown that the earth, in its relation to the -other heavenly bodies, obeys the laws of a rigid ball, and not of a -fluid globe. Hence it has been inferred that its actual crust must be -very thick, perhaps not less then 2,500 miles, and that its fluid -portion must therefore be of smaller dimensions then has been inferred -from the observed increase of temperature. Further, it seems to have -been rendered probable, from the density of rocky matter in the solid -and liquid states, that a molten globe would solidify at the centre as -well as at the surface, and consequently that the earth must not only -have a solid crust of great thickness, but also a solid nucleus, and -that any liquid portions must be of the nature of a sheet or of -detached masses intervening between these. On the other hand, it has -recently been maintained that the calculations which are supposed to -have established the great thickness of the crust, on the ground that -the earth does not change its form in obedience to the attraction of -the sun and moon, are based on a misconception, and that a molten -globe with a thin crust would attain to such a state of equilibrium in -this respect as not to be distinguishable from a solid planet. This -view has been maintained by the French physicist, Delaunay, and for -some time it made geologists suppose that, after all, the earth's -crust may be very thin. Sir William Thomson, however, and Archdeacon -Pratt, have ably maintained the previous opinion, based on Hopkins' -calculations; and it is now believed that we may rest upon this as -representing the most probable condition of the interior of the earth -at present. Another fact bearing on this point is the form of the -earth, which is now actually a spheroid of rotation; that is, of such -a shape as would result from the action of gravity and centrifugal -force in the motion of a huge liquid drop rotating in the manner in -which the earth rotates. Of course it may be said that the earth may -have been made in that shape to fit it for its rotation; but science -prefers to suppose that the form is the result of the forces acting on -it. This consideration would of course corroborate the deductions from -that just mentioned. Again, if we examine a map showing the -distribution of volcanoes upon the earth, and trace these along the -volcanic belt of Western America and Eastern Asia, and in the Pacific -Islands, and in the isolated volcanic regions in other parts of the -world; and if we add to these the multitude of volcanoes now extinct, -we shall be convinced that the sources of internal heat, of which -these are the vents, must be present almost everywhere under the -earth's crust. Lastly, if we consider the elevations and depressions -which large portions of the crust of the earth have undergone in -geological time, and the actual crumpling and folding of the crust -visible in great mountain chains, we arrive at a similar conclusion, -and also become convinced that the crust has been not too thick to -admit of extensive fractures, flexures, and foldings. There are, -however, it must be admitted, theories of volcanic action, strongly -supported by the chemical nature of the materials ejected by modern -volcanoes, which would refer all their phenomena to the softening, -under the continued influence of heat and water, of materials within -the crust of the earth rather then under it.[A] Still, the phenomena -of volcanic action, and of elevation and subsidence, would, under any -explanation, suppose intense heat, and therefore probably an original -incandescent condition. - -[A] Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in Silliman'a Journal, 1870. - -La Place long ago based a theory of the originally gaseous condition -of the solar system on the relation of the planets to each other, and -to the sun, on their planes of revolution, the direction of their -revolution, and that of their satellites. On these grounds he inferred -that the solar system had been formed out of a nebulous mass by the -mutual attraction of its parts. This view was further strengthened by -the discovery of nebulae, which it might be supposed were undergoing -the same processes by which the solar system was produced. This -nebular theory, as it was called, was long very popular. It was -subsequently supposed to be damaged by the fact that some of the -nebulæ which had been regarded as systems in progress of formation -were found by improved telescopes to be really clusters of stars, and -it was inferred that the others might be of like character. The -spectroscope has, however, more recently shown that some nebulæ are -actually gaseous; and it has even been attempted to demonstrate that -they are probably undergoing change fitting them to become systems. -This has served to revive the nebular hypothesis, which has been -further strengthened by the known fact that the sun is still an -incandescent globe surrounded by an immense luminous envelope of -vapours rising from its nucleus and condensing at its surface. On the -other hand, while the sun may be supposed, from its great magnitude, -to remain intensely heated, and while it will not be appreciably less -powerful for myriads of years, the moon seems to be a body which has -had time to complete the whole history of geological change, and to -become a dry, dead, and withered world, a type of what our earth would -in process of time actually become. - -[Illustration: _Figs. 1 to 5._--_Ideal sections illustrating the -Genesis of the Earth._ - -Fig. 1. A vaporous world. - -Fig. 2. A world with a central fluid nucleus (_b_) and a photosphere -(_a_). - -Fig. 3. The photosphere darkened, and a solid crust (_c_) and solid -nucleus (_d_) formed. - -Fig. 4. Water (_e_) deposited on the crust, forming a universal ocean. - -Fig. 5. The crust crumpled by shrinkage, land elevated, and the water -occupying the intervening depressions. - -The figures are all of uniform size; but the circle (A) shows th -diameter of the globe when in the state of fig. 1, and that marked (B) -its diameter when in the state of fig. 5. In all the figures (_a_) -represents vapour or air; (_b_) liquid rock; (_c_) solid rock as a -crust; (_d_) solid nucleus; (_e_) water.] - -Such considerations lead to the conclusion that the former watery -condition of our planet was not its first state, and that we must -trace it back to a previous reign of fire. The reasons which can be -adduced in support of this are no doubt somewhat vague, and may in -their details be variously interpreted; but at present we have no -other interpretation to give of that chaos, formless and void, that -state in which "nor aught nor nought existed," which the sacred -writings and the traditions and poetry of ancient nations concur with -modern science in indicating as the primitive state of the earth. - -Let our first picture, then, be that of a vaporous mass, representing -our now solid planet spread out over a space nearly two thousand times -greater in diameter then that which it now occupies, and whirling in -its annual round about the still vaporous centre of our system, in -which at an earlier period the earth had been but an exterior layer, -or ring of vapour. The atoms that now constitute the most solid rocks -are in this state as tenuous as air, kept apart by the expansive force -of heat, which prevents not only their mechanical union, but also -their chemical combination. But within the mass, slowly and silently, -the force of gravitation is compressing the particles in its giant -hand, and gathering the denser toward the centre, while heat is given -forth on all sides from the condensing mass into the voids of space -without. Little by little the denser and less volatile matters collect -in the centre as a fluid molten globe, the nucleus of the future -planet; and in this nucleus the elements, obeying their chemical -affinities hitherto latent, are arranging themselves in compounds -which are to constitute the future rocks. At the same time, in the -exterior of the vaporous envelope, matters cooled by radiation into -the space without, are combining with each other, and are being -precipitated in earthy rain or snow into the seething mass within, -where they are either again vaporised and sent to the surface or -absorbed in the increasing nucleus. As this process advances, a new -brilliancy is given to the faint shining of the nebulous matter by the -incandescence of these solid particles in the upper layers of its -atmosphere, a condition which at this moment, on a greater scale, is -that of the sun; in the case of the earth, so much smaller in volume, -and farther from the centre of the system, it came on earlier, and has -long since passed away. This was the glorious starlike condition of -our globe: in a physical point of view, its most perfect and beautiful -state, when, if there were astronomers with telescopes in the stars, -they might have seen our now dull earth flash forth--a brilliant white -star secondary to the sun. - -But in process of time this passes away. All the more solid and less -volatile substances are condensed and precipitated; and now the -atmosphere, still vast in bulk, and dark and misty in texture, -contains only the water, chlorine, carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, and -other more volatile substances; and as these gather in dense clouds at -the outer surface, and pour in fierce corrosive rains upon the heated -nucleus, combining with its materials, or flashing again into vapour, -darkness dense and gross settles upon the vaporous deep, and continues -for long ages, until the atmosphere is finally cleared of its acid -vapours and its superfluous waters.[B] In the meantime, radiation, and -the heat abstracted from the liquid nucleus by the showers of -condensing material from the atmosphere, have so far cooled its -surface that a crust of slag or cinder forms upon it. Broken again and -again by the heavings of the ocean of fire, it at length sets -permanently, and receives upon its bare and blistered surface the -ever-increasing aqueous and acid rain thrown down from the -atmosphere, at first sending it all hissing and steaming back, but at -length allowing it to remain a universal boiling ocean. Then began the -reign of the waters, and the dominion of fire was confined to the -abysses within the solid crust. Under the primeval ocean were formed -the first stratified rocks, from the substances precipitated from its -waters, which must have been loaded with solid matter. We must not -imagine this primeval ocean like our own blue sea, clear and -transparent, but filled with earthy and saline matters, thick and -turbid, until these were permitted to settle to the bottom and form -the first sediments. The several changes above referred to are -represented in diagrammatic form in figs. 1 to 4. - -[B] Hunt, "Chemistry of the Primeval Earth," _Silliman's Journal_, 1858. - -In the meantime all is not at rest in the interior of the new-formed -earth. Under the crust vast oceans of molten rock may still remain, -but a solid interior nucleus is being crystallised in the centre, and -the whole interior globe is gradually shrinking. At length this -process advances so far that the exterior crust, like a sheet of ice -from below which the water has subsided, is left unsupported; and with -terrible earthquake-throes it sinks downward, wrinkling up into huge -folds, between which are vast sunken areas into which the waters -subside, while from the intervening ridges the earth's pent-up fires -belch forth ashes and molten rocks. (Fig. 5.) So arose the first dry -land:-- - - "The mountains huge appear - Emergent, and their broad bare backs upheave - Into the clouds, their tops ascend the sky, - So high as heaved the tumid hills, so low - Down sunk a hollow bottom, broad and deep, - Capacious bed of waters." - -The cloud was its garment, it was swathed in thick darkness, and -presented but a rugged pile of rocky precipices; yet well might the -"morning stars sing together, and all the sons of God shout with joy," -when its foundations were settled and its corner-stone laid, for then -were inaugurated the changes which were to lead to the introduction of -life on the earth, and to all the future development of the -continents. - -Physical geographers have taught us that the great continents, whether -we regard their coasts or their mountain chains, are built up on lines -which run north-east and south-west, and north-west and south-east; -and it is also observed that these lines are great circles of the -earth tangent to the polar circle. Further, we find, as a result of -geological investigation, that these lines determined the deposition -and the elevation of the oldest rocks known to us. Hence it is fair to -infer that these were the original directions of the first lines of -fracture and upheaval. Whether these lines were originally drawn by -the influence of of the seasons on the cooling globe, or by the -currents of its molten interior, or of the superficial ocean, they -bespeak a most uniform and equable texture for the crust, and a -definite law of fracture and upheaval; and they have modified all the -subsequent action of the ocean as a depositor of sediment, and of the -internal heat as a cause of alteration and movement of rocks. Against -these earliest belts of land the ocean first chafed and foamed. Along -their margins marine denudation first commenced, and the oceanic -currents first deposited banks of sediment; and along these first -lines have the volcanic orifices of all periods been most plentiful, -and elevatory movements most powerfully felt. - -We must not suppose that the changes thus shortly sketched were rapid -and convulsive. They must have required periods of enormous duration, -all of which had elapsed before the beginning of geological time, -properly so called. From Sir William Thomson's calculations, it would -appear that the time which has elapsed from the first formation of a -solid crust on the earth to the modern period may have been from -seventy to one hundred millions of years, and the whole time from the -vaporous condition of the solar system to the present, must of course -have been still greater then even this enormous series of ages. Such a -lapse of time is truly almost inconceivable, but it is only a few days -to Him with whom one day is as a thousand years, and a thousand years -as one day. How many and strange pictures does this series of -processes call up! First, the uniform vaporous nebula. Then the -formation of a liquid nucleus, and a brilliant photosphere without. -Then the congealing of a solid crust under dark atmospheric vapours, -and the raining down of acid and watery showers. Then the universal -ocean, its waves rolling unobstructed around the globe, and its -currents following without hindrance the leading of heat and of the -earth's rotation. Then the rupture of the crust and the emergence of -the nuclei of continents. - -Some persons seem to think that by these long processes of creative -work we exclude the Creator, and would reduce the universe into a mere -fortuitous concourse of atoms. To put it in more modern phrase, "given -a quantity of detached fragments cast into space, then mutual -gravitation and the collision of the fragments would give us the -spangled heavens." But we have still to ask the old question, "Whence -the atoms?" and we have to ask it with all the added weight of our -modern chemistry, so marvellous in its revelations of the original -differences of matter and their varied powers of combination. We have -to ask, What is gravitation itself, unless a mode of action of -Almighty power? We have to ask for the origin of of thousands of -correlations, binding together the past and the future in that orderly -chain of causes and effects which constitutes the plan of the -creation. If it pleased God to create in the beginning an earth -"formless and void" and to elaborate from this all that has since -existed, who are we, to say that the plan was not the best? Nor would -it detract from our view of the creative wisdom and power if we were -to hold that in ages to come the sun may experience the same change -that has befallen the earth, and may become "black as sackcloth of -hair," preparatory perhaps, to changes which may make him also the -abode of life; or if the earth, cooling still further, should, like -our satellite the moon, absorb all its waters and gases into its -bosom, and become bare, dry, and parched, until there shall be "no -more sea" how do we know but that then there shall be no more need of -the sun, because a better light may be provided? Or that there may not -be a new baptism of fire in store for the earth, whereby, being melted -with fervent heat, it may renew its youth in the fresh and heavenly -loveliness of a new heaven and a new earth, free from all the evils -and imperfections of the present? God is not slack in these things, as -some men count slackness; but His ways are not like our ways. He has -eternity wherein to do His work, and takes His own time for each of -His operations. The Divine wisdom, personified by a sacred writer, may -well in this exalt his own office:-- - - "Jehovah possessed me in the beginning of His way, - Before His work of old. - I was set up from everlasting, - From the beginning, or ever the earth was. - When there were no deeps, T was brought forth; - When there were no fountains abounding in water. - Before the mountains were settled, - Before the hills, was I brought forth: - While as yet He had not made the earth, - Nor the plains, nor the higher part of the habitable world, - When He gave the sea His decree, - that her waters should not pass His limits; - When He determined the foundations of the earth." - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE EOZOIC AGES. - - -The dominion of heat has passed away; the excess of water has been -precipitated from the atmosphere, and now covers the earth as a -universal ocean. The crust has folded itself into long ridges, the bed -of the waters has subsided into its place, and the sea for the first -time begins to rave against the shores of the newly elevated land, -while the rain, washing the bare surfaces of rocky ridges, carries its -contribution of the slowly wasting rocks back into the waters whence -they were raised, forming, with the material worn from the crust by -the surf, the first oceanic sediments. Do we know any of these -earliest aqueous beds, or are they all hidden from view beneath newer -deposits, or have they been themselves worn away and destroyed by -denuding agencies? Whether we know the earliest formed sediments is, -and may always remain, uncertain; but we do know certain very ancient -rocks which may be at least their immediate successors. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--The Laurentian nucleus of the American -continent.] - -Deepest and oldest of all the rocks we are acquainted with in the -crust of the earth, are certain beds much altered and metamorphosed, -baked by the joint action of heat and heated moisture--rocks once -called Azoic, as containing no traces of life, but for which I have -elsewhere proposed the name "Eozoic," or those that afford the traces -of the earliest known living beings. These rocks are the Laurentian -Series of Sir William Logan, so named from the Laurentide hills, north -of the River St. Lawrence, which are composed of these ancient beds, -and where they are more largely exposed then in any other region. It -may seem at first sight strange that any of these ancient rocks should -be found at the surface of the earth; but this is a necessary result -of the mode of formation of the continents. The oldest rocks, thrown -up in places into high ridges, have either not been again brought -under the waters, or have lost by denudation the sediments once -resting on them; and being of a hard and resisting nature, still -remain; and often rise into hills of considerable elevation, showing -as it were portions of the skeleton of the earth protruding through -its superficial covering. Such rocks stretch along the north side of -the St. Lawrence river from Labrador to Lake Superior, and thence -northwardly to an unknown distance, constituting a wild and rugged -district often rising into hills 4000 feet high, and in the deep gorge -of the Saguenay forming cliffs 1,500 feet in sheer height from the -water's edge. South of this great ridge, the isolated mass of the -Adirondack Mountains rises to the height of 6,000 feet, rivalling the -newer, though still very ancient, chain of the White Mountains. Along -the eastern coast of North America, a lower ridge of Laurentian rock, -only appearing here and there from under the overlying sediments, is -seen in Newfoundland, in New Brunswick, possibly in Nova Scotia, and -perhaps farther south in Massachusetts, and as far as Maryland. In the -old world, rocks of this age do not, so far as known, appear so -extensively. They have been recognised in Norway and Sweden, in the -Hebrides, and in Bavaria, and may, no doubt, be yet discerned in other -localities. Still, the grandest and most instructive development of -these rocks is in North America; and it is there that we may best -investigate their nature, and endeavour to restore the conditions in -which they were deposited. It has been already stated that the oldest -wrinkles of the crust of the globe take the direction of great circles -of the earth tangent to the polar circle, forming north-east and -south-west, and north-west and south-east lines. To such lines are the -great exposures of Laurentian rock conformed, as may be well seen from -the map of North America (fig. 6), taken from Dana, with some -additions. The great angular Laurentian belt is evidently the nucleus -of the continent, and consists of two broad bands or ridges meeting in -the region of the great lakes. The remaining exposures are parallel to -these, and appear to indicate a subordinate coast-line of -comparatively little elevation. It is known that these Laurentian -exposures constitute the oldest part of the continent, a part which -was land before any of the rocks of the shaded portion of the map were -deposited in the bed of the ocean--all this shaded portion being -composed of rocks of various geological ages resting on the older -Laurentian. It is further to be observed that the beds occurring in -the Laurentian bands are crumpled and folded in a most remarkable -manner, and that these folds were impressed upon them before the -deposition of the rocks next in geological age. - -What then are these oldest rocks deposited by the sea--the first-born -of the reign of the waters? They are very different in their external -aspect from the silt and mud, the sand and gravel, and the shell and -coral rocks of the modern sea, or of the more recent geological -formations. Yet the difference is one in condition rather then -composition. The members of this ancient aristocracy of the rocks are -made of the same clay with their fellows, but have been subjected to a -refining and crystallizing process which has greatly changed their -condition. They have been, as geologists say, metamorphosed; and are -to ordinary rocks what a china vase is to the lump of clay from which -it has been made. Deeply buried in the earth under newer sediments, -they have been baked, until sandstones, gravels, and clays came out -bright and crystalline, as gneiss, mica-schist, hornblende-schist, and -quartzite--all hard crystalline rocks showing at first sight no -resemblance to their original material, except in the regularly -stratified or bedded arrangement which serves to distinguish them from -igneous or volcanic rocks. In like manner certain finer, calcareous -sediments have been changed into Labrador feldspar, sometimes gay with -a beautiful play of colour, and what were once common limestones -appear as crystalline marble. If the evidence of such metamorphoses is -asked for, this is twofold. In the first place, these rocks are -similar in structure to more modern beds which have been partially -metamorphosed, and in which the transition from the unaltered to the -altered state can be observed. Secondly, there are limited areas in -the Laurentian itself, in which the metamorphism has been so imperfect -as to permit traces of the original character of the rocks to remain. -It seems also quite certain, and this is a most important point for -our sketch, that the Laurentian ocean was not universal, but that -there were already elevated portions of the crust capable of yielding -sediment to the sea. - -In North America these Laurentian rocks attain to an enormous -thickness. This has been estimated by Sir W. E. Logan at 30,000 feet, -so that the beds would, if piled on each other horizontally, be as -high as the highest mountains on earth. They appear to consist of two -great series, the Lower and Upper Laurentian. Even if we suppose that -in the earlier stages of the world's history erosion and deposition -were somewhat more rapid then at present, the formation of such -deposits, probably more widely spread then any that succeeded them, -must have required an enormous length of time. - -Geologists long looked in vain for evidences of life in the Laurentian -period; but just as astronomers' have suspected the existence of -unknown planets from the perturbations due to their attraction, -geologists have guessed that there must have been some living things -on earth even at this early time. Dana and Sterry Hunt especially have -committed themselves to such speculations. The reasons for this belief -may be stated thus: (1.) In later formations limestone is usually an -organic rock, produced by the accumulation of shells, corals, and -similar calcareous organisms in the sea, and there are enormous -limestones in the Laurentian, constituting regular beds. (2.) In -later formations coaly matter is an organic substance, derived from -vegetables, and there are large quantities of Laurentian carbon in the -form of graphite. (3.) In later formations deposits of iron ores are -almost always connected with the deoxidising influence of organic -matters as an efficient cause of their accumulation, and the -Laurentian contains immense deposits of iron ore, occurring in layers -in the manner of later deposits of these minerals. (4.) The limestone, -carbon, and iron of the Laurentian exist in association with the other -beds in the same manner as in the later formations in which they are -known to be organic. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--_Eozoon Canadense._ Dawson. - -The oldest known animal. Portion of skeleton, two-thirds natural size, -(_a_) Tabulated cell-wall, magnified, (_b_) Portion of canal system, -magnified.] - -In addition to this inferential evidence, however, one well-marked -animal fossil has at length been found in the Laurentian of Canada, -Eozoon Canadense, (fig. 7), a gigantic representative of one of the -lowest forms of animal life, which the writer had the honour of naming -and describing in 1865--its name of "Dawn-animal" having reference to -its great antiquity and possible connection with the dawn of life on -our planet. In the modern seas, among the multitude of low forms of -life with which they swarm, occur some in which the animal matter is a -mere jelly, almost without distinct parts or organs, yet -unquestionably endowed with life of an animal character. Some of these -creatures, the Foraminifera, have the power of secreting at the -surface of their bodies a calcareous shell, often divided into -numerous chambers, communicating with each other, and with the water -without, by pores or orifices through which, the animal can extend -soft and delicate prolongations of its gelatinous body, which, when -stretched out into the water, serve for arms and legs. In modern times -these creatures, though extremely abundant in the ocean, are usually -small, often microscopic; but in a fossil state there are others of -somewhat larger size, though few equaling the Eozoon, which seems to -been a sessile creature, resting on the bottom of the sea, and -covering its gelatinous body with a thin crust of carbonate of lime or -limestone, adding to this, as it grew in size, crust after crust, -attached to each other by numerous partitions, and perforated with -pores for the emission of gelatinous filaments. This continued growth -of gelatinous animal matter and carbonate of lime went on from age to -age, accumulating great beds of limestone, in some of which the entire -form and most minute structures of the creature are preserved, while -in other cases the organisms have been broken up, and the limestones -are a mere congeries of their fragments. It is a remarkable instance -of the permanence of fossils, that in these ancient organisms the -minutest pores through which the semi-fluid matter of these humble -animals passed, have been preserved in the most delicate perfection. -The existence of such creatures supposes that of other organisms, -probably microscopic plants, on which they could feed. No traces of -these have been observed, though the great quantity of carbon in the -beds probably implies the existence of larger sea-weeds. No other form -of animal has yet been distinctly recognized in the Laurentian -limestones, but there are fragments of calcareous matter which may -have belonged to organisms distinct from Eozoon. Of life on the -Laurentian land we know nothing, unless the great beds of iron ore -already referred to may be taken as a proof of land vegetation.[C] - -[C] It is proper to state here that some geologists and naturalists -still doubt the organic nature of Eozoon. Their objections however, so -far as stated publicly, have been shown to depend on misapprehension -as to the structures observed and their state of preservation; and -specimens recently found in comparatively unaltered rocks have -indicated the true character of those more altered by metamorphism. - -To an observer in the Laurentian period, the earth would have -presented an almost boundless ocean, its waters, perhaps, still warmed -with the internal heat, and sending up copious exhalations to be -condensed in thick clouds and precipitated in rain. Here and there -might be seen chains of rocky islands, many of them volcanic, or -ranges of bleak hills, perhaps clothed with vegetation the forms of -which are unknown to us. In the bottom of the sea, while sand and mud -and gravel were being deposited in successive layers in some portions -of the ocean floor, in others great reefs of Eozoon were growing up in -the manner of reefs of coral. If we can imagine the modern Pacific, -with its volcanic islands and reefs of coral, to be deprived of all -other forms of life, 'we should have a somewhat accurate picture of -the Eozoic time as it appears to us now. I say as it appears to us -now; for we do not know what new discoveries remain to be made. More -especially the immense deposits of carbon and iron in the Laurentian -would seem to bespeak a profusion of plant life in the sea or on the -land, or both, second to that of no other period that succeeded, -except that of the great coal formation. Perhaps no remnant of this -primitive vegetation exists retaining its form or structure; but we -may hope for better things, and cherish the expectation that some -fortunate discovery may still reveal to us the forms of the vegetation -of the Laurentian time. - -It is remarkable that the humbly organized living things which built -up the Laurentian limestones have continued to exist unchanged, save -in dimensions, up to modern times; and here and there throughout the -geological series we find beds of Foraminiferous limestone, similar, -except in the species of Foraminifera composing them, to that of the -Laurentian. It is true that other kinds of creatures, the coral -animals more particularly, have been introduced, and have proved -equally efficient builders of limestones; but in the deeper parts of -the sea the Foraminifera continue to assert their pre-eminence in this -respect, and the dredge reveals in the depths of our modern oceans -beds of calcareous matter which may be regarded as identical in origin -with the limestones formed in the period which is to us the dawn of -organic life. - -Many inquiries suggest themselves to the zoologist in connection with -the life of the Laurentian period. Was Eozoon the first creature in -which the wondrous forces of animal life were manifested, when, in -obedience to the Divine fiat, the waters first "swarmed with -swarmers," as the terse and expressive language of the Mosaic record -phrases it? If so, in contemplating this organism we are in the -presence of one of the greatest of natural wonders--brought nearer -then in any other case to the actual workshop of the Almighty Maker. -Still we cannot affirm that other creatures even more humble may not -have preceded Eozoon, since such humble organisms are known in the -present world. Attempts have often been made, and very recently have -been renewed with much affirmation of success, to prove that such low -forms of life may originate spontaneously from their materials in the -waters; but so far these attempts merely prove that the invisible -germs of the lower animals and plants exist everywhere, and that they -have marvellous powers of resisting extreme heat and other injurious -influences. We need not, therefore, be surprised if even lower forms -then Eozoon may have preceded that creature, or if some of these may -be found, like the organisms said to live in modern boiling springs, -to have had the power of existing even at a time when the ocean may -have been almost in a state of ebullition. Another problem is that of -means of subsistence for the Eozoic Foraminifera. A similar problem -exists in the case of the modern ocean, in whose depths live -multitudes of creatures, where, so far as we know, vegetable matter, -ordinarily the basis of life, cannot exist in a living condition. It -is probable, however, from the researches of Dr. Wyville Thompson, -that this is to be accounted for by the abundance of life at the -surface and in the shallower parts of the sea, and by the consequent -diffusion through the water of organic matter in an extremely tenuous -state, but yet sufficient to nourish these creatures. The same may -have been the case in the Eozoic sea, where, judging from the vast -amount of residual carbon, there must have been abundance of organic -matter, either growing at the bottom, or falling upon it from the -surface; and as the Eozoon limestones are usually free from such -material, we may assume that the animal life in them was sufficient to -consume the vegetable pabulum. On the other hand, as detached -specimens of Eozoon occur in graphitic limestones, we suppose that in -some cases the vegetable matter was in excess of the animal, and this -may have been either because of its too great exuberance, or because -the water was locally too shallow to permit Eozoon and similar -creatures to nourish. These details we must for the present fill up -conjecturally; bu the progress of discovery may give us further light -as to the precise conditions of the beginning of life in the "great -and wide sea wherein are moving things innumerable" and which is as -much a wonder now as in the days of the author of the "Hymn of -Creation"[D] in regard to the life that swarms in all its breadth and -depth, the vast variety of that life, and its low and simple types, of -which we can affirm little else then that they move. - -[D] Psalm civ. - -The enormous accumulations of sediment on the still thin crust of the -earth in the Laurentian period--accumulations probably arranged in -lines parallel to the directions of disturbance already -indicated--weighed down the surface, and caused great masses of the -sediment to come within the influence of the heated interior nucleus. -Thus, extensive metamorphism took place, and at length the tension -becoming too great to be any longer maintained, a second great -collapse occurred, crumpling and disturbing the crust, and throwing up -vast masses of the Laurentian itself, probably into lofty -mountains--many of which still remain of considerable height, though -they have been subjected to erosion throughout all the extent of -subsequent geological time. - -The Eozoic age, whose history we have thus shortly sketched, is -fertile in material of thought for the geologist and the naturalist. -Until the labours of Murchison, Sedgwick, Hall, and Barrande had -developed the vast thickness and organic richness of the Silurian and -Cambrian rocks, no geologist had any idea of the extent to which life -had reached backward in time. But when this new and primitive world of -Siluria was unveiled, men felt assured that they had now at last -reached to the beginnings of life. The argument on this side of the -Question was thus put by one of the most thoughtful of English -geologists, Professor Phillips: "It is ascertained that in passing -downwards through the lower Palæozoic strata, the forms of life grow -fewer and fewer, until in the lowest Cambrian rocks they vanish -entirely. In the thick series of these strata in the Longmynd, hardly -any traces of life occur, yet these strata are of such a kind as might -be expected to yield them.... The materials are fine-grained or -arenaceous, with or without mica, in laminae or beds quite distinct, -and of various thicknesses, by no means unlikely to retain -impressions of a delicate nature, such as those left by graptolites, -or mollusks, or annulose crawlers. Indeed, one or two such traces are -supposed to have been recognised, so that the almost total absence of -the traces of life in this enormous series is best understood by the -supposition that in these parts of the sea little or no life existed. -But the same remark of the excessive rarity of life in the lower -deposits is made in North America, in Norway, and in Bohemia, -countries well searched for this very purpose, so that all our -observations lead to the conviction that the lowest of all the strata -are quite deficient of organic remains. The absence is general--it -appears due to a general cause. Is it not probable that during these -very early periods the ocean and its sediments were nearly devoid of -plants and animals, and in the earliest time of all, which is -represented by sediments, quite deprived of such?" These words were -written ten years ago, and about the same time were published in -America those anticipations of the probability of life in the -Laurentian already referred to, and Lyell was protesting against the -name Primordial, on the ground that it implied that we had reached the -beginning of life, when this was not proved. Yet there were elements -of truth in both views. It is true now, as then, that the Primordial -seems to be a morning hour of life, having, as we shall see in our -next paper, unmistakable signs about it of that approach to the -beginning to which Phillips refers. It is also true that it is not so -early a morning hour as one who has not risen with the dawn might -suppose, since with its apparently small beginnings of life it is -almost as far removed from the Eozoon reefs of the early Laurentian on -the one hand, as it is from the modern period on the other. The dawn -of life seems to have been a very slow and protracted process, and it -may have required as long a time between the first appearance of -Eozoon and the first of those primordial Trilobites which the next -period will introduce to our notice, as between these and the advent -of Adam. Perhaps no lesson is more instructive then this as to the -length of the working days of the Almighty. - -Another lesson lies ready for us in these same facts. Theoretically, -plants should have preceded animals; and this also is the assertion of -the first chapter of Genesis; but the oldest fossil certainly known to -us is an animal. What if there were still earlier plants, whose -remains are still to be discovered? For my own part, I can see no -reason to despair of the discovery of an _Eophytic_ period preceding -the Eozoic; perhaps preceding it through ages of duration to us almost -immeasurable, though still within the possible time of the existence -of the crust of the earth. It is even possible that in a warm and -humid condition of the atmosphere, before it had been caused "to rain -upon the earth" and when dense "mists ascended from the earth and -watered the whole surface of the ground,"[E] vegetation may have -attained to a profusion and grandeur unequalled in the periods whose -flora is known to us. - -[E] Genesis ii. 5. For a description of this Eophytic period of -Genesis, see the Author's "Archaia," pp. 160 _et seq._ - -But while Eozoon thus preaches of progress and of development, it has -a tale to tell of unity and sameness Just as Eozoon lived in the -Laurentian sea, and was preserved for us by the infiltration of its -canals with siliceous mineral matters, so its successors and -representatives have gone on through all the ages accumulating -limestone in the sea bottom. To-day they are as active as they were -then, and are being fossilised in the same way. The English chalk and -the chalky modern mud of the Atlantic sea-bed, are precisely similar -in origin to the Eozoic limestones. There is also a strange -parallelism in the fact that in the modern seas Foraminifera can live -under conditions of deprivation of light and vital air, and of -enormous pressure, under which few organisms of greater complexity -could exist, and that in like manner Eozoon could live in seas which -were perhaps as yet unfit for most other forms of life. - -It has been attempted to press the Eozoic Foraminifers into the -service of those theories of evolution which would deduce the animals -of one geological period by descent with modification from those of -another; but it must be confessed that Eozoon proves somewhat -intractable in this connection. In the first place, the creature is -the grandest of his class, both in form and structure; and if, on the -hypothesis of derivation, it has required the whole lapse of -geological time to disintegrate Eozoon into Orbulina, Globigerina, -and other comparatively simple Foraminifers of the modern seas, it may -have taken as long, probably much longer, to develop Eozoon from such -simple forms in antecedent periods. Time fails for such a process. -Again, the deep sea has been the abode of Foraminifers from the first. -In this deep sea they have continued to live without improvement, and -with little material change. How little likely is it that in less -congenial abodes they could have improved into higher grades of being; -especially since we know that the result in actual fact of any such -struggle for existence is merely the production of depauperated -Foraminifers? Further, there is no link of connection known to us -between Eozoon and any of the animals of the succeeding Primordial, -which are nearly all essentially new types, vastly more different from -Eozoon then it is from many modern creatures. Any such connection is -altogether imaginary and unsupported by proof. The laws of creation -actually illustrated by this primeval animal are only these: First, -that there has been a progress in creation from few, low, and -generalised types of life to more numerous, higher, and more -specialised types; and secondly, that every type, low or high, was -introduced at first in its best and highest form, and was, as a type, -subject to degeneracy, and to partial or total replacement by higher -types subsequently introduced. I do not mean that we could learn all -this from Eozoon alone; but that, rightly considered, it illustrates -these laws, which we gather from the subsequent progress of the -creative work. As to the mystery of the origin of living beings from -dead matter, or any changes which they may have undergone after their -creation, it is absolutely silent. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE PRIMORDIAL, OR CAMBRIAN AGE. - - -Between the time when _Eozoon Canadense_ flourished in the seas of the -Laurentian period, and the age which we have been in the habit of -calling Primordial, or Cambrian, a great gap evidently exists in our -knowledge of the succession of life on both of the continents, -representing a vast lapse of time, in which the beds of the Upper -Laurentian were deposited, and in which the Laurentian sediments were -altered, contorted, and upheaved, before another immense series of -beds, the Huronian, or Lower Cambrian, was formed in the bottom of the -sea. Eozoon and its companions occur in the Lower Laurentian. The -Upper Laurentian has afforded no evidence of life; and even those -conditions from which we could infer life are absent. The Lowest -Cambrian, as we shall see, presents only a few traces of living -beings. Still, the physical history of this interval must have been -most important. The wide level bottom of the Laurentian sea was broken -up and thrown into those bold ridges which were to constitute the -nuclei of the existing continents. Along the borders of these new-made -lands intense volcanic eruptions broke forth, producing great -quantities of lava and scoriæ and huge beds of conglomerate and -volcanic ash, which are characteristic features of the older Cambrian -in both hemispheres. Such conditions, undoubtedly not favourable to -life, seem to have prevailed, and extended their influence very -widely, so that the sediments of this period are among the most barren -in fossils of any in the crust of the earth. If any quiet undisturbed -spots existed in which the Lower Laurentian life could be continued -and extended in preparation for the next period, we have yet -discovered few of them. The experience of other geological periods -would, however, entitle us to look for such oases in the Lower -Cambrian desert, and to expect to find there some connecting links -between the life of the Eozoic and the very dissimilar fauna of the -Primordial. - -The western hemisphere, where the Laurentian is so well represented, -is especially unproductive in fossils of the immediately succeeding -period. The only known exception is the occurrence of Eozoon and of -apparent casts of worm-burrows in rocks at Madoc in Canada, overlying -the Laurentian, and believed to be of Huronian age, and certain -obscure fossils of uncertain affinities, recently detected by Mr. -Billings, in rocks supposed to be of this age, in Newfoundland. Here, -however, the European series comes in to give us some small help. -Gümbel has described in Bavaria a great series of gneissic rocks -corresponding to the Laurentian, or at least to the lower part of it; -above these are what he calls the Hercynian mica-slate and primitive -clay-slate, in the latter of which he finds a peculiar species of -Eozoon, which he names _Eozoon Bavaricum_. In England also the -Longmynd groups of rocks in Shropshire and in Wales appears to be the -immediate successor to the Upper Laurentian; and it has afforded some -obscure "worm-burrows" or, perhaps, casts of sponges or fucoids, with -a small shell of the genus _Lingulella_, and also fragments of -crustaceans (_Palæeopyge_). The "Fucoid Sandstones" of Sweden, -believed to be of similar age, afford traces of marine plants and -burrows of worms, while the Harlech beds of Wales have afforded to Mr. -Hicks a considerable number of fossil animals, not very dissimilar -from those of the Upper Cambrian. If these rocks are really the next -in order to the Eozoic, they show a marked advance in life immediately -on the commencement of the Primordial period. In Ireland, the curious -Oldhamia, noticed below, appears to occur in rocks equally old. As we -ascend, however, into the Middle and Upper parts of the Cambrian, the -Menevian and Lingula flag-beds of Britain, and their equivalents in -Bohemia and Scandinavia, and the Acadian and Potsdam groups of -America, we find a rich and increasing abundance of animal remains, -constituting the first Primordial fauna of Barrande. - -The rocks of the Primordial are principally sandy and argillaceous, -forming flags and slates, without thick limestones, and often through -great thicknesses, very destitute of organic remains, but presenting -some layers, especially in their upward extension, crowded with -fossils. These are no longer mere Protozoa, but include -representatives of all the great groups of animals which yet exist, -except the vertebrates. We shall not attempt any systematic -classification of these; but, casting our dredge and tow-net into the -Primordial sea, examine what we collect, rather in the order of -relative abundance then of classification. - -Over great breadths of the sea bottom we find vast numbers of little -bivalve shells of the form and size of a finger-nail, fastened by -fleshy peduncles imbedded in the sand or mud; and thus anchored, -collecting their food by a pair of fringed arms from the minute -animals and plants which swarm in the surrounding waters. These are -the _Lingulæ_, from the abundance of which some of the Primordial beds -have received in England and Wales the name of Lingula flags. In -America, in like manner, in some beds near St. John, New Brunswick, -the valves of these shells are so abundant as to constitute at least -half of the material of the bed; and alike in Europe and America, -Lingula and allied forms are among the most abundant Primordial -fossils. The Lingulæ are usually reckoned to belong to the great -sub-kingdom of mollusks, which includes all the bivalve and univalve -shell-fish, and several other groups of creatures; but an able -American naturalist, Mr. Morse, has recently shown that they have many -points of resemblance to the worms; and thus, perhaps, constitute one -of those curious old-fashioned "comprehensive" types, as they have -been called, which present resemblances to groups of creatures, in -more modern times quite distinct from each other. He has also found -that the modern Lingulæ are very tenacious of life, and capable of -suiting themselves to different circumstances, a fact which, perhaps, -has some connection with their long persistence in geological time. -They are in any case members of the group of lamp-shells, creatures -specially numerous and important in the earlier geological ages. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--LIFE IN THE PRIMORDIAL SEA. - -On the bottom are seen, proceeding from left to right, _Oldhamia -antiqua_, _Lingulæ_, _Arenicolæ_, _Oldhamia radiata_, _Paradoxides_, -_Histioderma_, _Agnostus_, _Oldhamia radiata_, _Algæ_, and _Lingulæ_. -In the water are _Hymenocaris_, different species of _Trilobites_, and -_Pteropods_.] - -The Lingulæ are especially interesting as examples of a type of beings -continued almost from the dawn of life until now; for their shells, as -they exist in the Primordial, are scarcely distinguishable from those -of members of the genus which still live. While other tribes of -animals have run through a great number of different forms, these -little creatures remain the same. Another interesting point is a most -curious chemical relation of the Lingula, with reference to the -material of its shell. The shells of mollusks generally, and even of -the ordinary lamp-shells, are hardened by common limestone or -carbonate of lime: the rarer substance, phosphate of lime, is in -general restricted to the formation of the bones of the higher -animals. In the case of the latter, this relation depends apparently -on the fact that the albuminous substances on which animals are -chiefly nourished require for their formation the presence of -phosphates in the plant. Hence the animal naturally obtains phosphate -of lime or bone-earth with its food, and its system is related to this -chemical fact in such wise that phosphate of lime is a most -appropriate and suitable material for its teeth and bones. Now, in the -case of the lower animals of the sea, their food, not being of the -nature of the richer land plants, but consisting mainly of minute algæ -and of animals which prey on these, furnishes, not phosphate of lime, -but carbonate. An exception to this occurs in the case of certain -animals of low grade, sponges, etc., which, feeding on minute plants -with siliceous cell-walls, assimilate the flinty matter and form a -siliceous skeleton. But this is an exception of downward tendency, in -which these animals approach to plants of low grade. The exception in -the case of Lingulæ is in the other direction. It gives to these -humble creatures the same material for their hard parts which is -usually restricted to animals of much higher rank. The purpose of this -arrangement, whether in relation to the cause of the deviation from -the ordinary rule or its utility to the animal itself, remains -unknown. It has, however, been ascertained by Dr. Hunt, who first -observed the fact in the case of the Primordial Lingulæ, that their -modern successors coincide with them, and differ from their -contemporaries among the mollusks in the same particular. This may -seem a trifling matter, but it shows in this early period the -origination of the difference still existing in the materials of which -animals construct their skeletons, and also the wonderful persistence -of the Lingulæ, through all the geological ages, in the material of -their shells. This is the more remarkable, in connection with our own -very slender acquaintance with the phenomenon, in relation either to -its efficient or final causes. - -Before leaving the Lingulæ, I may mention that Mr. Morse informs me -that living specimens, when detached from their moorings, can creep -like worms, leaving long furrows on the sand, and that they can also -construct sand-tubes wherein to shelter themselves. This shows that -some of the abundant "worm burrows" of the Primordial may have been -the work of these curious little shell-fishes, as well as, perhaps, -some of the markings which have been described under the name of -_Eophyton_, and have been supposed, I think incorrectly, to be remains -of land plants. - -In addition to Lingula we may obtain, though rarely, lamp-shells of -another type, that of the Orthids, These have the valves hinged along -a straight line, in the middle of which is a notch for the peduncle, -and the valves are often marked with ribs or striae. The Orthids were -content with limestone for their shells, and apparently lived in the -same circumstances with the Lingulæ; and in the period succeeding the -Primordial they became far more abundant. Yet they perished at an -early stage of the world's progress, and have no representatives in -the modern seas. - -In many parts of the Primordial ocean the muddy bottom swarmed with -crustaceans, relatives of our shrimps and lobsters, but of a form -which differs so much from these modern shell-fishes that the -question of their affinities has long been an unsettled one with -zoologists. Hundreds of species are known, some almost microscopic in -size, others a foot in length. All are provided with a broad flat -horseshoe-shaped head-plate, which, judging from its form and a -comparison with the modern king-crabs or horseshoe-crabs, must have -been intended as a sort of mud-plough to enable them to excavate -burrows or hide themselves in the slimy ooze of the ocean bed. On the -sides of this buckler are placed the prominent eyes, furnished with -many separate lenses, on precisely the same plan with those of modern -crustaceans and insects, and testifying, as Buckland long ago pointed -out, to the identity of the action of light in the ancient and the -modern seas. The body was composed of numerous segments, each divided -transversely into three lobes, whence they have received the name of -_Trilobites_, and the whole articulated, so that the creature could -roll itself into a ball, like the modern slaters or wood-lice, which -are not very distant relatives of these old crustaceans.[F] The limbs -of Trilobites were long unknown, and it was even doubted whether they -had any; but recent discoveries have shown that they had a series of -flat limbs useful both for swimming and creeping. The Trilobites, -under many specific and generic forms, range from the Primordial to -the Carboniferous rocks, but are altogether wanting in the more recent -formations and in the modern seas. The Trilobites lived on muddy -bottoms, and their remains are extremely abundant in shaly and slaty -beds, though found also in limestone and sandstone. In the latter they -have left most curious traces of their presence in the trails which -they have produced. Some of the most ancient sandstones have their -surfaces covered with rows of punctured impressions (_Protichnites_, -first footprints), others have strange series of transverse grooves -with longitudinal ones at the side (_Climactichnites_, ladder -footprints); others are oval burrows, marked with transverse lines and -a ridge along the middle (_Rusichnites_, wrinkle footprints). All of -these so nearly resemble the trails and tracks of modern king-crabs -that there can be little doubt as to their origin. Many curious -striated grooves and bifid marks, found on the surfaces of Primordial -beds, and which have been described as plants, are probably only the -marks of the oral organs or feet of these and similar creatures, which -passed their lives in grubbing for food in the soft, slimy ooze, -though they could, no doubt, like the modern king-crabs, swim when -necessary. Some still more shrimp-like creatures, Hymenocaris, which -are found with them, certainly had this power. - -[F] Woodward has recently suggested affinities of Trilobites with the -Isopods or equal-footed crustaceans, on the evidence of a remarkable -specimen with remains of feet described by Billings. - -A lower type of annulose or ringed animal then that of the Trilobites, -is that of the worms. These creatures cannot be preserved in a fossil -state, except in the case of those which inhabit calcareous tubes: -but the marks which their jointed bodies and numerous side-bristles -leave on the sand and mud may, when buried under succeeding sediments, -remain; and extensive surfaces of very old rocks are marked in this -way, either with cylindrical burrows or curious trails with side -scratches looking like pinnate leaves. These constitute the genus -_Crusiana_, while others of more ordinary form belong to the genus -_Arenicolites_, so named from the common Arenicola, or lobworm, whose -burrows they are supposed to resemble. Markings referable to seaweed -also occur in the Primordial rocks, and also some grotesque and almost -inexplicable organisms known as _Oldhamia_, which have been chiefly -found in the Primordial of Ireland. One of the most common forms -consists of a series of apparently jointed threads disposed in -fan-like clusters on a central stem (_Oldhamia antiqua_). Another has -a wider and simpler fan-like arrangement of filaments. These have been -claimed by botanists as algæ, and have been regarded by zoologists as -minute Zoophytes, while some more sceptical have supposed that they -may be mere inorganic wrinklings of the beds. This last view does not, -however, seem tenable. They are, perhaps, the predecessors of the -curious _Graptolites_, which we shall have to represent in the -Silurian. - -Singularly enough, Foraminifera, the characteristic fossils of the -Laurentian, have been little recognised in the Primordial, nor are -there any limestones known so massive as those of the former series. -There are, however, a number of remarkable organisms, which have -usually been described as sponges, but are more probably partly of the -nature of sponges and partly of that of Foraminifera. Of this kind are -some of the singular conical fossils described by Billings as -_Archæocyathus_, and found in the Primordial limestone of Labrador. -They are hollow within, with radiating pores and plates, calcareous in -some, and in others with siliceous spicules like those of modern -sponges. Some of them are several inches in diameter, and they must -have grown rooted in muddy bottoms, in the manner of some of the -deep-sea sponges of modern times. One species at least of these -creatures was a true Foraminifer, allied, though somewhat distantly, -to Eozoon. In some parts of the Primordial sandstones, curious -funnel-shaped casts in sand occur, sometimes marked with spiral lines. -The name _Histioderma_ has been given to some of these, and they have -been regarded as mouths of worm-burrows. Others of larger size have -been compared to inverted stumps of trees. If they were produced by -worms, some of these must have been of gigantic size, but Billings has -recently suggested that they may be casts of sponges that lived like -some modern species imbedded in the sand. In accordance with this view -I have represented these curious objects in the engraving, On the -whole, the life of these oldest Palæozoic rocks is not very abundant; -but there are probably representatives of three of the great -subdivisions of animals or, as some would reckon them, of four the -Protozoa, the Radiata (Coelenterata), the Mollusca, and the Annulosa. -And it is most interesting thus to find in these very old rocks the -modern subdivisions of animals already represented, and these by types -some of them nearly allied to existing inhabitants of the seas I have -endeavoured in the engraving to represent some of the leading forms of -marine life in this ancient period. - -Perhaps one of the most interesting discoveries in these rocks is that -of rain-marks and shrinkage-cracks, in some of the very oldest -beds--those of the Longmynd in Shropshire. On the modern muddy beach -any ordinary observer is familiar with the cracks produced by the -action of the sun and air on the dried surfaces left by the tides. -Such cracks, covered by the waters of a succeeding tide, may be buried -in newer silt, and once preserved in this way are imperishable. In -like manner, the pits left by passing showers of rain on the mud -recently left bare by the tide may, when the mud has dried, become -sufficiently firm to be preserved. In this way we have rain-marks of -various geological ages; but the oldest known are those of the -Longmynd, where they are associated both with ripple-marks and -shrinkage-cracks. We thus have evidence of the action of tides, of -sun, and of rain, in these ancient periods just as in the present day. -Were there no land animals to prowl along the low tidal flats in -search of food? Were there no herbs or trees to drink in the rains and -flourish in the sunshine? If there were, no bone or footprint on the -shore, or drifted leaf or branch, has yet revealed their existence to -the eyes of geologists The beds of the Primordial age exist in -England, in Bohemia, in Sweden and Norway, and also in North America. -They appear to have been deposited along the shores of the old -Laurentian continent, and probably some of them indicate very deep -water. The Primordial rocks are in many parts of the world altered and -hardened. They have often assumed a slaty structure, and their -bedding, and the fossils which they contain, are both affected by -this. The usual view entertained as to what is called slaty structure -is, that it depends on pressure, acting on more or less compressible -material in some direction usually different from that of the bedding. -Such pressure has the effect of arranging all the flat particles as -scales of mica, etc. in planes parallel to the compressing surface. -Hence, if much material of this kind is present in the sediment, the -whole rock assumes a fissile character causing it to split readily -into thin plates. That such yielding to pressure has actually taken -place is seen very distinctly in microscopic sections of some slaty -rocks, which often show not only a laminated structure, but an actual -crumpling on a small scale, causing them to assume almost the aspect -of woody fibre. Such rocks often remind a casual observer of decaying -trunks of trees, and sections of them under the microscope show the -most minute and delicate crumpling. It is also proved by the condition -of the fossils the beds contain. These are often distorted, so that -some of them are lengthened and others shortened, and if specimens -were selected with, that view, it would be quite easy to suppose that -those lengthened by distortion are of different species from those -distorted so as to be shortened. Slaty cleavage and distortion are -not, however, confined to Primordial rocks, but occur in altered -sediments of various ages. - -The Primordial sediments must have at one time been very widely -distributed, and must have filled up many of the inequalities produced -by the rending and contortion of the Laurentian beds. Their thicker -and more massive portions are, however, necessarily along the borders -of the Laurentian continents, and as they in their turn were raised up -into land, they became exposed to the denuding action first of the -sea, and afterwards of the rain and rivers, and were so extensively -wasted away that only in a few regions do large areas of them remain -visible. That of Bohemia has afforded to Barrande a great number of -most interesting fossils. The rocks of St. David's in Wales, those of -Shropshire in England, and those of Wicklow in Ireland are also of -great interest; and next to these in importance are, perhaps, the -Huronian and Acadian groups of North America, in which continent--as -for example in Nova Scotia and in some parts of New England--there are -extensive areas of old metamorphic rocks whose age has not been -determined by fossils, but which may belong to this period. - -The question of division lines of formations is one much agitated in -the case of the Cambrian rocks. Whether certain beds are to be called -Cambrian or Silurian has been a point greatly controverted; and the -terms Primordial and Primordial Silurian have been used as means to -avoid the raising of this difficulty. Many of our division lines in -geology are arbitrary and conventional, and this may be the case with -that between the Primordial and Silurian, the one age graduating into -the other. There appears to be, however, the best reason to recognise -a distinct Cambrian period, preceding the two great periods, those of -the second and third faunas of Barrande, to which the term Silurian is -usually applied. On the other hand, in so far as our knowledge extends -at present, a strongly marked line of separation exists between the -Laurentian and Primordial, the latter resting on the edges of the -former, which seems then to have been as much altered as now. Still a -break of this kind may be, perhaps must be, merely local; and may vary -in amount. Thus, in some places we find rocks of Silurian and later -ages resting directly on the Laurentian, without the intervention of -the Primordial. In any case, where a line of coast is steadily -sinking, each succeeding deposit will overlap that which went before; -and this seems to have been the case with the Laurentian shore when -the Primordial and Silurian were being deposited. Hence over large -spaces the Primordial is absent, being probably buried up, except -where exposed by denudation at the margin of the two formations. - -This occurs in several parts of Canada, while the Laurentian rocks -have evidently been subjected to metamorphism and long-continued -weathering before the Lower Silurian were deposited; and in some -cases the latter rest on weather-worn and pitted surfaces, and are -filled with angular bits of the underlying rock, as well as with -drift-shells which have been cast on these old Laurentian shores; -while in other cases the Silurian rests on smooth water-worn -Laurentian rocks, and is filled at the junction with well-rounded -pebbles and grains of sand which have evidently been subjected to a -more thorough attrition then those of the present beach. With respect -to the line of division between the Primordial and the next succeeding -rocks, it will be seen that important movements of the continents -occurred at the close of the Cambrian, and in some places the Cambrian -rocks have been much disturbed before the deposition of the Lower -Silurian. - -Seated on some ancient promontory of the Laurentian, and looking over -the plain which, in the Primordial and Lower Silurian periods was the -sea, I have often wished for some shred of vegetable matter to tell -what lived on that land when the Primordial surf beat upon its shore, -and washed up the Trilobites and Brachiopods of those old seas; but no -rock has yet taken up its parable to reveal the secret, and the -Primordial is vocal only with the old story: "And God said, Let the -waters swarm with swarming living things, and it was so." So our -picture of the period may represent a sea-bottom swarming with animals -of low grade, some sessile, some locomotive; and we may merely suppose -a distant shore with vegetation dimly seen, and active volcanoes; but -a shore on which no foot of naturalist has yet trod to scan its -productions. Very different estimates have been formed of the amount -of life in this period, according to the position given to its latest -limit. Taking some of the more modern views of this subject, we might -have included among the Primordial animals many additional creatures, -which we prefer noticing in the Silurian, since it may at least be -affirmed that their head-quarters were in that age, even if they had a -beginning in the Primordial. It may be interesting here, however, to -note the actual amount of life known to us in this period, taken in -its largest scope. In doing this, I shall take advantage of an -interesting table given by Dr. Bigsby,[G] and representing the state -of knowledge in 1868, and shall group the species in such a manner as -to indicate the relative abundance of distinct types of structure. We -find then-- - - Plants (all, or nearly all, supposed to be - sea-weeds, and some, probably, mere tracks - or trails of animals) 22 species. - - Sponges, and similar creatures 27 " - - Corals and their allies 6 " - - Starfishes and their allies 4 " - - Worms 29 " - - Trilobites and other crustaceans 442 " - - Lamp-shells and other molluscoids 193 " - - Common bivalve mollusks 12 " - - Common univalve mollusks and their allies 172 " - - Higher mollusks, nautili, cuttle-fishes, etc. 65 " - --- - In all 972 " - -[G] "Thesaurus Siluricus." - -Now in this enumeration we observe, in the first place, a -representation of all the lower or invertebrate groups of the waters. -We have next the remarkable fact that the Radiata of Cuvier, the -lowest and most plant-like of the marine animals, are comparatively -slenderly represented, yet that there are examples of their higher as -well as of their lower forms. We have the further fact that the -crustaceans, the highest marine animals of the annulose type, are -predominant in the waters; and that in the mollusks the highest and -lowest groups are most plentiful, the middle less so. The whole number -of species is small, and this may arise either from our having here -reached an early period in the history of life, or from our -information being defective. Both are probably true. Still, of the -animals known, we cannot say that the proportions of the different -kinds depend on defective knowledge. There is no reason, for example, -why corals should not have been preserved as well as Trilobites, or -why Brachiopods should have been preserved rather then ordinary -bivalves. The proportions, therefore, it may be more safe to reason -from then the aggregate. In looking at these proportions, and -comparing them with those of modern seas, we are struck with the great -number of species representing some types either now extinct or -comparatively rare: the Trilobites and Brachiopods more particularly. -We are astonished at the enormous preponderance of these two groups, -and especially of the Trilobites. Further, we observe that while some -forms, like Lingula and Nautilus, have persisted down to modern -times, others, like the Trilobites and Orthids, perished very early. -In all this we can dimly perceive a fitness of living things to -physical conditions, a tendency to utilise each type to the limit of -its capacities for modification, and then to abandon it for something -higher; a tendency of low types to appear first, but to appear in -their highest perfection and variety; a sudden apparition of totally -diverse plans of structure subserving similar ends simultaneously with -each other, as for instance those of the Mollusk and the Crustacean; -the appearance of optical and mechanical contrivances, as for example -the compound eyes of the Trilobite and the swimming float of the -Orthoceras, in all their perfection at first, just as they continue to -this day in creatures of similar grade. That these and other similar -things point to a uniform and far-reaching plan, no rational mind can -doubt; and if the world had stopped short in the Primordial period, -and attained to no further development, this would have been -abundantly apparent; though it shines forth more and more -conspicuously in each succeeding page of the stony record. How far -such unity and diversity can be explained by the modern philosophy of -a necessary and material evolution out of mere death and physical -forces, and how far it requires the intervention of a Creative mind, -are questions which we may well leave with the thoughtful reader, till -we have traced this history somewhat further. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE LOWER AND UPPER SILURIAN AGES. - - -By English geologists, the great series of formations which succeeds -to the Cambrian is usually included under the name Silurian System, -first proposed by Sir Roderick Murchison. It certainly, however, -consists of two distinct groups, holding the second and third faunas -of Barrande. The older of the two, usually called the Lower Silurian, -is the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick, and may properly be called the -_Siluro-Cambrian_. The newer is the true Silurian, or Silurian -proper--the Upper Silurian of Murchison. We shall in this chapter, for -convenience, consider both in connection, using occasionally the term -Lower Silurian as equivalent to Siluro-Cambrian. The Silurian presents -us with a definite physical geography, for the northern hemisphere at -least; and this physical geography is a key to the life conditions of -the time. The North American continent, from its great unbroken area, -affords, as usual, the best means of appreciating this. In this period -the northern currents, acting perhaps in harmony with old Laurentian -outcrops, had deposited in the sea two long submarine ridges, running -to the southward from the extreme ends of the Laurentian nucleus, and -constituting the foundations of the present ridges of the Rocky -Mountains and the Alleghanies. Between these the extensive triangular -area now constituting the greater part of North America, was a shallow -oceanic plateau, sheltered from the cold polar currents by the -Laurentian land on the north, and separated by the ridges already -mentioned from the Atlantic and Pacific. It was on this great plateau -of warm and sheltered ocean that what we call the Silurian fauna -lived; while of the creatures that inhabited the depths of the great -bounding oceans, whose abysses must have been far deeper and at a much -lower temperature, we know little. During the long Silurian periods, -it is true, the great American plateau underwent many revolutions, -sometimes being more deeply submerged, and having clear water tenanted -by vast numbers of corals and shell-fishes, at others rising so as to -become shallow and to receive deposits of sand and mud; but it was -always distinct from the oceanic area without. In Europe, in like -manner, there seems to have been a great internal plateau bounded by -the embryo hills of Western Europe on the west, and harbouring a very -similar assemblage of creatures to those existing in America. - -Further, during these long periods there were great changes, from a -fauna of somewhat primordial type up to a new order of things in the -Upper Silurian, tending toward the novelties which were introduced in -the succeeding Devonian and Carboniferous. We may, in the first place, -sketch these changes as they occurred on the two great continental -plateaus, noting as we proceed such hints as can be obtained with -reference to the more extensive oceanic spaces. - -Before the beginning of the age, both plateaus seem to have been -invaded by sandy and muddy sediments charged at some periods and -places with magnesian limestone; and these circumstances were not -favourable to the existence or preservation of organic remains. Such -are the Potsdam and Calciferous beds of America and the Tremadoc and -Llandeilo beds of England. The Potsdam and Tremadoc are by their -fossils included in the Cambrian, and may at least be regarded as -transition groups. It is further to be observed, in the case of these -beds, that if we begin at the west side of Europe and proceed -easterly, or at the east side of America and proceed westerly, they -become progressively thinner, the greater amount of material being -deposited at the edges of the future continents; just as on the sides -of a muddy tideway the flats are higher, and the more coarse sediment -deposited near the margin of the channel, and fine mud is deposited at -a greater distance and in thinner beds. The cause, however, on the -great scale of the Atlantic, was somewhat different, ancient ridges -determining the border of the channel. This statement holds good not -only of these older beds, but of the whole of the Silurian, and of the -succeeding Devonian and Carboniferous, all deposited on these same -plateaus. Thus, in the case of the Silurian in England and Wales, the -whole series is more then 20,000 feet thick, but in Russia, it is -less then 1,000 feet. In the eastern part of America the thickness is -estimated at quite as great an amount as in Europe, while in the -region of the Mississippi the Silurian rocks are scarcely thicker then -in Russia, and consist in great part of limestones and fine sediments, -the sandstones and conglomerates thinning out rapidly eastward of the -Appalachian Mountains. - -In both plateaus the earlier period of coarse accumulations was -succeeded by one in which was clear water depositing little earthy -sediment, and this usually fine; and in which the sea swarmed with -animal life, from the _débris_ of which enormous beds of limestone -were formed the Trenton limestone of America and the Bala limestone of -Europe. The fossils of this part of the series open up to us the -head-quarters of Lower Silurian life, the second great fauna of -Barrande, that of the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick; and in America more -especially, the Trenton and its associated limestones can be traced -over forty degrees of longitude; and throughout the whole of this -space its principal beds are composed entirely of comminuted corals, -shells, and crinoids, and studded with organisms of the same kinds -still retaining their forms. Out of these seas, in the European area, -arose in places volcanic islets, like those of the modern Pacific. - -In the next succeeding era the clear waters became again invaded with -muddy and sandy sediments, in various alternations, and with -occasional bands of limestone, constituting the Caradoc beds of -Britain and the Utica and Hudson River groups of America. During the -deposition of these, the abounding life of the Siluro-Cambrian -plateaus died away, and a middle group of sandstones and shales, the -Oneida and Medina of America and the Mayhill of England, form the base -of the Upper Silurian. - -But what was taking place meanwhile in the oceanic areas separating -our plateaus? These were identical with the basins of the Atlantic and -Pacific, which already existed in this period as depressions of the -earth's crust, perhaps not so deep as at present. As to the deposits -in their deeper portions we know nothing; but on the margin of the -Atlantic area are some rocks which give us at least a little -information. - -In the later part of the Cambrian period the enormous thickness of the -Quebec group of North America appears to represent a broad stripe of -deep water parallel to the eastern edge of the American plateau, and -in which an immense thickness of beds of sand and mud was deposited -with very few fossils, except in particular beds, and these of a more -primordial aspect then those of the plateau itself. These rocks no -doubt represent the margin of a deep Atlantic area, over which cold -currents destructive of life were constantly passing, and in which -great quantities of sand and mud, swept from the icy regions of the -North, were continually being laid. The researches of Dr. Carpenter -and Dr. Wyville Thomson show us that there are at present cold areas -in the deeper parts of the Atlantic, on the European side, as we have -long known that they exist at less depths on the American side; and -these same researches, with the soundings on the American banks, show -that sand and gravel may be deposited not merely on shallows, but in -the depths of the ocean, provided that these depths are pervaded by -cold and heavy currents capable of eroding the bottom, and of moving -coarse material. The Quebec group in Canada and the United States, and -the metalliferous Lower Silurian rocks of Nova Scotia and -Newfoundland, destitute of great marine limestones and coral reefs, -evidently represent deep and cold-water areas on the border of the -Atlantic plateau. - -At a later period, the beginning of the Upper Silurian, the richly -fossiliferous and exceptional deposits of the Island of Anticosti, -formed in the deep hollow of the Gulf of St. Laurence, show that when -the plateau had become shallowed up by deposition and elevation, and -converted into desolate sand-banks, the area of abundant life was -transferred to the still deep Atlantic basin and its bordering bays, -in which the forms of Lower Silurian life continued to exist until -they were mixed up with those of the Upper Silurian. - -If we turn now to these latter rocks, and inquire as to their -conditions on our two great plateaus, we shall find a repetition of -changes similar to those which occurred in the times preceding. The -sandy shallows of the earlier part of this period give place to wide -oceanic areas similar to those of the Lower Silurian; In these we find -vast and thick coral and shell limestones, the Wenlock of England and -Niagara of America, as rich in life as the limestones of the Lower -Silurian, and with the generic and family forms similar, but the -species for the most part different. In America these limestones were -followed by a singularly shallow condition of the plateau, in which -the surface was so raised as at times to be converted into separate -salt lakes in which beds of salt were deposited. On both plateaus -there were alternations of oceanic and shallow conditions, under which -the Lower Helderberg and Ludlow beds, the closing members of the -Silurian, were laid down. Of the Atlantic beds of this period we know -little, except that the great limestones appear to be wanting, and to -be replaced by sandy and muddy deposits, in some parts at least of the -margins of the area. In some portions also of the plateaus and their -margins, extensive volcanic outbursts seem to have occurred; so that -the American plateau presented, at least in parts, the aspect of a -coral sea with archipelagos of volcanic islands, the ejections from -which became mixed with the aqueous deposits forming around them. - -Having thus traced the interesting series of geographical conditions -indicated by the Silurian series, we may next take our station on one -of the submerged plateaus, and inquire as to the new forms of life now -introduced to our notice; and in doing so shall include the life of -both the Lower and Upper Silurian. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Fragment of Lower Silurian Limestone, sliced -and magnified ten diameters, showing the manner in which it is made up -of fragments of corals, crinoids, and shells. (From a paper oil the -Microscopic Structure of Canadian limestone, "Canadian Naturalist.")] - -First, we may remark the vast abundance and variety of corals. The -polyps, close relatives of the common sea-anemone of our coasts, which -build up our modern coral reefs, were represented in the Silurian seas -by a great number of allied yet different forms, equally effectual in -the great work of secreting carbonate of lime in stony masses, and -therefore in the building-up of continents. Let us note some of the -differences. In the first place, whereas our modern coral-workers can -show us but the topmost pinnacles of their creations, peeping above -the surface of the sea in coral reefs and islands, the work of the -coral animals of the Silurian has been finished, by these limestones -being covered with masses of new sediment consolidated into hard rock, -and raised out of the sea to constitute a part of the dry land. In -the Silurian limestones we thus have, not merely the coral reefs, but -the wide beds of comminuted coral, mixed with the remains of other -animals, which are necessarily accumulated in the ocean bed around the -reefs and islands. Further, these beds, which we might find loose and -unconsolidated in the modern sea, have their fragments closely -cemented together in the old limestones. The nature of this difference -can be well seen by comparing a fragment of modern coral or shell -limestone from Bermuda, with a similar fragment of the Trenton -limestone, both being sliced for examination under the microscope. The -old limestone is black or greyish, the modern one is nearly white, -because in the former the organic matter in the animal fragments has -been carbonised or converted into coaly and bituminous matter. The old -limestone is much more dense and compact, partly because its materials -have been more closely compressed by superincumbent weight, but -chiefly because calcareous matter in solution in water has penetrated -all the interstices, and filled them up with a deposit of crystalline -limestone. In examining a slice, however, under the microscope, it -will be seen that the fragments of corals and other organisms are as -distinct and well preserved as in the crumbling modern rock, except -that they are perfectly imbedded in a paste of clear transparent -limestone, or rather calcareous spar, infiltrated between them. I have -examined great numbers of slices of these limestones, ever with new -wonder at the packing of the organic fragments which they present. The -hard marble-like limestones used for building in the Silurian -districts of Europe and America, are thus in most cases consolidated -masses of organic fragments. - -In the next place, the animals themselves must have differed somewhat -from their modern successors. This we gather from the structure of -their stony cells, which present points of difference indicating -corresponding difference of detail in the soft parts. Zoologists thus -separate the rugose or wrinkled corals and the tabulate or floored -corals of the Silurian from those of the modern seas. The former must -have been more like the ordinary coral animals; the latter were very -peculiar, more especially in the close union of the cells, and in the -transverse floors which they were in the habit of building across -these cells as they grew in height. They presented, however, all the -forms of our modern corals. Some were rounded and massive in form, -others delicate and branching. Some were solitary or detached, others -aggregative in communities. Some had the individual animals large and -probably showy, others had them of microscopic size. Perhaps the most -remarkable of all is the American _Beatricea_,[H] which grew like a -great trunk of a tree twenty feet or more in height, its solitary -animal at the top like a pillar-saint, though no doubt more -appropriate and comfortable; and multitudes of delicate and encrusting -corals clinging like mosses or lichens to its sides. This creature -belongs to the very middle of the Silurian, and must have lived in -great depths, undisturbed by swell or breakers, and sheltering vast -multitudes of other creatures in its stony colonnades. - -[H] First described by Mr. Billings. It has been regarded as a plant, -and as a cephalopod shell; but I believe it was a coral allied to -_Cystiphyllum_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--LIFE IN THE SILURIAN AGE. - -On the bottom are seen, proceeding from left to right, Corals -(_Stenopora_ and _Beatricea_) and a Gasteropod; _Orthoceras_; Coral -(_Patria_); Crinoids, _Lingulæ_, and Cystideans; a _Trilobite_ and -_Cyrtolites_. In the water is a large _Pterygotus_, and under it a -_Trinucleus_. Further on, are Cephalopods, a Heteropod, and Fishes. -At the surface, _Phyllograptus_, _Graptolithus_, and _Bellerophon_. -On the Land, _Lepidodendron_, _Psilophyton_, and _Prototaxites_.] - -Lastly, the Silurian corals nourished in latitudes more boreal then -their modern representatives. In both hemispheres as far north as -Silurian limestones have been traced, well-developed corals have been -found. On the great plateaus sheltered by Laurentian ridges to the -north, and exposed to the sun and to the warmer currents of the -equatorial regions, they nourished most grandly and luxuriantly: but -they lived also north of the Laurentian bands in the Arctic Sea -basins, though probably in the shallower and more sheltered parts. -Undoubtedly the geographical arrangements of the Silurian period -contributed to this. We have already seen how peculiarly adapted to an -exuberant marine life were the submerged continents of the period; and -there was probably little Arctic land producing icebergs to chill the -seas. The great Arctic currents, which then as now flowed powerfully -toward the equator, must have clung to the deeper parts of the ocean -basins, while the return waters from the equator would spread -themselves widely over the surface; so that wherever the Arctic Seas -presented areas a little elevated out of the cold water bottom, there -might be suitable abodes for coral animals. It has been supposed that -in the Silurian period the sea might have derived some appreciable -heat from the crust of the earth below, and astronomical conditions -have been suggested as tending to produce changes of climate; but it -is evident that whatever weight may be due to these causes, the -observed geographical conditions are sufficient to account for the -facts of the case. It is also to be observed, that we cannot safely -infer the requirements as to temperature of Silurian coral animals -from those of the tenants of the modern ocean. In the modern seas many -forms of life thrive best and grow to the greatest size in the colder -seas; and in the later tertiary period there were elephants and -rhinoceroses sufficiently hardy to endure the rigours of an Arctic -climate. So there may have been in the Silurian seas corals of much -less delicate constitution then those now living. - -Next to the corals we may place the crinoids, or -stone-lilies--creatures abounding throughout the Silurian seas, and -realizing a new creative idea, to be expanded in subsequent geological -time into all the multifarious types of star-fishes and sea-urchins. A -typical crinoid, such as the _Glyptocrinus_ of the Lower Silurian, -consists of a flexible jointed stem, sometimes several feet in length, -composed of short cylindrical discs, curiously articulated together, a -box-like body on top made up of polygonal pieces attached to each -other at the edges, and five radiating jointed arms furnished with -branches and branchlets, or fringes, all articulated and capable of -being flexed in any direction. Such a creature has more the aspect of -a flower then of an animal; yet it is really an animal, and subsists -by collecting with its arms and drifting into its mouth minute -creatures floating in the water. Another group, less typical, but -abundantly represented in the Silurian seas, is that of the -Cystideans, in which the body is sack-like, and the arms few and -sometimes attached to the body. They resemble the young or larvæ of -crinoids. In the modern seas the crinoids are extremely few, though -dredging in very deep water has recently added to the number of known -species; but in the Silurian period they had their birth, and attained -to a number and perfection not afterwards surpassed. Perhaps the -stone-lilies of the Upper Silurian rocks of Dudley, in England, are -the most beautiful of Palæozoic animals. Judging from the immense -quantities of their remains in some limestones, wide areas of the sea -bottom must have been crowded with their long stalks and flower-like -bodies, presenting vast submarine fields of these stony water-lilies. - -Passing over many tribes of mollusks, continued or extended from the -Primordial--and merely remarking that the lamp-shells and the ordinary -bivalve and univalve shell-fishes are all represented largely, more -especially the former group, in the Silurian--we come to the highest -of the Mollusca, represented in our seas by the cuttle-fishes and -nautili, creatures which, like the crinoids, may be said to have had -their birth in the Silurian, and to have there attained to some of -their grandest forms. The modern pearly nautilus shell, well known in -every museum, is beautifully coiled in a disc-like form, and when -sliced longitudinally shows a series of partitions dividing it into -chambers, air-tight, and serving as a float to render the body of the -creature independent of the force of gravity. As the animal grows it -retracts its body toward the front of the shell, and forms new -partitions, so that the buoyancy of the float always corresponds with -the weight of the animal; while by the expansion and contraction of -the body and removal of water from a tube or syphon which traverses -the chambers, or the injection of additional water, slight differences -can be effected, rendering the creature a very little lighter or -heavier then the medium in which it swims. Thus practically delivered -from the encumbrance of weight, and furnished with long flexible arms -provided with suckers, with great eyes and a horny beak, the nautilus -becomes one of the tyrants of the deep, creeping on the bottom or -swimming on the surface at will, and everywhere preying on whatever -animals it can master. Fortunately for us, as well as for the more -feeble inhabitants of the sea, the nautili are not of great size, -though some of their allies, the cuttle-fishes, which, however, -want the floating apparatus, are sufficiently powerful to be -formidable to man. In the Silurian period, however, there were -not only nautili like ours, but a peculiar kind of straight -nautilus--the _Orthoceratites_--which sometimes attained to gigantic -size. The shells of these creatures may be compared to those of nautili -straightened out, the chambers being placed in a direct line in front -of each other. A great number of species have been discovered, many -quite insignificant in size, but others as much as twelve feet in -length and a foot in diameter at the larger end. Indeed, accounts have -been given of individuals of much larger growth. These large -_Orthoceratites_ were the most powerful marine animals known to us in -the Silurian, and must have been in those days the tyrants of the -seas.[I] - -[I] Zoologists will observe that I have, in the illustrations given -the Orthoceras the arms rather of a cuttle-fish then of a nautilus. -The form of the outer chamber of the shell, I think, warrants this -view of the structure of the animal, which must have been formed on a -very comprehensive type. - -Among the crustaceans, or soft shell-fishes of the Silurian, we meet -with the _Trilobites_, continued from the Primordial in great and -increasing force, and represented by many and beautiful species; while -an allied group of shell-fishes of low organization but gigantic size, -the _Eurypterids_, characteristic of the Upper Silurian, were provided -with powerful limbs, long flexible bodies, and great eyes in the front -of the head, and were sometimes several feet in length. Instead of -being mud grovellers, like the Trilobites and modern king-crabs, these -_Eurypterids_ must have been swimmers, careering rapidly through the -water, and probably active and predaceous. There were also great -multitudes of those little crustaceans which are inclosed in two horny -or shelly valves like a bivalve shell-fish, and the remains of which -sometimes fill certain beds of Silurian shale and limestone. - -No remains found in the Silurian rocks have been more fertile sources -of discussion then the so-called _Graptolites_, or written stones--a -name given long ago by Linnæus, in allusion to the resemblance of some -species having rows of cells on one side, to minute lines of writing. -These little bodies usually appear as black coaly stains on the -surface of the rock, showing a slender stem or stalk, with a row of -little projecting cells at one side, or two rows, one on each side. -The more perfect specimens show that, in many of the species at least, -these fragments were branches of a complex organism spreading from a -centre; and at this centre there is sometimes perceived a sort of -membrane connecting the bases of the branches, and for which various -uses have been conjectured. The branches themselves vary much in -different species. They may be simple or divided, narrow, or broad and -leaf-like, with one row of cells, or two rows of cells. Hence arise -generic distinctions into single and double graptolites, leaf and tree -graptolites, net graptolites, and so on. But while it is easy to -recognise these organisms, and to classify them in species and genera, -it is not so easy to say what their affinities are with modern things. -They are exclusively Silurian, disappearing altogether at the close of -this period, and, so far as we know, not succeeded by any similar -creatures serving to connect them with modern forms. Hence the most -various conjectures as to their nature. They have been supposed to be -plants, and have been successively referred to most of the great -divisions of the lower animals. Most recently they have been regarded -by Hall, Nicholson,[J] and others, who have studied them most -attentively, as zoophytes or hydroids allied to the Sertularise, or -tooth-corallines and sea-fir-corallines of our coasts, to the -cell-bearing branches of which their fragments bear a very close -resemblance. In this case, each of the little cells or teeth at the -sides of the fibres must have been the abode of a little polyp, -stretching out its tentacles into the water, and enjoying a common -support and nutrition with the other polyps ranged with it. Still the -mode of life of the community of branching stems is uncertain. In some -species there is a little radicle or spike at the base of the main -stem, which may have been a means of attachment. In others the hollow -central disk has been conjectured to have served as a float. Occurring -as the specimens do usually in shales and slates, which must have been -muddy beds, they could not have been attached to stones or rocks, and -they must have lived in clear water, either seated on the surface of -the mud, attached to sea-weeds, or floating freely by means of hollow -disks filled with air. After much thought on their structure and mode -of occurrence, I am inclined to believe that in their younger stages -they were attached, but by a very slender thread; that at a more -advanced stage they became free, and acquiring a central membranous -disk filled with air, floated by means of this at the surface, their -long branches trailing in the waters below. They would thus be, with -reference to their mode of life, though not to the details of their -structure, prototypes of the modern Portuguese man-of-war, which now -drifts so gaily over the surface of the warmer seas. I have -represented them in this attitude; but in case I should be mistaken, -the reader may imagine it possible that they may be adhering to the -lower surface of floating tangle. The head-quarters of the Graptolites -seem to be in the upper part of the Cambrian, and in the -Siluro-Cambrian, and they are widely distributed in Europe, in -America, and in Australia. This very wide distribution of the species -is probably connected with their floating and oceanic habits. - -[J] See also an able paper by Carruthers, in the _Geological -Magazine_, vol. v., p. 64. - -Lastly, just as the Silurian period was passing away, we find a new -thing in the earth--vertebrate animals, represented by several species -of shark-like fishes, which came in here as forerunners of the dynasty -of the vertebrates, which from that day to this have been the masters -of the world. These earliest vertebrates are especially interesting as -the first known examples of a plan of structure which culminates only -in man himself. They appear to have had cartilaginous skeletons; and -in this and their shagreen-like skin, strong bony spines, and -trenchant teeth, to have much resembled our modern sharks, or rather -the dog-fishes, for they were of small size. One genus (_Pteraspis_), -apparently the oldest of the whole, belongs, however, to a tribe of -mailed fishes allied to some of those of the old red sandstone. In -both cases the groups of fishes representing the first known -appearance of the vertebrates were allied to tribes of somewhat high -organization in that class; and they asserted their claims to -dominancy by being predaceous and carnivorous creatures, which must -have rendered themselves formidable to their invertebrate -contemporaries. Coprolites, or fossil masses of excrement, which are -found with them, indicate that they chased and devoured orthoceratites -and sea-snails of various kinds, and snapped Lingulæ and crinoids from -their stalks; and we can well imagine that these creatures, when once -introduced, found themselves in rich pasture and increased -accordingly. Space prevents us from following further our pictures of -the animal life of the great Silurian era, the monuments of which were -first discovered by two of England's greatest geologists, Murchison -and Sedgwick. How imperfect such a notice must be, may be learned from -the fact that Dr. Bigsby, in his "Thesaurus Siluricus" in 1868, -catalogues 8,897 Silurian species, of which only 972 are known in the -Primordial. - -Our illustration, carefully studied, may do more to present to the -reader the teeming swarms of the Silurian seas then our word-picture, -and it includes many animal forms not mentioned above, more especially -the curved and nautilus-like cuttle-fishes, those singular molluscous -swimmers by fin or float known to zoologists as violet-snails, -winged-snails or pteropods, and carinarias; and which, under various -forms, have existed from the Silurian to the present time. The old -_Lingulæ_ are also there as well as in the Primordial, while the fishes -and the land vegetation belong, as far as we yet know, exclusively to -the Upper Silurian, and point forward to the succeeding Devonian. We -know as yet no Silurian animal that lived on the land or breathed air. -But our knowledge of land plants, though very meagre, is important. -Without regarding such obscure and uncertain forms as the _Eophyton_ -of Sweden, Hooker, Page, and Barrande have noticed, in the Upper -Silurian, plants allied to the Lycopods or club-mosses. I have found -in the same deposits another group of plants allied to Lycopods and -pill-worts (Psilophyton), and fragments of wood representing the -curious and primitive type of pine-like trees known as _Prototaxites_. -These are probably only a small instalment of Silurian land plants, -such as a voyager might find floating in the sea on his approach to -some unknown shore, which had not yet risen above his horizon. Time -and careful search will, no doubt, add largely to our knowledge. - -In the Silurian, as in the Cambrian, the head-quarters of animal life -were in the sea. Perhaps there was no animal life on the land; but -here our knowledge may be at fault. It is, however, interesting to -observe the continued operation of the creative fiat, "Let the waters -swarm with swarmers" which, beginning to be obeyed in the Eozoic age, -passes down through all the periods of geological time to the "moving -things innumerable" of the modern ocean. Can we infer anything further -as to the laws of creation from these Silurian multitudes of living -things? One thing we can see plainly, that the life of the Silurian is -closely related to that of the Cambrian. The same generic and ordinal -forms are continued. Even some species may be identical. Does this -indicate direct genetic connection, or only like conditions in the -external world correlated with likeness in the organic world? It -indicates both. First, it is in the highest degree probable that many -of the animals of the Lower Silurian are descendants of those of the -Cambrian. Sometimes these descendants may be absolutely unchanged. -Sometimes they may appear as distinct varieties. Sometimes they may -have been regarded as distinct though allied species. The continuance -in this manner of allied forms of life is necessarily related to the -continuance of somewhat similar conditions of existence, while changes -in type imply changed external conditions. But is this all? I think -not; for there are forms of life in the Silurian which cannot be -traced to the Cambrian, and which relate to new and even prospective -conditions, which the unaided powers of the animals of the earlier -period could not have provided for. These new forms require the -intervention of a higher power, capable of correlating the physical -and organic conditions of one period with those of succeeding periods. -Whatever powers may be attributed to natural selection or to any other -conceivable cause of merely genetic evolution, surely prophetic gifts -cannot be claimed for it; and the life of all these geological periods -is full of mute prophecies to be read only in the light of subsequent -fulfilments. - -The fishes of the Upper Silurian are such a prophecy. They can claim -no parentage in the older rocks, and they appear at once as kings of -their class. With reference to the Silurian itself, they are of little -consequence; and in the midst of its gigantic forms of invertebrate -life they seem almost misplaced. But they predict the coming Devonian, -and that long and varied reign of vertebrate life which culminates in -man himself. No such prophetic ideas are represented by the giant -crustaceans and cuttle-fishes and swarming graptolites. They had -already attained their maximum, and were destined to a speedy and -final grave in the Silurian, or to be perpetuated only in decaying -families whose poverty is rendered more conspicuous by the contrast -with the better days gone by. The law of creation provided for new -types, and at once for the elevation and degradation of them when -introduced; and all this with reference to the physical conditions not -of the present only but of the future. Such facts, which cannot be -ignored save by the wilfully blind, are beyond the reach of any merely -material philosophy. - -The little that we know of Silurian plants is as eloquent of plan and -creation as that which we can learn of animals. I saw not long ago a -series of genealogies in geological time reduced to tabular form by -that ingenious but imaginative physiologist, Haeckel. In one of these -appeared the imaginary derivation of the higher plants from Algæ or -sea-weeds. Nothing could more curiously contradict actual facts. Algæ -were apparently in the Silurian neither more nor less elevated then in -the modern seas, and those forms of vegetable life which may seem to -bridge over the space between them and the land plants in the modern -period, are wanting in the older geological periods, while land plants -seem to start at once into being in the guise of club-mosses, a group -by no means of low standing. Our oldest land plants thus represent one -of the highest types of that cryptogamous series to which they belong, -and moreover are better developed examples of that type then those now -existing. We may say, if we please, that all the connecting links have -been lost; but this is begging the whole question, since no thing 'but -the existence of such links could render the hypothesis of derivation -possible. Further, the occurrence of any number of successive yet -distinct species would not be the kind of chain required, or rather -would not be a chain at all. - -Yet in some respects development is obvious in creation. Old forms of -life are often embryonic, or resemble the young of modern animals, but -enlarged and exaggerated, as if they had overgrown themselves and had -prematurely become adult. Old forms are often generalized, or less -specific in their adaptations then those of modern times. There is -less division of labour among them. Old forms sometimes not only rise -to the higher places in their groups, but usurp attributes which in -later times are restricted to their betters. Old forms are often -gigantic in size in comparison with their modern successors, which, if -they could look back on their predecessors, might say, "There were -giants in those days." Some old forms have gone onward in successive -stages of elevation by a regular and constant gradation. Others have -remained as they were through all the ages, Some have no equals in -their groups in modern days. All these things speak of order, but of -order along with development, and this development not evolution; -unless by this term we understand the emergence into material facts of -the plans of the creative mind. These plans we may hope in some degree -to understand, though we may not be able to comprehend the mode of -action of creative power any more then the mode in which our own -thought and will act upon the machinery of our own nerves. Still, the -power is not the less real, that we are ignorant of its mode of -operation. The wind bloweth whither it listeth, and we feel its -strength, though we may not be able to calculate the wind of to-morrow -or the winds of last year. So is the Spirit of God when it breathes -into animals the breath of life, or the Almighty word when it says, -"Let the waters bring forth." - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE DEVONIAN AGE. - - -Paradoxical as it may appear, this period of geological history has -been held as of little account, and has even been by some geologists -regarded as scarcely a distinct age, just because it was one of the -most striking and important of the whole. The Devonian was an age of -change and transition, in both physical and organic existence; and an -age which introduced, in the Northern hemisphere at least, more varied -conditions of land and water and climate then had previously existed. -Hence, over large areas of our continents, its deposits are irregular -and locally diverse; and the duration and importance of the period are -to be measured rather by the changes and alterations of previous -formations, and the ejection of masses of molten rock from beneath, -then by a series of fossiliferous deposits. Nevertheless, in some -regions in North America and Eastern Europe, the formations of this -era are of vast extent and volume, those of North America being -estimated at the enormous thickness of 15,000 feet, while they are -spread over areas of almost continental breadth. - -At the close of the Upper Silurian, the vast continental plateaus of -the northern hemisphere were almost wholly submerged. No previous -marine limestone spreads more widely then that of the Upper Silurian, -and in no previous period have we much less evidence of the existence -of dry land; yet before the end of the period we observe, in a few -fragments of land plants scattered here and there in the marine -limestones--evidence that islands rose amid the waste of waters. As it -is said that the sailors of Columbus saw the first indications of the -still unseen Western Continent in drift canes, and fragments of trees -floating in mid ocean, so the voyager through the Silurian seas finds -his approach to the verdant shores of the Devonian presaged by a few -drift plants borne from shores yet below the horizon. The small -remains of land in the Upper Silurian were apparently limited to -certain clusters of islands in the north-eastern part of America and -north-western part of Europe, with perhaps some in the intervening -Atlantic On these limited surfaces grew the first land plants -certainly known to us--herbs and trees allied to the modern -club-mosses, and perhaps forests of trees allied to the pines, though -of humbler type; and this wide Upper Silurian sea, with archipelagos -of wooded islands, may have continued for a long time. But with the -beginning of the Devonian, indications of an unstable condition of the -earth's crust began to develop themselves. New lands were upheaved; -great shallow, muddy, and sandy flats were deposited around them the -domains of corals and sea-weeds were contracted and on banks, and in -shallows and estuaries, there swarmed shoals of fishes of many -species, and some of them of most remarkable organization. On the -margins of these waters stretched vast swamps, covered with a rank -vegetation. - -But the period was one of powerful igneous activity. Volcanoes poured -out their molten rocks over sea and land, and injected huge dykes of -trap into the newly-formed beds. The land was shaken with earthquake -throes, and was subject to many upheavals and subsidences. Violent -waves desolated the coasts, throwing sand and gravel over the flats, -and tearing up newly-deposited beds; and poisonous exhalations, or -sudden changes of level, often proved fatal to immense shoals of -fishes. This was the time of the Lower Devonian, and it is marked, -both in the old world and the new, by extensive deposits of sandstones -and conglomerates. - -But the changes going on at the surface were only symptomatic of those -occurring beneath. The immense accumulations of Silurian sediment had -by this time so overweighted certain portions of the crust, that great -quantities of aqueous sediment had been pressed downward into the -heated bowels of the earth, and were undergoing, under an enormous -weight of superincumbent material, a process of baking and -semi-fusion. This process was of course extremely active along the -margins of the old Silurian plateaus, and led to great elevation of -land, while in the more central parts of the plateaus the oceanic -conditions still continued; and in the Middle Devonian, in America at -least, one of the most remarkable and interesting coral limestones in -the world--the corniferous limestone--was deposited. In process of -time, however, these clear waters became shallow, and were invaded by -muddy sediments; and in the Upper Devonian the swampy flats and muddy -shallows return in full force, and in some degree anticipate the still -greater areas of this kind which existed in the succeeding Coal -formation. - -Such is a brief sketch of the Devonian, or, as it may be better called -in America, from the vast development of its beds on the south side of -Lake Erie, the _Erian_ formation. In America the marine beds of the -Devonian were deposited on the same great continental plateau which -supported the seas of the Upper and Lower Silurian, and the beds were -thicker towards the east and thinned towards the west, as in the case -of the older series. But in the Devonian there was much, land in the -north-east of America; and on the eastern margin of this land, as in -Gaspé and New Brunswick, the deposits throughout the whole period were -sandstones and shales, without the great coral limestones of the -central plateau. Something of the same kind occurred in Europe, where, -however, the area of Devonian sea was smaller. There the fossiliferous -limestones of the Middle Devonian in Devon, in the Eifel district, in -France and in Russia, represent the great corniferous limestone of -America; while the sandstones of South Wales, of Ireland, and of -Scotland, resemble the local conditions of Gaspé and New Brunswick, -and belonged to a similar area in the north-west of Europe, in which -shallow water and land conditions prevailed during the whole of the -Devonian, and which was perhaps connected with the corresponding -region in Eastern America by a North Atlantic archipelago, now -submerged. This whole subject is so important to the knowledge of the -Devonian, and of geology in general, that I may be pardoned for -introducing it here in a tabular form, taking the European series from -Etheridge's excellent and exhaustive paper in the "Journal of the -Geological Society." - -DEVONIAN OF ERIAN. - - DIVISIONS. CENTRAL AREAS. - - Devon. Rhen. Prussia. New York. - - {Pilton group:-- Clymenia, Cypridina, Chemung and Portage. - { Brown calcareous etc. Shales, Sandstones - Upper { shales, brown and limestones, and and shales. - { yellow sandstone. sandstones. Plants and marine - { Land plants and Plants and marine shells. - { marine shells. shells. - - {Ilfracombe group:-- Eifel limestone, Hamilton shales, - { Grey and red Calceola shales, and Corniferous - Middle { sandstones and etc. or cherty - { flags, calcareous Corals, shells, limestone. - { slates and etc. Many corals and - { limestones, with shells, also - { corals, etc. plants. - - {Lynton group:-- Coblentz and Schoharie and - { Bed and purple Wissenbach shales, Caudagalli grits. - Lower { sandstones. Marine Rhenish greywacke, Oriskany - { shells, etc. Spinier sandstones. - { sandstone. Marine shells. - { Marine shells. - - DIVISIONS. MARGINAL AREAS. - - Scotland. Ireland. Gaspé and New Brunswick. - - {Yellow and red Yellow and red Red and grey - { sandstones. sandstones, etc. sandstones, grits - Upper {Fishes and plants. Plants, fishes, and shales, and - { etc. conglomerates of - { Gaspé and Mispeck. - { Plants. - - {Red shales and Grits and Grey and Red - { sandstones, and sandstones of sandstones, and - Middle { conglomerates. Dingle. grey and dark - {Caithness flags. shales. Gaspé - {Fishes and plants. and St. John. - { Many plants and - { fishes. - - {Flagstones, shales Glengariff grits, Sandstone and - { and conglomerates. etc. conglomerate. - Lower {Fishes and plants. Gaspé and St. - { John. - { Plants and fishes. - -A glance at this table suffices to show that when we read Hugh -Miller's graphic descriptions of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, -with its numerous and wonderful fishes, we have before us a formation -altogether distinct from that of Devonshire or the Eifel. But the one -represents the shallow, and the other the deeper seas of the same -period. We learn this by careful tracing of the beds to their junction -with, corresponding series, and by the occasional occurrence of the -characteristic fishes of the Scottish strata in the English and German -beds. In like manner a geologist who explores the Gaspé sandstones or -the New Brunswick shales has under his consideration a group of beds -very dissimilar from that which he would have to study on the shores -of Lake Erie. But here again identity of relations to the Silurian -below and the carboniferous above, shows the contemporaneousness of -the beds, and this is confirmed by the occurrence in both series of -some of the same plants and shells and fishes. - -It will further be observed that it is in the middle that the greatest -difference occurs. Sand and mud and pebble-banks were almost universal -over our two great continental plateaus in the Older and Newer -Devonian. But in the Middle there were in some places deeper waters -with coral reefs, in others shallow flats and swamps rich in -vegetation. Herein we see the greater variety and richness of the -Devonian. Had we lived in that age, we should not have seen great -continents like those that now exist, but we could have roamed over -lovely islands with breezy hills and dense lowland jungles, and we -could have sailed over blue coral seas, glowing below with all the -fanciful forms and brilliant colours of polyp life, and filled with -active and beautiful fishes. Especially did all these conditions -culminate in the Middle Devonian, when what are now the continental -areas of the northern hemisphere must have much resembled the present -insular and oceanic regions of the South Pacific. - -Out of the rich and varied life of the Devonian I may select for -illustration its corals, its crustaceans, its fishes, its plants, and -its insects. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--CORALS, FISHES, AND CRUSTACEANS OF THE -DEVONIAN - -In the foreground are Corals of the genera _Favosites_, _Michelina_, -_Phillipsatrea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Blothrophyllum_, and _Syringopora_, -and the seaweed Spirephyton; also Fishes of the genera _Cephalaspis_ -and _Pterichthys_. Above are _Pterygotus_ and _Dinichtys_, with Fishes -of the genera _Diplacanthus_, _Osteolepis_, _Holoptychius_, -_Pteraspis_, _Coccosteus_, etc. The distant land had _Lepidodendra_, -Pines and Tree-ferns.] - -The central limestones of the Devonian may be regarded as the -head-quarters of the peculiar types of coral characteristic of the -Palæozoic age. Here they were not only vastly numerous, but present -some of their grandest and also their most peculiar forms. Edwards and -Haime, in their "Monograph of British Fossil Corals" in 1854, -enumerate one hundred and fifty well-ascertained species, and the -number has since been largely increased; I have no doubt that my -friend Dr. Bigsby, in his forth-coming "Thesaurus Devonicus," will -more then double it. In the Devonian limestones of England, as for -instance at Torquay, the specimens, though abundant and well preserved -as to their internal structure, are too firmly imbedded in the rock to -show their external forms. In the Devonian of the continent of Europe -much finer specimens occur; but, perhaps, in no part of the world is -there so clear an exhibition of them as in the Devonian limestones of -the United States and Canada. Sir Charles Lyell thus expresses his -admiration of the exposure of these corals, which he saw at the falls -of the Ohio, near Louisville. He says, "Although the water was not at -its lowest, I saw a grand display of what may be termed an ancient -coral-reef, formed by zoophytes which flourished in a sea of earlier -date then the Carboniferous period. The ledges of horizontal -limestone, over which the water flows, belong to the Devonian group, -and the softer parts of the stone have decomposed and wasted away, so -that the harder calcareous corals stand out in relief. Many branches -of these zoophytes project from their erect stems precisely as if they -were living. Among other species I observed large masses, not less -then five feet in diameter, of _Favosites Gothlandica_, with its -beautiful honeycomb structure well displayed. There was also the -cup-shaped _Cyathophyllum_, and the delicate network of _Fenestella_, -and that elegant and well-known European species of fossil, the chain -coral, _Catenipora escharoides_, with a profusion of others which it -would be tedious to all but the geologist to enumerate. Although -hundreds of fine specimens have been detached from these rocks to -enrich the museums of Europe and America, another crop is constantly -working its way out under the action of the stream, and of the sun and -rain in the warm season when the channel is laid dry."[K] These -limestones have been estimated to extend, as an almost continuous -coral reef, over the enormous area of five hundred thousand square -miles of the now dry and inland surface of the great American -continental plateau. The limestones described by Sir Charles are known -in the Western States as the "Cliff limestone." In the State of New -York and in Western Canada the "Corniferous limestone," so called from -the masses of hornstone, like the flint of the English chalk, -contained in it, presents still more remarkable features. The corals -which it contains have been replaced by the siliceous or flinty -matter in such a manner that, when the surrounding limestone weathers -away, they remain projecting in relief in all the beauty of their -original forms. Not only so, but on the surface of the country they -remain as hard siliceous stones, and may be found in ploughing the -soil and in stone fences and roadside heaps, so that tons of them -could often be collected over a very limited space. When only partly -disengaged from the matrix, the process may be completed by immersing -them in a dilute acid. The beauty of these specimens when thus -prepared is very great not at all inferior to that of modern corals, -which they often much resemble in general form, though differing in -details of structure. One of the most common forms is that of the -_Favosites_, or honeycomb coral, presenting regular hexagonal cells -with transverse floors or tabulæ. Of these there are several species, -usually flat or massive in form; but one species, _F. polymorpha_, -branches out like the modern stag-horn corals. Another curious form, -_Michelina_, looks exactly like a mass of the papery cells of the -great American hornet in a petrified state, and the convex floors -simulate the covers of the cells, so that it is quite common to find -them called fossil wasps' nests. Some of the largest belong to the -genus _Phillipsastrea_ or _Smithia_, which Hugh Miller has -immortalized by comparing its crowded stars, with confluent rays, to -the once-popular calico pattern known as "Lane's net"--a singular -instance of the accidental concurrence of a natural and artificial -design. Another very common type is that of the conical _Zaphrentis_, -with a deep cut at top to lodge the body of the animal, whose -radiating chambers are faithfully represented by it's delicate -lamellæ. Perhaps the most delicate of the whole is the _Syringopora_, -with its cylindrical worm-like pipes bound together by transverse -processes, and which sometimes can be dissolved out in all its fragile -perfection by the action of an acid on a mass of Corniferous limestone -filled with these corals in a silicified state. - -[K] "Travels in North America." second series. - -These Devonian corals, like those of the Silurian, belong to the great -extinct groups of Tabulate and Rugose corals; groups which present, on -the one hand, points of resemblance to the ordinary coral animals of -the modern seas, and, on the other, to those somewhat exceptional -corals, the Millepores, which are produced by another kind of polyp, -the Hydroids. Some of them obviously combine properties belonging to -both, as, for example, the radiating partitions with the arrangement -of the parts in multiples of four, the horizontal floors, and the -external solid wall; and this fact countenances the conclusion that in -these old corals we have a group of high and complex organization, -combining properties now divided between two great groups of animals, -neither of them probably, either in their stony skeletons or the soft -parts of the animal, of as high organization as their Paleozoic -predecessors. This sort of disintegration of composite types, or -dissolution of old partnerships, seems to have been no unusual -occurrence in the history of life.[L] - -[L] Verril has suggested that the Tabulata may be divided into two -groups, one referable to Actinoids, the other to Hydroids. - -If the Devonian witnessed the culmination of the Palæozoic corals, its -later stages saw the final decadence of the great dynasty of the -Trilobites. Of these creatures there are in the Devonian some large -and ornate species, remarkable for their spines and tubercles; as if -in this, the latter day of their dominion, they had fallen into habits -of luxurious decoration unknown to their sterner predecessors, and at -the same time had found it necessary to surround their now disputed -privileges with new safeguards of defensive armour. Not improbably the -decadence of the Trilobites may have been connected with the -introduction of the numerous and formidable fishes of the period. - -But while the venerable race of the Trilobites was preparing to fight -its last and unsuccessful battle, another and scarcely less ancient -tribe of crustaceans, the Eurypterids, already strong in the Silurian, -was armed with new and formidable powers. The _Pterygotus anglicus_, -which should have been named _scoticus_, since its head-quarters are -in Scotland, was in point of size the greatest of known crustaceans, -recent or fossil. According to Mr. Henry Woodward, who has published -an admirable description and figures of the creature in the -Palæontographical Society's Memoirs, it must have been six feet in -length, and nearly two feet in breadth. Its antennæ were, unlike the -harmless feelers of modern Crustacea, armed with powerful claws. Two -great eyes stood in the front of the head, and two smaller ones on the -top. It had four pairs of great serrated jaws, the largest as wide as -a man's hand. At the sides were a pair of powerful paddles, capable of -urging it swiftly through the water as it pursued its prey; and when -attacked by any predaceous fish, it could strike the water with its -broad tail, terminated by a great flat "telson," and retreat backward -with the rapidity of an arrow. Woodward says it must have been the -"shark of the Devonian seas;" rather, it was the great champion of the -more ancient family of the lobsters, set to arrest, if possible, the -encroachments of the coming sharks. - -The Trilobites and Eurypterids constitute a hard case for the -derivationists. Unlike those Melchisedeks, the fishes of the Silurian, -which are without father or mother, the Devonian crustaceans may boast -of their descent, but they have no descendants. No distinct link -connects them with any modern crustaceans except the Limuli, or -horse-shoe crabs; and here the connection is most puzzling, for while -there seems some intelligible resemblance between the adult -Eurypterids and the horse-shoe, or king-crabs, the latter, in their -younger state, rather resemble Trilobites, as Dr. Packard has recently -shown. Thus the two great tribes of Eurypterids and Trilobites have -united in the small modern group of king-crabs, while on the other -hand, there are points of resemblance, as already stated, between -Trilobites and Isopods, and the king-crabs had already begun to exist, -since one species is now known in the Upper Silurian. So puzzling are -these various relationships, that one naturalist of the derivationist -school has recently attempted to solve the difficulty by suggesting -that the Trilobites are allied to the spiders! Thus nature sports with -our theories, showing us in some cases, as in the corals and fishes, -partnerships split up into individuals, and in others distinct lines -of being converging and becoming lost in one slender thread. Barrande, -the great palæontologist of Bohemia, has recently, in an elaborate -memoir on the Trilobites, traced these and other points through all -their structures and their whole succession in geological time thereby -elaborating a most powerful inductive argument against the theory of -evolution, and concluding that, so far from the history of these -creatures favouring such a theory, it seems as if expressly contrived -to exclude its possibility. - -But, while the gigantic Eurypterids and ornate Trilobites of the -Devonian were rapidly approaching their end, a few despised little -crustaceans,--represented by the _Amphipeltis_ of New Brunswick and -_Kampecaris_ of Scotland,--were obscurely laying the foundation of a -new line of beings, that of the Stomapods, destined to culminate in -the Squillas and their allies, which, however different in structure, -are practically the Eurypterids of the modern ocean. So change the -dynasties of men and animals. - - "Thou takest away their breath, they die, - They return to their dust; - Thou sendest forth Thy Spirit, - They are created; - Thou renewest the form of the earth." - -The reign of fishes began in the Upper Silurian, for in the rocks of -this age, more especially in England, several species have been found. -They occur, however, only in the newer beds of this formation, and are -not of large size, nor very abundant. It is to be observed that, in so -far as the fragments discovered can be interpreted, they indicate the -existence already of two distinct types of fishes, the Ganoids, or -gar-fishes, protected with bony plates and scales, and the Placoids, -or shark-like fishes; and that in the existing world these fishes are -regarded as occupying a high place in their class. Further, these two -groups of fishes are those which throughout a large portion of -geological time continue to prevail to the exclusion of other types, -the ordinary bony fishes having been introduced only in comparatively -recent periods. With the Devonian, however, there comes a vast -increase to the finny armies; and so characteristic are these that the -Devonian has been called the age of fishes _par excellence_, and we -must try, with the help of our illustration, to paint these old -inhabitants of the waters as distinctly as we can. Among the most -ancient and curious of these fishes are those singular forms covered -with broad plates, of which the _Pteraspis_ of the Upper Silurian is -the herald, and which are represented in the Lower Devonian by several -distinct genera. Of these, one of the most curious is the -_Cephalaspis_, or buckler-head, distinguished by its broad flat head, -rounded in front and prolonged at the sides into two great spines, -which project far beyond the sides of the comparatively slender body. -This fish, it may be mentioned, is the type of a family highly -characteristic of the Lower Devonian, as well as of the Upper -Silurian, and all of which are provided with large plate-like cephalic -coverings, sometimes with a long snout in front, and, in so far as is -known, a comparatively weak body and tail. They were all probably -ground-living creatures, feeding on worms and shell-fishes, and -"rooting" for these in the mud, or burrowing therein for their safety. -In these respects they have a most curious analogy to the Trilobites, -which in habits they must have greatly resembled, though belonging by -their structure to an entirely different and much higher class. So -close is this resemblance, that their head-shields used to be mistaken -for those of Trilobites. The case is one of those curious analogies -which often occur in nature, and which must always be distinguished -from the true affinities which rest on structural resemblances. -Another group of small fishes, likewise cuirassed in bony armour of -plates, may be represented by the _Pterichthys_, with its two strong -bony fins at the sides, which may have served for swimming, but -probably also for defence, and for creeping on or shovelling up the -mud at the bottom of the sea. But, besides the Ganoids which were -armed in plated cuirasses, there were others, active and voracious, -clad in shining enamelled scales, like the bony pikes of the American -rivers and the _Polypterus_ of the Nile. Some of these, like the -_Diplacanthus_, or "double-spine" were of small size, and chiefly -remarkable for their sharp defensive bony spines. Others, like -_Holoptychius_ (wrinkled-scale) and _Osteolepis_ (bone-scale), were -strongly built, and sometimes of great size. One Russian species of -_Asterolepis_ (star-scale) is supposed to have been twenty feet in -length, and furnished with strong and trenchant teeth in two rows. -These great fishes afford a good reason for the spines and -armour-plates of the contemporary trilobites and smaller fishes. Just -as man has been endeavouring to invent armour impenetrable to shot, -for soldiers and for ships, and, on the other hand, shot and shells -that can penetrate any armoury so nature has always presented the -spectacle of the most perfect defensive apparatus matched with the -most perfect weapons for destruction. In the class of fishes, no age -of the world is more eminent in these respects then the Devonian.[M] -In addition to these fishes, there were others, represented -principally by their strong bony spines, which must have been allied -to some of the families of modern sharks, most of them, however, -probably to that comparatively harmless tribe which, furnished with -flat teeth, prey upon shell-fishes. There are other fishes difficult -to place in our systems of classification; and among these an eminent -example is the huge _Dinichthys_ of Newberry, from the Hamilton group -of Ohio. The head of this creature is more then three feet long and -eighteen inches broad, with the bones extraordinarily strong and -massive. In the upper jaw, in addition to strong teeth, there were in -front two huge sabre-shaped tusks or incisors, each nearly a foot -long; and corresponding to these in the massive lower jaw were two -closely joined conical tusks, fitting between those of the upper jaw. -No other fish presents so frightful an apparatus for destruction; and -if, as is probable, this was attached to a powerful body, perhaps -thirty feet in length, and capable of rapid motion through the water, -we cannot imagine any creature so strong or so well armed as to cope -with the mighty _Dinichthys_. - -[M] Many of these were discovered and successfully displayed and -described by Hugh Miller, and are graphically portrayed in his -celebrated work on the "Old Red Sandstone," published in 1841. - -The difference between the fishes of the Devonian and those of the -modern seas is well marked by the fact that, while the ordinary bony -fishes now amount to probably 9,000 species, and the ganoid fishes to -less then thirty, the finny tribes of the Devonian are predominantly -ganoids, and none of the ordinary type are known. To what is this -related, with reference to conditions of existence? Two explanations, -different yet mutually connected, may be suggested. One is that armour -was especially useful in the Devonian as a means of defence from the -larger predaceous species, and the gigantic crustaceans of the period. -that this was the case may be inferred from the conditions of -existence of some modern ganoids. The common bony pike of Canada -(_Lepidosteus_), frequenting shallow and stagnant waters, seems to be -especially exposed to injury from its enemies. Consequently, while it -is rare to find an ordinary fish showing any traces of wounds, a large -proportion of the specimens of the bony pike which I have examined -have scars on their scales, indicating injuries which they have -experienced, and which possibly, to fishes not so well armed, might -have proved fatal. Again, in the modern Amia, or mud-fish, in the bony -pike and _Polypterus_, there is an extremely large air-bladder, amply -supplied with blood-vessels, and even divided into cells or chambers, -and communicating with the mouth by an "air-duct." This organ is -unquestionably in function a lung, and enables the animal to dispense -in some degree with the use of its gills, which of course depend for -their supply of vital air on the small quantity of oxygen dissolved in -the water. Hence, by the power of partially breathing air, these -fishes can live in stagnant and badly aerated waters, where other -fishes would perish. In the case of the _Amia_, the grunting noises -which it utters, its habit of frequenting the muddy creeks of swamps, -and its possession of gill-cleaners, correspond with this view. It is -possible that the Devonian fishes possessed this semi-reptilian -respiration; and if so, they would be better adapted then other fishes -to live in water contaminated with organic matter in a state of decay, -or in waters rich in carbonic acid or deficient in oxygen. Possibly -the palæozoic waters, as well as the palæozoic atmosphere, were less -rich in pure oxygen then those of the present world; and it is certain -that, in many of the beds in which the smaller Devonian fishes abound, -there was so much decaying vegetable matter as to make it probable -that the water was unfit for the ordinary fishes. Thus, though at -first sight the possession of external armour and means to respire -air, in the case of these peculiar fishes, may seem to have no direct -connection with each other, their obvious correlation in some modern -ganoids may have had its parallel on a more extensive scale among -their ancient relatives. Just as the modern gar-fish, by virtue of its -lungs, can live in stagnant shallows and hunt frogs, but on that -account needs strong armour to defend it against the foes that assail -it in such places; so in the Devonian the capacity to inhabit -unaërated water and defensive plates and scales may have been alike -necessary, especially to the feebler tribes of fishes. We shall find -that in the succeeding carboniferous period there is equally good -evidence of this. - -We have reserved little space for the Devonian plants and insects; but -we may notice both in a walk through a Devonian forest, in which we -may include the vegetation of the several subordinate periods into -which this great era was divisible. The Devonian woods were probably, -like those of the succeeding carboniferous period, dense and dark, -composed of but few species of plants, and these somewhat monotonous -in appearance, and spreading out into broad swampy jungles, -encroaching on the shallow bays and estuaries. Landing on one of these -flats, we may first cast our eyes over a wide expanse, covered with -what at a distance we might regard as reeds or rushes. But on a near -approach they appear very different; rising in slender, graceful -stems, they fork again and again, and their thin branches are sparsely -covered with minute needle-like leaves, while the young shoots curl -over in graceful tresses, and the older are covered with little oval -fruits, or spore-cases; for these plants are cryptogamous, or -flowerless. This singular vegetation stretches for miles along the -muddy flats, and rises to a height of two or three feet from a knotted -mass of cylindrical roots or root-stocks, twining like snakes through -and over the soil. This plant may, according as we are influenced by -its fruit or structure, be regarded as allied to the modern -club-mosses or the modern pill-worts. It is _Psilophyton_, in every -country one of the most characteristic plants of the period, though, -when imperfectly preserved, often relegated by careless and unskilled -observers to the all-engulfing group of fucoids. A little further -inland we see a grove of graceful trees, forking like _Psilophyton_, -but of grander dimensions, and with the branches covered with linear -leaves, and sometimes terminated by cones. These are _Lepidodendra_, -gigantic club-mosses, which were developed to still greater -dimensions in the coal period. Near these we may see a still more -curious tree, more erect in its growth, with rounded and somewhat -rigid leaves and cones of different form, and with huge cable-like -roots, penetrating the mud, and pitted with the marks of long -rootlets. This is _Cyclostigma_, a plant near to the _Lepidodendron_, -but distinct, and peculiar to the Devonian. Some of its species attain -to the dimensions of considerable trees; others are small and shrubby. -Another small tree, somewhat like the others, but with very long -shaggy leaves, and its bark curiously marked with regular -diamond-shaped scars, is the _Leptophleum_. All these plants are -probably allied to our modern club-mosses, which are, however, also -represented by some low and creeping species cleaving to the ground. A -little further, and we reach a dense clump of _Sigillariæ_, with tall -sparsely forking stems, and ribbed with ridges holding rows of -leaf-scars a group of plants which we shall have further occasion to -notice in the coal formation; and here is an extensive jungle of -_Calamites_, gigantic and overgrown mares'-tails, allies of the modern -equisetums. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12.--VEGETATION OF THE DEVONIAN. - -To the left are _Calamites_; next to these, _Leptophleum_; in the -centre are _Lepidodendron_, _Sigillaria_, and a Pine. Below are -_Psilophyton_, _Cordaites_, Ferns, and _Asterophyllites_.] - -Amidst these trees, every open glade is filled with delicate ferns of -marvellous grace and beauty; and here and there a tree-fern rears its -head, crowned with its spreading and graceful leaves, and its trunk -clad with a shaggy mass of aërial roots--an old botanical device, used -in these ancient times, as well as now, to strengthen and protect the -stems of trees not fitted for lateral expansion. Beyond this mass of -vegetation, and rising on the slopes of the distant hills, we see -great trees that look like pines. We cannot approach them more nearly; -but here on the margin of a creek we see some drift-trunks, that have -doubtless been carried down by a land flood. One of them is certainly -a pine, in form and structure of its wood very like those now living -in the southern hemisphere; it is a _Dadoxylon_. Another is different, -its sides rough and gnarled, and marked with huge irregular ridges; -its wood loose, porous, and stringy, more like the bark of modern -pines, yet having rings of growth and a true bark of its own, and -sending forth large branches and roots. It is the strange and -mysterious _Prototaxites_, one of the wonders of the Devonian land, -and whose leaves and fruits would be worth their weight in gold in our -museums, could we only procure them. A solitary fragment further -indicates that in the yet unpenetrated solitudes of the Devonian -forests there may be other trees more like our ordinary familiar -friends of the modern woods; but of these we know as yet but little. -What inhabitants have these forests? All that we yet know are a few -large insects, relatives of our modern May-flies, flitting with broad -veined wings over the stagnant waters in which their worm-like larvæ -dwell, and one species at least assuming one of the properties of the -grasshopper tribe, and enlivening the otherwise silent groves with a -cricket-like chirp, the oldest music of living things that geology as -yet reveals to us; and this, not by the hearing of the sound itself, -but by the poor remains of the instrument attached to a remnant of a -wing from the Devonian shales of New Brunswick. - -A remarkable illustration of the abundance of certain plants in the -Devonian, and also of the slow and gradual accumulation of some of its -beds, is furnished by layers of fossil spore-cases, or the minute sacs -which contain the microscopic germs of club-mosses and similar plants. -In the American forests, in spring, the yellow pollen-grains of -spruces and pines sometimes drift away in such quantities in the -breeze that they fall in dense showers, popularly called showers of -sulphur; and this vegetable sulphur, falling in lakes and ponds, is -drifted to the shore in great sheets and swathes. The same thing -appears to have occurred in the Devonian, not with the pollen of -flowering plants, but with the similar light spores and spore-cases of -species of Lepidodendron and allied trees. In a bed of shale, at -Kettle Point, Lake Huron, from 12 to 14 feet thick, not only are the -surfaces of the beds dotted over with minute round spore-cases, but, -on making a section for the microscope, the substance of each layer is -seen to be filled with them; and still more minute bodies, probably -the escaped spores, are seen to fill up their interstices. The -quantity of these minute bodies is so great that the shale is -combustible, and burns with much flame. A bed of this nature must have -been formed in shallow and still water, on the margin of an extensive -jungle or forest; and as the spore-cases are similar to those of the -Lepidodendra of the coal-measures, the trees were probably of this -kind. Year after year, as the spores became ripe, they were wafted -away, and fell in vast quantities into the water, to be mixed with the -fine mud there accumulating. When we come to the coal period, we shall -see that such beds of spore-cases occur there also, and that they have -even been supposed to be mainly instrumental in the accumulation of -certain beds of coal. Their importance in this respect may have been -exaggerated, but the fact of their occurrence in immense quantities in -certain coals and shales is indisputable. - -This is but a slender sketch of the Devonian forests: but we shall -find many of the same forms of plants in the carboniferous period -which succeeds. With one thought we may close. We are prone to ask for -reasons and uses for things, but sometimes we cannot be satisfied. Of -what use were the Devonian forests? They did not, like those of the -coal formation, accumulate rich beds of coal for the use of man. -Except possibly a few insects, we know no animals that subsisted on -their produce, nor was there any rational being to admire their -beauty. Their use, except as helping us in these last days to complete -the order of the vegetable kingdom as it has existed in geological -time, is a mystery. We can but fall back on that ascription of praise -to Him "who liveth for ever and ever," on the part of the heavenly -elders who cast down their crowns before the throne and say, "Thou art -worthy, Lord, to receive the glory, and the honour, and the might; -because Thou didst create all things, and by reason of _Thy will_ they -are and were created." - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE CARBONIFEROUS AGE. - - -That age of the world's history which, from its richness in -accumulations of vegetable matter destined to be converted into coal, -has been named the Carboniferous, is in relation to living beings the -most complete and noble of the Palæozoic periods. In it those varied -arrangements of land and water which had been increasing in perfection -in the previous periods, attained to their highest development. In it -the forms of animal and plant life that had been becoming more -numerous and varied from the Eozoic onward, culminated. The Permian -which succeeded was but the decadence of the Carboniferous, -preparatory to the introduction of a new order of things. Thus the -Carboniferous was to the previous periods what the Modern is to the -preceding Tertiary and Mesozoic ages the summation and completion of -them all, and the embodiment of their highest excellence. If the -world's history had closed with the Carboniferous, a naturalist, -knowing nothing further, would have been obliged to admit that it had -already fulfilled all the promise of its earlier years. It is -important to remember this, since we shall find ourselves entering on -an entirely new scene in the Mesozoic period, and since this -character of the Carboniferous, as well as its varied conditions and -products, may excuse us for dwelling on it a little longer then on the -others, On the other hand, the immense economic importance of the coal -formation, and the interesting points connected with it, have made the -Carboniferous more familiar to general readers then most other -geological periods, so that we may select points less common and -well-known for illustration. Popular expositions of geology are, -however, generally so one-sided and so distorted by the prevalent -straining after effect, that the true aspect of this age is perhaps -not much better known then that of others less frequently described. - -Let us first consider the Carboniferous geography of the northern -hemisphere; and in doing so we may begin with a fact concerning the -preceding age. One of the most remarkable features of the Newer -Devonian is the immense quantity of red rocks, particularly red -sandstones, contained in it. Red sandstones, it is true, occur in -older formations, but comparatively rarely; their great head-quarters, -both in Europe and America, in so far as the Palæozoic is concerned, -are in the Upper Devonian. Now red sandstone is an infallible mark of -rapid deposition, and therefore of active physical change. If we -examine the grains of sand in a red sandstone, we shall find that they -are stained or coated, externally, with the peroxide of iron, or iron -rust; and that this coating, with perhaps a portion of the same -substance in the intervening cement, is the cause of the colour. In -finer sandstones and red clays the same condition exists, though less -distinctly perceptible. Consequently, if red sands and clays are long -abraded or scoured in water, or are subjected to any chemical agent -capable of dissolving the iron, they cease to be red, and resume their -natural grey or white colour. Now in nature, in addition to mechanical -abrasion, there is a chemical cause most potent in bleaching red -rocks, namely, the presence of vegetable or animal matter in a state -of decay. Without entering into chemical details, we may content -ourselves with the fact that organic matter decaying in contact with -peroxide of iron tends to take oxygen from it, and then to dissolve it -in the state of protoxide, while the oxygen set free aids the decay. -Carrying this fact with us, we may next affirm that iron is so -plentiful in the crust of the earth that nearly all sands and clays -when first produced from the weathering of rocks are stained with it, -and that when this weathering takes place in the air, the iron is -always in the state of peroxide. More especially does this apply to -the greater number of igneous or volcanic rocks, which nearly always -weather brown or red. Now premising that the original condition of -sediment is that of being reddened with iron, and that it may lose -this by abrasion, or by the action of organic matter, it follows that -when sand has been produced by decay of rocks in the air, and when it -is rapidly washed into the sea and deposited there, red beds will -result. For instance, in the Bay of Fundy, whose rapid tides cut away -the red rocks of its shores and deposit their materials quickly, red -mud and sand constitute the modern deposit. On the other hand, when -the red Band and mud are long washed about, their red matter may -disappear; and when the deposition is slow and accompanied with the -presence of organic matter, the red colour is not only removed, but is -replaced by the dark tints due to carbon. Thus, in the Gulf of St. -Lawrence, where red rocks similar to those of the Bay of Fundy are -being more slowly wasted, and deposited in the presence of sea-weeds -and other vegetable substances, the resulting sands and clays are -white and grey or blackened in colour. An intermediate condition is -sometimes observed, in which red beds are stained with grey spots and -lines, where sea-weeds or land-plants have rested on them. I have -specimens of Devonian red shale with the forms of fern leaves, the -substance of which has entirely perished, traced most delicately upon -them in greenish marks. - -It follows from these facts that extensive and thick deposits of red -beds evidence sub-aërial decay of rocks, followed by comparatively -rapid deposition in water, and that such red rocks will usually -contain few fossils, not only because of their rapid deposition, but -because the few organic fragments deposited with them will probably -have been destroyed by the chemical action of the superabundant oxide -of iron, which, so to speak, "iron-moulds" them, just as stains of -iron eat holes out of linen. Now when Sir Roderick Murchison tells us -of 10,000 feet in thickness of red iron-stained rocks in the old red -sandstone of England, we can see in this the evidence of rapid aqueous -deposition, going on for a very long time, and baring vast areas of -former land surface. Consequently we have proof of changes of level -and immense and rapid denudation--a conclusion further confirmed by -the apparent unconformity of different members of the series to each -other in some parts of the British Islands, the lower beds having been -tilted up before the newer were deposited. Such was the state of -affairs very generally at the close of the Devonian, and it appears to -have been accompanied with some degree of subsidence of the land, -succeeded by re-elevation at the beginning of the Carboniferous, when -many and perhaps large islands and chains of islands were raised out -of the sea, along whose margins there were extensive volcanic -eruptions, evidenced by the dykes of trap traversing the Devonian, and -the beds of old lava interstratified in the lower part of the -Carboniferous, where also the occurrence of thick beds of conglomerate -or pebble-rock indicates the tempestuous action of the sea. - -But a careful study of the Lower Carboniferous beds, where their -margins rest upon the islands of older rocks, shows great varieties in -these old shores. In some places there were shingly beaches; in -others, extensive sand-banks; in others, swampy flats clothed with -vegetation, and sometimes bearing peaty beds, still preserved as small -seams of coal. The bays and creeks swarmed with, fishes. A few -sluggish reptiles crept along the muddy or sandy shores, and out -sea-ward were great banks and reefs of coral and shells in the clear -blue sea. The whole aspect of nature, taken in a general view, in the -Older Carboniferous period, must have much resembled that at present -seen among the islands of the southern hemisphere. And the plants and -animals, though different, were more like those of the modern South -Pacific then any others now living. - -As the age wore on, the continents were slowly lifted out of the -water, and the great continental plateaus were changed from coral seas -into swampy flats or low uplands, studded in many places with shallow -lakes, and penetrated with numerous creeks and sluggish streams. In -the eastern continent these land surfaces prevailed extensively, more -especially in the west; and in America they spread both eastward and -westward from the Appalachian ridge, until only a long north and south -Mediterranean, running parallel to the Rocky Mountains, remained of -the former wide internal ocean. On this new and low land, comparable -with the "Sylvas" of the South American continent, flourished the -wondrous vegetation of the Coal period, and were introduced the new -land animals, whose presence distinguishes the close of the Palæozoic. - -After a vast lapse of time, in which only slow and gradual subsidence -occurred, a more rapid settlement of the continental areas brought the -greater part of the once fertile plains of the coal formation again -under the waters; and shifting sand-banks and muddy tides engulfed and -buried the remains of the old forests, and heaped on them a mass of -sediment, which, like the weights of a botanical press, flattened and -compressed the vegetable _débris_ preserved in the leaves of the coal -formation strata. Then came on that strange and terrible Permian -period, which, like the more modern boulder-formation, marked the -death of one age and the birth of another. - -The succession just sketched is the normal one; but the terms in which -it has been described show that it cannot be universal. There are many -places in which the whole thickness of the Carboniferous is filled -with fossils of the land, and of estuaries and creeks. There are -places, on the other hand, where the deep sea appears to have -continued during the whole period. In America this is seen on the -grandest scale in the absence of the marine members along the western -slopes of the Appalachians, and the almost exclusive prevalence of -marine beds in the far west, where the great Carboniferous -Mediterranean of America spread itself, and continued uninterruptedly -into the succeeding Permian period. - -In our survey of the Carboniferous age, though there are peculiarities -in the life of its older, middle, and newer divisions, we may take the -great coal measures of the middle portion as the type of the land life -of the period, and the great limestones of the lower portion as that -of the marine life; and as the former is in this period by far the -most important, we may begin with it. Before doing so, however, to -prevent misapprehension, it is necessary to remind the reader that the -Flora of the Middle Coal Period is but one of a succession of related -floras that reach from the Upper Silurian to the Permian. The meagre -flora of club-mosses and their allies in the Upper Silurian and Lower -Devonian was succeeded by a comparatively rich and varied assemblage -of plants in the Middle Devonian. The Upper Devonian was a period of -decadence, and in the Lower Carboniferous we have another feeble -beginning, presenting features somewhat different from those of the -Upper Devonian. This was the time of the Culm of Germany, the Tweedian -formation of the North of England and South of Scotland, and the Lower -Coal formation of Nova Scotia. It was a period eminently rich in -Lepidodendra. It was followed by the magnificent flora of the Middle -Coal formation, and then there was a time of decadence in the Upper -Coal formation and only a slight revival in the Permian. - -In the present condition of our civilization, coal is the most -important product which the bowels of the earth afford to man. And -though there are productive beds of coal in most of the later -geological formations, down to the peats of the modern period, which -are only unconsolidated coals, yet the coal of the Carboniferous age -is the earliest valuable coal in point of time, and by far the most -important in point of quantity. Mineral coal may be defined to be -vegetable matter which has been buried in the strata of the earth's -crust, and there subjected to certain chemical and mechanical changes. -The proof of its vegetable origin will grow upon us as we proceed. The -chemical changes which it has undergone are not very material. Wood or -bark, taken as an example of ordinary vegetable matter, consists of -carbon or charcoal, with the gases hydrogen and oxygen. Coal has -merely parted with a portion of these ingredients in the course of a -slow and imperfect putrefaction, so that it comes to have much less -oxygen and considerably less hydrogen then wood, and it has been -blackened by the disengagement of a quantity of free carbon. The more -bituminous flaming coals have a larger amount of residual hydrogen. In -the anthracite coals the process of carbonisation has proceeded -further, and little remains but charcoal in a dense and compact form. -In cannel coals, and in certain bituminous shales, on the contrary, -the process seems to have taken place entirely under water, by which -putrefaction has been modified, so that a larger proportion then usual -of hydrogen has been retained. The mechanical change which the coal -has experienced consists in the flattening and hardening effect of the -immense pressure of thousands of feet of superincumbent rock, which -has crashed together the cell-walls of the vegetable matter, and -reduced what was originally a pulpy mass of cellular tissue to the -condition of a hard laminated rock. To understand this, perhaps the -simplest way is to compare under the microscope a transverse section -of recent pine-wood with a similar section of a pine trunk compressed -into brown coal or jet. In the one the tissue appears as a series of -meshes with thin woody walls and comparatively wide cavities for the -transmission of the sap. In the other the walls of the cells have been -forced into direct contact, and in some cases have altogether lost -their separate forms, and have been consolidated into a perfectly -compact structureless mass. - -With regard to its mode of occurrence, coal is found in beds ranging -in vertical thickness from less then an inch to more then thirty feet, -and of wide horizontal extent. Many such beds usually occur in the -thickness of the coal formation, or "coal measures," as the miners -call it, separated from each other by beds of sandstone and compressed -clay or shale. Very often the coal occurs in groups of several beds, -somewhat close to each other and separated from other groups by -"barren measures" of considerable thickness. In examining a bed of -coal, where it is exposed in a cutting or shore cliff, we nearly -always find that the bed below it, or the "underclay," as it is termed -by miners, is a sort of fossil soil, filled with roots and rootlets. -On this rests the coal, which, when we examine it closely, is found to -consist of successive thin layers of hard coal of different qualities -as to lustre and purity, and with intervening laminae of a dusty -fibrous substance, like charcoal, called "mother coal" by miners, and -sometimes mineral charcoal. Thin partings of dark shale also occur, -and these usually present marks and impressions of the stems and -leaves of plants. Above the coal is its "roof" of hardened clay or -sandstone, and this generally holds great quantities of remains of -plants, and sometimes large stumps of trees with their bark converted -into coal, and the hollow once occupied with wood filled with -sandstone, while their roots spread over the surface of the coal. Such -fossil forests of erect stumps are also found at various levels in the -coal measures, resting directly on under-clays without any coals. A -bed of coal would thus appear to be a fossil bog or swamp. - -This much being premised about the general nature of the sooty blocks -which fill our coal-scuttles, we may now transport ourselves into the -forests and bogs of the coal formation, and make acquaintance with -this old vegetation, while it still waved its foliage in the breeze -and drank in the sunshine and showers. We are in the midst of one of -those great low plains formed by the elevation of the former sea bed. -The sun pours down its fervent rays upon us, and the atmosphere, being -loaded with vapour, and probably more rich in carbonic acid then that -of the present world, the heat is as it were accumulated and kept near -the surface, producing a close and stifling atmosphere like that of a -tropical swamp. This damp and oppressive air is, however, most -favourable to the growth of the strange and grotesque trees which -tower over our heads, and to the millions of delicate ferns and -club-mosses, not unlike those of our modern woods, which carpet the -ground. Around us for hundreds of miles spreads a dense and monotonous -forest, with here and there open spaces occupied by ponds and sluggish -streams, whose edges are bordered with immense savannahs of reed-like -plants, springing from the wet and boggy soil. Everything bespeaks a -rank exuberance of vegetable growth; and if we were to dig downward -into the soil, we should find a thick bed of vegetable mould -evidencing the prevalence of such conditions for ages. But the time -will come when this immense flat will meet with the fate which in -modern times befell a large district at the mouth of the Indus. -Quietly, or with earthquake shocks, it will sink under the waters; -fishes and mollusks will swarm where trees grew, beds of sand and mud -will be deposited by the water, inclosing and preserving the remains -of the vegetation, and in some places surrounding and imbedding the -still erect trunks of trees. Many feet of such deposits may be formed, -and our forest surface, with its rich bed of vegetable mould, has been -covered up and is in process of transformation into coal; while in -course of time the shallow waters being filled up with deposit, or a -slight re-elevation occurring, a new forest exactly like the last will -flourish on the same spot. Such changes would be far beyond the -compass of the life even of a Methuselah; but had we lived in the Coal -period, we might have seen all stages of these processes -contemporaneously in different parts of either of the great -continents. - -But let us consider the actual forms of vegetation presented to us in -the Coal period, as we can restore them from the fragments preserved -to us in the beds of sandstone and shale, and as we would have seen -them in our imaginary excursion through the Carboniferous forests. To -do this we must first glance slightly at the great subdivisions of -modern plants, which we may arrange in such a way as to give an easy -means for comparison of the aspects of the vegetable kingdom in -ancient and modern times. In doing this I shall avail myself of an -extract from a previous publication of my own on this subject. - -"The modern flora of the earth admits of a grand twofold division into -the _Phænogamous_, or flowering and seed-bearing plants, and the -_Cryptogamous_, or flowerless and spore-bearing plants. In the former -series, we have, first, those higher plants which start in life with -two seed-leaves, and have stems with distinct bark, wood, and -pith--the _Exogens_; secondly, those similar plants which begin life -with one seed-leaf only, and have no distinction of bark, wood, and -pith, in the stem--the _Endogens_; and, thirdly, a peculiar group -starting with two or several seed-leaves, and having a stem with bark, -wood, and pith, but with very imperfect flowers, and wood of much -simpler structure then either of the others--the _Gymnosperms_. To the -first of these groups or classes belong most of the ordinary trees of -temperate climates. To the second belong the palms and allied trees -found in tropical climates. To the third belong the pines and cycads. -In the second or Cryptogamous series we have also three classes,--(1.) -The _Acrogens_, or ferns and club-mosses, with stems having true -vessels marked on the sides with cross-bars--the Scalariform vessels. -(2.) The _Anophytes_, or mosses and their allies, with stems and -leaves, but no vessels. (3.) The _Thallophytes_, or lichens, fungi, -sea-weeds, etc., without true stems and leaves. - -"In the existing climates of the earth we find these classes of plants -variously distributed as to relative numbers. In some, pines -predominate. In others, palms and tree-ferns form a considerable part -of the forest vegetation. In others, the ordinary exogenous trees -predominate, almost to the exclusion of others. In some Arctic and -Alpine regions, mosses and lichens prevail. In the Coal period we have -found none of the higher Exogens, though one species is known in the -Devonian, and only a few obscure indications of the presence of -Endogens; but Gymnosperms abound, and are highly characteristic. On -the other hand, we have no mosses or lichens, and very few algæ, but a -great number of ferns and Lycopodiaceæ or club-mosses. Thus the coal -formation period is botanically a meeting-place of the lower -Phænogams and the higher Cryptogams, and presents many forms which, -when imperfectly known, have puzzled botanists in regard to their -position in one or other series. In the present world, the flora most -akin to that of the Coal period is that of moist and warm islands in -the southern hemisphere. It is not properly a tropical flora, nor is -it the flora of a cold region, but rather indicative of a moist and -equable climate. In accordance with this is the fact that the equable -but not warm climate of the southern hemisphere at present (which is -owing principally to its small extent of land) enables sub-tropical -plants to extend into high latitudes. In the Coal period this -uniformity was evidently still more marked, since we find similar -plants extending from regions within the Arctic circle to others near -to the tropics. Still we must bear in mind that we may often be -mistaken in reasoning as to the temperature required by extinct -species of plants differing from those now in existence. Further, we -must not assume that the climatal conditions of the northern -hemisphere were in the Coal period at all similar to those which now -prevail. As Sir Charles Lyell has argued, a less amount of land in the -higher latitudes would greatly modify climates, and there is every -reason to believe that in the Coal period there was less land then -now. It has been shown by Tyndall that a very small additional amount -of carbonic acid in the atmosphere would, by obstructing the radiation -of heat from the earth, produce almost the effect of a glass roof or -conservatory, extending over the whole world. There is much in the -structure of the leaves of the coal plants, as well as in the vast -amount of carbon which they accumulated in the form of coal, and the -characteristics of the animal life of the period, to indicate, on -independent grounds, that the Carboniferous atmosphere differed from -that of the present world in this way, or in the presence of more -carbonic acid--a substance now existing in the very minute proportion -of one-thousandth of the whole by weight, a quantity adapted to the -present requirements of vegetable and animal life, but probably not to -those of the Coal period." - -Returning from this digression to the forests of the Coal period, we -may first notice that which is the most conspicuous and abundant tree -in the swampy levels--the Sigillaria or seal-tree, so called from the -stamp-like marks left by the fall of its leaves--a plant which has -caused much discussion as to its affinities. Some regard it as a -gymnosperm, others as a cryptogam. Most probably we have under this -name trees allied in part to both groups, and which, when better -known, may bridge over the interval between them. These trees present -tall pillar-like trunks, often ribbed vertically with raised bands, -and marked with rows of scars left by the fallen leaves. They are -sometimes branchless, or divide at top into a few thick limbs, covered -with long rigid grass-like foliage. On their branches they bear long -slender spikes of fruit, and we may conjecture that quantities of -nut-like seeds scattered over the ground around their trunks are -their produce. If we approach one of these trees closely, more -especially a young specimen not yet furrowed by age, we are amazed to -observe the accurate regularity and curious forms of the leaf-scars, -and the regular ribbing, so very different from that of our ordinary -forest trees. If we cut into its stem, we are still further astonished -at its singular structure. Externally it has a firm and hard rind. -Within this is a great thickness of soft cellular inner bark, -traversed by large bundles of tough fibres. In the centre is a core or -axis of woody matter very slender in proportion to the thickness of -the trunk, and still further reduced in strength by a large cellular -pith. Thus a great stem four or five feet in diameter is little else -then a mass of cellular tissue, altogether unfit to form a mast or -beam, but excellently adapted, when flattened and carbonised, to blaze -upon our winter hearth as a flake of coal. The roots of these trees -were perhaps more singular then their stems; spreading widely in the -soft soil by regular bifurcation, they ran out in long snake-like -cords, studded all over with thick cylindrical rootlets, which spread -from them in every direction. They resembled in form, and probably in -function, those cable-like root-stocks of the pond-lilies which run -through the slime of lakes, but the structure of the rootlets was -precisely that of those of some modern Cycads. It was long before -these singular roots were known to belong to a tree. They were -supposed to be the branches of some creeping aquatic plant, and -botanists objected to the idea of their being roots; but at length -their connection with Sigillaria was observed simultaneously by Mr. -Binney, in Lancashire, and by Mr. Richard Brown, in Cape Breton, and -it has been confirmed by many subsequently observed facts. This -connection, when once established, further explained the reason of the -almost universal occurrence of Stigmaria, as these roots were called, -under the coal beds; while trunks of the same plants were the most -abundant fossils of their partings and roofs. The growth of successive -generations of Sigillariæ was, in fact, found to be the principal -cause of the accumulation of a bed of coal. Two species form the -central figures in our illustration. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--GROUP OF CARBONIFEROUS PLANTS, RESTORED FROM -ACTUAL SPECIMENS. - - (_a_) Calamites (type of _C. Suckovii_). (_b_) Lepidofloios, or - Ulodendron. (_c_) Sigillaria (type of _S. reniformis_). - (_d_) (type of _S. elegans_). (_e_) Lepidodendron (type of - _L. corrugatum_). (_f_) Megaphyton (type of _M. magnificum_). - (_g_) Cordaites, or Pychnophyllum (type of _C. borassifolia_).] - -Along with the trees last mentioned, we observe others of a more -graceful and branching form, the successors of those Lepidodendra -already noticed in the Devonian, and which still abound in the -Carboniferous, and attain to larger dimensions then their older -relations, though they are certainly more abundant and characteristic -in the lower portions of the carboniferous. Relatives, as already -stated, of our modern club-mosses, now represented only by -comparatively insignificant species, they constitute the culmination -of that type, which thus had attained its acme very long ago, though -it still continues to exist under depauperated forms. They all -branched by bifurcation, sometimes into the most graceful and delicate -sprays. They had narrow slender leaves, placed in close spirals on the -branches. They bore their spores in scaly cones. Their roots were -similar to Stigmaria in general appearance, though differing in -details. In the coal period there were several generic forms of these -plants, all attaining to the dimensions of trees. Like the Sigillariæ, -they contributed to the materials of the coal; and one mode of this -has recently attracted some attention. It is the accumulation of their -spores and spore-cases already referred to in speaking of the -Devonian, and which was in the Carboniferous so considerable as to -constitute an important feature locally in some beds of coal. A -similar modern accumulation of spore-cases of tree-ferns occurs in -Tasmania; but both in the Modern and the Carboniferous, such beds are -exceptional; though wherever spore-cases exist as a considerable -constituent of coal, from their composition they give to it a highly -bituminous character, an effect, however, which is equally produced by -the hard scales supporting the spores, and by the outer epidermal -tissues of plants when these predominate in the coal, more especially -by the thick corky outer bark of Sigillaria. In short, the corky -substance of bark and similar vegetable tissues, from its highly -carbonaceous character, its indestructibility, and its difficult -permeability by water carrying mineral matter in solution, is the best -of all materials for the production of coal; and the microscope shows -that of this the principal part of the coal is actually composed. - -In the wide, open forest glades, tree-ferns almost precisely similar -to those of the modern tropics reared their leafy crowns. But among -them was one peculiar type, in which the fronds were borne in pairs -on opposite sides of the stem, leaving when they fell two rows of -large horseshoe-shaped scars marking the sides of the trunk. -Botanists, who have been puzzled with these plants almost as much as -with the Stigmaria, have supposed these scars to be marks of branches, -of cones, and even of aërial roots; but specimens in my collection -prove conclusively that the stem of this genus was a great caudex made -up of the bases of two rows of huge leaves cemented together probably -by intervening cellular tissue. As in the Devonian and in modern -times, the stems of the tree-ferns of the Carboniferous strengthened -themselves by immense bundles of cord-like aërial roots, which look -like enormous fossil brooms, and are known under the name Psaronius. - -We have only time to glance at the vast brakes of tall Calamites which -fringe the Sigillaria woods, and stretch far sea-ward over tidal -flats. They were allied to modern Mares' Tails or Equisetums, but were -of gigantic size, and much more woody structure of stem. The Calamites -grew on wet mud and sand-flats, and also in swamps; and they appear to -have been especially adapted to take root in and clothe and mat -together soft sludgy material recently deposited or in process of -deposition. When the seed or spore of a Calamite had taken root, it -probably produced a little low whorl of leaves surrounding one small -joint, from which another and another, widening in size, arose, -producing a cylindrical stem, tapering to a point below. To -strengthen the unstable base, the lower joints, especially if the mud -had been accumulating around the plant, shot out long roots instead of -leaves, while secondary stems grew out of the sides at the surface of -the soil, and in time there was a stool of Calamites, with tufts of -long roots stretching downwards, like an immense brush, into the mud. -When Calamites thus grew on inundated flats, they would, by causing -the water to stagnate, promote the elevation of the surface by new -deposits, so that their stems gradually became buried; but this only -favoured their growth, for they continually pushed out new stems, -while the old buried ones shot out bundles of roots instead of regular -whorls of leaves. - -The Calamites, growing in vast fields along the margins of the -Sigillaria forests, must have greatly protected these from the effects -of inundations, and by collecting the mud brought down by streams in -times of flood, must have done much to prevent the intrusion of earthy -deposits among the vegetable matter. Their chief office, therefore, as -coal-producers, seems to have been to form for the Sigillaria forests -those reedy fringes which, when inundations took place, would exclude -mud, and prevent that mixture of earthy matter in the coal which would -have rendered it too impure for use. Quantities of fragments of their -stems can, however, be detected by the microscope in most coals. - -The modern Mares' Tails have thin-walled hollow stems, and some of the -gigantic calamites of the coal resembled them in this. But others, to -which the name _Calamodendron_, or Reed-tree, has been given, had -stems with thick woody walls of a remarkable structure, which, while -similar in plan to that of the Mares' Tails, was much more perfect in -its development. Professor Williamson has shown that there were forms -intervening between these extremes; and thus in the calamites and -calamodendrons we have another example of the exaltation in ancient -times of a type now of humble structure; or, in other words, of a -comprehensive type, low in the modern world, but in older periods -taking to itself by anticipation the properties afterward confined to -higher forms. The gigantic club-mosses of the Coal period constitute a -similar example, and it is very curious that both of these types have -been degraded in the modern world, though retaining precisely their -general aspect, while the tree-ferns contemporary with them in the -Palæozoic still survive in all their original grandeur. - -Barely in the swampy flats, perhaps more frequently in the uplands, -grew great pines of several kinds; trees capable of doing as good -service for planks and beams as many of their modern successors, but -which lived before their time, and do not appear even to have aided -much in the formation of coal. These pines of the Coal-period seem to -have closely resembled some species still living in the southern -hemisphere; and, like the ferns, they present to us a vegetable type -which has endured through vast periods of time almost unchanged. -Indeed, in the Middle Devonian we have pines almost as closely -resembling those of the Modern world as do those of the Coal period. -It is in accordance with this long duration of the ferns and pines, -that they are plants now of world-wide distribution--suited to all -climates and stations. Capacity to exist under varied conditions is -near akin to capacity to survive cosmical changes. A botanist in the -strange and monstrous woods which we have tried to describe, would -probably have found many curious things among the smaller herbaceous -plants, and might have gathered several precursors of the modern -Exogens and Endogens which have not been preserved to us as fossils, -or are known only as obscure fragments. But incomplete though our -picture necessarily is, and obscured by the dust of time, it may serve -in some degree to render green to our eyes those truly primeval -forests which treasured up for our long winter nights the Palæozoic -sunshine, and established for us those storehouses of heat-giving -material which work our engines and propel our ships and carriages. -Truly they lived not in vain, both as realizing for us a type of -vegetation which otherwise we could not have imagined, and as -preparing the most important of all the substrata of our modern arts -and manufactures. In this last regard even the vegetable waste of the -old coal swamps was most precious to us, as the means of producing the -clay iron ores of the coal measures. I may close this notice of the -Carboniferous forests with a suggestive extract from a paper by -Professor Huxley in the _Contemporary Review_:-- - -"Nature is never in a hurry, and seems to have had always before her -eyes the adage, 'Keep a thing long enough, and you will find a use for -it.' She has kept her beds of coal for millions of years without being -able to find much use for them; she has sent them down beneath the -sea, and the sea-beasts could make nothing of them: she has raised -them up into dry land and laid the black veins bare, and still for -ages and ages there was no living thing on the face of the earth that -could see any sort of value in them; and it was only the other day, so -to speak, that she turned a new creature oat of her workshop, who by -degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire, and then to discover -that the black rock would burn. - -"I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when Julius Cæsar was good -enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the -primeval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the -strange black stone, of which he found lumps here and there in his -wanderings, would burn, and so help to warm his body and cook his -food. Saxon, Dane, and Norman swarmed into the land. The English -people grew into a powerful nation, and Nature still waited for a -return for the capital she had invested in the ancient club-mosses. -The eighteenth century arrived, and with it James Watt. The brain of -that man was the spore out of which was developed the steam-engine, -and all the prodigious trees and branches of modern industry which -have grown out of this. But coal is as much an essential condition of -this growth and development as carbonic acid is for that of a -club-moss. Wanting the coal, we could not have smelted the iron needed -to make our engines, nor have worked our engines when we had got them. -But take away the engines, and the great towns of Yorkshire and -Lancashire vanish like a dream. Manufactures give place to agriculture -and pasture, and not ten men could live where now ten thousand are -amply supported. - -"Thus all this abundant wealth of money and of vivid life is Nature's -investment in club-mosses and the like so long ago. But what becomes -of the coal which is burnt in yielding the interest? Heat comes out of -it, light comes out of it, and if we could gather together all that -goes up the chimney and all that remains in the grate of a -thoroughly-burnt coal fire, we should find ourselves in possession of -a quantity of carbonic acid, water, ammonia, and mineral matters, -exactly equal in weight to the coal. But these are the very matters -with which Nature supplied the club-moss which made the coal. She is -paid back principal and interest at the same time; and she straightway -invests the carbonic acid, the water, and the ammonia in new forms of -life, feeding with them the plants that now live. Thrifty Nature! -surely no prodigal, but most notable of housekeepers!" - -All this is true and admirably put. Its one weak point is the poetical -personification of Nature as an efficient planner of the whole. Such -an imaginary goddess is a mere superstition, unknown alike to science -and theology. Surely it is more rational to hold that the mind which -can utilize the coal and understand the manner of its formation, is -itself made in the image and likeness of the Supreme Creative Spirit, -in whom we live and move and have our being, who knows the end from -the beginning, whose power is the origin of natural forces, whose -wisdom is the source of laws and correlations of laws, and whose great -plan is apparent alike in the order of nature of the Palæozoic world -and of the modern world, as well as in the relation of these to each -other. - -In the Carboniferous, as in the Devonian age, insects existed, and in -greater numbers. The winged insects of the period, so far as known, -belong to three of the nine or ten orders into which modern insects -are usually divided. Conspicuous among them are representatives of our -well-known domestic pests the cockroaches, which thus belong -geologically to a very old family. The Carboniferous roaches had not -the advantage of haunting our larders, but they had abundance of -vegetable food in the rank forests of their time, and no doubt lived -much as the numerous wild out-of-door species of this family now do. -It is, however, a curious fact that a group of insects created so long -ago, should prove themselves capable of the kind of domestication to -which these creatures attain in our modern days; and that, had we -lived even so far back as the coal period, we might have been liable -to the attacks of this particular kind of pest. Another group, -represented by many species in the coal forests, was that of the -May-flies and shad-flies, or ephemeras, which spend their earlier days -under water, feeding on vegetable matter, and affording food to many -fresh-water fishes--a use which they no doubt served in the coal -period also. Some of them were giants in their way, being probably -seven inches in expanse of wing, and their larvæ must have been choice -morsels to the ganoid fishes, and would have afforded abundant bait -had there been anglers in those days. Another group of insects was -that of the weevils, a family of beetles, whose grubs must have found -plenty of nuts and fruits to devour, without attracting the wrathful -attentions of any gardener or orchardist. - -A curious and exceptional little group of creatures in the present -world is that of the galley-worms or millipedes; wingless, -many-jointed, and many-footed crawlers, resembling worms, but more -allied to insects. These animals seem to have swarmed in the coal -forests, and perhaps attained their maximum numbers and importance in -this period, though they still remain, a relic of an ancient -comprehensive type. I have myself found specimens referred by Mr. -Scudder, a most competent entomologist, to two genera and five -species, in a few decayed fossil stumps in Nova Scotia, and several -others have been discovered in other parts of the world. It is not -wonderful that animals like these, feeding on decayed vegetable -matter, should have flourished in the luxuriant Sigillaria swamps. A -few species of scorpions and spiders, very like those of the modern -world, have been found in the coal measures, both in Europe and -America; so that while we know of no enemy of the Devonian insects -except the fishes, we know in addition to these in the Carboniferous -the spiders and their allies, and the smaller reptiles or batrachians -to be noticed in the sequel. With reference to the latter, it is a -curious fact that one of the first fragments of a winged insect found -in the coal-fields of America was a part of a head and some other -remains contained in the coprolites or excrementitious matter of one -of the smaller fossil reptiles. It is perhaps equally interesting that -this head shows one of the compound facetted eyes as perfectly -developed as those of any modern Neuropter, a group of insects -remarkable even in the present world for their large and complex -organs of vision. We may pause here to note that, just as in the -Primordial we already have the Trilobites presenting all the -modifications of which the type is susceptible, so in the -Carboniferous we have in the case of the terrestrial articulates a -similar fact--highly specialised forms like the beetles, the spiders, -and the scorpions, already existing along with comprehensive forms -like the millipedes. Let us formulate the law of creation which the -Primordial trilobites, the Devonian fishes, and the Carboniferous -club-mosses and insects have taught us: it is, that every new type -rapidly attains its maximum of development in magnitude and variety of -forms, and then remains stationary, or even retrogrades, in -subsequent ages. We may connect this with other laws in the sequel. - -In the coal measures we also meet, for the first time in our ascending -progress, the land snails so familiar now in every part of the world, -and which are represented by two little species found in the coal -formation of Nova Scotia. The figures of these must speak for -themselves; but the fact of their occurrence here and the mode of -their preservation require some detailed mention. The great province -of the Mollusks we have carried with us since we met with the Lingulæ -in the Primordial, but all its members have been aquatic, and probably -marine. For the first time, in the Carboniferous period, snails emerge -from the waters, and walk upon the ground and breathe air; for, like -the modern land snails, these creatures no doubt had air-sacks instead -of gills. They come suddenly upon us--two species at once, and these -representing two distinct forms of the snail tribe, the elongated and -the rounded. They were very numerous. In the beds where they occur, -probably thousands of specimens, more or less perfect, could be -collected. Were they the first-born of land snails? It would be rash -to affirm this, more especially since in all the coal-fields of the -world no specimens have been found except at one locality in Nova -Scotia;[N] and in all the succeeding beds we meet with no more till we -have reached a comparatively modern time. Yet it is very unlikely -that these creatures were in the coal period limited to one country, -and that, after that period, they dropped out of existence for long -ages, and then reappeared. Still it may have been so. - -[N] Bradley has recently announced the discovery of other species in -the coal-field of Illinois. - -THE TWO OLDEST LAND SNAILS. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--_Pupa Vetusta_, Dawson. - - (_a_) Natural size, (_b_) Enlarged, (_c_) Apex, enlarged, - (_d_) Sculpture, magnified.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--_Conulus Priscus_, Carpenter. - - (_a_) Specimen enlarged, (_b_) Sculpture, magnified.] - -There are cases of geographical limitation quite as curious now. Here -again another peculiarity meets us. If these are really the oldest -land snails, it is curious that they are so small,--so much inferior -to many of their modern successors even in the same latitudes. The -climate of the coal period must have suited them, and there was plenty -of vegetable food, though perhaps not the richest or most tender. -There is no excuse for them in their outward circumstances. Why, then, -unlike so many other creatures, do they enter on existence in this -poor and sneaking way. We must here for their benefit modify in two -ways the statement broadly made in a previous chapter, that new types -come in under forms of great magnitude. First, we often have, in -advance of the main inroad of a new horde of animals, a few -insignificant stragglers as a sort of prelude to the rest--precursors -intimating beforehand what is to follow. We shall find this to be the -case with the little reptiles of the coal, and the little mammals of -the Trias, preceding the greater forms which subsequently set in. -Secondly, this seems to be more applicable in the case of land animals -then in the case of those of the waters. To the waters was the fiat to -bring forth living things issued. They have always kept to themselves -the most gigantic forms of life; and it seems as if new forms of life -entering on the land had to begin in a small way and took more time to -culminate. - -The circumstances in which the first specimens of Carboniferous snails -and gally-worms were found are so peculiar and so characteristic of -the coal formation, that I must pause here to notice them, and to make -of them an introduction to the next group of creatures we have to -consider. In the coal formation in all parts of the world it is not -unusual, as stated already in a previous page, to find erect trees or -stumps of trees, usually Sigillariæ, standing where they grew; and -where the beds are exposed in coast cliffs, or road cuttings, or -mines, these fossil trees can be extracted from the matrix and -examined. They usually consist of an outer cylinder of coal -representing the outer bark, while the space within, once occupied by -the inner bark and wood, is filled with sandstone, sometimes roughly -arranged in layers, the lowest of which is usually mixed with coaly -matter or mineral charcoal derived from the fallen remains of the -decayed wood, a kind of deposit which affords to the fossil botanist -one of the best modes of investigating the tissues of these trees. -These fossil stumps are not uncommon in the roofs of the coal-seams. -In some places they are known to the miners as "coal pipes," and are -dreaded by them in consequence of the accidents which occur from their -suddenly falling after the coal which supported them has been removed. -An old friend and helper of mine in Carboniferous explorations had a -lively remembrance of the fact that one of these old trees, falling -into the mine in which he was working, had crushed his leg and given -him a limp for life; and if he had been a few inches nearer to it -would have broken his back. - -The manner in which such trees become fossilized may be explained as -follows:--Imagine a forest of Sigillariæ growing on a low flat. This -becomes submerged by subsidence or inundation, the soil is buried -under several feet of sand or mud, and the trees killed by this agency -stand up as bare and lifeless trunks. The waters subside, and the -trees rapidly decay, the larvæ of wood-boring insects perhaps aiding -in the process, as they now do in the American woods. The dense coaly -outer bark alone resists decomposition, and stands as a hollow -cylinder until prostrated by the wind or by the waters of another -inundation, while perhaps a second forest or jungle has sprung up on -the new surface. When it falls, the part buried in the soil becomes an -open hole, with a heap of shreds of wood and bark in the bottom. Such -a place becomes a fit retreat for gally-worms and land-snails; and -reptiles pursuing such animals, or pursued by their own enemies, or -heedlessly scrambling among the fallen trunks, may easily fall into -such holes and remain as prisoners. I remember to have observed, when -a boy, a row of post-holes dug across a pasture-field and left open -for a few days, and that in almost every hole one or two toads were -prisoners. This was the fate which must have often befallen the -smaller reptiles of the coal forests in the natural post-holes left by -the decay of the Sigillariæ. Yet it may be readily understood that the -combination of circumstances which would effect this result must have -been rare, and consequently this curious fact has been as yet observed -only in the coal formation of Nova Scotia; and in it only in one -locality, and in this in one only out of more then sixty beds in -which erect trees have been found. But these hollow trees must be -filled up in order to preserve their contents; and as inundation and -subsequent decay have been the grave-diggers for the reptiles, so -inundations filled up their graves with sand, to be subsequently -hardened into sandstone, burying up at the same time the newer -vegetation which had grown upon the former surface. The idea that -something interesting might be found in these erect stumps, first -occurred to Sir C. Lyell and the writer while exploring the beautiful -coast cliffs of Western Nova Scotia in 1851; and it was in examining -the fragments scattered on the beach that we found the bones of the -first Carboniferous reptile discovered in America, and the shell of -the oldest known land snail. - -These were not, however, the earliest known instances of Carboniferous -reptiles. In 1841, Sir William Logan found footprints of a reptile at -Horton Bluff, in Nova Scotia, in rocks of Lower Carboniferous age. In -1844, Von Dechen found reptilian bones in the coal-field of Saarbruck; -and in the same year Dr. King found reptilian footprints in the -Carboniferous of Pennsylvania. Like Robinson Crusoe on his desert -island, we saw the footprints before we knew the animals that produced -them; and the fact that there were marks on a slab of shale or -sandstone that must have been made by an animal walking on feet, was -as clear and startling a revelation of the advent of a new and higher -form of life, as were the footprints of Man Friday. Within the thirty -years since the discovery of the first slab of footprints, the -knowledge of coal formation reptiles has grown apace. I can scarcely -at present sum up exactly the number of species, but may estimate it -at thirty-five at least. I must, however, here crave pardon of some of -my friends for the use of the word reptile. In my younger days frogs -and toads and newts used to be reptiles; now we are told that they are -more like fishes, and ought to be called Batrachians or Amphibians, -whereas reptiles are a higher type, more akin to birds then to these -lower and more grovelling creatures. The truth is, that the old class -Reptilia bridges over the space between the fishes and the birds, and -it is in some degree a matter of taste whether we make a strong line -at the two ends of it alone, or add another line in the middle. I -object to the latter course, however, in the period of the world's -history of which I am now writing, since I am sure that there were -animals in those days which were batrachians in some points and true -reptiles in others; while there are some of them in regard to which it -is quite uncertain whether they are nearer to the one group or the -other. Although, therefore, naturalists, with the added light and -penetration which they obtain by striding on to the Mesozoic and -Modern periods, may despise my old-fashioned grovellers among the mire -of the coal-swamps, I shall, for convenience, persist in calling them -reptiles in a general way, and shall bring out whatever claims I can -to justify this title for some of them at least. - -Perhaps the most fish-like of the whole are the curious creatures from -the coal measures of Saarbruck, first found by Yon Dechen, and which -constitute the genus _Archegosaurus_. Their large heads, short necks, -supports for permanent gills, feeble limbs, and long tails for -swimming, show that they were aquatic creatures presenting many points -of resemblance to the ganoid fishes with which they must have -associated; still they were higher then these in possessing lungs and -true feet, though perhaps better adapted for swimming then even for -creeping. - -From these creatures the other coal reptiles diverge, and ascend along -two lines of progress, the one leading to gigantic crocodile-like -animals provided with powerful jaws and teeth, and probably haunting -the margins of the waters and preying on fishes; the other leading to -small and delicate lizard-like species, with well-developed limbs, -large ribs, and ornate horny scales and spines, living on land and -feeding on insects and similar creatures. - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--RESTORATIONS OF BAPHETES, DENDRERPETON. -HYLONOMUS, AND HYLERPETON, WITH CARBONIFEROUS PLANTS IN THE DISTANCE.] - -In the first direction we have a considerable number of species found -in the Jarrow coal-field in Ireland, and described by Professor -Huxley. Some of them were like snakes in their general form, others -more like lizards. Still higher stand such animals as _Baphetes_ and -_Eosaurus_ from the Nova Scotia coal-field and _Anthracosaurus_ from -that of Scotland. The style and habits of these creatures it is easy -to understand, however much haggling the comparative anatomists may -make over their bones. They were animals of various size, ranging -from a foot to at least ten feet in length, the body generally -lizard-like in form, with stout limbs and a flattened tail useful in -swimming. Their heads were flat, stout, and massive, with large teeth, -strengthened by the insertion and convolution of plates of enamel. The -fore limbs were probably larger then the hind limbs, the better to -enable them to raise themselves out of the water. The belly was -strengthened by bony plates and closely imbricated scales, to resist, -perhaps, the attacks of fishes from beneath, and to enable them -without injury to drag their heavy bodies over trunks of trees and -brushwood, whether in the water or on the land. Their general aspect -and mode of life were therefore by no means unlike those of modern -alligators; and in the vast swamps of the coal measures, full of ponds -and sluggish streams swarming with fish, such creatures must have -found a most suitable habitat, and probably existed in great numbers, -basking on the muddy banks, surging through the waters, and filling -the air with their bellowings. The most curious point about these -creatures is, that while rigid anatomy regards them as allied in -structure more to frogs and toads and newts then to true lizards, it -is obvious to common sense that they were practically crocodiles; and -even anatomy must admit that their great ribs and breastplates, and -powerful teeth and limbs, indicate a respiration, circulation, and -general vitality, quite as high as those of the proper reptiles. -Hence, it happens that very different views are stated as to their -affinities; questions into which we need not now enter, satisfied with -the knowledge of the general appearance and mode of life of these -harbingers of the reptilian life of the succeeding geological periods. - -In the other direction, we find several animals of small size but -better developed limbs, leading to a group of graceful little -creatures, quite as perplexing with regard to affinities as those -first mentioned, but tending towards the smaller lizards of the -modern world. At the top of these I may place the genus _Hylonomus_ -from hollow fossil trees of Nova Scotia, of which two species are -represented as restored in our illustration. In these restorations I -have adhered as faithfully as possible to the proportions of parts as -seen in my specimens. Imagine a little animal six or seven inches -long, with small short head, not so flat as those of most lizards, but -with a raised fore-head, giving it an aspect of some intelligence. Its -general form is that of a lizard, but with the hind feet somewhat -large, to aid it in leaping and standing erect, and long and flexible -toes. Its belly is covered with bony scales, its sides with bright and -probably coloured scale armour of horny consistency, and its neck and -back adorned with horny crests, tubercles, and pendants. It runs, -leaps, and glides through the herbage of the coal forests, intent on -the pursuit of snails and insects, its eye glancing and its bright -scales shining in the sun. This is a picture of the best known species -of Hylonomus drawn from the life. Yet the anatomist, when he examines -the imperfectly-ossified joints of its backbone, and the double joint -at the back of its skull, will tell you that it is after all little -better then a mere newt, an ass in a lion's skin, a jackdaw with -borrowed feathers, and that it has no right to have fine scales, or to -be able to run on the land. It may be so; but I may plead in its -behalf, that in the old coal times, when reptiles with properly-made -skeletons had not been created, the next best animals may have been -entitled to wear their clothes and to assume their functions as well. -In short, functionally or officially, our ancient batrachians were -reptiles; in point of rank, as measured by type of skeleton, they -belonged to a lower grade. To this view of the case I think most -naturalists will agree, and they will also admit that the progress of -our views has been in this direction, since the first discovery of -Carboniferous air-breathing vertebrates. In evidence of this I may -quote from Professor Huxley's description of his recently found -species,[O] After noticing the prevalent views that the coal reptiles -were of low organization, he says: "Discoveries in the Nova Scotia -coal-fields first shook this view, which ceased to be tenable when the -great _Anthracosaurus_ of the Scotch coal-field was found to have -well-ossified biconcave vertebrae." - -[O] _Geological Magazine_, vol. iii. - -The present writer may, however, be suspected of a tendency to extend -forms of life backward in time, since it has fallen to his lot to be -concerned in this process of stretching backward in several cases. He -has named and described the oldest known animal. He has described the -oldest true exogen, and the oldest known pine-tree. He was concerned -in the discovery of the oldest known land snails, and found the oldest -millipedes. He has just described the oldest bituminous bed composed -of spore-cases, and he claims that his genus Hylonomus includes the -oldest animals which have a fair claim to be considered reptiles. -Still this discovery of old things comes rather of fortune and careful -search then of a desire to innovate; and a distinction should be drawn -between that kind of novelty which consists in the development of new -truths, and that which consists in the invention of new fancies, or -the revival of old ones. There is too much of this last at present; -and it would be a more promising line of work for our younger -naturalists, if they would patiently and honestly question nature, -instead of trying to extort astounding revelations by throwing her on -the rack of their own imaginations. - -We may pause here a moment to contemplate the greatness of the fact we -have been studying the introduction into our world of the earliest -known vertebrate animals which could open their nostrils and literally -"breathe the breath of life." All previous animals that we know, -except a few Devonian insects, had respired in the water by means of -gills or similar apparatus, Now we not only have the little land -snails, with their imperfect substitutes for lungs, but animals which -must have been able to draw in the vital air into capacious chambered -lungs, and with this power must have enjoyed a far higher and more -active style of vitality; and must have possessed the faculty of -uttering truly vocal sounds. What wondrous possibilities unknown to -these creatures, perhaps only dimly perceived by such rational -intelligences as may have watched the growth of our young world, were -implied in these gifts. It is one of the remarkable points in the -history of creation in Genesis, that this step of the creative work is -emphatically marked. Of all the creatures we have noticed up to this -point, it is stated that God said, "Let the waters bring them -forth"--but it is said that "God created" great reptiles -(_tanninim_).[P] No doubt these "great tanninim" culminate in the -succeeding Mesozoic age, but their first introduction dates as far -back as the Carboniferous; and this introduction was emphatically a -creation, as being the commencement of a new feature among living -beings. What further differences may be implied in the formulæ, "Let -the waters produce" and "God created," we do not know; very probably -he who wrote the words did not fully know. But if we could give a -scientific expression to this difference, and specify the cases to -which its terms apply, we might be able to solve one of the most vexed -questions of biology. - -[P] Not "whales," as in our version. - -Let us observe, however, that even here, where, if anywhere, we have -actual creation, especial pains are taken to bridge over the gap, and -to prevent any appearance of discontinuity in the work. The ganoid -fishes of the coal period very probably had, like their modern -congeners, well-developed air-bladders, serving to some extent, though -very imperfectly, as lungs. The humbler and more aquatic reptiles of -the period retained the gills, and also some of the other features of -the fishes; so that, like some modern creatures of their class, they -stood, as to respiration, on two stools, and seemed unwilling -altogether to commit themselves to the new mode of life in the -uncongenial element of air. Even the larger and more lizard-like of -the coal reptiles may--though this we do not certainly know, and in -some cases there are reasons for doubting it--have passed the earliest -stage of their lives in the water as gilled tadpoles, in the manner of -our modern frogs. Thus at the very point where one of the greatest -advances of animal life has its origin, we have no sudden stop, but an -inclined plane; and yet, as I have elsewhere endeavoured to show by -arguments which cannot be repeated here,[Q] we have not a shadow of -reason to conclude that, in the coal period, fishes were transmuted -into reptiles. - -[Q] "Air-breathers of the Coal Period," p. 77. - -But the reader may be wearied with our long sojourn in the -pestilential atmosphere of the coal swamps, and in the company of -their low-browed and squalid inhabitants. Let us turn for a little to -the sea, and notice the animal life of the great coral reefs and shell -beds preserved for us in the Carboniferous limestone. Before doing so, -one point merits attention. The coal formation for the first time -distinctly presents to us the now familiar differences in the -inhabitants of the open sea and those of creeks, estuaries and lakes. -Such distinctions are unknown to us in the Silurian. There all is sea. -They begin to appear in the Devonian, in the shallow fish-banks and -the Anodon-like bivalves found with fossil plants. In the coal period -they become very manifest. The animals found in the shales with the -coal are all, even the aquatic ones, distinct from those of the open -seas of the period. Some of them may have lived in salt or brackish -water, but not in the open sea. They are creatures of still and -shallow waters. It is true that in some coal-fields marine beds occur -in the coal measures with their characteristic fossils, but these are -quite distinct from the usual animal remains of the coal-fields, and -mark occasional overflows of the sea, owing to subsidence of the land. -It is important to notice this geographical difference, marking the -greater specialisation and division of labour, if we may so speak, -that was in the process of introduction. - -The sea of the Carboniferous period presented in the main similar -great groups of animals to those of the Devonian, represented however -by different species. We may notice merely some of the salient points -of resemblance or difference. The old types of corals continue in -great force; but it is their last time, for they rapidly decay in the -succeeding Permian and disappear. The Crinoids are as numerous and -beautiful as in any other period, and here for the first time we meet -with the new and higher type of the sea-urchin, in large and beautiful -species. One curious group, that of the _Pentremites_, a sort of -larval form, is known here alone. Among the lamp-shells we may note, -as peculiarly and abundantly Carboniferous, those with one valve very -convex and the other very concave and anchored in the mud by long -spines instead of a peduncle attached to stones and rocks.[R] There -are many beautiful shells allied to modern scallops, and not a few -sea-snails of various sorts. The grand _Orthoceratites_ of the -Silurian diminish in size preparatory to their disappearance in the -Permian, and the more modern type of _Nautilus_ and its allies becomes -prevalent. Among the Crustaceans we may notice the appearance of the -_Limulus_, or king-crab, of which the single little species described -by Woodward from the Upper Silurian may be regarded as merely a -prophecy. It is curious that the Carboniferous king-crabs are very -small, apparently another case of a new form appearing in humble -guise; but as the young of modern king-crabs haunt creeks and swampy -flats, while the adults live in the sea, it may be that only the young -of the Carboniferous species are yet known to us, the specimens found -being mostly in beds likely to be frequented by the young rather then -by the full-grown individuals. - -[R] The Productidæ. - -The old order of the Trilobites, which has accompanied us from -Primordial times, here fails us, and a few depauperated species alone -remain, the sole survivors of their ancient race--small, unornamented, -and feeble representatives of a once numerous and influential tribe. -How strange that a group of creatures so numerous and apparently so -well adapted to conditions of existence which still continue in the -sea, should thus die out, while the little bivalved crustaceans, which -began life almost as far back and lived on the same sea-floors with -the Trilobites, should still abound in all our seas; and while the -king-crabs, of precisely similar habits with the Trilobites, should -apparently begin to prosper. Equally strange is the fate of the great -swimming Eurypterids which we saw in the Devonian. They also continue, -but in diminished force, in the Carboniferous, and there lay down for -ever their well-jointed cuirasses and formidable weapons, while a few -little shrimp-like creatures, their contemporaries, form the small -point of the wedge of our great tribes of squillas and crabs and -lobsters. Some years ago the late lamented palæontologist, Salter, a -man who scarcely leaves his equal in his department, in conjunction -with Mr. Henry Woodward, prepared a sort of genealogical chart of the -Crustacea on which these facts are exhibited. Some new species have -since been discovered, and a little additional light about affinities -has been obtained; but taken as it stands, the history of the -Crustacea as there shown in one glance, has in it more teaching on the -philosophy of creation then I have been able to find in many ponderous -quartos of tenfold its pretensions. Had Salter been enabled, with the -aid of other specialists like Woodward, to complete similar charts of -other classes of invertebrate animals, scientific palaeontology in -England would have been further advanced then it is likely to be in -the next ten years. - -To return to our Trilobites: one of the most remarkable points in -their history is their appearance in full force in the Primordial. In -these rocks we have some of the largest in size--some species of -Paradoxides being nearly two feet long, and some of the very smallest. -We have some with the most numerous joints, others with the fewest; -some with very large tails, others with very small; some with no -ornamentation, others very ornate; some with large eyes, others with -none that have been made out, though it is scarcely probable that they -were wholly blind. They increased in numbers and variety through the -Silurian and Devonian, and then suddenly drop off at the end of the -Lower Carboniferous. Throughout their whole term of existence they -kept rigidly to that type of the mud-plough which the king-crab still -retains, and which renders the anterior extremity so different from -that of the ordinary Crustacea. They constitute one of the few cases -in which we seem to see before us the whole history of an animal type; -and the more we look into that history, the more do we wonder at their -inscrutable introduction, the unity and variety mingled in their -progress, and their strange and apparently untimely end. I have -already referred (page 95) to the use which Barrande makes of this as -an argument against theories of evolution; but must refer to his work -for the details. - -One word more I must say before leaving their graves. I have reason to -believe that they were not only the diggers of the burrows, and of -the ladder-tracks and pitted tracks[S] of the Silurian and -Primordial, but that with the strokes of their rounded or spinous -tails, the digging of their snouts, and the hoe-work of their hard -upper lips, or Hypostomes, they made nearly all those strange marks in -the Primordial mud which have been referred to fucoids, and even to -higher plants. The Trilobites worked over all the mud bottoms of the -Primordial, even in places where no remains of them occur, and the -peculiarities of the markings which they left are to be explained only -by a consideration of the structures of individual species. - -[S] _Climactichnites_ and _Protichnites_. - -I had almost lost sight of the fishes of the Carboniferous period, but -after saying so much of those of the Devonian, it would be unfair to -leave their successors altogether unnoticed. In the Carboniferous we -lose those broad-snouted plate-covered species that form so -conspicuous a feature in the Devonian; and whatever its meaning, it is -surely no accident that these mud-burrowing fishes should decay along -with those crustacean mud-burrowers, the Trilobites. But swarms of -fishes remain, confined, as in the Devonian, wholly to the two orders -of the Gar-fishes (_Ganoids_) and the sharks (_Placoids_). In the -former we have a multitude of small and beautiful species haunting the -creeks and ponds of the coal swamps, and leaving vast quantities of -their remains in the shaly and even coaly beds formed in such places. -Such were the pretty, graceful fishes of the genera _Palæoniscus_ and -_Amblypterus_. Pursuing and feeding on these were larger ganoids, -armed with strong bony scales, and formidable conical or sharp-edged -teeth. Of these were _Rhizodus_ and _Acrolepis_. There were besides -multitudes of sharks whose remains consist almost wholly of their -teeth and spines, their cartilaginous skeletons having perished. One -group was allied to the few species of modern sharks whose mouths are -paved with flat teeth for crushing shells. These were the most -abundant sharks of the Carboniferous--slow and greedy monsters, -haunting shell banks and coral reefs, and grinding remorselessly all -the shell-fishes that came in their way. There were also sharks -furnished with sharp and trenchant teeth, which must have been the -foes of the smaller mailed fishes, pursuing them into creeks and muddy -shallows; and if we may judge from the quantity of their remains in -some of these places, sometimes perishing in their eager efforts. On -the whole, the fishes of the Carboniferous were, in regard to their -general type, a continuation of those of the Devonian, but the sharks -and the scaly ganoids were relatively more numerous. They differed -from our modern fishes in the absence of the ordinary horny-scaled -type to which all our more common fishes belong, and in the prevalence -of that style of tail which has been termed "heterocercal," in which -the continuation of the backbone forms the upper lobe of the tail, a -style which, if we may judge from modern examples, gives more power of -upward and downward movement, and is especially suitable to fishes -which search for food only at the bottom, or only above the surface of -the waters. - -Most reluctantly I must here leave one of the most remarkable periods -of the world's history, and reserve to our next chapter the summation -of the history of the older world of life in its concluding stage, the -Permian. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE PERMIAN AGE AND CLOSE OF THE PALÆOZOIC. - - -The immense swamps and low forest-clad plains which occupied the -continental areas of the Northern Hemisphere, and which we now know -extended also into the regions south of the equator, appear at the -close of the Carboniferous age to have again sunk beneath the waves, -or to have relapsed into the condition of sand and gravel banks; for a -great thickness of such deposits rests on the coal measures and -constitutes the upper coal formation, the upper "barren measures" of -the coal-miners. There is something grand in the idea of this -subsidence of a world of animal and vegetable life beneath the waters. -The process was very slow, so slow that at first vegetable growth and -deposition of silt kept pace with it; and this is the reason of the -immense series of deposits, in some places nearly 15,000 feet thick, -which inclose or rest upon the coal beds; but at length it became more -rapid, so that forests and their inhabitants perished, and the wild -surf drifted sand and pebbles over their former abodes. So the -Carboniferous world, like that of Noah, being overflowed with water, -perished. But it was not a wicked world drowned for its sins, but -merely an old and necessarily preliminary system, which had fully -served its purpose; and, like the stubble of last year, must be -turned under by the plough that it may make way for a new verdure. The -plough passed over it, and the winter of the Permian came, and then -the spring of a new age. - -The Permian and the succeeding Triassic are somewhat chilly and -desolate periods of the earth's history. The one is the twilight of -the Palæozoic day, the other is the dawn of the Mesozoic. Yet to the -philosophical geologist no ages excel them in interest. They are times -of transition, when old dynasties and races pass away and are replaced -by new and vigorous successors, founding new empires and introducing -new modes of life and action. - -Three great leading points merit our attention in entering on the -Permian age. The first is the earth-movements of the period. The -second is the resulting mineral characteristics of the deposits -formed. The third is the aspect of the animal and vegetable life of -this age in their relation more especially to those which preceded. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF FOLDINGS OF THE CRUST IN THE PERMIAN PERIOD. -(The vertical scale of heights and depressions exaggerated more then -six times.) The lower figure shows a portion of folded strata in the -Appalachians--after Rogers.] - -With respect to the first point above named, the earth's crust was -subjected in the Permian period to some of the grandest movements -which have occurred in the whole course of geologic time, and we can -fix the limits of these, in Europe and America at least, with some -distinctness. If we examine the Permian rocks in England and Germany, -we shall find that everywhere they lie on the upturned edges of the -preceding Carboniferous beds. In other words, the latter have been -thrown into a series of folds, and the tops of these folds have been -more or less worn away before the Permian beds were placed on them. -But if we pass on to the eastward, in the great plain between the -Volga and the Ural mountains, where, in the "ancient kingdom of Perm," -the greatest known area of these rocks is found, an area equal in -extent to twice that of France, and which Sir R. I. Murchison, who -first proposed the name, took as the typical district, we find, on the -contrary, that the Permian and Carboniferous are conformable to one -another. If now we cross the Atlantic and inquire how the case stands -in America, we shall find it precisely the same. Here the great -succession of earth-waves constituting the Appalachian Mountains rises -abruptly at the eastern edge of the continent, and becomes flatter and -flatter, until, in the broad plains west of the Mississippi, the -Permian beds appear, as in Russia, resting upon the Carboniferous so -quietly that it is not always easy to draw a line of separation -between them. As Dana has remarked, we find at the western side of -Europe and the eastern side of America, great disturbances -inaugurating the Permian period; and in the interior of both, in the -plains between the Volga and the Ural in one, and between the -Mississippi and Rocky Mountains in the other, an entire absence of -these disturbances. The main difference is, that in eastern America -the whole Carboniferous areas have apparently been so raised up that -no Permian was deposited on them, while in Europe considerable patches -of the disturbed areas became or remained submerged. Another American -geologist has largely illustrated the fact that the movements which -threw up the Appalachian folds were strongest to the eastward, and -that the ridges of rock are steepest on their west sides, the force -which caused them acting from the direction of the sea. It seems as if -the Atlantic area had wanted elbow-room, and had crushed up the edges -of the continents next to it. In other words, in the lapse of the -Palæozoic ages the nucleus of the earth had shrunk away from its -coating of rocky layers, which again collapsed into great wrinkles. - -Such a process may seem difficult of comprehension. To understand it -we must bear in mind some of its conditions. First, the amount of this -wrinkling was extremely small relatively to the mass of the earth. In -the diagram on page 162 it is greatly exaggerated, yet is seen to be -quite insignificant, however gigantic in comparison with microscopic -weaklings like ourselves. Secondly, it was probably extremely slow. -Beds of solid rock cannot be suddenly bent into great folds without -breaking, and the abruptness of some of the folds may be seen from our -figure, copied from Rogers (page 162), of some of the foldings of the -Appalachian Mountains. Thirdly, the older rocks below the -Carboniferous and the Devonian must have been in a softened and -plastic state, and so capable of filling up the vacancies left by the -bending of the hard crust above. In evidence of this, we have in the -Lower Permian immense volcanic ejections--lavas and other molten -rocks spewed out to the surface from the softened and molten masses -below. Fourthly, the basin of the Atlantic must have been sufficiently -strong to resist the immense lateral pressure, so that the yielding -was all concentrated on the weaker parts of the crust near the old -fractures at the margins of the great continents. In these places -also, as we have seen in previous papers, the greatest thickness of -deposits had been formed; so that there was great downward pressure, -and probably, also, greater softening of the lower part of the crust. -Fifthly, as suggested in a previous chapter, the folding of the -earth's crust may have resulted from the continued shrinkage of its -interior in consequence of cooling, leading after long intervals to -collapse of the surface. Astronomers have, however, suggested another -cause. The earth bulges at the equator, and is flattened at the poles -in consequence of, or in connection with, the swiftness of its -rotation; but it has been shown that the rotation of the earth is -being very gradually lessened by the attraction of the moon.[T] Pierce -has recently brought forward the idea[U] that this diminution of -rotation, by causing the crust to subside in the equatorial regions -and expand in the polar, might produce the movements observed; and -which, according to Lesley, have amounted in the whole course of -geological time to about two per cent, of the diameter of our globe. -We thus have two causes, either of which seems sufficient to produce -the effect. - -[T] Sir William Thomson, who quotes Adams and Delaunay. - -[U] "Nature," February, 1871. - -Viewed in this way, the great disturbances at the close of the -Palæozoic period constitute one of the most instructive examples in -the whole history of the earth of that process of collapse to which -the crust was subject after long intervals, and of which no equally -great instance occurs except at the close of the Laurentian and the -close of the Mesozoic. The mineral peculiarities of the Permian are -also accounted for by the above considerations. Let us now notice some -of these. In nearly all parts of the world the Permian presents thick -beds of red sandstone and conglomerate as marked ingredients. These, -as we have already seen, are indications of rapid deposition -accompanying changes of level. In the Permian, as elsewhere, these -beds are accompanied by volcanic rocks, indicating the subterranean -causes of the disturbances. Again, these rocks are chiefly abundant in -those regions, like Western Europe, where the physical changes were at -a maximum. Another remarkable feature of the Permian rocks is the -occurrence of great beds of magnesian limestone, or dolomite. In -England, the thick yellow magnesian limestone, the outcrop of which -crosses in nearly a straight line through Durham, Yorkshire, and -Nottingham, marks the edge of a great Permian sea extending far to the -eastward. In the marls and sandstones of the Permian period there is -also much gypsum. Now, chemistry shows us that magnesian limestones -and gypsums are likely to be deposited where sea water, which always -contains salts of magnesia, is evaporating in limited or circumscribed -areas into which carbonate of lime and carbonate of soda are being -carried by streams from the land or springs from below;[V] and it is -also to be observed that solutions of sulphuric acid, and probably -also of sulphate of magnesia, are characteristic products of igneous -activity. Hence we find in various geological periods magnesian -limestones occurring as a deposit in limited shallow sea basins, and -also in connection with volcanic breccias. Now these were obviously -the new Permian conditions of what had once been the wide flat areas -of the Carboniferous period. Still further, we find in Europe, as -characteristic of this period, beds impregnated with metallic salts, -especially of copper. Of this kind are very markedly the copper slates -of Thuringia. Such beds are not, any more then magnesian limestones, -limited to this age; but they are eminently characteristic of it. To -produce them it is required that water should bring forth from the -earth's crust large quantities of metallic salts, and that these -should come into contact with vegetable matters in limited submerged -areas, so that sulphates of the metals should be deoxidized into -sulphides. A somewhat different chemical process, as already -explained, was very active in the coal period, and was connected with -the production of its iron ores; but, in the Permian, profound and -extensive fractures opened up the way to the deep seats of copper and -other metals, to enrich the copper slate and its associated beds. It -is also to be observed that the alkaline springs and waters which -contain carbonate of soda, very frequently hold various metallic -salts; so that where, owing to the action of such waters, magnesian -limestone is being deposited, we may expect also to find various -metallic ores. - -[V] Hunt, "Silliman's Journal," 1859 and 1863. - -Let us sum up shortly this history. We have foldings of the earth's -crust, causing volcanic action and producing limited and shallow -sea-basins, and at the same time causing the evolution of alkaline and -metalliferous springs. The union of these mechanical and chemical -causes explains at once the conglomerates, the red sandstones, the -trap rocks, the magnesian limestones, the gypsum, and the -metalliferous beds of the Permian. The same considerations explain the -occurrence of similar deposits in various other ages of the earth's -history; though, perhaps, in none of these were they so general over -the Northern Hemisphere as in the Permian. - -From the size of the stones in some of the Permian conglomerates, and -their scratched surfaces, it has been supposed that there were in this -period, on the margins of the continents, mountains sufficiently high -to have snow-clad summits, and to send down glaciers, bearing rocks -and stones to the sea, on which may have floated, as now in the North -Atlantic, huge icebergs.[W] This would be quite in accordance with -the great elevation of land which we know actually occurred; and the -existence of snow-clad mountains along with volcanoes would be a union -of fire and frost of which we still have examples in some parts of the -earth's surface, and this in proximity to forms of vegetable life very -similar to those which we know existed in the Permian. - -[W] Ramsay has ably illustrated this in the Permian conglomerates of -England. - -With the exception of a few small and worthless beds in Russia, the -Permian is not known to contain any coal. The great swamps of the coal -period had disappeared. In part they were raised up into rugged -mountains. In part they were sunken into shallow sea areas. Thus, -while there was much dry land, there was little opportunity for coal -production, or for the existence of those rank forests which had -accumulated so much vegetable matter in the Carboniferous age. In like -manner the fauna of the Permian waters is poor. According to -Murchison, the Permian limestones of Europe have afforded little more -then one-third as many species of fossils as the older Carboniferous. -The fossils themselves also have a stunted and depauperated aspect, -indicating conditions of existence unfavourable to them. This is -curiously seen in contrasting Davidson's beautiful illustrations of -the British Lamp-shells of the Permian and Carboniferous periods. -Another illustrative fact is the exceptionally small size of the -fossils even in limestones of the Carboniferous period when these are -associated with gypsum, red sandstones, and magnesian minerals; as, -for instance, those of some parts of Nova Scotia. In truth, the -peculiar chemical conditions conducive to the production of magnesian -limestones and gypsum are not favourable to animal life, though no -doubt compatible with its existence. Hence the rich fauna of the -Carboniferous seas died out in the Permian, and was not renewed; and -the Atlantic areas of the period are unknown to us. They were, -however, probably very deep and abrupt in slope, and not rich in life. -This would be especially the case if they were desolated by cold -ice-laden currents. - -During the Permian period there was in each of our continental areas a -somewhat extensive inland sea. That of Western America was a northward -extension of the Gulf of Mexico. That of Eastern Europe was a -northward extension of the Euxine and Caspian. In both, the deposits -formed were very similar--magnesian limestones, sandstones, -conglomerates, marls, and gypsums. In both, these alternate in such a -way as to show that there were frequent oscillations of level, -producing alternately shallow and deep waters. In both, the animal -remains are of similar species, in many instances even identical. But -in the areas intervening between these sea basins and the Atlantic the -conditions were somewhat different. In Europe the land was interrupted -by considerable water areas, not lakes, but inland sea basins; -sometimes probably connected with the open sea, sometimes isolated. In -these were, deposited the magnesian limestone and its associated beds -in England, and the Zechstein and Rotheliegende with their associates -in Germany. In America the case was different. In all that immense -area which extends from the Atlantic to the plains east of the -Mississippi, we know no Permian rocks, unless a portion of those -reckoned as Upper Carboniferous, or Permo-carboniferous in Northern -Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, should be included in this -group. If such existed, they may possibly be covered up in some places -by more modern deposits, or may have been swept away by denudation in -the intervening ages; but even in these cases we should expect to find -some visible remains of them. Their entire absence would seem to -indicate that a vast, and in many parts rugged and elevated, continent -represented North America in the Permian period. Yet if so, that great -continent is an absolute blank to us. We know nothing of the animals -or plants which may have lived on it, nor do we even know with -certainty that it had active volcanoes, or snow-clad mountains sending -down glaciers. - -Our picture of the Permian World has not been inviting, yet in many -respects it was a world more like that in which we live then was any -previous one. It certainly presented more of variety and grand -physical features then any of the previous ages; and we might have -expected that on its wide and varied continents some new and higher -forms of life would have been introduced. But it seems rather to have -been intended to blot out the old Palæozoic life, as an arrangement -which had been fully tried and served its end, preparatory to a new -beginning in the succeeding age. - -Still the Permian has some life features of its own, and we must now -turn to these. The first is the occurrence here, not only of the -representatives of the great Batrachians of the coal period, but of -true reptiles, acknowledged to be such by all naturalists. The animals -of the genus _Protorosaurus_, found in rocks of this age both in -England and Germany, were highly-organised lizards, having socketed -teeth like those of crocodiles, and well-developed limbs, with long -tails, perhaps adapted for swimming. They have, however, biconcave -vertebræ like the lizard-like animals of the coal already mentioned, -which, indeed, in their general form and appearance, they must have -very closely resembled. The Protorosaurs were not of great size; but -they must have been creatures of more stately gait then their -Carboniferous predecessors, and they serve to connect them with the -new and greater reptiles of the next period. - -Another interesting feature of the Permian is its flora, which, in so -far as known, is closely related to that of the coal period, though -the species are regarded as different; some of the forms, however, -being so similar as to be possibly identical. In a picture of the -Permian flora we should perhaps place in the foreground the -tree-ferns, which seem to have been very abundant, and furnished with -dense clusters of aërial roots to enable them to withstand the storms -of this boisterous age. The tree-ferns, now so plentiful in the -southern hemisphere, should be regarded as one of the permanent -vegetable institutions of our world--those of the far-back Lower -Devonian, and of all intervening ages up to the present day, having -been very much alike. The great reed-like Calamites have had a -different fate. In their grander forms they make their last appearance -in the Permian, where they culminate in great ribbed stems, sometimes -nearly a foot in diameter, and probably of immense height. The brakes -of these huge mares'-tails which overspread the lower levels of the -Permian in Europe, would have been to us what the hayfields of -Brobdingnag were to Gulliver. The Lepidodendra also swarmed, though in -diminished force; but the great Sigillariæ of the coal are absent, or -only doubtfully present. Another feature of the Permian woods was the -presence of many pine-trees different in aspect from those of the coal -period. Some of these are remarkable for their slender and delicate -branches and foliage.[X] Others have more dense and scaly leaves, and -thick short cones.[Y] Both of these styles of pines are regarded as -distinct, on the one hand, from those of the coal formation, and on -the other from those of the succeeding Trias. I have shown, however, -many years ago, that in the upper coal formation of America there are -branches of pine-trees very similar to Walchia, and, on the other -hand, the Permian pines are not very remote in form and structure from -some of their modern relations. The pines of the first of the -above-mentioned types (Walchia) may indeed be regarded as allies of -the modern Araucarian pines of the southern hemisphere, and of the -old conifers of the Carboniferous. Those of the second type (Ulmannia) -may be referred to the same group with the magnificent Sequoias or -Redwoods of California. - -[X] Walchia. - -[Y] Ulmannia. - -It is a curious indication of the doubts which sometimes rest on -fossil botany, that some of the branches of these Permian pines, when -imperfectly preserved, have been described as sea-weeds, while others -have been regarded as club-mosses. It is true, however, that the -resemblance of some of them to the latter class of plants is very -great; and were there no older pines, we might be pardoned for -imagining in the Permian a transition from club-mosses to pines. -Unfortunately, however, we have pines nearly as far back in geological -time as we have club-mosses; and, in so far as we know, no more like -the latter then are the pines of the Permian, so that this connection -fails us. In all probability the Permian forests are much less -perfectly known to us then those of the coal period, so that we can -scarcely make comparisons. It appears certain, however, that the -Permian plants are much more closely related to the coal plants then -to those of the next succeeding epoch, and that they are not so much a -transition from the one to the other as the finishing of the older -period to make way for the newer. - -But we must reserve some space for a few remarks on the progress and -termination of the Palæozoic as a whole, and on the place which it -occupies in the world's history. These remarks we may group around the -central question, What is the meaning or value of an age or period in -the history of the earth, as these terms are understood by geologists? -In most geological books terms referring to time are employed very -loosely. Period, epoch, age, system, series, formation, and similar -terms, are used or abused in a manner which only the indefiniteness of -our conceptions can excuse. - -A great American geologist[Z] has made an attempt to remedy this by -attaching definite values to such words as those above mentioned. In -his system the greater divisions of the history were "Times:" thus the -Eozoic was a time and the Palæozoic was a time. The larger divisions -of the times are "Ages:" thus the Lower and Upper Silurian, the -Devonian, and the Carboniferous are ages, which are equivalent in the -main to what English geologists call Systems of Formations. Ages, -again, may be divided into "Periods:" thus, in the Upper Silurian, the -Ludlow of England, or Lower Helderberg of America, would constitute a -period. These periods may again be divided into "Epochs," which are -equivalent to what English geologists call Formations, a term -referring not directly to the time elapsed, but to the work done in -it. Now this mode of regarding geological time introduces many -thoughts as to the nature of our chronology and matters relating to -it. A "time" in geology is an extremely long time, and the Palæozoic -was perhaps the longest of the whole. By the close of the Palæozoic -nine-tenths of all the rocks we know in the earth's crust were -formed. At least this is the case if we reckon mere thickness. For -aught that we know, the Eozoic time may have accumulated as much rock -as the Palæozoic; but leaving this out of the question, the rocks of -the Palæozoic are vastly thicker then those of the Mesozoic and -Cainozoic united. Thus the earth's history seems to have dragged -slowly in its earlier stages, or to have become accelerated in its -latter times. To place it in another point of view, life changes were -greater relatively to merely physical changes in the later then in the -earlier times. - -[Z] Dana. - -The same law seems to have obtained within the Palæozoic time itself. -Its older periods, as the Cambrian and Lower Silurian, present immense -thicknesses of rock with little changes in life. Its later periods, -the Carboniferous and Permian, have greater life-revolution relatively -to less thickness of deposits. This again was evidently related to the -growing complexity and variety of geographical conditions, which went -on increasing all the way up to the Permian, when they attained their -maximum for the Palæozoic time. - -Again, each age was signalized, over the two great continental -plateaus, by a like series of elevations and depressions. We may -regard the Siluro-Cambrian, the Silurian, the Devonian, the -Carboniferous, and Permian, as each of them a distinct age. Each of -these began with physical disturbances and coarse shallow-water -deposits. In each this was succeeded by subsidence and by a sea area -tenanted by corals and shell-fishes. In each case this was followed by -a re-elevation, leading to a second but slow and partial subsidence, -to be followed by the great re-elevation preparatory to the next -period. Thus we have throughout the Palæozoic a series of cycles of -physical change which we may liken to gigantic pulsations of the thick -hide of mother earth. The final catastrophe of the Permian collapse -was quite different in kind from these pulsations as well as much -greater in degree. The Cambrian or Primordial does not apparently -present a perfect cycle of this kind, perhaps because in that early -period the continental plateaus were not yet definitely formed, and -thus its beds are rather portions of the general oceanic deposit. In -this respect it is analogous in geological relations to the chalk -formation of a later age, though very different in material. The -Cambrian may, however, yet vindicate its claim to be regarded as a -definite cycle: and the recent discoveries of Hicks in North Wales, -have proved the existence of a rich marine fauna far down in the lower -part of this system. It is also to be observed that the peculiar -character of the Cambrian, as an oceanic bottom rather then a -continental plateau, has formed an important element in the -difficulties in establishing it as a distinct group; just as a similar -difficulty in the case of the chalk has led to a recent controversy -about the continuance of the conditions of that period into modern -times. - -But in each of the great successive heaves or pulsations of the -Palæozoic earth, there was a growing balance in favour of the land as -compared with the water. In each successive movement more and more -elevated land was thrown up, until the Permian flexures finally fixed -the forms of our continents. This may be made evident to the eye in a -series of curves, as in the following diagram, in which I have -endeavoured to show the recurrence of similar conditions in each of -the great periods of the Palæozoic, and thus their equivalency to each -other as cycles of the earth's history. - -There is thus in these great continental changes a law of recurrence -and a law of progress; but as to the efficient causes of the phenomena -we have as yet little information. It seems that original fractures -and shrinkages of the crust were concerned in forming the continental -areas at first. Once formed, unequal burdening of the earth's still -plastic mass by deposits of sediment in the waters, and unequal -expansion by the heating and crystallization of immense thicknesses of -the sediment, may have done the rest; but the results are surprisingly -regular to be produced by such causes. We shall also find that similar -cycles can be observed in the geological ages which succeeded the -Palæozoic. Geologists have hitherto for the most part been content to -assign these movements to causes purely terrestrial; but it is -difficult to avoid the suspicion that the succession of geological -cycles must have depended on some recurring astronomical force tending -to cause the weaker parts of the earth's crust alternately to rise and -subside at regular intervals of time. Herschel, Adhémar, and more -recently Croll, have directed attention to astronomical cycles -supposed to have important influences on the temperature of the earth. -Whether these or other changes may have acted on the equilibrium of -its crust is a question well worthy of attention, as its solution -might give us an astronomical measure of geological time. This -question, however, the geologist must refer to the astronomer. - -[Illustration: CURVES SHOWING THE SUCCESSIVE ELEVATIONS AND -DEPRESSIONS OF THE AMERICAN CONTINENT, IN SEVERAL CYCLES OF THE -PALÆOZOIC TIME.] - -There are two notes of caution which must here be given to the reader. -First, it is not intended to apply the doctrine of continental -oscillations to the great oceanic areas. Whether they became shallower -or deeper, their conditions would be different from those which -occurred in the great shallow plateaus, and these conditions are -little known to us. Further, throughout the Palæozoic period, the -oscillations do not seem to have been sufficient to reverse the -positions of the oceans and continents. Secondly, it is not meant to -affirm that the great Permian plications were so widespread in their -effects as to produce a universal destruction of life. On the -contrary, after they had occurred, remnants of the Carboniferous fauna -still flourished even on the surfaces of the continents, and possibly -the inhabitants of the deep ocean were little affected by these great -movements. True it is that the life of the Palæozoic terminates with -the Permian, but not by a great and cataclysmic overthrow. - -We know something at least of the general laws of continental -oscillations during the Palæozoic. Do we know anything of law in the -case of life? The question raises so many and diverse considerations -that it seems vain to treat it in the end of a chapter; still we must -try to outline it with at least a few touches. - -First, then, the life of the Palæozoic was remarkable, as compared with -that of the present world, in presenting a great prevalence of animals -and plants of synthetic types, as they are called by Agassiz that is, -of creatures comprehending in one the properties of several groups -which were to exist as distinct in the future. Such types are also -sometimes called embryonic, because the young of animals and plants -often show these comprehensive features. Such types were the old -corals, presenting points of alliance with two distinct groups now -widely separated; the old Trilobites, half king-crabs and half -Isopods; the Amphibians of the coal, part fish, part newt, and part -crocodile; the Sigillariæ, part club-mosses and part pines; the -Orthoceratites, half nautili and half cuttle-fishes. I proposed, in -the illustration in a former article, to give a restoration of one of -the curious creatures last mentioned, the Orthoceratites; but on -attempting this, with the idea that, as usually supposed, they were -straight Nautili, it appeared that the narrow aperture, the small -outer chamber, the thin outer wall, often apparently only membranous, -and the large siphuncle, would scarcely admit of this; and I finished -by representing it as something like a modern squid; perhaps wrongly, -but it was evidently somewhere between them and the Nautili. - -Secondly, these synthetic types often belonged to the upper part of a -lower group, or to the lower part of an upper group. Hence in one -point of view they may be regarded as of high grade, in another as of -low grade, and they are often large in size or in vegetative -development.[AA] From this law have arisen many controversies about -the grade and classification of the Palæozoic animals and plants. - -[AA] It seems, indeed, as if the new synthetic forms intermediate -between great groups were often large in size, while the new special -types came in as small species. There are some remarkable cases of -this in the plant world; though here we have such examples as the -pines and tree-ferns continuing almost unchanged from an early -Palæozoic period until now. - -Thirdly, extinctions of species occur in every great oscillation of -the continental areas, but some species reappear after such -oscillations, and the same genus often recurs under new specific -forms. Families and orders, such as those of the Trilobites and -Orthoceratites, appear to have a grand and gradual culmination and -decadence extending over several successive periods, or even over the -whole stretch of the Palæozoic time. Toward the close of the -Palæozoic, while all the species disappear, some whole families and -orders are altogether dropped, and, being chiefly synthetic groups, -are replaced by more specialised types, some of which, however, make -small beginnings alongside of the more general types which are passing -away. Our diagram (page 183) illustrates these points. - -[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ADVANCE, CULMINATION, AND DECADENCE -OF SOME OF THE LEADING TYPES OF PALÆOZOIC LIFE.] - -Fourthly, the progress in animal life in the Palæozoic related chiefly -to the lower or invertebrate tribes, and to the two lower classes of -the vertebrates. The oldest animal known to us is not only a creature -of the simplest structure, but also a representative of that great and -on the whole low type of animal life, in which the parts are arranged -around a central axis, and not on that plan of bilateral symmetry -which constitutes one great leading distinction of the higher animals. -With the Cambrian, bilateral animals abound and belong to two very -distinct lines of progress--the one, the Mollusks, showing the -nutritive organs more fully developed--the other, the Articulates, -having the organs of sense and of locomotion more fully organized. -These three great types shared the world among them throughout the -earlier Palæozoic time, and only in its later ages began to be -dominated by the higher types of fishes and reptiles. In so far as we -know, it remained for the Mesozoic to introduce the birds and mammals. -In plant life the changes were less marked, though here also there is -progress--land plants appear to begin, not with the lowest forms, but -with the highest types of the lower of the two great series into which -the vegetable kingdom is divided. From this they rapidly rise to a -full development of the lowest type of the flowering plants, the pines -and their allies, and there the progress ceases; for the known -representatives of the higher plants are extremely few and apparently -of little importance. - -Fifthly, in general the history tells of a continued series of -alternate victories and defeats of the species that had their birth on -the land and in the shallow waters, and those which were born in the -ocean depths, The former spread themselves widely after every -upheaval, and then by every subsidence were driven back to their -mountain fastnesses. The latter perished from the continental plateaus -at every upheaval, but climbed again in new hordes and reoccupied the -ground after every subsidence. But just as in human history every -victory or defeat urges on the progress of events, and develops the -great plan of God's providence in the elevation of man; so here every -succeeding change brings in new and higher actors on the stage, and -the scheme of creation moves on in a grand and steady progress towards -the more varied and elevated life of the Modern World. - -But, after all, how little do we know of these laws, which are only -beginning to dawn on the minds of naturalists; and which the -imperfections of our classification and nomenclature, and the defects -in our knowledge of fossil species, render very dim and uncertain. All -that appears settled is the existence of a definite plan, working over -long ages, and connected with the most remarkable correlation of -physical and organic change: going on with regular march throughout -the Palæozoic, and then brought to a close to make room for another -great succession. This following Mesozoic time must next engage our -attention. - -We may close for the present with presenting to the eye in tabular -form the periods over which we have passed. The table on page 187, and -the diagram (page 179), mutually illustrate each other; and it will -be seen that each age constitutes cycle, similar in its leading -features to the other cycles, while each is distinguished by some -important fact in relation to the introduction of living beings. In -this table I have, with Mr. Hull,[AB] for simplicity, arranged the -formations of each age under three periods--an older, middle, and -newer. Of these, however, the last or newest is in each case so -important and varied as to merit division into two, in the manner -which I have suggested in previous publications for the Palæozoic -rocks of North America.[AC] Under each period I have endeavoured to -give some characteristic example from Europe and America, except -where, as in the case of the coal formation, the same names are used -on both continents. Such a table as this, it must be observed, is only -tentative, and may admit of important modifications. The Laurentian -more especially may admit of division into several ages; and a -separate age may be found to intervene between it and the Cambrian. -The reader will please observe that this table refers to the changes -on the continental plateaus; and that on both of these each age was -introduced with shallow water and usually coarse deposits, succeeded -by deeper water and finer beds, usually limestones, and these by a -mixed formation returning to the shallow water and coarse deposits of -the older period of the age. This last kind of deposition culminates -in the great swamps of the coal formation. - -[AB] "Quarterly Journal of Science," July, 1869. - -[AC] "Acadian Geology," p. 137. - -CONDENSED TABULAR VIEW OF THE AGES AND PERIODS OF THE PALÆOZOIC AND -EOZOIC. - - Key to Symbols - - ### Tabulate and Rugose Corals, abundant. - *** Age of Algæ. - === Age of Acrogens and Gymnosperms. - +++ And God said, "Let the waters bring forth abundantly - the swarming living creatures." - --- And God created great reptiles. - - - TIMES. - AGES. PERIODS. ANIMALS AND PLANTS. - - PALÆOZOIC - - { {Newer. Red Sandstones, # - { Rauchwacke, etc. # Beginning = - - {Permian {Middle. Zechstein, or # of Age = - - { Magnesian Limestone. # of Reptiles. = - - { {Older. Conglomerates, etc., # = - - { Rotheliegendes. # = - - { # = - - { {N. Coal Formation. # = - - {Carboniferous {M. Carboniferous Limestone. # Age of = - - { {O. Lower Coal Measures and # Batrachians. = - { Conglomerates. # = - { # = - { {N. Upper Old Red, Chemung. # = - {Devonian {M. Eifel and Corniferous # = - { { Limestones. # Age of Fishes. = - { or Erian {O. Lower Old Red, Oriskany # = - { { Sandstone. # = + - { # + - { {N. Ludlow, Lower Helderberg. # + - {Upper Silurian {M. Wenlock and Niagara # + - { { Limestones. # Age of + - { {O. Mayhill, etc., Oneida # Mollusks. + - { { Conglomerates. # + - { # + - { {N. Caradoc, Hudson R. # + - {Lower Silurian {M. Bala and Trenton # + - { or { Limestones. # * + - {Siluro-Cambrian {O. Llandielo, etc., Chazy. # * + - { # * + - { {N. Lingula Flags, etc., * + - { { Potsdam Sandstone. * + - { { {Acadian, etc.? Age of * + - {Cambrian {M. (Uncertain){ Crustaceans. * + - { { {Menevian? * + - { {O. Longmynd, Huronian? + - + - EOZOIC + - + - { {N. Anorthosite Gneiss, etc. + - {Laurentian {M. Eozoon Limestones, etc. Age of + - { {O. Lower Gneiss. Protozoa. + - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE MESOZOIC AGES. - - -Physically, the transition from the Permian to the Trias is easy. In -the domain of life a great gulf lies between; and the geologist whose -mind is filled with the forms of the Palæozoic period, on rising into -the next succeeding beds, feels himself a sort of Rip Van Winkle, who -has slept a hundred years and awakes in a new world. The geography of -our continents seems indeed to have changed little from the time of -the Permian to that next succeeding group which all geologists -recognise as the beginning of the Mesozoic or Middle Age of the -world's history, the Triassic period. Where best developed, as in -Germany, it gives us the usual threefold series, conglomerates and -sandstones below, a shelly limestone in the middle, and sandstones and -marls above. Curiously enough, the Germans, recognising this -tripartite character here more distinctly then in their other -formations, named this the _Trias_ or triple group, a name which it -still retains, though as we have seen it is by no means the earliest -of the triple groups of strata. In England, where the middle limestone -is absent, it is a "New Red Sandstone," and the same name may be -appropriately extended to Eastern America, where bright red sandstones -are a characteristic feature. In the Trias, as in the Permian, the -continents of the northern hemisphere presented large land areas, and -there were lagoons and landlocked seas in which gypsum, magnesian -limestones, and rock salt were thrown down, a very eminent example of -which is afforded by the great salt deposits of Cheshire. There were -also tremendous outbursts of igneous activity along the margins of the -continents, more especially in Eastern America. But with all this -there was a rich land flora and a wonderful exuberance of new animal -life on the land; and in places there were even swamps in which pure -and valuable beds of coal, comparable with those of the old coal -formation, were deposited. - -The triple division of the Trias as a cycle of the earth's history, -and its local imperfection, are well seen in the European development -of the group, thus:-- - - German Series. French Series. English Series. - - Keuper, Sandstone and } Marnes Irisées {Saliferous and gypseous - Shale } { Shales and Sandstones. - - Muschelkalk, Limestone} Calcaire Coquillier {Wanting. - and Dolomite } - - Bunter, Sandstone and } Grès bigarré {Sandstone and - Conglomerate } { Conglomerate. - -The Trias is succeeded by a great and complex system of formations, -usually known as the Jurassic, from its admirable development and -exposure in the range of the Jura; but which the English geologists -often name the "Oolitic," from the occurrence in it of beds of Oolite -or roe-stone. This rock, of which the beautiful cream-coloured -limestone of Bath is an illustration, consists of an infinity of -little spheres, like seeds or the roe of a fish. Under the microscope -these are seen to present concentric layers, each with a radiating -fibrous: structure, and often to have a minute grain of sand or -fragment of shell in the centre. They are, in short, miniature -concretions, produced by the aggregation of the calcareous matter -around centres, by a process of molecular attraction to which fine -sediments, and especially those containing much lime, are very prone. -This style of limestone is very abundant in the Jurassic system, but -it is not confined to it. I have seen very perfect Oolites in the -Silurian and the Carboniferous. The Jurassic series, as developed in -England, may be divided into three triplets or cycles of beds, in the -following way: - - {Purbeck Beds. - Upper Jurassic {Portland Limestone. - {Portland Sand. - - {Kimmeridge Clay, etc. - Middle Jurassic {Coral Rag, Limestone. - {Lower Calcareous Grit, Oxford Clay, etc. - - {Cornbrash and Forest Marble. - Lower Jurassic[AD] {Great and inferior Oolite, Limestone. - {Lias Clays and Limestones. - -[AD] This last group is very complex, and might perhaps admit of sub -division, locally at least, into subordinate cycles. - -These rocks occupy a large space in England, as the names above given -will serve to show; and they are also largely distributed over the -continent of Europe and Asia which had evidently three great and -long-continued dips under water, indicated by the three great -limestones. In America the case was different. The Jurassic has not -been distinctly recognised in any part of the eastern coast of that -continent, which then perhaps extended farther into the Atlantic then -it does at present; so that no marine beds were formed on its eastern -border. But in the west, along the base of the Rocky Mountains and -also in the Arctic area, there were Jurassic seas of large extent, -swarming with characteristic animals. At the close of the Jurassic -period our continents seem to have been even more extensive then at -present. In England and the neighbouring parts of the continent of -Europe, according to Lyell, the fresh-water and estuarine beds known -as the Wealden have been traced 320 miles from west to east, and 200 -miles from north-west to south-east, and their thickness in one part -of this area is estimated at no less then 2,000 feet. Such a deposit -is comparable in extent with the deltas of such great rivers as the -Niger or even the Mississippi, and implies the existence of a -continent much more extensive and more uniform in drainage then Europe -as it at present exists. Lyell even speculates on the possible -existence of an Atlantic continent west of Europe. America also at -this time had, as already stated, attained to even more then its -present extension eastwards. Thus this later Jurassic period was the -culmination of the Mesozoic, the period of its most perfect -continental development, corresponding in this to the Carboniferous in -the Palæozoic. - -The next or closing period of this great Mesozoic time brought a -wondrous change. In the Cretaceous period, so called from the vast -deposits of chalk by which it is characterized, the continents sunk as -they had never sunk before, so that vast spaces of the great -continental plateaus were brought down, for the first time since the -Laurentian, to the condition of abyssal depths, tenanted by such -creatures as live in the deepest recesses of our modern oceans. This -great depression affected Europe more severely then America; the -depression of the latter being not only less, but somewhat later in -date. In Europe, at the period of greatest submergence, the hills of -Scandinavia and of Britain, and the Urals, perhaps alone stood out of -the sea. The Alps and their related mountains, and even the Himalayas, -were not yet born, for they have on their high summits deep-sea beds -of the Cretaceous and even of later date. In America, the Appalachians -and the old Laurentian ranges remained above water; but the Rocky -Mountains and the Andes were in great part submerged, and a great -Cretaceous sea extended from the Appalachians westward to the Pacific, -and southward to the Gulf of Mexico, opening probably to the North -into the Arctic Ocean. - -This great depression must have been of very long continuance, since -in Western Europe it sufficed for the production of nearly 1,000 feet -in thickness of chalk, a rock which, being composed almost entirely of -microscopic shells, is, as we shall see in the sequel, necessarily of -extremely slow growth. If we regard the Cretaceous group as one of our -great ages or cycles, it seems to be incomplete. The sandstones and -clays known as the Greensand and Gault constitute its lower or -shallow-water member. The chalk is its middle or deep-sea member, but -the upper shallow-water member is missing, or only very locally and -imperfectly developed. And the oldest of the succeeding Tertiary -deposits, which indicate much less continuous marine conditions, rest -on the chalk, as if the great and deep sea of the Cretaceous age had -been suddenly upheaved into land. This abrupt termination of the last -cycle of the Mesozoic is obviously the reason of the otherwise -inexplicable fact that the prevalent life of the period ceases at the -top of the chalk, and is exchanged immediately and without any -transition for the very different fauna of the Tertiary. This further -accords with the fact that the Cretaceous subsidence ended in another -great crumpling of the crust, like that which distinguished the -Permian. By this the Mesozoic time was terminated and the Cainozoic -inaugurated; while the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Alps, and the -Himalayas, rose to importance as great mountain ranges, and the -continents were again braced up to retain a condition of comparative -equilibrium during that later period of the earth's chronology to -which we ourselves belong. - -[Illustration: LIFE ON LAND IN THE MESOZOIC PERIOD. - -In the foreground are a Pine, Cycads, and a Pandanus; also small -Mammals, an herbivorous Dinosaur, and a Labyrinthodont. In the -distance are other Dinosaurs and Crocodiles. In the air are birds -(_Archæopterux_) and Pterodactyls. - -Was the length of the Mesozoic time equal to that of the Palæozoic? -Measured by recurring cycles it was. In the latter period we find five -great cycles, from the Lower Silurian to the Permian inclusive. So in -the Mesozoic we have five also, from the Trias to the Cretaceous -inclusive. We have a right to reckon these cycles as ages or great -years of the earth; and so reckoning them, the Mesozoic time may have -been as long as the Palæozoic. But if we take another criterion the -result will be different. The thickness of the deposits in the -Palæozoic as compared with the Mesozoic, where these are severally -best developed, may be estimated as at least four or five to one; so -that if we suppose the beds to have been formed with equal rapidity in -the two great periods, then the older of the two was between four and -five times as long as the latter, which would indeed be only a little -greater then one of the separate ages of the Palæozoic. Either, -therefore, the deposits took place with greater rapidity in the -Palæozoic, or that period was by much the longer of the two. This it -will be observed, is only another aspect of the great laws of -geological sequence referred to in our last paper. - -Let us look into this question a little more minutely. If the several -pulsations of our continents depended upon any regularly recurring -astronomical or terrestrial change, then they must represent, at least -approximately, equal portions of time, and this, if proved, would -settle the question in favour of an equal duration of these two great -eras of the earth's history. But as we cannot yet prove this, we may -consider what light we can derive from the nature of the rocks -produced. These may be roughly classified as of two kinds: First, the -beds of sediment, sand, clay, etc., accumulated by the slow chemical -decay of rocks and the mechanical agency of water. Secondly, the beds -formed by accumulation of the harder and less perishable parts of -living beings, of which the limestones are the chief. With reference -to the first of these kinds of deposit, the action of the atmosphere -and rains on rocks in the earlier times might have been somewhat more -powerful if there was more carbonic acid in the atmosphere, that -substance being the most efficient agent in the chemical decay of -rocks. It might have been somewhat more powerful if there was a -greater rainfall. It must, on the other hand, have been lessened by -the apparently more equable temperature which then prevailed. These -differences might perhaps nearly balance one another. Then the rocks -of the older time were quite as intractable as those of the newer, and -they were probably neither so high nor so extensive. Further, the dips -and emergences of the great continental plateaus were equally numerous -in the two great periods, though they were probably, with the -exception of the latest one of each, more complete in the older -period. In so far, then, as deposition of sediment is concerned, these -considerations would scarcely lead us to infer that it was more rapid -in the Palæozoic. But the Palæozoic sediments may be estimated in the -aggregate at about 50,000 feet in thickness, while those of the -Mesozoic scarcely reach 8,000. We might, therefore, infer that the -Palæozoic period was perhaps five or six times as long as the -Mesozoic. - -If we take the second class of rocks, the limestones, and suppose -these to have been accumulated by the slow growth of corals, shells, -etc., in the sea, we might, at first sight, suppose that Palæozoic -animals would not grow or accumulate limestone faster then their -Mesozoic successors. We must, however, consider here the probability -that the older oceans contained more lime in solution then those which -now exist, and that the equable temperature and extensive submerged -plateaus gave very favourable conditions for the lower animals of the -sea, so that it would perhaps be fair to allow a somewhat more rapid -rate of growth of limestone for the Palæozoic. Now the actual -proportions of limestone may be roughly stated at 13,000 feet in the -Palæozoic, and 3,000 feet in the Mesozoic, which would give a -proportion of about four and a quarter to one; and as a foot of -limestone may be supposed on the average to require five times as long -for its formation as a foot of sediment, this would give an even -greater absolute excess in favour of the Palæozoic on the evidence of -the limestones an excess probably far too great to be accounted for by -any more favourable conditions for the secretion of carbonate of lime -by marine animals. - -The data for such calculations are very uncertain, and three elements -of additional uncertainty closely related to each other must also be -noticed. The first is the unknown length of the intervals in which no -deposition whatever may have been taking place over the areas open to -our investigation. The second is the varying amounts in which material -once deposited may have been swept away by water. The third is the -amount of difference that may have resulted from the progressive -change of the geographical features of our continents. These -uncertainties would all tend to diminish our estimate of the relative -length of the Mesozoic. Lastly, the changes that have taken place in -living beings, though a good measure of the lapse of time, cannot be -taken as a criterion here, since there is much reason to believe that -more rapid changes of physical conditions act as an inducing cause of -rapid changes of life. - -On the whole, then, taking such facts as we have, and making large -deductions for the several causes tending to exaggerate our conception -of Palæozoic time, we can scarcely doubt that the Palæozoic may have -been three times as long as the Mesozoic. If so, the continental -pulsations, and the changes in animal and vegetable life, must have -gone on with accelerated rapidity in the later period,--a conclusion -to which we shall again have occasion to refer when we arrive at the -consideration of the Tertiary or Neozoic time, and the age of man, and -the probable duration of the order of things under which we live. - -I have given this preliminary sketch of the whole Mesozoic time, -because we cannot here, as in the Palæozoic, take up each age -separately; and now we must try to picture to ourselves the life and -action of these ages. In doing so we may look at, first, the plant -life of this period; second, animal life on the land; and third, -animal life in the waters and in the ocean depths. - -The Mesozoic shores were clothed with an abundant flora, which changed -considerably in its form during the lapse of this long time; but yet -it has a character of its own distinct from that of the previous -Palæozoic and the succeeding Tertiary. Perhaps no feature of this -period is more characteristic then the great abundance of those -singular plants, the cycads, which in the modern flora are placed near -to the pines, but in their appearance and habit more resemble palms, -and which in the modern world are chiefly found in the tropical and -warm temperate zones of Asia and America. No plants certainly of this -order occur in the Carboniferous, where their nearest allies are -perhaps some of the Sigillariæ; and in the modern time the cycads are -not so abundant, nor do they occur at all in climates where their -predecessors appear to have abounded. In the quarries of the island of -Portland, we have a remarkable evidence of this in beds with numerous -stems of cycads still _in situ_ in the soil in which they grew, and -associated with stumps of pines which seem to have flourished along -with them. In further illustration of this point, I may refer to the -fact that Carruthers, in a recent paper, catalogues twenty-five -British species belonging to eight genera--a fact which markedly -characterizes the British flora of the Mesozoic period. These plants -will therefore occupy a prominent place in our restoration of the -Mesozoic landscape, and we should give especial prominence to the -beautiful species _Williamsonia gigas_, discovered by the eminent -botanist whose name it bears, and restored in his paper on the plant -in the "Linnæan Transactions." These plants, with pines and gigantic -equisetums, prevailed greatly in the earlier Mesozoic flora, but as -the time wore on, various kinds of endogens, resembling the palms and -the screw-pines of the tropical islands, were introduced, and toward -its close some representatives of the exogens very like our ordinary -trees. Among these we find for the first time in our upward progress -in the history of the earth, species of our familiar oaks, figs, and -walnut, along with some trees now confined to Australia and the Cape -of Good Hope, as the banksias and "silver-trees," and their allies. In -America a large number of the genera of the modern trees are present, -and even some of those now peculiar to America, as the tulip-trees and -sweet-gums. These forests of the later Mesozoic must therefore have -been as gay with flowers and as beautiful in foliage as those of the -modern world, and there is evidence that they swarmed with insect -life. Further, the Mesozoic plants produced in some places beds of -coal comparable in value and thickness to those of the old coal -formation. Of this kind are the coal beds of Brora in Sutherlandshire, -those of Richmond in Virginia, and Deep River in N. Carolina, those of -Vancouver's Island, and a large part of those of China. To the same -age have been referred some at least of the coal beds of Australia and -India. So important are these beds in China, that had geology -originated in that country, the Mesozoic might have been our age of -coal. - -If the forests of the Mesozoic present a great advance over those of -the Palæozoic, so do the animals of the land, which now embrace all -the great types of vertebrate life. Some of these creatures have left -strange evidence of their existence in their footprints on the sand -and clay, now cemented into beds of hard rock excavated by the -quarryman. If we had landed on some wide muddy Mesozoic shore, we -might have found it marked in all directions with animal footprints. -Some of these are shaped much like a human hand. The creature that -made this mark was a gigantic successor of the crocodilian newts or -labyrinthodonts of the Carboniferous, and this type seems to have -attained its maximum in this period, where one species, _Labyrinthodon -giganteus_, had great teeth three or four inches in length, and -presenting in their cross section the most complicated foldings of -enamel imaginable. But we may see on the shores still more remarkable -footprints. They indicate biped and three-toed animals of gigantic -size, with a stride perhaps six feet in length. Were they enormous -birds? If so, the birds of this age must have been giants which would -dwarf even our ostriches. But as we walk along the shore we see many -other impressions, some of them much smaller and different in form. -Some, again, very similar in other respects, have four toes; and, more -wonderful still, in tracing up some of the tracks, we find that here -and there the creature has put down on the ground a sort of -four-fingered hand, while some of these animals seem to have trailed -long tails behind them. What were these portentous creatures--bird, -beast, or reptile? The answer has been given to us by their bones, as -studied by Yon Meyer and Owen, and more recently by Huxley and Cope. -We thus have brought before us the _Dinosaurs_--the terrible -Saurians--of the Mesozoic age, the noblest of the Tanninim of old. -These creatures constitute numerous genera and species, some of -gigantic size, others comparatively small;--some harmless browsers on -plants, others terrible renders of living flesh; but all remarkable -for presenting a higher type of reptile organization then any now -existing, and approaching in some respects to the birds and in others -to the mammalia. Let us take one example of each of the principal -groups. And first marches before us the _Iguanodon_ or his relation -_Hadrosaurus_--a gigantic biped, twenty feet or more in height, with -enormous legs shaped like those of an ostrich, but of elephantine -thickness. It strides along, not by leaps like a kangaroo, but with -slow and stately tread, occasionally resting, and supporting itself on -the tripod formed by its hind limbs and a huge tail, like the inverted -trunk of a tree. The upper part of its body becomes small and slender, -and its head, of diminutive size and mild aspect, is furnished with -teeth for munching the leaves and fruits of trees, which it can easily -reach with its small fore-limbs, or hands, as it walks through the -woods. The outward appearance of these creatures we do not certainly -know. It is not likely that they had bony plates like crocodiles, but -they may have shone resplendent in horny scale armour of varied hues. -But another and more dreadful form rises before us. It is -_Megalosaurus_ or perhaps _Lælaps_. Here we have a creature of equally -gigantic size and biped habits; but it is much more agile, and runs -with great swiftness or advances by huge leaps, and its feet and hands -are armed with strong curved claws; while its mouth has a formidable -armature of sharp-edged and pointed teeth. It is a type of a group of -biped bird-like lizards, the most terrible and formidable of rapacious -animals that the earth has ever seen. Some of these creatures, in -their short deep jaws and heads, resembled the great carnivorous -mammals of modern times, while all in the structure of their limbs had -a strange and grotesque resemblance to the birds. Nearly all -naturalists regard them as reptiles; but in their circulation and -respiration they must have approached to the mammalia, and their -general habit of body recalls that of the kangaroos. They were no -doubt oviparous; and this, with their biped habit, seems to explain -the strong resemblance of their hind quarters to those of birds. Had -we seen the eagle-clawed Lælaps rushing on his prey; throwing his huge -bulk perhaps thirty feet through the air, and crushing to the earth -under his gigantic talons some feebler Hadrosaur, we should have -shudderingly preferred the companionship of modern wolves and tigers -to that of those savage and gigantic monsters of the Mesozoic. - -We must not leave the great land-lizards of the reptilian age, without -some notice of that Goliath of the race which, by a singular misnomer, -has received the appellation of _Ceteosaurus_ or "Whale-Saurian." It -was first introduced to naturalists by the discovery of a few enormous -vertebrae in the English Oolite; and as these in size and form seemed -best to fit an aquatic creature, it was named in accordance with this -view. But subsequent discoveries have shown that, incredible though -this at first appeared, the animal had limbs fitted for walking on the -land. Professor Phillips has been most successful in collecting and -restoring the remains of Ceteosaurus, and devotes to its history a -long and interesting section of his "Geology of Oxford." The size of -the animal may be estimated, from the fact that its thigh-bone is -sixty-four inches long, and thick in proportion. From this and other -fragments of the skeleton, we learn that this huge monster must have -stood ten feet high when on all fours, and that its length, could not -have been less then fifty feet; perhaps much more. From a single -tooth, which has been found, it seems to have been herbivorous; and it -was probably a sort of reptilian Hippopotamus, living on the rich -herbage by the sides of streams and marshes, and perhaps sometimes -taking to the water, where the strokes of its powerful tail would -enable it to move more rapidly then on the land. In structure, it -seems to have been a composite creature, resembling in many points the -contemporary Dinosaurs; but in others, approaching to the crocodiles -and the lizards. - -But the wonders of Mesozoic reptiles are not yet exhausted. While -noticing numerous crocodiles and lizard: like creatures, and several -kinds of tortoises, we are startled by what seems a flight of great -bats, wheeling and screaming overhead, pouncing on smaller creatures -of their own kind, as hawks seize sparrows and partridges, and perhaps -diving into the sea for fish. These were the Pterodactyles, the -reptile bats of the Mesozoic. They fly by means of a membrane -stretched on a monstrously enlarged little finger, while the other -fingers of the fore limb are left free to be used as hands or feet. To -move these wings, they had large breast-muscles like those of birds. -In their general structure, they were lizards, but no doubt of far -higher organization then any animals of this order now living; and in -accordance with this, the interior of their skull shows that they must -have had a brain comparable with that of birds, which, they rivalled -in energy and intelligence. Some of them were larger then the largest -modern birds of prey, others were like pigeons and snipes in size. -Specimens in the Cambridge Museum indicate one species twenty feet in -the expanse of its wings. Cope has recently described an equally -gigantic species from the Mesozoic of Western America, and fragments -of much larger species are said to exist.[AE] Imagine such a creature, -a flying dragon, with vast skinny wings, its body, perhaps, covered -with scales, both wings and feet armed with strong claws, and with -long jaws furnished with sharp teeth. Nothing can be conceived more -strange and frightful. Some of them had the hind limbs long, like -wading birds. Some had short, legs, adapted perhaps for perching. They -could probably fold up their wings, and walk on all fours. Their -skeleton, like that of birds, was very light, yet strong; and the -hollow bones have pores, which show that, as in birds, air could be -introduced into them from the lungs. This proves a circulation -resembling that of birds, and warm blood. Indeed, in many respects, -these creatures bridge over the space between the birds and the -reptiles. "That they lived," says Seeley, "exclusively upon land or in -the air is improbable, considering the circumstances under which their -remains are found. It is likely that they haunted the sea-shores; and -while sometimes rowing themselves over the water with their powerful -wings, used the wing membrane, as does the bat, to encloses the prey -and bring it to the mouth. The large Pterodactyles probably pursued a -more substantial prey then dragon-flies. Their teeth were well suited -for fish; but probably fowl and small mammal, and even fruits, made a -variety in their food. As the lord of the cliff, it may be supposed to -have taken toll of all animals that could be conquered with tooth and -nail. From its brain, it might be regarded as an intelligent animal. -The jaws present indications of having been sheathed with a horny -covering, and some species show a rugose anterior termination of the -snout, suggestive of fleshy lips like those of the bat, and which may -have been similarly used to stretch and clean the wing-membrane." - -[AE] Seeley: "_Ornithosauria._" - -Here, however, perched on the trees, we see true birds. At least they -have beaks, and are clothed with feathers. But they have very strange -wings, the feathers all secondaries, without any large quills, and -several fingers with claws at the angle of the wing, so that though -less useful as wings, they served the double purpose of wing and hand. -More strange still, the tail was long and flexible, like that of a -lizard, with the feathers arranged in rows along its sides. If the -lizards of this strange and uncertain time had wings like bats, the -birds had tails and hands like lizards. This was in short the special -age of reptiles, when animals of that class usurped the powers which -rightfully belonged to creatures yet in their nonage, the true birds -and mammals of our modern days, while the birds were compelled to -assume some reptilian traits. - -Yet, strange to say, representatives of the higher creatures destined -to inherit the earth at a later date actually existed. Toward the -close of the Mesozoic we find birds approaching to those of our own -day, and almost at the beginning of the time there were small mammals, -remains of which are found both in the earlier and later formations of -the Mesozoic, but which never seem to have thriven; at least so far as -the introduction of large and important species is concerned. -Traversing the Mesozoic woods, we might see here and there little -hairy creatures, which would strike a naturalist as allies of the -modern bandicoots, kangaroo rats, and myrmecobius of Australia; and -closer study would confirm this impression, though showing differences -of detail. In their teeth, their size, and general form, and probably -in their pouched or marsupial reproduction, these animals were early -representatives of the smaller quadrupeds of the Austral continent, -creatures which are not only small but of low organisation in their -class. - -One of these mammals, known to us only by its teeth, and well named -_Microlestes_, the "little thief" sneaks into existence, so to speak, -in the Trias of Europe, while another very similar, _Dromatherium_, -appears in rocks of similar age in America; and this is the small -beginning of the great class Mammalia, destined in its quadrupedal -forms to culminate in the elephants and their contemporaries in the -Tertiary period. Who that saw them trodden under foot lay the -reptile aristocracy of the Mesozoic could have divined their destiny? -But, notwithstanding the struggle for existence, the weakest does not -always "go to the wall." The weak things of this world are often -chosen to confound those that are mighty; and the little quadrupeds of -the Mesozoic are an allegory. They may typify the true, the good, and -the hopeful, mildly and humbly asserting themselves in the world that -now is, in the presence of the dragon monsters of pride and violence, -which in the days to come they will overthrow. Physically the Mesozoic -has passed away, but still exists morally in an age of evil reptiles, -whose end is as certain as that of the great Dinosaurs of the old -world. - -The Mesozoic mammals are among the most interesting fossils known to -us. In a recent memoir by Professor Owen, thirty-three species are -indicated--all, or nearly all, Marsupial--all small--all closely -allied to modern Australian animals; some herbivorous, some probably -carnivorous. Owen informs us that these animals are not merely -marsupials, but marsupials of low grade, a point in which, however, -Huxley differs somewhat in opinion. They are at least not lower then -some that still exist, and not so low as those lowest of mammals in -Modern Australia, the duck-billed platypus and the echidna. Owen -further supposes that they were possibly the first mammals, and not -only the predecessors but the progenitors of the modern marsupials. If -so, we have the singular fact that they not only did not improve -throughout the vast Mesozoic time, but that they have been in the -progress of subsequent geological ages expelled out of the great -eastern continent, and, with the exception of the American opossums, -banished, like convicts, to Australia. Yet, notwithstanding their -multiplied travels and long experiences, they have made little -advance. It thus seems that the Mesozoic mammals were, from the -evolutionist point of view, a decided failure, and the work of -introducing mammals had to be done over again in the Tertiary; and -then, as we shall find, in a very different way. If nothing more, -however, the Mesozoic mammals were a mute prophecy of a better time, a -protest that the age of reptiles was an imperfect age, and that better -things were in store for the world. Moses seems to have been more -hopeful of them then Owen or even Huxley would have been. He says that -God "created" the great Tanninim, the Dinosaurs and their allies, but -only "made" the mammals of the following creative day; so that when -Microlestes and his companions quietly and unnoticed presented -themselves in the Mesozoic, they would appear in some way to have -obviated, in the case of the tertiary mammals, the necessity of a -repetition of the greater intervention implied in the word "create." -How that was effected none of us know; but, perhaps, we may know -hereafter. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE MESOZOIC AGES (_continued_). - - -The waters of the Mesozoic period present features quite as remarkable -as the land. In our survey of their teeming multitudes, we indeed -scarcely know where to begin or whither to turn. Let us look first at -the higher or more noble inhabitants of the waters. And here, just as -in the case of the greater animals of the land, the Mesozoic was -emphatically an age of reptiles. In the modern world the highest -animals the sea are mammals, and these belong to three great and -somewhat diverse groups. The first is that of the seals and their -allies, the walruses, sea-lions, etc. The second is that of the whales -and dolphins and porpoises. The third is that of the manatees, or -dugongs. All these creatures breathe air, and bring forth their young -alive, and nourish them with milk. Yet they all live habitually or -constantly in the water. Between these aquatic mammals and the fishes, -we have some aquatic reptiles as the turtles, and a few sea-snakes and -sea-lizards, and crocodiles; but the number of these is comparatively -small, and in the more temperate latitudes there are scarcely any of -them. - -All this was different in the Mesozoic. In so far as we know, there -were no representatives of the seals and whales and their allies, but -there were vast numbers of marine reptiles, and many of these of -gigantic size. Britain at present does not possess one large reptile, -and no marine reptile whatever. In the Mesozoic, in addition to the -great Dinosaurs and Pterodactyls of the land, it had at least fifty or -sixty species of aquatic reptiles, besides many turtles. Some of these -were comparable in size with our modern whales, and armed with -tremendous powers of destruction. America is not relatively rich in -remains of Mesozoic Saurians, yet while the existing fauna of the -temperate parts of North America is nearly destitute of aquatic -reptiles, with the exception of the turtles, it can boast, according -to Cope's lists, about fifty Mesozoic species, many of them of -gigantic size, and the number of known species is increasing every -year When it is taken in connection with these statistics, that while -we know all the modern species, we know but a small percentage of the -fossils, the discrepancy becomes still more startling. Further, from -the number of specimens and fragments found, it is obvious that these -great aquatic saurians were by no means rare; and that some of the -species at least must have been very abundant. Could we have taken our -post on the Mesozoic shore, or sailed over its waters, we should have -found ourselves in the midst of swarms of these strange, often -hideous, and always grotesque creatures. - -Let us consider for a little some of the more conspicuous forms, -referring to our illustration for their portraits. Every text-book -figures the well-known types of the genera _Ichthyosaurus_ and -_Plesiosaurus_; we need scarcely, therefore, dwell on them, except to -state that the catalogues of British fossils include eleven species of -the former genus and eighteen of the latter, We may, however, notice -some of the less familiar points of comparison of the two genera. Both -were aquatic, and probably marine. Both swam by means of paddles; both -were carnivorous, and probably fed principally upon fishes; both were -proper reptiles, and breathed air, and had large and capacious lungs. -Yet with these points in common, no two animals could have been more -different in detail. The Ichthyosaurus had an enormous head, with -powerful jaws, furnished with numerous and strong teeth. Its great -eyes, strengthened by a circle of bony plates, exceeded in dimensions, -and probably in power of vision under water, those of any other -animal, recent or fossil. Its neck was short, its trunk massive, with -paddles or swimming limbs of comparatively small size, and a long -tail, probably furnished with a caudal fin or paddle for propulsion -through the water. The Plesiosaur, on the other hand, had a small and -delicate head, with slender teeth and small eyes. Its neck, of great -length and with numerous joints, resembled the body of a serpent. Its -trunk, short, compact, and inflexible, was furnished with large and -strong paddles, and its tail was too short to be of any service except -for steering. Compared with the Ichthyosaur, it was what the giraffe -is to the rhinoceros, or the swan to the porpoise. Two fishermen so -variously and differently fitted for their work it would be difficult -to imagine. But these differences were obviously related to -corresponding differences in food and habit. The Ichthyosaur was -fitted to struggle with the waves of the stormy sea, to roll therein -like modern whales and grampuses, to seize and devour great fishes, -and to dive for them into the depths; and its great armour-plated eyes -must have been well adapted for vision in the deeper waters. The -Plesiosaur, on the contrary, was fitted for comparatively still and -shallow waters; swimming near the surface with its graceful neck -curving aloft, it could dart at the smaller fishes on the surface, or -stretch its long neck downward in search of those near the bottom. The -Ichthyosaurs rolled like porpoises in the surf of the Liassic coral -reefs and the waves beyond; the Plesiosaurs careered gracefully in the -quiet waters within. Both had their beginning at the same time in the -earlier Mesozoic, and both found a common and final grave in its later -sediments. Some of the species were of very moderate size, but there -were Ichthyosaurs twenty five feet long, and Plesiosaurs at least -eighteen feet in length. - -Another strange and monstrous group of creatures, the Elasmosaurs and -their allies, combined the long neck of Plesiosaurs with the swimming -tail of Ichthyosaurs, the latter enormously elongated, so that these -Creatures were sometimes fifty feet in length, and whale-like in the -dimensions of their bodies. It is curious that these composite -creatures belong to a later period of the Mesozoic then the typical -Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs, as if the characters at one time -separated in these genera had united in their successors. - -One of the relatives of the Plesiosaurs, the Pliosaur, of which genus -several species of great size are known perhaps realized in the -highest degree possible the idea of a huge marine predaceous reptile. -The head in some of the species was eight feet in length, armed with -conical teeth a foot long. The neck was not only long, but massive and -powerful, the paddles, four in number, were six or seven feet in -length and must have urged the vast bulk of the animal, perhaps forty -feet in extent, through the water with prodigious speed. The capacious -chest and great ribs show a powerful heart and lungs. Imagine such a -creature raising its huge head twelve feet or more out of water, and -rushing after its prey, impelled with perhaps the most powerful oars -ever possessed by any animal. We may be thankful that such monsters, -more terrible then even the fabled sea-serpent, are unknown in our -days. Buckland, I think, at one time indulged in the _jeu d'esprit_ of -supposing an Ichthyosaur lecturing on the human skull. "You will at -once perceive," said the lecturer, "that the skull before us belonged -to one of the lower orders of animals. The teeth are very -insignificant, the power of the jaws trifling, and altogether it seems -wonderful how the creature could have procured food." We cannot retort -on the Ichthyosaur and his contemporaries, for we can see that they -were admirably fitted for the work they had in hand; but we can see -that had man been so unfortunate as to have lived in their days, he -might have been anything but the lord of creation. - -But there were sea-serpents as well as other monsters in the Mesozoic -seas. Many years ago the Lower Cretaceous beds of St. Peter's Mount, -near Maestricht, afforded a skull three feet in length, of massive -proportions, and furnished with strong conical teeth, to which the -name _Mosasaurus Camperi_ was given. The skull and other parts of the -skeleton found with it, were held to indicate a large aquatic reptile, -but its precise position in its class was long a subject of dispute. -Faujas held it to be a crocodile; Camper, Cuvier, and Owen regarded it -as a gigantic lizard. More recently, additional specimens, especially -those found in the Cretaceous formations of North America, have thrown -new light upon its structure, and have shown it to present a singular -combination of the character of serpents, lizards, and of the great -sea saurians already referred to. Some parts of the head and the -articulation of the jaws, in important points resemble those of -serpents, while in other respects the head is that of a gigantic -lizard. The body and tail are greatly lengthened out, having more then -a hundred vertebral joints, and in one of the larger species attaining -the length of eighty feet. The trunk itself is much elongated, and -with ribs like those of a snake. There are no walking feet, but a pair -of fins or paddles like those of Ichthyosaurus. Cope, who has -described these great creatures as they occur in the Cretaceous of the -United States, thus sketches the Mosasaur: "It was a long and slender -reptile, with a pair of powerful paddles in front, a moderately long -neck, and flat pointed head. The very long tail was flat and deep, -like that of a great eel, forming a powerful propeller. The arches of -the vertebral column were more extensively interlocked then in any -other reptiles except the snakes. In the related genus _Clidastes_ -this structure is as fully developed as in the serpents, so that we -can picture to ourselves its well-known consequences; their rapid -progress through the water by lateral undulations, their lithe motions -on the land, the rapid stroke, the ready coil, or the elevation of the -head and vertebral column, literally a living pillar, towering above -the waves or the thickets of the shore swamps." As in serpents, the -mouth was wide in its gape, and the lower jaw capable of a certain -separation from the skull to admit of swallowing large prey. Besides -this the lower jaw had an additional peculiarity, seen in some snakes, -namely, a joint in the middle of the jaw enabling its sides to expand, -so that the food might be swallowed "between the branches of the jaw." -Perhaps no creatures more fully realize in their enormous length and -terrible powers the great Tanninim (the stretched-out or extended -reptiles) of the fifth day of the Mosaic record, then the Mosasaurus -and Elasmosaurus. When Mr. Cope showed me, a few years ago, a nearly -complete skeleton of Elasmosaurus, which for want of space he had -stretched on a gallery along two sides of a large room, I could not -help suggesting to him that the name of the creature should be -_Teinosaurus_[AF] instead of that which he had given. Marsh has -recently ascertained that the Mosasaurs were covered in part at least -with bony scales. - -[AF] Heb. _Tanan_; Gr. _Teino_, _Tanuo_; Sansc. _Tanu_; Lat. -_Tendo_.--Ges. Lex. - -[Illustration: LIFE IN THE MESOZOIC PERIOD. - -Aquatic Reptiles and Cephalopods. _Reptiles._--Plesiosaur and -Osteopygis, Ichthyosaur, Teliosaur, Plesiosaur, Elasmosaur, Mosasaur -(in order of the heads from left to right).--_Cephalopods._--Ammonite, -Crioceras, Belemnites, Baculites, and Ammonites (in order from left to -right). The Reptiles after Hawkins and Cope's Restorations.] - -These animals may serve as specimens of the reptilian giants of the -Mesozoic seas; but before leaving them we must at least invite -attention to the remarkable fact that they were contemporary with -species which represent the more common aquatic reptiles of the modern -world. In other words, the monsters which we have described existed -over and above a far more abundant population of crocodiles and -turtles then the modern waters can boast. The crocodiles were -represented both in Europe and America by numerous and large species, -most of them with long snouts like the modern Gavials, a few with -broad heads like those of the alligators. The turtles again presented -not only many species, but most of the aquatic subdivisions of the -group known in modern times, as for instance the Emydes or ordinary -fresh-water forms, the snapping turtles, and the soft-shelled turtles. -Cope says that the Cretaceous of New Jersey alone affords twenty -species, one of them a snapping turtle six feet in length. Owen -records above a dozen large species from the Upper Mesozoic of -England, and dates the first appearance of the turtles in England -about the time of the Portland stone, or in the upper half of the -Mesozoic; but footprints supposed to be those of turtles are found as -far back as the Trias. Perhaps no type of modern reptiles is more -curiously specialized then these animals, yet we thus find them -contemporaneous with many generalized types, and entering into -existence perhaps as soon as they. The turtles did not culminate in -the Mesozoic, but go on to be represented by more numerous and larger -species in the Tertiary and Modern. In the case of the crocodiles, -while they attained perhaps a maximum toward the end of the Mesozoic, -it was in a peculiar form. The crocodiles of this old time had -vertebrae with a hollow at each end like the fishes, or with a -projection in the front. At the end of the Mesozoic this was changed, -and they assumed a better-knit back, with joints having a ball behind -and a socket in front. In the Cretaceous age, species having these two -kinds of backbone were contemporaneous. Perhaps this improvement in -the crocodilian back had something to do with the persistence of this -type after so many others of the sea-lizards of the Mesozoic had -passed away. - -Of the fishes of the Mesozoic we need only say that they were very -abundant, and consisted of sharks and ganoids of various types, until -near the close of the period, when the ordinary horny-scaled fishes, -such as abound in our present seas, appear to have been introduced. -One curious point of difference is that the unequally lobed tail of -the Palæozoic fishes is dropped in the case of the greater part of the -ganoids, and replaced by the squarely-cut tail prevalent in modern -times. - -In the sub-kingdom of the Mollusca many important revolutions -occurred. Among the lamp-shells a little _Leptaena_, no bigger then a -pea, is the last and depauperated representative of a great Palæozoic -family. Another, that of the Spirifers, still shows a few species in -the Lower Mesozoic. Others, like Rhynchonella, and Terebratula, -continue through the period, and extend into the Modern. Passing over -the ordinary bivalves and sea-snails, which in the main conform to -those of our own time, we find perhaps the most wonderful changes -among the relatives of the cuttle-fishes and Nautili. As far back as -the Silurian we find the giant Orthoceratites contemporary with -Nautili, very like those of the present ocean. With the close -of the Palæozoic, however, the Orthoceratites and their allies -disappear, while the Nautili continue, and are reinforced by -multitudes of new forms of spiral chambered shells, some of them -more wonderful and beautiful then any of those which either preceded -or followed them. Supreme among these is the great group of the -_Ammonites_,--beautifully spiral shells, thin and pearly like the -Nautilus, and chambered like it, so as to serve as a float, but far -more elaborately constructed, inasmuch as the chambers were not simply -curved, but crimped and convoluted, so as to give the outer wall much -more effectual support. This outer wall, too, was worked into -ornamental ribs and bands, which not only gave it exquisite beauty, -but contributed to combine strength to resist pressure with the -lightness necessary to a float. In some of these points it is true the -Gyroceras and Goniatites of the Palæozoic partially anticipated them, -but much less perfectly. The animals which inhabited these shells must -have been similar to that of Nautilus, but somewhat different in the -proportion of parts. They must have had the same power of rising and -sinking in the water, but the mechanical construction of their shells -was so much more perfect relatively to this end, that they were -probably more active and locomotive then the Nautili. They must have -swarmed in the Mesozoic seas, some beds of limestone and shale being -filled with them; and as many as eight hundred species of this family -are believed to be known, including, however, such forms as the -_Baculites_ or straight Ammonites, bearing to them perhaps a relation -similar to that of Orthoceras to Nautilus. Further, some of the -Ammonites are of gigantic size, one species being three feet in -diameter, while others are very minute. The whole family of -Ammonitids, which begins to be in force in the Trias, disappears at -the end of the Mesozoic, so that this may be called the special age -of Ammonites as well as of reptiles. - -Further, this time was likewise distinguished by the introduction of -true cuttle-fishes, the most remarkable of which were those furnished -with the internal supports or "bones," known as _Belemnites_, from a -fancied resemblance to javelins or thunder-bolts, a comparison at -least as baseless as that often made in England of the Ammonites to -fossil snakes. The shell of the Belemnite is a most curious structure. -Its usual general shape is a pointed cylinder or elongated cone. At -top it has a deep cavity for the reception of certain of the viscera -of the animal. Below this is a conical series of chambers, the -Phragmacone; and the lower half of the shell is composed of a solid -shelly mass or guard, which, in its structure of radiating fibres and -concentric layers, resembles a stalactite, or a petrified piece of -exogenous wood. This structure was an internal shell or support like -those of the modern cuttle-fishes; but it is difficult to account for -its peculiarities, so much more complex then in any existing species. -The most rational supposition seems to be that it was intended to -serve the triple purpose of a support, a float, and a sinker. Unlike -the shell of a Nautilus, if thrown into the water it would no doubt -have, sunk, and with the pointed end first. Consequently, it was not a -float simply, but a float and sinker combined, and its effect must -have been to keep the animal at the bottom, with its head upward. The -Belemnite was therefore an exceptional cuttle-fish, intended to stand -erect on the sea-bottom and probably to dart upward in search of its -prey; for the suckers and hooks with which its arms were furnished -show that, like other cuttle-fishes, it was carnivorous and -predaceous. The guard may have been less ponderous when recent then in -the fossil specimens, and in some species it was of small size or -slender, and in others it was hollow. Possibly, also, the soft tissues -of the animal were not dense, and it may have had swimming fins at the -sides. In any case they must have been active creatures, and no doubt -could dart backward by expelling water from their gill chamber, while -we know that they had ink-bags, provided with that wonderfully divided -pigment, inimitable by art, with which the modern Sepia darkens the -water to shelter itself from its enemies. The Belemnites must have -swarmed in the Mesozoic seas; and as squids and cuttles now afford -choice morsels to the larger fishes, so did the Belemnites in their -day. There is evidence that even the great sea-lizards did not disdain -to feed on them. We can imagine a great shoal of these creatures -darting up and down, seizing with their ten hooked arms their finny or -crustacean prey. In an instant a great fish or saurian darts down -among them; they blacken the water with a thick cloud of inky -secretion and disperse on all sides, while their enemy, blindly -seizing a few mouthfuls, returns sullenly to the surface. A great -number of species of Belemnites and allied animals have been -described; but it is probable that in naming them too little regard -has been paid to distinctions of age and sex. The Belemnites were for -the most part small creatures; but there is evidence that there -existed with them some larger and more formidable cuttles; and it is -worthy of note that, in several of these, the arms, as in the -Belemnites, were furnished with hooks as well as suckers, an -exceptional arrangement in their modern allies. It is probable that -while the four-gilled or shell-bearing cuttles culminated in size and -perfection in the Ammonitids of the Mesozoic, the modern cuttles of -the two-gilled and shell-less type are grander in dimensions then -their Mesozoic predecessors. It is, however, not a little singular -that a group so peculiar and apparently so well provided with means, -both of offence and defence, as the Belemnites, should come in and go -out with the Mesozoic, and that the Nautiloid group, after attaining -to the magnitude and complexity of the great Ammonites, should retreat -to a few species of diminutive and simply-constructed Nautili; and in -doing so should return to one of the old types dating as far back as -the older Palæozoic, and continuing unchanged through all the -intervening time. - -The Crustaceans of the Mesozoic had lost all the antique peculiarities -of the older time, and had so much of the aspect of those of the -present day, that an ordinary observer, if he could be shown a -quantity of Jurassic or Cretaceous crabs, lobsters, and shrimps, would -not readily recognise the difference, which did not exceed what occurs -in distant geographical regions in the present day. The same remark -may be made as to the corals of the Mesozoic; and with some -limitations, as to the star-fishes and sea-urchins, which latter are -especially numerous and varied in the Cretaceous age. In short, all -the invertebrate forms of life, and the fishes and reptiles among the -vertebrates, had already attained their maximum elevation in the -Mesozoic; and some of them have subsequently sunk considerably in -absolute as well as relative importance. - -In the course of the Mesozoic, as indicated in the last chapter, there -had been several great depressions and re-elevations of the -Continental Areas. But these had been of the same quiet and partial -character with those of the Palæozoic, and it was not until the close -of the Mesozoic time, in the Cretaceous age, that a great and -exceptional subsidence involved for a long period the areas of our -present continents in a submergence wider and deeper then any that had -previously occurred since the dry land first rose out of the waters. - -Every one knows the great chalk beds which appear in the south of -England, and which have given its name to the latest age of the -Mesozoic. This great deposit of light-coloured and usually soft -calcareous matter attains in some places to the enormous thickness of -1,000 feet. Nor is it limited in extent. According to Lyell, its -European distribution is from Ireland to the Crimea, a distance of -1,140 geographical miles; and from the south of France to Sweden, a -distance of 840 geographical miles. Similar rocks, though not in all -cases of the precise nature of chalk, occur extensively in Asia and in -Africa, and also in North and South America. - -But what is chalk? It was, though one of the most familiar, one of the -most inscrutable of rocks, until the microscope revealed its -structure. The softer varieties, gently grated or kneaded down in -water, or the harder varieties cut in thin slices, show a congeries of -microscopic chambered shells belonging to the humble and simple group -of Protozoa. These shells and their fragments constitute the material -of the ordinary chalk. With these are numerous spicules of sponges and -silicious cell-walls of the minute one-celled plants called Diatoms. -Further, the flinty matter of these organisms has by the law of -molecular attraction been collected into concretions, which are the -flints of the chalk. Such a rock is necessarily oceanic; but more then -this, it is abyssal. Laborious dredging has shown that similar matter -is now being formed only in the deep bed of the ocean, whither no sand -or mud is drifted from the land, and where the countless hosts of -microscopic shell-bearing protozoa continually drop their little -skeletons on the bottom, slowly accumulating a chalky mud or slime. -that such a rock should occur over vast areas of the continental -plateaus, that both in Europe and America it should be found to cover -the tops of hills several thousand feet high, and that its thickness -should amount to several hundreds of feet, are facts which evidence a -revolution more stupendous perhaps then that at the close of the -Palæozoic. For the first time since the Laurentian, the great -continental plateaus changed places with the abysses of the ocean, and -the successors of the Laurentian Eozoon again reigned on surfaces -which through the whole lapse of Palæozoic and Mesozoic time had been -separated more or less from that deep ocean out of which they rose at -first. This great Cretaceous subsidence was different from the -disturbances of the Permian age. There was at first no crumpling of -the crust, but merely a slow and long-continued sinking of the land -areas, followed, however, by crumpling of the most stupendous -character, which led at the close of the Cretaceous and in the earlier -Tertiary to the formation of what are now the greatest mountain chains -in the world. As examples may be mentioned the Himalaya, the Andes, -and the Alps, on all which the deep-sea beds of the Cretaceous are -seen at great elevations. In Europe this depression was almost -universal, only very limited areas remaining out of water. In America -a large tract remained above water in the region of the Appalachians. -This gives us some clue to the phenomena. The great Permian collapse -led to the crumpling-up of the Appalachians and the Urals, and the -older hills of Western Europe. The Cretaceous collapse led to the -crumpling of the great N.W. and S.E. chain of the Rocky Mountains and -Andes, and to that of the east and west chains of the south of Asia -and Europe. The cause was probably in both cases the same; but the -crust gave way in a different part, and owing to this there was a -greater amount of submergence of our familiar continental plateaus in -the Cretaceous then in the Permian. - -Another remarkable indication of the nature of the Cretaceous -subsidence, is the occurrence of beds filled with grains of the -mineral Glauconite or "green-sand." These grains are not properly -sand, but little concretions, which form in the bottom of the deep -sea, often filling and taking casts of the interior and fine tubes of -Foraminiferal shells. Now this Glauconite, a hydrous silicate of iron -and potash, is akin to similar materials found filling the pores of -fossils in Silurian beds. It is also akin to the Serpentine filling -the pores of Eozoon in the Laurentian. Such materials are formed only -in the deeper parts of the ocean, and apparently most abundantly where -currents of warm water are flowing at the surface, as in the area of -the Gulf Stream. Thus, not only in the prevalence of Foraminifera, but -in the formation of hydrous silicates, does the Cretaceous recall the -Laurentian. Such materials had no doubt been forming, and such animals -living in the ocean depths, all through the intervening ages, but with -the exception of a few and merely local instances, we know nothing of -them, till the great subsidence and re-elevation of the Cretaceous -again allows them to ascend to the continental plateaus, and again -introduces us to this branch of the world-making process. - -The attention recently drawn to these facts by the researches of Dr. -Carpenter and others, and especially the similarity in mineral -character and organic remains of some of the deposits now forming in -the Atlantic and those of the chalk, have caused it to be affirmed -that in the bed of the Atlantic these conditions of life and deposit -have continued from the Cretaceous up to the present time, or as it -has been expressed, that "we are still living in the Cretaceous -epoch." Now, this is true or false just as we apply the statement. We -have seen that the distinction between abyssal areas, continental -oceanic plateaus, and land surfaces has extended through the whole -lapse of geological time. In this broad sense we may be said to be -still living in the Laurentian epoch. In other words, the whole plan -of the earth's development is one and the same, and each class of -general condition once introduced is permanent somewhere. But in -another important sense we are not living in the Cretaceous epoch; -otherwise the present site of London would be a thousand fathoms deep -in the ocean; the Ichthyosaurs and Ammonites would be disporting -themselves in the water, and the huge Dinosaurs and strange -Pterodactyls living on the land. The Italian peasant is still in many -important points living in the period of the old Roman Empire. The -Arab of the desert remains in the Patriarchal period, and there are -some tribes not yet beyond the primitive age of stone. But the world -moves, nevertheless, and the era of Victoria is not that of the -Plantagenets or of Julius Cæsar. So while we may admit that certain of -the conditions of the Cretaceous seas still prevail in the bed of the -present ocean, we must maintain that nearly all else is changed, and -that the very existence of the partial similarity is of itself the -most conclusive proof of the general want of resemblance, and of the -thorough character of the changes which have occurred. - -The duration of the Cretaceous subsidence must have been very great. -We do not know the rate at which the Foraminifera accumulate -calcareous mud. In some places, where currents heap up their shells, -they may be gathered rapidly; but on the average of the ocean bed, -afoot of such material must indicate the lapse of ages very long when -compared with those of modern history. We need not wonder, therefore, -that while some forms of deep-sea Cretaceous life, especially of the -lower grades, seem to have continued to our time, the inhabitants of -the shallow waters and the land have perished; and that the Neozoic or -Tertiary period introduces us to a new world of living beings. I say -we need not wonder; yet there is no reason why we should expect this -as a necessary consequence. As the Cretaceous deluge rose over the -continents of the Mesozoic, the great sea saurians might have -followed. Those of the land might have retreated to the tracts still -remaining out of water, and when the dry land again appeared in the -earlier Tertiary, they might again have replenished the earth, and we -might thus have truly been living in the Reptilian age up to this day. -But it was not so. The old world again perished, and the dawn of the -Tertiary shows to us at once the dynasties of the Mammalian age, which -was to culminate in the introduction of man. With the great Cretaceous -subsidence the curtain falls upon the age of reptiles, and when it -rises again, after the vast interval occupied in the deposition of the -green-sand and chalk, the scene has entirely changed. There are new -mountains and new plains, forests of different type, and animals such -as no previous age had seen. - -How strange and inexplicable is this perishing of types in the -geological ages! Some we could well spare. We would not wish to have -our coasts infested by terrible sea saurians, or our forests by -carnivorous Dinosaurs. Yet why should these tyrants of creation so -utterly disappear without waiting for us to make war on them? Other -types we mourn. How glorious would the hundreds of species of -Ammonites have shone in the cases of our museums, had they still -lived! What images of beauty would they have afforded to the poets who -have made so much of the comparatively humble Nautilus! How perfectly, -too, were they furnished with all those mechanical appliances for -their ocean life, which are bestowed only with a niggardly hand on -their successors! Nature gives us no explanation of the mystery. - - "From scarped cliff and quarried stone, - She cries--'A thousand types are gone.'" - -But why or how one was taken and another left she is silent, and I -believe must continue to be so, because the causes, whether efficient -or final, are beyond her sphere. If we wish for a full explanation, we -must leave Nature, and ascend to the higher domain of the Spiritual. - -CONDENSED TABULAR VIEW OF THE AGES AND PERIODS OF THE MESOZOIC. - - Key to Symbols - - ### Duration of Ammonites and Belemnites. - === Ages of Cycads and Pines. - --- Beginning of Age of Angiospermous Exogens. - +++ "And God created great reptiles, and every living moving - thing which the waters brought forth abundantly, and every - flying creature after its kind." - - Time. - Ages. Periods. Animals and Plants. - - MESOZOIC. - - Cretaceous {Newer.{Maestricht beds; Fox Hill # - + - { {and Pierre Groups of # - + - { {Western America; Greensand # - + - { {of New Jersey. # - + - { # - + - {Middle.{Chalk; Benton and Dakota # Close of - + - { {Groups of Western America. # Reptilian - + - { # Ages. - + - {Older.{Lower Greensand and Gault; # - + - { {Lower Clays of New Jersey # + - { {and Alabama. # + - # + - Upper {N. Purbeck Beds. }Jurassic # Culmination + - Jurassic {M. Portland Limestone. } Beds of # of + - {O. Portland Sandstone. }Nebraska # Reptilian + - } and # Ages. + - Middle {N. Kimmeridge Clay, etc.}Colorado.# = + - Jurassic {M. Coralline Limestone. } # = + - {O. Calcareous Grit & } # = + - { Oxford Clay. } # = + - # = + - Lower {N. Cornbrash & Forest } Lower # = + - Jurassic { Marble. }Jurassic # = + - {M. Great & Inferior } of # = + - { Oolites., etc. } Utah, # = + - {O. Lias Clay and }Nevada, # = + - { Limestone. } etc. = + - = + - {N. Keuper {Upper Triassic Appearance of = + - { Sandstone, {Sandstones of Mammals = + - { etc. {Prince Edward I., and = + - {M. Muschelkalk.{Connecticut, etc. Birds. + - Triassic { + - {O. Bunter {Lower Triassic Beginning of + - { Sandstone. {Sandstones of Reptilian + - { {Prince Edward I., Ages. + - { {Connecticut, etc. + - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE NEOZOIC AGES. - - -Between the Mesozoic and the next succeeding time which may be known -as the Neozoic or Tertiary,[AG] there is in the arrangements of most -geologists a great break in the succession of life; and undoubtedly -the widespread and deep subsidence of the Cretaceous, followed by the -elevation of land on a great scale at the beginning of the next -period, is a physical cause sufficient to account for vast life -changes. Yet we must not forget to consider that even in the -Cretaceous itself there were new features beginning to appear. Let us -note in this way, in the first place, the introduction of the familiar -generic forms of exogenous trees. Next we may mention the decided -prevalence of the modern types of coral animals and of a great number -of modern generic forms of mollusks. Then we have the establishment of -the modern tribes of lobsters and crabs, and the appearance of nearly -all the orders of insects. Among vertebrates, the ordinary fishes are -now introduced. Modern orders of reptiles, as the crocodiles and -chelonians, had already appeared, and the first mammals. Henceforth -the progress of organic nature lies chiefly in the dropping of many -Mesozoic forms and in the introduction of the higher tribes of mammals -and of man. - -[AG] The former name is related to Palæozoic and Mesozoic, the latter -to the older terms Primary and Secondary. For the sake of euphony we -shall use both. The term Neozoic was proposed by Edward Forbes for the -Mesozoic and Cainozoic combined; but I use it here as a more -euphonious and accurate term for the Cainozoic alone. - -It is further to be observed that the new things introduced in the -later Mesozoic came in little by little in the progress of the period, -and anticipated the great physical changes occurring at its close. On -the other hand, while many family and even generic types pass over -from the Mesozoic to the earlier Tertiary, very few species do so. It -would seem, therefore, as if changes of species were more strictly -subordinate to physical revolutions then were changes of genera and -orders--these last overriding under different specific forms many -minor vicissitudes, and only in part being overwhelmed in the grander -revolutions of the earth. - -Both in Europe and America there is evidence of great changes of level -at the beginning of the Tertiary. In the west of Europe beds often of -shallow-water or even fresh-water origin fill the hollows in the bent -Cretaceous strata. This is manifestly the case with the formations of -the London and Paris basins, contemporaneous but detached deposits of -the Tertiary age, lying in depressions of the chalk. Still this does -not imply much want of conformity, and according to the best explorers -of those Alpine regions in which both the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds -have been thrown up to great elevations, they are in the main -conformable to one another. Something of the same kind occurs in -America. On the Atlantic coast the marine beds of the Older Tertiary -cover the Cretaceous, and little elevation seems to have occurred -Farther west the elevation increases, and in the upper part of the -valley of the Mississippi it amounts to 1700 feet. Still farther west, -in the region of the Rocky Mountains, there is evidence of elevation -to the extent of as much as 7000 feet. Throughout all these regions -scarcely any disturbance of the old Cretaceous sea-bottom seems to -have occurred until after the deposition of the older Tertiary, so -that there was first a slow and general elevation of the Cretaceous -ocean bottom, succeeded by gigantic folds and fractures, and extensive -extravasations of the bowels of the earth in molten rocks, in the -course of the succeeding Tertiary age. These great physical changes -inaugurated the new and higher life of the Tertiary, just as the -similar changes in the Permian did that of the Mesozoic. - -The beginning of these movements consisted of a great and gradual -elevation of the northern parts of both the Old and New Continents out -of the sea, whereby a much greater land surface was produced, and such -changes of depth and direction of currents in the ocean as must have -very much modified the conditions of marine life. The effect of all -these changes in the aggregate was to cause a more varied and variable -climate, and to convert vast areas previously tenanted by marine -animals into the abodes of animals and plants of the land, and of -estuaries, lakes, and shallow waters. Still, however, very large -areas now continental were under the sea. As the Tertiary period -advanced, these latter areas were elevated, and in many cases were -folded up into high mountains. This produced further changes of -climate and habitat of animals, and finally brought our continents -into all the variety of surface which they now present, and which fits -them so well for the habitation of the higher animals and of man. - -The thoughtful reader will observe that it follows from the above -statements that the partial distribution and diversity in different -localities which apply to the deposits of such ages as the Permian and -the Trias apply also to the earlier Tertiary; and as the continents, -notwithstanding some dips under water, have retained their present -forms since the beginning of the Tertiary, it follows that these beds -are more definitely related to existing geographical conditions then -are those of the older periods, and that the more extensive marine -deposits of the Tertiary are, to a great extent, unknown to us. This -has naturally led to some difficulty in the classification of Neozoic -deposits--those of some of the Tertiary ages being very patchy and -irregular, while others spread very widely. In consequence of this, -Sir Charles Lyell, to whom we owe very much of our definite knowledge -of this period, has proposed a subdivision based on the percentage of -recent and fossil animals. In other words, he takes it for granted -that a deposit which contains more numerous species of animals still -living then another, may be judged on that account to be more recent. -Such a mode of estimation is, no doubt, to some extent arbitrary; but -in the main, when it can be tested by the superposition of deposits, -it has proved itself reliable. Further, it brings before us this -remarkable fact, that while in the older periods all the animals whose -remains we find are extinct as species, so soon as we enter on the -Neozoic we find some which still continue to our time--at first only a -very few, but in later and later beds in gradually increasing -percentage, till the fossil and extinct wholly disappear in the recent -and living. - -The Lyellian classification of the Tertiary will therefore stand as in -the following table, bearing in mind that the percentage of fossils is -taken from marine forms, and mainly from mollusks, and that the system -has in some cases been modified by stratigraphical evidence:-- - - { Post-pliocene, including that which immediately - { precedes the Modern. In this the shells, etc., - { are recent, the Mammalia in part extinct. - { - { Pliocene, or more recent age. In this the - { majority of shells found are recent in the - Tertiary, or { upper beds. In the lower beds the extinct - Neozoic Time. { become predominant. - { - { Miocene, or less recent. In this the large - { majority of shells found are extinct. - { - { Eocene, the dawn of the recent. In this only - { a few recent shells occur. - -If we attempt to divide the Tertiary time into ages corresponding to -those of the older times, we are met by the difficulty that as the -continents have retained their present forms and characters to a great -extent throughout this time, we fail to find those evidences of -long-continued submergences of the whole continental plateaus, or very -large portions of them, which we have found so very valuable in the -Palæozoic and Mesozoic. In the Eocene, however, we shall discover one -very instructive case in the great Nummulitic Limestone. In the -Miocene and Pliocene the oscillations seem to have been slight and -partial. In the Post-pliocene we have the great subsidence of the -glacial drift; but that seems to have been a comparatively rapid dip, -though of long duration when measured by human history; not allowing -time for the formation of great limestones, but only of fossiliferous -sands and clays, which require comparatively short time for their -deposition If then we ask as to the duration of the Neozoic, I answer -that we have not a definite measure of its ages, if it had any; and -that it is possible that the Neozoic may have as yet had but one age, -which closed with the great drift period, and that we are now only in -the beginning of its second age. Some geologists, impressed with this -comparative shortness of the Tertiary, connect it with Mesozoic, -grouping both together. This, however, is obviously unnatural. The -Mesozoic time certainly terminated with the Cretaceous, and what -follows belongs to a distinct aeon. - -But we must now try to paint the character of this new and peculiar -time; and this may perhaps be best done in the following sketches: 1. -The seas of the Eocene. 2. Mammals from the Eocene to the Modern. 3. -Tertiary floras. 4. The Glacial period. 5. The Advent of Man. - -The great elevation of the continents which closed the Cretaceous was -followed by a partial and unequal subsidence, affecting principally -the more southern parts of the land of the northern hemisphere. Thus, -a wide sea area stretched across all the south of Europe and Asia, and -separated the northern part of North America from what of land existed -in the southern hemisphere. This is the age of the great Nummulitic -Limestones of Europe, Africa, and Asia, and the Orbitoidal Limestones -of North America. The names are derived from the prevalence of certain -forms of those humble shell-bearing protozoa which we first met with -in the Laurentian, and which we have found to be instrumental in -building up the chalk, the _Foraminifera_ of zoologists. (Fig. p. -243.) But in the Eocene the species of the chalk were replaced by -certain broad flat forms, the appearance of which is expressed by the -term nummulite, or money-stone; the rock appearing to be made up of -fossils, somewhat resembling shillings, sixpences, or three-penny -pieces, according to the size of the shells, each of which includes a -vast number of small concentric chambers, which during life were -filled with the soft jelly of the animal. The nummulite limestone was -undoubtedly oceanic, and the other shells contained in it are marine -species. After what we have already seen we do not need this -limestone to convince us of the continent-building powers of the -oceanic protozoa; but the distribution of these limestones, and the -elevation which they attain, furnish the most striking proofs that we -can imagine of the changes which the earth's crust has undergone in -times geologically modern, and also of the extreme newness of man and -his works. Large portions of those countries which constitute the -earliest seats of man in Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and Western -and Southern Asia, are built upon the old nummulitic sea-bottom. The -Egyptians and many other ancient nations quarried it for their oldest -buildings. In some of these regions it attains a thickness of several -thousand feet, evidencing a lapse of time in its accumulation equal to -that implied in the chalk itself. In the Swiss Alps it reaches a -height above the sea of 10,000 feet, and it enters largely into the -structure of the Carpathians and Pyrenees. In Thibet it has been -observed at an elevation of 16,500 feet above the sea. Thus we learn -that at a time no more geologically remote then the Eocene Tertiary, -lands now of this great elevation were in the bottom of the deep sea; -and this not merely for a little time, but during a time sufficient -for the slow accumulation of hundreds of feet of rock, made up of the -shells of successive generations of animals. If geology presented to -us no other revelation then this one fact, it would alone constitute -one of the most stupendous pictures in physical geography which could -be presented to the imagination. I beg leave here to present to the -reader a little illustration of the limestone-making Foraminifera of -the Cretaceous and Eocene seas. In the middle above is a nummulite of -the natural size. Below is another, sliced to show its internal -chambers. At one side is a magnified section of the common building -stone of Paris, the milioline limestone of the Eocene, so called from -its immense abundance of microscopic shells of the genus Miliolina. At -the other side is a magnified section of one of the harder varieties -of chalk, ground so thin as to become transparent,[AH] and mounted in -Canada balsam. It shows many microscopic chambered shells of -Foraminifera. These may serve as illustrations of the functions of -these humble inhabitants of the sea as accumulators of calcareous -matter. It is further interesting to remark that some of the beds of -nummulitic limestone are so completely filled with these shells, that -we might from detached specimens suppose that they belonged to -sea-bottoms whereon no other form of life was present. Yet some beds -of this age are remarkably rich in other fossils. Lyell states that as -many as six hundred species of shells have been found in the principal -limestone of the Paris basin alone; and the lower Eocene beds afford -remains of fishes, of reptiles, of birds, and of mammals. Among the -latter are the bones of gigantic whales, of which one of the most -remarkable is the Zeuglodon of Alabama, a creature sometimes seventy -feet in length, and which replaces in the Tertiary the great -Elasmosaurs and Ichthyosaurs of the Mesozoic, marking the advent, even -in the sea, of the age of Mammals as distinguished from the age of -Reptiles. - -[AH] As for instance that of the Giant's Causeway, Antrim. - -[Illustration: FORAMINIFERAL ROCK-BUILDERS. - -A. Nummulites lævigata--Eocene. - -B. The same, showing chambered interior. - -C. Milioline limestone, magnified--Eocene, Paris. - -D. Hard Chalk, section magnified--Cretaceous.] - -This fact leads us naturally to consider in the second place the -mammalia, and other land animals of the Tertiary. At the beginning of -the period we meet with that higher group of mammals, not pouched, -which now prevails. Among the oldest of these Tertiary beasts are -_Coryphodon_, an animal related to the Modern Tapirs, and _Arctocyon_, -a creature related to the bears and racoons. These animals represent -respectively the Pachyderms, or thick-skinned mammals, and the -ordinary Carnivora. Contemporary with or shortly succeeding these, -were species representing the Rodents, or gnawing animals, and many -other creatures of the group Pachydermata, allied to the Modern Tapirs -and Hogs, as well as several additional carnivorous quadrupeds. Thus -at the very beginning of the Tertiary period we enter on the age of -mammals, It may be well, however, to take these animals somewhat in -chronological order. - -If the old Egyptian, by quarrying the nummulite limestone, bore -unconscious testimony to the recent origin of man (whose remains are -wholly absent from the Tertiary deposits), so did the ancient Britons -and Gauls, when they laid the first rude foundations of future -capitals on the banks of the themes and of the Seine. Both cities lie -in basins of Eocene Tertiary, occupying hollows in the chalk. Under -London there is principally a thick bed of clay, the "London clay" -attaining a thickness of five hundred feet. This bed is obviously -marine, containing numerous species of sea shells; but it must have -been deposited near land, as it also holds many fossil fruits and -other remains of plants to which we shall refer in the sequel, and the -bones of several species of large animals. Among these the old -reptiles of the Mesozoic are represented by the vertebrae of a -supposed "sea snake" (Palæophis) thirteen feet long, and species of -crocodile allied both to the alligators and the gavials. But besides -these there are bones of several animals allied to the hog and tapir, -and also a species of opossum, These remains must be drift carcases -from neighbouring shores, and they show first the elevation of the -old deep-sea bottom represented by the chalk, so that part of it -became dry land; next, the peopling of that land by tribes of animals -and plants unknown to the Mesozoic; and lastly, that a warm climate -must have existed, enabling England at this time to support many types -of animals and plants now proper to intertropical regions. As Lyell -well remarks, it is most interesting to observe that these beds belong -to the beginning of the Tertiary, that they are older then those great -nummulite limestones to which we have referred, and that they are -older then the principal mountain chains of Europe and Asia. They show -that no sooner was the Cretaceous sea dried from off the new land, -then there were abundance of animals and plants ready to occupy it, -and these not the survivors of the flora and fauna of the Wealden, but -a new creation. The mention of the deposit last named places this in a -striking light. We have seen that the Wealden beds, under the chalk, -represent a Mesozoic estuary, and in it we have the remains of the -animals and plants of the land that then was. The great Cretaceous -subsidence intervened, and in the London clay we have an estuary of -the Eocene. But if we pass through the galleries of a museum where -these formations are represented, though we know that both existed in -the same locality under a warm climate, we see that they belong to two -different worlds, the one to that of the Dinosaurs, the Ammonites, the -Cycads, and the minute Marsupials of the Mesozoic, the other to that -of the Pachyderms, the Palms, and the Nautili of the Tertiary. - -The London clay is lower Eocene; but in the beds of the Isle of Wight -and neighbouring parts of the South of England, we have the middle and -upper members of the series. They are not, however, so largely -developed as in the Paris basin, where, resting on the equivalent of -the London clay, we have a thick marine limestone, the Calcaire -Grossier, abounding in marine remains, and in some beds composed of -shells of foraminifera. The sea in which this limestone was deposited, -a portion no doubt of the great Atlantic area of the period, became -shallow, so that beds of sand succeeded those of limestone, and -finally it was dried up into lake basins, in which gypsum, magnesian -sediments, and siliceous limestone were deposited. These lakes or -ponds must at some period have resembled the American "salt-licks," -and were no doubt resorted to by animals from all the surrounding -country in search of the saline mud and water which they afforded. -Hence in some marly beds intervening between the layers of gypsum, -numerous footprints occur, exactly like those already noticed in the -Trias. Had there been a Nimrod in those days to watch with bow or -boomerang by the muddy shore, he would have seen herds of heavy -short-legged and three-hoofed monsters (Palæotherium), with large -heads and long snouts, probably scantily covered with sleek hair, and -closely resembling the Modern Tapirs of South America and India, -laboriously wading through the mud, and grunting with indolent delight -as they rolled themselves in the cool saline slime. Others more light -and graceful, combining some features of the antelope with those of -the Tapir (Anoplotherium) ran in herds over the drier ridges, or -sometimes timidly approached the treacherous clay, tempted by the -saline waters. Other creatures representing the Modern Damans or -Conies--"feeble folk" which, with the aspect of hares, have the -structure of Pachyderms--were also present. Creatures of these types -constituted the great majority of the animals of the Parisian Eocene -lakes; but there were also Carnivorous animals allied to the hyæna, -the wolf, and the opossum, which prowled along the shores by night to -seize unwary wanderers, or to prey on the carcases of animals mired in -the sloughs. Wading birds equal in size to the ostrich also stalked -through the shallows, and tortoises crawled over the mud. - -Lyell mentions the discovery of some bones of one of these gigantic -birds (Gastornis) in a bed of the rolled chalk flints which form the -base of the Paris series, resting immediately on the chalk; one of the -first inhabitants perhaps to people some island of chalk just emerged -from the waters, and under which lay the bones of the mighty -Dinosaurs, and in which were embedded those of sea birds that had -ranged, like the albatross and petrel, over the wide expanse of the -Cretaceous ocean. These waders, however, like the tortoises and -crocodiles and small marsupial mammals, form a link of connection in -type at least between the Eocene and the Cretaceous, for bones of -wading birds have been found in the Greensands indicating their -existence before the close of the Mesozoic. - -The researches of Baron Cuvier in the bones collected in the quarries -of Montmartre were regarded as an astonishing triumph of comparative -anatomy; and familiar as we now are with similar and yet more -difficult achievements, we can yet afford to regard with admiration -the work of the great French naturalist as it is recorded in its -collected form in his "Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles," -published in 1812. His clear and philosophical views as to the plan -perceptible in nature, his admirable powers of classification, his -acute perception of the correlation of parts in animals, his nice -discrimination of the resemblances and differences of fossil and -recent structures, and of the uses of these,--all mark him as one of -the greatest minds ever devoted to the study of natural science. It is -obvious, that had his intellect been occupied by the evolutionist -metaphysics which pass for natural science with too many in our day, -he would have effected comparatively little; and instead of the -magnificent museum in the "Règne Animal" and the "Ossemens Fossiles," -we might have had wearisome speculations on the derivation of species. -It is reason for profound thankfulness that it was not so; and also -that so many great observers and thinkers of our day, like Sedgwick, -Murchison, Lyell, Owen, Dana, and Agassiz, have been allowed to work -out their researches almost to completion before the advent of those -poisoned streams and mephitic vapours which threaten the intellectual -obscuration of those who should be their successors. - -If we pass from the Eocene to the Miocene, still confining ourselves -mainly to mammalian life, we find three remarkable points of -difference--(1) Whereas the Eocene mammals are remarkable for -adherence to one general type, viz., that group of pachyderms most -regular and complete in its dentition, we now find a great number of -more specialised and peculiar forms; (2) We find in the latter period -a far greater proportion of large carnivorous animals; (3) We find -much greater variety of mammals then either in the Eocene or the -Modern, and a remarkable abundance of species of gigantic size. The -Miocene is thus apparently the culminating age of the mammalia, in so -far as physical development is concerned; and this, as we shall find, -accords with its remarkably genial climate and exuberant vegetation. - -In Europe, the beds of this age present, for the first time, examples -of the monkeys, represented by two generic types, both of them -apparently related to the modern long-armed species, or Gibbons. Among -carnivorous animals we have cat-like creatures, one of which is the -terrible _Machairodus_, distinguished from all modern animals of its -group by the long sabre-shaped canines of its upper jaw, fitting it to -pull down and destroy those large pachyderms which could have easily -shaken off a lion or a tiger. Here also we have the elephants, -represented by several species now extinct; the mastodon, a great, -coarsely-built, hog-like elephant, some species of which had tusks -both in the upper and lower jaw; the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and -the horse, all of extinct species. We have also giraffes, stags, and -antelopes, the first ruminants known to us, and a great variety of -smaller and less noteworthy creatures. Here also, for the first time, -we find the curious and exceptional group of Edentates, represented by -a large ant-eater. Of all the animals of the European Miocene, the -most wonderful and unlike any modern beast, is the Dinotherium, found -in the Miocene of Epplesheim in Germany; and described by Kaup. Some -doubt rests on the form and affinities of the animal; but we may -reasonably take it, as restored by its describer, and currently -reproduced in popular books, to have been a quadruped of somewhat -elephantine form. Some years ago, however, a huge haunch bone, -supposed to belong to this creature, was discovered in the South of -France; and from this it was inferred that the Dinothere may have been -a marsupial or pouched animal, perhaps allied in form and habits to -the kangaroos. The skull is three feet four inches in length; and when -provided with its soft parts, including a snout or trunk in front, it -must have been at least five or six feet long. Such a head, if it -belonged to a quadruped of ordinary proportions, must represent an -animal as large in proportion to our elephant as an elephant to an ox. -But its size is not its most remarkable feature. It has two large -tusks firmly implanted in strong bony sockets; but they are attached -to the end of the lower jaw and point downward at right angles to it, -so that the lower jaw forms a sort of double-pointed pickaxe of great -size and strength. This might have been used as a weapon; or, if the -creature was aquatic, as a grappling iron to hold by the bank, or by -floating timber; but more probably it was a grubbing-hoe for digging -up roots or loosening the bases of trees which the animal might -afterward pull down to devour them. However this may be, the creature -laboured under the mechanical disadvantage of having to lift an -immense weight in the process of mastication, and of being unable to -bring its mouth to the ground, or to bite or grasp anything with the -front of its jaws. To make up for this, it had muscles of enormous -power on the sides of the head attached to great projecting processes; -and it had a thick but flexible proboscis, to place in its mouth the -food grubbed up by its tusks. Taken altogether, the Dinothere is -perhaps the most remarkable of mammals, fossil or recent; and if the -rest of its frame were as extraordinary as its skull, we have probably -as yet but a faint conception of its peculiarities. We may apply to -it, with added force, the admiring ejaculation of Job, when he -describes the strength of the hippopotamus, "He is the chief of the -ways of God. He who made him, gave him his sword." - -[Illustration: MIOCENE MAMMALS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT. - -In the foreground _Elephas_, _Ganesa_, _Hydracotherium_, -_Dinotherium_, _Machairodus_, _Mastodon longirostris_. In the middle -distance, _Apes_, two _Anoplotheres_, _Palæotherium_, _Xiphodon_, and -_Sivatherium_. Sequoias and Fan Palm in the background.] - -In Asia, the Siwalik hills afforded to Falconer and Cautley one of the -most remarkable exhibitions of Miocene animals in the world. These -hills form a ridge subordinate to the Himalayan chain; and rise to a -height of 2,000 to 3,000 feet. In the Miocene period, they were sandy -and pebbly shores and banks lying at the foot of the then infant -Himalayas, which, with the table-lands to the north, probably formed a -somewhat narrow east and west continental mass or large island. As a -mere example of the marvellous fauna which inhabited this Miocene -land, it has afforded remains of seven species of elephants, -mastodons, and allied animals; one of them, the _E. Ganesa_, with -tusks ten feet and a half long, and twenty-six inches in circumference -at the base. Besides these there are five species of rhinoceros, three -of horse and allied animals, four or more of hippopotamus, and species -of camel, giraffe, antelope, sheep, ox, and many other genera, as well -as numerous large and formidable beasts of prey. There is also an -ostrich; and, among other reptiles, a tortoise having a shell twelve -feet in length, and this huge roof must have covered an animal -eighteen feet long and seven feet high. Among the more remarkable of -the Siwalik animals is the _Sivatherium_, a gigantic four-horned -antelope or deer, supposed to have been of elephantine size, and of -great power and swiftness; and to have presented features connecting -the ruminants and pachyderms. Our restoration of this creature is to -some extent conjectural; and a remarkably artistic, and probably more -accurate, restoration of the animal has recently been published by -Dr. Murie, in the Geological Magazine. We justly regard the Mammalian -fauna of modern India as one of the noblest in the world; but it is -paltry in comparison with that of the much more limited Miocene India; -even if we suppose, contrary to all probability, that we know most of -the animals of the latter. But if we consider the likelihood that we -do not yet know a tenth of the Miocene animals, the contrast becomes -vastly greater. - -Miocene America is scarcely behind the Old World in the development of -its land animals. From one locality in Nebraska, Leidy described in -1852 fifteen species of large quadrupeds; and the number has since -been considerably increased. Among these are species of Rhinoceros, -Palæotherium, and Machairodus; and one animal, the Titanotherium, -allied to the European Anoplothere, is said to have attained a length -of eighteen feet and a height of nine, its jaws alone being five feet -long. - -In the illustration, I have grouped some of the characteristic -Mammalian forms of the Miocene, as we can restore them from their -scattered bones, more or less conjecturally; but could we have seen -them march before us in all their majesty, like the Edenic animals -before Adam, I feel persuaded that our impressions of this wonderful -age would have far exceeded anything that we can derive either from -words or illustrations. I insist on this the more that the Miocene -happens to be very slenderly represented in Britain; and scarcely at -all in north-eastern America; and hence has not impressed the -imagination of the English race so strongly as its importance -justifies. - -The next succeeding period, that of the Pliocene, continues the -conditions of the last, but with signs of decadence. Many of the old -gigantic pachyderms have disappeared; and in their stead some familiar -modern genera were introduced. The Pliocene was terminated by the cold -or glacial period, in which a remarkable lowering of temperature -occurred over all the northern hemisphere, accompanied, at least in a -portion of the time, by a very general and great subsidence, which -laid all the lower parts of our continents under water. This -terminated much of the life of the Pliocene, and replaced it with -boreal and Arctic forms, some of them, like the great hairy Siberian -mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, fit successors of the gigantic -Miocene fauna. How it happened that such creatures were continued -during the Post-pliocene cold, we cannot understand till we have the -Tertiary vegetation before us. It must suffice now to say, that as the -temperature was modified, and the land rose, and the Modern period was -inaugurated, these animals passed away, and those of the present time -remained. - -Perhaps the most remarkable fact connected with this change, is that -stated by Pictet, that all the modern European mammals are direct -descendants of Post-pliocene species; but that in the Post-pliocene -they were associated with many other species; and these, often of -great dimensions, now extinct. In other words, the time from the -Pliocene to the Modern, has been a time of diminution of species, -while that from the Eocene to the Miocene was a time of rapid -introduction of new species. Thus the Tertiary fauna culminated in the -Miocene. Yet, strange though this may appear, Man himself, the latest -and noblest of all, would seem to have been a product of the later -stages of the time of decadence. I propose, however, to return to the -animals immediately preceding man and his contemporaries, after we -have noticed the Tertiary flora and the Glacial period. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE NEOZOIC AGES (_continued_). - - -Plant-life in the Tertiary approaches very nearly to that of the -Modern World, in so far as its leading types are concerned; but in its -distribution geographically it was wonderfully different from that -with which we are at present familiar. For example, in the Isle of -Sheppey, at the mouth of the themes, are beds of "London clay," fall -of fossil nuts; and these, instead of being hazel nuts and acorns, -belong to palms allied to species now found in the Philippine Islands -and Bengal, while with them are numerous cone-like fruits belonging to -the Proteaceæ (banksias, silver-trees, wagenbooms, etc.), a group of -trees now confined to Australia and South Africa, but which in the -Northern Hemisphere had already, as stated in a previous paper, made -their appearance in the Cretaceous, and were abundant in the Eocene. -The state of preservation of these fruits shows that they were not -drifted far; and in some beds in Hampshire, also of Eocene age, the -leaves of similar plants occur along with species of fig, cinnamon, -and other forms equally Australian or Indian. In America, especially -in the west, there are thick and widely-distributed beds of lignite or -imperfect coal of the Eocene period; but the plants found in the -American Eocene are more like those of the European Miocene or the -Modern American flora, a fact to which we must revert immediately. - -In Europe, while the Eocene plants resemble those of Australia, when -we ascend into the Miocene they resemble those of America, though -still retaining some of the Australian forms. In the leaf-beds of the -Isle of Mull,--where beds of vegetable mould and leaves were covered -up with the erupted matter of a volcano belonging to a great series of -such eruptions which produced the basaltic cliffs of Antrim and of -Staffa,--and at Bovey, in Devonshire, where Miocene plants have -accumulated in many thick beds of lignite, the prevailing plants are -sequoias or red-woods, vines, figs, cinnamons, etc. In the sandstones -at the base of the Alps similar plants and also palms of American -types occur. In the Upper Miocene beds of Oeningen in the Rhine -valley, nearly five hundred species of plants have been found, and -include such familiar forms as the maples, plane-trees, cypress, elm, -and sweet-gum, more American, however, then European in their aspect. -It thus appears that the Miocene flora of Europe resembles that of -America at pre sent, while the Eocene flora of Europe resembles that -of Australia, and the Eocene flora of America, as well as the modern, -resembles the Miocene of Europe. In other words, the changes of the -flora have been more rapid in Europe then in America and probably -slowest of all in Australia. The Eastern Continent has thus taken the -lead in rapidity of change in the Tertiary period, and it has done so -in animals as well as in plants. - -The following description of the flora of Bovey is given, with slight -alteration, in the words of Dr. Heer, in his memoir on that district. -The woods that covered the slopes consisted mainly of a huge pine-tree -(sequoia), whose figure resembled in all probability its -highly-admired cousin, the giant Wellingtonia of California. The leafy -trees of most frequent occurrence were the cinnamon and an evergreen -oak like those now seen in Mexico. The evergreen figs, the custard -apples, and allies of the Cape jasmine, were rarer. The trees were -festooned with vines, beside which the prickly rotang palm twined its -snake-like form. In the shade of the forest throve numerous ferns, one -species of which formed trees of imposing grandeur, and there were -masses of under-wood belonging to various species of Nyssa, like the -tupelos and sour-gums of North America. This is a true picture, based -on actual facts, of the vegetation of England in the Miocene age. - -But all the other wonders of the Miocene flora are thrown into the -shade by the discoveries of plants of this age which have recently -been made in Greenland, a region now bound up in what we poetically -call eternal ice, but which in the Miocene was a fair and verdant -land, rejoicing in a mild climate and rich vegetation. The beds -containing these specimens occur in various places in North Greenland; -and the principal locality, Atane-Kerdluk, is in lat. 70 N. and at an -elevation of more then a thousand feet above the sea. The plants occur -abundantly in sandstone and clay beds, and the manner in which -delicate leaves and fruits are preserved shows that they have not been -far water-borne, a conclusion which is confirmed by the occurrence of -beds of lignite of considerable thickness, and which are evidently -peaty accumulations containing trunks of trees. The collections made -have enabled Heer to catalogue 137 species, all of them of forms -proper to temperate, or even warm regions, and mostly American in -character. As many as forty-six of the species already referred to as -occurring at Bovey Tracey and Oeningen occur also in the Greenland -beds. Among the plants are many species of pines, some of them of -large size; and the beeches, oaks, planes, poplars, maples, walnuts, -limes, magnolias, and vines are apparently as well represented as in -the warm temperate zone of America at the present day. This wonderful -flora was not a merely local phenomenon, for similar plants are found -in Spitzbergen in lat. 78° 56'. It is to be further observed, that -while the general characters of these ancient Arctic plants imply a -large amount of summer heat and light, the evergreens equally imply a -mild winter. Further, though animal remains are not found with these -plants, it is probable that so rich a supply of vegetable food was not -unutilised, and that we shall some time find that there was an Arctic -fauna corresponding to the Arctic flora. How such a climate could -exist in Greenland and Spitzbergen is still a mystery. It has, -however, been suggested that this effect might result from the -concurrence of such astronomical conditions in connection with the -eccentricity of the earth's orbit as would give the greatest amount of -warmth in the Northern Hemisphere with such distribution of land and -water as would give the least amount of cold northern land and the -most favourable arrangement of the warm surface currents of the -ocean.[AI] - -[AI] Croll and Lyell. - -Before leaving these Miocene plants, I must refer to a paragraph which -Dr. Heer has thought it necessary to insert in his memoir on the -Greenland flora, and which curiously illustrates the feebleness of -what with some men passes for science. He says: "In conclusion, I beg -to offer a few remarks on the amount of certainty in identification -which the determination of fossil plants is able to afford us. We know -that the flowers, fruits, and seeds are more important as -characteristics then the leaves. There are many genera of which the -leaves are variable, and consequently would be likely to lead us -astray if we trusted in them alone. However, many characters of the -form and venation of leaves are well-known to be characteristic of -certain genera, and can therefore afford us characters of great value -for their recognition." In a similar apologetic style he proceeds -through several sentences to plead the cause of his Greenland leaves. -that he should have to do so is strange, unless indeed the botany -known to those for whom he writes is no more then that which a -school-girl learns in her few lessons in dissecting a buttercup or -daisy. It is easy for scientific triflers to exhibit collections of -plants in which species of different genera and families are so -similar in their leaves that a careless observer would mistake one for -the other, or to get up composite leaves in part of one species and in -part of another, and yet seeming the same, and in this way to -underrate the labours of painstaking observers like Heer. But it is -nevertheless true that in any of these leaves, not only are there good -characters by which they can be recognised, but that a single -breathing pore, or a single hair, or a few cells, or a bit of -epidermis not larger then a pin's head, should enable any one who -understands his business to see as great differences as a merely -superficial botanist would see between the flower of a ranunculus and -that of a strawberry. Heer himself, and the same applies to all other -competent students of fossil plants, has almost invariably found his -determinations from mere fragments of leaves confirmed when more -characteristic parts were afterwards discovered. It is high time, in -the interests of geology, that botanists should learn that constancy -and correlation of parts are laws in the plant as well as in the -animal; and this they can learn only by working more diligently with -the microscope. I would, however, go further then this, and maintain -that, in regard to some of the most important geological conclusions -to be derived from fossils, even the leaves of plants are vastly more -valuable then the hard parts of animals. For instance, the bones of -elephants and rhinoceroses found in Greenland would not prove a warm -climate; because the creatures might have been protected from cold -with hair like that of the musk-sheep, and they might have had -facilities for annual migrations like the bisons. The occurrence of -bones of reindeer in France does not prove that its climate was like -that of Lapland; but only that it was wooded, and that the animals -could rove at will to the hills and to the coast. But, on the other -hand, the remains of an evergreen oak in Greenland constitute absolute -proof of a warm and equable climate; and the occurrence of leaves of -the dwarf birch in France constitutes a proof of a cool climate, worth -more then that which can be derived from the bones of millions of -reindeer and musk-sheep. Still further, in all those greater and more -difficult questions of geology which relate to the emergence and -submergence of land areas, and to the geographical conditions of past -geological periods, the evidence of plants, especially when rooted in -place, is of far more value then that of animals, though it has yet -been very little used. - -This digression prepares the way for the question: Was the Miocene -period on the whole a better age of the world then that in which we -live? In some respects it was. Obviously there was in the Northern -Hemisphere a vast surface of land under a mild and equable climate, -and clothed with a rich and varied vegetation. Had we lived in the -Miocene, we might have sat under our vine and fig-tree equally in -Greenland and Spitzbergen and in those more southern climes to which -this privilege is now restricted. We might have enjoyed a great -variety of rich and nutritive fruits, and, if sufficiently muscular, -and able to cope with the gigantic mammals of the period, we might -have engaged in either the life of the hunter or that of the -agriculturist under advantages which we do not now possess. On the -whole, the Miocene presents to us in these respects the perfection of -the Neozoic time, and its culmination in so far as the nobler forms of -brute animals and of plants are concerned. Had men existed in those -days, however, they should have been, in order to suit the conditions -surrounding them, a race of giants; and they would probably have felt -the want of many of those more modern species belonging to the flora -and fauna of Europe and Western Asia on which man has so much depended -for his civilization. Some reasons have been adduced for the belief -that in the Miocene and Eocene there were intervals of cold climate; -but the evidence of this may be merely local and exceptional, and does -not interfere with the broad characteristics of the age as sketched -above. - -The warm climate and rich vegetation of the Miocene extended far into -the Pliocene, with characters very similar to those already stated; -but as the Pliocene age went on, cold and frost settled down upon the -Northern Hemisphere, and a remarkable change took place in its -vegetable productions. For example, in the somewhat celebrated -"forest bed" of Cromer, in Norfolk, which is regarded as Newer -Pliocene, we have lost all the foreign and warm-climate plants of the -Miocene, and find the familiar Scotch firs and other plants of the -Modern British flora. The animals, however, retain their former types; -for two species of elephant, a hippopotamus, and a rhinoceros are -found in connection with these plants. This is another evidence, in -addition to those above referred to, that plants are better -thermometers to indicate geological and climatal change then animals. -This Pliocene refrigeration appears to have gone on increasing into -the next or Post-pliocene age, and attained its maximum in the Glacial -period, when, as many geologists think, our continents were, even in -the temperate latitudes, covered with a sheet of ice like that which -now clothes Greenland. Then occurred a very general subsidence, in -which they were submerged under the waters of a cold icy sea, tenanted -by marine animals now belonging to boreal and arctic regions. After -this last great plunge-bath they rose to constitute the dry land of -man and his contemporaries. Let us close this part of the subject with -one striking illustration from Heer's memoir on Bovey Tracey. At this -place, above the great series of clays and lignites containing the -Miocene plants already described, is a thick covering of clay, gravel, -and stones, evidently of much later date. This also contains some -plants; but instead of the figs, and cinnamons, and evergreen oaks, -they are the petty dwarf birch of Scandinavia and the Highland hills, -and three willows, one of them the little Arctic and Alpine creeping -willow. Thus we have in the south of England a transition in the -course of the Pliocene period, from a climate much milder then that of -Modern England to one almost Arctic in its character. - -Our next topic for consideration is one of the most vexed questions -among geologists, the Glacial period which immediately preceded the -Advent of Man. In treating of this it will be safest first to sketch the -actual appearances which present themselves, and then to draw such -pictures as we can of the conditions which they represent. The most -recent and superficial covering of the earth's crust is usually composed -of rock material more or less ground up and weathered. This may, with -reference to its geological character and origin, be considered as of -three kinds. It may be merely the rock weathered and decomposed to a -certain extent _in situ_; or it may be alluvial matter carried or -deposited by existing streams or tides, or by the rains; or, lastly, it -may be material evidencing the operation of causes not now in action. -This last constitutes what has been called drift or diluvial detritus, -and is that with which we have now to do. Such drift, then, is very -widely distributed on our continents in the higher latitudes. In the -Northern Hemisphere it extends from the Arctic regions to about 50° of -north latitude in Europe, and as low as 40° in North America; and it -occurs south of similar parallels in the Southern Hemisphere. Farther -towards the equator then the latitudes indicated, we do not find the -proper drift deposits, but merely weathered rocks or alluvia, or old sea -bottoms raised up. This limitation of the drift, at the very outset -gives it the character of a deposit in some way connected with the Polar -cold. Besides this, the general transport of stones and other material -in the northern regions has been to the south; hence in the Northern -Hemisphere this deposit may be called the _Northern_ Drift. - -If now we take a typical locality of this formation, such, for -instance, as we may find in Scotland, or Scandinavia, or Canada, we -shall find it to consist of three members, as follows:-- - - 3. Superficial Sands or Gravels. - - 2. Stratified Clays. - - 1. Till or Boulder Clay. - -This arrangement may locally be more complicated, or it may be -deficient in one of its members. The boulder clay may, for example, be -underlaid by stratified sand or gravel, or even by peaty deposits; it -may be intermixed with layers of clay or sand; the stratified clay or -the boulder clay may be absent, or may be uncovered by any upper -member. Still we may take the typical series as above stated, and -inquire as to its characters and teaching. - -The lower member, or boulder clay, is a very remarkable kind of -deposit, consisting of a paste which may graduate from tough clay to -loose sand, and which holds large angular and rounded stones or -boulders confusedly intermixed; these stones may be either from the -rocks found in the immediate vicinity of their present position, or at -great distances. This mass is usually destitute of any lamination or -subordinate stratification, whence it is often called _Unstratified_ -Drift, and is of very variable thickness, often occurring in very -thick beds in valleys, and being comparatively thin or absent on -intervening hills. Further, if we examine the stones contained in the -boulder clay, we shall find that they are often scratched or striated -and grooved; and when we remove the clay from the rock surfaces on -which it rests, we find these in like manner striated, grooved and -polished. These phenomena, viz., of polished and striated rocks and -stones, are similar to those produced by those great sliding masses of -ice, the glaciers of Alpine regions, which in a small way and in -narrow and elevated valleys, act on the rocks and stones in this -manner, though they cannot form deposits precisely analogous to the -boulder clay, owing to the wasting away of much of the finer material -by the torrents, and the heaping of the coarser detritus in ridges -and piles. Further, we have in Greenland a continental mass, with -all its valleys thus filled with slowly-moving ice, and from this -there drift off immense ice-islands, which continue at least the -mud-and-stone-depositing process, and possibly also the grinding -process, over the sea bottom. So far all geologists are agreed; but -here they diverge into two schools. One of these, then of the Glacier -theorists, holds that the boulder clay is the product of land-ice; and -this requires the supposition that at the time when it was deposited -the whole of our continents north of 40° or 50° was in the condition -of Greenland at present. This is, however, a hypothesis so -inconvenient, not to say improbable, that many hesitate to accept it, -and prefer to believe that in the so-called Glacial period the land -was submerged, and that icebergs then as now drifted from the north in -obedience to the Arctic currents, and produced the effects observed. -It would be tedious to go into all the arguments of the advocates of -glaciers and icebergs, and I shall not attempt this, more especially -as the only way to decide the question is to observe carefully the -facts in every particular locality, and inquire as to the conclusions -fairly deducible. With the view of aiding such a solution, however, I -may state a few general principles applicable to the appearances -observed. We may then suppose that boulder clay may be formed in three -ways. (1) It may be deposited on land, as what is called the bottom -moraine of a land glacier. (2) It may be deposited in the sea when -such a glacier ends on the coast. (3) It may be deposited by the -melting or grounding on muddy bottoms of the iceberg masses floated -off from the end of such a glacier. It is altogether likely, from the -observations recently made in Greenland, that in that country such a -deposit is being formed in all these ways. In like manner, the -ancient boulder clay may have been formed in one or more of these ways -in any given locality where it occurs, though it may be difficult in -many instances to indicate the precise mode. There are, however, -certain criteria which may be applied to the determination of its -origin, and I may state a few of these, which are the results of my -own experience. (1) Where the boulder clay contains marine shells, or -rounded stones which if exposed to the air would have been cracked to -pieces, decomposed, or oxidized, it must have been formed under water. -Where the conditions are the reverse of these, it may have been formed -on land. (2) When the striations and transport of materials do not -conform to the levels of the country, and take that direction, usually -N.E. and S.W., which the Arctic current would take if the country were -submerged, the probability is that it was deposited in the sea. Where, -however, the striation and transport take the course of existing -valleys, more especially in hilly regions, the contrary may be -inferred. (3) Where most of the material, more especially the large -stones, has been carried to great distances from its original site, -especially over plains or up slopes, it has probably been sea-borne. -Where it is mostly local, local ice-action may be inferred. Other -criteria may be stated, but these are sufficient for our present -purpose. Their application in every special case I do not presume to -make; but I am convinced that when applied to those regions in Eastern -America with which I am familiar, they necessitate the conclusion -that in the period of extreme refrigeration, the greater part of the -land was under water, and such hills and mountains as remained were -little Greenlands, covered with ice and sending down glaciers to the -sea. In hilly and broken regions, therefore, and especially at -considerable elevations, we find indications of _glacier_ action; on -the great plains, on the contrary, the indications are those of -_marine_ glaciation and transport. This last statement, I believe, -applies to the mountains and plains of Europe and Asia as well as of -America. - -This view requires not only the supposition of great refrigeration, -but of a great subsidence of the land in the temperate latitudes, with -large residual islands and hills in the Arctic regions. That such -subsidence actually took place is proved, not only by the frequent -occurrence of marine shells in the boulder clay itself, but also by -the occurrence of stratified marine clays filled with shells, often of -deep-water species, immediately over that deposit. Further, the -shells, and also occasional land plants found in these beds, indicate -a cold climate and much cold fresh water pouring into the sea from -melting ice and snow. In Canada these marine clays have been traced up -to elevations of 600 feet, and in Great Britain deposits of this kind -occur on one of the mountains of Wales at the height of 1300 feet -above the level of the sea. Nor is it to be supposed that this level -marks the extreme height of the Post-pliocene waters, for drift -material not explicable by glaciers, and evidences of marine erosion, -occur at still higher levels, and it is natural that on high and -exposed points fewer remains of fossiliferous beds should be left then -in plains and valleys. - -At the present day the coasts of Britain and other parts of Western -Europe enjoy an exceptionally warm temperature, owing to the warm -currents of the Atlantic being thrown on them, and the warm and moist -Atlantic air flowing over them, under the influence of the prevailing -westerly winds. These advantages are not possessed by the eastern -coast of North America, nor by some deep channels in the sea, along -which the cold northern currents flow under the warmer water. Hence -these last-mentioned localities are inhabited by boreal shells much -farther south then such species extend on the coasts and banks of -Great Britain. In the Glacial period this exceptional advantage was -lost, and while the American seas, as judged by their marine animals, -were somewhat colder then at present, the British seas were -proportionally much more cooled down. No doubt, however, there were -warmer and colder areas, determined by depth and prevailing currents, -and as these changed their position in elevation and subsidence of the -land, alternations and even mixtures of the inhabitants of cold and -warm water resulted, which have often been very puzzling to -geologists. - -I have taken the series of drift deposits seen in Britain and in -Canada as typical, and the previous discussion has had reference to -them. But it would be unfair not to inform the reader that this -succession of deposits after all belongs to the margins of our -continents rather then to their great central areas. This is the case -at least in North America, where in the region of the great lakes the -oldest glaciated surfaces are overlaid by thick beds of stratified -clay, without marine fossils, and often without either stones or -boulders, though these sometimes occur, especially toward the north. -The clay, however, contains drifted fragments of coniferous trees. -Above this clay are sand and gravel, and the principal deposit of -travelled stones and boulders rests on these. I cannot affirm that a -similar succession occurs on the great inland plains of Europe and -Asia: but I think it probable that to some extent it does. The -explanation of this inland drift by the advocates of a great -continental glacier is as follows: (1) In the Pliocene period the -continents were higher then at present, and many deep valleys, since -filled up, were cut in them. (2) In the Post-pliocene these elevated -continents became covered with ice, by the movement of which the -valleys were deepened and the surfaces striated. (3) This ice-period -was followed by a depression and submergence, in which the clays were -deposited, filling up old channels, and much changing the levels of -the land. Lastly, as the land rose again from this submergence, sand -and gravel were deposited, and boulders scattered over the surface by -floating ice. - -The advocates of floating ice as distinguished from a continental -glacier, merely dispense with the latter, and affirm that the -striation under the clay, as well as that connected with the later -boulders, is the effect of floating bergs. The occurrence of so much -drift wood in the clay favours their view, as it is more likely that -there would be islands clothed with trees in the sea, then that these -should exist immediately after the country had been mantled in ice. -The want of marine shells is a difficulty in either view, but may be -accounted for by the rapid deposition of the clay and the slow -spreading of marine animals over a submerged continent under -unfavourable conditions of climate. - -In any case the reader will please observe that theorists must account -for both the interior and marginal forms of these deposits. Let us -tabulate the facts and the modes of accounting for them. - - ------------------------------------+------------------------------------ - FACTS OBSERVED. | THEORETICAL VIEWS. - -------------------+----------------+------------------------------------ - Inland Plains. | Marginal Areas.|Glacial Theories.| Floating Ice - | | | Theories. - ===================+================+==================================== - Terraces. | Terraces and | Emergence of Modern Land.[AJ] - | Raised Beaches.| - -------------------+----------------+------------------------------------ - Travelled Boulders |Sand and Gravel,| - and Glaciated |with Sea Shells | - Stones and Rocks |and Boulders. | Shallow Sea and Floating Ice. - Stratified Sand | | - and Gravel. | | - -------------------+----------------+------------------------------------ - Stratified Clay |Stratified Clay | Deep Sea and Floating Ice. - with Drift Wood, |with Sea Shells.+----------------+------------------- - and a few Stones. |Boulder Clay |Submergence of |Much floating Ice - and Boulders. |with or without |the land. Great |and local Glaciers. - Striated Rocks. |Sea Shells. |continental |Submergence of - |Striated Rocks. |mantle of Ice. |Pliocene Land. - -------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------- - Old channels, |Old channels, |Erosion by |Erosion by - indicating a higher|etc., indicating|continental |atmospheric - level of the land. |previous dry |Glacier. |agencies and - |land. | |accumulation of - | | |decomposed rock. - -------------------+----------------+----------------+------------------- - -[AJ] The phenomena of this period, with reference to rainfall, melting -snows, and valley deposits, must be noticed in the next chapter. - -This table will suffice at least to reduce the great glacier -controversy to its narrowest limits, when we have added the one -further consideration that glaciers are the parents of icebergs, and -that the question is not of one or the other exclusively, but of the -relative predominance of the one or the other in certain given times -and places. Both theories admit a great Post-pliocene subsidence. The -abettors of glaciers can urge the elevation of the surface, the -supposed powers of glaciers as eroding agents, and the transport of -boulders. Those whose theoretical views lean to floating ice, believe -that they can equally account for these phenomena, and can urge in -support of their theory the occurrence of drift wood in the inland -clay and boulder clay, and of sea-shells in the marginal clay and -boulder clay, and the atmospheric decomposition of rock in the -Pliocene period, as a source of the material of the clays, while to -similar causes they can attribute the erosion of the deep valleys -piled with the Post-pliocene deposits. They can also maintain that the -general direction of striation and drift implies the action of sea -currents, while they appeal to local glaciers to account for special -cases of glaciated rocks at the higher levels. - -How long our continental plateaus remained under the icy seas of the -Glacial period we do not know. Relatively to human chronology, it was -no doubt a long time; but short in comparison with those older -subsidences in which the great Palæozoic limestones were produced. At -length, however, the change came. Slowly and gradually, or by -intermittent lifts, the land rose: and as it did so, shallow-water -sands and gravels were deposited on the surface of the deep-sea clays, -and the sides of the hills were cut into inland cliffs and terraces, -marking the stages of recession of the waters. At length, when the -process was complete, our present continents stood forth in their -existing proportions ready for the occupancy of man. - -The picture which these changes present to the imagination is one of -the most extraordinary in all geological history. We have been -familiar with the idea of worlds drowned in water, and the primeval -incandescent earth shows us the possibility of our globe being melted -with fervent heat; but here we have a world apparently frozen out -destroyed by cold, or doubly destroyed by ice and water. Let us -endeavour to realise this revolution, as it may have occurred in any -of the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, thickly peopled -with the magnificent animals that had come down from the grand old -Miocene time. Gradually the warm and equable temperature gives place -to cold winters and chilly wet summers. The more tender animals die -out, and the less hardy plants begin to be winter-killed, or to fail -to perfect their fruits. As the forests are thus decimated, other and -hardier species replace those which disappear. The animals which have -had to confine themselves to sheltered spots, or which have perished -through cold or want of food, are replaced by others migrating from -the mountains, or from colder regions. Some, perhaps, in the course -of generations, become dwarfed in stature, and covered with more -shaggy fur. Permanent snow at length appears upon the hill-tops, and -glaciers plough their way downward, devastating the forests, -encroaching on the fertile plains, and at length reaching the heads of -the bays and fiords. While snow and ice are thus encroaching from -above, the land is subsiding, and the sea is advancing upon it, while -great icebergs drifting on the coasts still further reduce the -temperature. Torrents and avalanches from the hills carry mud and -gravel over the plains. Peat bogs accumulate in the hollows. Glaciers -heap up confused masses of moraine, and the advancing sea piles up -stones and shingle to be imbedded in mud on its further advance, while -boreal marine animals invade the now submerged plains. At length the -ice and water meet everywhere, or leave only a few green strips where -hardy Arctic plants still survive, and a few well-clad animals manage -to protract their existence. Perhaps even these are overwhelmed, and -the curtain of the Glacial winter falls over the fair scenery of the -Pliocene. In every locality thus invaded by an apparently perpetual -winter, some species of laud animals must have perished. Others may -have migrated to more genial climes, others under depauperated and -hardy varietal forms may have continued successfully to struggle for -existence. The general result must have been greatly to diminish the -nobler forms of life, and to encourage only those fitted for the most -rigorous climates and least productive soils. - -Could we have visited the world in this dreary period, and have -witnessed the decadence and death of that brilliant and magnificent -flora and fauna which we have traced upward from the Eocene, we might -well have despaired of the earth's destinies, and have fancied it the -sport of some malignant demon; or have supposed that in the contest -between the powers of destruction and those of renovation the former -had finally gained the victory. We must observe, however, that the -suffering in such a process is less then we might suppose. So long as -animals could exist, they would continue to enjoy life. The conditions -unfavourable to them would be equally or more so to their natural -enemies. Only the last survivors would meet with what might be -regarded as a tragical end. As one description of animal became -extinct, another was prepared to occupy its room. If elephants and -rhinoceroses perished from the land, countless herds of walruses and -seals took their places. If gay insects died and disappeared, -shell-fishes and sea-stars were their successors. - -Thus in nature there is life even in death, and constant enjoyment -even when old systems are passing away. But could we have survived the -Glacial period, we should have seen a reason for its apparently -wholesale destruction. Out of that chaos came at length an Eden; and -just as the Permian prepared the way for the Mesozoic, so the glaciers -and icebergs of the Post-pliocene were the ploughshare of God -preparing the earth for the time when, with a flora and fauna more -beautiful and useful, if less magnificent then that of the Tertiary, -it became as the garden of the Lord, fitted for the reception of His -image and likeness, immortal and intelligent Man. We need not, -however, with one modern school of philosophy, regard man himself as -but a descendant of Miocene apes, scourged into reason and humanity by -the struggle for existence in the Glacial period. We may be content to -consider him as a son of God, and to study in the succeeding chapters -that renewal of the Post-pliocene world which preceded and heralded -his advent. - -In the meantime, our illustration,[AK] borrowed in part from the -magnificent representation of the Post-pliocene fauna of England, by -the great restorer of extinct animals, Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins, may -serve to give some idea of the grand and massive forms of animal life -which, even in the higher latitudes, survived the Post-pliocene cold, -and only decayed and disappeared under that amelioration of physical -conditions which marks the introduction of the human period. - -[AK] Page 301. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -CLOSE OF THE POST-PLIOCENE, AND ADVENT OF MAN. - - -_In_ closing these sketches it may seem unsatisfactory not to link the -geological ages with the modern period in which we live; yet, perhaps, -nothing is more complicated or encompassed with greater difficulties -or uncertainties. The geologist, emerging from the study of the older -monuments of the earth's history, and working with the methods of -physical science, here meets face to face the archæologist and -historian, who have been tracing back in the opposite direction, and -with very different appliances, the stream of human history and -tradition. In such circumstances conflicts may occur, or at least the -two paths of inquiry may refuse to connect themselves without -concessions unpleasant to the pursuers of one or both. Further, it is -just at this meeting-place that the dim candle of traditional lore is -almost burnt out in the hand of the antiquary, and that the geologist -finds his monumental evidence becoming more scanty and less distinct. -We cannot hope as yet to dispel all the shadows that haunt this -obscure domain, but can at least point out some of the paths which -traverse it. In attempting this, we may first classify the time -involved as follows: (1) The earlier Post-pliocene period of geology -may be called the _Glacial_ era. It is that of a cold climate, -accompanied by glaciation and boulder deposits. (2) The later -_Post-pliocene_ may be called the Post-glacial era. It is that of -re-elevation of the continents and restoration of a mild temperature. -It connects itself with the pre-historic period of the archæologist, -inasmuch as remains of man and his works are apparently included in -the same deposits which hold the bones of Post-glacial animals. (3) -The _Modern_ era is that of secular human history. - -It may be stated with certainty that the Pliocene period of geology -affords no trace of human remains or implements; and the same may I -think be affirmed of the period of glaciation and subsidence which -constitutes the earlier Post-pliocene. With the rise of the land out -of the Glacial sea indications of man are believed to appear, along -with remains of several mammalian species now his contemporaries. -Archæology and geology thus meet somewhere in the pre-historic period -of the former, and in the Post-glacial of the latter. Wherever, -therefore, human history extends farthest back, and geological -formations of the most modern periods exist and have been explored, we -may expect best to define their junctions. Unfortunately it happens -that our information on these points is still very incomplete and -locally limited. In many extensive regions, like America and -Australia, while the geological record is somewhat complete, the -historic record extends back at most a few centuries, and the -pre-historic monuments are of uncertain date. In other countries, as -in Western Asia and Egypt, where the historic record extends very far -back, the geology is less perfectly known. At the present moment, -therefore, the main battle-field of these controversies is in Western -Europe, where, though history scarce extends farther back then the -time of the Roman Republic, the geologic record is very complete, and -has been explored with some thoroughness. It is obvious, however, that -we thus have to face the question at a point where the pre-historic -gap is necessarily very wide. - -Taking England as an example, all before the Roman invasion is -pre-historic, and with regard to this pre-historic period the evidence -that we can obtain is chiefly of a geological character. The -pre-historic men are essentially fossils. We know of them merely what -can be learned from their bones and implements embedded in the soil or -in the earth of the caverns in which some of them sheltered -themselves. For the origin and date of these deposits the antiquary -must go to the geologist, and he imitates the geologist in arranging -his human fossils under such names as the "Paleolithic," or period of -rude stone implements; the "Neolithic" or period of polished stone -implements; the Bronze Period, and the Iron Period; though inasmuch as -higher and lower states of the arts seem always to have coexisted, and -the time involved is comparatively short, these periods are of far -less value then those of geology. In Britain the age of iron is in the -main historic. That of bronze goes back to the times of early -Phoenician trade with the south of England. That of stone, while -locally extending far into the succeeding ages, reaches back into an -unknown antiquity, and is, as we shall see in the sequel, probably -divided into two by a great physical change, though not in the abrupt -and arbitrary way sometimes assumed by those who base their -classification solely on the rude or polished character of stone -implements. We must not forget, however, that in Western Asia the ages -of bronze and iron may have begun two thousand years at least earlier -then in Britain, and that in some parts of America the Palaeolithic -age of chipped stone implements still continues. We must also bear in -mind that when the archæologist appeals to the geologist for aid, he -thereby leaves that kind of investigation in which dates are settled -by years, for that in which they are marked merely by successive -physical and organic changes. - -Turning, then, to our familiar geological methods, and confining -ourselves mainly to the Northern Hemisphere and to Western Europe, two -pictures present themselves to us: (!) The physical changes preceding -the advent of man; (2) The decadence of the land animals of the -Post-pliocene age, and the appearance of those of the modern. - -In the last chapter I had to introduce the reader to a great and -terrible revolution, whereby the old Pliocene continents, with all -their wealth of animals and plants, became sealed up in a mantle of -Greenland ice, or, slowly sinking beneath the level of the sea, were -transformed into an ocean-bottom over which icebergs bore their -freight of clay and boulders. We also saw that as the Post-pliocene -age advanced, the latter condition prevailed, until the waters stood -more then a thousand feet deep over the plains of Europe. In this -great glacial submergence, which closed the earlier Post-pliocene -period, and over vast areas of the Northern Hemisphere, terminated the -existence of many of the noblest forms of life, it is believed that -man had no share. We have, at least as yet, no record of his presence. - -Out of these waters the land again rose slowly and intermittently, so -that the receding waves worked even out of hard rocks ranges of coast -cliff which the further elevation converted into inland terraces, and -that the clay and stones deposited by the Glacial waters were in many -places worked over and rearranged by the tides and waves of the -shallowing sea before they were permanently raised up to undergo the -action of the rains and streams, while long banks of sand and gravel -were stretched across plains and the mouths of valleys, constituting -"kames," or "eskers," only to be distinguished from moraines of -glaciers by the stratified arrangement of their materials. - -Further, as the land rose, its surface was greatly and rapidly -modified by rains and streams. There is the amplest evidence, both in -Europe and America, that at this time the erosion by these means was -enormous in comparison with anything we now experience. The rainfall -must have been excessive, the volume of water in the streams very -great; and the facilities for cutting channels in the old Pliocene -valleys, filled to the brim with mud and boulder-clay, were -unprecedented. While the area of the land was still limited, much of -it would be high and broken, and it would have all the dampness of an -insular climate. As it rose in height, plains which had, while under -the sea, been loaded with the _débris_ swept from the land, would be -raised up to experience river erosion. It was the spring-time of the -Glacial era, a spring eminent for its melting snows, its rains, and -its river floods.[AL] To an observer living at this time it would have -seemed as if the slow process of moulding the continents was being -pushed forward with unexampled rapidity. The valleys were ploughed out -and cleansed, the plains levelled and overspread with beds of -alluvium, giving new features of beauty and utility to the land, and -preparing the way for the life of the Modern period, as if to make up -for the time which had been lost in the dreary Glacial age. It will -readily be understood how puzzling these deposits have been to -geologists, especially to those who fail to present to their minds the -true conditions of the period; and how difficult it is to separate the -river alluvia of this age from the deposits in the seas and estuaries, -and these again from the older Glacial beds. Further, in not a few -instances the animals of a cold climate must have lived in close -proximity to those which belonged to ameliorated conditions, and the -fossils of the older Post-pliocene must often, in the process of -sorting by water, have been mixed with those of the newer. - -[AL] Mr. Tylor has well designated this period as the Pluvial age. -_Journal of the Geological Society_, 1870. - -Many years ago the brilliant and penetrating intellect of Edward -Forbes was directed to the question of the maximum extent of the later -Post-pliocene or Post-glacial land; and his investigations into the -distribution of the European flora, in connection with the phenomena -of submerged terrestrial surfaces, led to the belief that the land had -risen until it was both higher and more extensive then at present. At -the time of greatest elevation, England was joined to the continent of -Europe by a level plain, and a similar plain connected Ireland with -its sister islands. Over these plains the plants constituting the -"Germanic" flora spread themselves into the area of the British -Islands, and herds of mammoth, rhinoceros, and Irish elk wandered and -extended their range from east to west. The deductions of Forbes have -been confirmed and extended by others; and it can scarcely be doubted -that in the Post-glacial era, the land regained fully the extent which -it had possessed in the time of the Pliocene. In these circumstances -the loftier hills might still reach the limits of perpetual snow, but -their glaciers would no longer descend to the sea. What are now the -beds of shallow seas would be vast wooded plains, drained by -magnificent rivers, whose main courses are now submerged, and only -their branches remain as separate and distinct streams, The cold but -equable climate of the Post-pliocene would now be exchanged for warm -summers, alternating with sharp winters, whose severity would be -mitigated by the dense forest covering, which would also contribute to -the due supply of moisture, preventing the surface from being burnt -into arid plains. - -It seems not improbable that it was when the continents had attained -to their greatest extension and when animal and vegetable life had -again over-spread the new land to its utmost limits, that man was -introduced on the eastern continent, and with him several mammalian -species, not known in the Pliocene period, and some of which, as the -sheep, the goat, the ox, and the dog, have ever since been his -companions and humble allies. These, at least in the west of Europe, -were the "Palaeolithic" men, the makers of the oldest flint -implements; and armed with these, they had to assert the mastery of -man over broader lands then we now possess, and over many species of -great animals now extinct. In thus writing, I assume the accuracy of -the inferences from the occurrence of worked stones with the bones of -post-glacial animals, which must have lived during the condition of -our continents above referred to. If these inferences are well -founded, not only did man exist at this time, but man not even -varietally distinct from modern European races. But if man really -appeared in Europe in the Post-glacial era, he was destined to be -exposed to one great natural vicissitude before his permanent -establishment in the world. The land had reached its maximum -elevation, but its foundations, "standing in the water and out of the -water," were not yet securely settled, and it had to take one more -plunge-bath before attaining its modern fixity. This seems to have -been a comparatively rapid subsidence and re-elevation, leaving but -slender traces of its occurrence, but changing to some extent the -levels of the continents, and failing to restore them fully to their -former elevation, so that large areas of the lower grounds still -remained under the sea. If, as the greater number of geologists now -believe, man was then on the earth, it is not impossible that this -constituted the deluge recorded in that remarkable "log book" of -Noah preserved to us in Genesis, and of which the memory remains -in the traditions of most ancient nations. This is at least the -geological deluge which separates the Post-glacial period from the -Modern, and the earlier from the later pre-historic period of the -archæologists.[AM] - -[AM] I have long thought that the narrative in Gen. vii. and viii. can -be understood only on the supposition that it is a contemporary -journal or log of an eye-witness incorporated by the author of Genesis -in his work. The dates of the rising and fall of the water, the note -of soundings over the hill-tops when the maximum was attained, and -many other details, as well as the whole tone of the narrative, seem -to require this supposition, which also removes all the difficulties -of interpretation which have been so much felt. - -Very important questions of time are involved in this idea of -Post-glacial man, and much will depend, in the solution of these, on -the views which we adopt as to the rate of subsidence and elevation of -the land. If, with the majority of British geologists, we hold that it -is to be measured by those slow movements now in progress, the time -required will be long. If, with most Continental and some American -geologists, we believe in paroxysmal movements of elevation and -depression, it may be much reduced. We have seen in the progress of -our inquiries that the movements of the continents seem to have -occurred with accelerated rapidity in the more modern periods. We have -also seen that these movements might depend on the slow contraction of -the earth's crust due to cooling, but that the effects of this -contraction might manifest themselves only at intervals. We have -further seen that the gradual retardation of the rotation of the earth -furnishes a cause capable of producing elevation and subsidence of the -land, and that this also might be manifested at longer or shorter -intervals, according to the strength and resisting power of the crust. -Under the influence of this retardation, so long as the crust of the -earth did not give way, the waters would be driven toward the poles, -and the northern land would be submerged; but so soon as the tension -became so great as to rupture the solid shell, the equatorial regions -would collapse, and the northern land would again be raised. The -subsidence would be gradual, the elevation paroxysmal, and perhaps -intermittent. Let us suppose that this was what occurred in the -Glacial period, and that the land had attained to its maximum -elevation. This might not prove to be permanent; the new balance of -the crust might be liable to local or general disturbance in a minor -degree, leading to subsidence and partial re-elevation, following the -great Post-glacial elevation. There is, therefore, nothing -unreasonable in that view which makes the subsidence and re-elevation -at the close of the Post-glacial period somewhat abrupt, at least when -compared with some more ancient movements. - -But what is the evidence of the deposits formed at this period? Here -we meet with results most diverse and contradictory, but I think there -can be little doubt that on this kind of evidence the time required -for the Post-glacial period has been greatly exaggerated, especially -by those geologists who refuse to receive such views as to subsidence -and elevation as those above stated. The calculations of long time -based on the gravels of the Somme, on the cone of the Tinière, on the -peat bogs of France and Denmark, on certain cavern deposits, have all -been shown to be more or less at fault; and possibly none of these -reach further back then the six or seven thousand years which, -according to Dr. Andrews, have elapsed since the close of the -boulder-clay deposits in America.[AN] I am aware that such a statement -will be regarded with surprise by many in England, where even the -popular literature has been penetrated with the idea of a duration of -the human period immensely long in comparison with what used to be the -popular belief; but I feel convinced that the scientific pendulum must -swing backward in this direction nearer to its old position. Let us -look at a few of the facts. Much use has been made of the "cone" or -delta of the Tinière on the eastern side of the Lake of Geneva, as an -illustration of the duration of the Modern period. This little stream -has deposited at its mouth a mass of _débris_ carried down from the -hills. This being cut through by a railway, is found to contain Roman -remains to a depth of four feet, bronze implements to a depth of ten -feet, stone implements at a depth of nineteen feet. The deposit ceased -about three hundred years ago, and calculating 1300 to 1500 years for -the Roman period, we should have 7000 to 10,000 years as the age of -the cone. But before the formation of the present cone, another had -been formed twelve times as large. Thus for the two cones together, a -duration of more then 90,000 years is claimed. It appears, however, -that this calculation has been made irrespective of two essential -elements in the question. No allowance has been made for the fact that -the inner layers of a cone are necessarily smaller then the outer; -nor for the further fact that the older cone belongs to a distinct -time (the pluvial age already referred to), when the rainfall was much -larger, and the transporting power of the torrent great in proportion. -Making allowance for these conditions, the age of the newer cone, that -holding human remains, falls between 4000 and 5000 years. The peat bed -of Abbeville, in the north of France, has grown at the rate of one and -a half to two inches in a century. Being twenty-six feet in thickness, -the time occupied in its growth must have amounted to 20,000 years; -and yet it is probably newer then some of the gravels on the same -river containing flint implements. But the composition of the -Abbeville peat shows that it's a forest peat, and the erect stems -preserved in it prove that in the first instance it must have grown at -the rate of about three feet in a century, and after the destruction -of the forest its rate of increase down to the present time diminished -rapidly almost to nothing. Its age is thus reduced to perhaps less -then 4000 years. In 1865 I had an opportunity to examine the now -celebrated gravels of St. Acheul, on the Somme, by some supposed to go -back to a very ancient period. With the papers of Prestwich and other -able observers in my hand, I could conclude merely that the -undisturbed gravels were older then the Roman period, but how much -older only detailed topographical surveys could prove; and that taking -into account the probabilities of a different level of the land, a -wooded condition of the country, a greater rainfall, and a glacial -filling of the Somme valley with clay and stones subsequently cut out -by running water the gravels could scarcely be older then the -Abbeville peat. To have published such views in England would have -been simply to have delivered myself into the hands of the -Philistines. I therefore contented myself with recording my opinion in -Canada. Tylor[AO] and Andrews[AP] have, however, I think, subsequently -shown that my impressions were correct. In like manner, I fail to -perceive, and I think all American geologists acquainted with the -pre-historic monuments of the western continent must agree with me, -any evidence of great antiquity in the caves of Belgium and England, -the kitchen-middens of Denmark, the rock-shelters of France, the lake -habitations of Switzerland. At the same time, I would disclaim all -attempt to resolve their dates into precise terms of years. I may -merely add, that the elaborate and careful observations of Dr. Andrews -on the raised beaches of Lake Michigan, observations of a much more -precise character then any which, in so far as I know, have been made -of such deposits in Europe, enable him to calculate the time which has -elapsed since North America rose out of the waters of the Glacial -period as between 5500 and 7500 years. This fixes at least the -possible duration of the human period in North America, though I -believe there are other lines of evidence which, would reduce the -residence of man in America to a much shorter time. Longer periods -have, it is true, been deduced from the delta of the Mississippi and -the gorge of Niagara; but the deposits of the former have been found -by Hilgard to be in great part marine, and the excavation of the -latter began at a period probably long Anterior to the advent of man. - -[AN] "Transactions, Chicago Academy," 1871. - -[AO] "Journal of Geological Society," vol. xxv. - -[AP] "Silliman's Journal," 1868. - -But another question remains. From the similarities existing in the -animals and plants of regions in the southern hemisphere now widely -separated by the ocean, it has been inferred that Post-pliocene land -of great extent existed there; and that on this land men may have -lived before the continents of the northern hemisphere were ready for -them. It has even been supposed that, inasmuch as the flora and fauna -of Australia have an aspect like that of the Eocene Tertiary, and very -low forms of man exist in that part of the world, these low races are -the oldest of all, and may date from Tertiary times. Positive evidence -of this, however, there is none. These races have no monuments; nor, -so far as known, have they left their remains in Post-pliocene -deposits. It depends on the assumptions that the ruder races of men -are the oldest; and that man has no greater migratory powers then -other animals. The first is probably false, as being contrary to -history; and also to the testimony of palaeontology with reference to -the laws of creation. The second is certainly false; for we know that -man has managed to associate himself with every existing fauna and -flora, even in modern times; and that the most modern races have -pitched their tents amid tree-ferns and Proteaceæ, and have hunted -kangaroos and emus. Further, when we consider that the productions of -the southern hemisphere are not only more antique then those of the -northern, but, on the whole, less suited for the comfortable -subsistence of man and the animals most useful to him; and that the -Post-pliocene animals of the southern hemisphere were of similar types -with their modern successors, we are the less inclined to believe that -these regions would be selected as the cradle of the human race. - -CONDENSED TABULAR VIEW OF THE AGES AND PERIODS OF THE NEOZOIC. - - Key to Symbols - - ### Recent species of Aquatic Invertebrates. Teleostian Fishes and - Squaloid sharks prevail. - --- Ages of Angiosperms and Plants. - === "And God said--let the land bring forth herbivorous beasts and - carnivorous beasts, after their kinds; and it was so." - +++ "And God created man in His own image." - - - Time. - Ages. Periods. Animals and Plants. - - NEOZOIC OR CAINOZOIC. - - {Newer. Still future (?) Age of + - Modern {Middle. Historic. Man + - {Older. Pre-historic. + - + - {N. Post-Glacial gravels and cave # + - { deposits. Saxicava sand and # + - Post- { terraces (America). # + - Pliocene {M. Marine Clays. Leda clays. Erie # - + - { clay (America). # - + - {O. Glacial Drift. Boulder clay # - + - { (America). # - + - # - + - {N. Norwich crag; Sicilian and # - - { Val d'Arno beds. # - - Pliocene {M. ____________ Sumter group (America). # - - {O. Red and Coralline crag; Sub-appenine # - = - { beds. # - = - # - = - {N. Faluns of Loraine; Upper Molasse; # - = - { Siwalik beds; Oeningen plant beds. # - = - { York-town beds (America). # - = - Miocene {M. ____________ # - = - {O. Upper Paris beds; Hempstead and Bovey # - = - { beds; Lower Molasse. Nebraska beds # - = - { (West America). # Mammals. - = - # - = - {N. Gypseous series, Paris. Vicksburg # - = - { group (America). # = - Eocene {M. Calcaire Grossier, Bagshot and Alum # = - { Bay beds. Jackson group (America). = - {O. Argile Plastique; London clay. = - { Claiborne group (America). = - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CLOSE OF THE POST-PLIOCENE, AND ADVENT OF MAN. (_Continued._) - - -Turning from these difficult questions of time, we may now look at the -assemblage of land-animals presented by the Post-glacial period. Here, -for the first time in the great series of continental elevations and -depressions, we find the newly-emerging land peopled with familiar -forms. Nearly all the modern European animals have left their bones in -the clays, gravels, and cavern deposits which belong to this period; -but with them are others either not now found within the limits of -temperate Europe, or altogether extinct. Thus the remarkable fact -comes out, that the uprising land was peopled at first with a more -abundant fauna then that which it now sustains, and that many species, -and among these some of the largest and most powerful, have been -weeded out, either before the advent of man or in the changes which -immediately succeeded that event. That in the Post-glacial period so -many noble animal species should have been overthrown in the struggle -for existence, without leaving any successors, at least in Europe, is -one of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of life on our -planet. - -According to. Pictet,[AQ] the Post-glacial beds of Europe afford -ninety-eight species of mammals, of which fifty-seven still live -there, the remainder being either locally or wholly extinct. According -to Mr. Boyd Dawkins,[AR] in Great Britain about twelve Pliocene -species survived the Glacial period, and reappeared in the British -Islands in the Post-glacial. To these were added forty-one species -making in all fifty-three, whose remains are found in the gravels and -caves of the latter period. Of these, in the Modern period -twenty-eight, or rather more then one-half, survive, fourteen are -wholly extinct, and eleven are locally extinct. - -[AQ] Palæontologie. - -[AR] "Journal of Geological Society," and Palæontographical Society's -publications. - -[Illustration: BRITAIN IN THE POST-PLIOCENE AGE. Musk-sheep, -Hippopotamus, Machairodus, Mammoth, Wooly Rhinoceros, Long-fronted Ox, -and Irish stag. The animals are taken from Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins's -picture, "Struggles of Life among British Animals of the Antediluvian -Times." London: 1853. The landscape is that of the later part of the -cold Post-pliocene period.] - -Among the extinct beasts, were some of very remarkable character. -There were two or more species of elephant, which seem in this age to -have overspread, in vast herds, all the plains of Northern Europe and -Asia; and one of which we know, from the perfect specimen found -embedded in the frozen soil of Siberia, lived till a very modern -period; and was clothed with long hair and fur, fitting it for a cold -climate. There were also three or four species of rhinoceros, one of -which at least (the _R. Tichorhinus_) was clad with wool like the great -Siberian mammoth. With these was a huge hippopotamus (_H. major_), whose -head-quarters would, however, seem to have been farther south then -England, or which perhaps inhabited chiefly the swamps along the large -rivers running through areas now under the sea. The occurrence of such -an animal shows an abundant vegetation, and a climate so mild, that -the rivers were not covered with heavy ice in winter; for the -supposition that this old hippopotamus was a migratory animal seems -very unlikely. Another animal of this time, was the magnificent deer, -known as the Irish elk; and which perhaps had its principal abode on -the great plain which is now the Irish Sea. The terrible machairodus, -or cymetar-toothed tiger, was continued from the Pliocene; and in -addition to species of bear still living, there was a species of -gigantic size, probably now extinct, the cave bear. Evidences are -accumulating, to show that all or nearly all these survived until the -human period. - -If we turn now to those animals which are only locally extinct, we -meet with some strange, and at first sight puzzling anomalies. Some of -these are creatures now limited to climates much colder then that of -Britain. Others now belong to warmer climates. Conspicuous among the -former are the musk-sheep, the elk, the reindeer, the glutton, and the -lemming. Among the latter, we see the panther, the lion, and the Cape -hyena. That animals now so widely separated as the musk-sheep of -Arctic America and the hyena of South Africa, could ever have -inhabited the same forests, seems a dream of the wildest fancy. Yet it -is not difficult to find a probable solution of the mystery. In North -America, at the present day, the puma, or American lion, comes up to -the same latitudes with the caribou, or reindeer, and moose; and in -Asia, the tiger extends its migrations into the abodes of boreal -animals in the plains of Siberia. Even in Europe, within the historic -period, the reindeer inhabited the forests of Germany; and the lion -extended its range nearly as far northward. The explanation lies in -the co-existence of a densely wooded country with a temperate climate; -the forests affording to southern animals shelter from the cold or -winter; and equally to the northern animals protection from the heat -of summer. Hence our wonder at this association of animals of diverse -habitudes as to climate, is merely a prejudice arising from the -present exceptional condition of Europe. Still it is possible that -changes unfavourable to some of these animals, were in progress before -the arrival of man, with his clearings and forest fires and other -disturbing agencies. Even in America, the megalonyx, or gigantic -sloth, the mammoth, the mastodon, the fossil horse, and many other -creatures, disappeared before the Modern period; and on both -continents the great Post-glacial subsidence or deluge may have swept -away some of the species. Such a supposition seems necessary to -account for the phenomena of the gravel and cave deposits of England, -and Cope has recently suggested it in explanation of similar -storehouses of fossil animals in America.[AS] - -[AS] Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, April 1871. - -Among the many pictures which this fertile subject calls up, perhaps -none is more curious then that presented by the Post-glacial cavern -deposits. We may close our survey of this period with the exploration -of one of these strange repositories; and may select Kent's Hole at -Torquay, so carefully excavated and illumined with the magnesium light -of scientific inquiry by Mr. Pengelly and a committee of the British -Association. - -The somewhat extensive and ramifying cavern of Kent's Hole is an -irregular excavation, evidently due partly to fissures in limestone -rock, and partly to the erosive action of water enlarging such -fissures into chambers and galleries. At what time it was originally -cut we do not know, but it must have existed as a cavern at the close -of the Pliocene or beginning of the Post-pliocene period, since which -time it has been receiving a series of deposits which have quite -filled up some of its smaller branches. - -First and lowest, according to Mr. Pengelly, is a "breccia" or mass of -broken and rounded stones, with hardened red clay filling the -interstices. Most of the stones are of the rock which forms the roof -and walls of the cave, but many, especially the rounded ones, are from -more distant parts of the surrounding country. In this mass, the depth -of which is unknown, are numerous bones, all of one kind of animal, -the cave bear, a creature which seems to have lived in Western Europe -from the close of the Pliocene down to the modern period. It must have -been one of the earliest and most permanent tenants of Kent's Hole at -a time when its lower chambers were still filled with water. Next -above the breccia is a floor of "stalagmite" or stony carbonate of -lime, deposited from the drippings of the roof, and in some places -three feet thick. This also contains bones of the cave bear, deposited -when there was less access of water to the cavern. Mr. Pengelly infers -the existence of man at this time from a single flint flake and a -single flint chip found in these beds; but mere flakes and chips of -flint are too often natural to warrant such a conclusion. After the -old stalagmite floor above mentioned was formed, the cave again -received deposits of muddy water and stones; but now a change occurs -in the remains embedded. This stony clay, or "cave earth" has yielded -an immense quantity of teeth and bones, including those of the -elephant, rhinoceros, horse, hyena, cave bear, reindeer, and Irish -elk. With these were found weapons of chipped flint, and harpoons, -needles, and bodkins of bone, precisely similar to those of the North -American Indians and other rude races. The "cave earth" is four feet -or more in thickness, It is not stratified, and contains many fallen -fragments of rock, rounded stones, and broken pieces of stalagmite. It -also has patches of the excrement of hyenas, which the explorers -suppose to indicate the temporary residence of these animals; and in -one spot, near the top, is a limited layer of burnt wood, with remains -which indicate the cooking and eating of repasts of animal food by -man. It is clear that when this bed was formed the cavern was liable -to be inundated with muddy water, carrying stones and other heavy -objects, and breaking up in places the old stalagmite floor. One of -the most puzzling features, especially to those who take an -exclusively uniformitarian view, is, that the entrance of water-borne -mud and stones implies a level of the bottom of the water in the -neighbouring valleys of about 100 feet above its present height. The -cave earth is covered by a second crust of stalagmite, less dense and -thick then that below, and containing only a few bones, which are of -the same general character with those below, but include a fragment of -a human jaw with teeth. Evidently, when this stalagmite was formed, -the influx of water-borne materials had ceased, or nearly so; but -whether the animals previously occupying the country still continued -in it, or only accidental bones, etc., were introduced into the cave -or lifted from the bed below, does not appear. - -The next bed marks a new change. It is a layer of black mould from -three to ten inches thick. Its microscopic structure does not seem to -have been examined; but it is probably a forest soil, introduced by -growth, by water, by wind, and by ingress of animals, at a time when -the cave was nearly in its present state, and the surrounding country -densely wooded. This bed contains bones of animals, all of them -modern, and works of art ranging from the old British times before the -Roman invasion up to the porter-bottles and dropped halfpence of -modern visitors. Lastly, in and upon the black mould are many fallen -blocks from the roof of the cave. - -There can be no doubt that this cave and the neighbouring one of -Brixham have done very much to impress the minds of British geologists -with ideas of the great antiquity of man, and they have, more then any -other Post-glacial monuments, shown the persistence of some animals -now extinct up to the human age. Of precise data for determining time, -they have, however, given nothing. The only measures which seed to -have been applied, namely, the rate of growth of stalagmite and the -rate of erosion of the neighbouring valleys, are, from the very -sequence of the deposits, obviously worthless; and the only apparently -available constant measure, namely, the fall of blocks from the roof, -seems not yet to have been applied. We are therefore quite uncertain -as to the number of centuries involved in the filling of this cave, -and must remain so until a surer system of calculation is adopted. We -may, however, attempt to sketch the series of events which it -indicates. - -The animals found in Kent's Hole are all "Post-glacial." They -therefore inhabited the country after it rose from the great Glacial -submergence. Perhaps the first colonists of the coasts of Devonshire -in this period were the cave bears, migrating on floating ice, and -subsisting, like the Arctic bear, and the black bears of Anticosti, on -fish, and on the garbage cast up by the sea. They found Kent's Hole a -sea-side cavern, with perhaps some of its galleries still full of -water, and filling with, breccia, with which the bones of dead bears -became mixed. As the land rose, these creatures for the most part -betook themselves to lower levels, and in process of time the cavern -stood upon a hill-side, perhaps several hundreds of feet above the -sea; and the mountain torrents, their beds not yet emptied of glacial -detritus, washed into it stones and mud and carcases of animals of -many species which had now swarmed across the plains elevated out of -the sea, and multiplied in the land. This was the time of the cave -earth; and before its deposit was completed, though how long before, a -confused and often-disturbed bed of this kind cannot tell, man himself -seems to have been added to the inhabitants of the British land. In -pursuit of game he sometimes ascended the valleys beyond the cavern, -or even penetrated into its outer chambers; or perhaps there were even -in those days rude and savage hill-men, inhabiting the forests and -warring with the more cultivated denizens of plains below, which are -now deep under the waters. Their weapons, lost in hunting, or buried -in the flesh of wounded animals which crept to the streams to assuage -their thirst, are those found in the cave earth. The absence of human -bones may merely show that the mighty hunters of those days were too -hardy, athletic, and intelligent, often to perish from accidental -causes, and that they did not use this cavern for a place of burial. -But the land again subsided. The valley of that now nameless river, of -which the Rhine the themes, and the Severn may have alike been -tributaries, disappeared under the sea; and some tribe, driven from -the lower lands, took refuge in this cave, now again near the -encroaching waves, and left there the remains of their last repasts -ere they were driven farther inland or engulfed in the waters. For a -time the cavern may have been wholly submerged, and the charcoal of -the extinguished fires became covered with its thin coating of clay. -But ere long it re-emerged to form part of an island, long barren and -desolate; and the valleys having been cut deeper by the receding -waters, it no longer received muddy deposits, and the crust formed by -drippings from its roof contained only bones and pebbles washed by -rains or occasional land floods from its own clay deposits. Finally, -the modern forests overspread the land, and were tenanted by the -modern animals. Man returned to use the cavern again as a place of -refuge or habitation, and to leave there the relics contained in the -black earth. This seems at present the only intelligible history of -this curious cave and others resembling it; though, when we consider -the imperfection of the results obtained even by a large amount of -labour, and the difficult and confused character of the deposits in -this and similar caves, too much value should not be attached to such -histories, which may at any time be contradicted or modified by new -facts or different explanations of those already known. The time -involved depends very much, as already stated, on the question whether -we regard the Post-glacial subsidence and re-elevation as somewhat -sudden, or as occupying long ages at the slow rate at which some -parts of our continents are now rising or sinking.[AT] - -[AT] Another element in this is also the question raised by Dawkins, -Geikie, and others as to subdivisions of the Post-glacial period and -intermissions of the Glacial cold. After careful consideration of -these views, however, I cannot consider them as of much importance. - -Such are the glimpses, obscure though stimulating to the imagination, -which geology can give of the circumstances attending the appearance -of man in Western Europe. How far we are from being able to account -for his origin, or to give its circumstances and relative dates for -the whole world, the reader will readily understand. Still it is -something to know that there is an intelligible meeting-place of the -later geological ages and the age of man, and that it is one inviting -to many and hopeful researches. It is curious also to find that the -few monuments disinterred by geology, the antediluvian record of Holy -Scripture, and the golden age of heathen tradition, seem alike to -point to similar physical conditions, and to that simple state of the -arts of life in which "gold and wampum and flint stones"[AU] -constituted the chief material treasures of the earliest tribes of -men. They also point to the immeasurable elevation, then as now, of -man over his brute rivals for the dominion of the earth. To the -naturalist this subject opens up most inviting yet most difficult -paths of research, to be entered on with caution and reverence, -rather then in the bold and dashing spirit of many modern attempts. -The Christian, on his part, may feel satisfied that the scattered -monumental relics of the caves and gravels will tell no story very -different from that which he has long believed on other evidence, nor -anything inconsistent with those views of man's heavenly origin and -destiny which have been the most precious inheritance of the greatest -and best minds of every age, from that early pre-historic period when -men, "palaeolithic" men, no doubt, began to "invoke the name of -Jehovah," the coming Saviour, down to those times when life and -immortality are brought to light, for all who will see, by the Saviour -already come. - -[AU] So I read the "gold, bedolah, and shoham" of the description of -Eden in Genesis ii.--the oldest literary record of the stone age. - -In completing this series of pictures, I wish emphatically to insist -on the imperfection of the sketches which I have been able to present, -and which are less, in comparison with the grand march of the creative -work, even as now imperfectly known to science, then the roughest -pencilling of a child when compared with a finished picture. If they -have any popular value, it will be in presenting such a broad general -view of a great subject as may induce further study to fill up the -details. If they have any scientific value, it will be in removing the -minds of British students for a little from the too exclusive study of -their own limited marginal area, which has been to them too much the -"celestial empire" around which all other countries must be arranged, -and in divesting the subject of the special colouring given to it by -certain prominent cliques and parties. - -Geology as a science is at present in a peculiar and somewhat -exceptional state. Under the influence of a few men of commanding -genius belonging to the generation now passing away, it has made so -gigantic conquests that its armies have broken up into bands of -specialists, little better then scientific banditti, liable to be -beaten in detail, and prone to commit outrages on common sense and -good taste, which bring their otherwise good cause into disrepute. The -leaders of these bands are, many of them, good soldiers, but few of -them fitted to be general officers, and none of them able to reunite -our scattered detachments. We need larger minds, of broader culture -and wider sympathies, to organise and rule the lands which we have -subdued, and to lead on to further conquests. - -In the present state of natural science in Britain, this evil is -perhaps to be remedied only by providing a wider and deeper culture -for our young men. Few of our present workers have enjoyed that -thorough training in mental as well as physical science, which is -necessary to enable men even of great powers to take large and lofty -views of the scheme of nature. Hence we often find men who are fair -workers in limited departments, reasoning most illogically, taking -narrow and local views, elevating the exception into the rule, led -away by baseless metaphysical subtleties, quarrelling with men who -look at their specialties from a different point of view, and even -striving and plotting for the advancement of their own hobbies. Such -defects certainly mar much of the scientific work now being done. In -the more advanced walks of scientific research, they are to some -extent neutralised by that free discussion which true science always -fosters; though even here they sometimes vexatiously arrest the -progress of truth, or open floodgates of error which it may require -much labour to close. But in public lectures and popular publications -they run riot, and are stimulated by the mistaken opposition of -narrow-minded good men, by the love of the new and sensational, and by -the rivalry of men struggling for place and position. To launch a -clever and startling fallacy which will float for a week and stir up a -hard fight, seems almost as great a triumph as the discovery of an -important fact or law; and the honest student is distracted with the -multitude of doctrines, and hustled aside by the crowd of ambitious -groundlings. - -The only remedy in the case is a higher and more general scientific -education; and yet I do not wonder that many good men object to this, -simply because of the difficulty of finding honest and competent -teachers, themselves well grounded in their subjects, and free from -that too common insanity of specialists and half-educated men, which -impels them to run amuck at everything that does not depend on their -own methods of research. This is a difficulty which can be met in our -time only by the general good sense and right feeling of the -community taking a firm hold of the matter, and insisting on the -organization and extension of the higher scientific education, as well -as that of a more elementary character, under the management of able -and sane men. Yet even if not so counteracted, present follies will -pass away, and a new and better state of natural science will arise in -the future, by its own internal development. Science cannot long -successfully isolate itself from God. Its life lies in the fact that -it is the exponent of the plans and works of the great Creative Will. -It must, in spite of itself, serve His purposes, by dispelling -blighting ignorance and superstition, by lighting the way to -successive triumphs of human skill over the powers of nature, and by -guarding men from the evils that flow from infringement of natural -laws. And it cannot fail, as it approaches nearer to the boundaries of -that which may be known by finite minds, to be humbled by the -contemplation of the infinite, and to recognise therein that -intelligence of which the human mind is but the image and shadow. - -It may be that theologians also are needed who shall be fit to take -the place of Moses to our generation, in teaching it again the very -elements of natural theology; but let them not look upon science as a -cold and godless demon, holding forth to the world a poisoned cup -cunningly compounded of truth and falsehood; but rather as the natural -ally and associate of the gospel of salvation. The matter is so put in -one of those visions which close the canon of revelation, when the -prophet sees a mighty angel having the "everlasting gospel to preach;" -but he begins his proclamation by calling on men to "worship Him _that -made heaven and earth and the sea and the fountains of waters_." Men -must know God as the Creator even before they seek Him as a benefactor -and redeemer. Thus religion must go hand in hand with all true and -honest science. In this way only may we look forward to a time when a -more exact and large-minded science shall be in perfect accord with a -more pure and spiritual Christianity, when the natural and the -spiritual shall be seen to be the necessary complements of each other, -and when we shall hear no more of reconciliations between science and -theology, because there will be no quarrels to reconcile. Already, -even in the present chaos of scientific and religious opinion, -indications can be seen by the observant, that the Divine Spirit of -order is breathing on the mass, and will evolve from it new and -beautiful worlds of mental and spiritual existence. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -PRIMITIVE MAN. CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO MODERN THEORIES AS TO HIS -ORIGIN. - - -The geological record, as we have been reading it, introduces us to -primitive man, but gives us no distinct information as to his origin. -Tradition and revelation have, it is true, their solutions of the -mystery, but there are, and always have been, many who will not take -these on trust, but must grope for themselves with the taper of -science or philosophy into the dark caverns whence issue the springs -of humanity. In former times it was philosophic speculation alone -which lent its dim and uncertain light to these bold inquirers; but in -our day the new and startling discoveries in physics, chemistry, and -biology have flashed up with an unexpected brilliancy, and have at -least served to dazzle the eyes and encourage the hopes of the -curious, and to lead to explorations more bold and systematic then any -previously undertaken. Thus has been born amongst us, or rather -renewed, for it is a very old thing, that evolutionist philosophy, -which has been well characterised as the "baldest of all the -philosophies which have sprung up in our world," and which solves the -question of human origin by the assumption that human nature exists -potentially in mere inorganic matter, and that a chain of spontaneous -derivation connects incandescent molecules or star-dust with the -world, and with man himself. - -This evolutionist doctrine is itself one of the strangest phenomena of -humanity. It existed, and most naturally, in the oldest philosophy and -poetry, in connection with the crudest and most uncritical, attempts -of the human mind to grasp the system of nature; but that in our day a -system destitute of any shadow of proof, and supported merely by vague -analogies and figures of speech, and by the arbitrary and artificial -coherence of its own parts, should be accepted as a philosophy, and -should find able adherents to string upon its thread of hypotheses our -vast and weighty stores of knowledge, is surpassingly strange. It -seems to indicate that the accumulated facts of our age have gone -altogether beyond its capacity for generalisation; and but for the -vigour which one sees everywhere, it might be taken as an indication -that the human mind has fallen into a state of senility, and in its -dotage mistakes for science the imaginations which were the dreams of -its youth. - -In many respects these speculations are important and worthy of the -attention of thinking men. They seek to revolutionise the religious -beliefs of the world, and if accepted would destroy most of the -existing theology and philosophy. They indicate tendencies among -scientific thinkers, which, though probably temporary, must, before -they disappear, descend to lower strata, and reproduce themselves in -grosser forms, and with most serious effects on the whole structure -of society. With one class of minds they constitute a sort of -religion, which so far satisfies the craving for truths higher then -those which relate to immediate wants and pleasures. With another and -perhaps larger class, they are accepted as affording a welcome -deliverance from all scruples of conscience and fears of a hereafter. -In the domain of science evolutionism has like tendencies. It reduces -the position of man, who becomes a descendant of inferior animals, and -a mere term in a series whose end is unknown. It removes from the -study of nature the ideas of final cause and purpose; and the -evolutionist, instead of regarding the world as a work of consummate -plan, skill, and adjustment, approaches nature as he would a chaos of -fallen rocks, which may present forms of castles and grotesque -profiles of men and animals, but they are all fortuitous and without -significance. It obliterates the fine perception of differences from -the mind of the naturalist, and resolves all the complicated relations -of living things into some simple idea of descent with modification. -It thus destroys the possibility of a philosophical classification, -reducing all things to a mere series, and leads to a rapid decay in -systematic zoology and botany, which is already very manifest among -the disciples of Spencer and Darwin in England. The effect of this -will be, if it proceeds further, in a great degree to destroy the -educational value and popular interest attaching to these sciences, -and to throw them down at the feet of a system of debased -metaphysics. As redeeming features in all this, are the careful study -of varietal forms, and the inquiries as to the limits of species, -which have sprung from these discussions, and the harvest of which -will be reaped by the true naturalists of the future. - -Thus these theories as to the origin of men and animals and plants are -full of present significance, and may be studied with profit by all; -and in no part of their applications more usefully then in that which -relates to man. Let us then inquire,--1. What is implied in the idea of -evolution as applied to man? 2. What is implied in the idea of -creation? 3. How these several views accord with what we actually know -as the result of scientific investigation? The first and second of -these questions may well occupy the whole of this chapter, and we -shall be able merely to glance at their leading aspects. In doing so, -it may be well first to place before us in general terms the several -alternatives which evolutionists offer, as to the mode in which the -honour of an origin from apes or ape-like animals can be granted to -us, along with the opposite view as to the independent origin of man -which have been maintained either on scientific or scriptural grounds. - -All the evolutionist theories of the origin of man depend primarily on -the possibility of his having been produced from some of the animals -more closely allied to him, by the causes now in operation which lead -to varietal forms, or by similar causes which have been in operation; -and some attach more and others less weight to certain of these -causes, or gratuitously suppose others not actually known. Of such -causes of change some are internal and others external to the -organism. With respect to the former, one school assumes an innate -tendency in every species to change in the course of time.[AV] Another -believes in exceptional births, either in the course of ordinary -generation or by the mode of parthenogenesis.[AW] Another refers to -the known facts of reproductive accelleration or retardation observed -in some humble creatures.[AX] New forms arising in any of these ways -or fortuitously, may, it is supposed, be perpetuated and increased and -further improved by favouring external circumstances and the effort of -the organism to avail itself of these,[AY] or by the struggle for -existence and the survival of the fittest.[AZ] - -[AV] Parsons, Owen. - -[AW] Mivart, Ferris. - -[AX] Hyatt and Cope. - -[AY] Lamarck, etc. - -[AZ] Darwin, etc. - -On the other hand, those who believe in the independent origin of man -admit the above causes as adequate only to produce mere varieties, -liable to return into the original stock. They may either hold that -man has appeared as a product of special and miraculous creation, or -that he has been created mediately by the operation of forces also -concerned in the production of other animals, but the precise nature -of which is still unknown to us; or lastly, they may hold what seems -to be the view favoured by the book of Genesis, that his bodily form -is a product of mediate creation and his spiritual nature a direct -emanation from his Creator. - -The discussion of all these rival theories would occupy volumes, and -to follow them into details would require investigations which have -already bewildered many minds of some scientific culture. Further, it -is the belief of the writer that this plunging into multitudes of -details has been fruitful of error, and that it will be a better -course to endeavour to reach the root of the matter by looking at the -foundations of the general doctrine of evolution itself, and then -contrasting it with its rival. - -Taking, then, this broad view of the subject, two great leading -alternatives are presented to us. Either man is an independent product -of the will of a Higher Intelligence, acting directly or through the -laws and materials of his own institution and production, or he has -been produced by an unconscious evolution from lower things. It is -true that many evolutionists, either unwilling to offend, or not -perceiving the logical consequences of their own hypothesis, endeavour -to steer a middle course, and to maintain that the Creator has -proceeded by way of evolution. But the bare, hard logic of Spencer, -the greatest English authority on evolution, leaves no place for this -compromise, and shows that the theory, carried out to its legitimate -consequences, excludes the knowledge of a Creator and the possibility -of His work. We have, therefore, to choose between evolution and -creation; bearing in mind, however, that there may be a place in -nature for evolution, properly limited, as well as for other things, -and that the idea of creation by no means excludes law and second -causes. - -Limiting ourselves in the first place to theories of evolution, and to -these as explaining the origin of species of living beings, and -especially of man, we naturally first inquire as to the basis on which -they are founded. Now no one pretends that they rest on facts actually -observed, for no one has ever observed the production of even one -species. Nor do they even rest, like the deductions of theoretical -geology, on the extension into past time of causes of change now seen -to be in action. Their probability depends entirely on their capacity -to account hypothetically for certain relations of living creatures to -each other, and to the world without; and the strongest point of the -arguments of their advocates is the accumulation of cases of such -relations supposed to be accounted for. Such being the kind of -argument with which we have to deal, we may first inquire what we are -required to believe as conditions of the action of evolution, and -secondly, to what extent it actually does explain the phenomena. - -In the first place, as evolutionists, we are required to assume -certain forces, or materials, or both, with which evolution shall -begin. Darwin, in his Origin of Species, went so far as to assume the -existence of a few of the simpler types of animals; but this view, of -course, was only a temporary resting-place for his theory. Others -assume a primitive protoplasm, or physical basis of life, and -arbitrarily assigning to this substance properties now divided between -organised and unorganised, and between dead and living matter, find no -difficulty in deducing all plants and animals from it. Still, even -this cannot have been the ultimate material. It must have been evolved -from something. We are thus brought back to certain molecules of -star-dust, or certain conflicting forces, which must have had -self-existence, and must have potentially included all subsequent -creatures. Otherwise, if with Spencer we hold that God is "unknowable" -and creation "unthinkable," we are left suspended on nothing over a -bottomless void, and must adopt as the initial proposition of our -philosophy, that all things were made out of nothing, and by nothing; -unless we prefer to doubt whether anything exists, and to push the -doctrine of relativity to the unscientific extreme of believing that -we can study the relations of things non-existent or unknown. So we -must allow the evolutionist some small capital to start with; -observing, however, that self-existent matter in a state of endless -evolution is something of which we cannot possibly have any definite -conception. - -Being granted thus much, the evolutionist next proceeds to demand that -we shall also believe in the indefinite variability of material -things, and shall set aside all idea that there is any difference in -kind between the different substances which we know. They must all be -mutually convertible, or at least derivable from some primitive -material. It is true that this is contrary to experience. The chemist -holds that matter is of different kinds, that one element cannot be -converted into another; and he would probably smile if told that, even -in the lapse of enormous periods of time, limestone could be evolved -out of silica. He may think that this is very different from the idea -that a snail can be evolved from an oyster, or a bird from a reptile. -But the zoologist will inform him that species of animals are only -variable within certain limits, and are not transmutable, in so far as -experience and experiment are concerned. They have their allotropic -forms, but cannot be changed into one another. - -But if we grant this second demand, the evolutionist has a third in -store for us. We must also admit that by some inevitable necessity the -changes of things must in the main take place in one direction, from -the more simple to the more complex, from the lower to the higher. At -first sight this seems not only to follow from the previous -assumptions, but to accord with observation. Do not all living things -rise from a simpler to a more complex state? has not the history of -the earth displayed a gradually increasing elevation and complexity? -But, on the other hand, the complex organism becoming mature, resolves -itself again into the simple germ, and finally is dissolved into its -constituent elements. The complex returns into the simple, and what we -see is not an evolution, but a revolution. In like manner, in -geological time, the tendency seems to be ever to disintegration and -decay. This we see everywhere, and find that elevation occurs only by -the introduction of new species in a way which is not obvious, and -which may rather imply the intervention of a cause from without; so -that here also we are required to admit as a general principle what is -contrary to experience. - -If, however, we grant the evolutionist these postulates, we must next -allow him to take the facts of botany and zoology out of their -ordinary connection, and thread them like a string of beads, as -Herbert Spencer has done in his "Biology," on the threefold cord thus -fashioned. This done, we next find, as might have been expected, -certain gaps or breaks which require to be cunningly filled with -artificial material, in order to give an appearance of continuity to -the whole. - -The first of these gaps which we notice is that between dead and -living matter. It is easy to fill this with such a term as protoplasm, -which includes matter both dead and living, and so to ignore this -distinction; but practically we do not yet know as a possible thing -the elevation of matter, without the agency of a previous living -organism, from that plane in which it is subject merely to physical -force, and is unorganised, to that where it becomes organised, and -lives. Under that strange hypothesis of the origin of life from -meteors, with which Sir William Thomson closed his address at a late -meeting of the British Association, there was concealed a cutting -sarcasm which the evolutionists felt. It reminded them that the men -who evolve all things from physical forces do not yet know how these -forces can produce the phenomena of life even in its humblest forms. -It is true that the scientific world has been again and again startled -by the announcement of the production of some of the lowest forms of -life, either from dead organic matter, or from merely mineral -substances; but in every case heretofore the effort has proved as vain -as the analogies attempted to be set up between the formation of -crystals and that of organized tissues are fallacious. - -A second gap is that which separates vegetable and animal life. These -are necessarily the converse of each other, the one deoxidizes and -accumulates, the other oxidizes and expends. Only in reproduction or -decay does the plant simulate the action of the animal, and the animal -never in its simplest forms assumes the functions of the plant. Those -obscure cases in the humbler spheres of animal and vegetable life -which have been supposed to show a union of the two kingdoms, -disappear on investigation. This gap can, I believe, be filled up only -by an appeal to our ignorance. There may be, or may have been, some -simple creature unknown to us, on the extreme verge of the plant -kingdom, that was capable of passing the limit and becoming an animal. -But no proof of this exists. It is true that the primitive germs of -many kinds of humble plants and animals are so much alike, that much -confusion has arisen in tracing their development. It is also true -that some of these creatures can subsist under very dissimilar -conditions, and in very diverse states, and that under the specious -name of Biology,[BA] we sometimes find a mass of these confusions, -inaccurate observations and varietal differences made to do duty for -scientific facts. But all this does not invalidate the grand primary -distinction between the animal and the plant, which should be -thoroughly taught and illustrated to all young naturalists, as one of -the best antidotes to the fallacies of the evolutionist school. - -[BA] It is doubtful whether men who deny the existence of vital force -have a right to call their science "Biology," any more then atheists -have to call their doctrine "Theology;" and it is certain that the -assumption of a science of Biology as distinct from Phytology and -Zoology, or including both, is of the nature of a "pious fraud" on the -part of the more enlightened evolutionists. The objections stated in -the text, to what have been called Archebiosis and Heterogenesis seem -perfectly applicable, in so far as I can judge from a friendly review -by Wallace, to the mass of heterogeneous material accumulated by Dr. -Bastian in his recent volumes. The conclusions of this writer, would -also, if established, involve evolution in a fatal _embarras des -richesses_, by the hourly production during all geological time, of -millions of new forms all capable of indefinite development. - -A third is that between any species of animal or plant and any other -species. It was this gap, and this only, which Darwin undertook to -fill up by his great work on the origin of species, but, -notwithstanding the immense amount of material thus expended, it yawns -as wide as ever, since it must be admitted that no case has been -ascertained in which an individual of one species has transgressed the -limits between it and other species. However extensive the varieties -produced by artificial breeding, the essential characters of the -species remain, and even its minor characters may be reproduced, while -the barriers established in nature between species by the laws of -their reproduction, seem to be absolute. - -With regard to species, however, it must be observed that naturalists -are not agreed as to what constitutes a species. Many so-called -species are probably races, or varieties, and one benefit of these -inquiries has been to direct attention to the proper discrimination of -species from varieties among animals and plants. The loose -discrimination of species, and the tendency to multiply names, have -done much to promote evolutionist views; but the researches of the -evolutionists themselves have shown that we must abandon transmutation -of true species as a thing of the present; and if we imagine it to -have occurred, must refer it to the past. - -Another gap is that between the nature of the animal and the -self-conscious, reasoning, moral nature of man. We not only have no -proof that any animal can, by any force in itself, or by any merely -physical influences from without, rise to such a condition; but the -thing is in the highest degree improbable. It is easy to affirm, with -the grosser materialists, that thought is a secretion of brain, as -bile is of the liver; but a moment's thought shows that no real -analogy obtains between the cases. We may vaguely suppose, with -Darwin, that the continual exercise of such powers as animals possess, -may have developed those of man. But our experience of animals shows -that their intelligence differs essentially from that of man, being a -closed circle ever returning into itself, while that of man is -progressive, inventive, and accumulative, and can no more be -correlated with that of the animal then the vital phenomena of the -animal with those of the plant. Nor can the gap between the higher -religious and moral sentiments of man, and the instinctive affections -of the brutes, be filled up with that miserable ape imagined by -Lubbock, which, crossed in love, or pining with cold and hunger, -conceived, for the first time in its poor addled pate, "the dread of -evil to come," and so became the father of theology. This conception, -which Darwin gravely adopts, would be most ludicrous, but for the -frightful picture which it gives of the aspect in which religion -appears to the mind of the evolutionist. - -The reader will now readily perceive that the simplicity and -completeness of the evolutionist theory entirely disappear when we -consider the unproved assumptions on which it is based, and its -failure to connect with each other some of the most important facts in -nature: that, in short, it is not in any true sense a philosophy, but -merely an arbitrary arrangement of facts in accordance with a number -of unproved hypotheses. Such philosophies, "falsely so called," have -existed ever since man began to reason on nature, and this last of -them is one of the weakest and most pernicious of the whole. Let the -reader take up either of Darwin's great books, or Spencer's "Biology," -and merely ask himself as he reads each paragraph, "What is assumed -here and what is proved?" and he will find the whole fabric melt away -like a vision. He will find, however, one difference between these -writers. Darwin always states facts carefully and accurately, and when -he comes to a difficulty tries to meet it fairly. Spencer often -exaggerates or extenuates with reference to his facts, and uses the -arts of the dialectician where argument fails. - -Many naturalists who should know better are puzzled with the great -array of facts presented by evolutionists; and while their better -judgment causes them to doubt as to the possibility of the structures -which they study being produced by such blind and material processes, -are forced to admit that there must surely be something in a theory so -confidently asserted, supported by so great names, and by such an -imposing array of relations which it can explain. They would be -relieved from their weak concessions were they to study carefully a -few of the instances adduced, and to consider how easy it is by a -little ingenuity to group undoubted facts around a false theory. I -could wish to present here illustrations of this, which abound in -every part of the works I have referred to, but space will not permit. -One or two must suffice. The first may be taken from one of the -strong points often dwelt on by Spencer in his "Biology."[BB] - -[BB] "Principles of Biology," § 118. - -"But the experiences which most clearly illustrate to us the process -of general evolution are our experiences of special evolution, -repeated in every plant and animal. Each organism exhibits, within a -short space of time, a series of changes which, when supposed to -occupy a period indefinitely great and to go on in various ways -instead of one, may give us a tolerably clear conception of organic -evolution in general. In an individual development we have compressed -into a comparatively infinitesimal space a series of metamorphoses -equally vast with those which the hypothesis of evolution assumes to -have taken place during those unmeasurable epochs that the earth's -crust tells us of. A tree differs from a seed immeasurably in every -respect--in bulk, in structure, in colour, in form, in specific -gravity, in chemical composition: differs so greatly that no visible -resemblance of any kind can be pointed out between them. Yet is the -one changed in the course of a few years into the other; changed so -gradually that at no moment can it be said, 'Now the seed ceases to be -and the tree exists.' What can be more widely contrasted then a -newly-born child and the small gelatinous spherule constituting the -human ovum? The infant is so complex in structure that a cyclopædia -is needed to describe its constituent parts. The germinal vesicle is -so simple that it may be defined in a line.... If a single cell under -appropriate conditions becomes a man in the space of a few years, -there can surely be no difficulty in understanding how, under -appropriate conditions, a cell may in the course of untold millions of -years give origin to the human race." - -"It is true that many minds are so unfurnished with those experiences -of nature, out of which this conception is built, that they find -difficulty in forming it.... To such the hypothesis that by any series -of changes a protozoan should ever give origin to a mammal seems -grotesque--as grotesque as did Galileo's assertion of the earth's -movement seem to the Aristoteleans; or as grotesque as the assertion -of the earth's sphericity seems now to the New Zealanders." - -I quote the above as a specimen of evolutionist reasoning from the -hand of a master, and as referring to one of the corner-stones of this -strange philosophy. I may remark with respect to it, in the first -place, that it assumes those "conditions" of evolution to which I have -already referred. In the second place, it is full of inaccurate -statements of fact, all in a direction tending to favour the -hypothesis. For example, a tree does not differ "immeasurably" from a -seed, especially if the seed is of the same species of tree, for the -principal parts of the tree and its principal chemical constituents -already exist and can be detected in the seed, and unless it were so, -the development of the tree from the seed could not take place. -Besides, the seed itself is not a thing self-existent or fortuitous. -The production of a seed without a previous tree of the same kind is -quite as difficult to suppose as the production of a tree without a -previous seed containing its living embryo. In the third place, the -whole argument is one of analogy. The germ becomes a mature animal, -passing through many intermediate stages, therefore the animal may -have descended from some creature which when mature was as simple as -the germ. The value of such an analogy depends altogether on the -similarity of the "conditions" which, in such a case, are really the -efficient causes at work. The germ of a mammal becomes developed by -the nourishment supplied from the system of a parent, which itself -produced the germ, and into whose likeness the young animal is -destined to grow. These are the "appropriate conditions" of its -development. But when our author assumes from this other "appropriate -conditions," by which an organism, which on the hypothesis is not a -germ but a mature animal, shall be developed into the likeness, of -something different from its parent, he oversteps the bounds of -legitimate analogy. Further, the reproduction of the animal, as -observed, is a closed series, beginning at the embryo and returning -thither again; the evolution attempted to be established is a -progressive series going on from one stage to another. A reproductive -circle once established obeys certain definite laws, but its origin, -or how it can leave its orbit and revolve in some other, we cannot -explain without the introduction of some new efficient cause. The one -term of the analogy is a revolution, and the other is an evolution. -The revolution within the circle of the reproduction of the species -gives no evidence that at some point the body will fly off at a -tangent, and does not even inform us whether it is making progress in -space. Even if it is so making progress, its orbit of revolution may -remain the same. But it may be said the reproduction of the species is -not in a circle but in a spiral. Within the limit of experience it is -not so, since, however it may undulate, it always returns into itself. -But supposing it to be a spiral, it may ascend or descend, or expand -and contract; but this does not connect it with other similar spirals, -the separate origin of which is to be separately accounted for. - -I have quoted the latter part of the passage because it is -characteristic of evolutionists to decry the intelligence of those who -differ from them. Now it is fair to admit that it requires some -intelligence and some knowledge of nature to produce or even to -understand such analogies as those of Mr. Spencer and his followers, -but it is no less true that a deeper insight into the study of nature -may not only enable us to understand these analogies, but to detect -their fallacies. I am sorry to say, however, that at present the -hypothesis of evolution is giving so strong a colouring to much of -popular and even academic teaching, more especially in the easy and -flippant conversion of the facts of embryology into instances of -evolution on the plan of the above extract, that the Spencerians may -not long have to complain of want of faith and appreciation on the -part of the improved apes whom they are kind enough to instruct as to -their lowly origin. - -The mention of "appropriate conditions" in the above extract reminds -me of another fatal objection to evolution which its advocates -continually overlook. An animal or plant advancing from maturity to -the adult state is in every stage of its progress a complete and -symmetrical organism, correlated in all its parts and adapted to -surrounding conditions. Suppose it to become modified in any way, to -ever so small an extent, the whole of these relations are disturbed. -If the modification is internal and spontaneous, there is no guarantee -that it will suit the vastly numerous external agencies to which the -creature is subjected. If it is produced by agencies from without, -there is no guarantee that it will accord with the internal relations -of the parts modified. The probabilities are incalculably great -against the occurrence of many such disturbances without the breaking -up altogether of the nice adjustment of parts and conditions. This is -no doubt one reason of the extinction of so many species in geological -time, and also of the strong tendency of every species to spring back -to its normal condition when in any way artificially caused to vary. -It is also connected with the otherwise mysterious law of the constant -transmission of all the characters of the parent. - -Spencer and Darwin occasionally see this difficulty, though they -habitually neglect it in their reasonings. Spencer even tries to turn -one part of it to account as follows:-- - -"Suppose the head of a mammal to become very much more weighty--what -must be the indirect results? The muscles of the neck are put to -greater exertions; and the vertebræ have to bear additional tensions -and pressures caused both by the increased weight of the head and the -stronger contraction of muscles that support and move the head." He -goes on to say that the processes of the vertebrae will have augmented -strains put upon them, the thoracic region and fore limbs will have to -be enlarged, and even the hind limbs may require modification to -facilitate locomotion. He concludes: "Any one who compares the outline -of the bison with that of its congener, the ox, will clearly see how -profoundly a heavier head affects the entire osseous and muscular -system." - -We need not stop to mention the usual inaccuracies as to facts in this -paragraph, as, for example, the support of the head being attributed -to muscles alone, without reference to the strong elastic ligament of -the neck. We may first notice the assumption that an animal can -acquire a head "very much more weighty" then that which it had before, -a very improbable supposition, whether as a monstrous birth Dr as an -effect of external conditions after birth. But suppose this to have -occurred, and what is even less likely, that the very much heavier -head is an advantage in some way, what guarantee can evolution give -us that the number of other modifications required would take place -simultaneously with this acquisition! It would be easy to show that -this would depend on the concurrence of hundreds of other conditions -within and without the animal, all of which must co-operate to produce -the desired effect, if indeed they could produce this effect even by -their conjoint action, a power which the writer, it will be observed, -quietly assumes, as well as the probability of the initial change in -the head. Finally, the naivete with which it is assumed that the bison -and the ox are examples of such an evolution, would be refreshing in -these artificial days, if instances of it did not occur in almost -every page of the writings of evolutionists. - -It would only weary the reader to follow evolution any further into -details, especially as my object in this chapter is to show that -generally, and as a theory of nature and of man, it has no good -foundation; but we should not leave the subject without noting -precisely the derivation of man according to this theory; and for this -purpose I may quote Darwin's summary of his conclusions on the -subject.[BC] - -[BC] "Descent of Man," part ii., ch. 21. - -"Man," says Mr. Darwin, "is descended from a hairy quadruped, -furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in its -habits, and an inhabitant of the Old World. This creature, if its -whole structure had been examined by a naturalist, would have been -classed amongst the quadrumana, as surely as would the common, and -still more ancient, progenitor of the Old and New World monkeys. The -quadrumana and all the higher mammals are probably derived from an -ancient marsupial animal; and this, through a long line of diversified -forms, either from some reptile-like or some amphibian-like creature, -and this again from some fish-like animal. In the dim obscurity of the -past we can see that the early progenitor of all the vertebrata must -have been an aquatic animal, provided with branchiæ, with the two -sexes united in the same individual, and with the most important -organs of the body (such as the brain and heart) imperfectly -developed. This animal seems to have been more like the larvæ of our -existing marine Ascidians then any other form known." - -The author of this passage, in condescension to our weakness of faith, -takes us no further back then to an Ascidian, or "sea-squirt," the -resemblance, however, of which to a vertebrate animal is merely -analogical, and, though a very curious case of analogy, altogether -temporary and belonging to the young state of the creature, without -affecting its adult state or its real affinities with other mollusks. -In order, however, to get the Ascidian itself, he must assume all the -"conditions" already referred to in the previous part of this article, -and fill most of the gaps. He has, however, in the "Origin of Species" -and "Descent of Man," attempted merely to fill one of the breaks in -the evolutionary series, that between distinct species, leaving us to -receive all the rest on mere faith. Even in respect to the question -of species, in all the long chain between the Ascidian and the man, he -has not certainly established one link; and in the very last change, -that from the ape-like ancestor, he equally fails to satisfy us as to -matters so trivial as the loss of the hair, which, on the hypothesis, -clothed the pre-human back, and on matters so weighty as the dawn of -human reason and conscience. - -We thus see that evolution as an hypothesis has no basis in experience -or in scientific fact, and that its imagined series of transmutations -has breaks which cannot be filled. We have now to consider how it -stands with the belief that man has been created by a higher power. -Against this supposition the evolutionists try to create a prejudice -in two ways. First, they maintain with Herbert Spencer that the -hypothesis of creation is inconceivable, or, as they say, -"unthinkable;" an assertion which, when examined, proves to mean only -that we do not know perfectly the details of such an operation, an -objection equally fatal to the origin either of matter or life, on the -hypothesis of evolution. Secondly, they always refer to creation as if -it must be a special miracle, in the sense of a contravention of or -departure from ordinary natural laws; but this is an assumption -utterly without proof, since creation may be as much according to law -as evolution, though in either case the precise laws involved may be -very imperfectly known. - -How absurd, they say, to imagine an animal created at once, fully -formed, by a special miracle, instead of supposing it to be slowly -elaborated through, countless ages of evolution. To Darwin the -doctrine of creation is but "a curious illustration of the blindness -of preconceived opinion." "These authors," he says, "seem no more -startled at a miraculous act of creation then at an ordinary birth; -but do they really believe that at innumerable periods in the earth's -history, certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash -into living tissues?" Darwin, with all his philosophic fairness, -sometimes becomes almost Spencerian in his looseness of expression; -and in the above extract, the terms "miraculous," "innumerable," -"elemental atoms," "suddenly," and "flash," all express ideas in no -respect necessary to the work of creation. Those who have no faith in -evolution as a cause of the production of species, may well ask in -return how the evolutionist can prove that creation must be -instantaneous, that it must follow no law, that it must produce an -animal fully formed, that it must be miraculous. In short, it is a -portion of the policy of evolutionists to endeavour to tie down their -opponents to a purely gratuitous and ignorant view of creation, and -then to attack them in that position. - -What, then, is the actual statement of the theory of creation as it -may be held by a modern man of science? Simply this; that all things -have been produced by the Supreme Creative Will, acting either -directly or through the agency of the forces and materials of His own -production. - -This theory does not necessarily affirm that creation is miraculous, -in the sense of being contrary to or subversive of law; law and order -are as applicable to creation as to any other process. It does not -contradict the idea of successive creations. There is no necessity -that the process should be instantaneous and without progression. It -does not imply that all kinds of creation are alike. There may be -higher and lower kinds. It does not exclude the idea of similarity or -dissimilarity of plan and function as to the products of creation. -Distinct products of creation may be either similar to each other in -different degrees, or dissimilar. It does not even exclude evolution -or derivation to a certain extent: anything once created may, if -sufficiently flexible and elastic, be evolved or involved in various -ways. Indeed, creation and derivation may, rightly understood, be -complementary to each other. Created things, unless absolutely -unchangeable, must be more or less modified by influences from within -and from without, and derivation or evolution may account for certain -subordinate changes of things already made. Man, for example, may be a -product of creation, yet his creation may have been in perfect harmony -with those laws of procedure which the Creator has set for His own -operations. He may have been preceded by other creations of things -more or less similar or dissimilar. He may have been created by the -same processes with some or all of these, or by different means. His -body may have been created in one way, his soul in another. He may, -nay, in all probability would be, part of a plan of which some parts -would approach very near to him in structure or functions. After his -creation, spontaneous culture and outward circumstances may have -moulded him into varieties, and given him many different kinds of -speech and of habits. These points are so obvious to common sense that -it would be quite unnecessary to insist on them, were they not -habitually overlooked or misstated by evolutionists. - -The creation hypothesis is also free from some of the difficulties of -evolution. It avoids the absurdity of an eternal progression from the -less to the more complex. It provides in will, the only source of -power actually known to us by ordinary experience, an intelligible -origin of nature. It does not require us to contradict experience by -supposing that there are no differences of kind or essence in things. -It does not require us to assume, contrary to experience, an -invariable tendency to differentiate and improve. It does not exact -the bridging over of all gaps which may be found between the several -grades of beings which exist or have existed. - -Why, then, are so many men of science disposed to ignore altogether -this view of the matter? Mainly, I believe, because, from the training -of many of them, they are absolutely ignorant of the subject, and from -their habits of thought have come to regard physical force and the -laws regulating it as the one power in nature, and to relegate all -spiritual powers or forces, or, as they have been taught to regard -them, "supernatural" things, to the domain of the "unknowable." -Perhaps some portion of the difficulty may be got over by abandoning -altogether the word "supernatural," which has been much misused, and -by holding nature to represent the whole cosmos, and to include both -the _physical_ and the _spiritual_, both of them in the fullest sense -subject to law, but each to the law of its own special nature. I have -read somewhere a story of some ignorant orientals who were induced to -keep a steam-engine supplied with water by the fiction that it -contained a terrible _djin_, or demon, who, if allowed to become -thirsty, would break out and destroy them all. Had they been enabled -to discard this superstition, and to understand the force of steam, we -can readily imagine that they would now suppose they knew the whole -truth, and might believe that any one who taught them that the engine -was a product of intelligent design, was only taking them back to the -old doctrine of the thirsty demon of the boiler. This is, I think, at -present, the mental condition of many scientists with reference to -creation. - -Here we come to the first demand which the doctrine of creation makes -on us by way of premises. In order that there may be creation there -must be a primary Self-existent Spirit, whose will is supreme. The -evolutionist cannot refuse to admit this on as good ground as that on -which we hesitate to receive the postulates of his faith. It is no -real objection to say that a God can be known to us only partially, -and, with reference to His real essence, not at all; since, even if -we admit this, it is no more then can be said of matter and force. - -I am not about here to repeat any of the ordinary arguments for the -existence of a spiritual First Cause, and Creator of all things, but -it may be proper to show that this assumption is not inconsistent with -experience, or with the facts and principles of modern science. The -statement which I would make on this point shall be in the words of a -very old writer, not so well known as he should be to many who talk -volubly enough about antagonisms between science and Christianity: -"that which is known of God is manifest in them (in men), for God -manifested it unto them. For since the creation of the world His -invisible things, even His eternal power and divinity are plainly -seen, being perceived by means of things that are made."[BD] The -statement here is very precise. Certain things relating to God are -manifest within men's minds, and are proved by the evidence of His -works; these properties of God thus manifested being specially His -power or control of all forces, and His divinity or possession of a -nature higher then ours. The argument of the writer is that all -heathens know this; and, as a matter of fact, I believe it must be -admitted even by those most sceptical on such points, that some notion -of a divinity has been derived from nature by men of all nations and -tribes, if we except, perhaps, a few enlightened positivists of this -nineteenth century whom excess of light has made blind. "If the light -that is in man be darkness, how great is that darkness." But then this -notion of a God is a very old and primitive one, and Spencer takes -care to inform us that "first thoughts are either wholly out of -harmony with things, or in very incomplete harmony with them," and -consequently that old beliefs and generally diffused notions are -presumably wrong. - -[BD] Paul's Epistle to the Romans, chap i. - -Is it true, however, that the modern knowledge of nature tends to rob -it of a spiritual First Cause? One can conceive such a tendency, if -all our advances in knowledge had tended more and more to identify -force with matter in its grosser forms, and to remove more and more -from our mental view those powers which are not material; but the very -reverse of this is the case. Modern discovery has tended more and more -to attach importance to certain universally diffused media which do -not seem to be subject to the laws of ordinary matter, and to prove at -once the Protean character and indestructibility of forces, the -aggregate of which, as acting in the universe, gives us our nearest -approach to the conception of physical omnipotence. This is what so -many of our evolutionists mean when they indignantly disclaim -materialism. They know that there is a boundless energy beyond mere -matter, and of which matter seems the sport and toy. Could they -conceive of this energy as the expression of a personal will, they -would become theists. - -Man himself presents a microcosm of matter and force, raised to a -higher plane then that of the merely chemical and physical. In him we -find not merely that brain and nerve force which is common to him and -lower animals, and which exhibits one of the most marvellous energies -in nature, but we have the higher force of will and intellect, -enabling him to read the secrets of nature, to seize and combine and -utilize its laws like a god, and like a god to attain to the higher -discernment of good and evil. Nay, more, this power which resides -within man rules with omnipotent energy the material organism, driving -its nerve forces until cells and fibres are worn out and destroyed, -taxing muscles and tendons till they break, impelling its slave the -body even to that which will bring injury and death itself. Surely, -what we thus see in man must be the image and likeness of the Great -Spirit. We can escape from this conclusion only by one or other of two -assumptions, either of which is rather to be called a play upon words -then a scientific theory. We may, with a certain class of physicists -and physiologists, confine our attention wholly to the fire and the -steam, and overlook the engineer. We may assume that with protoplasm -and animal electricity, for example, we can dispense with life, and -not only with life but with spirit also. Yet he who regards vitality -as an unmeaning word; and yet speaks of "living protoplasm," and "dead -protoplasm," and affirms that between these two states, so different -in their phenomena, no chemical or physical difference exists, is -surely either laughing at us, or committing himself to what the Duke -of Argyll calls a philosophical bull; and he who shows us that -electrical discharges are concerned in muscular contraction, has just -as much proved that there is no need of life or spirit, as the -electrician who has explained the mysteries of the telegraph has shown -that there can be no need of an operator. Or we may, turning to the -opposite extreme, trust to the metaphysical fallacy of those who -affirm that neither matter, nor force, nor spirit, need concern them, -for that all are merely states of consciousness in ourselves. But what -of the conscious self this self which thinks, and which is in relation -with surroundings which it did not create, and which presumably did -not create it? and what is the unknown third term which must have been -the means of setting up these relations? Here again our blind guides -involve us in an absolute self-contradiction. - -Thus we are thrown back on the grand old truth that man, heathen and -savage, or Christian and scientific, opens his eyes on nature and -reads therein both the physical and the spiritual, and in connection -with both of these the power and divinity of an Almighty Creator. He -may at first have many wrong views both of God and of His works, but -as he penetrates further into the laws of matter and mind, he attains -more just conceptions of their relations to the Great Centre and -Source of all, and instead of being able to dispense with creation, he -hopes to be able at length to understand its laws and methods. If -unhappily he abandons this high ambition, and contents himself with -mere matter and physical force, he cannot rise to the highest -development either of science or philosophy. - -It may, however, be said that evolution may admit all this, and still -be held as a scientific doctrine in connection with a modified belief -in creation. The work of actual creation may have been limited to a -few elementary types, and evolution may have done the rest. -Evolutionists may still be theists. We have already seen that the -doctrine, as carried out to its logical consequences, excludes -creation and theism. It may, however, be shown that even in its more -modified forms, and when held by men who maintain that they are not -atheists, it is practically atheistic, because excluding the idea of -plan and design, and resolving all things into the action of -unintelligent forces. It is necessary to observe this, because it is -the half-way evolutionism which professes to have a Creator somewhere -behind it, that is most popular; though it is, if possible, more -unphilosophical then that which professes to set out from absolute and -eternal nonentity, or from self-existent star-dust containing all the -possibilities of the universe. - -Absolute atheists recognise in Darwinism, for example, a philosophy -which reduces all things to a "gradual summation of innumerable minute -and accidental material operations," and in this they are more logical -then those who seek to reconcile evolution with design. Huxley, in his -"lay sermons," referring to Paley's argument for design founded on the -structure of a watch, says that if the watch could be conceived to be -a product of a less perfect structure improved by natural selection, -it would then appear to be the "result of a method of trial and error -worked by unintelligent agents, as likely as of the direct application -of the means appropriate to that end, by an intelligent agent." This -is a bold and true assertion of the actual relation of even this -modified evolution to rational and practical theism, which requires -not merely this God "afar off," who has set the stone of nature -rolling and then turned His back upon it, but a present God, whose -will is the law of nature, now as in times past. The evolutionist is -really in a position of absolute antagonism to the idea of creation, -even when held with all due allowance for the variations of created -things within certain limits. - -Perhaps Paley's old illustration of the watch, as applied by Huxley, -may serve to show this as well as any other. If the imperfect watch, -useless as a time-keeper, is the work of the contriver, and the -perfection of it is the result of unintelligent agents working -fortuitously, then it is clear that creation and design have a small -and evanescent share in the construction of the fabric of nature. But -is it really so? Can we attribute the perfection of the watch to -"accidental material operations" any more then the first effort to -produce such an instrument? Paley himself long ago met this view of -the case, but his argument may be extended by the admissions and pleas -of the evolutionists themselves. For example, the watch is altogether -a mechanical thing, and this fact by no means implies that it could -not be made by an intelligent and spiritual designer, yet this -assumption that physical laws exclude creation and design turns up in -almost every page of the evolutionists. Paley has well shown that if -the watch contained within itself machinery for making other watches, -this would not militate against his argument. It would be so if it -could be proved that a piece of metal had spontaneously produced an -imperfect watch, and this a more perfect one, and so on; but this is -precisely what evolutionists still require to prove with respect both -to the watch and to man. On the other hand it is no argument for the -evolution of the watch that there may be different kinds of watches, -some more and others less perfect, and that ruder forms may have -preceded the more perfect. This is perfectly compatible with creation -and design. Evolutionists, however, generally fail to make this -distinction. Nor would it be any proof of the evolution of the watch -to find that, as Spencer would say, it was in perfect harmony with its -environment, as, for instance, that it kept time with the revolution -of the earth, and contained contrivances to regulate its motion under -different temperatures, unless it could be shown that the earth's -motion and the changes of temperature had been efficient causes of the -motion and the adjustments of the watch; otherwise the argument would -look altogether in the direction of design. Nor would it be fair to -shut up the argument of design to the idea that the watch must have -suddenly flashed into existence fully formed and in motion. It would -be quite as much a creation if slowly and laboriously made by the hand -of the artificer, or if more rapidly struck off by machinery; and if -the latter, it would not follow that the machine which produced the -watch was at all like the watch itself. It might have been something -very different. Finally, when Spencer tries to cut at the root of the -whole of this argument, by affirming that man has no more right to -reason from himself with regard to his Maker then a watch would have -to reason from its own mechanical structure and affirm the like of its -maker, he signally fails. If the watch had such power of reasoning, it -would be more then mechanical, and would be intelligent like its -maker; and in any case, if thus reasoning it came to the conclusion -that it was a result of "accidental material operations," it would be -altogether mistaken. Nor would it be nearer the truth if it held that -it was a product of spontaneous evolution from an imperfect and -comparatively useless watch that had been made millions of years -before. - -We have taken this illustration of the watch merely as given to us by -Huxley, and without in the least seeking to overlook the distinction -between a dead machine and a living organism; but the argument for -creation and design is quite as strong in the case of the latter, so -long as it cannot be proved by actual facts to be a product of -derivation from a distinct species. This has not been proved either in -the care of man or any other species; and so long as it has not, the -theory of creation and design is infinitely more rational and -scientific then that of evolution in any of its forms. - -But all this does not relieve us from the question, How can species be -created?--the same question put to Paul by the sceptics of the first -century with reference to the resurrection--"How are the dead raised, -and with what bodies do they come?" I do not wish to evade this -question, whether applied to man or to a microscopic animalcule, and I -would answer it with the following statements:-- - -1. The advocate of creation is in this matter in no worse position -then the evolutionist. This we have already shown, and I may refer -here to the fact that Darwin himself assumes at least one primitive -form of animal and plant life, and he is confessedly just as little -able to imagine this one act of creation as any other that may be -demanded of him. - -2. We are not bound to believe that all groups of individual animals, -which naturalists may call species, have been separate products of -creation. Man himself has by some naturalists been divided into -several species; but we may well be content to believe the creation of -one primitive form, and the production of existing races by variation. -Every zoologist and botanist who has studied any group of animals or -plants with care, knows that there are numerous related forms passing -into each other, which some naturalists might consider to be distinct -species, but which it is certainly not necessary to regard as -distinct products of creation. Every species is more or less -variable, and this variability may be developed by different causes. -Individuals exposed to unfavourable conditions will be stunted and -depauperated; those in more favourable circumstances may be improved -and enlarged. Important changes may thus take place without -transgressing the limits of the species, or preventing a return to its -typical forms; and the practice of confounding these more limited -changes with the wider structural and physiological differences which -separate true species is much to be deprecated. Animals which pass -through metamorphoses, or which, are developed through the -instrumentality of intermediate forms or "nurses"[BE] are not only -liable to be separated by mistake into distinct species, but they may, -tinder certain circumstances, attain to a premature maturity, or may -be fixed for a time or permanently in an immature condition. Further, -species, like individuals, probably have their infancy, maturity, and -decay in geological time, and may present differences in these several -stages. It is the remainder of true specific types left after all -these sources of error are removed, that creation has to account for; -and to arrive at this remainder, and to ascertain its nature and -amount, will require a vast expenditure of skilful and conscientious -labour. - -[BE] Mr. Mungo Ponton, in his book "The Beginning," has based a theory -of derivation on this peculiarity. - -3. Since animals and plants have been introduced upon our earth in -long succession throughout geologic time, and this in a somewhat -regular manner, we have a right to assume that their introduction has -been in accordance with a law or plan of creation, and that this may -have included the co-operation of many efficient causes, and may have -differed in its application to different cases. This is a very old -doctrine of theology, for it appears in the early chapters of Genesis. -There the first aquatic animals, and man, are said to have been -"created;" plants are said to have been "brought forth by the land;" -the mammalia are said to have been "made." In the more detailed -account of the introduction of man in the second chapter of the same -book, he is said to have been "formed of the dust of the ground;" and -in regard to his higher spiritual life, to have had this "breathed -into" him by God. These are very simple expressions, but they are very -precise and definite in the original, and they imply a diversity in -the creative work. Further, this is in accordance with the analogy of -modern science. How diverse are the modes of production and -development of animals and plants, though all under one general law; -and is it not likely that the modes of their first introduction on the -earth were equally diverse? - -4. Our knowledge of the conditions of the origination of species, is -so imperfect that we may possibly appear for some time to recede from, -rather then to approach to, a solution of the question. In the infancy -of chemistry, it was thought that chemical elements could be -transmuted into each other. The progress of knowledge removed this -explanation of their origin, and has as yet failed to substitute any -other in its place. It may be the same with organic species. The -attempt to account for them by derivation may prove fallacious, yet it -may be some time before we turn the corner, should this be possible, -and enter the path which actually leads up to their origin. - -Lastly, in these circumstances our wisest course is to take individual -species, and to inquire as to their history in time, and the probable -conditions of their introduction. Such investigations are now being -made by many quiet workers, whose labours are comparatively little -known, and many of whom are scarcely aware of the importance of what -they are doing toward a knowledge of, at least, the conditions of -creation, which is perhaps all that we can at present hope to reach. - -In the next chapter we shall try to sum up what is known as to man -himself, in the conditions of his first appearance on our earth, as -made known to us by scientific investigation, and explained on the -theory of creation as opposed to evolution. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -PRIMITIVE MAN. CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO MODERN THEORIES AS TO HIS -ORIGIN (continued). - - -In the previous chapter we have seen that, on general grounds, -evolution as applied to man is untenable; and that the theory of -creation is more rational and less liable to objection. We may now -consider how the geological and zoological conditions of man's advent -on the earth accord with evolution; and I think we shall find, as -might be expected, that they oppose great if not fatal difficulties to -this hypothesis. - -One of the first and most important facts with reference to the -appearance of man, is that he is a very recent animal, dating no -farther back in geological time then the Post-glacial period, at the -close of the Tertiary and beginning of the Modern era of geology. -Further, inasmuch as the oldest known remains of man occur along with -those of animals which still exist, and the majority of which are -probably not of older date, there is but slender probability that any -much older human remains will ever be found. Now this has a bearing on -the question of the derivation of man, which, though it has not -altogether escaped the attention of the evolutionists, has not met -with sufficient consideration. - -Perhaps the oldest; known human skull is that which has been termed -the "Engis" skull, from the cave of Engis, in Belgium. With reference -to this skull, Professor Huxley has candidly admitted that it may have -belonged to an individual of one of the existing faces of men. I have -a cast of it on the same shelf with the skulls of some Algonquin -Indians, from the aboriginal Hochelaga, which preceded Montreal; and -any one acquainted with cranial characters would readily admit that -the ancient Belgian may very well have been an American Indian; while -on the other hand his head is not very dissimilar from that of some -modern European races. This Belgian man is believed to have lived -before the mammoth and the cave bear had passed away, yet he does not -belong to an extinct species or even variety of man. - -Further, as stated in a previous chapter, Pictet catalogues -ninety-eight species of mammals which inhabited Europe in the -Post-glacial period. Of these fifty-seven still exist unchanged, and -the remainder have disappeared. Not one can be shown to have been -modified into a new form, though some of them have been obliged, by -changes of temperature and other conditions, to remove into distant -and now widely separated regions. Further, it would seem that all the -existing European mammals extended back in geological time at least as -far as man, so that since the Post-glacial period no new species have -been introduced in any way. Here we have a series of facts of the most -profound significance. Fifty-seven parallel lines of descent nave in -Europe run on along with man, from the Post-glacial period, without -change or material modification of any kind. Some of them extend -without change even farther back. Thus man and his companion-mammals -present a series of lines, not converging as if they pointed to some -common progenitor, but strictly parallel to each other. In other -words, if they are derived forms, their point of derivation from a -common type is pushed back infinitely in geological time. The absolute -duration of the human species does not affect this argument. If man -has existed only six or seven thousand years, still at the beginning -of his existence he was as distinct from lower animals as he is now, -and shows no signs of gradation into other forms. If he has really -endured since the great Glacial period, and is to be regarded as a -species of a hundred thousand years' continuance, still the fact is -the same, and is, if possible, less favourable to derivation. - -Similar facts meet us in other directions. I have for many years -occupied a little of my leisure in collecting the numerous species of -molluscs and other marine animals existing in a sub-fossil state in -the Post-pliocene clays of Canada, and comparing them with their -modern successors. I do not know how long these animals have lived. -Some of them certainly go far back into the Tertiary; and recent -computations would place even the Glacial age at a distance from us of -more then a thousand centuries. Yet after carefully studying about two -hundred species, and, of some of these, many hundreds of specimens, I -have arrived at the conclusion that they are absolutely unchanged. -Some of them, it is true, are variable shells, presenting as many and -great varieties as the human race itself; yet I find that in the -Post-pliocene even the varieties of each species were the same as now, -though the great changes of temperature and elevation which have -occurred, have removed many of them to distant places, and have made -them become locally extinct in regions over which they once spread. -Here again we have an absolute refusal, on the part of all these -animals, to admit that they are derived, or have tended to sport into -new species. This is also, it is to be observed, altogether -independent of that imperfection of the geological record of which so -much is made; since we have abundance of these shells in the -Post-pliocene beds, and in the modern seas, and no one doubts their -continued descent. To what does this point? Evidently to the -conclusion that all these species show no indication of derivation, or -tendency to improve, but move back in parallel lines to some unknown -creative origin. - -If it be objected to this conclusion that absence of derivation in the -Post-pliocene and Modern does not prove that it may not previously -have occurred, the answer is, that if the evolutionist admits that for -a very long period (and this the only one of which we have any certain -knowledge, and the only one which concerns man) derivation has been -suspended, he in effect abandons his position. It may, however, be -objected that what I have above affirmed of species may be affirmed of -varieties, which are admitted to be derived. For example, it may be -said that the negro variety of man has existed unchanged from the -earliest historic times. It is carious that those who so often urge -this argument as an evidence of the great antiquity of man, and the -slow development of races, do not see that it proves too much. If the -negro has been the same identical negro as far back as we can trace -him, then his origin must have been independent, and of the nature of -a creation, or else his duration as a negro must have been indefinite. -What it does prove is a fact equally obvious from the study of -Post-pliocene molluscs and other fossils, namely, that new species -tend rapidly to vary to the utmost extent of their possible limits, -and then to remain stationary for an indefinite time. Whether this -results from an innate yet limited power of expansion in the species, -or from the relations between it and external influences, it is a fact -inconsistent with the gradual evolution of new species. Hence we -conclude that the recent origin of man, as revealed by geology, is, in -connection with the above facts, an absolute bar to the doctrine of -derivation. - -A second datum furnished to this discussion by geology and zoology is -the negative one that no link of connection is known between man and -any preceding animal. If we gather his bones and his implements from -the ancient gravel-beds and cave-earths, we do not find them -associated with any creature near of kin, nor do we find any such -creature in those rich Tertiary beds which have yielded so great -harvests of mammalian bones. In the modern world we find nothing -nearer to him then such anthropoid apes as the orangs and gorillas. -But the apes, however nearly allied, cannot be the ancestors of man. -If at all related to him by descent, they are his brethren or cousins, -not his parents; for they must, on the evolutionist hypothesis, be -themselves the terminal ends of distinct lines of derivation from -previous forms. - -This difficulty is not removed by an appeal to the imperfection of the -geological record. So many animals contemporary with man are known, -both at the beginning of his geological history and in the present -world, that it would be more then marvellous if no very near relative -had ere this time been discovered at one extreme or the other, or at -some portion of the intervening ages. Further, all the animals -contemporary with man in the Post-glacial period, so far as is known, -are in the same case. Discoveries of this kind may, however, still be -made, and we may give the evolutionist the benefit of the possibility. -We may affirm, however, that in order to gain a substratum of fact for -his doctrine, he must find somewhere in the later Tertiary period -animals much nearer to man then are the present anthropoid apes. - -This demand I make advisedly--first, because the animals in question -must precede man in geological time; and secondly, because the apes, -even if they preceded man, instead of being contemporary with him, are -not near enough to fulfil the required conditions. What is the actual -fact with regard to these animals, so confidently affirmed to resemble -some not very remote ancestors of ours? Zoologically they are not -varieties of the same species with man they are not species of the -same genus, nor do they belong to genera of the same family, or even -to families of the same order. These animals are at least ordinally -distinct from us in those grades of groups in which naturalists -arrange animals. I am well aware that an attempt has been made to -group man, apes, and lemurs in one order of "Primates," and thus to -reduce their difference to the grade of the family; but as pat by its -latest and perhaps most able advocate, the attempt is a decided -failure. One has only to read the concluding chapter of Huxley's new -book on the anatomy of the vertebrates to be persuaded of this, more -especially if we can take into consideration, in addition to the many -differences indicated, others which exist but are not mentioned by the -author. Ordinal distinctions among animals are mainly dependent on -grade or rank, and are not to be broken down by obscure resemblances -of internal anatomy, having no relation to this point, but to -physiological features of very secondary importance. Man must, on all -grounds, rank much higher above the apes then they can do above any -other order of mammals. Even if we refuse to recognise all higher -grounds of classification, and condescend, with some great zoologists -of our time, to regard nature with the eyes of mere anatomists, or in -the same way that a brick-layer's apprentice may be supposed to regard -distinctions of architectural styles, we can arrive at no other -conclusion. Let us imagine an anatomist, himself neither a man nor a -monkey, but a being of some other grade, and altogether ignorant of -the higher ends and powers of our species, to contemplate merely the -skeleton of a man and that of an ape. He must necessarily deduce -therefrom an ordinal distinction, even on the one ground of the -correlations and modifications of structure implied in the erect -position. It would indeed be sufficient for this purpose to consider -merely the balancing of the skull on the neck, or the structure of the -foot, and the consequences fairly deducible from either of them. Nay, -were such imaginary anatomist a derivationist, and ignorant of the -geological date of his specimens, and as careless of the differences -in respect to brain as some of his human _confrères_, he might, -referring to the loss specialised condition of man's teeth and foot, -conclude, not that man is an improved ape, but that the ape is a -specialised and improved man. He would be obliged, however, even on -this hypothesis, to admit that there must be a host of missing links. -Nor would these be supplied by the study of the living races of men, -because these want even specific distinctness, and differ from the -apes essentially in those points on which an ordinal distinction can -be fairly based. - -This isolated position of man throughout the whole period of his -history, grows in importance the more that it is studied, and can -scarcely be the result of any accident of defective preservation of -intermediate forms. In the meantime, when taken in connection with, -the fact previously stated, that man is equally isolated when he first -appears on the stage, it deprives evolution, as applied to our -species, of any precise scientific basis, whether zoological or -geological. - -I do not attach any importance whatever, in this connection, to the -likeness in type or plan between man and other mammals. Evolutionists -are in the habit of taking for granted that this implies derivation, -and of reasoning as if the fact that the human skeleton is constructed -on the same principles as that of an ape or a dog, must have some -connection with a common ancestry of these animals. This is, however, -as is usual with them, begging the question. Creation, as well as -evolution, admits of similarity of plan. When Stephenson constructed a -locomotive, he availed himself of the principles and of many of the -contrivances of previous engines; but this does not imply that he took -a mine-engine, or a marine-engine, and converted it into a -railroad-engine. Type or plan, whether in nature or art, may imply -merely a mental evolution of ideas in the maker, not a derivation of -one object from another. - -But while man is related in his type of structure to the higher -animals, his contemporaries, it is undeniable that there are certain -points in which he constitutes a new type; and if this consideration -were properly weighed, I believe it would induce zoologists, -notwithstanding the proverbial humility of the true man of science, to -consider themselves much more widely separated from the brutes then -even by the ordinal distinction above referred to. I would state this -view of the matter thus:--It is in the lower animals a law that the -bodily frame is provided with all necessary means of defence and -attack, and with all necessary protection against external influences -and assailants. In a very few cases, we have partial exceptions to -this. A hermit-crab, for instance, has the hinder part of its body -unprotected; and has, instead of armour, the instinct of using the -cast-off shells of molluscs; yet even this animal has the usual strong -claws of a crustacean, for defence in front. There are only a very few -animals in which instinct thus takes the place of physical -contrivances for defence or attack, and in these we find merely the -usual unvarying instincts of the irrational animal. But in man, that -which is the rare exception in all other animals, becomes the rule. He -has no means of escape from danger, compared with those enjoyed by -other animals no defensive armour, no natural protection from cold or -heat, no effective weapons for attacking other animals. These -disabilities would make him the most helpless of creatures, especially -when taken in connection with his slow growth and long immaturity. His -safety and his dominion over other animals, are secured by entirely -new means, constituting a "new departure" in creation. Contrivance -and inventive power, enabling him to utilise the objects and forces of -nature, replace in him the material powers bestowed on lower animals. -Obviously the structure of the human being is related to this, and so -related to it as to place man in a different category altogether from -any other animal. - -This consideration makes the derivation of man from brutes difficult -to imagine. None of these latter appear even able to conceive or -understand the modes of life and action of man. They do not need to -attempt to emulate his powers, for they are themselves provided for in -a different manner. They have no progressive nature like that of man. -Their relations to things without are altogether limited to their -structures and instincts. Man's relations are limited only by his -powers of knowing and understanding. How then is it possible to -conceive of an animal which is, so to speak, a mere living machine, -parting with the physical contrivances necessary to its existence, and -assuming the new role of intelligence and free action? - -This becomes still more striking if we adopt the view usually taken by -evolutionists, that primitive man was a ferocious and carnivorous -creature, warring with and overcoming the powerful animals of the -Post-glacial period, and contending with the rigours of a severe -climate. This could certainly not be inferred from his structure, -interpreted by that of the lower animals, which would inevitably lead -to the conclusion that he must Lave been a harmless and frugivorous -creature, fitted to subsist only in the mildest climates, and where -exempt from the attacks of the more powerful carnivorous animals. No -one reasoning on the purely physical constitution of man, could infer -that he might be a creature more powerful and ferocious then the lion -or the tiger. - -It is also worthy of mention that the existence of primitive man as a -savage hunter is, in another point of view, absolutely opposed to the -Darwinian idea of his origin from a frugivorous ape. These creatures, -while comparatively inoffensive, conform to the general law of lower -animals in having strong jaws and powerful canines for defence, -hand-like feet to aid them in securing food, and escaping from their -enemies, and hairy clothing to protect them from cold and heat. On the -hypothesis of evolution we might conceive that if these creatures were -placed in some Eden of genial warmth, peace, and plenty, which -rendered those appliances unnecessary, they might gradually lose these -now valuable structures, from want of necessity, to use them. But, on -the contrary, if such creatures were obliged to contend against -powerful enemies, and to feed on flesh, all analogy would lead us to -believe that they would become in their structures more like -carnivorous beasts then men. On the other hand, the anthropoid apes, -in the circumstances in which we find them, are not only as -unprogressive as other animals, but little fitted to extend their -range, and less gifted with the power of adapting themselves to new -conditions then many other mammals less resembling man in external -form. - -On the Darwinian theory, such primitive men as geology reveals to us -would be more likely to have originated from bears then apes, and we -would be tempted to wish that man should become extinct, and that the -chance should be given to the mild chimpanzee or orang to produce by -natural selection an improved and less ferocious humanity for the -future. - -The only rational hypothesis of human origin in the present state of -our knowledge of this subject is, that man must have been produced -under some circumstances in which animal food was not necessary to -him, in which he was exempt from the attacks of the more formidable -animals, and in less need of protection from the inclemency of the -weather then is the case with any modern apes; and that his life as a -hunter and warrior began after he had by his knowledge and skill -secured to himself the means of subduing nature by force and cunning. -This implies that man was from the first a rational being, capable of -understanding nature, and it accords much more nearly with the old -story of Eden in the book of Genesis, then with any modern theories of -evolution. - -It is due to Mr. Wallace--who, next to Darwin, has been a leader among -English derivationists--to state that he perceives this difficulty. As -a believer in natural selection, however, it presents itself to his -mind in a peculiar form. He perceives that so soon as, by the process -of evolution, man became a rational creature, and acquired his social -sympathies, physical evolution must cease, and must be replaced by -invention, contrivance, and social organisation. This is at once -obvious and undeniable, and it follows that the natural selection -applicable to man, as man, must relate purely to his mental and moral -improvement. Wallace, however, fails to comprehend the full -significance of this feature of the case. Given, a man destitute of -clothing, he may never acquire such clothing by natural selection, -because he will provide an artificial substitute. He will evolve not -into a hairy animal, but into a weaver and a tailor. Given, a man -destitute of claws and fangs, he will not acquire these, but will -manufacture weapons. But then, on the hypothesis of derivation, this -is not what is given us as the raw material of man, but instead of -this a hairy ape. Admitting the power of natural selection, we might -understand how this ape could become more hairy, or acquire more -formidable weapons, as it became more exposed to cold, or more under -the necessity of using animal food; but that it should of itself leave -this natural line of development and enter on the entirely different -line of mental progress is not conceivable, except as a result of -creative intervention. - -Absolute materialists may make light of this difficulty, and may hold -that this would imply merely a change of brain; but even if we admit -this, they fail to show of what use such better brain would be to a -creature retaining the bodily form and instincts of the ape, or how -such better brain could be acquired. But evolutionists are not -necessarily absolute materialists, and Darwin himself labours to show -that the reasoning self-conscious mind, and even the moral sentiments -of man, might be evolved from rudiments of such powers, perceptible in -the lower animals. Here, however, he leaves the court of natural -science, properly so called, and summons us to appear before the -judgment-seat of philosophy; and as naturalists are often bad mental -philosophers, and philosophers have often small knowledge of nature, -some advantage results, in the first instance, to the doubtful cause -of evolution. Since, however, mental science makes much more of the -distinctions between the mind of man and the instinct of animals then -naturalists, accustomed to deal merely with the external organism, can -be expected to do, the derivationist, when his plea is fairly -understood, is quite as certain to lose his cause as when tried by -geology and zoology. He might indeed be left to be dealt with by -mental science on its own ground; and as our province is to look at -the matter from the standpoint of natural history, we might here close -our inquiry. It may, however, be proper to give some slight notion of -the width of the gulf to be passed when we suppose the mechanical, -unconscious, repetitive nature of the animal to pass over into the -condition of an intellectual and moral being. - -If we take, as the most favourable case for the evolutionist, the most -sagacious of the lower animals--the dog,--for example and compare it -with the least elevated condition of the human mind, as observed in -the child or the savage, we shall find that even here there is -something more then that "immense difference in degree" which Darwin -himself admits. Making every allowance for similarities in external -sense, in certain instinctive powers and appetites; and even in the -power of comparison, and in certain passions and affections; and -admitting, though we cannot be quite certain of this, that in these -man differs from animals only in degree; there remain other and more -important differences, amounting to the possession, on the part of -man, of powers not existing at all in animals. Of this kind are--first, -the faculty of reaching abstract and general truth, ind consequently -of reasoning, in the proper sense of the term; secondly, in connection -with this, the power of indefinite increase in knowledge, and in -deductions therefrom leading to practical results; thirdly, the power -of expressing thought in speech; fourthly, the power of arriving at -ideas of right and wrong, and thus becoming a responsible and free -agent. Lastly, we have the conception of higher spiritual -intelligence, of supreme power and divinity, and the consequent -feeling of religious obligation. These powers are evidently different -in kind, rather then in degree, from those of the brute, and cannot be -conceived to have arisen from the latter, more especially as one of -the distinctive characters of these is their purely cyclical, -repetitive, and unprogressive nature. - -Sir John Lubbock has, by a great accumulation of facts, or supposed -facts, bearing on the low mental condition of savages, endeavoured to -bridge over this chasm. It is obvious, however, from his own data, -that the rudest savages are enabled to subsist only by the exercise of -intellectual gifts far higher then those of animals; and that if these -gifts were removed from them, they would inevitably perish. It is -equally clear that even the lowest savages are moral agents; and that -not merely in their religious beliefs and conceptions of good and -evil, but also in their moral degradation, they show capacities not -possessed by the brutes. It is also true that most of these savages -are quite as little likely to be specimens of primitive man as are the -higher races; and that many of them have fallen to so low a level as -to be scarcely capable, of themselves, of rising to a condition of -culture and civilisation. Thus they are more likely to be degraded -races, in "the eddy and backwater of humanity" then examples of the -sources from whence it flowed. And here it must not be lost sight of, -that a being like man has capacities for degradation commensurate with -his capacities for improvement; and that at any point of his history -we may have to seek the analogues of primeval man, rather in the -average, then the extremes of the race. - -Before leaving this subject, it may be well to consider the fact, that -the occurrence of such a being as man in the last stages of the -world's history is, in itself, an argument for the existence of a -Supreme Creator. Man is himself an image and likeness of God; and the -fact that he can establish relations with nature around him, so as to -understand and control its powers, implies either that he has been -evolved as a soul of nature, by its own blind development, or that he -has originated in the action of a higher being related to man. The -former supposition has been above shown to be altogether improbable; -so that we are necessarily thrown back upon the latter. We must thus -regard man himself as the highest known work of a spiritual creator, -and must infer that he rightly uses his reason when he infers from -nature the power and divinity of God. - -The last point that I think necessary to bring forward here, is the -information which geology gives as to the locality of the introduction -of man. There can be no hesitation in affirming that to the temperate -regions of the old continent belongs the honour of being the cradle of -humanity. In these regions are the oldest historical monuments of our -race; here geology finds the most ancient remains of human beings; -here also seems to be the birthplace of the fauna and flora most -useful and congenial to man; and here he attains to his highest pitch -of mental and physical development. This, it is true, by no means -accords with the methods of the derivationists. On their theory we -should search for the origin of man rather in those regions where he -is most depauperated and degraded, and where his struggles for -existence are most severe. But it is surely absurd to affirm of any -species of animal or plant that it must have originated at the limits -of its range, where it can scarcely exist at all. On the contrary, -common sense as well as science requires us to believe that species -must have originated in those central parts of their distribution -where they enjoy the most favourable circumstances, and must have -extended themselves thence as far as external conditions would permit. -One of the most wretched varieties of the human race, and as near as -any to the brutes, is that which inhabits Tierra del Fuego, a country -which scarcely affords any of the means for the comfortable sustenance -of man. Would it not be absolutely impossible that man should have -originated in such a country? Is it not certain, en the contrary, that -the Fuegian is merely a degraded variety of the aboriginal American -race? Precisely the same argument applies to the Austral negro and the -Hottentot. They are all naturally the most aberrant varieties of man, -as being at the extreme range of his possible extension, and placed in -conditions unfavourable, either because of unsuitable climatal or -organic associations. It is true that the regions most favourable to -the anthropoid apes, and in which they may be presumed to have -originated, are by no means the most favourable to man; but this only -makes it the less likely that man could have been derived from such a -parentage. - -While, therefore, the geological date of the appearance of man, the -want of any link of connection between him and any preceding animal, -and his dissimilar bodily and mental constitution from any creatures -contemporary with him, render his derivation from apes or other -inferior animals in the highest degree improbable, the locality of his -probable origin confirms this conclusion in the strongest manner. It -also shows that man and the higher apes are not likely to have -originated in the same regions, or under the same conditions, and that -the conditions of human origin are rather the coincidence of suitable -climatal and organic surroundings then the occurrence of animals -closely related in structure to man. - -Changes of conditions in geological time will not meet this -difficulty. They might lead to migrations, as they have done in the -case of both plants and animals, but not to anything further. The -hyena, whose bones are found in the English caves, has been driven by -geological changes to South Africa, but he is still the same hyena. -The reindeer which once roamed in France is still the reindeer in -Lapland; and though under different geological conditions we might -imagine the creature to have originated in the south of Europe, a -country not now suitable to it, this would neither give reason to -believe that any animal now living in the south of Europe was its -progenitor, nor to doubt that it still remains unchanged in its new -habitat. Indeed, the absence of anything more then merely varietal -change in man and his companion-animals, in consequence of the -geological changes and migrations of the Modern period, furnishes, as -already stated, a strong if not conclusive argument against -derivation; which here, as elsewhere, only increases our actual -difficulties, while professing to extricate us from them. - - * * * * * - -The arguments in the preceding pages cover only a small portion of the -extensive field opened up by this subject. They relate, however, to -some of the prominent and important points, and I trust are sufficient -to show that, as applied to man, the theory of derivation merely -trifles with the great question of his origin, without approaching to -its solution. I may now, in conclusion, sketch the leading features of -primitive man, as he appears to us through the mist of the intervening -ages, and compare the picture with that presented by the oldest -historical records of our race. - -Two pictures of primeval man are in our time before the world. One -represents him as the pure and happy inhabitant of an Eden, free from -all the ills that have afflicted his descendants, and revelling in the -bliss of a golden age. This is the representation of Holy Scripture, -and it is also the dream of all the poetry and myth of the earlier -ages of the world. It is a beautiful picture, whether we regard it as -founded on historical fact, or derived from God Himself, or from the -yearnings of the higher spiritual nature of man. The other picture is -a joint product of modern philosophy and of antiquarian research. It -presents to us a coarse and filthy savage, repulsive in feature, gross -in habits, warring with his fellow-savages, and warring yet more -remorselessly with every living thing he could destroy, tearing -half-cooked flesh, and cracking marrow-bones with stone hammers, -sheltering himself in damp and smoky caves, with no eye heavenward, -and with only the first rude beginnings of the most important arts of -life. - -Both pictures may contain elements of truth, for man is a many-sided -monster, made up of things apparently incongruous, and presenting here -and there features out of which either picture may be composed. -Evolutionists, and especially those who believe in the struggle for -existence and natural selection, ignore altogether the evidence of the -golden age of humanity, and refer us to the rudest of modern savages -as the types of primitive man. Those who believe in a Divine origin -for our race, perhaps dwell too much on the higher spiritual features -of the Edenic state, to the exclusion of its more practical aspects, -and its relations to the condition of the more barbarous races. Let us -examine more closely both representations; and first, that of -creation. - -The Glacial period, with its snows and ice, had passed away, and the -world rejoiced in a spring-time of renewed verdure and beauty. Many -great and formidable beasts of the Tertiary time had disappeared in -the revolutions which had occurred, and the existing fauna of the -northern hemisphere had been established on the land. Then it was that -man was introduced by an act of creative power. In the preceding -changes a region of Western Asia had been prepared for his residence. -It was a table-land at the head waters of the rivers that flow into -the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Persian Gulf. Its climate was healthy -and bracing, with enough of variety to secure vigour, and not so -inclement as to exact any artificial provision for clothing or -shelter. Its flora afforded abundance of edible fruits, and was rich -in all the more beautiful forms of plant life; while its clear -streams, alluvial soil, and undulating surface, afforded every variety -of station and all that is beautiful in scenery. It was not infested -with the more powerful and predacious quadrupeds, and its geographical -relations were such as to render this exemption permanent. In this -paradise man found ample supplies of wholesome and nutritious food. -His requirements as to shelter were met by the leafy bowers he could -weave. The streams of Eden afforded gold which he could fashion for -use and ornament, pearly shells for vessels, and agate for his few and -simple cutting instruments. He required no clothing, and knew of no -use for it. His body was the perfection and archetype of the -vertebrate form, full of grace, vigour, and agility. His hands enabled -him to avail himself of all the products of nature for use and -pleasure, and to modify and adapt them according to his inclination. -His intelligence, along with his manual powers, allowed him to -ascertain the properties of things, to plan, invent, and apply in a -manner impossible to any other creature. His gift of speech enabled -him to imitate and reduce to systematic language the sounds of nature, -and to connect them with the thoughts arising in his own mind, and -thus to express their relations and significance. Above all, his Maker -had breathed into him a spiritual nature akin to His own, whereby he -became different from all other animals, and the very shadow and -likeness of God; capable of rising to abstractions and general -conceptions of truth and goodness, and of holding communion with his -Creator. This was man Edenic, the man of the golden age, as sketched -in the two short narratives of the earlier part of Genesis, which not -only conform to the general traditions of our race on the subject, but -bear to any naturalist who will read them in their original dress, -internal evidence of being contemporary, or very nearly so, with the -state of things to which they relate. - -"And God said, 'Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and -let them rule over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, -and over the herbivora, and over all the land.' And God blessed them, -and said unto them, 'Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and -subdue it.' - -"And the Lord God formed the man of the dust of the ground, and -breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living -being. And the Lord God planted a garden, eastward in Eden, and there -He placed the man whom He had formed. And out of the ground made the -Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good -for food. And a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and -parted from thence, becoming four heads (of great rivers). The name of -the first is Pison, compassing the whole land of Chavila, where there -is gold, and the gold of that land is good; there is (also) pearl and -agate.... And the Lord God took the man, and put him into the garden -of Eden, to cultivate it and to take care of it." - -Before leaving this most ancient and most beautiful history, we may -say that it implies several things of much importance to our -conceptions of primeval man. It implies a centre of creation for man, -and a group of companion animals and plants, and an intention to -dispense in his case with any struggle for existence. It implies, -also, that man was not to be a lazy savage, but a care-taker and -utiliser, by his mind and his bodily labour, of the things given to -him; and it also implies an intelligent submission on his part to his -Maker, and spiritual appreciation of His plans and intentions. It -further implies that man was, in process of time, from Eden, to -colonise the earth, and subdue its wildness, so as to extend the -conditions of Eden widely over its surface. Lastly, a part of the -record not quoted above, but necessary to the consistency of the -story, implies that, in virtue of his spiritual nature, and on certain -conditions, man, though in bodily frame of the earth earthy, like the -other animals, was to be exempted from the common law of mortality -which had all along prevailed, and which continued to prevail, even -among the animals of Eden. Further, if man fell from this condition -into that of the savage of the age of stone, it must have been by the -obscuration of his spiritual nature under that which is merely -animal; in other words, by his ceasing to be spiritual and in -communion with God, and becoming practically a sensual materialist. -that this actually happened is asserted by the Scriptural story, but -its details would take us too far from our present subject. Let us now -turn to the other picture--that presented by the theory of struggle for -existence and derivation from lower animals. - -It introduces us first to an ape, akin perhaps to the modern orang or -gorilla, but unknown to us as yet by any actual remains. This -creature, after living for an indefinite time in the rich forests of -the Miocene and earlier Pliocene periods, was at length subjected to -the gradually increasing rigours of the Glacial age. Its vegetable -food and its leafy shelter failed it, and it learned to nestle among -such litter as it could collect in dens and caves, and to seize and -devour such weaker animals as it could overtake and master. At the -same time, its lower extremities, no longer used for climbing trees, -but for walking on the ground, gained in strength and size; its arms -diminished; and its development to maturity being delayed by the -intensity of the struggle for existence, its brain enlarged, it became -more cunning and sagacious, and even learned to use weapons of wood or -stone to destroy its victims. So it gradually grew into a fierce and -terrible creature, "neither beast nor human," combining the habits of -a bear and the agility of a monkey with some glimmerings of the -cunning and resources of a savage. - -When the Glacial period passed away, our nameless simian man, or -manlike ape, might naturally be supposed to revert to its original -condition, and to establish itself as of old in the new forests of the -Modern period. For some unknown reason, however, perhaps because it -had gone too far in the path of improvement to be able to turn back, -this reversion did not take place. On the contrary, the ameliorated -circumstances and wider range of the new continents enabled it still -further to improve. Ease and abundance perfected what struggle and -privation had begun; it added to the rude arts of the Glacial time; it -parted with the shaggy hair now unnecessary; its features became -softer; and it returned in part to vegetable food. Language sprang up -from the attempt to articulate natural sounds. Fire-making was -invented and new arts arose. At length the spiritual nature, -potentially present in the creature, was awakened by some access of -fear, or some grand and terrible physical phenomenon; the idea of a -higher intelligence was struck out, and the descendant of apes became -a superstitious and idolatrous savage. How much trouble and discussion -would have been saved, had he been aware of his humble origin, and -never entertained the vain imagination that he was a child of God, -rather then a mere product of physical evolution! It is, indeed, -curious, that at this point evolutionism, like theism, has its "fall -of man;" for surely the awakening of the religious sense, and of the -knowledge of good and evil, must on that theory be so designated, -since it subverted in the case of man the previous regular operation -of natural selection, and introduced all that debasing superstition, -priestly domination, and religious controversy which have been among -the chief curses of our race, and which are doubly accursed if, as the -evolutionist believes, they are not the ruins of something nobler and -holier, but the mere gratuitous, vain, and useless imaginings of a -creature who should have been content to eat and drink and die, -without hope or fear, like the brutes from which he sprang. - -These are at present our alternative sketches: the genesis of theism, -and the genesis of evolution. After the argument in previous pages, it -is unnecessary here to discuss their relative degrees of probability. -If we believe in a personal spiritual Creator, the first becomes easy -and natural, as it is also that which best accords with history and -tradition. If, on the contrary, we reject all these, and accept as -natural laws the postulates of the evolutionists which we have already -discussed, we may become believers in the latter. The only remaining -point is to inquire as to which explains best the actual facts of -humanity as we find them. This is a view of which much has been made -by evolutionists, and it therefore merits consideration. But it is too -extensive to be fully treated of here, and I must content myself with -a few illustrations of the failure of the theory of derivation to -explain some of the most important features presented by even the -ruder races of men. - -One of these is the belief in a future state of existence beyond this -life. This belongs purely to the spiritual nature of man. It is not -taught by physical nature, yet its existence is probably universal, -and it lies near the foundation of all religious beliefs. Lartet has -described to us the sepulchral cave of Aurignac, in which human -skeletons, believed to be of Post-glacial date, were associated with -remains of funeral feasts, and with indications of careful burial, and -with provisions laid up for the use of the dead. Lyell well remarks on -this, "If we have here before us, at the northern base of the -Pyrenees, a sepulchral vault with skeletons of human beings, consigned -by friends and relatives to their last resting-place if we have also -at the portal of the tomb the relics of funeral feasts, and within it -indications of viands destined for the use of the departed on their -way to a land of spirits; while among the funeral gifts are weapons -wherewith in other fields to chase the gigantic deer, the cave-lion, -the cave bear, and woolly rhinoceros--we have at last succeeded in -tracing back the sacred rites of burial, and more interesting still, a -belief in a future state, to times long anterior to those of history -and tradition. Rude and superstitious as may have been the savage of -that remote era, he still deserved, by cherishing hopes of a -hereafter, the epithet of 'noble,' which Dryden gave to what he seems -to have pictured to himself as the primitive condition of our -race."[BF] - -[BF] "Antiquity of Man," p. 192 - -In like manner, in the vast American continent, all its long isolated -and widely separated tribes, many of them in a state of lowest -barbarism, and without any external ritual of religious worship, -believed in happy hunting-grounds in the spirit-land beyond the grave, -and the dead warrior was buried with his most useful weapons and -precious ornaments. - - "Bring here the last gifts; and with them - The last lament be said. - Let all that pleased and yet may please, - Be buried with the dead" - -was no unmeaning funeral song, but involved the sacrifice of the most -precious and prized objects, that the loved one might enter the new -and untried state provided for its needs. Even the babe, whose life is -usually accounted of so small value by savage tribes, was buried by -the careful mother with precious strings of wampum, that had cost more -months of patient labour then the days of its short life, that it -might purchase the fostering care of the inhabitants of that unknown -yet surely believed-in region of immortality. This - - "--wish that of the living whole - No life may fail beyond the grave, - Derives it not from what we have - The likest God within the soul?" - -Is it likely to have germinated in the brain of an ape? and if so, of -what possible use would it be in the struggle of a merely physical -existence? Is it not rather the remnant of a better spiritual life--a -remembrance of the tree of life that grew in the paradise of God, a -link of connection of the spiritual nature in man with, a higher -Divine Spirit above? Life and immortality, it is true, were brought to -light by Jesus Christ, but they existed as beliefs more or less -obscure from the first, and formed the basis for good and evil of the -religions of the world. Around this idea were gathered multitudes of -collateral beliefs and religious observances; feasts and festivals for -the dead; worship of dead heroes and ancestors; priestly intercessions -and sacrifices for the dead; costly rites of sepulture. Vain and -without foundation many of these have no doubt been, but they have -formed a universal and costly testimony to an instinct of immortality, -dimly glimmering even in the breast of the savage, and glowing with -higher brightness in the soul of the Christian, but separated by an -impassable gulf from anything derivable from a brute ancestry. - -The theistic picture of primeval man is in harmony with the fact that -men, as a whole, are, and always have been, believers in God. The -evolutionist picture is not. If man had from the first not merely a -physical and intellectual nature, but a spiritual nature as well, we -can understand how he came into relation with God, and how through all -his vagaries and corruptions he clings to this relation in one form or -another; but evolution affords no link of connection of this kind. It -holds God to be unknowable even to the cultivated intellect of -philosophy, and perceives no use in ideas with relation to Him which, -according to it must necessarily be fallacious, It leaves the theistic -notions of mankind without explanation, and it will not serve its -purpose to assert that some few and exceptional families of men have -no notion of a God. Even admitting this, and it is at best very -doubtful, it can form but a trifling exception to a general truth. - -It appears to me that this view of the case is very clearly put in the -Bible, and it is curiously illustrated by a recent critique of "Mr. -Darwin's Critics," by Professor Huxley in the _Contemporary Review_. Mr. -Mivart, himself a derivationist, but differing in some points from -Darwin, had affirmed, in the spirit rather of a Romish theologian then -of a Biblical student or philosopher, that "acts unaccompanied by -mental acts of conscious will" are "absolutely destitute of the most -incipient degree of goodness." Huxley well replies, "It is to my -understanding extremely hard to reconcile Mr. Mivart's dictum with -that noble summary of the whole duty of man, 'Thou shalt love the Lord -thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy -strength; and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.' According to -Mr. Mivart's definition, the man who loves God and his neighbour, and, -out of sheer love and affection for both, does all he can to please -them, is nevertheless destitute of a particle of real goodness." -Huxley's reply deserves to be pondered by certain moralists and -theologians whose doctrine savours of the leaven of the Pharisees, but -neither Huxley nor his opponent see the higher truth that in the love -of God we have a principle far nobler and more God-like and less -animal then that of mere duty. Man primeval, according to the doctrine -of Genesis, was, by simple love and communion with his God, placed in -the position of a spiritual being, a member of a higher family then -that of the animal. The "knowledge of good and evil" which he acquired -later, and on which is based the law of conscious duty, was a less -happy attainment, which placed him on a lower level then that of the -unconscious love and goodness of primal innocence. No doubt man's -sense of right and wrong is something above the attainment of animals, -and which could never have sprung from them; but still more is this -the case with his direct spiritual relation to God, which, whether it -rises to the inspiration of the prophet or the piety of the Christian, -or sinks to the rude superstition of the savage, can be no part of the -Adam of the dust but only of the breath of life breathed into him from -above. - -That man should love his fellow-man may not seem strange. Certain -social and gregarious and family instincts exist among the lower -animals, and Darwin very ably adduces these as akin to the similar -affections of man; yet even in the law of love of our neighbour, as -enforced by Christ's teaching, it is easy to see that we have -something beyond animal nature. But this becomes still more distinct -in the love of God. Man was the "shadow and likeness of God," says the -old record in Genesis--the shadow that clings to the substance and is -inseparable from it, the likeness that represents it visibly to the -eyes of men, and of the animals that man rules over. Primeval man -could "hear in the evening breeze the voice of God, walking to and fro -in the garden." What mere animal ever had or could attain to such an -experience? - -But if we turn from the Edenic picture of man in harmony with -Heaven--"owning a father, when he owned a God"--to man as the slave of -superstition; even in this terrible darkness of mistaken faith, of -which it may be said, - - "Fear mates her devils, and weak faith her gods, - Gods partial, changeful, passionate, unjust, - Whose attributes are rage, revenge, or lust," - -we see the ruins, at least, of that sublime love of God. The animal -clings to its young with a natural affection, as great as that of a -human mother for her child, but what animal ever thought of throwing -its progeny into the Ganges, or into the fires of Moloch's altar, for -the saving of its soul, or to obtain the favour or avoid the wrath of -God? No less in the vagaries of fetichism, ritualism, and idolatry, -and in the horrors of asceticism and human sacrifice, then in the -Edenic communion with and hearing of God, or in the joy of Christian -love, do we see, in however ruined or degraded condition, the higher -spiritual nature of man. - -This point leads to another distinction which, when properly viewed, -widens the gap between man and the animals, or at least destroys one -of the frail bridges of the evolutionists. Lubbock and others affect -to believe that the lowest savages of the modern world must be nearest -to the type of primeval man. I have already attempted to show the -fallacy of this. I may add here that in so holding they overlook a -fundamental distinction, well pointed out by the Duke of Argyll, -between the capacity of acquiring knowledge and knowledge actually -acquired, and between the possession of a higher rational nature and -the exercise of that nature in the pursuit of mechanical arts. In -other words, primeval man must not be held to have been "utterly -barbarous" because he was ignorant of mining or navigation, or of -sculpture and painting. He had in him the power to attain to these -things, but so long as he was not under necessity to exercise it, his -mind may have expended its powers in other and happier channels. As -well might it be affirmed that a delicately nurtured lady is an "utter -barbarian" because she cannot build her own house, or make her own -shoes. No doubt in such work she would be far more helpless then the -wife of the rudest savage, yet she is not on that account to be held -as an inferior being, or nearer to the animals. Our conception of an -angelic nature implies the absence of all our social institutions and -mechanical arts; but does this necessitate our regarding an angel as -an "utter barbarian"? In short, the whole notion of civilisation held -by Lubbock and those who think with him, is not only low and -degrading, but utterly and absurdly wrong; and of course it vitiates -all their conceptions of primeval man as well as of man's future -destiny. Further, the theistic idea implies that man was, without -exhausting toil, to regulate and control nature, to rule over the -animals, to cultivate the earth, to extend himself over it and subdue -it; and all this as compatible with moral innocence, and at the same -time with high intellectual and spiritual activity. - -There is, however, a still nicer and more beautiful distinction -involved in this, and included in the wonderful narrative in Genesis, -so simple yet so much more profound then our philosophies; and which -crops out in the same discussion of the critics of Darwin, to which I -have already referred. A writer in the _Quarterly Review_ had attempted -to distinguish human reason from the intelligence of animals, as -involving self-consciousness and reflection in our sensations and -perceptions. Huxley objects to this, instancing the mental action of a -greyhound when it sees and pursues a hare, as similar to that of the -gamekeeper when he lets slip the hound.[BG] - -[BG] _Contemporary Review_, November, 1871, p. 461. - -"As it is very necessary to keep up a clear distinction between these -two processes, let the one be called neurosis and the other psychosis. -When the gamekeeper was first trained to his work, every step in the -process of neurosis was accompanied by a corresponding step in that of -psychosis, or nearly so. He was conscious of seeing something, -conscious of making sure it was a hare, conscious of desiring to catch -it, and therefore to loose the greyhound at the right time, conscious -of the acts by which he let the dog out of the leash. But with -practice, though the various steps of the neurosis remain--for -otherwise the impression on the retina would not result in the loosing -of the dog--the great majority of the steps of the psychosis vanish, -and the loosing of the dog follows unconsciously, or, as we say, -without thinking about, upon the sight of the hare. No one will deny -that the series of acts which originally intervened between the -sensation and the letting go of the dog were, in the strictest sense, -intellectual and rational operations. Do they cease to be so when the -man ceases to be conscious of them? that depends upon what is the -essence and what the accident of these operations, which taken -together constitute ratiocination. Now, ratiocination is resolvable -into predication, and predication consists in marking, in some way, -the existence, the co-existence, the succession, the likeness and -unlikeness, of things or their ideas. Whatever does this, reasons; and -if a machine produces the effects of reason, I see no more ground for -denying to it the reasoning power because it is unconscious, then I -see for refusing to Mr. Babbage's engine the title of a calculating -machine on the same grounds." - -Here we have in the first place, the fact that an action, in the first -instance rational and complex, becomes by repetition simple and -instinctive. Does the man then sink to the level of the hound, or, -what is more to the purpose, does this in the least approach to -showing that the hound can rise to the level of the man? Certainly -not; for the man is the conscious planner and originator of a course -of action in which the instincts of the brute are made to take part, -and in which the readiness that he attains by habit only enables him -to dispense with certain processes of thought which were absolutely -necessary at first. The man and the beast co-operate, but they meet -each other from entirely different planes; the former from that of the -rational consideration of nature, the latter from that of the blind -pursuit of a mere physical instinct. The one, to use Mr. Huxley's -simile, is the conscious inventor of the calculating machine, the -other is the machine itself, and, though the machine can calculate, -this fact is the farthest possible from giving it the power of growing -into or producing its own inventor. But Moses, or the more ancient -authority from whom he quotes in Genesis, knew this better then either -of these modern combatants. His special distinctive mark of the -superiority of man is that he was to have dominion over the earth and -its animal inhabitants; and he represents this dominion as inaugurated -by man's examining and naming the animals of Eden, and finding among -them no "help meet" for him.[BH] Man was to find in them helps, but -helps under his control, and that not the control of brute force, but -of higher skill and of thought and even of love--a control still seen -in some degree in the relation of man to his faithful companion, the -dog. These old words of Genesis, simple though they are, place the -rational superiority of man on a stable basis, and imply a distinction -between him and the lower animals which cannot be shaken by the -sophistries of the evolutionists. - -[BH] Literally, "Corresponding," or "Similar," to him. - -The theistic picture further accords with the fact that the geological -time immediately preceding man's appearance was a time of decadence of -many of the grander forms of animal life, especially in that area of -the old continent where man was to appear. Whatever may be said of the -imperfection of the geological record, there can be no question of the -fact that the Miocene and earlier Pliocene were distinguished by the -prevalence of grand and gigantic forms of mammalian life, some of -which disappeared in or before the Glacial period, while others failed -after that period in the subsidence of the Post-glacial, or in -connection with its amelioration of climate. The Modern animals are -also, as explained above, a selection from the grander fauna of the -Post-glacial period. To speak for the moment in Darwinian language, -there was for the time an evident tendency to promote the survival of -the fittest, not in mere physical development, but in intelligence and -sagacity. A similar tendency existed even in the vegetable world, -replacing the flora of American aspect which had existed in the -Pliocene, with the richer and more useful flora of Europe and Western -Asia. This not obscurely indicates the preparing of a place for man, -and the removal out of his way of obstacles and hindrances. That these -changes had a relation to the advent of man, neither theist nor -evolutionist can doubt, and it may be that we shall some day find that -this relation implies the existence of a creative law intelligible by -us; but while we fail to perceive any link of direct causation between -the changes in the lower world, and the introduction of our race, we -cannot help seeing that correlation which implies a far-reaching plan, -and an intelligent design. - -Finally, the evolutionist picture wants some of the fairest lineaments -of humanity, and cheats us with a semblance of man without the -reality. Shave and paint your ape as you may, clothe him and set him -up upon his feet, still he fails greatly of the "human form divine;" -and so it is with him morally and spiritually as well. We have seen -that he wants the instinct of immortality, the love of God, the mental -and spiritual power of exercising dominion over the earth. The very -agency by which he is evolved is of itself subversive of all these -higher properties. The struggle for existence is essentially selfish, -and therefore degrading. Even in the lower animals, it is a false -assumption that its tendency is to elevate; for animals when driven to -the utmost verge of struggle for life, become depauperated and -degraded. The dog which spends its life in snarling contention with -its fellow-curs for insufficient food, will not be a noble specimen -of its race. God does not so treat His creatures. There is far more -truth to nature in the doctrine which represents him as listening to -the young ravens when they cry for food. But as applied to man, the -theory of the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest, -though the most popular phase of evolutionism at present, is nothing -less then the basest and most horrible of superstitions. It makes man -not merely carnal, but devilish. It takes his lowest appetites and -propensities, and makes them his God and creator. His higher -sentiments and aspirations, his self-denying philanthropy, his -enthusiasm for the good and true, all the struggles and sufferings of -heroes and martyrs, not to speak of that self-sacrifice which is the -foundation of Christianity, are in the view of the evolutionist mere -loss and waste, failure in the struggle of life. What does he give us -in exchange? An endless pedigree of bestial ancestors, without one -gleam of high or holy tradition to enliven the procession; and for the -future, the prospect that the poor mass of protoplasm which -constitutes the sum of our being, and which is the sole gain of an -indefinite struggle in the past, must soon be resolved again into -inferior animals or dead matter. That men of thought and culture -should advocate such a philosophy, argues either a strange mental -hallucination, or that the higher spiritual nature has been wholly -quenched within them. It is one of the saddest of many sad spectacles -that our age presents. Still these men deserve credit for their bold -pursuit of truth, or what seems to them to be truth; and they are, -after all, nobler sinners then those who would practically lower us to -the level of beasts by their negation even of intellectual life, or -who would reduce us to apes, by making us the mere performers of rites -and ceremonies, as a substitute for religion, or who would advise us -to hand over reason and conscience to the despotic authority of -fallible men dressed in strange garbs, and called by sacred names. The -world needs a philosophy and a Christianity of more robust mould, -which shall recognise, as the Bible does, at once body and soul and -spirit, at once the sovereignty of God and the liberty of man; and -which shall bring out into practical operation the great truth that -God is a Spirit, and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit -and in truth. Such a religion might walk in the sunlight of truth and -free discussion, hand in hand with science, education, liberty, and -material civilisation, and would speedily consign evolution to the -tomb which has already received so many superstitions and false -philosophies. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A - - Abbeville, Peat of, 294. - Acadian Group, 38. - Advent of Man, 286. - Agassiz on Synthetic Types, 181. - _Ammonitidæ_, 221. - Amphibians of the Coal Period, 144. - Andrews on the Post-pliocene, 293. - _Anthracosaurus_, 145. - Anticosti Formation, 61. - Antiquity of Man, 292. - _Archæocyathus_, 47. - Archebiosis, 327. - _Arenicolites_, 46. - _Asterolepis_, 98. - - B - - _Baculites_, 222. - Bala Limestone, 59. - _Baphetes_, 145. - Barrande on Primordial, 49. - Bastian on Lower forms of Life, 327. - _Beatricea_, 65. - Belemnites, 223. - Bigsby on Silurian Fauna, 75; - on Primordial Life, 52. - Billings on Archæocyathus, 46; - on Feet of Trilobites, 44. - Binney on Stigmaria, 127. - Biology as a term, 327. - Boulder Clay, 268. - Brachiopods, or Lamp-shells, 89. - Breccia of Caverns, 304. - Brown, Mr. K., on Stigmaria, 127. - - - C - - _Calamites_, 104, 129, 173. - Calcaire Grossier, 247. - Cambrian Age, 36; name defined, 49. - Caradoc Rocks, 60. - Carbonic Acid in Atmosphere, 123. - Carboniferous Age, 109; - Land Snails of the, 138; - Crustaceans of the, 154; - Insects of the, 135; - Corals of the, 153; - Plants of the, 120; - Fishes of the, 157; - Footprints in the, 143; - Geography of the, 110; - Reptiles of the, 143. - Carpenter on Cretaceous Sea, 230. - Carruthers on Graptolites, 72. - Cave Earth, 305. - Cavern Deposits, 304. - _Cephalaspis_, 97. - Cephalopods of Silurian, 69. - _Ceteosaurus_, 204; - Foraminifera in the, 227. - Chalk, Nature of, 227. - Chaos, 2. - _Climactichnites_, 45. - Coal, Origin of, 116; - of the Mesozoic, 201. - Colours of Rocks, 110. - Continental Plateaus, 57. - Continents, their Origin, 13. - _Conulus Prisons_, 139. - Cope on Dinosaurs, 202; - on Pterodactyl, 206; - on Mososaurus, 217; - on Caverns, 303. - Corals of the Silurian, 63; - agency of, in forming Limestone, 63, 89; - of the Devonian, 89; - of the Carboniferous, 153. - Corniferous Limestone, 96. - _Coryphodon_, 244. - Creation, Unity of, 33; - not by Evolution, 33; - laws of, 78, 150; - statement of as a theory, 340; - requirements of, 343; - how treated by Evolutionists, 339; - definition and explanation of, 340; - its probable conditions, 352. - Creator, evidence of a personal, 344, - Cretaceous Period, 192, 231; - Sea of the, 230. - Crinoids of the Silurian, 68. - Croll on the Post-pliocene, 262. - _Crusiana_, 45. - Crustaceans of the Primordial, 42; - of the Silurian, 71; - of the Mesozoic, 225. - Crust of the Earth, 5; - Folding of, 165. - Cuvier on Tertiary Mammals, 249. - Cystideans, 69. - - - D - - Dana on Geological Periods, 175. - Darwin, Nature of his Theory, 327; - his account of the Origin of Man, 337; - his statement of Descent of Man, 337. - Davidson on Brachiopods, 169. - Dawkins on Post-glacial Mammals, 300. - Delaunay on Solidity of the Earth, 6. - Deluge, the, 290. - Devonian, or Brian Age, 81; - Physical Condition of, 82; - Tabular View of, 85; - Corals of the, 89; - Fishes of the, 96; - Plants of the, 102; - Geography of the, 82; - Insects of the, 107. - _Dinichthys_, 99. - Dinosaurs, 202. - _Dromatherium_, 208. - Dudley, Fossils of, 69. - - - E - - Earth, its earliest state, 9; - Crust of the, 5; - folding of, 165; - gaseous state of, 9. - Edenic state of Man, 310, 376. - Edwards, Milne, on Devonian Corals, 89. - _Elasmosaurus_, 214. - Elephants, Fossil, 254, 300. - Elevation and Subsidence, 13, 29, 83, 165. - Enaliosaurs, 213. - "Engis" Skull, its characters, 357. - Eocene Seas, 241; - Foraminifera of the, 241; - Mammals of the, 247; - Plants of the, 238; - Footprints in the, 299. - _Eophyton_, 42. - _Eosaurus_, 145, - Eozoic Period, 17. - _Eozoon Bavaricum_, 38. - _Eozoon Canadense_, 20, 24. - Erian, or Devonian, 81; - Reason of the Name, 84; - Table of Erian Formations, 85; - Corals of the, 89; - Fishes of the, 96; - Plants of the, 102. - Eskers or Kames, 286. - Etheridge on Devonian, 85. - _Eurypterus_, 71, 115. - Evolution as applied to Eozoon, 33; - Primordial Animals, 55; - Silurian Animals, 77; - Trilobites, 94, 155; - Reptiles, 150; - Man, 319; - Its Character as a Theory, 320; - Its Difficulties, 322; - Its "Fall of Man," 382, - - - F - - Falconer on Indian Miocene, 252. - _Favosites_, 91. - Ferns of the Devonian, 96; - of the Carboniferous, 120. - Fishes, Ganoid, 99; - of the Silurian, 74; - of the Devonian, 96; - of the Carboniferous, 157. - Flora of the Silurian, 76; - of the Devonian, 102; - of the Carboniferous, 120; - of the Permian, 172; - of the Mesozoic, 199; - of the Eocene, 238; - of the Miocene, 259. - Footprints in the Carboniferous, 143; - in the Trias, 203; - in the Eocene, 297. - Foraminifera, Nature of, 24; - Laurentian, 25; - of the Chalk, 227; - of the Tertiary, 241. - Forbes on Post-glacial Land, 288. - Forests of the Devonian, 102; - of the Carboniferous, 120. - - - G - - Ganoid Fishes, 96, 99. - Gaseous state of the Earth, 9. - Genesis, Book of, its account of Chaos, 2; - of Creation of Land, 13; - of Palæozoic Animals, 187; - of Creation of Reptiles, 150; - of Creation of Mammals, 234, 298; - of the Deluge, 290; - of Creation of Man, 379; - of Eden, 379. - Genesis of the Earth, 1. - Geography of the Silurian, 57; - of the Devonian, 82; - of the Carboniferous, 110; - of the Permian, 163. - Geological Periods, 175, 195. - Glacial Period, 267, 278. - Glauconite, 229. - _Glyptoerinus_, 88. - Graptolites, 72. - Greenland, Miocene Flora of, 260. - Greensand, 229. - Gümbel on Bavarian Eozoon, 37. - - - H - - _Hadrosaurus_, 202. - Hall on Graptolites, 72; - Harlech Beds, 38. - Heer on Tertiary Plants, 261. - Helderberg Rocks, 62. - Hercynian Schists, 37. - Heterogenesis, 327. - Hicks on Primordial Fossils, 38. - Hilgard on Mississippi Delta, 296. - Hippopotamus, Fossil, 300. - _Histioderma_, 46. - Hopkins on Solidity of the Earth, 6. - Hudson River Group, 60. - Hull on Geological Periods, 186. - Hunt, Dr. T. S., on Volcanic Action, 7; - on Chemistry of Primeval Earth, 11; - on Lingulæ, 41. - Huronian Formation, 36. - Huxley on Coal, 132; - on Carboniferous Reptiles, 145; - on Dinosaurs, 202; - on Paley's Argument from Design, 348; - on Good and Evil, 349; - on Intuitive and Rational Actions, 391; - on tendency of Evolutionist views, 348. - _Hylonomus_, 148. - - - I - - Ice-action in Permian, 168; - in Post-pliocene, 270. - _Ichthyosaurus_, 213. - _Iguanodon_, 202. - Insects, Devonian, 107; - Carboniferous, 135. - Intelligence of Animals, Nature of, 328. - - - J - - Jurassic, subdivisions of, 190. - - - K - - Kames, 286. - Kaup on Dinotherium, 251. - Kent's Cavern, 304. - King-crabs of Carboniferous, 154. - King on Carboniferous Reptiles, 143. - - - L - - _Labyrinthodon_, 201, - Lælaps, 203. - Lamp-shells, 40. - Land-snails of Carboniferous, 138. - La Place's Nebular Theory, 7. - Laurentian Rocks, 18; - Life in the, 23; - Plants of the, 32. - _Lepidodendron_, 103, 106, 127. - _Leptophleum_, 104. - Limestone Corniferous, 96; - Nummulitic, 241; - Milioline, 243; - Silurian, 64; - Origin of, 27, 63, 89. - _Limulus_, 154. - _Lingulæ_, 39. - Lingula Flags, 38. - Logan, Sir W., on Laurentian Rocks, 18; - on Reptilian Footprints, 143. - London Clay, 247. - Longmynd Rocks, 38, 47. - Lower Helderberg Group, 62. - Ludlow Group, 62. - Lyell, Sir C., on Devonian Limestone, 89; - on Wealden, 191; - on Classification of the Tertiary, 238. - - - M - - _Machairodus_, 250. - Magnesian Limestones, 166. - Mammals of the Mesozoic, 208; - of the Eocene, 247; - of the Miocene, 250; - of the Pliocene, 256; - of the Post-glacial, 300. - Man, Advent of, 286. - Man, Antiquity of, 292; - History of, according to Theory of Creation, 377; - according to Evolution, 381; - widely different from Apes, 360; - a new type, 365; - Primitive, not a Savage, 367; - his Spiritual Nature, 384, 370, 387; - Locality of his Origin, 373; - Primeval, according to Creation, 377; - according to Evolution, 381. - Mayhill Sandstone, 60. - Medina Sandstone, 60. - _Megalosaurus_, 203. - Menevian Formation, 38. - Mesozoic Ages, 188; - subdivisions of, 189; - Flora of, 199; - Coal of, 201; - Crustaceans of the, 225; - Reptiles of the, 201, 212. - Metalliferous Rocks, 167. - Metamorphism, 21. - _Microlestes_, 208. - Milioline Limestones, 243. - Miller on Old Bed Sandstone, 86. - Millipedes, Fossil, 136. - Miocene Plants, 260; - Climate, 264; - Mammals of, 250. - Mississippi, Delta of the, 296. - Modern Period, 283. - _Mosasaurus_, 206. - Morse on Lingula, 39. - Murchison on the Silurian, 56. - - - N - - Nebular Theory, 7. - Neolithic Age, 284. - Neozoic Ages, 236; - divisions of, 239. - Newberry on Dinichthys, 99. - Nicholson on Graptolites, 72, - Nummulitic Limestones, 241. - - - O - - _Oldhamia_, 45. - Old Bed Sandstone, 86. - Oneida Conglomerate. 69. - _Orthoceratites_, 69, 154. - Oscillations of Continents, 179. - Owen on Dinosaurs, 202; - on Marsupials, 209. - - - P - - Palæolithic Age, 284, 289. - _Palæophis_, 245. - Palæozoic Life, 181; - diagram of, 186. - Paley on Design in Nature; his illustration of the watch, 349. - Peat of Abbeville, 294. - Pengelly on Kent's Hole, 304. - _Pentremites_, 153. - Periods, Geological, 195, 175. - Permian Age, 160; - Geography of the, 163; - Ice-action in the, 168; - Plants of the, 172; - Reptiles of the, 172. - Phillips on Dawn of Life, 30; - on Ceteosaurus, 204. - Pictet on Post-pliocene Mammals, 256; - on Post-glacial Animals, 357. - Pictures of Primeval Man, 376. - Pierce on Diminution of Earth's Rotation, 165. - Pines of the Devonian, 105; - of the Carboniferous, 131; - of the Permian, 173. - Placoid Fishes, 96. - Plants of the Laurentian, 32; - of the Silurian, 76; - of the Devonian, 102; - of the Carboniferous, 124; - of the Permian, 172; - of the Mesozoic, 199; - of the Tertiary 258; - classification of, 122. - Plateaus, Continental, 57. - _Plesiosaurus_, 215. - Pliocene, Climate of, 266; - Mammals of, 256. - _Pliosaurus_, 215. - Pluvial Period, 287. - Post-glacial Age, 283, 292. - Post-pliocene Period, 274; - cold, 278; - Ice-action in the, 270; - Subsidence, 279; - Elevation, 284; - Shells, evidence of, against Derivation, 358; - Mammals, evidence of, against Derivation, 357. - Potsdam Sandstone, 38. - Prestwich on St. Acheul, 294. - Primordial Age, 36; - Crustacean of the, 42. - _Protichnites_, 45. - _Protorosaurus_, 172. - _Prototaxites_, 76. - _Psilophyton_, 76, 103. - _Pteraspis_, 76. - _Pterichthys_, 98. - Pterodactyls, 206. - _Pterygotus_, 93. - _Pupa vetusta_, 139. - - - Q - - Quebec Group, 60. - - - R - - Rain-marks, 47. - Ramsay on Permian, 168. - Red Sandstones, their Origin, 110, 166. - Reptiles of the Carboniferous, 143; - of the Permian, 172; - of the Mesozoic, 201, 212. - Rhinoceros, Fossil, 300. - Rocks, Colours of, 110. - Rotation of the Earth, its Gradual Diminution, 165. - - - S - - Salter on Fossil Crustacea, 155. - Sedgwick on Cambrian, 56, 75. - Seeley on Pterodactyls, 206. - Shrinkage-cracks, 47. - _Sigillaria_, 104, 124. - Silurian Ages, 56; - Cephalopoda of the, 69; - Corals of the, 63; - Crinoids of the 68; - Crustaceans of the, 71; - Fishes of the, 74; - Plants of the, 76. - Siluro-Cambrian, use of the term, 56. - Slaty Structure, 48. - Solidity of the Earth, 6. - Somme, R., Gravels of, 292. - Species, Nature of the, 327; - how Created, 352. - Spencer, his Exposition of Evolution, 321, 331. - Spiritual Nature of Man, 384, 370, 387. - Spore-cases in Coals and Shales, 106. - Stalagmite of Caves, 305. - Striated Rock-surfaces, 269. - Stumps, Fossil of Carboniferous, 140. - Synthetic Types, 181. - - - T - - Table of Devonian Rocks, 85; - of Palæozoic Ages, 187; - of Mesozoic Ages, 234; - of Neozoic Ages, 298; - of Post-pliocene, 276. - Temperature of Interior of the Earth, 4. - Tertiary Period, 236; - Mammals of, 247, 250, 256; - classification of its Rocks, 238. - Thomson, Sir W., on Solidity of the Earth, 6. - Time, Geological Divisions of, 175. - Tinière, Cone of, 293. - Trenton Limestone, 59, 63. - Trias, Divisions of, 189; - Footprints in the, 203. - Trilobites, 43, 94, 154; - Feet of, 43. - Turtles of Mesozoic, 218. - Tylor on Pluvial Period, 287. - Tyndall on Carbonic Acid in Atmosphere, 123. - - - U - - Uniformitarianism in Geology, 8. - Utica Shale, 60. - - - V - - Volcanic Action, 7; - of Cambrian Age, 36; - of Silurian Age, 62; - of Devonian Age, 81, 83. - Von Dechen on Reptiles of Carboniferous, 143, 145. - Von Meyer on Dinosaurs, 202. - - - W - - _Walchia_, 173. - Wallace, his views on Inapplicability of Natural Selection to Man, 368. - Wealden, 191. - Wenlock Group, 62. - _Williamsonia gigas_, 200. - Williamson on Calamites, 181. - Woodward on Pterygotus, 93. - - - Z - - Zaphrentis 92. - - - - -VALUABLE AND INTERESTING WORKS - -FOR - -PUBLIC & PRIVATE LIBRARIES, - -PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK. - - -[Illustration: pointing finger] For a full List of Books suitable for -Libraries published by HARPER & BROTHERS, see HARPER'S CATALOGUE, -which may be had gratuitously on application to the publishers -personally, or by letter enclosing Nine Cents in Postage stamps. - -[Illustration: pointing finger] HARPER & BROTHERS will send their -publications by mail, postage pre-paid, on receipt of the price. - - - MACAULAY'S ENGLAND. 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