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diff --git a/42759-h/42759-h.htm b/42759-h/42759-h.htm index e452083..0ffc5b0 100644 --- a/42759-h/42759-h.htm +++ b/42759-h/42759-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Distributive Justice, by John A. (John Augustine) Ryan</title> <link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover-page.jpg"/> <style type="text/css"> @@ -138,27 +138,10 @@ font-size: 80%; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em; text-align: left;} </style> </head> <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42759 ***</div> <h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Distributive Justice, by John A. (John Augustine) Ryan</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> -<p>Title: Distributive Justice</p> -<p> The Right and Wrong of Our Present Distribution of Wealth</p> -<p>Author: John A. (John Augustine) Ryan</p> -<p>Release Date: May 21, 2013 [eBook #42759]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE***</p> <p> </p> -<h4 class="pg">E-text prepared by D Alexander, JoAnn Greenwood,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - using page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="http://archive.org">http://archive.org</a>)</h4> <p> </p> <table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> <tr> @@ -193,12 +176,12 @@ DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE <p class="center"> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> -<small>NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS<br /> -ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</small><br /> +<small>NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS<br /> +ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO</small><br /> <br /> MACMILLAN & CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span> <br /> -<small>LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br /> +<small>LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA<br /> MELBOURNE</small><br /> <br /> THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br /> @@ -621,7 +604,7 @@ Washington, D. C., June 14, 1916.<br /> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdlp">The Value of Capital in a No-Interest Régime</td> +<td class="tdlp">The Value of Capital in a No-Interest Régime</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdr"> </td> @@ -885,11 +868,11 @@ Washington, D. C., June 14, 1916.<br /> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdlp2">The Mediæval Theory</td> +<td class="tdlp2">The Mediæval Theory</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdlp2">A Modern Variation of the Mediæval Theory</td> +<td class="tdlp2">A Modern Variation of the Mediæval Theory</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td></tr> <tr> <td class="tdr"> </td> @@ -1255,7 +1238,7 @@ Longmans; 1912.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Pesch</span>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Lehrbuch der Nationaloekonomie</span>. Freiburg; 1905-1913.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Antoine</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours d'Économie Sociale</span>. Paris; 1899.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span></p> +<p><span class="smcap">Antoine</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours d'Économie Sociale</span>. Paris; 1899.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span></p> <p><span class="smcap">Hitze</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Capital et Travail</span>. Louvain; 1898.</p> @@ -1495,7 +1478,7 @@ men got their living by hunting and fishing, or by rearing herds, but the agricultural stage of economic development, when life had become settled. Of the arguments upon which the theory was based, some consisted of ambiguous -statements by ancient writers, such as Plato, Cæsar, and +statements by ancient writers, such as Plato, Cæsar, and Tacitus, and others were merely inferences drawn from the existence of certain agrarian institutions: family ownership of land; common pasture lands and woodlands; @@ -2018,7 +2001,7 @@ continent, compelling all subsequent arrivals to become tenants of the first. There seems to be no good reason to think that the first occupant is justified in claiming as his own more land than he can cultivate by his own labour, or -with the assistance of those who prefer to be his employés +with the assistance of those who prefer to be his employés or his tenants rather than independent proprietors. "He has not the right to reserve for himself alone the whole territory, but only that part of it which is really useful to @@ -2038,7 +2021,7 @@ occupy the third part of any estate which the proprietor refused to cultivate himself.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Ownership understood as the right to do what one pleases with one's possessions, is -due partly to the Roman law, partly to the Code Napoléon, +due partly to the Roman law, partly to the Code Napoléon, but chiefly to modern theories of individualism.</p> <p>In the second place, the abuses which have accompanied @@ -3012,7 +2995,7 @@ landowner, is the owner of a farming business, and of agricultural instruments of production. Under Socialism the users of the land would not receive the revenue either from improvements or from the land itself. They would -be substantially employés of the community, receiving a +be substantially employés of the community, receiving a share of the product according to some plan of distribution established by public authority. Land occupied by dwellings would likewise be owned and managed by the @@ -3491,7 +3474,7 @@ without insisting upon its necessity. Hence they cannot be cited as authorities for the doctrine that the individual has a natural right to own land.</p> -<p>Some of the great theologians of mediæval and post-mediæval +<p>Some of the great theologians of mediæval and post-mediæval times denied this right, inasmuch as they denied that the institution of private ownership was imposed or commanded by the natural law. Among them are @@ -4441,7 +4424,7 @@ both agricultural and urban proprietors.</p> <p>It is true that a considerable number of persons, absolutely speaking, have amassed great wealth out of land. It is a well known fact that land was the principal source -of the great mediæval and post-mediæval fortunes, down +of the great mediæval and post-mediæval fortunes, down to the end of the eighteenth century. "The historical foundation of capitalism is rent."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> @@ -6875,7 +6858,7 @@ available for diversion to the labourers. According to the computations of Professor King, about two billion dollars were in 1910 saved and converted into capital.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> -A progressive Socialist régime would want to appropriate +A progressive Socialist régime would want to appropriate at least that sum for the renewal and increase of the instruments of production. Consequently, it would have only four billion dollars to add to the present total income @@ -7067,7 +7050,7 @@ who would insist on hard and efficient work from all subordinates. The members of a private corporation have a strong pecuniary interest in selecting directors who will secure the maximum of product at the minimum of cost, -while the employés in a Socialist industry would want +while the employés in a Socialist industry would want managing authorities who were willing to make working conditions as easy as possible.</p> @@ -7082,7 +7065,7 @@ general managers, and foremen, and in all the other details of management, they would have always before them the abiding fact that their authority was derived from and dependent upon the votes of the majority of the -employés. Their supreme consideration would be to conduct +employés. Their supreme consideration would be to conduct the industry in such a way as to satisfy the men who elected them. Hence they would strive to maintain an administration which would permit the mass of the labour @@ -7184,7 +7167,7 @@ away the foregoing difficulties may be reduced to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> two: the achievements of government enterprises in our present system; and the assumed efficacy of altruism and -public honour in a régime of Socialism.</p> +public honour in a régime of Socialism.</p> <p>Under the first head appeal is made to such publicly owned and managed concerns as the post office, railroads, @@ -7348,7 +7331,7 @@ high standard of honour and disinterestedness; that, even so, the majority of army officers have not in their civil assignments shown the same degree of faithfulness to the public welfare as Colonel Goethals; that the Canal was -built under a régime of "benevolent despotism," which +built under a régime of "benevolent despotism," which placed no reliance upon the "social mindedness" of the subordinate workers; and that the latter, far from showing any desire to qualify as altruists or public benefactors, @@ -8014,7 +7997,7 @@ expended. Were interest abolished this kind of saving would be even greater than it is at present; for a larger total would be required to equal the fund that is now provided through the addition of interest to the principal. -In a no-interest régime one thousand dollars would have +In a no-interest régime one thousand dollars would have to be set aside every year in order to total twenty thousand dollars in twenty years; when interest is accumulated on the savings, a smaller annual amount will suffice to @@ -8153,7 +8136,7 @@ welfare. Would its suppression be socially beneficial or socially detrimental?</p> -<h3><i>The Value of Capital in a No-Interest Régime</i></h3> +<h3><i>The Value of Capital in a No-Interest Régime</i></h3> <p>The interest that we have in mind is pure interest, not undertaker's profit, nor insurance against risk, nor gross @@ -8172,7 +8155,7 @@ is considered here is that which the capitalist receives over and above these payments, and which in this country seems to be about three or four per cent.</p> -<p>Would capital still have value in a no-interest régime, +<p>Would capital still have value in a no-interest régime, and if so how would its value be determined? At present the lower limit of the value of productive capital, as of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> @@ -8181,7 +8164,7 @@ cost of production. Capital instruments that do not bring this price will not continue to be made. In other words, cost of production is the governing factor of the value of capital from the side of supply. It would likewise fix -the lower limit of value in a no-interest régime; only, the +the lower limit of value in a no-interest régime; only, the cost of producing capital instruments would then be somewhat lower than to-day, owing to the absence of an interest charge for the working capital during the productive @@ -8445,7 +8428,7 @@ who save mainly for a future interest-income, at the same time wishing to keep the principal intact until death, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> who could have fully realised this desire under a high -interest régime, will not become entirely indifferent to it +interest régime, will not become entirely indifferent to it when they find that they cannot attain it completely. They will ordinarily try to leave behind them as large a capital or principal as they can. Hence they will save @@ -8504,7 +8487,7 @@ as nearly as possible equal to what it would have been had interest accrued on their annual savings. Whether a person intended to leave all his accumulations, or part of them, or none of them to posterity, he would still desire -them to be as large as they might have been in a régime +them to be as large as they might have been in a régime of interest. In order to realise this desire, he would be compelled to increase his savings. And it is reasonable to expect that this is precisely the course that would be @@ -8711,7 +8694,7 @@ and authorisation.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href=" <p>This principle would seem to have received a particularly pertinent application for our inquiry in the doctrine -of <i>præmium</i> legale as a title of interest on loans. +of <i>præmium</i> legale as a title of interest on loans. In the "Opus Morale" of Ballerini-Palmieri can be found a long list of moral theologians living in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who maintained that the mere @@ -8830,7 +8813,7 @@ capitalist might lawfully accept the same interest as the man whose saving involves some sacrifice. On this principle the lenders who would not have invested their money in a productive enterprise were nevertheless permitted -by the moralists of the post-mediæval period to +by the moralists of the post-mediæval period to take advantage of the title of <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">lucrum cessans</i>. Although <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> they had relinquished no opportunity of gain, nor made @@ -8972,7 +8955,7 @@ valid as long as the present industrial system endures.</p> <p>Interest is not a return for labour. The majority of interest receivers are, indeed, regularly engaged at some -active task, whether as day labourers, salaried employés, +active task, whether as day labourers, salaried employés, directors of industry, or members of the professions; but for these services they obtain specific and distinct compensation. The interest that they get comes to them @@ -9243,7 +9226,7 @@ co-operative dairy. The owners of cows hold the stock or shares of the concern, and in addition to dividends receive profits in proportion to the amount of milk that they supply. In Ireland and some other countries, a portion of -the profits goes to the employés of the dairy as a dividend +the profits goes to the employés of the dairy as a dividend on wages. Other productive co-operatives of agriculture are found in cheese making, bacon curing, distilling, and wine making. All are conducted on the same general @@ -9366,7 +9349,7 @@ provide the capital, and participate in the profits according to the amounts purchased, just as the individual consumers furnish the capital and share the profits of the retail establishments. The Scottish Wholesale Society divides a part -of the profits among its employés. Besides their operations +of the profits among its employés. Besides their operations as jobbers, the wholesale societies are bankers for the retail stores, and own and operate factories, farms, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> @@ -9382,7 +9365,7 @@ progress in its original home, Great Britain. In 1913 about one person in every three was to some degree interested in or a beneficiary of these institutions. The profits of the stores amounted to about $71,302,070, which was -about 35 per cent. on the capital. The employés numbered +about 35 per cent. on the capital. The employés numbered about 145,000, and the sales for the year aggregated $650,000,000. The English Wholesale Society was the largest flour miller and shoe manufacturer in Great Britain, @@ -9494,12 +9477,12 @@ sharing, feature is concerned, co-partnership is not genuine co-operation, for it includes neither ownership of capital nor management of the business. Co-operative action begins only with the adoption of the second element. In -most of the existing co-partnership concerns, all the employés +most of the existing co-partnership concerns, all the employés are urged, and many of them required to invest at least a part of their profits in the capital stock. The most notable and successful of these experiments is that carried on by the South Metropolitan Gas Company of London. -Practically all the company's 6,000 employés are now +Practically all the company's 6,000 employés are now among its stockholders. Although their combined holdings are only about one-twenty-eighth of the total, they are empowered to select two of the ten members of the @@ -9519,10 +9502,10 @@ third type of co-operative production. In some cases the productive concern is under the management of a local retail establishment, but the great majority of them are conducted by the English and Scottish Wholesale Societies. -As regards the employés of these enterprises, the arrangement +As regards the employés of these enterprises, the arrangement is not true co-operation, since they have no part in the ownership of the capital. The Scottish Wholesale -Society, as we have seen, permits the employés of its productive +Society, as we have seen, permits the employés of its productive works to share in the profits thereof; nevertheless it does not admit them as stockholders, nor give them any <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> @@ -9535,7 +9518,7 @@ the productive concerns. But they derive therefrom no dividends. All the interest and most of the profits of the productive establishments are taken by the wholesale and retail stores. For it is the theory of the wholesale societies -that the employés in the works of production should share +that the employés in the works of production should share in the gains thereof only as consumers. They are to profit only in the same way and to the same extent as other consumer-members of the local retail establishments.</p> @@ -9560,7 +9543,7 @@ themselves need not be greater than that now borne by investors in private enterprises of the same kind. There is no essential reason why the former should not provide the same profits and insurance against business risks as -the latter. While the employés assume none of the risks +the latter. While the employés assume none of the risks of capitalistic industry, neither do they receive any of the profits. If the co-operative factory exhibits the same degree <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> @@ -9587,7 +9570,7 @@ and medium sized concerns. Since it requires the workers to own but a part of the capital, it can be established in any enterprise in which the capitalists show themselves willing and sympathetic. In every industrial corporation -there are some employés who possess savings, and these +there are some employés who possess savings, and these can be considerably increased through the profit sharing feature of co-partnership. A very long time must, indeed, elapse before the workers in any of the larger enterprises @@ -9622,7 +9605,7 @@ outside the domain of a store movement."<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a></p> <p>The theory by which the stores attempt to justify the -exclusion of the employés of their productive concerns +exclusion of the employés of their productive concerns from a share of the profits thereof is that all profits come ultimately from the pockets of the consumer, and should all return to that source. The defect in this theory is that @@ -9764,7 +9747,7 @@ the workers would, we are told, own and control the means of production; but the members of a co-operative society directly own and immediately control a <i>definite amount of specific capital</i>, which is essentially <em>private</em> -property. In a Socialist régime the workers' ownership of +property. In a Socialist régime the workers' ownership of capital would be collective not private, general not specific, while their control of the productive instruments with which they worked would be shared with other citizens. @@ -9860,7 +9843,7 @@ and efficient socio-industrial organisation.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Gonner</span>: Interest and Saving. London; 1906.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Landry</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Intérêt du Capital</span>. Paris; 1904.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Landry</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Intérêt du Capital</span>. Paris; 1904.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Menger</span>: The Right to the Whole Produce of Labour. London; 1899.</p> @@ -9874,11 +9857,11 @@ and efficient socio-industrial organisation.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Hillquit-Ryan</span>: Socialism: Promise or Menace? Macmillan; 1914.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Savatier</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Théorie Moderne du Capital et la Justice</span>. Paris; 1898.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Savatier</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Théorie Moderne du Capital et la Justice</span>. Paris; 1898.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Garriguet</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régime du Travail</span>. Paris; 1908.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Garriguet</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régime du Travail</span>. Paris; 1908.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Funk</span>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zins und Wucher</span>. Tübingen; 1868.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Funk</span>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Zins und Wucher</span>. Tübingen; 1868.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Holyoake</span>: The History of Co-operation. London; 1906.</p> @@ -10600,7 +10583,7 @@ ethics.</p> <p>Nevertheless, it would seem that those business men who obtain exceptionally large profits could be reasonably required -to transfer part of their gains to their employés in +to transfer part of their gains to their employés in the form of higher wages, or to the consumers in the form of lower prices. Both of these methods have been followed by Henry Ford, the automobile manufacturer. @@ -10715,7 +10698,7 @@ it. While both these conditions are apparently fulfilled in the case of the great majority of wage earners, they are only rarely realised with regard to business men. In most instances the business man who is unable to make living -profits could become an employé, and thus convert his right +profits could become an employé, and thus convert his right to a decent livelihood into a right to a living wage. Even when no such alternative is open to him, he cannot claim a strict right to living profits, for the second condition @@ -10933,7 +10916,7 @@ that is obtainable in competitive conditions of investment.</p> <p>The statement that the monopoly may retain those surplus gains which are derived from superior efficiency assumes, -of course, that fair wages have been paid to employés, +of course, that fair wages have been paid to employés, and fair prices to the sellers of materials, and that fair methods have been used toward competitors. In so far as any of these conditions is not met, the monopolistic @@ -12433,7 +12416,7 @@ at least the claim and title of needs.</p> <p>Some of the Fathers of the Church maintained that all superfluous wealth, whether well or ill gotten, ought to be -distributed to those in want. St. Basil of Cæsarea: +distributed to those in want. St. Basil of Cæsarea: "Will not the man who robs another of his clothing be called a thief? Is the man who is able and refuses to clothe the naked deserving of any other appellation? The @@ -12507,7 +12490,7 @@ speaking theft; for the goods seized belong to the needy person, "inasmuch as he must sustain life."<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> In a word, -the mediæval and the modern Catholic teaching would make +the mediæval and the modern Catholic teaching would make distribution of superfluous goods a duty of justice only in extreme situations, while the Fathers laid down no such specific limitation. Nevertheless, the difference is less important @@ -12947,7 +12930,7 @@ distributing superfluous goods.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Russell</span>: Business, the Heart of the Nation. John Lane; 1911.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Garriguet</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régime du Travail</span>. Paris; 1909. +<p><span class="smcap">Garriguet</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régime du Travail</span>. Paris; 1909. The Social Value of the Gospel. St. Louis; 1911.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Hobson</span>: Work and Wealth, a Human Valuation. Macmillan; 1914.</p> @@ -13020,7 +13003,7 @@ there should be some theoretical relation for a given branch of industry between the amount of the income that should go to labour and the amount that should go to capital; and if this question were decided, a scale of wages -might be devised for the different classes of employés +might be devised for the different classes of employés which would determine the amount rightly absorbed by labour.... Thus far, however, political economy is unable to furnish such a principle as that suggested. There @@ -13034,7 +13017,7 @@ It seems to the Board that the only practicable basis is to compare the rates and earnings of engineers in the Eastern District with those of engineers in the Western and Southern Districts, and with those of other classes of railway -employés."</p> +employés."</p> <p>Six of the seven men composing this board of arbitration subscribed to this statement. Of the six one is the @@ -13042,7 +13025,7 @@ president of a great state university, another is a successful and large-minded merchant, the third is a great building contractor, the fourth is a distinguished lawyer, the fifth is a prominent magazine editor, and the sixth is a railway -president. The dissenting member represented the employés. +president. The dissenting member represented the employés. Since the majority could not find in any generally accepted theory a principle to determine the proper division of the product between capital and labour, they were perhaps @@ -13068,7 +13051,7 @@ prevailing rate, the increases in wages which a powerful labour union seeks to obtain are unjust until they have been established as the prevailing rates. Thus, the attorney for the street railways of Chicago dissented from the -increases in wages awarded to the employés by the majority +increases in wages awarded to the employés by the majority of the board of arbitration in the summer of 1915 because, "these men are already paid not only a fair wage but a liberal wage, when the wages in the same employment @@ -13117,7 +13100,7 @@ the exchange of goods.</p> <h4><i>The Rule of Equal Gains</i></h4> -<p>The agreement between employer and employé is an +<p>The agreement between employer and employé is an onerous contract; hence it ought to be made in such terms that the things exchanged will be equal, that the remuneration will be equal to the labour. How can this equivalence @@ -13138,7 +13121,7 @@ against the amount that he pays in wages should be equal to the good received by the labourer when diminished by or weighed against the inconvenience that he undergoes through the expenditure of his time and energy. Hence -the contract should bring to employer and employé equal +the contract should bring to employer and employé equal amounts of net advantage or satisfaction.</p> <p>Plausible as this rule may appear, it is impracticable, @@ -13158,7 +13141,7 @@ hours for a wage of two dollars? How can we deduct his pain-cost from or weigh it against his compensation?</p> <p>So far as the two sets of advantages are comparable at -all, those of the employé would seem to be always greater +all, those of the employé would seem to be always greater than those of the employer. A wage of seventy-five cents a day enables the labourer to satisfy the most important wants of life. Weighed against this gross advantage, his @@ -13174,7 +13157,7 @@ be greater than the net advantage to the employer from that single contract. Moreover, the sum total of an employer's gains from all his labour contracts is less quantitatively than the sum total of the gains obtained by all -his employés. The latter gains provide for many livelihoods, +his employés. The latter gains provide for many livelihoods, the former for only one. Again, no general rate of wages could be devised which would enable all the members of a labour group to gain equally. Differences @@ -13346,21 +13329,21 @@ Unless we are to identify justice with power, might with right, we must regard these objections as irrefutable, and the market value doctrine as untenable.</p> -<h4><i>The Mediæval Theory</i></h4> +<h4><i>The Mediæval Theory</i></h4> <p>Another exchange-equivalence theory which turns upon the concept of value is that found in the pages of the -mediæval canonists and theologians. But it interprets +mediæval canonists and theologians. But it interprets value in a different sense from that which we have just considered. As the measure of exchange equivalence the -mediæval theory takes objective value, or true value. +mediæval theory takes objective value, or true value. However, the proponents of this view did not formally apply it to wage contracts, nor did they discuss systematically the question of just wages. They were not called upon to do this; for they were not confronted by any considerable class of wage earners. In the country the number <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> -of persons who got their living exclusively as employés +of persons who got their living exclusively as employés was extremely small, while in the towns the working class was composed of independent producers who sold their wares instead of their @@ -13368,7 +13351,7 @@ labour.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_2 The question of fair compensation for the town workers was, therefore, the question of a fair price for their products. The latter question -was discussed by the mediæval writers formally, and in +was discussed by the mediæval writers formally, and in great detail. Things exchanged should have equal values, and commodities should always sell for the equivalent of their values. By what rule was equality to be measured @@ -13380,7 +13363,7 @@ a loaf of bread. The unscrupulous speculator could monopolise the supply of foodstuffs, and give them an exorbitantly high value which purchasers would accept and pay for rather than go hungry. Hence we find the -mediæval writers seeking a standard of <em>objective</em> value +mediæval writers seeking a standard of <em>objective</em> value which should attach to the commodity itself, not to the varying opinions of buyers and sellers.</p> @@ -13401,11 +13384,11 @@ However, neither Aristotle nor the Schoolmen asserted that all kinds of labour had equal value.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p> -<p>Now this mediæval labour-measure of value could be +<p>Now this mediæval labour-measure of value could be readily applied only to cases of barter, and even then only when the value of different kinds of labour had already been determined by some other standard. Accordingly we -find the mediæval writers expounding and defending a +find the mediæval writers expounding and defending a more general interpretation of objective or true value.</p> <p>This was the concept of normal value; that is, the average @@ -13422,7 +13405,7 @@ merely the constant capacity of certain commodities to satisfy human wants. Even to-day bread has always the intrinsic potency of alleviating hunger, regardless of all the fluctuations of human appraisement. The objectivity -that the mediæval writers ascribed to value was relative. +that the mediæval writers ascribed to value was relative. It assumed normal conditions as against exceptional conditions. To say that value was objective merely meant that it was not wholly determined by the interplay of @@ -13450,14 +13433,14 @@ as value determinants. Now cost of production in the Middle Ages was mainly labour cost; hence the standard of value was chiefly a labour standard. Moreover, this labour doctrine of true value and equality in exchanges -was strongly reinforced by another mediæval principle, +was strongly reinforced by another mediæval principle, according to which labour was the supreme if not the only just title to rewards.</p> <p>How was labour cost to be measured, and the different kinds of labour evaluated? By the necessary and customary expenditures of the class to which the labourer -belonged. Mediæval society was composed of a few definite, +belonged. Mediæval society was composed of a few definite, easily recognised, and relatively fixed orders or grades, each of which had its own function in the social hierarchy, its own standard of living, and its moral right @@ -13512,7 +13495,7 @@ furnish a principle by which a whole class of workers can justify their advance to a higher standard of living. It is not sufficiently elastic and dynamic.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p> -<h4><i>A Modern Variation of the Mediæval Theory</i></h4> +<h4><i>A Modern Variation of the Mediæval Theory</i></h4> <p>In spite of its fundamental impossibility, the concept of exchange-equivalence still haunts the minds of certain @@ -13572,11 +13555,11 @@ fails to comply with the minimum requirements of justice.</p> more questionable than the first. To be <em>completely</em> just, says Father Antoine, wages must be not merely adequate to a decent livelihood, but equivalent to the "economic -value of the labour" ("<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la valeur économique du travail</span>"). +value of the labour" ("<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">la valeur économique du travail</span>"). This "economic value" is determined objectively by the cost of production, the utility of the product, and the movement of supply and demand; subjectively, by the -judgment of employers and employés. In case of conflict +judgment of employers and employés. In case of conflict between these two measures of value, and in case of uncertainty concerning the objective measure, the decision of the subjective determinant must always prevail.</p> @@ -13620,7 +13603,7 @@ or formula?</p> Father Antoine's pages. They are all to be solved by having recourse to the subjective determinant of "economic value"; namely, the judgment of employers and -employés. Thus his proximate factor of justice in wages, +employés. Thus his proximate factor of justice in wages, his formula of complete as against minimum just wages, turns out to be something entirely subjective, and more or less arbitrary. It is in no sense a measure of the equivalence @@ -13628,17 +13611,17 @@ between work and pay.</p> <p>Moreover, it is inadequate as a measure of justice. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> -Should the majority of both employers and employés fix +Should the majority of both employers and employés fix the "economic value" of the labour of carpenters at five dollars a day, there would be no certainty that this decision was correct, and that this figure represented just wages. Should they determine upon a rate of fifty dollars a day, we could not be sure that their decision was unjust. Undoubtedly -the combined judgment of employers and employés +the combined judgment of employers and employés will set a fairer wage than one fixed by either party alone, since it will be less one-sided; but there is no sufficient reason for concluding that it will be in all cases completely -just. Undoubtedly employers and employés know +just. Undoubtedly employers and employés know what wages an industry can afford at prevailing prices, on the assumption that business ability and capital are to have a certain rate of return; but there is no certainty that @@ -13787,7 +13770,7 @@ product, that most Socialists have not been able to maintain a position of consistent economic materialism. Indeed, Marx himself did not always succeed in evading the influence and the terminology of idealistic conceptions. -He frequently thought and spoke of the Socialist régime +He frequently thought and spoke of the Socialist régime as not only inevitable but as morally right, and of the capitalist system as morally wrong. Despite his rigid, materialistic theorising, his writings abound in passionate @@ -13921,7 +13904,7 @@ by himself in the opening sentence of the preface to his distribution of the income of society is controlled by a natural law, and that this law, if it worked without friction, would give to every agent of production the amount -of wealth which that agent creates." In a régime of perfect +of wealth which that agent creates." In a régime of perfect competition, therefore, the labourer would get, not the whole product of industry, but the whole product due to his own exertions.</p> @@ -14019,7 +14002,7 @@ dissent.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_ <p>Even if the theory were true its hypothetical character would deprive it of any practical value. It assumes a -régime of perfect competition, but this assumption is so +régime of perfect competition, but this assumption is so seldom realised that no rule based upon it can throw much light on the question of the productivity of present day labourers.</p> @@ -14622,7 +14605,7 @@ what meaning should reasonably be given to the phrase, "inability to pay a living wage."</p> <p>An employer is not obliged to pay a full living wage to -all his employés so long as that action would deprive himself +all his employés so long as that action would deprive himself and his family of a decent livelihood. As active director of a business, the employer has quite as good a right as the labourer to a decent livelihood from the product, @@ -14632,24 +14615,24 @@ a man to prefer himself to his neighbour, when the choice refers to goods of the same order of importance. Moreover, the employer is justified in taking from the product sufficient to support a somewhat higher scale of -living than generally prevails among his employés; for he +living than generally prevails among his employés; for he has become accustomed to this higher standard, and would suffer a considerable hardship if compelled to fall notably below it. It is reasonable, therefore, that he should have the means of maintaining himself and family in moderate conformity with their customary standard of living; but it is unreasonable that they should indulge in anything like -luxurious expenditure, so long as any of the employés fail +luxurious expenditure, so long as any of the employés fail to receive living wages.</p> -<p>Suppose that an employer cannot pay all his employés +<p>Suppose that an employer cannot pay all his employés living wages and at the same time provide the normal rate of interest on the capital in the business. So far as the borrowed capital is concerned, the business man has no choice; he must pay the stipulated rate of interest, even though it prevents him from giving a living wage to all <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> -his employés. Nor can it be reasonably contended that +his employés. Nor can it be reasonably contended that the loan capitalist in that case is obliged to forego the interest due him. He cannot be certain that this interest payment, or any part of it, is really necessary to make up @@ -14661,11 +14644,11 @@ of the loan capitalist. Anyhow, the latter is under no obligation to leave his money in a concern that is unable to pay him interest regularly. The general rule, then, would seem to be that the loan capitalist is not obliged to -refrain from taking interest in order that the employés +refrain from taking interest in order that the employés may have living wages.</p> <p>Is the employer justified in withholding the full living -wage from his employés to provide himself with the normal +wage from his employés to provide himself with the normal rate of interest on the capital that he has invested in the enterprise? Speaking generally, he is not. In the first place, the right to any interest at all, except as a return @@ -14702,17 +14685,17 @@ claim to interest is a claim upon the product prior to and independent of the claim of the labourer to a living wage. That would be begging the question. The product is in a fundamental sense the common property of employer and -employés. Both parties have co-operated in turning it out, +employés. Both parties have co-operated in turning it out, and they have equal claims upon it, in so far as it is necessary to yield them a decent livelihood. Having taken therefrom the requisites of a decent livelihood for himself, the employer who appropriates interest at the expense -of a decent livelihood for his employés, in effect treats +of a decent livelihood for his employés, in effect treats their claims upon the common and joint product as essentially inferior to his own. If this assumption were correct it would mean that the primary and essential needs -of the employés are of less intrinsic importance than the -superficial needs of the employer, and that the employés +of the employés are of less intrinsic importance than the +superficial needs of the employer, and that the employés themselves are a lower order of being than the employer. The incontestable fact is that such an employer deprives the labourers of access to the goods of the earth on reasonable @@ -14805,7 +14788,7 @@ this much remuneration.</p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> a matter of commutative justice in the mere sense of contractual justice, is radically defective. The transaction -between employé and employer involves other questions of +between employé and employer involves other questions of justice than that which arises immediately out of the relation between the things exchanged. When a borrower repays a loan of ten dollars, he fulfils the obligation of @@ -14956,7 +14939,7 @@ To prevent this obviously undesirable condition, it is necessary that a family living wage be recognised as the right of all adult male workers. No other arrangement is reasonable in our present industrial system. -In a competitive régime the standard wage for both +In a competitive régime the standard wage for both the married and the unmarried men is necessarily the same. It will be determined by the living costs of either the one class or the other. At present the wage of the unskilled @@ -15440,7 +15423,7 @@ quite as valid as the similarly based claim of the employer to more than living profits. In case the business does not provide a sufficient amount to remunerate both classes of sacrifices, the employer may prefer his own to those of -his employés, on the same principle that he may prefer his +his employés, on the same principle that he may prefer his own claim to a decent livelihood. The law of charity permits a man to satisfy himself rather than his neighbour, when the needs in question are of the same degree of @@ -15467,7 +15450,7 @@ relatively small number of establishments that show such a surplus as we are considering have been brought to that condition of prosperity by the exceptional ability of their directors, rather than by the unusual productivity of their -employés. In so far as this exceptional directive ability is +employés. In so far as this exceptional directive ability is due to unusual efforts and sacrifices, the surplus returns which it produces may be claimed with justice by the employer. In so far as the surplus is the outcome of exceptional @@ -15492,7 +15475,7 @@ conditions, the same principles are applicable, and the same conclusions justified. The officers and the whole body of stockholders will have a right to those surplus profits that remain after the "equitable minimum" has -been paid to the employés. Every consideration that urges +been paid to the employés. Every consideration that urges such a distribution in the case of the individual business holds good for the corporation. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span></p> @@ -15567,7 +15550,7 @@ no-man's property (like the rent of land antecedently to its legal assignment through the institution of private landownership) which properly goes to the first occupant as determined by the processes of bargaining between employers -and employés. If the capitalists get the interest-share +and employés. If the capitalists get the interest-share through these processes it rightfully belongs to them; if the labourers who are already in possession of the "equitable minimum" develop sufficient economic strength @@ -15731,7 +15714,7 @@ partly by organisation, and partly by entering into competition with the wage earners. Substantially the same recourse would be open to the professional classes. In due course of time, therefore, the remuneration of all workers, -whether employés or self employed or professional, would +whether employés or self employed or professional, would tend to be in harmony with the canons of efforts, sacrifices, productivity, scarcity, and human welfare.</p> @@ -15817,7 +15800,7 @@ them a fair degree of productive efficiency. In that case the higher wages would be an illusion. The gain in the amount of money would be offset by the loss in its purchasing power. Even so, this condition would be greatly -superior to a régime in which the labourers were universally +superior to a régime in which the labourers were universally prevented from making any effort to raise their wages above a fixed maximum.</p> @@ -16017,7 +16000,7 @@ in trade unions, and to obtain in several instances further increases in remuneration beyond the legal minimum; the compensation of the better paid labourers has not been reduced to the level fixed by the trade boards; the efficiency -of both employés and productive processes has been +of both employés and productive processes has been on the whole increased; the number of persons forced out of employment by the law is negligible; no important rise of prices is traceable to the law; and the number of business @@ -16061,7 +16044,7 @@ disturbance as that same minimum wage law. None of the dire predictions made prior to the passage of the law have come about to an extent that questions the general efficiency of the law. There has been no wholesale discharge -of women employés, no wholesale levelling of +of women employés, no wholesale levelling of wages, no wholesale replacing of higher paid workers by cheaper help, no tendency to make the minimum the maximum, while the employers of the state in general have @@ -16129,7 +16112,7 @@ And the police power means that indefinite power of the State to legislate for the health, safety, morals, and welfare of the community.<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> Now it is obvious that a minimum -wage law deprives both employer and employé of +wage law deprives both employer and employé of some liberty of contract, and also that it virtually deprives the former of some property, inasmuch as it generally increases his outlay for wages. On the other hand, this @@ -16479,7 +16462,7 @@ in the productive power of the workers will in the long run help them only inasmuch as they are consumers, the lion's share of the additional product being taken by other <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> -classes. Probably such is the usual result in a régime of +classes. Probably such is the usual result in a régime of unregulated competition, and unlimited freedom as regards the wage contract. But this is precisely what we expect a minimum wage law to correct and prevent. We rely upon @@ -16616,7 +16599,7 @@ the fact that more of them are organised in the coal mining than in any other industry, and have received greater benefits from organisation than their unskilled fellow workers in any other industry. Were the various classes -of railway employés combined in one union, instead of +of railway employés combined in one union, instead of being organised along the lines of their separate crafts, it is quite improbable that the unskilled majority would be getting, as they now are getting, less than living wages. @@ -16816,7 +16799,7 @@ the productive concern is directly owned by a wholesale co-operative, indirectly by the retail co-operative store, and ultimately by the co-operative consumers,—presents one important advantage. It could be so modified as to enable -the employés of the productive enterprise to share the +the employés of the productive enterprise to share the ownership of the latter with the wholesale establishment. Such an arrangement would at once give the workers the benefits of productive co-operation mentioned above, and @@ -16863,7 +16846,7 @@ seeds of social discontent and social disorder.</p> <p><span class="smcap">O'Grady</span>: A Legal Minimum Wage. Washington; 1915.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Broda</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Fixation Légale des Salaires</span>. Paris; 1912.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Broda</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Fixation Légale des Salaires</span>. Paris; 1912.</p> <p><span class="smcap">N. Y. Factory Investigating Commission.</span> Appendix to Vol. III.</p> @@ -16876,11 +16859,11 @@ seeds of social discontent and social disorder.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Pottier</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De Jure et Justitia</span>. Liege; 1900.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Polier</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Idée du Juste Salaire</span>. Paris; 1903.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Polier</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Idée du Juste Salaire</span>. Paris; 1903.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Menger</span>: The Right to the Whole Produce of Labour. London; 1899.</p> -<p><span class="smcap">Garriguet</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régime du Travail</span>. Paris; 1908.</p> +<p><span class="smcap">Garriguet</span>: <span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Régime du Travail</span>. Paris; 1908.</p> <p><span class="smcap">Nearing</span>: Reducing the Cost of Living. Philadelphia; 1914.</p> @@ -16933,7 +16916,7 @@ among man's natural rights. On the other hand, the landowner's right to take rent is no stronger than the capitalist's right to take interest; and in any case it is inferior to the right of the tenant to a decent livelihood, and of the -employé to a living wage.</p> +employé to a living wage.</p> <p>Nevertheless, the present system of land tenure is not perfect. Its principal defects are: the promotion of certain @@ -17000,14 +16983,14 @@ manufacture. Through co-operation the weaker farmers, merchants, and consumers can do business and obtain goods at lower costs, and save money for investment with greater facility, while the labourers can slowly but surely -become capitalists and interest-receivers, as well as employés +become capitalists and interest-receivers, as well as employés and wage-receivers.</p> <h3><i>The Business Man and Profits</i></h3> <p>Just remuneration for the active agents of production, -whether they be directors of industry or employés, depends +whether they be directors of industry or employés, depends fundamentally upon five canons of distribution; namely, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> needs, efforts and sacrifices, productivity, scarcity, and @@ -17107,11 +17090,11 @@ of property.</p> <p>As a matter of convenience, the foregoing paragraphs may be further summarised in the following abridgment: The landowner has a right to all the economic rent, modified -by the right of his tenants and employés to a decent +by the right of his tenants and employés to a decent livelihood, and by the right of the State to levy taxes which do not substantially lower the value of the land. The capitalist has a right to the prevailing rate of interest, -modified by the right of his employés to the "equitable +modified by the right of his employés to the "equitable minimum" of wages. The business man in competitive conditions has a right to all the profits that he can obtain, but corporations possessing a monopoly have no @@ -17229,7 +17212,7 @@ a revival of genuine religion. <li>power of to create value, <a href="#Page_146">146-148</a>;</li> <li>Catholic teaching concerning interest on, <a href="#Page_175">175-177</a>;</li> <li>titles of to interest, <a href="#Page_177">177-186</a>;</li> - <li>value of in a no-interest régime, <a href="#Page_188">188-190</a>;</li> + <li>value of in a no-interest régime, <a href="#Page_188">188-190</a>;</li> <li>need for a wider distribution of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li> <li>need for ownership of by labour, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> </ul></li> @@ -17330,7 +17313,7 @@ a revival of genuine religion. <li>equal gains, <a href="#Page_326">326-328</a>;</li> <li>free contract, <a href="#Page_328">328-330</a>;</li> <li>market value, <a href="#Page_330">330-332</a>;</li> - <li>mediæval, <a href="#Page_332">332-336</a>;</li> + <li>mediæval, <a href="#Page_332">332-336</a>;</li> <li>modern, <a href="#Page_336">336-340</a>.</li> </ul></li> <li>Exclusion from the land: <a href="#Page_90">90-93</a>.</li> @@ -17463,7 +17446,7 @@ a revival of genuine religion. <li>and to the entire product of industry, <a href="#Page_145">145-152</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341-347</a>;</li> <li>productivity of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> <li>inefficiency of under Socialism, <a href="#Page_162">162-167</a>;</li> - <li>mediæval measure of cost of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> + <li>mediæval measure of cost of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> <li>claims of different groups of, <a href="#Page_381">381-387</a>;</li> <li>legislative proposals for, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li> </ul></li> @@ -18105,8 +18088,8 @@ since the time of John Stuart Mill.</p> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The most notable exponents of this view were: Von Maurer, "<span lang="de" xml:lang="de">Einleitung zur Geschichte der Mark</span>," 1854; Viollet, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Bibliotheque -de l'école des chartres</span>," 1872; Maine, "Village Communities in the -East and the West," 1872; and De Laveleye, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la propriété et ses +de l'école des chartres</span>," 1872; Maine, "Village Communities in the +East and the West," 1872; and De Laveleye, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">De la propriété et ses formes primitives</span>," 1874, of which an English translation appeared in 1878 under the title, "Primitive Property."</p></div> @@ -18150,7 +18133,7 @@ Leviticus xxv, 23-28.</p></div> "Progress and Poverty," book vii, ch. i.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> -"<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Propriété Privée</span>," par L. Garriguet, I, 62; Paris, 1903.</p></div> +"<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La Propriété Privée</span>," par L. Garriguet, I, 62; Paris, 1903.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Cf. Ardant, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Papes et Paysans</span>," pp. 41, sq.</p></div> @@ -18363,7 +18346,7 @@ page 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> <cite>The Public</cite>, Nov. 26, 1915. For an account of increases in the principal European cities, see Camille-Husymans, "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">La plus-value -immobilière dans les communes belges</span>"; Gand, 1909.</p></div> +immobilière dans les communes belges</span>"; Gand, 1909.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> "Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Lumber @@ -18824,7 +18807,7 @@ Report on the Petroleum Industry, I, 328-332.</p></div> Cf. Lehmkuhl, "<span lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theologia Moralis</span>," I, No. 974.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> -It may be of interest to recall the mediæval attitude toward monopolistic +It may be of interest to recall the mediæval attitude toward monopolistic exactions, as summarily stated by St. Antoninus, who was archbishop of Florence in the first half of the fifteenth century: "When monopolist merchants agree together to preserve a fixed price, so as to @@ -18965,7 +18948,7 @@ of Political Economy.</p></div> "Property and Contract," II, 603.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> -Cf. "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Idée du Juste Salaire</span>," by Léon Polier, ch. iii. Paris; 1903.</p></div> +Cf. "<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'Idée du Juste Salaire</span>," by Léon Polier, ch. iii. Paris; 1903.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> Polier, op. cit., pp. 33, sq.; Ryan, "A Living Wage," pp. 26, sq.</p></div> @@ -18983,7 +18966,7 @@ Cf. Polier, op. cit., pp. 66-75; Ryan, op. cit, pp. 93, 94.</p></div> Cf. Polier, op. cit., pp. 92-95.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> -"<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours d'Économie Sociale</span>," pp. 598, sq.</p></div> +"<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Cours d'Économie Sociale</span>," pp. 598, sq.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> Polier, op. cit., pp. 219-359; Menger, "The Right to the Whole @@ -19009,7 +18992,7 @@ Op. cit., p. 51.</p></div> Cf. Menger, op. cit., pp. 62-73.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> -"<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Qu' est-ce que la propriété ou recherches sur la principe du droit +"<span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Qu' est-ce que la propriété ou recherches sur la principe du droit et du gouvernment</span>." 1840.</p></div> <div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> @@ -19203,360 +19186,6 @@ one occurrence after the final ad.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 42759-h.txt or 42759-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/7/5/42759">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/7/5/42759</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed.</p> - -<p> -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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