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diff --git a/42741-h/42741-h.htm b/42741-h/42741-h.htm index 63387fc..a4e616b 100644 --- a/42741-h/42741-h.htm +++ b/42741-h/42741-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Story Of The Earth And Man, by J. W. Dawson, Ll.D., F.K.S., F.G.S., A Project Gutenberg eBook. @@ -82,43 +82,7 @@ td {text-align: center;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Earth and Man, by J. W. Dawson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Story of the Earth and Man - -Author: J. W. Dawson - -Release Date: May 20, 2013 [EBook #42741] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE EARTH AND MAN *** - - - - -Produced by Tom Cosmas using scanned images and materials -obtained from The Internet Archive. - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42741 ***</div> <div class="fig_center" style="width: 408px;"> <a name="cover" id="cover"></a> @@ -319,7 +283,7 @@ previously published volume entitled “Archaia.”</p> <td class="tdl smcap" style="padding-top:1em" colspan="2"><a href="#Chapter_VI">Chapter VI.</a>—The Carboniferous Age.</td> </tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl" style="padding-left:2.5em">Perfection of Palćozoic Life.—Carboniferous + <td class="tdl" style="padding-left:2.5em">Perfection of Palæozoic Life.—Carboniferous Geography.—Colours of Sediments.—Vegetation.—Origin of Coal.—Land Life.—Reptiles, Land Snails, Millipedes, etc.—Oceanic Life.</td> @@ -332,7 +296,7 @@ previously published volume entitled “Archaia.”</p> <td class="tdl" style="padding-left:2.5em">Movements of the Land.—Plication of the Crust.—Chemical Conditions of Dolomite, etc.—Geographical Results of Permian Movements.—Life of the Period. - Summary of Palćozoic History.</td> + Summary of Palæozoic History.</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td> </tr> <tr> @@ -342,7 +306,7 @@ previously published volume entitled “Archaia.”</p> <td class="tdl" style="padding-left:2.5em">Characters of the Trias.—Summary of Changes in the Triassic and Cretaceous Periods.—Changes of the Continental Plateaus.—Relative Duration of the - Palćozoic and Mesozoic.—Mesozoic Forests.—Land + Palæozoic and Mesozoic.—Mesozoic Forests.—Land Animals.—The reign of Reptiles.—Early Mammals and Birds.</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td> @@ -476,7 +440,7 @@ previously published volume entitled “Archaia.”</p> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td> </tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl smcap">Culmination of Types of Palćozoic Animals</td> + <td class="tdl smcap">Culmination of Types of Palæozoic Animals</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> </tr> <tr style="background-color:#e0e0e0;"> @@ -724,13 +688,13 @@ were undergoing the same processes by which the solar system was produced. This nebular theory, as it was called, was long very popular. It was subsequently supposed to be damaged by the fact -that some of the nebulć which had been regarded as +that some of the nebulæ which had been regarded as systems in progress of formation were found by improved <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> telescopes to be really clusters of stars, and it was inferred that the others might be of like character. The spectroscope has, however, more -recently shown that some nebulć are actually gaseous; +recently shown that some nebulæ are actually gaseous; and it has even been attempted to demonstrate that they are probably undergoing change fitting them to become systems. This has served to revive the @@ -1434,7 +1398,7 @@ now at last reached to the beginnings of life. The argument on this side of the Question was thus put by one of the most thoughtful of English geologists, Professor Phillips: "It is ascertained that in passing -downwards through the lower Palćozoic strata, the +downwards through the lower Palæozoic strata, the forms of life grow fewer and fewer, until in the lowest Cambrian rocks they vanish entirely. In the thick series of these strata in the Longmynd, hardly any @@ -1610,7 +1574,7 @@ was broken up and thrown into those bold ridges which were to constitute the nuclei of the existing continents. Along the borders of these new-made lands intense volcanic eruptions broke forth, producing -great quantities of lava and scorić and huge +great quantities of lava and scoriæ and huge beds of conglomerate and volcanic ash, which are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> characteristic features of the older Cambrian in both @@ -1638,7 +1602,7 @@ to be of Huronian age, and certain obscure fossils of uncertain affinities, recently detected by Mr. Billings, in rocks supposed to be of this age, in Newfoundland. Here, however, the European series comes -in to give us some small help. Gümbel has described +in to give us some small help. GĂĽmbel has described in Bavaria a great series of gneissic rocks corresponding to the Laurentian, or at least to the lower part of it; above these are what he calls the Hercynian mica-slate @@ -1651,7 +1615,7 @@ to be the immediate successor to the Upper Laurentian; and it has afforded some obscure “worm-burrows” or, perhaps, casts of sponges or fucoids, with a small shell of the genus <i>Lingulella</i>, and also -fragments of crustaceans (<i>Palćeopyge</i>). The “Fucoid +fragments of crustaceans (<i>Palæeopyge</i>). The “Fucoid Sandstones” of Sweden, believed to be of similar age, afford traces of marine plants and burrows of worms, while the Harlech beds of Wales have afforded @@ -1690,7 +1654,7 @@ of a finger-nail, fastened by fleshy peduncles imbedded in the sand or mud; and thus anchored, collecting their food by a pair of fringed arms from the minute animals and plants which swarm in the surrounding -waters. These are the <i>Lingulć</i>, from the abundance +waters. These are the <i>Lingulæ</i>, from the abundance of which some of the Primordial beds have received in England and Wales the name of Lingula flags. In America, in like manner, in some beds near St. @@ -1698,7 +1662,7 @@ John, New Brunswick, the valves of these shells are so abundant as to constitute at least half of the material of the bed; and alike in Europe and America, Lingula and allied forms are among the -most abundant Primordial fossils. The Lingulć are +most abundant Primordial fossils. The Lingulæ are usually reckoned to belong to the great sub-kingdom of mollusks, which includes all the bivalve and univalve shell-fish, and several other groups of creatures; @@ -1709,7 +1673,7 @@ one of those curious old-fashioned “comprehensive” types, as they have been called, which present resemblances to groups of creatures, in more modern times quite distinct from each other. He has also -found that the modern Lingulć are very tenacious of +found that the modern Lingulæ are very tenacious of life, and capable of suiting themselves to different circumstances, a fact which, perhaps, has some connection with their long persistence in geological time. @@ -1723,13 +1687,13 @@ the earlier geological ages.</p> <a href="images/fig_8_lrg.png"><img src="images/fig_8.png" width="678" height="417" alt="" /></a> <p class="center">Fig. 8.—LIFE IN THE PRIMORDIAL SEA.</p> -<p class="p0">On the bottom are seen, proceeding from left to right, <i>Oldhamia antiqua</i>, <i>Lingulć</i>, <i>Arenicolć</i>, <i>Oldhamia radiata</i>, <i>Paradoxides</i>, -<i>Histioderma</i>, <i>Agnostus</i>, <i>Oldhamia radiata</i>, <i>Algć</i>, and <i>Lingulć</i>. In the water are <i>Hymenocaris</i>, different species of <i>Trilobites</i>, and <i>Pteropods</i>.</p> +<p class="p0">On the bottom are seen, proceeding from left to right, <i>Oldhamia antiqua</i>, <i>Lingulæ</i>, <i>Arenicolæ</i>, <i>Oldhamia radiata</i>, <i>Paradoxides</i>, +<i>Histioderma</i>, <i>Agnostus</i>, <i>Oldhamia radiata</i>, <i>Algæ</i>, and <i>Lingulæ</i>. In the water are <i>Hymenocaris</i>, different species of <i>Trilobites</i>, and <i>Pteropods</i>.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> -<p>The Lingulć are especially interesting as examples +<p>The Lingulæ are especially interesting as examples of a type of beings continued almost from the dawn of life until now; for their shells, as they exist in the Primordial, are scarcely distinguishable from @@ -1755,7 +1719,7 @@ fact in such wise that phosphate of lime is a most appropriate and suitable material for its teeth and bones. Now, in the case of the lower animals of the sea, their food, not being of the nature of the richer -land plants, but consisting mainly of minute algć +land plants, but consisting mainly of minute algæ and of animals which prey on these, furnishes, not phosphate of lime, but carbonate. An exception to this occurs in the case of certain animals of low grade, @@ -1772,21 +1736,21 @@ whether in relation to the cause of the deviation from the ordinary rule or its utility to the animal itself, remains unknown. It has, however, been ascertained by Dr. Hunt, who first observed the fact in the case -of the Primordial Lingulć, that their modern successors +of the Primordial Lingulæ, that their modern successors coincide with them, and differ from their contemporaries among the mollusks in the same particular. This may seem a trifling matter, but it shows in this early period the origination of the difference still existing in the materials of which animals construct their skeletons, and also the wonderful persistence -of the Lingulć, through all the geological +of the Lingulæ, through all the geological ages, in the material of their shells. This is the more <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> remarkable, in connection with our own very slender acquaintance with the phenomenon, in relation either to its efficient or final causes.</p> -<p>Before leaving the Lingulć, I may mention that +<p>Before leaving the Lingulæ, I may mention that Mr. Morse informs me that living specimens, when detached from their moorings, can creep like worms, leaving long furrows on the sand, and that they can @@ -1805,7 +1769,7 @@ in the middle of which is a notch for the peduncle, and the valves are often marked with ribs or striae. The Orthids were content with limestone for their shells, and apparently lived in the same circumstances -with the Lingulć; and in the period succeeding the +with the Lingulæ; and in the period succeeding the Primordial they became far more abundant. Yet they perished at an early stage of the world’s progress, and have no representatives in the modern @@ -1898,7 +1862,7 @@ common forms consists of a series of apparently jointed threads disposed in fan-like clusters on a central stem (<i>Oldhamia antiqua</i>). Another has a wider and simpler fan-like arrangement of filaments. These -have been claimed by botanists as algć, and have been +have been claimed by botanists as algæ, and have been regarded by zoologists as minute Zoophytes, while some more sceptical have supposed that they may be mere inorganic wrinklings of the beds. This last view @@ -1915,7 +1879,7 @@ however, a number of remarkable organisms, which have usually been described as sponges, but are more probably partly of the nature of sponges and partly of that of Foraminifera. Of this kind are some of the -singular conical fossils described by Billings as <i>Archćocyathus</i>, +singular conical fossils described by Billings as <i>Archæocyathus</i>, and found in the Primordial limestone of Labrador. They are hollow within, with radiating porss and plates, calcareous in some, and in others @@ -1937,7 +1901,7 @@ has recently suggested that they may be casts of sponges that lived like some modern species imbedded in the sand. In accordance with this view I have represented these curious objects in the engraving, -On the whole, the life of these oldest Palćozoic rocks +On the whole, the life of these oldest Palæozoic rocks is not very abundant; but there are probably representatives of three of the great subdivisions of animals or, as some would reckon them, of four the Protozoa, @@ -2362,7 +2326,7 @@ Appalachian Mountains.</p> was succeeded by one in which was clear water depositing little earthy sediment, and this usually fine; and in which the sea swarmed with -animal life, from the <i>débris</i> of which enormous beds +animal life, from the <i>dĂ©bris</i> of which enormous beds of limestone were formed the Trenton limestone of America and the Bala limestone of Europe. The fossils of this part of the series open up to us the @@ -2583,7 +2547,7 @@ allied to <i>Cystiphyllum</i>.</p></div> <p class="center">Fig. 10.—LIFE IN THE SILURIAN AGE.</p> <p>On the bottom are seen, proceeding from left to right, Corals (<i>Stenopora</i> and <i>Beatricea</i>) and a Gasteropod; <i>Orthoceras</i>; Coral (<i>Patria</i>); -Crinoids, <i>Lingulć</i>, and Cystideans; a <i>Trilobite</i> and <i>Cyrtolites</i>. In the water is a large <i>Pterygotus</i>, and under it a <i>Trinucleus</i>. Furthere on, are +Crinoids, <i>Lingulæ</i>, and Cystideans; a <i>Trilobite</i> and <i>Cyrtolites</i>. In the water is a large <i>Pterygotus</i>, and under it a <i>Trinucleus</i>. Furthere on, are Cephalopods, a Heteropod, and Fishes. At the surface, <i>Phyllograptus</i>, <i>Graptolithus</i>, and <i>Bellerophon</i>. On the Land, <i>Lepidodendron</i>, <i>Psilophyton</i>, and <i>Prototaxites</i>.</p> </div> @@ -2662,7 +2626,7 @@ species; but in the Silurian period they had their birth, and attained to a number and perfection not afterwards surpassed. Perhaps the stone-lilies of the Upper Silurian rocks of Dudley, in England, are the -most beautiful of Palćozoic animals. Judging from +most beautiful of Palæozoic animals. Judging from the immense quantities of their remains in some limestones, wide areas of the sea bottom must have been crowded with their long stalks and flower-like bodies, @@ -2749,7 +2713,7 @@ fill certain beds of Silurian shale and limestone.</p> <p>No remains found in the Silurian rocks have been more fertile sources of discussion than the so-called <i>Graptolites</i>, or written stones—a name given long ago -by Linnćus, in allusion to the resemblance of some +by Linnæus, in allusion to the resemblance of some species having rows of cells on one side, to minute lines of writing. These little bodies usually appear as black coaly stains on the surface of the rock, @@ -2853,7 +2817,7 @@ to their invertebrate contemporaries. Coprolites, or fossil masses of excrement, which are found with them, indicate that they chased and devoured orthoceratites and sea-snails of various kinds, and snapped -Lingulć and crinoids from their stalks; and we can +Lingulæ and crinoids from their stalks; and we can well imagine that these creatures, when once introduced, found themselves in rich pasture and increased accordingly. Space prevents us from following further @@ -2876,7 +2840,7 @@ singular molluscous swimmers by fin or float known to zoologists as violet-snails, winged-snails or pteropods, and carinarias; and which, under various forms, have existed from the Silurian to the present time. -The old <i>Lingulć</i> are also there as well as in the +The old <i>Lingulæ</i> are also there as well as in the Primordial, while the fishes and the land vegetation belong, as far as we yet know, exclusively to the Upper Silurian, and point forward to the succeeding @@ -2972,9 +2936,9 @@ learn of animals. I saw not long ago a series of genealogies in geological time reduced to tabular form by that ingenious but imaginative physiologist, Haeckel. In one of these appeared the imaginary -derivation of the higher plants from Algć or sea-weeds. +derivation of the higher plants from Algæ or sea-weeds. Nothing could more curiously contradict actual facts. -Algć were apparently in the Silurian neither more nor +Algæ were apparently in the Silurian neither more nor less elevated than in the modern seas, and those forms of vegetable life which may seem to bridge over the space between them and the land plants in the @@ -3148,7 +3112,7 @@ Upper and Lower Silurian, and the beds were thicker towards the east and thinned towards the west, as in the case of the older serios. But in the Devonian there was much, land in the north-east of America; -and on the eastern margin of this land, as in Gaspé +and on the eastern margin of this land, as in GaspĂ© and New Brunswick, the deposits throughout the whole period were sandstones and shales, without the great coral limestones of the central plateau. @@ -3159,7 +3123,7 @@ Devonian in Devon, in the Eifel district, in France and in Russia, represent the great corniferous limestone of America; while the sandstones of South Wales, of Ireland, and of Scotland, resemble the -local conditions of Gaspé and New Brunswick, and +local conditions of GaspĂ© and New Brunswick, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> belonged to a similar area in the north-west of Europe, in which shallow water and land conditions @@ -3218,28 +3182,28 @@ Society.”</p> <td colspan="2"></td> <td class="bdb bdl" style="width:30%">Scotland.</td> <td class="bdb bdl" style="width:30%">Ireland.</td> - <td class="bdb bdl" style="width:30%">Gaspé and New Brunswick.</td> + <td class="bdb bdl" style="width:30%">GaspĂ© and New Brunswick.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Upper</td> <td><img src="images/l_brace_14x94.png" width="14" height="94" alt="" title="" /></td> <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Yellow and red sandstones.<br />Fishes and plants.</p></td> <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Yellow and red sandstones, etc.<br />Plants, fishes, etc.</p></td> - <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Red and grey sandstones, grits and shales, and conglomerates of Gaspé and Miapeck.<br />Plants.</p></td> + <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Red and grey sandstones, grits and shales, and conglomerates of GaspĂ© and Miapeck.<br />Plants.</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td>Middle</td> <td><img src="images/l_brace_14x94.png" width="14" height="94" alt="" title="" /></td> <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Red shales and sandstones, and conglomerates.<br />Caithness flags.<br />Fishes and plants.</p></td> <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Grits and sandstones of Dingle.</p></td> - <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Grey and Red sandstones, and grey and dark shales.<br />Gaspé and St. John.<br />Many plants and fishes.</p></td> + <td class="bdl"><p class="references2">Grey and Red sandstones, and grey and dark shales.<br />GaspĂ© and St. John.<br />Many plants and fishes.</p></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="bdb">Lower</td> <td class="bdb"><img src="images/l_brace_14x94.png" width="14" height="94" alt="" title="" /></td> <td class="bdb bdl"><p class="references2">Flagstones, shales and conglomerates.<br />Fishes and plants.</p></td> <td class="bdb bdl"><p class="references2">Glengariff grits, etc.</p></td> - <td class="bdb bdl"><p class="references2">Sandstone and conglomerate.<br />Gaspé and St. John.<br />Plants and fishes.</p></td> + <td class="bdb bdl"><p class="references2">Sandstone and conglomerate.<br />GaspĂ© and St. John.<br />Plants and fishes.</p></td> </tr> </table> @@ -3258,7 +3222,7 @@ learn this by careful tracing of the beds to their junction with, corresponding series, and by the occasional occurrence of the characteristic fishes of the Scottish strata in the English and German beds. In like -manner a geologist who explores the Gaspé sandstones +manner a geologist who explores the GaspĂ© sandstones or the New Brunswick shales has under his <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> consideration a group of beds very dissimilar from @@ -3309,7 +3273,7 @@ Spirephyton; also Fishes of the genera <i>Cephalaspis</i> and <i>Pterichthys</i> <p>The central limestones of the Devonian may be regarded as the head-quarters of the peculiar types -of coral characteristic of the Palćozoic age. Here +of coral characteristic of the Palæozoic age. Here they were not only vastly numerous, but present some of their grandest and also their most peculiar forms. Edwards and Haime, in their “Monograph @@ -3384,7 +3348,7 @@ often much resemble in general form, though differing in details of structure. One of the most common forms is that of the <i>Favosites</i>, or honeycomb coral, presenting regular hexagonal cells with transverse -floors or tabulć. Of these there are several +floors or tabulæ. Of these there are several species, usually flat or massive in form; but one species, <i>F. polymorpha</i>, branches out like the modern stag-horn corals. Another curious form, <i>Michelina</i>, @@ -3402,7 +3366,7 @@ accidental concurrence of a natural and artificial design. Another very common type is that of the conical <i>Zaphrentis</i>, with a deep cut at top to lodge the body of the animal, whose radiating chambers are faithfully -represented by it’s delicate lamellć. Perhaps the +represented by it’s delicate lamellæ. Perhaps the most delicate of the whole is the <i>Syringopora</i>, with its cylindrical worm-like pipes bound together by transverse processes, and which sometimes can be @@ -3440,7 +3404,7 @@ into two groups, one referable to Actinoids, the other to Hydroids.</p></div> <p>If the Devonian witnessed the culmination of the -Palćozoic corals, its later stages saw the final decadence +Palæozoic corals, its later stages saw the final decadence of the great dynasty of the Trilobites. Of these creatures there are in the Devonian some large and ornate species, remarkable for their spines and @@ -3464,10 +3428,10 @@ armed with new and formidable powers. The in point of size the greatest of known crustaceans, recent or fossil. According to Mr. Henry Woodward, who has published an admirable description and -figures of the creature in the Palćontographical +figures of the creature in the Palæontographical <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> Society’s Memoirs, it must have been six feet in -length, and nearly two feet in breadth. Its antennć +length, and nearly two feet in breadth. Its antennæ were, unlike the harmless feelers of modern Crustacea, armed with powerful claws. Two great eyes stood in the front of the head, and two smaller ones on @@ -3511,7 +3475,7 @@ sports with our theories, showing us in some cases, as in the corals and fishes, partnerships split up into individuals, and in others distinct lines of being converging and becoming lost in one slender thread. -Barrande, the great palćontologist of Bohemia, has +Barrande, the great palæontologist of Bohemia, has recently, in an elaborate memoir on the Trilobites, traced these and other points through all their structures and their whole succession in geological time @@ -3697,8 +3661,8 @@ possessed this semi-reptilian respiration; and if so, they would be better adapted than other fishes to live in water contaminated with organic matter in a state of decay, or in waters rich in carbonic acid or -deficient in oxygen. Possibly the palćozoic waters, -as well as the palćozoic atmosphere, were less rich in +deficient in oxygen. Possibly the palæozoic waters, +as well as the palæozoic atmosphere, were less rich in pure oxygen than those of the present world; and it is certain that, in many of the beds in which the smaller Devonian fishes abound, there was so much @@ -3714,7 +3678,7 @@ as the modern gar-fish, by virtue of its lungs, can live in stagnant shallows and hunt frogs, but on that account needs strong armour to defend it against the foes that assail it in such places; so in the Devonian -the capacity to inhabit unaërated water and defensive +the capacity to inhabit unaĂ«rated water and defensive plates and scales may have been alike necessary, especially to the feebler tribes of fishes. We shall find that in the succeeding carboniferous period there @@ -3775,7 +3739,7 @@ scars, is the <i>Leptophleum</i>. All these plants are probably allied to our modern club-mosses, which are, however, also represented by some low and creeping species cleaving to the ground. A little further, and -we reach a dense clump of <i>Sigillarić</i>, with tall sparsely +we reach a dense clump of <i>Sigillariæ</i>, with tall sparsely forking stems, and ribbed with ridges holding rows of leaf-scars a group of plants which we shall have further occasion to notice in the coal formation; and @@ -3796,7 +3760,7 @@ and <i>Asterophyllites</i>.</p> delicate ferns of marvellous grace and beauty; and here and there a tree-fern rears its head, crowned with its spreading and graceful leaves, and its trunk -clad with a shaggy mass of aërial roots—an old +clad with a shaggy mass of aĂ«rial roots—an old botanical device, used in these ancient times, as well <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> as now, to strengthen and protect the stems of trees @@ -3825,7 +3789,7 @@ but of these we know as yet but little. What inhabitants have these forests? All that we yet know are a few large insects, relatives of our modern May-flies, flitting with broad veined wings over the -stagnant waters in which their worm-like larvć dwell, +stagnant waters in which their worm-like larvæ dwell, and one species at least assuming one of the properties of the grasshopper tribe, and enlivening the otherwise silent groves with a cricket-like chirp, the oldest @@ -3914,7 +3878,7 @@ are and were created.”</p> in accumulations of vegetable matter destined to be converted into coal, has been named the Carboniferous, is in relation to living beings the most -complete and noble of the Palćozoic periods. In it +complete and noble of the Palæozoic periods. In it those varied arrangements of land and water which had been increasing in perfection in the previous periods, attained to their highest development. In @@ -3957,7 +3921,7 @@ is the immense quantity of red rocks, particularly red sandstones, contained in it. Ked sandstones, it is true, occur in older formations, but comparatively rarely; their great head-quarters, both in Europe and -America, in so far as the Palćozoic is concerned, are +America, in so far as the Palæozoic is concerned, are in the Upper Devonian. Now red sandstone is an infallible mark of rapid deposition, and therefore of active physical change. If we examine the grains @@ -4019,7 +3983,7 @@ leaves, the substance of which has entirely perished, traced most delicately upon them in greenish marks.</p> <p>It follows from these facts that extensive and thick -deposits of red beds evidence sub-aërial decay of +deposits of red beds evidence sub-aĂ«rial decay of rocks, followed by comparatively rapid deposition in water, and that such red rocks will usually contain few fossils, not only because of their rapid deposition, @@ -4088,7 +4052,7 @@ land, comparable with the “Sylvas” of the South American continent, flourished the wondrous vegetation of the Coal period, and were introduced the new land animals, whose presence distinguishes the close -of the Palćozoic.</p> +of the Palæozoic.</p> <p>After a vast lapse of time, in which only slow and gradual subsidence occurred, a more rapid settlement @@ -4099,7 +4063,7 @@ under the waters; and shifting sand-banks and muddy tides engulfed and buried the remains of the old forests, and heaped on them a mass of sediment, which, like the weights of a botanical press, flattened -and compressed the vegetable <i>débris</i> preserved in the +and compressed the vegetable <i>dĂ©bris</i> preserved in the leaves of the coal formation strata. Then came on that strange and terrible Permian period, which, like the more modern boulder-formation, marked the death @@ -4303,7 +4267,7 @@ extract from a previous publication of my own on this subject.</p> <p>"The modern flora of the earth admits of a grand -twofold division into the <i>Phćnogamous</i>, or flowering +twofold division into the <i>Phænogamous</i>, or flowering and seed-bearing plants, and the <i>Cryptogamous</i>, or flowerless and spore-bearing plants. In the former series, we have, first, those higher plants which start @@ -4344,10 +4308,10 @@ though one species is known in the Devonian, and only a few obscure indications of the presence of Endogens; but Gymnosperms abound, and are highly characteristic. On the other hand, we have -no mosses or lichens, and very few algć, but a -great number of ferns and Lycopodiaceć or club-mosses. +no mosses or lichens, and very few algæ, but a +great number of ferns and Lycopodiaceæ or club-mosses. Thus the coal formation period is botanically -a meeting-place of the lower Phćnogams and the +a meeting-place of the lower Phænogams and the higher Cryptogams, and presents many forms which, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> when imperfectly known, have puzzled botanists in @@ -4452,7 +4416,7 @@ further explained the reason of the almost universal occurrence of Stigmaria, as these roots were called, under the coal beds; while trunks of the same plants were the most abundant fossils of their partings and -roofs. The growth of successive generations of Sigillarić +roofs. The growth of successive generations of Sigillariæ was, in fact, found to be the principal cause of the accumulation of a bed of coal. Two species form the central figures in our illustration.</p> @@ -4492,7 +4456,7 @@ spores in scaly cones. Their roots were similar to Stigmaria in general appearance, though differing in details. In the coal period there were several generic forms of these plants, all attaining to the dimensions -of trees. Like the Sigillarić, they contributed to +of trees. Like the Sigillariæ, they contributed to the materials of the coal; and one mode of this has recently attracted some attention. It is the accumulation of their spores and spore-cases already referred @@ -4527,14 +4491,14 @@ rows of large horseshoe-shaped scars marking the sides of the trunk. Botanists, who have been puzzled with these plants almost as much as with the Stigmaria, have supposed these scars to be marks of -branches, of cones, and even of aërial roots; but +branches, of cones, and even of aĂ«rial roots; but specimens in my collection prove conclusively that the stem of this genus was a great caudex made up of the bases of two rows of huge leaves cemented together probably by intervening cellular tissue. As in the Devonian and in modern times, the stems of the tree-ferns of the Carboniferous strengthened themselves -by immense bundles of cord-like aërial roots, +by immense bundles of cord-like aĂ«rial roots, which look like enormous fossil brooms, and are known under the name Psaronius.</p> @@ -4603,7 +4567,7 @@ gigantic club-mosses of the Coal period constitute a similar example, and it is very curious that both of these types have been degraded in the modern world, though retaining precisely their general aspect, while -the tree-ferns contemporary with them in the Palćozoic +the tree-ferns contemporary with them in the Palæozoic still survive in all their original grandeur.</p> <p>Barely in the swampy flats, perhaps more frequently @@ -4635,7 +4599,7 @@ But incomplete though our picture necessarily is, and obscured by the dust of time, it may serve in some degree to render green to our eyes those truly primeval forests which treasured up for our -long winter nights the Palćozoic sunshine, and established +long winter nights the Palæozoic sunshine, and established for us those storehouses of heat-giving material which work our engines and propel our ships and carriages. Truly they lived not in vain, both as realizing @@ -4667,7 +4631,7 @@ degrees acquired sufficient wits to make a fire, and then to discover that the black rock would burn.</p> <p>"I suppose that nineteen hundred years ago, when -Julius Cćsar was good enough to deal with Britain +Julius Cæsar was good enough to deal with Britain as we have dealt with New Zealand, the primeval Briton, blue with cold and woad, may have known that the strange black stone, of which he found lumps @@ -4725,7 +4689,7 @@ who knows the end from the beginning, whose power is the origin of natural forces, whose wisdom is the source of laws and correlations of laws, and whose great plan is apparent alike in the order of nature -of the Palćozoic world and of the modern world, as +of the Palæozoic world and of the modern world, as well as in the relation of these to each other.</p> <p>In the Carboniferous, as in the Devonian age, @@ -4754,7 +4718,7 @@ water, feeding on vegetable matter, and affording food to many fresh-water fishes—a use which they no doubt served in the coal period also. Some of them were giants in their way, being probably seven inches -in expanse of wing, and their larvć must have been +in expanse of wing, and their larvæ must have been choice morsels to the ganoid fishes, and would have afforded abundant bait had there been anglers in those days. Another group of insects was that of the @@ -4822,7 +4786,7 @@ formation of Nova Scotia. The figures of these must speak for themselves; but the fact of their occurrence here and the mode of their preservation require some detailed mention. The great province of the Mollusks -we have carried with us since we met with the Lingulć +we have carried with us since we met with the Lingulæ in the Primordial, but all its members have been aquatic, and probably marine. For the first time, in the Carboniferous period, snails emerge from the @@ -4904,7 +4868,7 @@ them an introduction to the next group of creatures we have to consider. In the coal formation in all parts of the world it is not unusual, as stated already in a previous page, to find erect trees or stumps -of trees, usually Sigillarić, standing where they grew; +of trees, usually Sigillariæ, standing where they grew; and where the beds are exposed in coast cliffs, or road cuttings, or mines, these fossil trees can be extracted from the matrix and examined. They usually consist @@ -4932,12 +4896,12 @@ broken his back.</p> <p>The manner in which such trees become fossilized may be explained as follows:—Imagine a forest of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -Sigillarić growing on a low flat. This becomes +Sigillariæ growing on a low flat. This becomes submerged by subsidence or inundation, the soil is buried under several feet of sand or mud, and the trees killed by this agency stand up as bare and lifeless trunks. The waters subside, and the trees -rapidly decay, the larvć of wood-boring insects perhaps +rapidly decay, the larvæ of wood-boring insects perhaps aiding in the process, as they now do in the American woods. The dense coaly outer bark alone resists decomposition, and stands as a hollow cylinder @@ -4956,7 +4920,7 @@ dug across a pasture-field and left open for a few days, and that in almost every hole one or two toads were prisoners. This was the fate which must have often befallen the smaller reptiles of the coal forests in the -natural post-holes left by the decay of the Sigillarić. +natural post-holes left by the decay of the Sigillariæ. Yet it may be readily understood that the combination of circumstances which would effect this result must have been rare, and consequently this curious fact has @@ -5215,7 +5179,7 @@ age, but their first introduction dates as far back as the Carboniferous; and this introduction was emphatically a creation, as being the commencement of a new feature among living beings. What further -differences may be implied in the formulć, “Let the +differences may be implied in the formulæ, “Let the waters produce” and “God created,” we do not know; very probably he who wrote the words did not fully know. But if we could give a scientific expression @@ -5322,7 +5286,7 @@ found being mostly in beds likely to be frequented by the young rather than by the full-grown individuals.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_R_18" id="Footnote_R_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_R_18"><span class="label">[R]</span></a> The Productidć.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_R_18" id="Footnote_R_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_R_18"><span class="label">[R]</span></a> The Productidæ.</p></div> <p>The old order of the Trilobites, which has accompanied us from Primordial times, here fails us, and a @@ -5346,7 +5310,7 @@ ever their well-jointed cuirasses and formidable weapons, while a few little shrimp-like creatures, their contemporaries, form the small point of the wedge of our great tribes of squillas and crabs and lobsters. -Some years ago the late lamented palćontologist, +Some years ago the late lamented palæontologist, Salter, a man who scarcely leaves his equal in his department, in conjunction with Mr. Henry Woodward, prepared a sort of genealogical chart of the @@ -5430,7 +5394,7 @@ and leaving vast quantities of their remains in the shaly and even coaly beds formed in such places. Such were the pretty, graceful fishes of the genera <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> -<i>Palćoniscus</i> and <i>Amblypterus</i>. Pursuing and feeding +<i>Palæoniscus</i> and <i>Amblypterus</i>. Pursuing and feeding on these were larger ganoids, armed with strong bony scales, and formidable conical or sharp-edged teeth. Of these were <i>Rhizodus</i> and <i>Acrolepis</i>. There were @@ -5477,7 +5441,7 @@ Permian.</p> <p class="caption2"><a name="Chapter_VII" id="Chapter_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</p> -<p class="caption2">THE PERMIAN AGE AND CLOSE OF THE PALĆOZOIC.</p> +<p class="caption2">THE PERMIAN AGE AND CLOSE OF THE PALÆOZOIC.</p> <p><span class="smcap">The</span> immense swamps and low forest-clad plains @@ -5513,7 +5477,7 @@ of a new age.</p> <p>The Permian and the succeeding Triassic are somewhat chilly and desolate periods of the earth’s history. -The one is the twilight of the Palćozoic day, the other +The one is the twilight of the Palæozoic day, the other is the dawn of the Mesozoic. Yet to the philosophical geologist no ages excel them in interest. They are times of transition, when old dynasties and races pass @@ -5589,7 +5553,7 @@ force which caused them acting from the direction of the sea. It seems as if the Atlantic area had wanted elbow-room, and had crushed up the edges of the continents next to it. In other words, in the lapse of -the Palćozoic ages the nucleus of the earth had shrunk +the Palæozoic ages the nucleus of the earth had shrunk away from its coating of rocky layers, which again collapsed into great wrinkles.</p> @@ -5648,7 +5612,7 @@ to produce the effect.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_U_21" id="Footnote_U_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_U_21"><span class="label">[U]</span></a> “Nature,” February, 1871.</p></div> <p>Viewed in this way, the great disturbances at the -close of the Palćozoic period constitute one of the +close of the Palæozoic period constitute one of the most instructive examples in the whole history of the earth of that process of collapse to which the crust was subject after long intervals, and of which no @@ -5834,7 +5798,7 @@ features than any of the previous ages; and we might have expected that on its wide and varied continents some new and higher forms of life would have been introduced. But it seems rather to have been intended -to blot out the old Palćozoic life, as an arrangement +to blot out the old Palæozoic life, as an arrangement which had been fully tried and served its end, preparatory to a new beginning in the succeeding age.</p> @@ -5866,7 +5830,7 @@ as different; some of the forms, however, being so similar as to be possibly identical. In a picture of the Permian flora we should perhaps place in the foreground the tree-ferns, which seem to have been very -abundant, and furnished with dense clusters of aërial +abundant, and furnished with dense clusters of aĂ«rial roots to enable them to withstand the storms of this boisterous age. The tree-ferns, now so plentiful in the southern hemisphere, should be regarded as one of the @@ -5934,7 +5898,7 @@ much a transition from the one to the other as the finishing of the older period to make way for the newer.</p> <p>But we must reserve some space for a few remarks -on the progress and termination of the Palćozoic as +on the progress and termination of the Palæozoic as a whole, and on the place which it occupies in the world’s history. These remarks we may group around the central question, What is the meaning or value of @@ -5951,7 +5915,7 @@ excuse.</p> to remedy this by attaching definite values to such words as those above mentioned. In his system the greater divisions of the history were “Times:” thus -the Eozoic was a time and the Palćozoic was a time. +the Eozoic was a time and the Palæozoic was a time. The larger divisions of the times are “Ages:” thus the Lower and Upper Silurian, the Devonian, and the Carboniferous are ages, which are equivalent in @@ -5966,15 +5930,15 @@ not directly to the time elapsed, but to the work done in it. Now this mode of regarding geological time introduces many thoughts as to the nature of our chronology and matters relating to it. A “time” in -geology is an extremely long time, and the Palćozoic +geology is an extremely long time, and the Palæozoic was perhaps the longest of the whole. By the close -of the Palćozoic nine-tenths of all the rocks we know +of the Palæozoic nine-tenths of all the rocks we know <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> in the earth’s crust were formed. At least this is the case if we reckon mere thickness. For aught that we know, the Eozoic time may have accumulated as -much rock as the Palćozoic; but leaving this out of -the question, the rocks of the Palćozoic are vastly +much rock as the Palæozoic; but leaving this out of +the question, the rocks of the Palæozoic are vastly thicker than those of the Mesozoic and Cainozoic united. Thus the earth’s history seems to have dragged slowly in its earlier stages, or to have @@ -5986,7 +5950,7 @@ than in the earlier times.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_Z_26" id="Footnote_Z_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_Z_26"><span class="label">[Z]</span></a> Dana.</p></div> <p>The same law seems to have obtained within the -Palćozoic time itself. Its older periods, as the +Palæozoic time itself. Its older periods, as the Cambrian and Lower Silurian, present immense thicknesses of rock with little changes in life. Its later periods, the Carboniferous and Permian, have @@ -5995,7 +5959,7 @@ deposits. This again was evidently related to the growing complexity and variety of geographical conditions, which went on increasing all the way up to the Permian, when they attained their maximum for -the Palćozoic time.</p> +the Palæozoic time.</p> <p>Again, each age was signalized, over the two great continental plateaus, by a like series of elevations and @@ -6010,7 +5974,7 @@ shell-fishes. In each case this was followed by a re-elevation, leading to a second but slow and partial subsidence, to be followed by the great re-elevation preparatory to the next period. Thus we have -throughout the Palćozoic a series of cycles of +throughout the Palæozoic a series of cycles of physical change which we may liken to gigantic pulsations of the thick hide of mother earth. The final catastrophe of the Permian collapse was quite @@ -6039,7 +6003,7 @@ conditions of that period into modern times.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p> <p>But in each of the great successive heaves or pulsations -of the Palćozoic earth, there was a growing +of the Palæozoic earth, there was a growing balance in favour of the land as compared with the water. In each successive movement more and more elevated land was thrown up, until the Permian flexures @@ -6047,7 +6011,7 @@ finally fixed the forms of our continents. This may be made evident to the eye in a series of curves, as in the following diagram, in which I have endeavoured to show the recurrence of similar conditions in each of -the great periods of the Palćozoic, and thus their +the great periods of the Palæozoic, and thus their equivalency to each other as cycles of the earth’s history.</p> @@ -6064,14 +6028,14 @@ of the sediment, may have done the rest; but the results are surprisingly regular to be produced by such causes. We shall also find that similar cycles can be observed in the geological ages which succeeded the -Palćozoic. Geologists have hitherto for the most part +Palæozoic. Geologists have hitherto for the most part been content to assign these movements to causes purely terrestrial; but it is difficult to avoid the suspicion that the succession of geological cycles must have depended on some recurring astronomical force tending to cause the weaker parts of the earth’s crust alternately to rise and subside at regular intervals of -time. Herschel, Adhémar, and more recently Croll, +time. Herschel, AdhĂ©mar, and more recently Croll, have directed attention to astronomical cycles supposed to have important influences on the temperature of the earth. Whether these or other changes may have @@ -6085,7 +6049,7 @@ however, the geologist must refer to the astronomer.</p> <div class="fig_center" style="width: 609px;"> <img src="images/page179.png" width="609" height="205" alt="" /> <p class="center">CURVES SHOWING THE SUCCESSIVE ELEVATIONS AND DEPRESSIONS<br /> -OF THE AMERICAN CONTINENT, IN SEVERAL CYCLES OF THE PALĆOZOIC TIME.</p> +OF THE AMERICAN CONTINENT, IN SEVERAL CYCLES OF THE PALÆOZOIC TIME.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p> @@ -6097,7 +6061,7 @@ oceanic areas. Whether they became shallower or deeper, their conditions would be different from those which occurred in the great shallow plateaus, and these conditions are little known to us. Further, throughout -the Palćozoic period, the oscillations do not seem to +the Palæozoic period, the oscillations do not seem to have been sufficient to reverse the positions of the oceans and continents. Secondly, it is not meant to affirm that the great Permian plications were so widespread @@ -6107,18 +6071,18 @@ occurred, remnants of the Carboniferous fauna still flourished even on the surfaces of the continents, and possibly the inhabitants of the deep ocean were little affected by these great movements. True it is that the -life of the Palćozoic terminates with the Permian, but +life of the Palæozoic terminates with the Permian, but not by a great and cataclysmic overthrow.</p> <p>We know something at least of the general laws of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -continental oscillations during the Palćozoic. Do we +continental oscillations during the Palæozoic. Do we know anything of law in the case of life? The question raises so many and diverse considerations that it seems vain to treat it in the end of a chapter; still we must try to outline it with at least a few touches.</p> -<p>First, then, the life of the Palćozoic was remarkable, +<p>First, then, the life of the Palæozoic was remarkable, as compared with that of the present world, in presenting a great prevalence of animals and plants of synthetic types, as they are called by Agassiz that is, @@ -6131,7 +6095,7 @@ the old corals, presenting points of alliance with two distinct groups now widely separated; the old Trilobites, half king-crabs and half Isopods; the Amphibians of the coal, part fish, part newt, and part crocodile; the -Sigillarić, part club-mosses and part pines; the Orthoceratites, +Sigillariæ, part club-mosses and part pines; the Orthoceratites, half nautili and half cuttle-fishes. I proposed, in the illustration in a former article, to give a restoration of one of the curious creatures last mentioned, the @@ -6153,14 +6117,14 @@ may be regarded as of high grade, in another as of low grade, and they are often large in size or in vegetative development.<a name="FNanchor_AA_27" id="FNanchor_AA_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_AA_27" class="fnanchor">[AA]</a> From this law have arisen many controversies about the grade and classification of the -Palćozoic animals and plants.</p> +Palæozoic animals and plants.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AA_27" id="Footnote_AA_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AA_27"><span class="label">[AA]</span></a> It seems, indeed, as if the new synthetic forms intermediate between great groups were often large in size, while the new special types came in as small species. There are some remarkable cases of this in the plant world; though here we have such examples as the pines and tree-ferns continuing almost unchanged -from an early Palćozoic period until now.</p></div> +from an early Palæozoic period until now.</p></div> <p>Thirdly, extinctions of species occur in every great oscillation of the continental areas, but some species @@ -6169,8 +6133,8 @@ often recurs under new specific forms. Families and orders, such as those of the Trilobites and Orthoceratites, appear to have a grand and gradual culmination and decadence extending over several successive -periods, or even over the whole stretch of the Palćozoic -time. Toward the close of the Palćozoic, while +periods, or even over the whole stretch of the Palæozoic +time. Toward the close of the Palæozoic, while all the species disappear, some whole families and orders are altogether dropped, and, being chiefly synthetic groups, are replaced by more specialised @@ -6183,12 +6147,12 @@ away. Our diagram (page 183) illustrates these points.</p> <div class="fig_center" style="width: 611px;"> <img src="images/page183.png" width="611" height="365" alt="" /> <p class="center">DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ADVANCE, CULMINATION,<br /> -AND DECADENCE OF SOME OF THE LEADING TYPES OF PALĆOZOIC LIFE.</p> +AND DECADENCE OF SOME OF THE LEADING TYPES OF PALÆOZOIC LIFE.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span></p> -<p>Fourthly, the progress in animal life in the Palćozoic +<p>Fourthly, the progress in animal life in the Palæozoic related chiefly to the lower or invertebrate tribes, and to the two lower classes of the vertebrates. The oldest animal known to us is not only a creature of the @@ -6203,7 +6167,7 @@ the Mollusks, showing the nutritive organs more fully developed—the other, the Articulates, having the organs of sense and of locomotion more fully organized. These three great types shared the world among them -throughout the earlier Palćozoic time, and only in its +throughout the earlier Palæozoic time, and only in its later ages began to be dominated by the higher types of fishes and reptiles. In so far as we know, it remained for the Mesozoic to introduce the birds and @@ -6246,7 +6210,7 @@ All that appears settled is the existence of a definite plan, working over long ages, and connected with the most remarkable correlation of physical and organic change: going on with regular march throughout the -Palćozoic, and then brought to a close to make room +Palæozoic, and then brought to a close to make room for another great succession. This following Mesozoic time must next engage our attention.</p> @@ -6265,7 +6229,7 @@ periods—an older, middle, and newer. Of these, however, the last or newest is in each case so important and varied as to merit division into two, in the manner which I have suggested in previous publications -for the Palćozoic rocks of North America.<a name="FNanchor_AC_29" id="FNanchor_AC_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_AC_29" class="fnanchor">[AC]</a> +for the Palæozoic rocks of North America.<a name="FNanchor_AC_29" id="FNanchor_AC_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_AC_29" class="fnanchor">[AC]</a> Under each period I have endeavoured to give some characteristic example from Europe and America, except where, as in the case of the coal formation, @@ -6312,7 +6276,7 @@ great swamps of the coal formation.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Physically</span>, the transition from the Permian to the Trias is easy. In the domain of life a great gulf lies between; and the geologist whose mind is filled with -the forms of the Palćozoic period, on rising into +the forms of the Palæozoic period, on rising into the next succeeding beds, feels himself a sort of Rip Van Winkle, who has slept a hundred years and awakes in a new world. The geography of our @@ -6362,7 +6326,7 @@ thus:—</p> </tr> <tr> <td class="bbox tdl">Keuper, Sandstone and Shale</td> - <td class="bbox">Marnes Irisées</td> + <td class="bbox">Marnes IrisĂ©es</td> <td class="bbox tdl">Saliferous and gypseous Shales and Sandstones.</td> </tr> <tr> @@ -6372,7 +6336,7 @@ thus:—</p> </tr> <tr> <td class="bbox tdl">Bunter, Sandstone and Conglomerate</td> - <td class="bbox">Grčs bigarré</td> + <td class="bbox">Grès bigarrĂ©</td> <td class="bbox tdl">Sandstone and Conglomerate.</td> </tr> </table> @@ -6459,7 +6423,7 @@ attained to even more than its present extension eastwards. Thus this later Jurassic period was the culmination of the Mesozoic, the period of its most perfect continental development, corresponding in this -to the Carboniferous in the Palćozoic.</p> +to the Carboniferous in the Palæozoic.</p> <p>The next or closing period of this great Mesozoic time brought a wondrous change. In the Cretaceous @@ -6527,22 +6491,22 @@ the earth’s chronology to which we ourselves belong.</p> <p class="center">LIFE ON LAND IN THE MESOZOIC PERIOD.</p> <p class="p0">In the foreground are a Pine, Cycads, and a Pandanus; also small Mammals, an herbivorous Dinosaur, and a Labyrinthodont. In the -distance are other Dinosaurs and Crocodiles. In the air are birds (<i>Archćopterux</i>) and Pterodactyls.</p> +distance are other Dinosaurs and Crocodiles. In the air are birds (<i>Archæopterux</i>) and Pterodactyls.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p> <p>Was the length of the Mesozoic time equal to that -of the Palćozoic? Measured by recurring cycles it +of the Palæozoic? Measured by recurring cycles it was. In the latter period we find five great cycles, from the Lower Silurian to the Permian inclusive. So in the Mesozoic we have five also, from the Trias to the Cretaceous inclusive. We have a right to reckon these cycles as ages or great years of the earth; and so reckoning them, the Mesozoic time may -have been as long as the Palćozoic. But if we take +have been as long as the Palæozoic. But if we take another criterion the result will be different. The -thickness of the deposits in the Palćozoic as compared +thickness of the deposits in the Palæozoic as compared with the Mesozoic, where these are severally best developed, may be estimated as at least four or five to one; so that if we suppose the beds to have @@ -6550,8 +6514,8 @@ been formed with equal rapidity in the two great periods, then the older of the two was between four and five times as long as the latter, which would indeed be only a little greater than one of the separate -ages of the Palćozoic. Either, therefore, the deposits -took place with greater rapidity in the Palćozoic, or +ages of the Palæozoic. Either, therefore, the deposits +took place with greater rapidity in the Palæozoic, or that period was by much the longer of the two. This it will be observed, is only another aspect of the great laws of geological sequence referred to in our last @@ -6593,18 +6557,18 @@ probably, with the exception of the latest one of each, more complete in the older period. In so far, then, as deposition of sediment is concerned, these considerations would scarcely lead us to infer that it was more -rapid in the Palćozoic. But the Palćozoic sediments +rapid in the Palæozoic. But the Palæozoic sediments <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> may be estimated in the aggregate at about 50,000 feet in thickness, while those of the Mesozoic scarcely reach 8,000. We might, therefore, infer that the -Palćozoic period was perhaps five or six times as long +Palæozoic period was perhaps five or six times as long as the Mesozoic.</p> <p>If we take the second class of rocks, the limestones, and suppose these to have been accumulated by the slow growth of corals, shells, etc., in the sea, we -might, at first sight, suppose that Palćozoic animals +might, at first sight, suppose that Palæozoic animals would not grow or accumulate limestone faster than their Mesozoic successors. We must, however, consider here the probability that the older oceans contained @@ -6613,15 +6577,15 @@ exist, and that the equable temperature and extensive submerged plateaus gave very favourable conditions for the lower animals of the sea, so that it would perhaps be fair to allow a somewhat more -rapid rate of growth of limestone for the Palćozoic. +rapid rate of growth of limestone for the Palæozoic. Now the actual proportions of limestone may be -roughly stated at 13,000 feet in the Palćozoic, and +roughly stated at 13,000 feet in the Palæozoic, and 3,000 feet in the Mesozoic, which would give a proportion of about four and a quarter to one; and as a foot of limestone may be supposed on the average to require five times as long for its formation as a foot of sediment, this would give an even greater absolute -excess in favour of the Palćozoic on the evidence +excess in favour of the Palæozoic on the evidence of the limestones an excess probably far too great to be accounted for by any more favourable conditions for the secretion of carbonate of lime by marine @@ -6650,8 +6614,8 @@ act as an inducing cause of rapid changes of life.</p> <p>On the whole, then, taking such facts as we have, and making large deductions for the several causes -tending to exaggerate our conception of Palćozoic -time, we can scarcely doubt that the Palćozoic may +tending to exaggerate our conception of Palæozoic +time, we can scarcely doubt that the Palæozoic may have been three times as long as the Mesozoic. If so, the continental pulsations, and the changes in animal and vegetable life, must have gone on with @@ -6665,7 +6629,7 @@ duration of the order of things under which we live.</p> <p>I have given this preliminary sketch of the whole Mesozoic time, because we cannot here, as in the -Palćozoic, take up each age separately; and now we +Palæozoic, take up each age separately; and now we must try to picture to ourselves the life and action of these ages. In doing so we may look at, first, the plant life of this period; second, animal life on the @@ -6676,7 +6640,7 @@ ocean depths.</p> flora, which changed considerably in its form during the lapse of this long time; but yet it has a character of its own distinct from that of the previous -Palćozoic and the succeeding Tertiary. Perhaps no +Palæozoic and the succeeding Tertiary. Perhaps no feature of this period is more characteristic than the great abundance of those singular plants, the cycads, which in the modern flora are placed near to the @@ -6704,7 +6668,7 @@ a prominent place in our restoration of the Mesozoic landscape, and we should give especial prominence to the beautiful species <i>Williamsonia gigas</i>, discovered by the eminent botanist whose name it bears, and -restored in his paper on the plant in the “Linnćan +restored in his paper on the plant in the “Linnæan Transactions.” These plants, with pines and gigantic equisetums, prevailed greatly in the earlier Mesozoic flora, but as the time wore on, various kinds of @@ -6738,7 +6702,7 @@ originated in that country, the Mesozoic might have been our age of coal.</p> <p>If the forests of the Mesozoic present a great -advance over those of the Palćozoic, so do the +advance over those of the Palæozoic, so do the animals of the land, which now embrace all the great types of vertebrate life. Some of these creatures have left strange evidence of their existence in their @@ -6803,7 +6767,7 @@ likely that they had bony plates like crocodiles, but they may have shone resplendent in horny scale armour of varied hues. But another and more dreadful form rises before us. It is <i>Megalosaurus</i> or perhaps -<i>Lćlaps</i>. Here we have a creature of equally gigantic +<i>Lælaps</i>. Here we have a creature of equally gigantic size and biped habits; but it is much more agile, and runs with great swiftness or advances by huge leaps, and its feet and hands are armed with strong curved @@ -6823,7 +6787,7 @@ and their general habit of body recalls that of the kangaroos. They were no doubt oviparous; and this, with their biped habit, seems to explain the strong resemblance of their hind quarters to those of -birds. Had we seen the eagle-clawed Lćlaps rushing +birds. Had we seen the eagle-clawed Lælaps rushing on his prey; throwing his huge bulk perhaps thirty feet through the air, and crushing to the earth under his gigantic talons some feebler Hadrosaur, we should @@ -7347,7 +7311,7 @@ the close of the period, when the ordinary horny-scaled fishes, such as abound in our present seas, appear to have been introduced. One curious point of difference is that the unequally lobed tail of -the Palćozoic fishes is dropped in the case of the +the Palæozoic fishes is dropped in the case of the greater part of the ganoids, and replaced by the squarely-cut tail prevalent in modern times.</p> @@ -7355,7 +7319,7 @@ squarely-cut tail prevalent in modern times.</p> revolutions occurred. Among the lamp-shells a little <i>Leptaena</i>, no bigger than a pea, is the last and depauperated representative of a great -Palćozoic family. Another, that of the Spirifers, +Palæozoic family. Another, that of the Spirifers, still shows a few species in the Lower Mesozoic. Others, like Rhynchonella, and Terebratula, continue through the period, and extend into the Modern. @@ -7366,7 +7330,7 @@ among the relatives of the cuttle-fishes and Nautili. As far back as the Silurian we find the giant Orthoceratites contemporary with Nautili, very like those of the present ocean. With the close of the -Palćozoic, however, the Orthoceratites and their +Palæozoic, however, the Orthoceratites and their allies disappear, while the Nautili continue, and are reinforced by multitudes of new forms of spiral chambered shells, some of them more wonderful @@ -7384,7 +7348,7 @@ into ornamental ribs and bands, which not only gave it exquisite beauty, but contributed to combine strength to resist pressure with the lightness necessary to a float. In some of these points it -is true the Gyroceras and Goniatites of the Palćozoic +is true the Gyroceras and Goniatites of the Palæozoic partially anticipated them, but much less perfectly. The animals which inhabited these shells must have been similar to that of Nautilus, but @@ -7494,7 +7458,7 @@ group, after attaining to the magnitude and complexity of the great Ammonites, should retreat to a few species of diminutive and simply-constructed Nautili; and in doing so should return to one of -the old types dating as far back as the older Palćozoic, +the old types dating as far back as the older Palæozoic, and continuing unchanged through all the intervening time.</p> @@ -7522,7 +7486,7 @@ importance.</p> last chapter, there had been several great depressions and re-elevations of the Continental Areas. But these had been of the same quiet and partial character with -those of the Palćozoic, and it was not until the close +those of the Palæozoic, and it was not until the close of the Mesozoic time, in the Cretaceous age, that a great and exceptional subsidence involved for a long period the areas of our present continents in a submergence @@ -7573,11 +7537,11 @@ should be found to cover the tops of hills several thousand feet high, and that its thickness should amount to several hundreds of feet, are facts which evidence a revolution more stupendous perhaps than -that at the close of the Palćozoic. For the first time +that at the close of the Palæozoic. For the first time since the Laurentian, the great continental plateaus changed places with the abysses of the ocean, and the successors of the Laurentian Eozoon again reigned on -surfaces which through the whole lapse of Palćozoic +surfaces which through the whole lapse of Palæozoic and Mesozoic time had been separated more or less from that deep ocean out of which they rose at first. This great Cretaceous subsidence was different from @@ -7666,7 +7630,7 @@ of the desert remains in the Patriarchal period, and there are some tribes not yet beyond the primitive age of stone. But the world moves, nevertheless, and the era of Victoria is not that of the Plantagenets or of -Julius Cćsar. So while we may admit that certain of +Julius Cæsar. So while we may admit that certain of the conditions of the Cretaceous seas still prevail in the bed of the present ocean, we must maintain that nearly all else is changed, and that the very existence @@ -7783,7 +7747,7 @@ progress of organic nature lies chiefly in the dropping of many Mesozoic forms and in the introduction of the higher tribes of mammals and of man.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AG_33" id="Footnote_AG_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AG_33"><span class="label">[AG]</span></a> The former name is related to Palćozoic and Mesozoic, the +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AG_33" id="Footnote_AG_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AG_33"><span class="label">[AG]</span></a> The former name is related to Palæozoic and Mesozoic, the latter to the older terms Primary and Secondary. For the sake of euphony we shall use both. The term Neozoic was proposed by Edward Forbes for the Mesozoic and Cainozoic @@ -7926,7 +7890,7 @@ their present forms and characters to a great extent throughout this time, we fail to find those evidences of long-continued submergences of the whole continental plateaus, or very large portions of them, which -we have found so very valuable in the Palćozoic and +we have found so very valuable in the Palæozoic and Mesozoic. In the Eocene, however, we shall discover one very instructive case in the great Nummulitic Limestone. In the Miocene and Pliocene the oscillations @@ -8056,7 +8020,7 @@ Mammals as distinguished from the age of Reptiles.</p> <img src="images/page243.png" width="352" height="295" alt="" title="" /> <p class="center">FORAMINIFERAL ROCK-BUILDERS.</p> -<p class="p0 ind2em">A. Nummulites lćvigata—Eocene.<br /> +<p class="p0 ind2em">A. Nummulites lævigata—Eocene.<br /> B. The same, showing chambered interior.<br /> C. Milioline limestone, magnified—Eocene, Paris.<br /> D. Hard Chalk, section magnified—Cretaceous.</p> @@ -8099,7 +8063,7 @@ plants to which we shall refer in the sequel, and the bones of several species of large animals. Among these the old reptiles of the Mesozoic are represented by the vertebrae of a supposed “sea snake” -(Palćophis) thirteen feet long, and species of crocodile +(Palæophis) thirteen feet long, and species of crocodile allied both to the alligators and the gavials. But besides these there are bones of several animals allied to the hog and tapir, and also a species of opossum, @@ -8163,7 +8127,7 @@ like those already noticed in the Trias. Had there been a Nimrod in those days to watch with bow or boomerang by the muddy shore, he would have seen herds of heavy short-legged and three-hoofed monsters -(Palćotherium), with large heads and long snouts, +(Palæotherium), with large heads and long snouts, probably scantily covered with sleek hair, and closely resembling the Modern Tapirs of South America and India, laboriously wading through the mud, and @@ -8179,7 +8143,7 @@ folk” which, with the aspect of hares, have the structure of Pachyderms—were also present. Creatures of these types constituted the great majority of the animals of the Parisian Eocene lakes; but there -were also Carnivorous animals allied to the hyćna, +were also Carnivorous animals allied to the hyæna, the wolf, and the opossum, which prowled along the shores by night to seize unwary wanderers, or to prey on the carcases of animals mired in the sloughs. @@ -8225,7 +8189,7 @@ his intellect been occupied by the evolutionist metaphysics which pass for natural science with too many in our day, he would have effected comparatively little; and instead of the magnificent museum in the -“Rčgne Animal” and the “Ossemens Fossiles,” we +“Règne Animal” and the “Ossemens Fossiles,” we might have had wearisome speculations on the derivation of species. It is reason for profound thankfulness that it was not so; and also that so many @@ -8335,7 +8299,7 @@ him, gave him his sword.”</p> <p class="center">MIOCENE MAMMALS OF THE EASTERN CONTINENT.</p> <p class="p0">In the foreground <i>Elephas</i>, <i>Ganesa</i>, <i>Hydracotherium</i>, <i>Dinotherium</i>, <i>Machairodus</i>, <i>Mastodon longirostris</i>. In the middle distance, -<i>Apes</i>, two <i>Anoplotheres</i>, <i>Palćotherium</i>, <i>Xiphodon</i>, and <i>Sivatherium</i>. Sequoias and Fan Palm in the background.</p> +<i>Apes</i>, two <i>Anoplotheres</i>, <i>Palæotherium</i>, <i>Xiphodon</i>, and <i>Sivatherium</i>. Sequoias and Fan Palm in the background.</p> </div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span></p> @@ -8388,7 +8352,7 @@ in the development of its land animals. From one locality in Nebraska, Leidy described in 1852 fifteen species of large quadrupeds; and the number has since been considerably increased. Among these are -species of Rhinoceros, Palćotherium, and Machairodus; +species of Rhinoceros, Palæotherium, and Machairodus; and one animal, the Titanotherium, allied to the European Anoplothere, is said to have attained a length of eighteen feet and a height of nine, its @@ -8473,7 +8437,7 @@ of Sheppey, at the mouth of the Thames, are beds of of being hazel nuts and acorns, belong to palms allied to species now found in the Philippine Islands and Bengal, while with them are numerous cone-like fruits -belonging to the Proteaceć (banksias, silver-trees, +belonging to the Proteaceæ (banksias, silver-trees, wagenbooms, etc.), a group of trees now confined to Australia and South Africa, but which in the Northern Hemisphere had already, as stated in a previous paper, @@ -8572,7 +8536,7 @@ magnolias, and vines are apparently as well represented as in the warm temperate zone of America at the present day. This wonderful flora was not a merely local phenomenon, for similar plants are found -in Spitzbergen in lat. 78° 56'. It is to be further +in Spitzbergen in lat. 78° 56'. It is to be further observed, that while the general characters of these ancient Arctic plants imply a large amount of summer heat and light, the evergreens equally imply a mild @@ -8770,8 +8734,8 @@ diluvial detritus, and is that with which we have now to do. Such drift, then, is very widely distributed on our continents in the higher latitudes. In the Northern Hemisphere it extends from the Arctic regions -to about 50° of north latitude in Europe, and as low -as 40° in North America; and it occurs south of +to about 50° of north latitude in Europe, and as low +as 40° in North America; and it occurs south of similar parallels in the Southern Hemisphere. Farther <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> towards the equator than the latitudes indicated, we @@ -8845,7 +8809,7 @@ they diverge into two schools. One of these, than of the Glacier theorists, holds that the boulder clay is the product of land-ice; and this requires the supposition that at the time when it was deposited -the whole of our continents north of 40° or 50° was +the whole of our continents north of 40° or 50° was in the condition of Greenland at present. This is, however, a hypothesis so inconvenient, not to say improbable, that many hesitate to accept it, and @@ -9095,7 +9059,7 @@ rocks at the higher levels.</p> the icy seas of the Glacial period we do not know. Relatively to human chronology, it was no doubt a long time; but short in comparison with those older -subsidences in which the great Palćozoic limestones +subsidences in which the great Palæozoic limestones were produced. At length, however, the change <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> came. Slowly and gradually, or by intermittent lifts, @@ -9240,7 +9204,7 @@ more complicated or encompassed with greater difficulties or uncertainties. The geologist, emerging from the study of the older monuments of the earth’s history, and working with the methods of physical -science, here meets face to face the archćologist and +science, here meets face to face the archæologist and historian, who have been tracing back in the opposite direction, and with very different appliances, the stream of human history and tradition. In such @@ -9263,7 +9227,7 @@ boulder deposits. (2) The later Post-pliocene may be called the <i>Post-glacial</i> era. It is that of re-elevation of the continents and restoration of a mild temperature. It connects itself with the pre-historic period -of the archćologist, inasmuch as remains of man and +of the archæologist, inasmuch as remains of man and his works are apparently included in the same deposits which hold the bones of Post-glacial animals. (3) The <i>Modern</i> era is that of secular human history.</p> @@ -9276,7 +9240,7 @@ which constitutes the earlier Post-pliocene. With the rise of the land out of the Glacial sea indications of man are believed to appear, along with remains of several mammalian species now his contemporaries. -Archćology and geology thus meet +Archæology and geology thus meet somewhere in the pre-historic period of the former, and in the Post-glacial of the latter. Wherever, therefore, human history extends farthest back, and @@ -9337,7 +9301,7 @@ Asia the ages of bronze and iron may have begun two thousand years at least earlier than in Britain, and that in some parts of America the Palaeolithic age of chipped stone implements still continues. -We must also bear in mind that when the archćologist +We must also bear in mind that when the archæologist appeals to the geologist for aid, he thereby leaves that kind of investigation in which dates are settled by years, for that in which they are @@ -9402,7 +9366,7 @@ was still limited, much of it would be high and broken, and it would have all the dampness of an insular climate. As it rose in height, plains which had, while under the sea, been loaded with the -<i>débris</i> swept from the land, would be raised up to +<i>dĂ©bris</i> swept from the land, would be raised up to experience river erosion. It was the spring-time of the Glacial era, a spring eminent for its melting snows, its rains, and its river floods.<a name="FNanchor_AL_38" id="FNanchor_AL_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_AL_38" class="fnanchor">[AL]</a> To an observer @@ -9510,7 +9474,7 @@ in Genesis, and of which the memory remains in the traditions of most ancient nations. This is at least the geological deluge which separates the Post-glacial period from the Modern, and the earlier from the -later pre-historic period of the archćologists.<a name="FNanchor_AM_39" id="FNanchor_AM_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_AM_39" class="fnanchor">[AM]</a></p> +later pre-historic period of the archæologists.<a name="FNanchor_AM_39" id="FNanchor_AM_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_AM_39" class="fnanchor">[AM]</a></p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AM_39" id="Footnote_AM_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AM_39"><span class="label">[AM]</span></a> I have long thought that the narrative in Gen. vii. and viii. can be understood only on the supposition that it is a @@ -9577,7 +9541,7 @@ especially by those geologists who refuse to receive such views as to subsidence and elevation as those above stated. The calculations of long time based on the gravels of the Somme, on the cone of -the Tiničre, on the peat bogs of France and Denmark, +the Tinière, on the peat bogs of France and Denmark, on certain cavern deposits, have all been shown to be more or less at fault; and possibly none of these reach further back than the six or seven thousand @@ -9593,10 +9557,10 @@ the popular belief; but I feel convinced that the scientific pendulum must swing backward in this direction nearer to its old position. Let us look at a few of the facts. Much use has been made of the -“cone” or delta of the Tiničre on the eastern side of +“cone” or delta of the Tinière on the eastern side of the Lake of Geneva, as an illustration of the duration of the Modern period. This little stream has deposited -at its mouth a mass of <i>débris</i> carried down +at its mouth a mass of <i>dĂ©bris</i> carried down from the hills. This being cut through by a railway, is found to contain Roman remains to a depth of four feet, bronze implements to a depth of ten feet, stone @@ -9713,7 +9677,7 @@ is certainly false; for we know that man has managed to associate himself with every existing fauna and flora, even in modern times; and that the most modern races have pitched their tents amid tree-ferns -and Proteaceć, and have hunted kangaroos +and Proteaceæ, and have hunted kangaroos and emus. Further, when we consider that the productions of the southern hemisphere are not only more antique than those of the northern, but, on the @@ -9783,9 +9747,9 @@ Modern period twenty-eight, or rather more than one-half, survive, fourteen are wholly extinct, and eleven are locally extinct.</p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AQ_43" id="Footnote_AQ_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AQ_43"><span class="label">[AQ]</span></a> Palćontologie.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AQ_43" id="Footnote_AQ_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AQ_43"><span class="label">[AQ]</span></a> Palæontologie.</p></div> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AR_44" id="Footnote_AR_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AR_44"><span class="label">[AR]</span></a> “Journal of Geological Society,” and Palćontographical +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_AR_44" id="Footnote_AR_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_AR_44"><span class="label">[AR]</span></a> “Journal of Geological Society,” and Palæontographical Society’s publications.</p></div> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p> @@ -10759,7 +10723,7 @@ must suffice. The first may be taken from one of the strong points often dwelt on by Spencer in his “Biology.”<a name="FNanchor_BB_54" id="FNanchor_BB_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_BB_54" class="fnanchor">[BB]</a></p> -<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_BB_54" id="Footnote_BB_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_BB_54"><span class="label">[BB]</span></a> “Principles of Biology,” § 118.</p></div> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_BB_54" id="Footnote_BB_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_BB_54"><span class="label">[BB]</span></a> “Principles of Biology,” § 118.</p></div> <p>"But the experiences which most clearly illustrate to us the process of general evolution are our experiences @@ -10786,7 +10750,7 @@ the seed ceases to be and the tree exists.’ What can be more widely contrasted than a newly-born child and the small gelatinous spherule constituting the human ovum? The infant is so complex in -structure that a cyclopćdia is needed to describe its +structure that a cyclopædia is needed to describe its constituent parts. The germinal vesicle is so simple <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> that it may be defined in a line.... If a single @@ -10995,11 +10959,11 @@ some reptile-like or some amphibian-like creature, and this again from some fish-like animal. In the dim obscurity of the past we can see that the early progenitor of all the vertebrata must have been an -aquatic animal, provided with branchić, with the +aquatic animal, provided with branchiæ, with the two sexes united in the same individual, and with the most important organs of the body (such as the brain and heart) imperfectly developed. This -animal seems to have been more like the larvć of our +animal seems to have been more like the larvæ of our existing marine Ascidians than any other form known.”</p> <p>The author of this passage, in condescension to our @@ -11810,7 +11774,7 @@ fairly deducible from either of them. Nay, were such imaginary anatomist a derivationist, and ignorant of the geological date of his specimens, and as careless of the differences in respect to brain as some of his -human <i>confrčres</i>, he might, referring to the loss +human <i>confrères</i>, he might, referring to the loss specialised condition of man’s teeth and foot, conclude, not that man is an improved ape, but that the ape is a specialised and improved man. He would be @@ -12970,13 +12934,13 @@ and false philosophies.</p> Acadian Group, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> Advent of Man, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.<br /> Agassiz on Synthetic Types, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> - <i>Ammonitidć</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> + <i>Ammonitidæ</i>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> Amphibians of the Coal Period, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> Andrews on the Post-pliocene, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> <i>Anthracosaurus</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> Anticosti Formation, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> Antiquity of Man, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<br /> - <i>Archćocyathus</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> + <i>Archæocyathus</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> Archebiosis, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.<br /> <i>Arenicolites</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> <i>Asterolepis</i>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> @@ -12994,7 +12958,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> Belemnites, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> Bigsby on Silurian Fauna, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">on</span> Primordial Life, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> - Billings on Archćocyathus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> + Billings on Archæocyathus, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">on</span> Feet of Trilobites, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> Binney on Stigmaria, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br /> Biology as a term, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.<br /> @@ -13179,7 +13143,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> Gaseous state of the Earth, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> Genesis, Book of, its account of Chaos, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> Creation of Land, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br /> - <span class="ind2em">of</span> Palćozoic Animals, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;<br /> + <span class="ind2em">of</span> Palæozoic Animals, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> Creation of Reptiles, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> Creation of Mammals, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> the Deluge, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;<br /> @@ -13197,7 +13161,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> Graptolites, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> Greenland, Miocene Flora of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> Greensand, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> - Gümbel on Bavarian Eozoon, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> + GĂĽmbel on Bavarian Eozoon, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> <br /> <br /> <span class="alpha"><a name="Alpha_H"></a>H</span> @@ -13219,7 +13183,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> Hull on Geological Periods, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> Hunt, Dr. T. S., on Volcanic Action, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">on</span> Chemistry of Primeval Earth, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> - <span class="ind2em">on</span> Lingulć, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> + <span class="ind2em">on</span> Lingulæ, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> Huronian Formation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> Huxley on Coal, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">on</span> Carboniferous Reptiles, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;<br /> @@ -13263,7 +13227,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> <span class="pagenum"><a href="#Index">[Index]</a></span><br /> <br /> <i>Labyrinthodon</i>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,<br /> - Lćlaps, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> + Lælaps, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> Lamp-shells, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> Land-snails of Carboniferous, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br /> La Place’s Nebular Theory, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> @@ -13278,7 +13242,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> <span class="ind2em">Silurian</span>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">Origin</span> of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> <i>Limulus</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> - <i>Lingulć</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> + <i>Lingulæ</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> Lingula Flags, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> Logan, Sir W., on Laurentian Rocks, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">on</span> Reptilian Footprints, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> @@ -13365,9 +13329,9 @@ and false philosophies.</p> <span class="alpha"><a name="Alpha_P"></a>P</span> <span class="pagenum"><a href="#Index">[Index]</a></span><br /> <br /> - Palćolithic Age, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br /> - <i>Palćophis</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> - Palćozoic Life, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> + Palæolithic Age, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br /> + <i>Palæophis</i>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> + Palæozoic Life, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">diagram</span> of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.<br /> Paley on Design in Nature; his illustration of the watch, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.<br /> Peat of Abbeville, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> @@ -13481,7 +13445,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> <span class="pagenum"><a href="#Index">[Index]</a></span><br /> <br /> Table of Devonian Rocks, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;<br /> - <span class="ind2em">of</span> Palćozoic Ages, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;<br /> + <span class="ind2em">of</span> Palæozoic Ages, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> Mesozoic Ages, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> Neozoic Ages, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">of</span> Post-pliocene, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.<br /> @@ -13491,7 +13455,7 @@ and false philosophies.</p> <span class="ind2em">classification</span> of its Rocks, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> Thomson, Sir W., on Solidity of the Earth, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> Time, Geological Divisions of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> - Tiničre, Cone of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> + Tinière, Cone of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> Trenton Limestone, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> Trias, Divisions of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;<br /> <span class="ind2em">Footprints</span> in the, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> @@ -13576,7 +13540,7 @@ Sets.</p> <p><span class="caption3nc">HUME’S ENGLAND.</span> The History of England, from the Invasion -of Julius Cćsar to the Abdication of James II., 1688. By +of Julius Cæsar to the Abdication of James II., 1688. By <span class="smcap">David Hume</span>. New and Elegant Library Edition, from new Electrotype Plates. 6 vols. in a Box, 8vo, Cloth, with Paper Labels, Uncut Edges and Gilt Tops, $12 00. Sold only in @@ -13755,7 +13719,7 @@ With an Introduction by <span class="smcap">W. Winwood Reade</span>. Illustrated vols., 8vo, Cloth, $8 00.</p> -<p><span class="caption3nc">M’CLINTOCK & STRONG’S CYCLOPĆDIA.</span> Cyclopedia of +<p><span class="caption3nc">M’CLINTOCK & STRONG’S CYCLOPÆDIA.</span> Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Prepared by the Rev. <span class="smcap">John M’Clintock</span>, D.D., and <span class="smcap">James Strong</span>, S.T.D. 9 vols. now ready. Royal 8vo. Price per vol., Cloth, $5 00; @@ -13838,11 +13802,11 @@ Cloth, $4 00; Sheep, $5 00.</p> each.</p> <blockquote> -<p><span class="smcap">Cćsar.</span>—<span class="smcap">Virgil.</span>—<span class="smcap">Sallust.</span>—<span class="smcap">Horace.</span>—<span class="smcap">Cicero’s Orations.</span>—<span class="smcap">Cicero’s +<p><span class="smcap">Cæsar.</span>—<span class="smcap">Virgil.</span>—<span class="smcap">Sallust.</span>—<span class="smcap">Horace.</span>—<span class="smcap">Cicero’s Orations.</span>—<span class="smcap">Cicero’s Offices</span>, Etc.—<span class="smcap">Cicero On Oratory</span> And <span class="smcap">Orators</span>.—<span class="smcap">Tacitus</span> (2 vols.).—<span class="smcap">Terence.</span>—<span class="smcap">Sophocles.</span>—<span class="smcap">Juvenal.</span>—<span class="smcap">Xenophon.</span>—<span class="smcap">Homer’s Iliad.</span>—<span class="smcap">Homer’s Odyssey.</span>—<span class="smcap">Herodotus.</span>—<span class="smcap">Demosthenes</span> -(2 Vols.).—<span class="smcap">Thucydides.</span>—<span class="smcap">Ćschylus.</span>—<span class="smcap">Euripides</span> (2 +(2 Vols.).—<span class="smcap">Thucydides.</span>—<span class="smcap">Æschylus.</span>—<span class="smcap">Euripides</span> (2 vols.).—<span class="smcap">Livy</span> (2 vols.).—<span class="smcap">Plato</span> [Select Dialogues].</p> </blockquote> @@ -13861,14 +13825,14 @@ $18 00; Sheep, $22 80; Half Calf, $39 00.</p> <p><span class="caption3nc">RECLUS’S EARTH.</span> The Earth: a Descriptive History of the -Phenomena of the Life of the Globe. By <span class="smcap">Élisée Reclus</span>. +Phenomena of the Life of the Globe. By <span class="smcap">ÉlisĂ©e Reclus</span>. With 234 Maps and Illustrations, and 23 Page Maps printed in Colors. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.</p> <p><span class="caption3nc">RECLUS’S OCEAN.</span> The Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life. Being the Second Series of a Descriptive History of the Life of the -Globe. By <span class="smcap">Élisée Reclus</span>. Profusely Illustrated with 250 +Globe. By <span class="smcap">ÉlisĂ©e Reclus</span>. Profusely Illustrated with 250 Maps or Figures, and 27 Maps printed in Colors. 8vo, Cloth, $6 00.</p> @@ -13881,7 +13845,7 @@ of Tōkiō, Japan. Copiously Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $4 00; Half Calf, $6 25.</p> -<p><span class="caption3nc">BAKER’S ISMAILĎA.</span> Ismailďa: a Narrative of the Expedition +<p><span class="caption3nc">BAKER’S ISMAILĂŹA.</span> IsmailĂŻa: a Narrative of the Expedition to Central Africa for the Suppression of the Slave-trade, organized by Ismail, Khedive of Egypt. By Sir <span class="smcap">Samuel White Baker</span>, <span class="smcap">Pasha</span>, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. With Maps, Portraits, and Illustrations. @@ -14231,382 +14195,6 @@ sea-bottom(s)) were retained due to their grammatic usage.</p> </div> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of the Earth and Man, by J. W. 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