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diff --git a/42747-8.txt b/42747-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 0f32c6e..0000000 --- a/42747-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2356 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Shinto Cult, by Milton Spenser Terry - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: The Shinto Cult - A Christian Study of the Ancient Religion of Japan - - -Author: Milton Spenser Terry - - - -Release Date: May 20, 2013 [eBook #42747] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SHINTO CULT*** - - -E-text prepared by David Garcia, Paul Clark, Bryan Ness, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries -(http://archive.org/details/americana) - - - -Note: Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/American Libraries. See - http://archive.org/details/shintocultchrist00terrrich - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - - - - -THE SHINTO CULT - -A Christian Study of the Ancient Religion of Japan - -by - -MILTON S. TERRY, D.D., - -Lecturer on Comparative Religion in Garrett Biblical Institute. - - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -Cincinnati: Jennings and Graham -New York: Eaton and Mains - -Copyright, 1910, -By Jennings and Graham. - - - - -NOTE. - - -The following pages are the substance of a course of lectures on the -old Shinto cult which the author has been giving for a number of -years to his classes in Comparative Religion. They are here condensed -and adapted to the purpose of a little manual which, it is believed, -may interest many readers, and bring together within a small space -information gathered from many sources not easily accessible to -ordinary students. At the same time it is hoped that this little -volume may serve to suggest some valuable hints to the Christian -missionary who is to come face to face with the Japanese people in -their "beautiful land of the reed plains and the fresh ears of rice." -It is possible that some portions, if not every jot and tittle, of -this ancient cult may, like the law and the prophets of Israel, find a -glorious fulfillment in the pure gospel of Jesus Christ. The principal -authorities relied on in the preparation of this essay are named in the -Select Bibliography given at the end. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - 1. THE COUNTRY 7 - - 2. IS SHINTO A RELIGION? 10 - - 3. ORIGIN AND RELATIVE AGE OF THE PEOPLE 12 - - 4. MEANING OF THE TERM SHINTO 14 - - 5. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 15 - - 6. JAPANESE COSMOGONY AND MYTHOLOGY 19 - - 7. THE JAPANESE A SELF-CENTERED PEOPLE 29 - - 8. ESSENCE OF THE SHINTO CULT 30 - - 9. THE GREAT SANCTUARIES 31 - - 10. FIVE NOTEWORTHY OBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE WORSHIP 34 - - 11. THE ANCESTOR WORSHIP 37 - - 12. ELEMENTS OF ANIMISM 41 - - 13. THE DOMESTIC CULT 43 - - 14. THE COMMUNAL CULT 45 - - 15. THE NATIONAL CULT 49 - - 16. THE HARVEST SERVICE 52 - - 17. THE GREAT PURIFICATION 54 - - 18. OTHER RITUAL SERVICES 60 - - 19. INFLUENCE OF CHINA ON JAPANESE THOUGHT 63 - - 20. INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM 64 - - 21. REVIVAL OF PURE SHINTO 68 - - 22. ESOTERIC SHINTO 70 - - 23. MINGLING OF SHINTO, CONFUCIANISM, AND BUDDHISM 71 - - 24. ROMAN CATHOLICISM IN JAPAN 73 - - 25. ALLEGED PRESENT RELIGIOUS INDIFFERENCE 74 - - 26. CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS 78 - - - - -THE SHINTO CULT. - - -=1. The Country.= In taking up the study of a religion which has never -extended beyond the limits of an easily defined territory, we may -appropriately first of all take a hasty glance at the geographical -outlines of the system we call Shinto, the primitive faith of the -people of Japan. To appreciate the geographical position of Japan, -one needs to have before him a map of the world. He may then see at a -glance how remarkably the three thousand islands of that Empire stretch -for some twenty-five hundred miles along the coast of Asia, from -Kamchatka on the north to the island of Formosa on the south, which -island is crossed by the tropic of Cancer. It may be called the longest -and the narrowest country in the world. It looks like an immense -sea-serpent, with its northern tail twisting toward the Aleutian -Islands, which our Government acquired from Russia in 1867, and its -southern head pointing toward the Philippine Islands, which we acquired -from Spain in recent years. It seems to guard the whole eastern coast -of Asia, and along with China, on the mainland, is suspected and feared -by some European diplomats as embodying some sort of a "Yellow Peril." -It may be that its noteworthy contiguity to our Alaskan possessions at -one extremity and our Philippine wards at the other bodes some sort of -peril to any Western nation that may hereafter presume to enlarge its -dominions in the Orient by force of arms. - -Attention has often been called to the fact that the British Isles, in -the Atlantic Ocean, just off the northwestern coast of Europe, occupy a -corresponding geographical relation to the Western world. The islands -themselves are comparatively small, but their measuring line has gone -out into all the earth, and their civilization is dominating the world. -Asia, on the east of the Eastern hemisphere, is a land of innumerable -population; Europe, on the west, is a land of new ideas and of hopeful -progress. The United States, resting her Atlantean shoulder on the -island-empire of Europe, and her Pacific shoulder on the island-empire -of the Orient, may be, in the order of God, a mighty mediator, -possessed both of a great population and of new and commanding ideas, -and destined to bring about the universal peace, the sound knowledge, -and the highest prosperity of the world. - -We are told that Japan is a country of diversified beauty. Compassed -round about with the vast ocean, yet not far from the Asiatic mainland; -supplied also with a wonderful inland sea, and with lakes and rivers -and fountains of waters; a land of mountains, and valleys, and broad -meadows, and all manner of trees and shrubs and fruits and flowers, -and charming landscapes, and all varieties of climate; it is no wonder -that the people and their poets have called this group of islands "the -sun's nest," "the country of the sun-goddess," "the region between -heaven and earth," "islands of the congealed drop," "the grand land of -the eight isles," "central land of reed-plains," "land of the ears of -fresh rice," "land of a thousand autumns," and other similar names -indicative of manifold excellence.[1] - -This island-empire of the Orient is the home of the religious cult -called "Shinto," a religion which has never traveled nor sought to -propagate itself beyond the dominions of Japan. It has never put itself -in a hostile attitude toward any other form of religion, either at home -or abroad, except when a foreign cult has entered its ancient home and -sought to meddle with affairs of State or to interfere with loyalty to -the Emperor. - -=2. Is Shinto a Religion?= At a meeting of the Society of Science, held -at Tokyo in 1890, the president of the Imperial University expressed -the opinion that Shinto should not be regarded as a religion. He -believed it to be an essential element in the existing national thought -and feeling of Japan, but destitute of the essential qualities of a -strictly religious cult. Others have expressed a similar opinion; but -we are disposed to think that this judgment arises from an incorrect -concept of religion, and a consequent defective definition of the same. -A similar denial has been made of the religious character of other -cults and systems. Taoism, Confucianism, and even Buddhism have been -said to lack the elements essential to a real religion. But if these -systems do not constitute a religion for the peoples who accept them, -they are in every case their substitute for religion. Any religion -or any form of religion may so involve its thought and its practices -with philosophical speculation, or with social customs, or with the -political management of the State, as to have the appearance of a -philosophical or a political system, rather than a form of religion. -But, however it may, in such ways, ignore the religious ideas and -practices of other systems, if there be no other religious cult among -the people, the philosophy, the ethical policy and the customs, which -make up this important element of the civilization and the national -life, are as truly tantamount to a religious cult as any form of faith -and practice which all men agree to call religion. - -=3. Origin and Relative Age of the People.= The main body of the -Japanese people are believed to have migrated in old times from the -northern central part of Asia, and to have worked their way eastward -into Korea, and thence into the islands of Japan. They expelled -or subjugated the aborigines of the country, and made themselves -masters of the great islands and the inland and surrounding seas. -But their origin and early history are involved in dense obscurity. -They doubtless brought with them from their earlier dwellings in Asia -various myths, legends, and traditions, and these grew and strengthened -amid the simple habits of life which they adopted in their new -island-world. According to a writer[2] in the _Westminster Review_ of -July, 1878, Japan is yet, in more senses than one, a young country. -Their language and their institutions "show us a people still in a very -early stage of development." W. G. Aston holds that the earliest date -of accepted Japanese chronology is A. D. 461, and he says that Japanese -history, properly so called, can not be said to exist previous to A. -D. 500. He regards Korean history more trustworthy than that of Japan -previous to that date.[3] According to Satow, "everything points to the -descent of the Japanese people in great part from a race of Turanian -origin, who crossed over from the continent by way of the islands -Tsushima and Iki, which form the natural stepping-stones from Korea to -Japan."[4] - -But the last twenty-five years have witnessed a most remarkable advance -in the use of modern inventions, and more than any other nation of -the far East have the Japanese displayed both a willingness and an -ambition to improve their condition by means of the ideas and usages of -Western civilization. The war with China in 1894, and that with Russia -in 1904-1905, displayed a wisdom, tact, and energy which were a great -surprise to the world. The self-poise, the generosity, the far-sighted -statesmanship exhibited in her concluding terms of peace with her -haughty but defeated enemy, have commanded universal admiration. These -facts make the study of this people's ancient religious cult, which is -still a powerful element in the popular life, a matter of no little -interest at the present time.[5] - -=4. Meaning of the Word Shinto.= The word Shinto means the "way of the -gods." It came into use when Buddhism was introduced into Japan, and -designates the old, ancestral worship as a way of the gods distinct -from the way of the Buddhists, or of any other rival way of religious -life. The Japanese name is _Kami no michi_. In its essential elements -it is a commingling of Animism and ancestor-worship. Not only are the -spirits of departed ancestors reckoned among the gods, but there are -innumerable deities of other kind and character. The mountains and -valleys, the rivers and the seas, the trees, the wind, the thunder, the -fire, all moving things and objects of sense are supposed to have each -a deity within. And these deities seem for the most part to have been -regarded as beneficent powers, and their worship is of a joyous kind. - -=5. Sources of Information.= The sources of our knowledge of this -ancient cult are quite numerous, but not as accessible to English -and American students as is desirable. The oldest existing monument -of Japanese literature is known as the "Ko-ji-ki," the text of which -would make a book about the size of our four Gospels. It contains -180 short sections or chapters. The word _Ko-ji-ki_ means a "Record -of Ancient Matters," and appropriately designates this oldest known -record of the mythology, history, and customs of the people of Japan. -It is the nearest approach to a sacred scripture of the Shinto cult -which we possess. It has been translated into English, and supplied -with a learned introduction and many explanatory notes by Basil H. -Chamberlain,[6] a distinguished scholar, who has made the Japanese -language, literature, and archęology a subject of extensive and minute -research. - -Another and much larger work, comprising thirty books, and containing -a record of much of the same mythology and history as the _Ko-ji-ki_, -is called the _Nihongi_, or "Chronicles of Japan."[7] It is a composite -of various elements derived from numerous different sources, and while -it reports in substance the myths and stories of the gods as they are -found in the _Ko-ji-ki_, it makes no mention of that older work and -omits some things which the older work records. It gives, however, a -number and variety of reports of the myths and traditions, informing -us how, in one ancient writing, it is so and so recorded; in another -writing, it is somewhat differently told. This feature enhances its -value for purposes of comparison among the varying traditions. - -This later production lacks the simplicity and originality of the -_Ko-ji-ki_, and bears abundant evidence of the Chinese influences under -which it was composed. It is written for the most part in Chinese, and -exhibits numerous examples of the learning and philosophical cast of -thought peculiar to certain well-known Chinese writings. As a specimen -of this rationalistic type of construing the ancient myths of creation, -we here cite the opening sentences from the first book of the _Nihongi_: - -"Of old, Heaven and Earth were not yet separated, and the In and Yo -[or _Yin_ and _Yang_, female and male principles] not yet divided. -They formed a chaotic mass, like an egg, which was of obscurely -defined limits and contained germs. The purer and clearer part was -thinly drawn out and formed Heaven, while the heavier and grosser -element settled down and became Earth. The finer element easily became -a united body, but the consolidation of the heavy and gross element -was accomplished with difficulty. Heaven was therefore formed first, -and Earth was established subsequently. Thereafter Divine Beings were -produced between them. Hence it is said that when the world began to -be created, the soil, of which lands were composed, floated about in -a manner which might be compared to the floating of a fish sporting -on the surface of the water. At this time a certain thing was produced -between Heaven and Earth. It was in form like a reed-shoot. Now -this became transformed into a god, and was called _Kuni-toko-tachi -no Mikoto_ ["Land-eternal-stand-of-august thing"]. Next there was -_Kuni-no-sa-tsuchi_ ["land-of-right-soil"], and next, _Toyo-kumu-nu_ -["rich-form-plain"]--in all, three deities. These were pure males, -spontaneously developed by the operation of the principle of Heaven" -[the Yo, male principle]. - -The _Ko-ji-ki_ was written about 712 A. D., and the _Nihongi_ in -720 A. D., and they are both remarkable for the naļve and peculiar -manner in which they unite together in their narratives matters of -traditional mythology and of history without apparent consciousness of -any noteworthy differences between the two. Besides these remarkable -books there is a Code of ceremonial laws, in fifty volumes, known as -the _Yengishiki_, which was published A. D. 927. It includes a large -number of ancient Japanese rituals, called _Norito_, of which several -have been translated into English and provided with a commentary and -learned notes by Ernest Satow and Karl Florenz.[8] There is also -an interesting collection of ancient poems, called the _Manyoshu_, -"Collection of Myriad Leaves," which furnishes numerous pictures of -the life of the early Japanese, both before and after the time of the -compilation of the _Ko-ji-ki_ and the _Nihongi_. There are also the -voluminous writings of the three famous Shinto scholars, Mabuchi, -Motowori, and Hirata, who flourished between the middle of the -eighteenth and the middle of the nineteenth century, and effected an -intellectual revolution and a remarkable revival of the Shinto cult.[9] - -=6. Japanese Cosmogony and Mythology.= Our study of Shinto may well -begin by a brief notice of Japanese cosmogony as presented at the very -beginning of the _Ko-ji-ki_: - -"I, Yasumaro, say: Now when chaos had begun to condense, but force -and form were not yet manifest, and there was naught named, naught -done, who could know its shape? Nevertheless Heaven and Earth first -parted, and the Three Deities performed the commencement of creation; -the Passive and Active Essences then developed, and the Two Spirits -became the ancestors of all things. Therefore did he [Izanagi] enter -obscurity and emerge into light, and the Sun and Moon were revealed by -the washing of his eyes; he floated on and plunged into the sea-water, -and heavenly and earthly Deities appeared through the ablutions of his -person. So in the dimness of the great beginning, we, by relying on the -original teaching, learn the time of the conception of the earth and -of the birth of islands; in the remoteness of the original beginning, -we by trusting the former sages, perceive the era of the genesis of -Deities and of the establishment of men." - -This brief fragment from the compiler's "Preface" furnishes a condensed -outline of what we read in the first part of the _Ko-ji-ki_, and -it indicates the peculiar cosmogony of the Japanese mythology. The -early sections of the book record the names of the first deities, -who are said to have been "born alone, and hid their persons;" -which seems to mean that they came into being in some exceptional -way, and then disappeared. Then followed what are termed "the -Seven Divine Generations," among which we find such names as "the -Earthly-eternally-standing-Deity," "the Mud-Earth-Lord, and his younger -sister, the Mud-Earth-Lady;" "the Germ-Integrating Deity, and his -younger sister, the Life-Integrating Deity." These seven generations of -gods end with the birth of a brother and sister, named _Izanagi_ and -_Izanami_ (_i. e._, "the male-who-invites and the female-who-invites"). -These two are commanded by the higher and more ancient heavenly deities -to "make, consolidate, and give birth to this drifting land;" whereupon -they two, "standing upon the floating Bridge of Heaven, pushed down a -jewelled spear, and stirred the ocean brine till it became thick and -sticky;[10] and then, drawing the spear upward, the brine that dropped -down from the end of the spear became an island." Upon this island -Izanagi and Izanami descended from the Heaven above, and in course of -time generated all the islands of the Japanese world. When they had -finished giving birth to countries they proceeded to give birth to -deities, and so by them were begotten fourteen islands and thirty-five -deities. There is little room to doubt that Izanagi and Izanami are a -mythological representation of the generative powers of nature; but -their portraiture in the Japanese literature has probably received some -coloring from Chinese influence and thought. - -But in giving birth to the deity of fire, Izanami died, and her -brother buried her, and drawing his mighty sword he proceeded -to cut off the head of his son, the deity of fire. Whereupon, -wonderful to tell, sixteen deities were born from the blood and -the different parts of the body of the fire-god. Among the names -of these we find such titles as "Rock-splitter," "Root-splitter," -"Brave-snapping," and "Possessor-of-Mountains;" and the name of -the sword which cleft the head of the fire-god was "Heavenly," or -"Majestic-Point-Blade-Extended." - -After the birth of these deities, Izanagi longed to see again his -sister and spouse, and went to seek her in the underworld. He called -to her and asked her to come back to him. She answered that such was -her desire, but she must consult the deities of Hades, and she bade him -wait, saying, "Look not at me." One can not help comparing here the -Greek myth of Orpheus and Eurydice. Orpheus descended into the lower -world, charmed Pluto with his lyre, and obtained permission for his -wife Eurydice to return, following behind him, but only on condition -that Orpheus should not look back at her till they had both reached the -upper world. He grew impatient, looked back to see if she were indeed -following, and she at once vanished from his sight. According to the -Japanese myth, however, Izanagi grew tired of waiting outside, made a -light and entered, and was shocked to behold maggots swarming over her -body, and eight thunder-deities dwelling in her rotting form where they -had been born. He turned and fled back, but she pursued him with the -forces of the underworld. He succeeded in driving them all back, and -with a mighty rock blocked up the pass of Hades. Then he went to purify -himself by bathing in a stream, and from his staff, and girdle, and -bracelet, and various garments, and from the filth which he contracted -in the underworld were born a multitude of deities, bearing composite -names of strange significance. There was also born, as he washed his -left eye, a deity who was called "the Heaven-Shining-Great-August One;" -and from his right eye was born the "Moon-Night-Possessor," and as he -washed his nose there was born _Susa-no-Wo_, "Impetuous-Male-Deity." - -But we need not pursue further this seemingly "endless genealogy" of -the deities. We are told in section xxx that in a divine assembly of -eight hundred myriad deities it was decided to send one of their number -to govern "the Central Land of Reed-Plains," and subdue the "savage -Earthly Deities." Various deities were sent, and at length a grandchild -of the Sun-Goddess[11] became the Ruler of the Empire, and bears the -composite name of _Kamu-yamato-ihare-biko_, but is commonly called -by his "canonical name," _Jimmu_, a title given him long after his -decease. From such heavenly origin sprang all the Emperors of Japan, -and the present Mikado, like all his predecessors, is thus conceived -as an offspring of Heaven, a direct descendant of the ancient heavenly -deities. The significance of this fact will appear conspicuously when -we come to notice more particularly the essential elements in the -Shinto cult. - -On this remarkable cosmogony and mythology we do well at this point to -offer the following observations: - -(1) These accounts of the origin of the Japanese Archipelago and its -rulers are regarded as _genuine traditions handed down from former -ages_. One part of the tradition is that the Emperor, who took pains to -have the old records carefully looked after, employed a person living -in his household, who was gifted with marvelous memory; "he could -repeat without mistake the contents of any document he had ever seen, -and never forgot anything that he had heard;" and from the lips of this -man of prodigious memory the scribe Yasumaro wrote down the contents -of the _Ko-ji-ki_.[12] - -(2) Notice, in the next place, that the island world of _Japan is all -the world_ which these records know anything about. The universe of -this cosmogony consists of "the islands of the Central-Land of the -Reed-Plains," with their inland and surrounding seas, and "the Plain of -High Heaven," which, however, was not conceived as very far away above -them. - -(3) The entire description of the beginnings of heaven, and earth, -and gods, and men accords with the idea of a continuous process of -evolution. The first three heavenly deities "were born alone, and hid -their persons," or disappeared. All the other deities are spoken of as -begotten, or born, and the deities give birth to the different islands -of the earth.[13] - -(4) The world-idea of this old mythology is in notable keeping with -the ancestor worship, and the Animism which enter so largely into the -Shinto faith. In spite of all the wars and discords of the deities, -this a primordial monism, so to speak, at the basis of Japanese -cosmogony, and of all its diverse generations of the heavens and the -earth; and yet there is no one Supreme Ruler in all the Pantheon of -eight hundred myriad gods. When a great council of the gods assembles -in the bed of the Tranquil Heavenly River, no one deity is chief among -them, and we are at a loss to imagine who has authority to call them -together or to preside over the assembly. Izanagi seems for a while to -be the chief creator and ruler, but after a time he disappears, and the -Sun Goddess, his daughter Amaterasu, has her heavenly domain shaken -and ravaged by her younger brother, but is avenged by the heavenly -assembly of gods, who fine and punish the offender, "and expel him with -a divine expulsion." So the Sun Goddess maintains her dominion by the -help of the eight hundred myriad gods, no one of whom is invested with -supreme power. It appears from certain poems of the _Manyoshu_ that the -moon as well as the sun was extensively worshiped among the primitive -Japanese.[14] - -(5) It accords with all these ideas that the devotees of the "pure -Shinto" faith trace all their history back to the age of the gods, -and recognize some deity in, or back of, all phenomena. Japan is the -country of the gods; every Japanese is a descendant or offspring of -the gods, and the Mikado is the direct descendant of the imperial line -which has continued in unbroken succession from the beginning of the -world. Japan is, therefore, superior to all other countries, and the -Japanese, being thus directly from the gods, are superior in every -respect to other people. Sprung from the gods, they need no codes of -moral law (like the Chinese), for they are naturally perfect, and do -the right things spontaneously. - -=7. The Japanese a Self-centered People.= The Japanese people, with -such traditions and such a faith, would naturally be a self-centered -people, and they conceived their island-empire as occupying the summit -of the earth. The Mikado is the Son of Heaven, entitled and empowered -to reign perpetually over the land and the sea. But as all the people -are descendants of the gods, and the islands and all that is in them -have also been begotten of the gods, it follows that the worship of -ancestors is a worship of all the gods of whom they have knowledge, and -all the lower animate and inanimate things in the world are also in -some way instinct with the deities from whom they were born, and whose -they are. - -Accordingly, the honoring of the gods is a fundamental thing in the -Shinto thought and in the Japanese civilization and government. Every -loyal subject of the Mikado's Empire is expected to be true to the -ancient faith. It is assumed that religion and worship and the proper -administration of government are all essential to each other. The -Japanese word (_Matsuri-goto_), which is used to denote the art of -government, means, literally, _worshiping_. And it is a common thought -and saying: "Everything in the world depends on the spirit of the -gods of heaven and earth, and therefore the worship of the gods is a -matter of primary importance. The gods who do harm are to be appeased, -so that they may not punish those who have offended them; and all the -gods are to be worshiped, so that they may be induced to increase their -favors."[15] One of the rules which all the ministers of the Mikado -emphasized in the old times, before the introduction of Buddhism into -Japan, was, "First serve the gods, and afterwards deliberate on matters -of government."[16] - -=8. Essence of the Shinto Cult.= From what we have now stated it is to -be seen that reverence and worship of the ancestors of the Japanese, -and the recognition of the Mikado's divinity as the incarnation and -earthly representation of the celestial gods, constitute the essence -of the Shinto cult. All the Japanese are offsprings of the gods, but -the imperial "Sovran Grandchild" of _Amaterasu_, the Sun-Goddess,[17] -is pre-eminently divine and worshipful. The first Mikado, however, was -not the real son of _Amaterasu_, according to the mythic tradition of -the prehistoric time, but her nephew, the son of _Oshi-ho-mi-mi_, whom -she adopted as her son. But the title of "Sovran Grandchild," having -been applied first to the founder of the Mikado's dynasty, came in time -to be the common title of all the Mikado's successors. The imperial -worship, accordingly, represents the most conspicuous national form of -the Shinto cult. - -=9. The Great Sanctuaries.= The Mikado's palace would, accordingly, be -the most holy shrine of the national worship, the private and exclusive -sanctuary of the imperial ancestors. But the most notable shrine of the -Sun-Goddess is not now the residence of the Mikado. On account of some -great calamity that occurred far back in prehistoric times, her worship -was removed to a separate temple, and was finally established in the -province of Isč, in which the temples, called the "Two great divine -Palaces," are the resort of thousands of pilgrims every year, and, -though not the most ancient, are regarded as first among all the Shinto -temples in the land.[18] These two divine palaces, or temples, called -_Geku_ and _Naiku_, are about three miles apart, and stand in the midst -of groves of aged cryptomeria trees.[19] They are approached through -archways (called _torii_, or _toriwi_) of simple construction. The -_Geku_ temple is an irregular oblong structure, 247 feet wide at the -front, but only 235 feet wide in the rear; while the side to the right -of the entrance is 339 feet, and that on the left is 335. Within this -large enclosure are others of similar structure, all made of the wood -of cryptomeria trees, and left unpainted and without ornamentation. The -various buildings of the temples are thus fashioned after the manner -of the simple huts, or dwellings of the earliest inhabitants of these -islands. Some of the buildings are covered with thatched roofs and -have their walls and doors made of rough matting. Mr. Satow, who has -visited and described the temples of Isč, says that "All the buildings -which form part of the two temples are constructed in a style that -is disappointing in its simplicity and perishable nature.... None -but those which are roofed with thatch are entitled to be considered -as being in strict conformity with the principles of genuine Shinto -temple architecture."[20] The perishable nature of these temples is -such that it becomes necessary, and is, in fact, the standing rule, to -rebuild them every twenty years. Two sites for each temple are used -alternatively; they lie close to each other, so that the new building -is constructed and ready for use before the old one is removed. - -The temple which, though less venerated than those at Isč, is the -shrine-center of the more ancient Shinto cult, is the one at Kitzuki, -in the ancient province of Idzumo. These famous shrines of Isč and -Kitzuki represent the two supreme cults of Shinto; namely, that of -the Sun-Goddess, _Amaterasu_, and that of _Oho-kuni-nushi_, offspring -of the brother of the Sun-Goddess, who became the ruler of the unseen -world of the spirits of the dead. But there are many other great -temples maintained in whole or in part from the imperial revenues. -Some are of greater sanctity and renown than others, but those of Isč -and Kitzuki are the most celebrated, and every Shinto worshiper is -expected, at least once in his lifetime, to make a pilgrimage himself, -or send a deputy to one of these most famous shrines. - -=10. Five Noteworthy Objects Connected with the Worship.= One -noteworthy fact is the absence of images from the pure Shinto temples; -that is, images exposed as objects of worship. But there is a number of -objects connected with these sacred places which should receive brief -notice: - -(1) There is, first, the wooden archway (called _torii_, or _toriwi_) -through which one passes in approaching the temples. It consists of -two upright posts set in the ground on the tops of which is laid a -long straight beam, the two ends of which project a little beyond the -uprights. Under this top beam is another horizontal beam connecting the -two side posts after the manner of a girder. According to Satow, "The -_toriwi_ was originally a perch for the fowls offered up to the gods, -not as food, but to give warning at daybreak. It was erected on any -side of the temple indifferently. In later times, not improbably after -the introduction of Buddhism, its original meaning was forgotten, and -it was placed in front only and supposed to be a gateway."[21] - -(2) Opposite the various entrances to the temples is placed a wooden -screen, or fence, called _Banpei_, which serves as in other dwellings -to guard and hide the privacy of the interior. - -(3) Another object of special interest is the _Go-hei_, a slender wand, -originally a branch of the sacred tree called _sakaki_. From the Go-hei -hang two long slips of white paper notched on the opposite sides. These -wands of unpainted wood are supposed to represent offerings of white -cloth and to have the power of attracting the gods to the places where -they are kept. - -(4) The offerings presented consist of cups of water and small vessels -filled with rice, vegetables, fruits, salt, fish, birds, and other -simplest products of the land and of the sea. It is noteworthy that we -find no bloody sacrificial rites in Shinto worship, in which one life, -animal or human, was made a vicarious substitute for a guilty soul. - -(5) The sacred _mirror_, which figures in the mythology of the -Sun-Goddess, and is said to have been once used to entice her from a -cave into which she had hid herself in a spell of anger, is carefully -guarded in one of these temples, and also many copies of the mirror. -"Each mirror is contained in a box which is furnished with eight -handles, four on the box itself and four on the lid. The box rests on a -low stand and is covered with a piece of cloth said to be white silk. -The mirror itself is wrapped in a brocade bag, which is never opened or -renewed, but when it begins to fall to pieces from age, another bag is -put on, so that the actual covering consists of numerous layers. Over -the whole is placed a sort of cage of unpainted wood with ornaments -said to be of pure gold, and over this again is thrown a sort of -curtain of coarse silk, descending to the floor on all sides."[22] -One can not read this description of the sacred mirror thus secretly -guarded in a costly box without being reminded of the sacred ark of the -Levitical sanctuary, and its enclosed "tables of testimony." - -=11. The Ancestor Worship.= We have already observed that ancestor -worship is the basis of the Shinto cult. This kind of worship is also -conspicuous among the Chinese, and is held by many writers to have been -the original cult of all civilized races and peoples. It began, they -tell us, with a belief in ghosts, and at the first there was no clear -distinction between ghosts and gods. The departed spirit was thought -of as abiding near the place where the dead body was deposited, and -the earliest shrines would therefore be the graves or tombs of the -dead. Later thought would beget the idea that the invisible spirits -were present to witness the acts, and share the joys and sorrows of the -living. And this fundamental idea would, of course, develop into many -diverse conceptions and practices among the different tribes. - -Without here discussing this theory of aboriginal religious thought -and practice, as applicable to all peoples, we may note that it -accords with the facts of Japanese history and civilization so far as -we can now trace them back into the mists of prehistoric time.[23] -We have seen that Japanese history and mythology run together and -blend in remarkable artlessness as they stand recorded in the oldest -literature (_e. g._, the _Ko-ji-ki_ and the _Nihongi_). Unthinkable -monstrosities of the origin of gods and lands and men are told with -the same simplicity as the unquestionable facts of historic times. But -taking the one leading thought which runs through all these records and -appears to be fundamental in the Japanese civilization--namely, that -all their islands and emperors and chiefs and people are offspring of -the gods, the very first of whom were somehow self-evolved from the -primordial elements of the universe--we look upon the Shinto worship as -it exists in its purest form to-day, and note the most apparent facts. - -Mr. Lafcadio Hearn, in his "attempt at an interpretation" of Japan, -has, more clearly than any other writer I have consulted, described -the Shinto ancestor-worship under its three forms of _Domestic_, -_Communal_, and _State_ cults. In every case it is a worship of the -dead, but the individual, whether he be the most obscure servant, the -influential citizen, the commanding chieftain, or even the Mikado, is -but a part and parcel of the body politic. There is a most remarkable -unity of popular and national life. Government and religion are -virtually identical, and there is no distinction between religion and -morality. Obedience and conformity to the rules of family life, and to -the customs of society and the requirements of the State--these are -the simple sum-total of Shinto law and gospel. The individual must -always stand ready to be sacrificed for the good of the community or -of the State. Everything is to be regarded as public, and must serve -the public weal. There is no such thing as privacy, and oddities have -no respectable standing. Tradition and custom seem to constitute the -essence of religion as well as of family, communal, and more public -life. There is no code of moral law; there is nothing in the worship -that is fairly comparable to what we understand by dogma, creed, or -Church. Strictly speaking, this system has no heaven or hell, no deep -sense of sin, and no concept of mediatorial redemption from sin and -evil. The dead--all the dead of all the ages--are conceived as somehow -living in the unseen vacancy around, above, below; they are present at -the worship; they haunt the tombs; they are interested in the life and -works of their descendants; they visit their former homes and attend -the family worship there; their happiness, in fact, depends upon the -honor and worship which their living descendants pay them; and also the -happiness and prosperity of the living is believed to depend upon their -sense of filial duty and proper reverence toward the dead. Furthermore, -all the dead are supposed to become gods and attain to supernatural -power. But there is no one Supreme Deity; no central throne of God; -no paradise of heavenly blessedness. So far as any ideas of this kind -obtain among the people, they may be regarded as later conceptions -introduced by missionaries or adherents of other religious systems. -But the cult implies beyond question a belief in some kind of future -life. The _Yomi_, or Hades, of Shinto mythology, into which Izanagi -went to seek his lost sister, was conceived as "a hideous and polluted -land," and even the realm of the unseen heavenly deities was never -longed for by the devotees of Shinto. Dooman observes that "to the -Japanese mind and imagination Japan, as a place of residence, was far -superior to heaven, and its inhabitants a far more desirable society -than those living in the transcendent regions. We see that every god -who is sent from heaven to Japan on some important business by the -divine assembly marries, and is utterly unwilling to go back once more -to the place from which he descended."[24] - -=12. Elements of Animism.= The ancestor-worship of Shinto can not be -disassociated altogether from the elements of Animism which appear in -the names and titles of certain deities, and also in the fact that -there are "evil gods" and demons who are capable of working mischief -and calamity in the family, the community, and the State. How these -evil deities originated is matter of myth, legend, and speculation. Bad -men would naturally be supposed to carry their evil character with them -into the unseen world of the dead, and to have the same power to work -harm among the living as the good spirits have to bestow benefits. But -human spirits would hardly be supposed to become deities of the wind, -and the thunder, and the waves, and the mountains; of the trees, and -the fire, and the sun, and the moon, and the autumn, and the food of -men. Here the old mythology of the _Ko-ji-ki_ comes in to tell us of -a prehistoric and cosmical origin of evils. When Izanagi went to find -his sister Izanami in the hideous and polluted underworld, and found -her body swarming with maggots and eight thunder deities dwelling in -the different parts of her decaying form, he fled back in astonishment -and awe, and she in a rage of shame pursued him with all the horrid -forces of that nether sphere. He escaped, but not without contracting -much pollution on his august person, and when he sought to wash and -cleanse himself in the waters of a certain river, there were born from -the filth of his person two deities, named "the wondrous deity of -eighty evils," and "the wondrous deity of great evils." These evil gods -afterwards multiplied, and may be supposed to be the authors of all the -demons, goblins, and mischievous spirits of evil that disturb the world -and its inhabitants. But there are also good spirits innumerable that -animate all moving things. The winds and the waters, the songs of birds -and the hum of the bees, the growing plants and trees, are all instinct -with a sort of conscious life, and the spirits that live and move in -them are to be recognized and reverenced by prayers and offerings. - -The spirits of dead ancestors and the powerful spirits of the winds and -the storms and the growths of nature may or may not have been supposed -to have concert of action understood between them. The Japanese mind -seems never to have elaborated any formal philosophy of this life or -any specific theories of the life to come. - -=13. The Domestic Cult.= The simplest and most original form of the -Shinto worship is that of the family. In the inner chamber of every -home there is a high shelf against the wall called the "Shelf of -the August Spirits." Upon it is placed a miniature temple, in which -are deposited little tablets of white wood bearing the names of the -deceased members of the household. These are often spoken of as "spirit -sticks" and "spirit substitutes." Before these household shrines simple -offerings are offered daily and a few words of prayer are spoken. The -ceremony is a very short one, but as regular as the coming of the day. -It is usually performed by the head of the family, but it frequently -devolves upon the woman, the mother or the grandmother, rather than -the father. "No religion," says Hearn, "is more sincere, no faith -more touching than this domestic worship, which regards the dead as -continuing to form a part of the household life and needing still the -affection and the respect of their children and kindred. Originating -in those dim ages when fear was stronger than love, ... the cult at -last developed into a religion of affection; and this it yet remains. -The belief that the dead need affection, that to neglect them is a -cruelty, that their happiness depends upon duty, is a belief that has -almost cast out the primitive fear of their displeasure. They are not -thought of as dead: they are believed to remain among those who loved -them. Unseen, they guard the home and watch over the welfare of its -inmates; they hover nightly in the glow of the shrine-lamp, and the -stirring of its flame is the motion of them.... From their shrine they -observe and hear what happens in the house; they share the family joys -and sorrows. They were the givers of life; they represent the past of -the race, and all its sacrifices.... Yet, how little do they require in -return! Scarcely more than to be thanked, as founders and guardians of -the home, in simple words like these: 'For aid received, by day and by -night, accept, august ones, our reverential gratitude.'"[25] - -=14. The Communal Cult.= The next phase of the Shinto worship to be -noticed is that which is represented in the temples scattered about -everywhere in the land and which are said to number over 195,000 at -the present time. In every community, village, and large city is found -the parish-temple, and in the larger towns each section or district -has its public shrine, in which the whole community honor the deified -ancestors of certain noble families of ancient time, or the spirit of -the first great patriarch of the clan. The farmers, or those who till -the fields, usually dwell in a village on the principal highway, and -go out thence to work the rural districts round about. So the villages -vary in size from fifty houses set on a single street half a mile long -to a large town of many hundred houses. In Simmons and Wigmore's "Notes -on Land Tenure and Local Institutions in Old Japan,"[26] we read that -the Japanese rural population is, as a rule, "exceedingly stable. -The villagers are for the most part engaged wholly or partially as -cultivators of land, and in the vast majority of cases many generations -of cultivators have been born and have died on the same spot. From the -almost numberless replies to inquiries, the answer usually is, 'We do -not know where our ancestors came from, or when they came to live on -this spot. Our temple register may tell, but we have never thought -about the matter.'" - -The deity honored at these village temples is called the _Ujigami_, -and recognized as the patriarchal and tutelary god of the community. -Just whether he were the clan-ancestor of the first settlers in -that particular parish, or the spirit of some mighty ruler of that -district at a former time, or the patron-god of some noble family -once resident there, is as uncertain as the knowledge of the common -villagers touching their earliest progenitors. But in every class these -_Ujigami_ were worshiped as the tutelar deity of the community in which -the temple stood. Also, in the larger towns there are Shinto temples -dedicated to certain patron-gods of other localities. - -Each one of these parish temples naturally has a most intimate relation -to the life of the community about it. Thither every child born in the -parish is taken, when a month old, and formally named and placed under -the protection of the ancestral deity. As it grows up it is regularly -taken to observe all the festivals and the processions and ceremonies, -and the temple groves and gardens become its common playground. There -is nothing somber or solemn about this religious cult to scare a -child, but rather very much to attract and interest.[27] Every village -temple has its appointed days of public worship, and neighboring -districts vie with each other in making their great festival days -occasions of popular delight. To these joyous festivals every family -contributes according to ability, and the worship is accompanied by -public amusements of various kinds, athletic sports, and the sale of -toys for children. The temple worship consisted in the presentation -of offerings of cloth, herbs, fruits, and other of the most common -products of the country, and in a ritual prayer enumerating the various -gifts and supplicating for prosperity and success in all communal -affairs, for protection against sickness, plague, and famine, and -for the triumph of their chieftains in time of war. In this way the -_Ujigami_ was recognized as the tutelar deity of the community and the -district, the abiding friend and helper of his offspring. The communal -cult thus powerfully confirmed the family cult, and enforced the lesson -that no man could live unto himself alone. - -=15. The National Cult.= But it is in the State or National observances -of the great temples that the Shinto worship is seen in its most -elaborated form. The substance and manner of this worship may be -learned from the ancient Japanese rituals, which make mention of the -chief deities, enumerate the offerings that are presented at the sacred -shrines, and furnish us the very language employed "in the presence of -the sovran gods." How early these rituals of worship were committed -to writing is an open question, but it is altogether probable that in -substance they had been transmitted orally through many generations -before they were put in written form. From these rituals, and the -practices of the worship as they may be observed at the present time, -we are able to learn the chief features of the service.[28] - -In connection with this national worship we may here note (1) that -the great festivals and occasions of worship were observed in all the -principal temples at the same time; (2) the _Yengishiki_ mentions -3,132 shrines distinguished as great and small; there were 492 great -shrines, and 2,640 small ones. But besides these there were many -thousands of smaller, undistinguished temples scattered all over the -lands. (3) These various shrines were dedicated to a great number of -deities, and there were many gods who received worship in a number -of temples at one and the same time. (4) The offerings were made in -the name of "the Sovran Grandchild" of the sun-goddess, the divine -title of every Mikado, and Satow remarks that "it is difficult to -resist the suggestion that the sun was the earliest among the powers -of nature to be deified, and that the long series of gods who precede -her in the cosmogony of the _Ko-ji-ki_ and _Nihongi_, most of whom are -shown by their names to have been mere abstractions, were invented -to give her a genealogy, into which were inserted two or perhaps more -of her own attributes, personified as separate deities."[29] (5) The -priesthood seems to have been for the most part hereditary, and many -priests claimed descent from the chief deity to whom the temple was -dedicated. The reader of the ritual was a member of the priestly tribe -which traced its origin to _Oho-nakato-mi_, chief of the whole Nakatomi -family. Another priestly family is the Imbibi tribe.[30] (6) Virgin -priestesses also figure in the celebration of the great ceremonies -of State. Princesses of the Mikado's family have been consecrated to -officiate in the temples of Isč and in other great temples also. While -some of the priestesses are virgin princesses, some of them also are -young, not yet having reached the nubile age, and when they reach that -age they cease to be priestesses. With others the office is hereditary, -as it is with men, and the women of this class retain and exercise -their priestly office after marriage. - -=16. The Harvest Service.= As an example of public worship of -exceptional interest, we take the ritual ceremony for Harvest, which -is celebrated once a year--the fourth day of the second month. The -chief service is at the capital, but the festival is observed in all -the provinces under the direction of the local rulers. Preparations go -on for a fortnight beforehand, and the service begins twenty minutes -before seven in the morning. At the capital, in the large court used -for the worship of the Shinto gods, the ministers of State assemble, -along with the priests and priestesses of many temples which are -supported from the Mikado's treasury. When all things are in readiness, -the ministers, priests, and priestesses enter in succession and occupy -the places assigned them. The various offerings are duly presented and -the ritual is read. At the conclusion of each section of the ritual as -recited by the reader, all the priests respond, "O!" (Yes, or Amen.) - -The following is a portion of the ritual used on one of these -occasions: "Hear, all of you, assembled priests of higher and lower -order. I declare in the presence of the sovran gods[31] whose -praises are fulfilled as heavenly temples and country temples.[32] I -fulfill your praises by setting up the great offerings of the sovran -grandchild's augustiness, made with intention of deigning to begin the -harvest in the second month of this year, as the morning sun rises in -glory. I declare in the presence of the sovran gods of the harvest: If -the sovran gods will bestow in many-bundled ears and in luxuriant ears -the late-ripening harvest which they will bestow, the late-ripening -harvest which will be produced by the dripping of foam from the arms -and by drawing the mud together between the opposite thighs, then I -will fulfill their praises by setting up the first fruits in a thousand -ears, and many hundred ears, raising high the beer-jars, filling them, -and ranging them in rows." The ritual goes on to specify, among the -offerings, sweet and bitter herbs, "things which dwell in the blue -sea-plain;" clothes bright, and glittering, and soft, and coarse; a -white horse, a white boar, and a white cock. The names also of many -deities are declared: the "divine Producer," the "great Goddess of -Food," "wonderful-rock-Gate," "the from-heaven-shining-great Deity who -sits in Isč," "sovran gods who sit in the Farms," "sovran gods who sit -in the mouths of the mountains," and those "who dwell in the partings -of the waters." - -As soon as the reader had finished the words of the ritual, he retired, -and the priests distributed the various offerings and presented them to -the gods for whom they were set apart. - -=17. The Great Purification.= But the ritual of the Great or General -Purification is said to be "one of the most important and most solemn -ceremonies of the Shinto religion." Professor Karl Florenz, who has -given us a translation of this ritual,[33] informs us that it is by -means of this ceremony that "the population of the whole country, from -the princes and ministers down to the common people, is purified and -freed from sins, pollutions, and calamities." It is celebrated twice -a year, on the thirtieth day of the sixth and twelfth months. "The -chief ceremony was performed in the capital, near the south gate of the -imperial palace, and might be styled the purification of the court, -because it was to purify all the higher and lower officials of the -imperial court. In a similar way the ceremony was celebrated also at -all the more important public shrines of the whole country." Besides -the regular semiannual celebration of the "Great Purification" (called -_Oho-harahe_), it is also performed on such special occasions as at the -accession of a new emperor to the throne, or when an imperial princess -was chosen as a virgin priestess and sent to the temple of Isč. - -Without detailing the movements, positions, and practices of the -assembled priests, officials, and common people at the service of the -General Purification, we simply cite a few extracts from the ritual -which may serve to show us the underlying concept of purification. -While the ritual is only a part of the entire ceremony of the -occasion, we are told that it is not infrequently recited without -performing the ceremony. Moreover, while in ancient times the reader -was always a member of the priestly Nakatomi tribe, at the present time -the ritual is read by the officiating priest of each particular temple. -The following excerpts are made from Florenz's translation: - -"Hear, all of you, assembled princes of the blood, princes, high -dignitaries, and men of the hundred offices. Hear, all of you, that -in the Great Purification of the present last day of the sixth month -of the current year, [the Sovran] deigns to purify, and deigns to -cleanse the various offenses which may have been committed either -inadvertently, or deliberately, especially by the persons serving -in the imperial court: (viz.) the scarf-wearing attendants, the -sash-wearing attendants (of the kitchen), the attendants who carry -quivers on the back, the attendants who gird on swords, the eighty -attendants of the attendants, and, moreover, by the people serving in -all offices." - -The ritual goes on to declare how the Sovran's dear progenitors, in a -divine assembly, ordained that the "Sovran Grandchild's Augustiness -should tranquilly rule the luxuriant reed-plain region of fresh -young spikes as a peaceful country;" how they expelled with a divine -expulsion the savage deities, and "silenced the rocks and trunks of -trees;" how they let him go down from his heavenly place, "and dividing -a road through the eightfold heavenly clouds," they sent him down and -gave the land into his peaceful keeping. The ritual also makes mention -of various kinds of offenses which need to be cleansed and purged away, -and distinguishes them as "heavenly offenses" and "earthly offenses." -Among the former are "breaking down the divisions of the rice fields, -filling up the irrigating channels, and opening the floodgate of -sluices," and the evacuation of one's bowels in improper places. Among -"earthly offenses" are the cutting the skin of the living or the dead -body so as to become defiled by blood, being affected with corns, -bunions, boils, or proud-flesh; sins of adultery, the offense of using -incantations, and various kinds of personal calamity. - -"It is expected," the ritual adds, "that the heavenly gods will be -favorably disposed by reason of these offerings, ceremonies, and ritual -of the Great Purification, and will deign to purify and cleanse, and -make all the specified offenses disappear, even as the clouds of heaven -and the dense morning and evening mists disappear before the blowing -winds." It is expected that "the goddess who resides in the current of -the rapid stream that comes boiling down the ravines, from the tops -of the mountains," and the goddess who resides in the currents of the -briny ocean will carry them away, and "swallow them down with gurgling -sound," and they shall be utterly "blown away, banished, and got rid -of," so that "from this day onwards there will be no offense in the -four quarters of the region under heaven, especially with regard to -all people of all offices who respectfully serve in the court of the -Sovran." The offenses were thought of as somehow swept away by the -winds and the waves, and then swallowed into the depths of the sea, and -so cast down into the underworld, the realm of death and pollution, -whence all defilements were supposed to have originated. So they were -cast down into the depths whence they came forth. - -The concluding words of this ritual are a command for the "diviners -of the four countries to leave and go away to the great river-way, and -carry away the offenses by purification." Thus divination was honored, -as moving in the will and way of the gods; but incantation is mentioned -among the "earthly offenses." Probably these evil incantations refer to -evil-minded witchcraft and invoking calamity on others. - -This great ritual ceremony of purification, being one of the most -solemn formal expressions of the Shinto cult, calls for the following -remarks: - -(1) The central idea is purification from certain forms of evil, or -certain kinds of offenses. - -(2) The offenses are conceived as either willfully committed, or -committed inadvertently. - -(3) They are also spoken of as heavenly and earthly. This distinction -seems to us quite arbitrary and unnatural, but it probably had a -mythical origin and the offenses called heavenly are mainly such -as involve distress for an agricultural community. They are sins -against the _land_ of the gods, while the earthly offenses are mainly -matters of personal defilement. In all cases it is conspicuous that -the Shinto concept of offenses which need purging away is that of -outward physical pollution and damage. They are all offenses committed -against the interests of the community and likely to bring some kind of -calamity upon the people. - -(4) We should also remark that while, according to the ritual of the -Great Purification, it is expected that from that day forwards "no -offense which is called offense" will occur again in the four quarters -of the whole region under heaven, the same ceremony of purification is -repeated every six months--year in and year out. - -(5) These facts serve to show a moral and religious basis for the -Japanese love of cleanliness and the scrupulous care with which these -people of "the luxuriant central land of the ears of fresh rice" study -to keep their bodies, their houses, their temples, and their whole -domain free from all manner of physical impurity. - -=18. Other Ritual Services.= Other rituals for other occasions and -purposes furnish nothing of a different character or of exceptional -importance that we need here give further attention to their various -contents and suggestions. There are, in the voluminous _Yengishiki_, -rituals for the service of the gods of Kasuga, for the service of the -goddess of food, and of the gods of the wind, and for the service of -particular temples. Some of these services are occasions of grand -ceremonial display. The place, the day, the hour, and all the details -of the service are arranged beforehand. The procession of those who -take part is ordered with extreme precision and made in every way -magnificent. Various orders of officials move along in separate ranks. -The priestess, accompanied by many mantled attendants, is drawn in a -car, and on either side four men in scarlet coats carry a silk umbrella -and a huge, long-handled fan. The female attendants and servants of -the priestess, each a lady of rank, follow in seven carriages. Chests -filled with sacrificial utensils and food offerings, the messenger of -the Mikado and his attendants of rank, have their assigned places in -the procession. Upon arriving at the temple enclosure, the priestess -alights from her car or palanquin, passes into the courtyard behind -curtains so held by her attendants as to hide her from the gaze of the -crowd, enters her private room and changes her traveling dress for the -sacrificial robes. Meantime the Mikado's presents and all the other -offerings are duly placed on the tables and in the various chapels -prepared for them and the high officers of State take their seats -within the temple enclosure. All the prescribed forms are observed with -scrupulous care, and the ritual is read. In many services harpists, -flute-players, singers, and dancers perform their several tasks. At -the conclusion of the services the company clap their hands and then -separate. The priestess changes her robes again for her traveling -dress, and returns to her lodging in like stately procession as she -came to the shrine. - -The mirror, sword, bow, and spear, which are mentioned in the rituals -as presents offered to the gods at the great festivals, doubtless have -their symbolical significance, and like the three divine insignia -of sword, precious stone, and mirror--the regalia or symbols of -Japanese power and glory--have doubtless their mythic connection with -prehistoric traditions; but these belong to the study of Japanese -antiquities rather than to the religious elements of Shinto.[34] - -=19. Influence of China on Japanese Thought.= So far we have spoken -only of what may be called the original or pure Shinto cult as the -religion of the ancient Japanese. But it is important to observe that -the moral and religious ideas of other peoples and other systems have -for some two thousand years past been affecting the life and thought -of the Japanese people. One noteworthy foreign influence came in from -China, and as early as the first century of the Christian era--perhaps -somewhat earlier--Chinese scholars made their way into Japan. This was -very natural, for the proximity of China favored intercourse between -the two nations, and Confucianism was at the beginning of our era -five hundred years old. Ancestor-worship was common to the people of -both lands, and the arts and industries of the two countries might -have found affiliation in many ways we can not now determine. That -such a leavening Chinese influence was early introduced into Japan is -simply matter of fact. The Preface of Yasumaro, the compiler of the -most ancient records of the _Ko-ji-ki_, shows the effect of Chinese -philosophy in its incidental mention of "the Passive and Active -Essences" which co-operated at the beginning of the creation; and -Chamberlain, in his Introduction to his English translation of the -_Ko-ji-ki_, observes that "at the very earliest period to which the -twilight of legend stretches back, Chinese influence had already begun -to make itself felt in these islands, communicating to the inhabitants -both implements and ideas." Then it is to be further remarked that the -_Nihongi_, completed in 720 A. D., although essentially a parallel -chronicle of Japanese traditions, is in thought and style conspicuously -Chinese. It is made in every aspect and element of its composition to -resemble as far as possible a Chinese history. - -=20. Influence of Buddhism.= But a deeper and more widespread influence -than that of anything of Chinese origin was the introduction into Japan -of Buddhism, which was first brought in about A. D. 552, but did not -succeed in leavening the whole country until the middle of the ninth -century. It was quietly propagated by leaders of various Buddhist sects -which differ in minor practices, and slowly it gained ascendency, -but its first more notable triumph followed the teaching of Kukai, -founder of the Shingon sect, who so adapted Buddhist doctrines to the -traditional ideas of ancestor worship as to maintain that all the -Shinto deities were _avatars_ or incarnations of Buddha. With great -ingenuity and cunning, a new interpretation was given to ancient -myths, and new constructions were put upon old beliefs. The Shinto -gods, rites, customs, and traditions took on a Buddhist significance, -and many of the mysteries of birth and of death were explained in a -manner so simple and popular as to commend them to all who listened -to the new teaching. For Buddhism had already learned in India and -in China the clever art of appropriating old beliefs and customs and -of clothing them with a new and higher meaning. Confucianism itself -had already in part prepared the way for Buddhism in Japan, and the -successful Buddhist propagandists were wise enough to suppress or -keep out of sight all that might be offensive in their system, and -to teach only such forms of doctrine as could be made attractive to -the masses of the people. Kukai thus succeeded in converting the -Mikado to his new interpretations of the Shinto beliefs, and the new -system thus put forward received the name "Riyobu Shinto," which means -"two parts," or the "double way of the gods," or the twofold divine -teaching. So complete and general did this Riyobu Shinto become in its -spread throughout Japan that for a thousand years it dominated the -civilization of the Empire. It had its priests, its gorgeous temples -and ritual services, its philosophy, and its divers sects, and it is -said that there are at least twelve distinct Buddhist sects in Japan -to-day. According to Lafcadio Hearn, "the religion of the Buddha -brought to Japan another and a wider humanizing influence--a new gospel -of tenderness--together with a multitude of new beliefs that were -able to accommodate themselves to the old, in spite of fundamental -dissimilarity. In the highest meaning of the term, it was a civilizing -power. Besides teaching new respect for life, the duty of kindness to -animals as well as to all human beings, the consequences of all present -acts upon the conditions of a future existence, the duty of resignation -to pain as the inevitable result of forgotten error, it actually gave -to Japan the arts and the industries of China. Architecture, painting, -sculpture, engraving, printing, gardening--in short, every art and -industry that helped to make life beautiful--developed first in Japan -under Buddhist teaching."[35] To which may well be added the following -statement of Aston: "There was nothing in Shinto which could rival in -attraction the sculpture, architecture, painting, costumes, and ritual -of the foreign faith. Its organization was more complete and effective. -It presented ideals of humanity, charity, self-abnegation, and purity -far higher than any previously known to the Japanese nation."[36] - -But after a thousand years of mixture, who can now tell for certain -just what is original Shinto and what is the Buddhist supplement -or modification? The Buddhism of Japan is as far from the original -teachings of Gautama as the Roman Catholic religion of Spain is from -the simple precepts and practices of Christ and His first apostles. -The same is true of the Buddhism of China and Thibet. The Shingon -sect of Buddhists in Japan, of which Kukai was the founder, has taken -up into itself many ideas which are neither purely Buddhist nor purely -Shintoist. Superstitions alien to both cults are likely to have found -their way among the people and to have exerted influences on the -popular cult, and no man is now able to point out their origin or their -history.[37] - -=21. Revival of Pure Shinto.= We are not here concerned, however, with -Japanese Buddhism. Our inquiry is after the facts and the significance -of the essential Shinto cult. A great and remarkable revival of the -older Shinto began near the beginning of the eighteenth century and -persisted with great success for more than one hundred years. The most -distinguished scholars of Japan were the chief leaders in this reform. -We have already had occasion to mention the names of the three most -famous men among them--Mabuchi, Motowori, and Hirata. These by their -expositions of the ancient scriptures and traditions turned the tide -of popular thought against Buddhism and Chinese philosophy. It is -quite interesting to note in some of their writings the antipathy and -hostility to Chinese teachings. Motowori had a remarkable answer to -those critics who say that Shintoism knows no moral code. He declared -that all a loyal Japanese subject was concerned to do was simply -to obey the Mikado, whether his commands were right or wrong. He -maintained that morals were invented by the Chinese because they were -an immoral people; but in Japan there was no necessity for any system -of morals, as every Japanese acted aright if he only consulted his -own heart.[38] Whatever we may think or say of such self-complacency, -it accords well with Japanese religion, mythology, and history, -and it is a simple fact to be noted that in 1871 Buddhism in Japan -was disestablished and disendowed, and the old Shinto was declared -to be the national religion. Percival Lowell observes that this -reinstatement of the Mikado and the old national faith is "a curious -instance of a religious revival due to archęological, not to religious -zeal."[39] But while the old Shinto is at present the official cult of -Japan, it appears to have little life or force. Japanese Buddhism is -said to be showing signs of renewed activity, and is likely to prove -a powerful antagonist of Christianity. It is certainly a question of -vital importance to the future civilization of Japan which of these -mighty rivals shall gain ascendency over the popular mind. - -=22. Esoteric Shinto.= Shinto did not continue very long to hold its -newly proclaimed status as the State religion. Its own most devoted -adherents and leaders felt that its highest interests would be best -served without official and governmental prestige. A wise and prudent -State policy determined that its permanence and success should be -left to care for themselves and to depend upon the merits of its -teachings and its historic and popular hold upon the national, the -communal, and the family life. As a cult it is deeply rooted in the -civilization of the empire, and its pilgrims swarm along the highways -of travel and at the historic shrines. They are found journeying to -the summits of sacred mountains, and there performing esoteric rites -which induce mystic divine possession. The performance of such mystic -rites and incantations seems to be no modern innovation. It may have -its connections with Buddhist counting of rosaries, and possibly other -foreign influences have helped to cultivate its somewhat mantic forms, -but its origin is from a remote antiquity. This "esoteric Shinto" is -essentially akin to that self-induced religious fervor which exhibits -itself in many lands and in connection with various cults, and is often -seen among the Mohammedan dancing and howling dervishes. Its existence -and its practices in Japan refute the notion of those who would deny -to Shinto the character of a real religion.[40] The excrescences and -extravagancies of religious fervor must have some sort of a religion to -inspire them. - -=23. Mingling of Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism.= The noteworthy -fact that Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism have for more than -a thousand years mixed with each other in Japan demonstrates the -susceptibility of the Japanese people to foreign influence and -teaching, and their natural hospitality toward the various religious -cults. The ethical teachings of Confucius prepared the way for -Buddhism, and, in spite of antipathy and wars between the nations, -maintain a powerful hold upon the thoughtful Japanese to-day. Still -more remarkable is it that millions of the Japanese appear to accept -both Shintoism and Buddhism, and good Shintoists and good Buddhists -may be found worshiping in some temples at one and the same time.[41] -A Japanese scholar, speaking at the Chicago "Parliament of Religions" -on the "Future of Religion in Japan," declared that the three -systems named "are not only living together on friendly terms with -one another, but, in fact, they are blended together in the minds -of the people. One and the same Japanese is at once a Shintoist, -a Confucianist, and a Buddhist. Our religion may be likened to a -triangle. One angle is Shintoism, another is Confucianism, and a -third is Buddhism, all of which make up the religion of the ordinary -Japanese. Shintoism furnishes the objects, Confucianism offers the -rules of life, while Buddhism supplies the way of salvation."[42] - -=24. Roman Catholicism in Japan.= We must not omit altogether a notice -of the introduction of Roman Catholic Christianity into Japan about the -middle of the sixteenth century. It was in 1549 that the famous Jesuit, -Francis Xavier, landed at Kagoshima, and began his marvelous missionary -work through Japanese interpreters, and in two years of strenuous toil -he succeeded in winning many converts from all classes of the people. -Fifty years thereafter the Christian converts throughout the country -are said to have numbered nearly a million. But the Jesuit habit -and policy of meddling with affairs of State, their intolerance of -other cults, and at length their crusade against the ancient national -faith and their burning of Buddhist temples and slaughter of Buddhist -priests, aroused the bitter reaction and bloody persecutions, which, -after some forty years of struggle, succeeded in obliterating every -public sign of Christianity from every province of the empire. And for -over two hundred years Japan closed her doors to all foreign influences -and appeals. It was not until 1873 that the edicts against Christianity -were withdrawn. Of the Protestant missionary movements in the island -empire since that date, it is not the purpose of this essay to speak. - -=25. Present Religious Indifference.= Much is said nowadays about the -apparent religious indifference of the Japanese. Some writers seem to -think that the Japanese and the Chinese people are alike inferior and -defective in religious nature. Mr. Gulick, in his "Evolution of the -Japanese," reports Marquis Ito, Japan's most illustrious statesman, -as having said: "I regard religion itself as quite unnecessary for -a nation's life; science is far above superstition, and what is -religion--Buddhism or Christianity--but superstition, and therefore a -possible source of weakness to a nation? I do not regret the tendency -to free thought and atheism, which is almost universal in Japan, -because I do not regard it as a source of danger to the community." -And yet this same distinguished statesman is reported on the same -page (288) to have given utterance to the following much more recent -statement: "The only true civilization is that which rests on Christian -principles, and consequently, as Japan must attain her civilization -on these principles, those young men who receive Christian education -will be the main factors in the development of future Japan." Possibly -these two discrepant statements may be reconciled by supposing -that, in the first case, Ito's thought was turned especially to the -superstitions and temporary phases incident to all religious cults, -and in his later remark he spoke of Christianity as somehow synonymous -with Western civilization. But in any case it would seem that one -who deems the Japanese either irreligious, or non-religious, or -deficient in religious sense, ought to explain the manifold facts of -the Shinto cult, such as the "god shelf," the ancestral tablets, the -daily offerings, and the family worship in almost every household of -that Eastern island-empire. What mean the hundreds of thousands of -white-robed pilgrims who annually visit the numerous sacred shrines? -And is there no element of religion in the devout patriotism that is -ever ready to sacrifice life and all that men hold dear for the faith -and inheritance of their beloved "central land of Reed-Plains" given -long ago to the care of the "Sovran Grandchild" by the celestial -deities? - -It is only a one-sided concept of religion, and a too prevalent failure -to distinguish between its local temporary phases and its deeper -essentials as grounded in the spiritual nature of man, that have led -superficial observers to deny the profound religious element in the -Shinto and Buddhist worship of Japan. If Paul, waiting at Athens, and -beholding the city full of idols, could truly say, "I perceive, O -Athenians, that in all things ye are very religious," just as truly may -we say, in view of the 195,000 temples and the innumerable deities of -the Shinto cult, that the Japanese are exceedingly religious. - -Let me add the testimony of Mr. Gulick himself, who spent years in the -country: "The universality of the tokens of family religion, and the -constant and loving care bestowed upon them, are striking testimony -to the universality of religion in Japan. The pathos of life is -often revealed by the family devotion of the mother to these silent -representatives of divine beings, and departed ancestors or children. I -have no hesitation in saying that, so far as external appearances go, -the average home in Japan is far more religious than the average home -in enlightened England or America, especially when compared with such -as have no family worship. There may be a genuine religious life in -these Western homes, but it does not appear to the casual visitor. Yet -no casual visitor can enter a Japanese home, without seeing at once the -evidences of some sort of religious life."[43] - -It is to be remarked that in the history and evolution of religion, -where there has been obvious evolution, periods of long peace and -repose, marked by formalism, skepticism, and indifference to religious -obligation, are generally followed by great revivals and reforms. -Some new light breaks in; some great prophet appears; new ideas and -hopes take hold on the popular mind, and thereupon a new era opens in -civilization. The renaissance in Japan of the last fifty years may be -the prelude to an epoch-making revival of the Orient. - -=26. Concluding Observations and Suggestions.= Our study of Shinto has -led us over a somewhat unfamiliar field of thought. The mythology and -the records of the _Ko-ji-ki_ and the _Nihongi_ are far apart from all -our Western legends and ideals of the early world, and in great part -seem like monstrosities of fantastic speculation. It is affirmed by -some that the Japanese people have been halting for two millenniums -in a state of childhood, receiving nothing from Confucianism or -from Buddhism to quicken or change the national life; but with the -introduction of Western thought and enterprise they have suddenly -leaped into comparative maturity, and their new departure from a dreamy -past is likely to astonish the whole world. It is very obvious that -the introduction of modern science into her thousands of elementary -schools must sooner or later undermine all faith in the traditional -cosmogony, and, along with that, a whole world of notions bound up with -the Shinto cult must needs be overthrown. Eminent Japanese scholars -say that Western learning has sounded the knell and signed the death -warrant of the ancient religion of their island-world. - -It is for us very easy, in the light of our New Testament revelation, -to point out defects in the Shinto system. Some four or five of these -we may briefly mention as matters which a Christian missionary should -keep in view as evincing the need of preaching among these people the -deeper demands of the religion of Jesus Christ. (1) The first and -fundamental defect in Shinto as a religious system is its lack of any -clear or helpful concept of one God and Father of all. The doctrine -of God is fundamental in any cult, and where the idea is vague and -imperfect the entire system of doctrine and practice must needs possess -an element of uncertainty and weakness. (2) Another defect is its want -of a clear concept of sin as a moral disease of the heart. The Japanese -mind needs to be turned inward to a deeper sense of the real sinfulness -of sin. (3) Another serious fault in the Japanese civilization is its -low estimate of womanhood. Here as in China woman has not attained her -proper sphere. She is subjected to three forms of obedience, which -in actual life are too abject for her higher development--she must -bow to her parents, to her husband, and to her son in a manner that -involves what we should call a humiliating form of domestic slavery. -Japan needs the practice of a monogamy of the highest Christian type -in order to rectify this inferior and one-sided view of the male -and female constitution of humanity. (4) There is also in Japan an -apparently low estimate of human life. It is probably due largely to -the communal and feudal system which has for a long time ruled the -people. The individual is nothing; the community is everything. These -and other defects show our grounds for believing that the old order and -system must sometime change. But it is no strange or unheard of thing -in our world for an old order to change and give place to something -new and higher. Western civilization has seen not a few examples of -such changes; but, as touching religious evolution, what a monumental -example we have in the transition from the Old Testament Judaism to -the New Testament kingdom of heaven! The main contents and scope of -the Epistle to the Hebrews point out the fact that the old covenant, -with its sanctuary and altars and tables and sacrifices and priests, -could not make their worshipers perfect. Notwithstanding its long and -glorious history, it waxed old, and when the Epistle was written it -was nigh unto vanishing away (Heb. viii, 13). It did pass away and -give place to a more spiritual cult, the gospel of peace on earth and -universal love. May not the national cult of Japan--with its faith in -the unseen, its rituals of purification, its concepts of a heavenly -ancestry, and its intimations of deification after death--be made to -give way before a superior cult that may have the wisdom to offer a -higher and more rational presentation of the essential truths embodied -in the Shinto worship? Whatever men may think or say about the mystical -and legendary elements in the Hebrew Scriptures, no one familiar with -the literatures of the nations can hesitate for a moment to acknowledge -the immense superiority of the Old Testament law and prophets and -psalms over the contents of the _Ko-ji-ki_ and the _Nihongi_. If, then, -the covenants and the rituals of Judaism waxed old and vanished away -before the clearer light and truth of the teachings of Jesus Christ, -much more should we expect that the same superior "Light of the world" -must needs, sometime, supersede and supplant the rituals of the Shinto -cult. - -Accordingly, I shall venture to specify sundry elements of ancient -Shinto, which, to use the language of Jesus, are not to be _destroyed_, -but rather _fulfilled_, in the higher and more universal truths of the -kingdom of Christ. _Fulfilled_, I say for I look upon all the religious -longings, and prayers, and penitential psalms of the nations, and -their inquiries after the Unseen and Eternal, as so many foregleams of -a coming Light, destined to enlighten every man that cometh into the -world. - -We have seen that one of the most conspicuous aspects of the Shinto -cult is its ceremonial of the Great Purification. Physical pollution -of any kind is abhorrent to the Japanese. The touch of a dead body, -contact with a foul disease, failure to wash and keep one's person -clean, are regarded as of the nature of calamities. We know that there -was much in the practices and traditions of the Jewish elders that -closely resembled these Shinto ideas of pollution. The Pharisees and -scribes found fault with Jesus because of His indifference to their -"washings of cups, pots, and brazen vessels." But cleanliness, we all -admit, is a near neighbor of godliness. St. Paul said, "Glorify God -in your body," for he maintained that "your body is a sanctuary of -the Holy Spirit which is in you." Jesus found no fault with Jewish -ablutions, and enjoined the highest personal purity. But He pointed -out the deeper lesson that the more horrible defilement of man is -a pollution of the heart. "For from within," He said, "out of the -heart of man, evil thoughts proceed, fornications, thefts, murders, -adulteries, covetings, wickedness, deceit, lasciviousness, an evil -eye, railing, pride, foolishness:--all these evil things proceed from -within, and defile the man." This, then, is one fundamental truth -which the Shinto worshiper should learn from the teachings of our -Lord. The clean body and the pure white robes are eminently proper and -beautiful in their way; but they should symbolize the consciousness -of a pure heart, and a blameless life that keeps itself "unspotted -from the world." Shinto purification needs the supplement of a deeper -knowledge of spiritual defilement in order to a deeper knowledge of -purity. - -More exalted than any mere forms of purification, or rituals of -worship, is that notion of a living Presence concealed in all -phenomena. There has been and is to-day among all peoples a belief in -many invisible spirits that have some sort of power over the clouds, -the winds, the waters, the earth, and all its teeming growths. We call -it Animism, Shamanism, and in a certain specific form, Fetishism. -Belief in a countless multitude of spirits who can influence the -elements about us for good or for evil, is firmly rooted in all the -ancient peoples of Eastern Asia, from India to Japan. We have seen -how deep a hold it had upon the earliest Shinto cult, and the later -influences of Confucianism and Buddhism in Japan have tended rather to -strengthen than to suppress it in the popular mind. - -These animistic conceptions have played a noteworthy part in connection -with most, if not all, the religions of mankind. When combined with a -groveling fear of the spirits, and with the practice of magic rites and -incantations to propitiate them as so many evil demons, the belief has -run into the lowest forms of superstition. But is there no element of -truth in Animism? Why should we speak disparagingly of the old Japanese -worshiper hearing the voices of unseen spirits in the moaning winds, -in the sounding waterfalls, in the rolling thunder? Why should he not -adore the Sun as the heavenly Benefactor, and see in waving trees and -blooming flowers and drifting clouds the presence and activity of -beings, perhaps sometimes a Being Supernatural? One-sided, defective -puerile notions controlled, no doubt, his thinking, but the one supreme -and fundamental fact was that he felt himself in the presence of the -Supernatural. And that primeval concept is the one most essential -truth of all religion. We have only to divest it of sundry errant, -non-essential interpretations in order to come face to face with the -grandest, noblest, and most affecting theism, and monotheism as well. -For monotheism finds its most advanced exposition in the doctrine of -the universal immanence of God,--one God, the Eternal Spirit, in all, -through all, over all. How far from such a concept of universal Animism -was the old Hebrew psalmist, who sang of Jehovah "laying the beams of -His chambers in the waters, making the clouds His chariot, walking upon -the wings of the wind, sending forth springs into the valleys, causing -the grass to grow upon the mountains," and receiving tribute of praises -from the "sea-monsters and all deeps; fire and hail, snow and vapor; -stormy wind performing His word; mountains and all hills; fruitful -trees and all cedars; beasts and all cattle; creeping things and flying -birds." To such a worshiper the world was all alive with God. And Jesus -added an intensity and an affecting beauty to this whole concept of an -immanent God when He said: "My Father worketh hitherto, and I work," -and "not one sparrow falleth on the ground without your Father." I -can conceive no Animism and no Supernaturalism more minute or more -adorable than the ever acting and ever continuous presence of an unseen -but all observant "Father in the heavens." The heavens in which He -dwells are above, below, within, and all around us. - -And this is the higher Animism which ought to be welcomed by the -Shinto pilgrims of Japan as the beautiful fulfilling of their ancient -dreams. Not so many gods, not a multitude of unfriendly spirits that -need propitiation by our gifts of food and clothing, but ONE Heavenly -Father, immanent in every plant that grows and in every dewdrop on the -flowers, forever working for our good, caring for every birdling, and -numbering the very hairs of our head. - -With such a monotheistic conception of the world all mythologic and -polytheistic notions of deity and the rule of the spirits of the dead -must sooner or later disappear. Japanese scholars of high rank are -telling their people and others that the modern Western learning has -already destroyed the cosmogony of the Shinto cult. What is now most -needed is a class of teachers straightforward and broad enough to -show these people a nobler and truer concept of the world. The new -conception need have no conflict with the belief that the spirits of -the dead are all about us, and are deeply interested in us still. The -family cult may adjust itself to the new and higher doctrines, and lose -none of the beauty and tenderness and sanctity which old affection -connects with the domestic tablets of the honored and beloved dead. -Herein the new faith is to fulfill rather than destroy the ancient -rites of love. Such a monotheistic cult will find no reason or occasion -to commit the blunder of the Jesuit missionaries, and seek interference -with the government of the land. The Mikado may still command the -reverence and the love of the people and be rationally honored as -a child of heaven. Loyal Christians do that under every form of -government. "Fear God; honor the king; for there is no power but God, -and the powers that be are ordained of God; for they are the ministers -of God's service;"--these are the precepts of the earliest apostolic -gospel, and the modern missionary of Christ is bound to observe and -teach them. He should exhibit common sense and discretion in foreign -politics, recognize and honor the legitimate power, and like the Great -Teacher, "render unto Cęsar the things that are Cęsar's, and unto God -the things that are God's." - -The Shinto cult is essentially a religion of race and national -patriotism. It is the secret of Japanese heroism and sacrifice in the -day of battle. He counts it sweet and glorious to die for his country. -He is not his own; he belongs to the State. We are told that the three -principal commandments of the public and official Shinto faith are -these: - -1. "Thou shalt honor the gods and love thy country. - -2. "Thou shalt clearly understand the principles of Heaven, and the duty -of man. - -3. "Thou shalt revere the emperor as thy sovereign, and obey the will -of his court." - -Surely these principles and precepts are capable of easy adjustment to -any form of national government, and the ethics of Christianity are in -fundamental accord with their essential claims. - -But how can the Christian religion, with its monotheistic worship, -adjust itself without antagonism to the ancestor worship of Japan? -Many seem to think that in this particular there must needs be an -irrepressible conflict, for the worship of ancestors is central and -fundamental in the Shinto faith, and the most precious and hallowed -bond that holds the family, the community, and the State together. - -In this matter we do well to observe a number of relevant facts. -Ancestor worship has existed in a variety of forms among many peoples. -It has undergone various modifications in different countries, and it -appears to have ceased among some peoples and given place to other -ideas and forms of worship. The Japanese conception is that their -Mikado and all his people are offspring of the gods, and each one, -when he dies, becomes a deity, but does not cease to have interest in -the relatives and companions of his earthly life. During the siege of -Port Arthur, Togo sent the Mikado a message in which he expressed the -thought that the patriotic _manes_ of the fallen heroes might hover -over the battlefield for a long time and give unseen protection to the -Imperial forces. Such a faith and such inspiration from the dead are -things which a proud nation does not easily let die. - -But may we not approach the devotees of such a faith with the words of -the old Hebrew prophet: "Have we not all one father? Hath not one God -created us?" Ye think your honored ancestors still live, and love to -think of you and aid you from their higher sphere; is it not also just -as true of the ancestors and heroes of other lands and peoples? You -have learned that your beautiful "land of the reed-plains and the fresh -rice-ears" is only a very small portion of the world of men. Have these -broader lands and more numerous peoples sprung from other and greater -gods than yours? May it not rather be that, as there is only one sun to -shine on all this habitable world, so there is one Heavenly Father of -us all? Then we are all offspring of one Supreme God and we should all -be brethren. Our ancestors and dear kindred who have passed out of our -sight should lose no place in our affection by this larger thought.[44] - -By some such suggestions, and by such friendly and persuasive appeal to -larger truths, it would seem that a higher and purer faith may commend -itself to the adherents of Shinto, without provoking their hostility, -and without the compromise of any essential Christian truth. As surely -as self-evidencing science wins her onward way among the nations, so -surely will self-evidencing truths of religion win the hearts of men. -We are familiar with the Christian congregations singing: - - "Faith of our fathers, holy faith! - We will be true to thee till death." - -But Christian and Shintoist should note the fact that the fathers and -the sons are greater than the faith. As "the Sabbath was made for man, -and not man for the Sabbath," so the faith, the forms of worship, -the ęsthetic arts, the culture, the learning, and all the ennobling -elements of the highest civilization are made for man, not man for -them. Being, therefore, not an end in themselves, but a means to the -attainment of some higher boon, they must all be judged according to -the broad and noble proverb: "Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever -things are honorable, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things -are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good -report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, take -account of these things" (Phil. 4:8). - -It may be that ancestral shrines will become more sacred and more -heavenly when lighted with the glimmer of immortal hopes of blessed -reunion in the unseen world, and our forms and manner of honoring -father and mother and friends that pass out from our homes may be -safely left to adjust themselves to an uplifting faith that lives in -the heart and ever longs for all that is holiest and best. - -The whole world looks with admiration upon that island-empire of the -Orient that has shown within thirty years such marvelous capacities -of adaptation and improvement. If she thus go on to "prove all things -and hold fast to that which is good," who knows but her brilliant -rising to great power and influence among the nations may mark the -beginning of world-wide reforms? Her tremendous, bloody battles should -say to all mankind: "Let us have no more of this. Let us establish -great, trustworthy tribunals of arbitration, and settle our rights -and differences there. Let us beat our swords into plowshares and our -spears into pruning-hooks." Such triumphs of peace and righteousness -might well bring to pass the old Shinto ideal of a code of morals -so deeply written in the hearts of men and of rulers that they -spontaneously do that which is obviously right. For is not this lofty -ideal in accord with that of the Hebrew prophet who descried a coming -golden age when "they should teach no more every man his neighbor, and -every man his brother, saying, Know the Lord; for they shall all know -the Lord, from the least of them unto the greatest" (Jer. 31:34)? - -On the assumption that the highest form of religion must needs respond -to the highest moral test, the editor of _The Hibbert Journal_[45] -propounds the following startling question, "How would the general -status of Christianity be affected by the appearance in the world -of a religion which should stand the test better than herself?" -That is, a religion or people that should present an exhibition of -moral excellence superior to that seen among the Christian nations. -Our own belief is that such an exhibition of moral excellence in -a non-Christian people would set the Christian searching his own -standards of morality. It may be that Japan in her late exhibitions -of ability in political diplomacy, and her sacrifice and waiving of -certain rightful claims to indemnity, and the exalting of the right -and the truth above narrow, selfish interests, has put to shame the -"Christian Powers" of Europe, whose conspicuous qualities have been -baneful statecraft, jealousy of rivals, and greed to enlarge their -territory by crushing feebler States, and grinding down the masses -of the people. Such an exhibit would not prove the inferiority of -Christian ethics, but the failure of the so-called Christian Powers to -honor and exemplify the ethics of our gospel. The plain fact in this -matter is, as thoughtful men must everywhere acknowledge, that the -aggressive "Christian Powers" have enlarged their empire at the expense -of weaker States and, by taking advantage of their day of weakness and -adversity, have by such ambitious procedures belied and violated the -fundamental commandments of the religion which they profess. - -We Americans have dreamed and sometimes boasted that our great Republic -of freedom has proven a mighty evangel of human liberty and rights. -It is a luminous star of the first magnitude, and it arose in the -Western hemisphere. But this brilliant star of the West has cast its -helpful beams across the Pacific Ocean upon the blooming rice-fields -of Japan. It may be that those grandchildren of the sun-goddess may -by their skill and prowess flash upon the world a light so strong as -to eclipse to some extent our own, and be so self-evidently excellent -that all mankind will bid it welcome. It may or may not be that all -will acknowledge the radiant Evangel as "the root and the offspring of -David." With the Japanese it may for long be insisted that this new -Light is the root and offspring of the Mikado and the Goddess of the -Dawn. But we can waive that point and all of us cry out, Let the true -Light come. If it make for righteousness and love and the peace of the -world, we shall hail its rising in the far East as the light of "the -bright, the Morning Star;" for there is no other that can ultimately -prove itself to be "the true Light that lighteth every man that cometh -into the world." - - - - -SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY. - - - ASTON, W. G. Shinto, The Way of the Gods. London, 1905. - - BRINKLEY, F. Japan and China. 12 volumes. London, 1903. - - CHAMBERLAIN, B. H. Things Japanese. London, 1902. - - DYER, HENRY. Dai Nippon. A Study in National Evolution. London, 1904. - - GRIFFIS, WILLIAM ELLIOT. The Mikado's Empire. New York, 1876. - - Religions of Japan, from the Dawn of History to the Era of Meiji. - New York, 1895. - - GULICK, SIDNEY L. Evolution of the Japanese, Social and Psychic. - Chicago, 1903. - - HEARN, LAFCADIO. Japan. An Attempt at Interpretation. New York, 1904. - - KO-JI-KI, or Records of Ancient Matters. Translated by Basil H. - Chamberlain. - - _Published as a Supplement to Vol. X of the Transactions of the - Asiatic Society of Japan._ Yokohama, 1883. - - LOWELL, PERCIVAL. The Soul of the Far East. Boston, 1896. - - MACLAY, ARTHUR C. A Budget of Letters from Japan. Reminiscences of - Work and Travel in Japan. New York, 1886. - - NIHONGI, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D. 697. - Translated from the original Chinese and Japanese by W. G. Aston. 2 - vols. London, 1896. - - _Published as a Supplement to the Transactions and Proceedings of - the Japan Society, London._ - - REED, EDWARD J. Japan: Its History, Traditions, and Religion. London, - 1880. - - Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan. From 1872 to the present - time. - - Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London. From 1892 - to the present time. - - These separate series of volumes of Transactions of Japanese - Societies, running through many years, are an invaluable repository - of information on the history, customs, religion, and literature of - Japan. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] The _Ko-ji-ki_ (section XXX) has this remarkable combination: "The -luxuriant-reed-plains-land-of-fresh-rice-ears-of-a-thousand-autumns-of- -long-five-hundred-autumns." The Ritual of the Great Purification and -other rituals call Japan "the luxuriant reed-plain region of fresh -young spikes." The word "spikes" here is a synonym for ears of rice. - -[2] Understood to be Sir Ernest Satow. - -[3] "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan," vol. xvi, part I, -page 73. - -[4] Westminster Review, July, 1878, p. 18. - -[5] It may not be improper to suggest that some of the notions of -the Western peoples as to the backwardness of Japan in the past, and -the relative stage of civilization reached generations ago in the -island empire may be very ludicrous to the mind of a self-respecting, -thoughtful son of Japan. The Mikado's minister at Paris is reported -to have said: "We have for many generations sent to Europe exquisite -lacquer work, delicately carved figures, beautiful embroidery, and many -other things which show our artistic ability and accomplishments, but -the Europeans said we were uncivilized. We have recently killed some -70,000 Russians, and now every European nation is wondering at the high -civilization we have at last attained!" - -[6] It is published as a Supplement to vol. x of the "Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan," pp. lxxv and 369. Yokohama, 1883. - -[7] There is an English translation of the Nihongi, by W. G. Aston: 2 -vols. London, 1896. It is published as a Supplement to "Transactions -and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London." - -[8] These appear in vols. vii, ix, and xxvii of the "Transactions -of the Asiatic Society of Japan." Over thirty-five volumes of these -Transactions have appeared, and they are an invaluable repository of -information on the history, customs, religion, and literature of Japan. -Other journals of like value are the "Transactions and Proceedings -of the Japan Society of London" and the "Deutsche Gesellschaft für -Natur-und Völkerkunde Ostasiens in Tokio." - -[9] Sketches of these men and numerous extracts from their works may -be found in Satow's essay on "The Revival of Pure Shin-tau," published -as Appendix of vol. iii of the "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of -Japan." - -[10] Japanese cosmology seems to postulate eternal matter, but "it -is matter almost completely lacking consistency--an indescribable, -nebulous, unsubstantial, floating, muddy foam"--"Japan: Its History, -Arts, and Literature." By Captain F. Brinkley. Vol. V, p. 108. (J. B. -Millet & Co., Boston and Tokyo.) - -[11] In the rituals he is often called "The Sovran Grandchild," though -an adopted son of the Goddess; so "the sovran grandchild" is first -applied to the founder on earth of the Mikado's dynasty, and afterward -to each and all of his successors on the throne of Japan. - -[12] See Chamberlain's English translation of the _Ko-ji-ki_, p. iv. It -is interesting to compare the story of Ezra dictating the lost sacred -books of Israel, from a memory inspired supernaturally, while five -rapid scribes wrote down what was told them. See 2 Esdras, chap. xiv. - -[13] We may compare the fact that in our book of Genesis the formation -of the earth and the heavens is called "the _generations_ of the -heavens and the earth" (Gen. ii, 4). In a paper of the "Transactions -of the Asiatic Society of Japan" (vol. xvi, part I), Dr. J. Edkins has -an interesting comparison of "Persian elements in Japanese legends," -in which he shows analogies between Mithra and Amaterasu, the seven -Japanese deities of wood, water, fire, wind, earth, sea, and mountain -with the Mazdean Amesha-spentas, and analogies of the underworld in -several other mythic cults. - -[14] See the valuable paper on "The Beginning of Japanese History, -Civilization, and Art," by the Rev. I. Dooman, in Vol. XXV of -"Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan;" especially his chapter -iv, on "The Fundamental Religious Ideas of the Early Japanese." - -[15] See Satow's "The Revival of Pure Shintau, in Transactions of the -Asiatic Society of Japan," vol. iii, Appendix, p. 71. - -[16] Lafcadio Hearn puts this whole matter very tersely, thus: "The -ethics of Shinto were all comprised in the doctrine of unqualified -obedience to customs originating, for the most part, in the family -cult. Ethics were not different from religion; religion was not -different from government, and the very word for government signified -'matters of religion.' All government ceremonies were preceded by -prayer and sacrifice; and from the highest rank of society to the -lowest every person was subject to the law of tradition. To obey -was piety; to disobey was impious, and the rule of obedience was -enforced upon each individual by the will of the community to which he -belonged."--"Japan, an Interpretation," p. 175. - -[17] This respect for the Sun-Goddess points to an aboriginal worship -of the sun among the ancestors of the Japanese people. - -[18] Strictly speaking, the Shinto sanctuaries are shrines rather than -temples, so that the Japanese would always speak of Shinto shrines as -distinct from Buddhist temples. - -[19] A kind of evergreen, like the pine, and peculiar to Japan. - -[20] "The Shintau Temples of Isč." "The Transactions of the Asiatic -Society of Japan," vol. ii, p. 108. - -[21] "The Shintau Temples of Isč." "Transactions of Asiatic Society of -Japan," vol. ii, p. 104. - -[22] Satow's "The Shintau Temples of Isč," pp. 119, 120. - -[23] According to Aston, ancestor worship, in the sense of a -deification and honoring of the departed spirits of one's own -ancestors, was no part of the oldest Shinto cult, but rather a later -importation from China. See his "Shinto, the Way of the Gods," pp. -44-47. London, 1905. - -[24] "Japanese History of Civilization and Arts." "Transactions of the -Asiatic Society of Japan," vol. xxv, p. 89. - -[25] "Japan: an Interpretation," pp. 52, 53. New York, 1904. - -[26] In vol. xix, pt. I, of the "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of -Japan," pp. 93, 94. - -[27] This cheery and jubilant aspect of Shintau worship ought not to -be deemed an objectional element of true religion. Rather the opposite -idea, that religion is a matter of soul-peril and seriousness so grave -as to produce fear or dread of the deity, is a perversion of the truth. -True love of God (or of the gods) must needs have wholesome reverence -for what is adorable, but also ought to inspire a warmth of affection -and a confidence that drives out superstitious fear and begets -exquisite delight in the heart and soul and mind of the true worshiper. - -[28] See "Ancient Japanese Rituals," translated and annotated by E. -Satow, in "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan," vol. vii, -part II, and part IV; vol. ix, part II. Also by Karl Florenz, in vol. -xxvii, part I. In vol. vii, part II, pp. 106-108, Satow gives a list -of the Norito rituals contained in the Yengishiki, to the number of -twenty-seven. Of these he translates only nine. - -[29] "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan," vol. vii, part II, -p. 127. - -[30] "The priests who officiated at the chief festivals belonged -exclusively to two families, the Nakatomi and the Imbibi, both of whom -were descended from inferior deities, who accompanied the 'Sovran -Grandchild' when he came down to earth."--Satow, in Westminster Review -for July, 1878, p. 16. - -[31] The reader of the ritual here personates the Mikado. - -[32] Temples here used by metonymy for deities. - -[33] In vol. xxvii, part I, of "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of -Japan." From this our extracts are taken. Florenz gives in great detail -the various practices, and the ancient and modern forms of the ritual, -and the customs at different shrines. He also discusses the question of -the origin and age of the ceremony. - -[34] See the interesting article by Thomas R. H. McClatchie on "The -Sword of Japan," in "Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan," -vol. ii, pp. 50-56. - -[35] "Japan: an Interpretation," p. 208. - -[36] "Shinto, the Way of the Gods," p. 360. - -[37] It is admitted by all writers on Japan that the practical ethics -of Confucianism has from the first largely nullified the more subtle -and dreamy elements of Buddhism. The common sense of the Japanese -people, in spite of all peculiarities, has made it necessary for -Buddhism to adjust itself to the popular mind. - -[38] Satow, in "Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan," vol. ii, p. -121. Compare the statement of Mabuchi as given in Satow's paper on "The -Revival of Pure Shin-tau," in Appendix to vol. iii of "Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan," p. 14. - -[39] "The Soul of the Far East," p. 166. - -[40] For interesting information on this mystic phase of Shinto see the -articles of Percival Lowell on "Esoteric Shinto," in "Transactions of -the Asiatic Society of Japan," vols. xxi and xxii. - -[41] "The gods of Japan," writes Gulick, "are innumerable in theory -and multitudinous in practice. Not only are there gods of goodness, -but also gods of lust and of evil, to whom robbers and harlots may -pray for success and blessing." But in all this multitudinous pantheon -there is no one Supreme Deity. "There is no word in the Japanese -language corresponding to the English term God. The nearest approach to -it are the Confucian terms Jo-tei, 'Supreme Emperor;' Ten, 'Heaven,' -and Ten-tei, 'Heavenly Emperor;' but all of these terms are Chinese; -they are therefore of late appearance in Japan, and represent rather -conceptions of educated and Confucian classes than the ideas of the -masses."--"Evolution of the Japanese," p. 311. - -[42] "The World's Parliament of Religions," vol. ii, p. 1282. -We must not overlook the fact that the modern Shintoism has its -sects, as well as Buddhism. There is the sect called "Ten-Ri-Kyo" -("Heaven-Reason-Teaching"). Also the Kurosumi sect, putting noteworthy -emphasis on morality. - -[43] Gulick's "Evolution of the Japanese," p. 294. Whatever may be -the defects of Japanese character in general, it is common for nearly -all travelers who have visited the country and studied the habits -of the people at their homes, to speak of them as mild, courteous, -cleanly, frugal, intelligent, quick to learn, and gifted with a genius -for imitation. Their soldiers have proved themselves a match for the -most renowned warriors, and are marvelously apt to make the most of -opportunities. - -[44] In his "Evolution of the Japanese" (p. 75) Gulick quotes from the -Japan Mail (of September 30, 1899) a number of special instructions -to be given to the pupils in the Japanese schools touching their -behavior toward foreigners. One of the orders reads thus: "Since all -human beings are brothers and sisters, there is no reason for fearing -foreigners. Treat them as equals and act uprightly in all your dealings -with them." Such instruction should surely, in time, enlarge the -world-conception of the Shintoist. - -[45] Vol. iv, 1906, pp. 19-41. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as -possible including inconsistencies of hyphenation. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SHINTO CULT*** - - -******* This file should be named 42747-8.txt or 42747-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/7/4/42747 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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