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diff --git a/43545-0.txt b/43545-0.txt index a574ee8..a82a359 100644 --- a/43545-0.txt +++ b/43545-0.txt @@ -1,35 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Detection of the Common Food Adulterants, by -Edwin M. Bruce - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Detection of the Common Food Adulterants - -Author: Edwin M. Bruce - -Release Date: August 23, 2013 [EBook #43545] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DETECTION OF COMMON FOOD ADULTERANTS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Eric Skeet and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43545 *** Transcriber’s notes: @@ -3079,361 +3048,4 @@ Klinger; Winter-Blyth and Winter Blyth to Wynter Blyth. End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Detection of the Common Food Adulterants, by Edwin M. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Detection of the Common Food Adulterants - -Author: Edwin M. Bruce - -Release Date: August 23, 2013 [EBook #43545] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DETECTION OF COMMON FOOD ADULTERANTS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Eric Skeet and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -Italics in the original work are here represented _between underscores_, -bold face text is represented =between equal signs=. Small capitals from -the original work are here represented by ALL CAPITALS. - -More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - Detection of the Common - Food Adulterants - - BY - - EDWIN M. BRUCE - - INSTRUCTOR IN CHEMISTRY, INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL - - - LONDON - - ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO., LTD. - - 10 ORANGE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE, W.C. - - 1907 - - - - - _Copyright, 1907_ - BY D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Because of the recent agitation of the pure food question throughout the -country, health officers, food-inspectors, and chemistry teachers and -students are constantly called upon to test the purity of various foods. -And this usually involves nothing more than making simple qualitative -tests for adulterants. In view of the fact that there is now no text or -manual devoted exclusively to the qualitative examination of foods, this -little book is offered to those who are interested in this work. - -Its aim is to bring together in one small book the best and simplest -qualitative tests for all the common food adulterants. It contains a -brief statement of the adulterants likely to be found and the reason for -their use. It is hoped that it will be specially valuable to chemistry -teachers in furnishing excellent supplementary work in qualitative -analysis. But it is hoped that it will find its greatest usefulness in -contributing something toward the great pure food reform. - -It is impossible to make due mention of all the sources from which these -various tests have been collected, but where possible, the author's name -has been associated with the test. - - TERRE HAUTE, IND. - - _March 25, 1907._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I PAGE - - DAIRY PRODUCTS 1 - - =Milk=--Adulterations of--Coloring matters--Annatto--Caramel-- - Coal-tar colors--Preservatives--Formaldehyde--Boric acid--Salicylic - acid--Gelatin--Starch. - - =Butter=--Adulterations of--Coloring matter--Preparation of sample - --Annatto--Coal-tar colors--Saffron--Turmeric--Marigold--Process or - renovated butter--Oleomargarine--Cottonseed oil. - - - CHAPTER II - - MEATS AND EGGS 8 - - Adulterations of--Fresh and smoked--Preservatives--Potassium - nitrate--Boric acid--Sulfurous acid--Salicylic acid--Benzoic acid-- - Canned--Preservatives (same as those of fresh and smoked meat)-- - Heavy metals--Coloring matter (see under sausages, etc.)--Fish, - salt, dried and oysters--Preservatives--Boric acid (same under - smoked and fresh meat)--Coloring matter--Aniline red and cochineal- - carmine--In sausages, chopped meat, preparations and corned meat-- - Starch--In sausages, deviled meat and similar products--Diseased - meats--Horse-flesh in sausages and in mince-meat. - - =Eggs=--Test for age. - - - CHAPTER III - - CEREAL PRODUCTS 16 - - =Flour=--Adulteration of--Alum--Copper sulfate--Substituted flours - --General test--Corn meal in wheat flour--Wheat flour in rye flour - --Ergot in rye flour. - - =Bread=--Adulterations of--Alum--Copper sulfate. - - =Ginger Cake=--Adulterations of--Stannous chlorid. - - - CHAPTER IV - - LEAVENING MATERIALS 20 - - =Baking Powders=--Adulterations of--Tartaric acid (free or - combined)--Tartaric acid (free)--Sulfates (calcium, etc.)--Gypsum-- - Ammonium salts--Alum. - - =Cream of Tartar=--Adulterations of--Tartaric acid (free or - combined)--Aluminium salts--Ammonia--Earthy materials. - - - CHAPTER V - - CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES 24 - - Adulterations of--Preservatives--Preparation of sample-- - Formaldehyde--Sulfurous acid and the sulfites--Salicylic acid-- - Saccharin--Benzoic acid--Coloring matter--Cochineal--Coal-tar dyes - --Copper salts--In green pickles, beans, peas, etc.--Turmeric--In - mixed pickles--Heavy metals (other than copper, same as under - meats)--Soaked vegetables--Peas, beans and corn--Alum--In pickles-- - Examination of the can or box. - - - CHAPTER VI - - FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS 33 - - Adulterations of--Preservatives--Preparation of sample--Salicylic - acid--Benzoic acid--Saccharin--Coloring matter--Coal-tar dyes-- - Cochineal--Acid magenta--Apple juice in jellies made from small - fruits--Detection (see test for starch)--Starch--In jellies, jams - and such products--Gelatin--In jellies--Agar agar--Heavy metals-- - Arsenic. - - - CHAPTER VII - - FLAVORING EXTRACTS 42 - - =Lemon Extract=--Lemon oil--Citral--Oil of citronella--Tartaric or - citric acid--Methyl alcohol--Coloring matter--Turmeric--Coal-tar - colors. - - =Vanilla Extract=--Adulterations of--Preliminary test--Alkali-- - Foreign resins--Caramel--Tannin--Coumarin. - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SACCHARINE PRODUCTS 49 - - =Honey=--Adulterations of--General observations--Cane sugar-- - Commercial glucose syrup--Gelatin. - - =Maple Syrup=--Adulterations of--General examination--Glucose. - - - CHAPTER IX - - SPICES 51 - - =Mustard=--Adulterations of--Flour--Coloring matter--Turmeric-- - Martius yellow or analogous coal-tar coloring matter--Cayenne - pepper. - - =Pepper=--Adulterations of--General test--Ground olive stones-- - Cayenne pepper. - - - CHAPTER X - - VINEGAR 55 - - Adulterations of--Preparation of sample--General observations-- - Free mineral acids--General tests--Sulfuric acid--Hydrochloric acid - (free)--Malic acid--Coloring matter--Caramel--Coal-tar colors--In - wine vinegar--Free tartaric acid--In wine vinegar. - - - CHAPTER XI - - FATS AND OILS 60 - - =Lard=--Adulterations of--Cottonseed oil--Cottonseed stearin--Beef - stearin. - - =Olive Oil=--Adulterations of--General test--Cottonseed oil--Peanut - oil--Sesame oil--Rape oil. - - - CHAPTER XII - - BEVERAGES 65 - - =Coffee=--Adulterations of--General test--Coloring matter-- - Imitation coffee beans--Chicory. - - =Tea=--Adulterations of--Foreign leaves--Exhausted tea leaves--Lie - tea--Facing--Catechu. - - - - -PURE FOOD TESTS - - - - -CHAPTER I - -DAIRY PRODUCTS - - -MILK - -Milk is adulterated by watering, removing the cream or by adding some -foreign substance. Formaldehyde, boric acid or salicylic acid may be -added to preserve the milk. Annatto, caramel or some coal-tar dye is -added, sometimes to improve the color of the milk, and at other times to -cover up traces of watering. Gelatin and starch are added for the same -purpose, though they are not frequently used. - - -ARTIFICIAL COLORING MATTER - - -ANNATTO - -Add acid sodium carbonate to a sample of the milk until it shows a -slight alkaline reaction. Immerse a piece of filter-paper and leave it -in for 12 or 15 hours. If annatto is present, there will be a -reddish-yellow stain on the paper. - - -CARAMEL - -_Leach's Method._--Warm 150 cc. of the sample and add 5 cc. of acetic -acid, then continue heating it nearly to the boiling point, stirring -while it is being heated. Separate the curd by gathering it with the -stirring rod or by pouring through a sieve. Press out all the whey from -the curd and macerate the latter for several hours (10 to 12 hours) in -50 cc. of ether. It is best to do this in a tightly corked flask, -shaking it frequently. If the milk was uncolored or colored with annatto -the curd when thus treated will be white. If the curd is a dull brown -color caramel was probably used to color the milk. Confirm its presence -by shaking a portion of the curd with concentrated hydrochloric acid -(sp. gr. 1.20) and gently heating. If the acid solution turns blue while -the curd does not change its color, caramel was used to color the milk. -(Remember that the ether-extracted curd must be brown.) - - -COAL TAR COLORS - -_Lythgoe's Method._--Mix in a porcelain vessel about 15 cc. each of the -sample of milk and hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) and break up the -curd into coarse lumps by shaking gently. If an azo-color was used to -color the milk this curd will be pink, but the curd of normal milk will -be white or yellowish. - - -STARCH - -The presence of starch in milk may be detected by heating a small -quantity of the milk to boiling. When it has cooled add a drop of iodin -in potassium iodid, and if starch is present there will be a blue -coloration. - - -GELATIN - -_A. W. Stokes' Method._--Dissolve 1 part by weight of mercury in 2 parts -of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42). Add 24 times this volume of water. Mix -equal volumes (about 10 cc.) of this reagent and the milk or cream, -shake well and add 20 cc. of water. Shake again and, after standing 5 -minutes, filter. When a great quantity of gelatin is present the -filtrate will be opalescent instead of perfectly clear. To a little of -this filtrate in a test tube add the same volume of a saturated aqueous -solution of picric acid. If much gelatin is present a yellow precipitate -is produced, smaller amounts produce a cloudiness. If the filtrate is -perfectly clear gelatin is absent and picric acid may be added without -producing any noticeable effect. - - -PRESERVATIVES - - -FORMALDEHYDE - -_Hehner's Sulfuric Acid Test._--Put 10 cc. of the suspected milk in a -wide test tube and pour carefully down the side of the inclined tube -about 5 cc. commercial sulfuric acid so that it forms a separate layer -at the bottom. A violet coloration at the union of the two liquids -indicates the presence of formaldehyde. If the commercial acid is not -available, the pure acid may be used, but a few drops of ferric chloride -must be added. Sometimes the charring effect of the acid makes it -advisable to use the following test: - -_Hydrochloric Acid Test._--2 cc. of 10 per cent ferric chloride is added -to one liter of commercial hydrochloric acid sp. gr. 1.2 (or any -quantity in this proportion). To 10 cc. of this mixture add 10 cc. of -the milk to be tested. Heat the mixture slowly nearly to the boiling -point, in an evaporating dish, but agitating it all the while to prevent -the curd collecting in one mass. If formaldehyde is present, there will -be a violet coloration. It is said that by this test as small a -quantity of formaldehyde as 1 part in 250,000 parts of milk can be -detected. It is not so sensitive in sour milk. - - -BORIC ACID - -_Turmeric Paper Test._--Incinerate some of the milk, and acidulate the -ash with a very few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid and afterwards -dissolve it in a few drops of water. Place a strip of turmeric paper in -this solution for a few minutes, then remove and dry it. If boric acid -either free or combined is present, the turmeric paper will be turned to -a cherry-red color. - -_Another way of making this test._--U. S. Dep. of Agr., Div. of Chem., -Bul. 65, p. 110: Make strongly alkaline with lime water, 25 grams of the -milk, and evaporate to dryness on the water bath. Destroy the organic -matter by igniting the residue. Dilute with 15 cc. of water and acidify -with hydrochloric acid. Then add 1 cc. of the concentrated acid. Dip a -piece of delicate turmeric paper in the solution; and if borax or boric -acid is present, it will have a characteristic red color when dry. -Ammonia changes it to a dark blue green, but the acid will restore the -color. - -(Turmeric paper may be prepared by dipping pieces of smooth, thin filter -paper in a solution of powdered turmeric in alcohol.) - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -(This is not often used as a preservative of milk.) - -_Leach suggests the following method for its detection._--Dissolve one -gram of mercury in 2 grams of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42) and then add to -the solution the same volume of water. Add 1 cc. of this reagent to 50 -cc. of the milk to be tested, and shake and filter. The perfectly clear -filtrate is shaken with ether and the ether extract evaporated to -dryness. Then add a drop of ferric chlorid solution, and a violet color -will be produced if salicylic acid is present. - - -BUTTER - -Butter is often colored with annatto, saffron, turmeric, marigold or -coal-tar colors. By a certain process, stale or old butter is sometimes -worked over and made to appear fresh for a time. This is sold under the -name of "process" or "renovated" butter. Foreign fats like cottonseed -oil, sesame oil, or oleomargarine may be substituted for or added to -pure butter. - - -COLORING MATTER - -_Martin's Test._--Add 2 parts of carbon bisulfid, a little at a time and -with frequent shaking, to 15 parts of alcohol. Shake 25 cc. of this -solution with 5 grams of the butter, and let stand for some time. The -carbon bisulfid dissolves out the fatty matter and settles to the -bottom. The alcohol remains on top and will dissolve out any artificial -colors that may be present. If only a little coloring matter is present -use more of the butter. - - -ANNATTO - -Evaporate a portion of the extract to dryness and add sulfuric acid to -the residue. If annatto is present a greenish-blue color forms. Should a -pink tint result the presence of a coal-tar color is to be suspected. - - -COAL-TAR COLORS - -These colors will dye wool or silk if pieces of the fiber are boiled in -the diluted alcoholic extract, which has first been acidified with -hydrochloric acid. The normal butter coloring matter will not dissolve -when thus treated. - -_Geisler's Method._--To a few drops of the clarified fat on a porcelain -surface, add a very little fullers' earth. If a pink to violet-red -coloration is produced in a short time the presence of an azo-color is -indicated. - - -SAFFRON - -When saffron is present, nitric acid colors the alcoholic extract green, -and hydrochloric acid colors it red. - - -TURMERIC - -Add ammonia to the alcoholic extract, and if it turns brown it indicates -the presence of turmeric. - - -MARIGOLD - -Add silver nitrate to the extract, and if it turns black the presence of -marigold is indicated. - - -PROCESS OR RENOVATED BUTTER - -Heat a little of the suspected butter in a spoon or dish, and if it is -process butter it will sputter, but not foam much. Make the test also -with some butter known to be pure and fresh. - -_Hess and Doolittle Test._--Melt some of the butter (say 40 grams) at -about 50° C. If the butter is pure and fresh the melted fat will clear -up almost as soon as it is melted, while the fat of process butter -remains turbid for quite a while. After most of the curd has settled, -decant as much as possible of the fat. Pour the remainder on a wet -filter. Add a few drops of acetic acid to the water that runs through -from the filter, and boil. If it was ordinary butter this filtrate will -become milky, but if process butter a flocculent precipitate will form. - - -OLEOMARGARINE - -Immerse a test tube, containing some of the filtered fat, in boiling -water for 2 minutes. Make a mixture of 1 part glacial acetic acid, 6 -parts ether, and 4 parts alcohol. Add to 20 cc. of this mixture in a 50 -cc. test tube, 1 cc. of the heated fat which may be transferred by means -of a hot pipette. Stopper the tube and shake it well. Immerse in water -at 15° or 16° C. Pure butter when thus treated remains clear for quite a -while. There will be only a very little deposit after standing an hour, -but oleomargarine gives a deposit almost immediately, and in a few -minutes there will be a copious precipitate. - -When the oleomargarine in butter is in about the proportion of 1 : 10, -it will not separate much short of 15 minutes. - - -COTTONSEED OIL - -The presence of this oil may be detected by Halpen's test, which is -given under lard, page 60. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -MEATS AND EGGS - - -Meats are preserved by treating them with potassium nitrate, boric acid, -sulfurous acid, salicylic acid, or benzoic acid. Cheap meat may be -substituted for the more expensive. A few cases of horse meat in mince -meat and sausages have been discovered. Diseased and stale meats have -been found on the market. Canned meats often contain zinc, tin, and -lead, and sometimes even arsenic. Aniline-red or cochineal-carmine may -be added to improve the color of chopped or ground meats. Starch is -sometimes added to sausage and similar meat. Fish and oysters may be -preserved with boric acid or borax. - - -FRESH AND SMOKED PRODUCTS--PRESERVATIVES - - -POTASSIUM NITRATE (SALTPETER) - -Corned and smoked meats are usually preserved with saltpeter. Since -smoked and cured meats are used in making potted meats, saltpeter is -quite frequently found in the latter. It may be detected by the usual -test for nitrates since no other nitrate is apt to be present, though -one may identify the metal by the qualitative test for potassium. - -To test for nitrates treat a little of the meat with 2 or 3 cc. of a 1 -per cent solution of diphenylamine in strong sulfuric acid. If a -nitrate is present a deep blue color forms instantly, which is not -obscured by the charring effect of the acid. - - -BORIC ACID - -Pick apart into fine pieces about 25 or 50 grams of the lean meat and -warm with a little water which has a few drops of hydrochloric acid in -it. Soak a piece of turmeric paper in the extract, and if boric acid is -present the paper will be colored rose-red when it is dry. A weak alkali -turns this colored paper olive. - -Another method is to burn a piece of the meat to an ash, after being -treated with lime water. Make a solution of the ash and make slightly -acid with hydrochloric acid. Then test with the turmeric paper with the -same results as in the above method. - - -SULFUROUS ACID - -U. S. Dep. Agr., Bureau Chem., Bul. 13, Part 10: Digest 40 or 50 grams -of the meat in hot water, treat with 10 cc. glacial phosphoric acid to -coagulate the proteids. Strain through a cotton bag and transfer the -filtrate to a short-necked flask and distil receiving the first part of -the distillate in a solution of iodin. Boil, and add barium chloride. If -sulfurous acid is present, it will be oxidized to sulfuric acid and -precipitated as barium sulfate by the barium chlorid. More than a mere -trace of the precipitate proves that some sulfite was used to preserve -the meat. - -Another method suggested by Kämmerer is to place the meat on paper, -which has been saturated with potassium iodate moistened with dilute -sulfuric acid (1 : 8); nitric oxid must not be present. If sulfurous -acid is present a deep blue color forms at once. A trace of this color -may form after some time with meat that is not fresh, hence this method -cannot be used in examining canned meat. - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -Heat 50 grams of the meat in 50 cc. of water. Add 10 cc. of a strong -solution of glacial phosphoric acid and strain through a cotton bag. -Extract the filtrate with a little ether (about 50 cc.) in a separatory -funnel. Let the ether evaporate spontaneously. Take up the residue with -3 cc. of water, and add one or two drops of a one-half per cent solution -of ferric chlorid. If salicylic acid is present the mixture will be -purple or violet. - -Leach makes the same test by slightly acidifying a portion of the lean -meat, then extracting with ether, and evaporating to dryness and testing -the residue with a drop of ferric chlorid solution. A deep violet -coloration is produced if salicylic acid is present. - - -BENZOIC ACID - -_Mohler's Method._--Prepare a sample as in the test for salicylic acid -by heating 50 grams of the meat in 50 cc. of water. Add 10 cc. of a -concentrated solution of glacial phosphoric acid, and strain through a -cotton bag. Neutralize with sodium hydrate and evaporate to dryness or -to a small volume. After treating with 3 cc. of concentrated sulfuric -acid, heat till white fumes appear. Add 4 or 5 crystals of potassium -nitrate and continue heating until the solution is colorless or nearly -so. When cool dilute with water, add an excess of ammonia, and place in -a narrow vessel like a test tube. Add one or two drops of ammonium -sulfid carefully so that the liquids do not mix. If the surface of the -liquid immediately becomes red, benzoic acid is present. - -If this test is not carefully performed, it is worthless, as other -substances give similar results. - -Confirm its presence by neutralizing the aqueous solution of the -extracted benzoic acid with sodium hydroxid; concentrate to a very small -volume. Acidify with sulfuric acid. A white flocculent precipitate shows -the presence of considerable benzoic acid. - - -CANNED MEAT - -If in preparing canned meat only fresh meat is used, there is little -need for the use of preservatives, but as considerable smoked and cured -meat is thus used, preservatives may find their way into canned meat. - -The same preservatives should be looked for as in fresh and smoked meat -and the same test made for each. - - -HEAVY METALS - -_A. H. Allen's Method._--About 25 grams of the substance is mixed slowly -with enough strong, pure sulfuric acid to just moisten the mass, -avoiding an excess. Heat on a water-bath for a short time, then raise -the temperature gradually, and maintain till the chlorids seem to be -decomposed. It must not be hot enough, however, to volatilize the -sulfuric acid. Then add 1 cc. of strong nitric acid and heat till red -fumes are given off. Freshly ignited magnesia in the proportion of 0.5 -gram for each cc. of sulfuric and nitric acid previously used is now -stirred into the mass and the whole ignited at a dull red heat. This is -best done in a gas-muffle. When cool, moisten the ash with nitric acid -and gently re-ignite, repeating this treatment till the carbon is -entirely consumed. Treat the residue with 8 or 10 drops of strong -sulfuric acid, heat till fumes are given off, cool, boil with water, -dilute to about 100 cc. and saturate with hydrogen sulfid, filter, -examine as follows: - - ==========================++=========================================== - Zinc and iron may be in ||Lead, tin, copper, and calcium, if present, - solution. Add bromine ||will be in the precipitate and residue. - water to destroy hydrogen ||Fuse the mass in a porcelain crucible for - sulfid and to oxidize the ||at least ten minutes with 2 grams each of - iron, boil and add ammo- ||potassium and sodium carbonates and half - nium hydrate in excess, ||as much sulfur. After cooling, boil with - boil again and filter. ||water and filter. - ---------------+----------++---------------------------+--------------- - The precipitate|Filtrate, ||Residue. Add hydrochloric |The filtrate may - will contain |when blue,||acid and boil as long as |contain tin. - the iron and |proves the||hydrogen sulfid is given |Acidify with - the phosphates.|presence ||off. A few drops of bro- |acetic acid, and - |of nickel.||mine water will complete |if tin is pres- - | ||the oxidation of the |ent a yellow - | ||copper sulfid. Filter, and|precipitate of - | ||add ammonium hydroxid in |stannic sulfid - | ||excess to the filtrate. |will form. - | ||When the filtrate is blue,| - | ||it indicates the presence | - | ||of copper. Acidify the | - | ||filtrate with acetic acid | - | ||and test for lead by | - | ||adding potassium chromate,| - | ||a yellow precipitate being| - | ||formed when it is present.| - ---------------+----------++--------------------------+---------------- - |I. Heat to|| | - |boiling || | - |and add || | - |potassium || | - |ferrocya- || | - |nid. A || | - |white pre-|| | - |cipitate || | - |or turbi- || | - |dity in- || | - |dicates || | - |_zinc_. || | - ===============+==========++==========================+================ - - -FISH SALT DRIED AND OYSTERS - -This kind of meat is often preserved with boric acid and borax. They may -be detected by the method given under fresh and smoked meat. - - -COLORING MATTER - -Sausages and other chopped meat preparations, together with corned meat -that has been cured without saltpeter, are often treated with artificial -coloring matter. - -Aniline red and cochineal carmine are usually employed for this purpose. -The former may be detected, according to Allen, by picking the meat -apart and treating it with methylated spirit, strain or filter the -extract and take up with water. Then a piece of white wool (nun's -veiling will do) is immersed in the boiling liquid and, if it is dyed -red, rosaniline is present. - -Cochineal-carmine may be detected by the method used by Klinger and -Bujard. Cut up fine about 20 grams of the meat and heat in a water-bath -with water and glycerine mixed in equal parts. If the above coloring -matter is present the liquid will become quite red in color, if not -present a slight yellow color results from this treatment. If a -spectroscope is available this dye is easily recognized. - - -STARCH - - -IN SAUSAGE, DEVILED MEAT, AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS - -Cracker and bread crumbs are often added to these preparations and their -presence is best detected by examining the amount of starch present. Do -this by boiling some of the sample in water, and when cool adding a drop -or two of iodin reagent. The usual blue color is produced if much -starch is present. If there is only a little starch, it may be necessary -to examine it under the microscope to determine whether the starch is -from the pepper and other spices used or from some cereal. - - -DISEASED MEAT - -_The following method is recommended by Ebers._--Hold a small piece of -the suspected meat over a mixture of 1 cc. hydrochloric acid, 3 cc. -alcohol, and 1 cc. of ether. The formation of ammonium chlorid fumes -shows that decomposition has begun. Do not mistake the fumes of the acid -for those of ammonium chlorid. - - -HORSE FLESH - - -IN SAUSAGE AND MINCE MEAT - -This sophistication is not common in this country. Horse flesh is -detected by testing for glycogen, which is present in it in larger -quantities than in other meats. - -_Courley & Coremon's Test._--Boil 50 grams of the meat for a half hour -with water, strain, and to a portion of the filtrate add a few drops of -potassium iodid-iodin solution (potassium iodid 0.4 gram; iodin 0.1 -gram; water 20 cc.). If considerable horse meat is present the glycogen -will color the liquid dark brown, which disappears on heating, but -returns on cooling. - - -EGGS - -It sometimes happens that one wishes to know the age of eggs without -opening them. - -_Delarne's Test._--Place the egg in a 10 per cent solution of common -salt. Perfectly fresh eggs sink to the bottom. Those remaining -immersed, but suspended in the liquid, are at least three days old, -while those rising to the surface and floating are more than five days -old. The older the egg, the higher it floats and the more it will stand -on end. This test is not applicable to eggs that have been preserved. - -Hold the egg between a bright light and the eye, and if the air chamber -is small, and no dark spots but instead a rather uniform rose-colored -tint is seen, the egg is fresh. If the contents appear cloudy and the -air chamber larger, the egg is not fresh. The darker the contents of the -egg the older it is. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CEREAL PRODUCTS - - -FLOUR - -Sometimes a cheaper or inferior grade of flour is substituted for one of -higher quality, and even a different kind of flour may be substituted, -as corn meal in wheat flour, or wheat in rye flour. Alum may be added by -millers to cover up traces of bad flour, and by bakers to make the bread -white when a bad or cheap flour is being used. Copper sulfate also may -be added to improve the appearance. Occasionally rye flour is made from -rye upon which ergot has developed. Stannous chlorid and potassium -carbonate are added to ginger cake to give the same color to the product -made of molasses and a poor grade of flour as that made from good flour -and honey. - - -ALUM - -_Wynther Blyth Method._--Add a little water to the sample and macerate. -Soak pieces of gelatin in the solution and leave for a half day, remove -the gelatin and dip the pieces in a mixture of equal volumes of a fresh -tincture of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate. The -gelatin strips will turn blue if alum is present. - -_Bell & Carter Method._--Make a fresh 5 per cent tincture of logwood in -methyl alcohol. Dampen about 10 grams of the flour with water and add 1 -cc. of the logwood tincture and the same quantity of a saturated -solution of ammonium carbonate. Pure flour gives a pinkish color which -fades to buff or brown. The presence of alum produces a lavender or -bluish tint which becomes more distinct as it dries. - - -COPPER SULFATE - -This adulterant may be detected in either flour or bread, by soaking the -flour or bread in a dilute solution of potassium ferrocyanid acidulated -with acetic acid. If copper be present a purplish or reddish-brown -coloration will be produced. - - -SUBSTITUTED FLOURS - -_Vogel's Method._--Make a mixture of alcohol (70 per cent), 95 parts, -hydrochloric acid 5 parts. Treat a sample of the flour in a test tube -with this reagent. Shake well. Heat to boiling and allow to settle. A -colorless fluid shows the flour to be pure, a straw-colored tint -indicates the presence of gruffs with bran, an orange-yellow proves the -presence of corn-cockle flour, a flesh-colored liquid indicates the -presence of ergot, while a green color indicates buckwheat flour. - - -CORN MEAL IN WHEAT FLOUR - -_Kraemer claims to be able to detect as small amount as 5 per cent of -maize in wheat flour, by the following test._--Mix a gram of the flour -with 15 cc. of good glycerin, and heat to boiling for a short time. If -corn meal is present, there will be an odor like that of pop corn. - - -WHEAT IN RYE FLOUR - -_Kleeburg recommends the following test._--A little of the flour is -mixed on a piece of common window glass or microscope slide, with -sufficient water (at 45° C.) to float the flour particles. Spread the -mixture out over the glass, and press another glass down upon it. When -wheat flour is present, white spots will be seen, and if the glasses are -slid upon each other the spots will pull out into threads, and the -thicker and longer they are the more wheat flour there is present. - - -ERGOT IN RYE FLOUR - -_Boettger gives the following chemical test for ergot._--Heat 10 to 15 -minutes with an equal quantity of ether, adding a few crystals of oxalic -acid. When ergot is present a reddish color develops. - -_Another Method._--Bul. 51, Bureau of Chem. - -Digest 20 grams of the suspected flour, with boiling alcohol, till no -more color is extracted. Add 1 cc. of sulfuric acid (1 : 3), and if -ergot is present the solution will be colored red. - - -BREAD - - -ALUM - -Moisten a piece of the bread with water, and then with a logwood -solution (5 grams logwood digested in 100 cc. of alcohol). If alum is -present the bread will become lavender blue in two or three hours. Pure -bread would have a red-brown tint. To prove the presence of alum, the -blue color must be permanent at the temperature of boiling water. (The -logwood used in this test must be pure.) - -_Blyth's Test._--Macerate 150 grams of the sample for 45 or 50 hours in -a couple liters of water; after straining through muslin, evaporate to a -small volume over a low flame. Immerse a strip of gelatin in this -liquid, and then in a logwood solution (same as in last test), and if -alum is present it will acquire the lavender color. - -If the bread in either of these tests is sour, the following -modification (Vanderplanken) must be made. Reduce 15 grams of the sample -to a paste with water and some pure chlorid of sodium, adding 10 drops -of a fresh alcoholic solution of logwood, after which add 5 grams of -pure potassium carbonate. Mix well, and after washing with 100 cc. of -water into a vessel allow to settle. If alum is present the liquid will -soon become reddish-violet, and if not present it will be blue. - - -COPPER SULFATE - -SEE TEST FOR COPPER SULFATE IN FLOUR - - -GINGER CAKE - -Tin may be detected by the method for heavy metals under meat. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -LEAVENING MATERIALS - - -BAKING POWDERS - -Baking powders consist of bicarbonate of soda and an acidifying agent as -acid potassium tartrate, acid calcium phosphate, tartaric acid or alum. -Some powders contain both acid calcium phosphate and alum. The kind of -powder is determined by testing for these. Gypsum has been added to -baking powders to increase the weight. - - -TARTARIC ACID - - -FREE OR COMBINED - -_Wolff's Method._--If no starch is present, mix a little of the powder -with some dry resorcin. Add a few drops of sulfuric acid and heat -gently. A rose-red color forms if tartaric acid or tartrates are -present. The color should disappear when diluted with water. When starch -is present, mix well by shaking about 5 grams of the powder with 250 cc. -of cold water. Let the insoluble matter settle and pour the liquid upon -a filter. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness, treat the powdered residue -with a few drops of a 1 per cent solution of resorcin. Add 3 cc. of -strong sulfuric acid, heat slowly. A rose-red color forms if tartaric -acid is present. The color should be destroyed on the addition of -water. This test is applicable in the presence of phosphates and the -acid may be free or combined. - - -TARTARIC ACID - - -FREE - -Make an absolute alcoholic extract of 5 grams of the powder and -evaporate the alcohol. Add sufficient dilute ammonia to dissolve the -residue, place in a test tube and drop in a crystal or two of silver -nitrate. Heat gently, and a silver mirror will form if tartaric acid is -present. - - -SULFATES - - -CALCIUM, ETC. - -Boil a portion of the sample gently with strong hydrochloric acid, add -barium chlorid. A white precipitate of barium sulfate will form if -sulfuric acid is present. - - -GYPSUM - - -CALCIUM SULFATE - -Ash a portion of the sample and make the usual qualitative tests for -calcium sulfate. - - -AMMONIUM SALTS - -Extract a few grams of the sample with cold water, boil the extract with -sodium hydroxid and place a piece of moist red litmus paper in the -steam. It will be colored blue if ammonia is present. - - -ALUM - -Reduce to an ash about 2 grams of the powder in a platinum dish. Extract -with boiling water, add ammonium chlorid solution to the filtrate until -a distinct odor of ammonia is given off. - -If a flocculent precipitate forms it indicates the presence of alum. - -This test for alum is applicable in the presence of phosphates. - -_Mrs. Richards._--Cover some logwood chips (they must be pure) with -water and bring to a boil. Repeat this four times, saving only the last -decoction. Shake some of the sample (a couple of teaspoonfuls) in a -beaker half full of water. When it ceases effervescing, strongly acidify -with acetic acid. Add a few drops of the logwood extract, and if alum is -present a bluish-red color will appear. - - -CREAM OF TARTAR - -Cream of tartar is bitartrate of potassium and is obtained from the lees -deposited in wine casks. If gypsum has been used to clarify the wine, it -will be present in the cream of tartar as calcium tartrate. - -Other adulterants of cream of tartar are acid calcium phosphate, starch, -gypsum, and alum. - - -TARTARIC ACID - - -FREE OR COMBINED - -If the sample is known to be free from starch the following test may be -made: - -Mix a bit of the powder with a small quantity of dry resorcin and add a -few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. Heat slowly, and if a rose-red -color forms, which disappears when diluted with water, there is present -either tartaric acid or a tartrate. - -When the sample contains starch, shake about 4 or 5 grams of it a number -of times with 250 cc. of cold water in a large flask. Pour on a filter -after the insoluble material has settled and evaporate the filtrate to -dryness. The residue is to be tested for tartaric acid and tartrates, -the same as when starch was absent. - - -ALUMINIUM SALTS - -Mix equal quantities (about 1 gram) of the sample and sodium carbonate -and burn to an ash. Extract with boiling water and filter. Add to this -filtrate enough ammonium chlorid solution to cause a distinct evolution -of ammonia. The formation of a flocculent precipitate shows the presence -of aluminium. This test may be used when phosphates are present. - - -AMMONIA - - -PRESENT IN THE FORM OF AMMONIA ALUM OR AMMONIUM CARBONATE - -Make a cold water extract of the powder and boil it with sodium -hydroxid. Test the steam with moist red litmus paper. - - -EARTHY MATERIALS - -Treat the sample with warm potassium hydroxid. A residue indicates some -earthy material. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES - - -No class of foods on the market has less need for antiseptics than -canned goods, yet their use is rather common. Products thus treated are -easier canned and are not so apt to spoil. The chemicals used as -preservatives are sulfurous acid, and the sulfites, salicylic acid and -saccharin, benzoic acid, and sometimes formaldehyde. Sulfurous acid is -used to bleach such foods as canned corn. Saccharin possesses some -antiseptic properties, but its main use is as a sweetener. Alum is used -to make pickles hard and crisp. - -Some canned or bottled goods, as tomato-catsup, is colored with -cochineal or coal-tar dyes. Green pickles, beans, peas, and such -vegetables are colored by copper salts or are cooked in copper vessels, -with the addition of acetic acid, hence the beautiful green color. -Turmeric is sometimes used to color mixed pickles. - -The heavy metals as lead, zinc, and tin are generally present in canned -goods, the amount varying with the corrosive power of the vegetable. - -When there is a year of scarcity in corn, peas, beans, and such -vegetables, the dried product is often soaked and canned. Some of this -goods is sold for the regular green vegetable, while some may be -properly marked "Soaked Goods." - - -PRESERVATIVES - -It is best to make a systematic examination for the different -preservatives. The sample may be prepared by mixing 50 grams of the -pulped material with sufficient water in a 250 cc. graduated flask. Add -phosphoric acid till distinctly acid in reaction. Fill to the mark with -water. Place in a distilling flask, and distil in a linseed oil or a -paraffin bath till 30 cc. have been collected. Save this distillate for -the following tests. - - -FORMALDEHYDE - -To 5 cc. of the above distillate in a test tube, add 2 or 3 drops of a 1 -per cent aqueous solution of phenol and mix well. Incline the tube and -carefully pour down the side 5 cc. of concentrated commercial sulfuric -acid so that the two liquids do not mix. If formaldehyde is present -there will be a crimson zone at the plane of union of the solutions. -This coloration takes place when the formaldehyde is present in the -proportion of 1 part in 100,000 parts. When there is a greater quantity -of formaldehyde present a white turbidity or a light-colored precipitate -forms above the coloring. - -_Phenylhydrazine Hydrochloric Test._--Dissolve 2 grams of -phenylhydrazine hydrochlorid and 3 grams of sodium acetate in 20 cc. of -water. Add 2 to 4 drops of this reagent and the same number of drops of -sulfuric acid to 1 or 2 cc. of the above distillate, to be examined in a -test tube. A green coloration is produced when formaldehyde is present. - -_Hydrochloric Acid Test._--Add 5 cc. of the distillate to be tested to -about 5 cc. of milk known to be pure, and about 10 cc. of concentrated -hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) which contains 1 cc. of a 10 per cent -ferric chlorid solution to each 500 cc. of the acid. Heat slowly to 80° -or 90° C. over the free flame, agitating it at the same time to break up -the curd. A violet coloration indicates formaldehyde. - - -SULFUROUS ACID AND THE SULFITES - -Free sulfurous acid is not largely used as a food preservative, though -its salts are quite commonly employed. - -_Detection._--Mix 150 grams of the finely ground sample with enough -water to make a thin paste. Acidify with phosphoric acid and distil till -25 cc. have been collected. (The delivery tube of the condenser should -dip below the surface of a little water.) Treat the distillate with a -few drops of bromine water and boil for a short time. If a precipitate -forms on the addition of barium chlorid the presence of sulfurous acid -is indicated. - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -Acidify 50 cc. of the sample with sulfuric acid, and shake vigorously -with 50 cc. of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum spirit. -When the liquids have separated, draw off as much as possible of the -solvent and filter. If an emulsion forms use a centrifugal machine, and -evaporate with a small flame. If needle-shaped crystals form, salicylic -acid is present. Add a few drops of water and a drop of very dilute -ferric chlorid solution in such a way that the solutions will come -together slowly. The presence of salicylic acid gives a purple or violet -color. - - -SACCHARIN - -This is used quite extensively as a sweetening agent in canned sweet -corn, and other similar products. - -Macerate about 20 grams of the sample after mixing with 30 to 40 cc. of -water and strain through muslin. Acidify with 1 or 2 cc. of sulfuric -acid (1 to 3) and extract with ether. (If an emulsion forms, use a -centrifugal machine.) Separate the ether layer and let the ether -evaporate spontaneously and use the residue in the following tests: - -Take up a part of the residue with water and taste. If it is very sweet -saccharin is present. Confirm by the following: - -_Schmidt's Test._--Add about 1 gram of sodium hydroxide to another part -of the residue, and heat in an air-oven or oil bath, for half an hour at -about 250° C., to convert the saccharin into salicylic acid. After it -has cooled, acidify with sulfuric acid, extract and test for salicylic -acid with 2 or 3 drops of ferric chlorid solution, letting the solutions -come together slowly. A purple or violet coloration proves the presence -of salicylic acid, which in turn indicates the presence of saccharin. -This test cannot be used if salicylic acid was used as a preservative in -the original product. A test for the acid should first be made. - -_Bornstein's Test._--Heat the remainder of the above ether residue with -resorcin and a very little sulfuric acid till it begins to swell. (It is -best to do this heating in a test-tube.) Let cool till the action stops, -heat again and repeat the operation several times. After cooling the -last time, dilute with water and add sodium hydrate till neutral. If -saccharin is present, there will be a red-green fluorescence. - - -BENZOIC ACID - -Acidify 50 cc. of the sample with sulfuric acid and shake vigorously -with 50 cc. of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum spirit. -Let the liquids separate, then draw off as much as possible of the -solvent and filter. (Use a centrifugal machine if an emulsion forms.) -Separate the extract into 2 parts and evaporate each to dryness over a -small flame and make the following tests: - -_Ferric Chlorid Test._--Dissolve one of these residues in ammonia, and -evaporate to dryness on a water-bath. Take up the residue with warm -water, filter, and collect the filtrate in a small test tube. Add a drop -of ferric chlorid solution, and if benzoic acid is present a -characteristic flesh or brownish colored precipitate of ferric benzoate -forms. Sometimes in such products as sweet pickles, a basic ferric -acetate precipitate comes down and the following test had better be -applied. - -_Peter's Method._--Take about 0.1 gram of the second part of the above -ether residue, place in a large test tube (about 50 cc.) and dissolve in -5 to 8 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid. Add from 0.5 to 0.8 gram of -barium peroxide, a little at a time. Shake each time and cool in water -if necessary. This should produce a permanent froth on the sulfuric -acid. Let stand 25 or 30 minutes, then fill the tube three fourths full -of water, shake and cool rapidly to the temperature of the room, and -filter off the barium sulfate. Extract with chloroform or ether. Remove -the extract and test it for salicylic acid with dilute ferric chlorid. -(See first test under salicylic acid.) In this method salicylic acid -must first be proven absent. - -_Mohler's Test._--Treat the remainder of the second part of the above -ether residue with 2 or 3 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid. Heat till -white fumes appear. Add a few crystals of potassium nitrate and when -cool dilute with water. Add an excess of ammonia, then a drop or two of -ammonium sulfid. If a red color appears immediately on the surface, it -shows the presence of benzoic acid. - - -COLORING MATTER IN CATSUPS AND TOMATOES - - -COCHINEAL - -_Girard and Dupre Test._--Shake well a portion of the sample with water -and filter, acidify with hydrochloric acid, then extract with amyl -alcohol, and if cochineal is present the extract will be colored yellow -or orange, the particular shade depending on the amount of cochineal -present. Remove the amyl alcohol and wash with water until it is -neutral. To half of this, add a very dilute solution of uranium acetate, -drop by drop, and shaking well after the addition of each drop. -Cochineal, if present, will produce a characteristic emerald-green -color. - -Confirm by adding a drop or two of ammonia to the second half of the -amyl alcohol extract and a violet coloration will be produced if -cochineal is present. - - -COAL-TAR COLORING MATTER - -_Sostegni and Carpentieri Test._--Free from grease a piece of woolen -cloth (nun's veiling will do) by boiling first in very dilute caustic -soda solution and then in water. Acidify a portion of the sample with 2 -to 4 cc. of 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid and filter. Strips -of the cleansed cloth are boiled in this filtrate for 5 or 10 minutes, -then removed, washed in water and boiled with very dilute hydrochloric -acid solution. Wash out the acid and dissolve the color from the cloth -by boiling in a solution of ammonium hydroxid (1 to 50). (The time -required will depend upon the dye present.) Remove the cloth from the -solution and acidify the latter with hydrochloric acid and another piece -of the cleansed cloth is immersed and again boiled. This second dyeing -fixes only coal-tar colors on the cloth, hence, no fear of mistaking -them for the natural color of the vegetable. - - -IN GREEN PICKLES, BEANS, PEAS, ETC. - - -COPPER SALTS - -Burn 20 grams of the sample to an ash and wet the ash with concentrated -nitric acid, dilute with water and boil. Add ammonia till strongly -alkaline and filter. If the filtrate is blue, copper is present. - -Confirm by acidifying the filtrate with acetic acid and adding potassium -ferrocyanid. A red or brownish precipitate or coloration proves the -presence of copper. The test for other heavy metals may be made by the -general method given under meats. - - -IN MIXED PICKLES - - -TURMERIC - -Shake with alcohol to extract the color. Soak a piece of filter paper in -the extract and dry in an air oven at 100° C. Wet the filter paper with -a weak solution of boric acid to which a very little hydrochloric acid -has been added. If turmeric is present, a cherry-red color will appear -when the filter paper is dry. - - -"SOAKED" VEGETABLES - - -PEAS, BEANS, AND CORN - -There is really no chemical test for this class of foods. Certain -helpful directions given in Bul. 65, p. 54, of the Bureau of Chem., will -assist in identifying such goods. All or nearly all of the green color -of peas and beans is destroyed by the process of "soaking." They have -the appearance of the well-matured product, and are firm and mealy with -well-formed cotyledons. The process of soaking starts the growth of the -caulicle of the pea. The kernel of corn is plump and hard and does not -have the milky consistency of the immatured product. The characteristic -succulence of the green pea, bean, and corn is absent in the soaked -product. - - -ALUM IN PICKLES - -This is sometimes added to the pickling solution to produce hardness and -crispness. - -Burn to ash a sample of the pickles, and, if they are free from copper, -fuse in a platinum dish with sodium carbonate. Extract with boiling -water, and after filtering add ammonium chlorid solution. If alum is -present, a flocculent precipitate will form. - - -EXAMINATION OF THE CAN OR BOX IN WHICH VEGETABLES ARE SEALED - -Generally when the ends of a can are convex, instead of plane or -concave, it is spoiled. In the souring of canned sweet corn, it is -exceptional that the ends are forced outward. - -Strike the can and the spoiled cans will give a dull sound while the -good ones will give a distinct tone. Some practice will be necessary to -use this test. - -One can judge of the amount of tin dissolved by the corrosion of the -inside of the can. - -Reject cans that show much rust around the cap on the inside of the -head. - -If more than one hole is found soldered in the cap, reject the can. Cans -of salmon are the only exception that has come to the author's notice. A -second hole, in general, indicates that decomposition had set in and the -can had been punctured and resealed. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS - - -Salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and saccharin are used to preserve fruits. -The last is also added as a sweetener instead of sugar. Many fruit -products lose their color with age, and to give them a lasting color -they are treated with a coal-tar dye, cochineal, acid magenta, or -caramel. - -A very small per cent of the jams and jellies sold are strictly pure. -These cheap products are made up principally of apple juice and -commercial glucose; artificial essences are added to imitate the real -flavor. - -In cheap jellies made of apple juice and glucose syrup, a "coagulator" -is used; usually sulfuric acid and alum, also citric and tartaric acids -may be used for this purpose. - -Starch, gelatin, and agar are used as gelatinizing agents. - -Fruits put up in tin cans may dissolve the heavy metals as tin, zinc, -lead, and even arsenic. - - -PRESERVATIVES - -_Preparation of the Sample._--Dissolve 25 or 30 grams of the sample in -water which has been acidified with sulfuric acid (1 to 3), then extract -with ether, and remove the ether layer and let it evaporate -spontaneously. The residue may contain salicylic acid, benzoic acid, or -saccharin. Take up with a little water and make the following tests: - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -Place a few drops of this extract in a test tube and add a drop or two -of a 0.5 per cent solution of ferric chlorid. If salicylic acid is -present, there will be a purple coloration. - - -BENZOIC ACID - -_Mohler's Test._--Add 2 to 3 cc. of strong sulfuric acid to a second -portion of the above ether extract and heat until white fumes appear. -Then add a few crystals of potassium nitrate and heat again. Continue -adding the nitrate and heating till the solution is colorless or only a -very light yellow. Dilute with about 5 cc. of water when cool, -neutralize with ammonia. It should be filtered when not clear or when -crystals of ammonium or potassium sulfate are formed. Add a few drops of -ammonium sulfid to the filtrate in such a way as to prevent the mixing -of the liquids. The sulfid will be on top. If a bright cherry-red color -forms where the two liquids meet, either benzoic acid or saccharin is -present. Distil and the benzoic acid will pass over, extract the -distillate in the usual way and apply the above test to it for benzoic -acid. - - -SACCHARIN - -Taste a third portion of the ether extract. A very sweet taste indicates -saccharin. A further test can be made by adding 1 or 2 grams of sodium -hydroxid to the rest of the ether extract and heating a half hour in an -oil bath at 250° C. Dissolve in water when cool, acidify with dilute -sulfuric acid and extract with ether. The saccharin will have been -converted into salicylic acid, which may be identified by the usual test -for that acid. This test presupposes the absence of salicylic acid in -the original material. - - -COLORING MATTER - - -COAL-TAR DYES - -To attempt to identify the particular dye used in every case would be -quite beyond the object of this set of simple tests. A general test -showing the presence of a coal-tar dye is probably all that is usually -desired. - -_Sostegni and Carpentieri Test._--Such a test may be made by dissolving -15 grams of the fruit product in 100 cc. of water, filtering and -acidifying with a small quantity of a 10 per cent solution of -hydrochloric acid and again filtering. Place in the filtrate strips of -white woolen cloth (nun's veiling will do) which have been freed from -grease by boiling first in very dilute caustic soda solution, then in -water, and boil for 5 to 10 minutes. Remove the cloth and wash it in -water, then boil in very dilute hydrochloric acid. Stir the cloth in -water to remove the acid and dissolve the color by boiling in a solution -of ammonium hydroxid (1 to 50). The time required will depend upon the -particular dye used. Remove the cloth from the solution and acidify the -latter with hydrochloric acid, a slight excess is better, and another -piece of the cleansed cloth is immersed and again boiled. Nothing but -coal-tar dyes will color in this second dyeing. - - -COCHINEAL - -_Girard and Dupre Test._--See tests for cochineal under "Catsups and -tomatoes." - - -ACID MAGENTA - -_Girard and Dupre._--Make about 100 cc. solution of the fruit, filter, -and neutralize with potassium hydroxid (strength 5 to 100); about 2 cc. -will be needed. Add 4 cc. of mercuric acetate solution (1 to 10), shake -and filter. By this treatment the filtrate should be colorless and -slightly alkaline. Add sulfuric acid till there is a slight excess. A -colorless solution indicates the absence of acid magenta, while a light -violet-red shows its presence, providing the amyl-alcohol extract showed -no other dye to be present. - - -CARAMEL - -_Amthor's Test._--10 cc. of a solution of the fruit is put into a deep, -narrow glass (a bottle may be used). Add 30 to 50 cc. of paraldehyde, to -be gaged by the intensity of the coloring. Then add a sufficient -quantity of absolute alcohol to make the solutions mix. If caramel is -present, a brownish-yellow to dark-brown precipitate will be formed, -decant, wash the precipitate once with absolute alcohol, dissolve in a -little hot water and filter. The shade of color is proportional to the -amount of caramel present. - -To verify the test, pour the colored fluid into a freshly prepared -solution of phenylhydrazin (2 parts phenylhydrazin-hydrochlorid, 3 parts -sodium acetate, and 20 parts water). Much caramel produces a dark-brown -precipitate in the cold, and is hastened by slightly heating. A very -small amount of caramel will require several hours to precipitate. - - -APPLE-JUICE IN JELLIES MADE OF SMALL FRUITS - -Very often cider is added to other fruit juices to give them the proper -consistency in jellies, jams, and marmalades. - -Its presence may some times be determined by making the usual starch -test. A large quantity of starch is normally present in apples, but is -less as they ripen, and finally disappears in the ripened fruit. There -is no starch, or only a mere trace, in small fruits even when green. It -is readily seen that if the juice is taken from green apples that there -will be starch found in the artificial jelly or jam, though its absence -does not prove the absence of cider. - -Make the starch test as follows: - - -STARCH - - -IN JELLIES, JAMS, AND SUCH PRODUCTS - -Make a solution of the jelly or jam and destroy the color by heating -nearly to the boiling point and adding dilute (1 : 3) sulfuric acid and -potassium permanganate until the color is destroyed. This treatment does -not affect the starch, and when cool add iodin, preferably potassium -iodid-iodin (potassium iodid, 0.4 gram; iodin, 0.1 gram; water, 20 cc.). -If a great quantity of starch is present an almost black precipitate -will be formed. Smaller amounts give the usual blue color. - -Whenever starch is found to be present, it is best to make a -microscopical examination in the case of jams and marmalades. If the -starch is normally present the grains will be seen within the cell walls -after the iodin treatment. - -Starch is nearly always present in the apple and some other fruits, so -unless it is present in jelly and such products in considerable quantity -it is not likely that it was added. - - -GELATIN - - -IN JELLIES - -_Henzold Test._--Add water to some of the jelly and boil for a short -time, filter and treat the filtrate with an excess of a 10 per cent -solution of potassium bichromate and boil again. After cooling add 2 or -3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. A white flocculent precipitate -forms if gelatin is present, and it gradually collects in a lump at the -bottom. - -_E. Beckmann's Method._--Treat the jelly with 95 per cent alcohol and -wash the precipitate with alcohol to free it from the sugar, then drive -off the alcohol by heating. Add a very little water to the residue and -neutralize the extract with calcium carbonate. Then add formalin and -evaporate to dryness. By this treatment gelatin is rendered insoluble. - -Pure fruit jellies have only 1 to 2 per cent of insoluble precipitate, -while those jellies in which gelatin is used have 70 to 86 per cent of -insoluble precipitate. - - -AGAR AGAR - -Boil the sample with 5 per cent sulfuric acid. Add a crystal or two of -potassium permanganate, and wait till it settles, and examine the -sediment for diatoms with a microscope. Their presence shows the use of -agar. - - -HEAVY METALS - - -TIN, ZINC, LEAD, AND COPPER - -_A. H. Allen's Method._--(See test for heavy metals under canned meat.) - - -ARSENIC - -_Marsh's Test._--Fit a 100 cc. flask with a two-holed rubber stopper, -through which passes a long-stemmed separatory funnel reaching nearly to -the bottom, and a delivery tube which connects with a bulb tube -containing a little acetate of lead solution. This in turn is connected -with a calcium chlorid tube and this with a small, hard glass tube, 15 -or 20 cm. long, not over 0.5 cm. bore, and drawn to small size in the -middle. The large part next the chlorid tube is protected by fine wire -gauze which extends to within a half inch of the constricted part. Two -burners may be so placed as to heat the gauze. The flask should be -placed in water and the bulb tube may be. Four grams of arsenic-free -zinc, and 40 cc. of dilute pure sulfuric acid (1 to 8) are placed in the -flask. Let the hydrogen flow at least a quarter of an hour, then heat -the gauze for 15 or 20 minutes. There should be no deposit in the tube. -Now, char a portion of the sample, dissolve in water and pour into the -separatory funnel, letting it run slowly into the flask. A dark deposit -in the glass tube shows that arsenic is present, but if after an hour no -darkening takes place it is quite safe to say that no arsenic is present -in the fruit. - -[Illustration: Apparatus for Marsh Test] - -_Gutzeit's Test._--Place a gram of pure zinc, 5 cc. of dilute sulfuric -acid (6 per cent) and about 1 cc. of a solution of the sample in a deep -test tube. Cover the tube with three thicknesses of filter paper, fitted -tightly over the mouth of the tube. Place on the upper paper a drop of -strong silver nitrate solution. Place the tube in a dark place and leave -for 10 minutes. If a bright yellow stain forms on the filter paper, and -turns black or brown when water is added to it, arsenic is present. -Unless one is certain of the purity of the reagents used it is advisable -to make a blank test, using distilled water instead of the fruit. - -Oxidize all sulfids to sulfates before applying the above test. To find -out whether they are present or not, substitute lead acetate for the -silver nitrate on the filter paper. To avoid some of these difficulties -treat according to the following method: - -_Preparation of the sample according to Leach._--If possible reduce the -sample to a dry char by treatment with concentrated nitric and sulfuric -acids so that it may be powdered in a mortar. Dissolve out the arsenic -by repeated treatment with boiling water. Save this extract, and, when -cool, filter and submit to Marsh's test which is given above. - -In case the sample is too much of a solid to get the arsenic out by the -above treatment, it may be prepared according to the directions of -Chittenden and Donaldson: Heat 100 grams of the macerated sample with 23 -cc. of pure, strong nitric acid to a temperature of 150° C. or 160° C. -Assist the action by stirring occasionally. When the fruit becomes a -deep yellow or orange color, remove the heat and add 3 cc. of pure, -strong sulfuric acid. It should be stirred while nitrous fumes are -passing off. Heat again to about 180° C., and before it cools add, drop -by drop, 8 cc. of pure concentrated nitric acid. It should be stirred -constantly while the acid is being added. Heat at 200° C. till sulfuric -acid fumes begin to come off and only a dry mass remains. Powder the -mass and exhaust it with boiling water, filter and test the solution -when cold with Marsh's test. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -FLAVORING EXTRACTS - - -LEMON EXTRACT - -The important ingredients of lemon extract are lemon oil and citral, its -aromatic constituent. Oil of citronella and oil of lemon grass are -sometimes substituted for lemon oil. Methyl alcohol is sometimes used in -place of the more expensive spirit alcohol as a solvent for the lemon -oil. - - -LEMON OIL - -The presence of lemon oil may be detected by adding a large excess of -water to a small amount of the extract in a test tube. If the mixture -does not show some cloudiness, it is a strong indication that no lemon -oil is present. The degree of cloudiness gives an idea of the amount of -oil present. - - -CITRAL - -This is present in the oil of lemon grass, which is sometimes used as a -substitute for lemon oil. Citral may be detected by the following test -by Burgess: - -Add 20 cc. of sulfuric acid to 85 cc. of water. Dissolve in this mixture -10 grams of mercuric sulfate. Shake 2 cc. of the sample with 5 cc. of -this reagent in a test tube. If citral is present, the liquid will be -bright red, and will quickly disappear and give place to a whitish -compound, which floats on top. - - -OIL OF CITRONELLA - -This is often substituted for lemon oil. It may be detected by the same -test which was used for citral. Instead of the red color and the white -compound, citronella gives a bright yellow color, which does not -disappear for some time. - - -TARTARIC OR CITRIC ACID - -Precipitate the oil by the addition of an equal volume of water. Filter -and add a very little of the filtrate to a test tube nearly full of cold -lime water. A precipitate will form if tartaric acid is present and it -will dissolve in an excess of ammonium chlorid or acetic acid. Filter, -or, in case no precipitate forms, heat the liquid. Citric acid is -precipitated in the presence of a large excess of hot lime water. - - -METHYL ALCOHOL - -_Mullikin and Scudder._--Take 2 ft. of No. 12-15 copper wire and bend at -right angles about 8 or 10 inches from one end. Grasp this bent end and -an ordinary lead pencil side by side in such a way that the bend will be -about the middle of the pencil. Wind the wire around the pencil and -toward the free end of the short part of the wire until you have a coil -3 or 4 cm. long. Remove the pencil and twist the unwound parts together -for a handle for the coil. - -Dilute a portion of the sample 3 or 4 times, and oxidize 10 cc. of the -diluted liquid (preferably in a test tube) by heating to a red heat the -above copper coil in the oxidizing flame of a Bunsen lamp. Thrust the -heated coil quickly into the liquid contained in the test tube. In a -second withdraw and immerse in water. Continue this operation till the -oxid of copper fails to be reduced (usually 4 or 5 times is sufficient). -Cool the liquid by immersing the tube in water. Separate into two parts -and test each for formaldehyde by the following methods: - -_Mullikin, S. P._--Place one of these parts in an evaporating dish, and -add to it 1 cc. of strong ammonia, boil gently over the free flame till -the vapors cease to smell of ammonia. Add 2 or 3 drops of strong -hydrochloric acid and heat just to boiling, and cool quickly by dipping -the dish in cold water. Make the test for formaldehyde: Add a drop of a -solution of resorcin (1 : 200) and pour this mixture slowly down the -side of an inclined test tube which contains 3 cc. of strong sulfuric -acid, taking care to keep the liquids separate. After 3 minutes give the -tube a rotary motion by rolling between the hands for a minute or more -but only gradually mixing the water and acid, but mixing only about half -of the acid. - -Flecks of a rose-red color form if methyl alcohol is present. Bands of -color or flecks of other colors, even though they be tinged with red or -a rose-red solution without the precipitate, should never be taken as -proof that methyl alcohol is present. These conditions, however, are -good grounds for repeating the test; 10 per cent or even less may be -detected by this test. - -_Hydrochloric Acid and Ferric Chlorid Test._--Add a few drops of the -other part of the above oxidized liquid to about 10 cc. of milk, known -to be free from formaldehyde, in a porcelain casserole, and add 10 cc. -of commercial hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) which contains 1 cc. of 10 -per cent ferric chlorid per 500 cc. Heat slowly over the open flame -nearly to boiling. Give the liquid a rotary motion to break up the -curd. If formaldehyde is present, the liquid will be colored violet. If -not, it slowly turns brown. The presence of formaldehyde proves that -methyl alcohol was in the original extract. - - -COLORING MATTER - -_Preliminary Test._--Treat the sample with strong hydrochloric acid, and -if tropæolin or methyl orange be present the solution will turn pink; -Martius yellow partially decolorizes the solution; dinitrocresols -decolorizes the solution. Turmeric or naphthol yellow produces no color -change. - - -TURMERIC - -Turmeric may be detected by soaking a piece of filter paper in the -sample, drying and dipping it in a dilute solution of boric acid or -borax which has been slightly acidulated with hydrochlorid acid. Dry -again and a cherry-red color forms if turmeric is present. Add a drop of -dilute alkali and if turmeric be present the paper will be colored dark -olive. - - -COAL-TAR COLORS - -Evaporate some of the extract to dryness; take up the residue with water -and extract the coal-tar colors if present, and test for them by the -method given under canned vegetables. - - -VANILLA EXTRACTS - -The best grades of vanilla extract are made by treating vanilla beans -with 50 per cent alcohol. Coumarin, an extract from tonka beans, may be -used in making the extract. This of course would make a cheaper product. -If less than 50 per cent alcohol is used in making the extract, some -alkali must be added to dissolve the resins which will not dissolve in -a weaker alcohol. In artificial extracts some such coloring matter as -caramel or tannin is used. - -_Preliminary Test._--To a portion of the extract add a few drops of lead -acetate solution. The absence of a bulky flocculent precipitate shows -the extract not to be of high quality. Leach recommends that normal -acetate of lead be added to the sample, and if a precipitate does not -form it is conclusive evidence that it is not a pure extract. - -When a precipitate forms with the above reagent, it should settle -immediately and leave a clear and almost colorless liquid. When there is -a mere cloudiness only, it may be due to caramel, in which case the -extract is to be suspected. - - -ALKALI - -Shake a portion of the sample with twice its volume of water. If no -precipitate forms, an alkali is present. A flocculent reddish-brown -precipitate shows no alkali is present. If the solution is milky it -indicates the presence of a foreign resin. - -Add hydrochloric acid drop by drop to the diluted extract. Nothing more -than a mere turbidity should result. Should it be quite turbid and the -color fading after a time, it shows that an alkali has been used. - - -FOREIGN RESINS - -Mix a portion of the extract slowly with twice its volume of water, -frequently shaking the mixture. When this solution is milky, it -indicates a foreign resin. - -_Hess' Test._--Dealcoholize 25 cc. of the sample by concentrating on the -water-bath, adding water from time to time to retain the original -volume. When no alkali is present in the extract, pure vanilla resin -will be thrown down as a reddish-brown flocculent precipitate. Collect -the resin, whatever its color, on a filter, and wash. Save the filtrate -to test for caramel. Place a piece of the paper and resin in a dilute -solution of potassium hydroxid. If the resin is that of pure vanilla it -will dissolve, giving a deep-red color, and is reprecipitated when the -alkali is neutralized with hydrochloric acid. Dissolve another part of -the precipitate in alcohol, and to a part of this solution add a few -drops of ferric chlorid; and to the other part, hydrochloric acid. There -should be no marked coloration in either case if the resin is that of -pure vanilla. Foreign resins nearly always produce a coloration. - - -CARAMEL - -Shake the bottle of vanilla, and if the bubbles, which form, are a -bright caramel color, keeping the color till all are gone, the presence -of caramel is indicated. - -Concentrate a portion of the filtrate, which was saved in making the -test for foreign resins, at a rather low temperature until it has about -the same color as the original extract. Add a few drops of strong -hydrochloric acid and heat very gently. If caramel is present, a -yellowish-red flocculent precipitate will form. After the liquid cools, -filter and wash with water. Should this precipitate contain caramel, it -will not dissolve in water, ether, and alcohol, but will dissolve in -sodium hydroxid, dilute alcohol, and glacial acetic acid. - - -TANNIN - -Test another portion of the filtrate made in testing for foreign resins, -with a few drops of a solution of gelatin. A slight precipitate only -should form due to the presence of a small amount of tannin normally -present in this filtrate. A large excess shows that it has been added to -the extract. - - -COUMARIN - -_Leach's Test._--Dealcoholize a portion of the sample as above and treat -with ammonia, add 3 or 4 volumes of chloroform in a separatory funnel. -Evaporate the chloroform extract in an oven, not permitting the -temperature to rise above 60° C. To the residue add a few drops of -water; warm gently, and add a little of a solution of 1 gram of -crystallized potassium iodid in 50 cc. of water, and the solution -saturated with iodin. If coumarin is present, a brown, precipitate will -form, and if stirred with a rod it will collect in dark green flecks. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -SACCHARINE PRODUCTS - - -HONEY - -Bees are sometimes fed with cane sugar. Often glucose syrup is poured -over honeycomb from which the honey has been extracted, and the mixture -sold as genuine honey. - -Gelatin may be added to increase the weight or to thicken the more -voluble adulterants. - -The ash of genuine honey is not over 0.3 per cent. Whenever the ash is -greater than this it should be tested for calcium sulfate, the presence -of a considerable quantity of which is an almost certain proof that -starch glucose or invert sugar has been added to the honey. Sulfates may -be detected by adding barium chlorid to the aqueous solution of the -honey and precipitating barium sulfate. - -If the ash is high and considerable chlorids are present, molasses has -quite probably been added to the honey. The presence of chlorids may be -determined by the addition of silver nitrate which precipitates silver -chlorid. - - -CANE SUGAR - -The presence of cane sugar can be detected with certainty only by the -use of the polarimeter. Its presence in large quantity gives a high -right-handed rotation. - - -COMMERCIAL GLUCOSE SYRUP - -_Allen's Test._--Make the test for dextrine which is present in -commercial glucose, but not in pure honey. Dilute a portion of the honey -with an equal volume of water and add methyl alcohol with constant -stirring until there is a permanent turbidity. If glucose syrup is -present a heavy gummy precipitate will soon form. Genuine honey gives -only a slight milkiness. - - -GELATIN - -Dilute a portion of the sample and add a solution of tannic acid. A -precipitate indicates the presence of gelatin. - -Treat the sample with alcohol, and gelatin, if present, will be left -undissolved, and it will give its characteristic odor on ignition. - - -MAPLE SYRUP - -This is sometimes adulterated with glucose, molasses, golden syrup, and -with ordinary white sugar. There are no satisfactory simple chemical -tests for these substances. - -Pure maple syrup should have an ash not lower than 0.35 to 0.40 per -cent. A lower ash shows that cane sugar has been added. A higher ash -would indicate the presence of molasses or brown sugar stock. These last -two adulterants, if present in great abundance, may be detected by -taste. - - -GLUCOSE - -This may be detected by the use of the polarimeter. Pure maple syrup -gives 53.1 to 60 direct, and--22.2 to--21.9 after hydrolysis. Maple -syrup adulterated with glucose gives 80 to 100 direct and 18.9 to 45.6 -after hydrolysis (according to Ogdon). - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SPICES - - -MUSTARD - -Mustard is often adulterated with mustard hulls, wheat, and rice. And -when white-colored flour of any kind is used, turmeric, Martius yellow, -or a coal-tar color is employed to give the mixture the color of -mustard. Cayenne pepper is occasionally used to impart pungency to -diluted mustard. - - -FLOUR - -Boil 2 grams of the mustard in 4 or 5 cc. of distilled water for about -10 minutes. After it is cool, add a few drops of iodin solution slowly, -avoiding a large excess though having a little uncombined iodin. If a -blue color is produced, some starchy matter has been added to the -mustard. The intensity of the reaction is an indication of the amount of -starchy matter used. Pure mustard contains no starch and hence gives no -reaction with iodin. - - -COLORING MATTER - -Pure mustard is a very light dull yellow, and whenever the sample is -bright yellow, there is good grounds for suspecting the presence of some -artificial coloring matter. - - -TURMERIC - -Add strong ammonium hydroxid to the mustard, and if turmeric is present -an orange-red color is usually produced. - -Make an alcoholic extract of the sample and dip a piece of filter paper -in it, and when dry draw it through a cold, saturated solution of boric -acid in water. An orange or red-brown tint produced on the paper -indicates the presence of turmeric. - -Thoroughly mix 2 or 3 grams of the mustard with castor oil and filter. -If turmeric is present the filtrate will appear fluorescent. - -Extract a portion of the sample with 3 times its weight of wood alcohol -and filter. Evaporate one half of the solution to dryness and add a -little hydrochloric acid to the residue. This will turn red whenever -turmeric is present, and if an excess of alkali be added it will change -to a greenish blue. Evaporate the other half to dryness and moisten with -a solution of boric acid and dry on a steam bath. A cherry-red color -indicates turmeric. - - -MARTIUS YELLOW OR ANALOGOUS COAL-TAR COLORING MATTER - -Extract the slightly acidified sample with 95 per cent alcohol and dye -wool as directed under "Vegetables." The wool will be dyed a bright -yellow. - -_Allen's Test._--Treat a portion of the sample with cold alcohol, and -shake vigorously for 5 minutes, then filter and evaporate the filtrate -to dryness; add enough water to take up the residue and dye some white -wool in this liquid as in the last test. When the dyed wool is wrapped -in white paper and heated to 120° in an air bath, part of the coloring -matter will be transferred to the paper. The coloring matter dissolves -readily in dilute ammonia or hot water, and on the addition of -hydrochloric acid the solution is decolorized and a yellow precipitate -formed. This distinguishes it from picric acid. - - -CAYENNE PEPPER - -_Allen's Test._--Boil 1 gram of the mustard for a few minutes with -alcohol, filter, and evaporate to dryness at about 100°. Taste the -residue and cayenne may be recognized by its pungency. Or heat a portion -of the extract, and smell the fumes. Irritation of the lungs and -coughing will surely follow if cayenne pepper is present. - - -PEPPER - -Pepper may be adulterated with wheat, buckwheat, pepper husks, ground -olive stones, spent ginger. Cayenne pepper is sometimes added to -adulterated pepper to give it the normal pungency. Many of these -adulterants can be detected only by the aid of the microscope. - -_Neuss's Test._--True pepper turns an intense yellow when covered with -strong hydrochloric acid. Any adulteration can be detected at once by -the color. - - -GROUND OLIVE STONES OR "POIVRETTE" - -Make a paste of the pepper with caustic alkali. Dilute with a large -quantity of water and wash by decantation. Olive stones will be colored -a bright yellow; pepper-husks will appear dark. - -_Jumeau's Test._--Dissolve 5 grams of iodin in a mixture of 50 cc. of -ether and 50 cc. of alcohol. Cover the bottom of a porcelain capsule -with the finely ground pepper, and add just enough of the iodin mixture -to wet the entire mass, and mix well till it has the same consistency -throughout. Let dry in the air, then powder and examine it, and if olive -stones are present they will be colored yellow. Pure pepper would have a -deep brown color. - -Aniline acetate, one part aniline in 3 parts acetic acid, colors pure -pepper gray or white and olive stones yellowish brown. - - -CAYENNE - -Heat some of the red particles found in the pepper and their -characteristic vapor is produced. Dissolve the particles in alcohol or -ether and the same vapors are produced. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -VINEGAR - - -Vinegars may be adulterated by the addition of mineral acids as sulfuric -or hydrochloric. Caramel or the coal-tar dyes may be employed to improve -the color or to give color to an artificial product. Malic acid is -always present in cider vinegar. Potassium acid tartrate occurs in true -wine vinegar. Poisonous metals may be present in vinegars containing -free mineral acid. Entirely artificial cider vinegar is often found on -the market. - - -PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE FOR TESTING - -If the vinegar is turbid from any suspended matter, it should be -filtered. The samples should be analyzed at once, and in the laboratory -they should always be kept in glass-stoppered bottles. - -_General Observations._--Ignite a little of the vinegar residue on a -clean platinum wire in a colorless Bunsen flame, and if it is pure cider -vinegar the flame will be colored the characteristic lilac color of -potassium. The sodium flame is absent or only a mere trace of it is -present. But in all artificially colored vinegars, spirit sugar and -glucose vinegars, the sodium flame predominates. - -The residue of cider vinegar is thick, viscid, or mucilaginous, of a -light brown color, astringent acid taste though not unpleasant. The -solids of sugar-house vinegar, those from colored spirit and wood -vinegar, each have a bitter taste on account of the caramel used to -color them. The residue of the sugar-house vinegar has the odor of -molasses. Wood vinegar when present gives a residue with a tarry or -smoky taste and smell. Glucose vinegar gives the odor of scorched corn. -Solids of fruit vinegars are quite soluble in alcohol, except a granular -residue in grape vinegar, while the solids of malt and glucose vinegars -are almost insoluble. - -The ash of fruit vinegars and malt vinegars has a distinct alkaline -reaction, while that of spirit and wood vinegars is very feebly -alkaline. - - -FREE MINERAL ACIDS - -The ash of pure cider vinegar is always alkaline. If a vinegar should -show a neutral reaction this would certainly indicate the presence of a -free mineral acid. If the ash be alkaline, no acid except nitric could -have been present, and this is seldom, if ever, used as an adulterant of -vinegar. - - -WHEN THE ASH IS ALKALINE APPLY - -_Ashby's Test._--Extract 0.5 gram of logwood in 100 cc. of water and dry -a drop or two on a porcelain surface. Then add a drop of the vinegar and -dry again. If the residue is red, a mineral acid is present; if yellow, -mineral acids are absent. When only a very small amount of the acid is -present the red coloration will be destroyed on diluting with water, but -may be restored by concentrating the liquid. - - -SULFURIC ACID - -Sulfuric acid, if present, will cause the vinegar to leave a charred -mass when evaporated over the water-bath. - -_Frear's Method._--Mix 5 cc. of the sample and 5 or 10 cc. of water, and -add a very little of a solution of methyl violet (made by dissolving one -part of methyl violet 2 B. in 100,000 parts of water). A blue or green -coloration shows the presence of mineral acids. - - -SULFURIC ACID AS DISTINGUISHED FROM SULFATES - -_Allen's Method._--Evaporate 100 cc. of the vinegar down to one tenth -its volume, and when cold add 50 cc. of alcohol. Sulfuric acid remains -in solution while the sulfates are precipitated. Dilute the solution and -precipitate the acid with barium chlorid. - - -HYDROCHLORIC ACID - - -FREE - -Place a definite quantity of the vinegar in a distilling flask and -distil off half. Add a few drops of silver nitrate to the distillate. If -a precipitate forms, hydrochloric acid is present. - - -MALIC ACID - -_Leach's Method._--To 5 cc. of the sample, add a few drops of a solution -of calcium chlorid (1 : 10); make slightly alkaline with ammonia. Filter -off any precipitate that may form, add 20 to 30 cc. of 95 per cent -alcohol to the filtrate and heat to boiling. If malic acid is present, a -voluminous flocculent precipitate will form. A precipitate may form in -vinegars containing dextrine. Make a further test for malic acid by the -following: Filter and treat the precipitate with a little alcohol, and -when dry add concentrated nitric acid and evaporate to dryness on a -water-bath. Treat the residue with sodium carbonate, boil for a short -time, filter. Add acetic acid to the filtrate till slightly alkaline, -boil till carbon dioxid is expelled, and if on the addition of calcium -sulfate a precipitate forms, it indicates the presence of malic acid. - - -COLORING MATTER - -CARAMEL - -The residue of vinegar to which much caramel has been added has an -unusually dark color and bitter taste. - -_Crampton and Simons' Method._--Shake well together in a corked flask 50 -cc. of the vinegar with about half as many grams of fullers' earth; -after standing for half an hour filter. Vinegar containing no artificial -color will show scarcely any change in color when thus treated. A -caramel-colored vinegar will be decolorized in proportion to the amount -of caramel present. - - -COAL-TAR COLORS IN WINE VINEGAR - -Test by the usual test for coal-tar dyes. See under canned vegetables. - - -METALLIC IMPURITIES - -Vinegars containing free mineral acids are sometimes found to contain -poisonous metals. - -Evaporate 200 to 400 cc. of the vinegar to dryness, add a little sodium -hydroxid to this residue and burn to an ash over a low flame. It may be -necessary to add a little potassium nitrate once or twice. Add a little -dilute hydrochloric acid and saturate with hydrogen sulfid and test for -lead, zinc, copper, and arsenic according to Allen's method given under -canned meats. - - -SPICES TO INCREASE PUNGENCY - -_Leach._--Neutralize a portion of the vinegar with sodium carbonate. The -presence of spices is easily detected by tasting this mixture. - -_Another Test._--Exactly neutralize a little of the vinegar as above, -evaporate to smaller bulk and taste as before, then shake the -concentrated liquid with ether, separate the ethereal layer and -evaporate it, and taste the residue. - - -TARTAR IN WINE VINEGAR - -The presence of tartar in vinegar proves it to be wine vinegar. - -_Allen's Method._--Evaporate a portion of the vinegar and treat the -residue with alcohol; a granular residue of tartar remains undissolved. -To prove that it is tartar, decant the alcohol and dissolve the residue -in a little hot water, cool, rub the inside of the vessel with a glass -rod, and if tartar was present acid potassium tartrate will be deposited -where the rod touched the vessel. The test will be more sensitive if an -equal volume of alcohol is added. - - -FREE TARTARIC ACID IN WINE VINEGAR - -_Test as for Tartar._--Treat the alcoholic solution of the extract with -an alcoholic solution of potassium acetate. Rub the sides of the vessel -as before, and if tartaric acid is present the streaks and sometimes a -precipitate forms where the rod touches the vessel. - - -GLUCOSE - -Glucose is present when both direct and invert readings are -dextro-rotatory. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -FATS AND OILS - - -LARD - -Lard is very often adulterated with cottonseed oil, cottonseed stearin -and beef stearin. Their being very much cheaper accounts for the -sophistication. - - -COTTONSEED OIL - -_Halphen's Test._--Dissolve 1 per cent of sulfur in a given volume of -carbon bisulfid. Add an equal volume of amylic alcohol. Mix 3 to 5 cc. -of this reagent with an equal volume of the melted lard in a test tube. -Close with a cotton stopper and boil for 15 minutes in a bath of -saturated brine. The presence of cottonseed oil is indicated by a -deep-red or orange color, little or no color resulting in its absence. -Lard from hogs fed on any of the various cottonseed products may give a -faint reaction when this test is applied. - - -COTTONSEED STEARIN - -Since cottonseed stearin is only the more solid portions of cottonseed -oil, the above test may be applied, but to distinguish it from the -latter it is necessary to make determinations quite beyond the scope of -this set of tests. - - -BEEF-STEARIN - -It is very difficult to identify beef-stearin by chemical tests. It is -usually detected by use of the microscope. Leach gives the following -method: Make a solution of 2 to 5 grams of the fat in 10 to 20 cc. of -ether. Let stand a half day, at about the room temperature. Loosely -stopper the tube with cotton to prevent too rapid evaporation of the -ether. It is well to vary the conditions of heat, amount of solvent, and -rate of crystallization, to get the best possible results. It may often -be well to separate the crystals thus obtained by filtering and -recrystallizing from ether. Separate the crystals that form at the -bottom of the test tube from the liquid portion by pouring on a small -filter. Wash them several times with ether, but not sufficient to remove -the mother liquor entirely. In case it is all removed, and the crystals -are too fragile to mount, add a drop of alcohol. Crystals of lard -stearin are flat rhomboidal plates, one end being oblique to the sides, -and they do not appear to be regularly grouped. Beef-stearin crystals -are rod-shaped, or needles often apparently curved with pointed ends, -and are arranged in clusters like the ribs of a fan, the crystals -radiating from a common point. Under certain conditions the lard -crystals are not irregularly grouped, but are arranged like the parts of -a feather, where one part seems attached to another close at hand. -Considerable experience is necessary to use this test with absolute -certainty. - - -OLIVE OIL - -Olive oil is one of the most commonly adulterated foods. The commonest -adulterant probably is cottonseed oil. Other foreign oils, such as -peanut, sesame, and rape, are sometimes used. - -_Preliminary Test._--Pure olive oil turns from a pale to a dark-green -color in a few minutes, when it is shaken with the same volume of -concentrated nitric acid or sulfuric acid. Whenever a reddish to an -orange, or brown coloration results, the presence of a foreign vegetable -oil is indicated (probably a seed oil). - -Bach gives the following results of strong nitric acid on the common -oils. Olive oil when shaken with nitric acid gives a pale green, which -changes to an orange yellow after heating five minutes. With similar -treatment peanut oil gives pale rose and brownish yellow; rape oil, pale -rose and orange yellow; sesame oil, white and brownish yellow; sunflower -oil, dirty white and reddish yellow; cottonseed oil, yellowish brown and -reddish brown; castor oil, pale rose and golden yellow. - -_Pontet's Test; Elaiden Test._--Treat 1 cc. of mercury with 12 cc. of -cold nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42) and shake 2 cc. of this freshly-made -solution with 50 cc. of the sample in a bottle every 10 minutes for 2 -hours. Oils which are principally olein, or mixtures of olein and solid -esters like palmatin and stearin, give more or less solid products, but -olive oil is remarkable for the firmness of the canary or lemon-yellow -mass which is formed. After standing a day the mass cannot be pierced -with a glass rod and sometimes it gives forth a sound when struck. - -This test requires considerable experience to be used with any great -degree of certainty. - - -COTTONSEED OIL - -Carbon bisulfid containing 1 per cent of sulfur in solution is mixed -with an equal amount of amyl alcohol. Equal volumes (about 3 cc.) of -this reagent and the sample, are mixed in a test tube, which is loosely -stoppered with cotton, and heated in a bath of boiling saturated brine -for a quarter of an hour. The presence of cottonseed oil is shown by the -formation of a deep-red or orange color. Little if any color is produced -in its absence. If no color is produced it is well to add another cc. of -the reagent and heat 5 or 10 minutes more, and to repeat this again if -no color forms. Lard and lard oil from animals fed on cottonseed meal -may give a faint reaction. - - -PEANUT OIL (ARACHIS OIL) - -_Bellier's Test._--Saponify a gram of the sample with 5 cc. of a -solution of 85 grams potassium hydroxid in a liter of strong alcohol. -This may be done in a small Erlenmeyer flask on the water-bath. Then -boil for two minutes, neutralize exactly with dilute acetic acid (use -phenolphthalein as the indicator). Cool the mixture by placing the flask -in water at 17° to 19° C. A precipitate usually forms. Add 50 cc. of 70 -per cent alcohol which contains one per cent by volume of concentrated -hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2). Shake the flask vigorously and cool -again as before. If no precipitate forms the oil is not adulterated with -peanut oil. The presence of 10 per cent or more of peanut oil produces a -precipitate, even a smaller amount will produce a cloudiness after -standing between 17° and 19° C. for 30 minutes. - -Some varieties of olive oil from Tunis give the same turbidity when the -70 per cent alcohol is added. To distinguish these from peanut oil heat -the mixture on the water-bath till everything has dissolved, and cool to -17° to 19°. The cloudiness will not appear if the oil is pure, but will -reappear if peanut oil is present. - - -SESAME OIL - -_Badouin's Test._--About 0.1 of a gram of cane sugar is dissolved in 10 -cc. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) shaken vigorously with 20 grams -of the sample for a minute or more. After standing for a while the -aqueous solution will separate from the oil. If 1 per cent or more of -sesame oil is present, the aqueous solution will be colored crimson. - -_Tocher's Test._--Dissolve 1 gram of pyrogallic acid in 15 cc. of strong -hydrochloric acid. Add an equal volume of the oil in a separatory -funnel. When it has stood a minute, draw off the aqueous solution and -boil. In the presence of sesame oil it is colored red by transmitted -light, and blue by reflected light. - - -RAPE OIL - -_Palas' Test._--Make a 1 per cent solution of fuchsin and a 30 per cent -solution of sodium acid sulfite. Mix together 20 cc. of each of these -solutions and add 200 cc. of water and 5 cc. of strong sulfuric acid. -After the solution is decolorized, 10 cc. of the sample is shaken with -it. If rape oil is present, the color will be partially restored. To -prevent the formation of the color by contact with the air have the -vessel full of the mixture. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -BEVERAGES - - -COFFEE - -Coffee is often colored with such substances as Scheele's green, chrome -yellow, iron oxide, Prussian blue, indigo and turmeric. Imitation coffee -beans have been made of wheat flour, bran, rye, chicory and peas. - -_Allen's Preliminary Test._--A good preliminary test for ground coffee -is to sprinkle some of it on the surface of cold water. The oil of true -coffee prevents the particles from being readily soaked, and so they -float for some time. Chicory and most of the other adulterants of coffee -contain no oil, but do contain caramel, which is quickly extracted by -the water producing a zone of brown color about such particles. They -become soaked and quickly sink. The liquid containing pure coffee -diffuses uniformly without coloring the water to any perceptible degree. -Chicory and similar roots give a dark brown, turbid infusion. Roasted -cereals do not impart so distinct a color to water. - - -COLORING MATTER - -Shake the coffee beans in cold water and make the regular qualitative -tests for the inorganic coloring matters--Scheele's green may be -identified by testing for copper and arsenic; chrome yellow, by testing -for lead chromate; iron oxide may be detected by its characteristic -tests. - -Organic coloring matter is best extracted with alcohol. Prussian blue -may be detected by dissolving it from the sediment with hot caustic -alkali, acidifying with hydrochloric acid, treating it with a drop of -ferric chlorid. If present, ferric ferrocyanide, a blue precipitate, -will be formed. Indigo is not discharged by sodium hydroxid, while -Prussian-blue is. It will form a deep blue solution with sulfuric acid. - -Test for turmeric as under mustard. - - -IMITATION COFFEE BEANS - -Most imitation coffee, as already stated, is heavier than water. Coffee -contains no starch, so the imitation beans made of cereals may be -detected by testing for starch. - - -STARCH - -_Allen's Method._--Boil the coffee in 10 parts of water. When perfectly -cold add to it a little sulfuric acid, then a strong solution of -potassium permanganate, drop by drop, with constant shaking, till the -liquid is almost decolorized; strain or decant and add to the solution a -solution of iodin. If 1 per cent or more of starch is present, a blue -coloration will be produced. - - -CHICORY - -_Rimmington's Test._--Boil a portion of the sample with water which -contains a little sodium carbonate; decant, wash and treat the residue -with a weak solution of bleaching powder for several hours. The solution -will be decolorized. The coffee will be at the bottom as a dark layer -while the chicory will be a light layer above it. - -_Albert Smith's Test._--Boil 10 grams of the sample in 250 cc. of water; -strain and add basic lead acetate in slight excess. A precipitate forms, -and when it has settled the supernatant liquid will be colorless if the -coffee is pure, but more or less colored if chicory is present. - - -TEA - -Tea is adulterated by the substitution of inferior grades for those of -better quality, by the addition of exhausted leaves and foreign leaves, -by the use of coloring matter or "facing" such as Prussian blue, indigo, -or turmeric to color green tea, and sometimes graphite to color black -tea. Foreign astringents (generally catechu) are added to conceal the -presence of exhausted leaves. An imitation tea, "lie tea," is made of -the stems and dust with mineral matter, and some starch or gum to hold -these together. - - -FOREIGN LEAVES - -Though there are several chemical tests for foreign leaves, none are as -satisfactory as a microscopical examination. Soften the leaves by -soaking in hot water, unroll carefully and examine with a hand lens or -low power of the microscope. Compare with a genuine leaf--the shape, -margin, and venation. - - -EXHAUSTED TEA LEAVES - -Sometimes such leaves may be detected by a physical examination. They -are often more or less unrolled and broken on the edges. But the only -certain way of ascertaining their presence is to determine the soluble -ash which is from 2.5 to 4 per cent in pure tea and usually less than -0.8 per cent in exhausted tea. - - -LIE TEA - -This imitation tea is easily detected by pouring hot water over the -leaves. If they are artificial, they will break down into the fragments -of which they were made. - - -FACING - -Organic coloring matter may be detected by the same method used for -detecting such colors in coffee. - - -CATECHU - -_Hager's Test._--Boil a little of the tea in water, and add to the -extract an excess of lead monoxid. If the tea is pure the addition of a -solution of silver nitrate produces only a slight grayish precipitate, -but when catechu is present a yellow flocculent precipitate forms. - - - - -A FEW OF THE BEST BOOKS ON FOOD ANALYSIS - - - ALLEN, A. H., Commercial Organic Analysis, 1898. Price, $29.50. - - BLYTH, A. W., Foods, their Composition and Analysis, 1903. Price, - $8.40. - - HASSALL, A. H., Food, its Adulterations and the Methods for their - Detection, 1874. - - LEACH, A. E., Food, Inspection and Analysis, 1905. Price, $7.50. - - LEFFMANN, H., and BEAM, W., Select Methods of Food Analysis, 1905. - Price, $2.50. - - U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bureau of Chem., Bulletin 13, Parts 1-10, Food - and Food Adulterants, 1887-1902. (Some of these are out of print.) - - Bulletin 46, Methods of Analysis of Foods, 1899; Bulletin 65, - Provisional Methods for the Analysis of Foods, 1902. - - WILEY, H. W., Foods and their Adulteration, 1907. Price, $4.00. - - - - -CHEMICALS - - -The following are the chemicals used in making all the tests in this -book. Most of these are found in every chemical laboratory.[1] - - Acetic acid - Ammonium carbonate - Ammonium chlorid - Ammonium hydroxid - Ammonium sulfid - Amyl alcohol - Aniline - Barium chlorid - Barium peroxide - Boric acid - Bromine - Calcium carbonate - Calcium chlorid - Calcium sulfate - Cane sugar - Carbon bisulfid - Castor oil - Chloroform - Diphenylamine - Ether - Ethyl alcohol - Ferric chlorid - Formalin - Fuchsin - Gelatin - Glycerol - Hydrochloric acid - Iodin - Lead acetate (basic) - Lead oxide - Lime water - Litmus paper - Logwood chips - Mercury (metallic) - Mercury sulfate - Methyl alcohol - Molybdic oxide - Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42) - Oxalic acid - Petroleum spirit - Phenolphthalein - Phenylhydrazine hydrochlorid - Phosphoric acid - Potassium bichromate - Potassium carbonate - Potassium chromate - Potassium ferrocyanid - Potassium hydroxid - Potassium iodate - Potassium iodid - Potassium nitrate - Potassium permanganate - Pyrogallic acid - Resorcin - Silver nitrate - Sodium acetate - Sodium acid sulfite - Sodium carbonate - Sodium chlorid - Sodium hydroxid - Sulfur - Sulfuric acid - Tannic acid - Turmeric paper - Zinc (arsenic free) - -[1] The more uncommon ones may be obtained from Eimer and Amend, 205-211 -Third Avenue, New York. - - - - -INDEX OF AUTHORS AND TESTS - - - PAGE - Allen, A. H., Heavy metals in fruits and fruit products, 37 - in meat, 11 - in vinegar, 58 - Sulfuric Acid (distinguished from Sulfates) in - vinegar, 57 - Tartar in vinegar, 59 - Amthor, Caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - Ashby, Free mineral acids in vinegar, 56 - Beckmann, Starch in jellies, 38 - Bell and Carter, Alum in flour, 16 - Boettger, Ergot in rye flour, 18 - Bornstein, Saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Blyth, Alum in bread, 19 - Courley and Coremon, Horseflesh in other meats, 14 - Ebers, Diseased meat, 14 - Frear, Sulfuric acid in vinegar, 57 - Geisler, Coal-tar colors in butter, 6 - Girard and Dupre, Acid magenta in catsups and tomatoes, 35 - Cochineal in catsups and tomatoes, 29 - Cochineal in canned vegetables, 29 - Gutzeit, Arsenic in canned fruits, 39 - Hehner, Formaldehyde in milk, 3 - Henzold, Starch in jellies, 6 - Hess and Doolittle, Process or renovated butter, test for, 49 - Kämmerer, Sulfurous acid in meat, 9 - Kleeburg, Wheat in rye flour, 18 - Klinger and Bujard, Cochineal carmine in meat, 13 - Kraemer, Corn meal in wheat flour, 17 - Leach, Caramel in milk, 1 - Malic acid in vinegar, 57 - Salicylic acid in milk, 4 - Salicylic acid in meat, 10 - Lythgoe, Coal-tar colors in milk, 2 - Marsh, Arsenic in canned fruits, 38 - Martin, Coloring matter in butter, 5 - Mohler, Benzoic acid in meat, 10 - Benzoic acid in fruit and fruit products, 33 - Peter, Benzoic acid in canned vegetables, 28 - Richards, Mrs., Alum in baking powders, 22 - Rimmington, chicory in coffee, 66 - Schmidt, Saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Smith, chicory in coffee, 66 - Sostegni and Carpentieri, Coal-tar dyes in canned vegetables, 29 - Stoke, Gelatin in milk, 2 - Tocher, sesame oil in olive oil, 64 - Vanderplanken, Alum in sour bread, 19 - Vogel, Substituted flours, 17 - Wynter Blyth, alum in flour, 16 - Wolff, Tartaric acid (free or combined) in baking powders, 20 - - - - -INDEX - - - PAGE - Acid magenta in fruit and fruit products, 35 - Agar agar in fruit and fruit products, 37 - Alkali in vanilla extract, 45 - Allen, A. H., heavy metals in fruit and fruit products, 37 - in meat, 11 - in vinegar, 58 - sulfuric acid in vinegar, 57 - tartar in vinegar, 59 - test of coffee, 65 - Alum in baking powders, 22 - in bread, 18 - in flour, 16 - in pickles, 31 - Aluminium salts in cream of tartar, 23 - Ammonia in cream of tartar, 23 - Ammonium salts in baking powders, 21 - Amthor, caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - Annatto in butter, 5 - in milk, 1 - Aniline red in meat, 13 - Apple juice in jellies made from small fruits, 36 - Arsenic in fruit and fruit products, 38 - Ashby, free mineral acids in vinegar, 56 - - Bach, test of olive oil, 62 - Baking powders, 20 - Adulterations of, 20 - Alum, 22 - Ammonium salts, 21 - Gypsum, 21 - Sulfates (calcium, etc.), 21 - Tartaric acid (free), 21 - Tartaric acid (free or combined), 20 - Beckmann, gelatin in jellies, 38 - Bell and Carter, alum in flour, 16 - Beef stearin in lard, 61 - Benzoic acid in meat, 10 - in canned vegetables, 27 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Blyth, alum in bread, 19 - Boettger, Ergot in rye flour, 18 - Borax in fish and oysters, 13 - in meats, 9 - Boric acid in fish and oysters, 13 - in meat, 9 - in milk, 4 - Bornstein, saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Bread, 18 - Adulterations of, 18 - Alum, 18 - Copper sulfate, 19 - Butter, 5 - Adulterations of, 5 - Coloring matter, 5 - Annatto, 5 - Coal-tar colors, 5 - Marigold, 6 - Saffron, 6 - Turmeric, 6 - Cottonseed oil, 7 - Oleomargarine, 7 - Process or renovated butter, 6 - - Cane sugar in honey, 49 - Canned and bottled vegetables, 24 - Adulterations of, 24 - Alum in pickles, 31 - Coal-tar colors, 29 - Cochineal, 29 - Coloring matter, 29 - Copper salts in green pickles, beans, peas, etc., 30 - Turmeric in mixed pickles, 30 - Examination of can or box, 31 - Heavy metals other than copper (see under meats), 11 - Preservatives, 25 - Benzoic acid, 27 - Formaldehyde, 25 - Saccharin, 26 - Salicylic acid, 26 - Sulfurous acid, 26 - Soaked vegetables, peas, beans, and corn, 30 - Caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - in milk, 1 - in vanilla extract, 47 - in vinegar, 58 - Catechu in tea, 68 - Cayenne pepper in black pepper, 54 - in mustard, 53 - Cereal products, 16 - Chicory in coffee, 66 - Citral in lemon extract, 42 - Citric acid in lemon extract, 43 - Coal-tar colors in butter, 5 - in canned vegetables, 29 - in fruit and fruit products, 35 - in lemon extract, 45 - in milk, 2 - in vinegar, 58 - Cochineal carmine in canned vegetables, 29 - in fruit and fruit products, 35 - in meat, 13 - Coffee, 65 - Adulterations of, 65 - Chicory, 66 - Coloring matter, 65 - Imitation coffee beans, 66 - Starch, 66 - Coloring matters - Acid magenta in fruit and fruit products, 35 - Annatto in butter, 5 - in milk, 1 - Aniline red in meat, 13 - Caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - in milk, 1 - in vanilla extract, 47 - in vinegar, 58 - Copper salts in canned vegetables, 30 - Coumarin in vanilla extract, 48 - Copper sulfate in bread, 19 - in flour, 17 - Copper salts in canned vegetables, 30 - Cottonseed oil in butter, 7 - in lard, 60 - in olive oil, 62 - stearin in lard, 60 - Courley and Coremon, horseflesh in other meats, 14 - Cream of tartar, 22 - Adulterations of, 22 - Aluminium salts, 23 - Ammonia, 23 - Earthy materials, 23 - Tartaric acid (free or combined), 22 - - Dairy products, 1 - - Ebers, diseased meat, 14 - Eggs, test for freshness, 14 - Elaiden test, 62 - Exhausted tea leaves in tea, 67 - - Facing in tea, 68 - Fats and Oils, 60 - Lard, 60 - Adulterations of, 60 - Beef stearin, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 60 - stearin, 60 - Olive oil, 61 - Adulterations of, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 62 - Peanut oil, 63 - Rape oil, 64 - Sesame oil, 64 - Fish, preservatives in, 13 - Flavoring extracts, 42 - Flour, 16 - Adulterations of, 16 - Alum, 16 - Copper sulfate, 17 - Substituted flours, 17 - Corn meal in wheat flour, 17 - Ergot in rye flour, 18 - Wheat flour in rye flour, 18 - Flour in mustard, 51 - Formaldehyde in canned vegetables, 25 - in milk, 3 - Frear, sulfuric acid in vinegar, 57 - Fruit and Fruit Products, 33 - Adulterations of, 33 - Agar agar, 38 - Apple juice in jellies made from small fruits, 36 - Arsenic, 38 - Coloring matter, 35 - Acid magenta, 35 - Caramel, 36 - Coal-tar dyes, 35 - Cochineal, 35 - Gelatin in jellies, 37 - Heavy metals, 38 - Preservatives, 33 - Benzoic acid, 34 - Saccharin, 34 - Salicylic acid, 34 - Starch in jellies, jams, and such products, 37 - - Gelatin in honey, 50 - in jellies, 37 - in milk, 2 - Geisler, coal-tar colors in butter, 6 - Ginger cake, stannous chlorid in, 19 - Girard and Dupre, acid magenta in fruit and fruit products, 35 - cochineal in catsups and tomatoes, 29 - in canned vegetables, 29 - Glucose in honey, 50 - in maple syrup, 50 - Gutzeit, arsenic in canned fruits, 39 - Gypsum in baking powders, 21 - - Heavy metals in canned vegetables, 11 - in fruit and fruit products, 38 - in meat, 11 - Hehner, formaldehyde in milk, 3 - Henzold, gelatin in jellies, 37 - Hess and Doolittle, test for process butter, 6 - Honey, 49 - Adulterations of, 49 - Cane sugar, 49 - Commercial glucose, 50 - Gelatin, 50 - Horseflesh in sausage and mince-meat, 14 - Hydrochloric acid in vinegar, 57 - test for formaldehyde, 3, 25 - - Imitation coffee beans, 66 - - Kämmerer, sulfurous acid in meat, 9 - Kleeburg, wheat in rye flour, 18 - Klinger and Bujard, cochineal-carmine in meat, 13 - Kraemer, corn meal in wheat flour, 17 - - Lard, 60 - Adulterations of, 60 - Beef stearin, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 60 - stearin, 60 - Leach, caramel in milk, 1 - malic acid in vinegar, 57 - salicylic acid in meat, 10 - in milk, 4 - Lemon extract, 42 - Adulterations of, 42 - Citral, 42 - Coloring matter, 45 - Coal-tar dyes, 45 - Turmeric, 45 - Lemon oil, 42 - Methyl alcohol, 43 - Oil of citronella, 43 - Tartaric or citric acid, 43 - Lemon oil in lemon extract, 42 - Lie tea in tea, 67 - Lythgoe, coal-tar colors in milk, 2 - - Malic acid in vinegar, 57 - Maple syrup, 50 - Adulterations of, 50 - Glucose, 50 - Marigold in butter, 6 - Marsh, arsenic in fruit and fruit products, 38 - Martin, coloring matter in butter, 5 - Martius yellow in mustard, 52 - Meats, 8 - Adulterations of, 8 - Canned, 11 - Coloring matter (see under sausages, etc.), 13 - Heavy metals, 11 - Preservatives (same tests as under smoked and fresh meat), 11 - Coloring matter, 13 - Aniline red and cochineal-carmine in sausage chopped meat - preparations, and corned meat, 13 - Diseased meat, 14 - Fresh and smoked, 8 - Preservatives, 8 - Benzoic acid, 10 - Boric acid, 9 - Potassium nitrate, 8 - Salicylic acid, 10 - Sulfurous acid, 9 - Fish, salt, dried and oysters, 13 - Preservatives, 13 - Borax (same as under fresh meat), 13 - Boric acid (same as under fresh meat), 13 - Horse-flesh in sausage and in mince-meat, 14 - Starch in sausage, deviled meat and similar products, 13 - Metallic impurities in vinegar, 58 - Methyl alcohol in lemon extract, 43 - Mineral acids in vinegar, 56 - Milk, 1 - Adulterations of, 1 - Coloring matter, 1 - Annatto, 1 - Caramel, 1 - Coal-tar dyes, 2 - Gelatin, 2 - Preservatives, 3 - Boric acid, 4 - Formaldehyde, 3 - Salicylic acid, 4 - Starch, 2 - Mohler, benzoic acid in meat, 10 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Mustard, 51 - Adulterations of, 51 - Cayenne pepper, 53 - Coloring matter, 51 - Martius yellow or analogous coal-tar dyes, 52 - Turmeric, 52 - Flour, 51 - - Oil of citronella in lemon extract, 43 - Oleomargarine in butter, 7 - Olive oil, 61 - Adulterations of, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 62 - Peanut oil, 63 - Rape oil, 64 - Sesame oil, 64 - Olive stones in pepper, 53 - Oysters, preservatives in, 13 - - Peanut oil in olive oil, 63 - Pepper (common), 53 - Adulterations of, 53 - Cayenne pepper, 54 - Ground olive stones, 53 - Peter, benzoic acid in canned vegetables, 28 - Pontet, general test of olive oil, 62 - Potassium nitrate in meat, 8 - Preservatives: - Benzoic acid in canned vegetables, 27 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - in meat, 10 - Boric acid in fish and oysters, 13 - in meat, 9 - in milk, 4 - Formaldehyde in canned vegetables, 25 - in milk, 3 - Potassium nitrate in meat, 8 - Saccharin in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Salicylic acid in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - in meat, 10 - in milk, 4 - Sulfites in canned vegetables, 26 - Sulfurous acid in canned vegetables, 26 - Process or renovated butter, 6 - - Rape oil in olive oil, 64 - Resins, foreign, in vanilla extract, 46 - Richards, Mrs., alum in baking powders, 22 - Rimmington, chicory in coffee, 66 - - Saccharin in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Saffron in butter, 6 - Salicylic acid in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - in meat, 10 - in milk, 4 - Schmidt, saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Schmidt, Albert, chicory in coffee, 66 - Soaked vegetables, 30 - Sostegni and Carpentieri, coal-tar dyes in canned vegetables, 29 - Spices in vinegar, 59 - Stoke, gelatin in milk, 2 - Substituted flours, 17 - Corn meal in wheat, 17 - General test for, 17 - Wheat flour in rye, 18 - Sulfates in baking powders, 21 - Sulfuric acid in vinegar, 56 - Sulfurous acid in meat, 9 - Stannous chlorid in ginger cake, 19 - Starch in fruit and fruit products, 37 - in milk, 2 - - Tannin in vanilla extracts, 47 - Tartar in vinegar, 59 - Tartaric acid in baking powders, 20, 21 - in cream of tartar, 22 - in lemon extract, 43 - in wine vinegar, 59 - Tea, 67 - Adulterations of, 67 - Catechu, 68 - Exhausted tea leaves, 67 - Facing, 68 - Foreign leaves, 67 - Lie tea, 67 - Tocher, sesame oil in olive oil, 64 - Turmeric in butter, 6 - in lemon extract, 45 - in mixed pickles, 30 - in mustard, 52 - - Vanilla extract, 45 - Adulterations of, 45 - Alkali, 46 - Caramel, 47 - Coumarin, 48 - Foreign resins, 46 - Tannin, 46 - Vanderplanken, alum in sour bread, 19 - Vinegar, 55 - Adulterations of, 55 - Coloring matter, 58 - Caramel, 58 - Coal-tar colors in wine vinegar, 58 - Glucose, 59 - Malic acid, 57 - Metallic impurities, 58 - Mineral acids (free), 56 - Hydrochloric acid, 57 - Sulfuric acid, 56 - Spices, 59 - Tartar in wine vinegar, 59 - Tartaric acid (free) in wine vinegar, 59 - Vogel, substituted flours, 17 - - Wynter Blyth, alum in flour, 16 - Wolff, tartaric acid free or combined in baking powders, 20 - - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - -This text follows the source document in spelling and hyphenation, -including inconsistencies, except as mentioned below. Inconsistencies in -section heading have been retained as well. - -The index entries are not always in alphabetical order; this has not been -changed. - -Changes made to the text: - -Some missing or wrong punctuation has been corrected silently. - -Ratios have been changed to x : y where relevant. - -Minor typographical errors corrected: - -Page vii: Commerical to Commercial - -Page 16: oelomargarine to oleamargarine - -Page 49: invert suger to invert sugar - -Page 62: ... (about 3 cc. of this ... to ... (about 3 cc.) of this ... - -Page 71: seasame to sesame - -Page 68: A FEW OF THE BEST BOOKS ON FOOD ANALYSIS has been considered a -separate chapter. - -Page 69: the page header CHEMICALS has been used as the chapter heading. - -The following words in the indexes have been changed to conform to those -in the text: Bechman to Beckmann; Kammerer to Kämmerer; Klingler to -Klinger; Winter-Blyth and Winter Blyth to Wynter Blyth. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Detection of the Common Food -Adulterants, by Edwin M. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Detection of the Common Food Adulterants - -Author: Edwin M. Bruce - -Release Date: August 23, 2013 [EBook #43545] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DETECTION OF COMMON FOOD ADULTERANTS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Eric Skeet and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -Italics in the original work are here represented _between underscores_, -bold face text is represented =between equal signs=. Small capitals from -the original work are here represented by ALL CAPITALS. - -More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - Detection of the Common - Food Adulterants - - BY - - EDWIN M. BRUCE - - INSTRUCTOR IN CHEMISTRY, INDIANA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL - - - LONDON - - ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO., LTD. - - 10 ORANGE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE, W.C. - - 1907 - - - - - _Copyright, 1907_ - BY D. VAN NOSTRAND CO. - - - - -PREFACE - - -Because of the recent agitation of the pure food question throughout the -country, health officers, food-inspectors, and chemistry teachers and -students are constantly called upon to test the purity of various foods. -And this usually involves nothing more than making simple qualitative -tests for adulterants. In view of the fact that there is now no text or -manual devoted exclusively to the qualitative examination of foods, this -little book is offered to those who are interested in this work. - -Its aim is to bring together in one small book the best and simplest -qualitative tests for all the common food adulterants. It contains a -brief statement of the adulterants likely to be found and the reason for -their use. It is hoped that it will be specially valuable to chemistry -teachers in furnishing excellent supplementary work in qualitative -analysis. But it is hoped that it will find its greatest usefulness in -contributing something toward the great pure food reform. - -It is impossible to make due mention of all the sources from which these -various tests have been collected, but where possible, the author's name -has been associated with the test. - - TERRE HAUTE, IND. - - _March 25, 1907._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER I PAGE - - DAIRY PRODUCTS 1 - - =Milk=--Adulterations of--Coloring matters--Annatto--Caramel-- - Coal-tar colors--Preservatives--Formaldehyde--Boric acid--Salicylic - acid--Gelatin--Starch. - - =Butter=--Adulterations of--Coloring matter--Preparation of sample - --Annatto--Coal-tar colors--Saffron--Turmeric--Marigold--Process or - renovated butter--Oleomargarine--Cottonseed oil. - - - CHAPTER II - - MEATS AND EGGS 8 - - Adulterations of--Fresh and smoked--Preservatives--Potassium - nitrate--Boric acid--Sulfurous acid--Salicylic acid--Benzoic acid-- - Canned--Preservatives (same as those of fresh and smoked meat)-- - Heavy metals--Coloring matter (see under sausages, etc.)--Fish, - salt, dried and oysters--Preservatives--Boric acid (same under - smoked and fresh meat)--Coloring matter--Aniline red and cochineal- - carmine--In sausages, chopped meat, preparations and corned meat-- - Starch--In sausages, deviled meat and similar products--Diseased - meats--Horse-flesh in sausages and in mince-meat. - - =Eggs=--Test for age. - - - CHAPTER III - - CEREAL PRODUCTS 16 - - =Flour=--Adulteration of--Alum--Copper sulfate--Substituted flours - --General test--Corn meal in wheat flour--Wheat flour in rye flour - --Ergot in rye flour. - - =Bread=--Adulterations of--Alum--Copper sulfate. - - =Ginger Cake=--Adulterations of--Stannous chlorid. - - - CHAPTER IV - - LEAVENING MATERIALS 20 - - =Baking Powders=--Adulterations of--Tartaric acid (free or - combined)--Tartaric acid (free)--Sulfates (calcium, etc.)--Gypsum-- - Ammonium salts--Alum. - - =Cream of Tartar=--Adulterations of--Tartaric acid (free or - combined)--Aluminium salts--Ammonia--Earthy materials. - - - CHAPTER V - - CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES 24 - - Adulterations of--Preservatives--Preparation of sample-- - Formaldehyde--Sulfurous acid and the sulfites--Salicylic acid-- - Saccharin--Benzoic acid--Coloring matter--Cochineal--Coal-tar dyes - --Copper salts--In green pickles, beans, peas, etc.--Turmeric--In - mixed pickles--Heavy metals (other than copper, same as under - meats)--Soaked vegetables--Peas, beans and corn--Alum--In pickles-- - Examination of the can or box. - - - CHAPTER VI - - FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS 33 - - Adulterations of--Preservatives--Preparation of sample--Salicylic - acid--Benzoic acid--Saccharin--Coloring matter--Coal-tar dyes-- - Cochineal--Acid magenta--Apple juice in jellies made from small - fruits--Detection (see test for starch)--Starch--In jellies, jams - and such products--Gelatin--In jellies--Agar agar--Heavy metals-- - Arsenic. - - - CHAPTER VII - - FLAVORING EXTRACTS 42 - - =Lemon Extract=--Lemon oil--Citral--Oil of citronella--Tartaric or - citric acid--Methyl alcohol--Coloring matter--Turmeric--Coal-tar - colors. - - =Vanilla Extract=--Adulterations of--Preliminary test--Alkali-- - Foreign resins--Caramel--Tannin--Coumarin. - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SACCHARINE PRODUCTS 49 - - =Honey=--Adulterations of--General observations--Cane sugar-- - Commercial glucose syrup--Gelatin. - - =Maple Syrup=--Adulterations of--General examination--Glucose. - - - CHAPTER IX - - SPICES 51 - - =Mustard=--Adulterations of--Flour--Coloring matter--Turmeric-- - Martius yellow or analogous coal-tar coloring matter--Cayenne - pepper. - - =Pepper=--Adulterations of--General test--Ground olive stones-- - Cayenne pepper. - - - CHAPTER X - - VINEGAR 55 - - Adulterations of--Preparation of sample--General observations-- - Free mineral acids--General tests--Sulfuric acid--Hydrochloric acid - (free)--Malic acid--Coloring matter--Caramel--Coal-tar colors--In - wine vinegar--Free tartaric acid--In wine vinegar. - - - CHAPTER XI - - FATS AND OILS 60 - - =Lard=--Adulterations of--Cottonseed oil--Cottonseed stearin--Beef - stearin. - - =Olive Oil=--Adulterations of--General test--Cottonseed oil--Peanut - oil--Sesame oil--Rape oil. - - - CHAPTER XII - - BEVERAGES 65 - - =Coffee=--Adulterations of--General test--Coloring matter-- - Imitation coffee beans--Chicory. - - =Tea=--Adulterations of--Foreign leaves--Exhausted tea leaves--Lie - tea--Facing--Catechu. - - - - -PURE FOOD TESTS - - - - -CHAPTER I - -DAIRY PRODUCTS - - -MILK - -Milk is adulterated by watering, removing the cream or by adding some -foreign substance. Formaldehyde, boric acid or salicylic acid may be -added to preserve the milk. Annatto, caramel or some coal-tar dye is -added, sometimes to improve the color of the milk, and at other times to -cover up traces of watering. Gelatin and starch are added for the same -purpose, though they are not frequently used. - - -ARTIFICIAL COLORING MATTER - - -ANNATTO - -Add acid sodium carbonate to a sample of the milk until it shows a -slight alkaline reaction. Immerse a piece of filter-paper and leave it -in for 12 or 15 hours. If annatto is present, there will be a -reddish-yellow stain on the paper. - - -CARAMEL - -_Leach's Method._--Warm 150 cc. of the sample and add 5 cc. of acetic -acid, then continue heating it nearly to the boiling point, stirring -while it is being heated. Separate the curd by gathering it with the -stirring rod or by pouring through a sieve. Press out all the whey from -the curd and macerate the latter for several hours (10 to 12 hours) in -50 cc. of ether. It is best to do this in a tightly corked flask, -shaking it frequently. If the milk was uncolored or colored with annatto -the curd when thus treated will be white. If the curd is a dull brown -color caramel was probably used to color the milk. Confirm its presence -by shaking a portion of the curd with concentrated hydrochloric acid -(sp. gr. 1.20) and gently heating. If the acid solution turns blue while -the curd does not change its color, caramel was used to color the milk. -(Remember that the ether-extracted curd must be brown.) - - -COAL TAR COLORS - -_Lythgoe's Method._--Mix in a porcelain vessel about 15 cc. each of the -sample of milk and hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) and break up the -curd into coarse lumps by shaking gently. If an azo-color was used to -color the milk this curd will be pink, but the curd of normal milk will -be white or yellowish. - - -STARCH - -The presence of starch in milk may be detected by heating a small -quantity of the milk to boiling. When it has cooled add a drop of iodin -in potassium iodid, and if starch is present there will be a blue -coloration. - - -GELATIN - -_A. W. Stokes' Method._--Dissolve 1 part by weight of mercury in 2 parts -of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42). Add 24 times this volume of water. Mix -equal volumes (about 10 cc.) of this reagent and the milk or cream, -shake well and add 20 cc. of water. Shake again and, after standing 5 -minutes, filter. When a great quantity of gelatin is present the -filtrate will be opalescent instead of perfectly clear. To a little of -this filtrate in a test tube add the same volume of a saturated aqueous -solution of picric acid. If much gelatin is present a yellow precipitate -is produced, smaller amounts produce a cloudiness. If the filtrate is -perfectly clear gelatin is absent and picric acid may be added without -producing any noticeable effect. - - -PRESERVATIVES - - -FORMALDEHYDE - -_Hehner's Sulfuric Acid Test._--Put 10 cc. of the suspected milk in a -wide test tube and pour carefully down the side of the inclined tube -about 5 cc. commercial sulfuric acid so that it forms a separate layer -at the bottom. A violet coloration at the union of the two liquids -indicates the presence of formaldehyde. If the commercial acid is not -available, the pure acid may be used, but a few drops of ferric chloride -must be added. Sometimes the charring effect of the acid makes it -advisable to use the following test: - -_Hydrochloric Acid Test._--2 cc. of 10 per cent ferric chloride is added -to one liter of commercial hydrochloric acid sp. gr. 1.2 (or any -quantity in this proportion). To 10 cc. of this mixture add 10 cc. of -the milk to be tested. Heat the mixture slowly nearly to the boiling -point, in an evaporating dish, but agitating it all the while to prevent -the curd collecting in one mass. If formaldehyde is present, there will -be a violet coloration. It is said that by this test as small a -quantity of formaldehyde as 1 part in 250,000 parts of milk can be -detected. It is not so sensitive in sour milk. - - -BORIC ACID - -_Turmeric Paper Test._--Incinerate some of the milk, and acidulate the -ash with a very few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid and afterwards -dissolve it in a few drops of water. Place a strip of turmeric paper in -this solution for a few minutes, then remove and dry it. If boric acid -either free or combined is present, the turmeric paper will be turned to -a cherry-red color. - -_Another way of making this test._--U. S. Dep. of Agr., Div. of Chem., -Bul. 65, p. 110: Make strongly alkaline with lime water, 25 grams of the -milk, and evaporate to dryness on the water bath. Destroy the organic -matter by igniting the residue. Dilute with 15 cc. of water and acidify -with hydrochloric acid. Then add 1 cc. of the concentrated acid. Dip a -piece of delicate turmeric paper in the solution; and if borax or boric -acid is present, it will have a characteristic red color when dry. -Ammonia changes it to a dark blue green, but the acid will restore the -color. - -(Turmeric paper may be prepared by dipping pieces of smooth, thin filter -paper in a solution of powdered turmeric in alcohol.) - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -(This is not often used as a preservative of milk.) - -_Leach suggests the following method for its detection._--Dissolve one -gram of mercury in 2 grams of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42) and then add to -the solution the same volume of water. Add 1 cc. of this reagent to 50 -cc. of the milk to be tested, and shake and filter. The perfectly clear -filtrate is shaken with ether and the ether extract evaporated to -dryness. Then add a drop of ferric chlorid solution, and a violet color -will be produced if salicylic acid is present. - - -BUTTER - -Butter is often colored with annatto, saffron, turmeric, marigold or -coal-tar colors. By a certain process, stale or old butter is sometimes -worked over and made to appear fresh for a time. This is sold under the -name of "process" or "renovated" butter. Foreign fats like cottonseed -oil, sesame oil, or oleomargarine may be substituted for or added to -pure butter. - - -COLORING MATTER - -_Martin's Test._--Add 2 parts of carbon bisulfid, a little at a time and -with frequent shaking, to 15 parts of alcohol. Shake 25 cc. of this -solution with 5 grams of the butter, and let stand for some time. The -carbon bisulfid dissolves out the fatty matter and settles to the -bottom. The alcohol remains on top and will dissolve out any artificial -colors that may be present. If only a little coloring matter is present -use more of the butter. - - -ANNATTO - -Evaporate a portion of the extract to dryness and add sulfuric acid to -the residue. If annatto is present a greenish-blue color forms. Should a -pink tint result the presence of a coal-tar color is to be suspected. - - -COAL-TAR COLORS - -These colors will dye wool or silk if pieces of the fiber are boiled in -the diluted alcoholic extract, which has first been acidified with -hydrochloric acid. The normal butter coloring matter will not dissolve -when thus treated. - -_Geisler's Method._--To a few drops of the clarified fat on a porcelain -surface, add a very little fullers' earth. If a pink to violet-red -coloration is produced in a short time the presence of an azo-color is -indicated. - - -SAFFRON - -When saffron is present, nitric acid colors the alcoholic extract green, -and hydrochloric acid colors it red. - - -TURMERIC - -Add ammonia to the alcoholic extract, and if it turns brown it indicates -the presence of turmeric. - - -MARIGOLD - -Add silver nitrate to the extract, and if it turns black the presence of -marigold is indicated. - - -PROCESS OR RENOVATED BUTTER - -Heat a little of the suspected butter in a spoon or dish, and if it is -process butter it will sputter, but not foam much. Make the test also -with some butter known to be pure and fresh. - -_Hess and Doolittle Test._--Melt some of the butter (say 40 grams) at -about 50 deg. C. If the butter is pure and fresh the melted fat will clear -up almost as soon as it is melted, while the fat of process butter -remains turbid for quite a while. After most of the curd has settled, -decant as much as possible of the fat. Pour the remainder on a wet -filter. Add a few drops of acetic acid to the water that runs through -from the filter, and boil. If it was ordinary butter this filtrate will -become milky, but if process butter a flocculent precipitate will form. - - -OLEOMARGARINE - -Immerse a test tube, containing some of the filtered fat, in boiling -water for 2 minutes. Make a mixture of 1 part glacial acetic acid, 6 -parts ether, and 4 parts alcohol. Add to 20 cc. of this mixture in a 50 -cc. test tube, 1 cc. of the heated fat which may be transferred by means -of a hot pipette. Stopper the tube and shake it well. Immerse in water -at 15 deg. or 16 deg. C. Pure butter when thus treated remains clear for quite a -while. There will be only a very little deposit after standing an hour, -but oleomargarine gives a deposit almost immediately, and in a few -minutes there will be a copious precipitate. - -When the oleomargarine in butter is in about the proportion of 1 : 10, -it will not separate much short of 15 minutes. - - -COTTONSEED OIL - -The presence of this oil may be detected by Halpen's test, which is -given under lard, page 60. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -MEATS AND EGGS - - -Meats are preserved by treating them with potassium nitrate, boric acid, -sulfurous acid, salicylic acid, or benzoic acid. Cheap meat may be -substituted for the more expensive. A few cases of horse meat in mince -meat and sausages have been discovered. Diseased and stale meats have -been found on the market. Canned meats often contain zinc, tin, and -lead, and sometimes even arsenic. Aniline-red or cochineal-carmine may -be added to improve the color of chopped or ground meats. Starch is -sometimes added to sausage and similar meat. Fish and oysters may be -preserved with boric acid or borax. - - -FRESH AND SMOKED PRODUCTS--PRESERVATIVES - - -POTASSIUM NITRATE (SALTPETER) - -Corned and smoked meats are usually preserved with saltpeter. Since -smoked and cured meats are used in making potted meats, saltpeter is -quite frequently found in the latter. It may be detected by the usual -test for nitrates since no other nitrate is apt to be present, though -one may identify the metal by the qualitative test for potassium. - -To test for nitrates treat a little of the meat with 2 or 3 cc. of a 1 -per cent solution of diphenylamine in strong sulfuric acid. If a -nitrate is present a deep blue color forms instantly, which is not -obscured by the charring effect of the acid. - - -BORIC ACID - -Pick apart into fine pieces about 25 or 50 grams of the lean meat and -warm with a little water which has a few drops of hydrochloric acid in -it. Soak a piece of turmeric paper in the extract, and if boric acid is -present the paper will be colored rose-red when it is dry. A weak alkali -turns this colored paper olive. - -Another method is to burn a piece of the meat to an ash, after being -treated with lime water. Make a solution of the ash and make slightly -acid with hydrochloric acid. Then test with the turmeric paper with the -same results as in the above method. - - -SULFUROUS ACID - -U. S. Dep. Agr., Bureau Chem., Bul. 13, Part 10: Digest 40 or 50 grams -of the meat in hot water, treat with 10 cc. glacial phosphoric acid to -coagulate the proteids. Strain through a cotton bag and transfer the -filtrate to a short-necked flask and distil receiving the first part of -the distillate in a solution of iodin. Boil, and add barium chloride. If -sulfurous acid is present, it will be oxidized to sulfuric acid and -precipitated as barium sulfate by the barium chlorid. More than a mere -trace of the precipitate proves that some sulfite was used to preserve -the meat. - -Another method suggested by Kaemmerer is to place the meat on paper, -which has been saturated with potassium iodate moistened with dilute -sulfuric acid (1 : 8); nitric oxid must not be present. If sulfurous -acid is present a deep blue color forms at once. A trace of this color -may form after some time with meat that is not fresh, hence this method -cannot be used in examining canned meat. - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -Heat 50 grams of the meat in 50 cc. of water. Add 10 cc. of a strong -solution of glacial phosphoric acid and strain through a cotton bag. -Extract the filtrate with a little ether (about 50 cc.) in a separatory -funnel. Let the ether evaporate spontaneously. Take up the residue with -3 cc. of water, and add one or two drops of a one-half per cent solution -of ferric chlorid. If salicylic acid is present the mixture will be -purple or violet. - -Leach makes the same test by slightly acidifying a portion of the lean -meat, then extracting with ether, and evaporating to dryness and testing -the residue with a drop of ferric chlorid solution. A deep violet -coloration is produced if salicylic acid is present. - - -BENZOIC ACID - -_Mohler's Method._--Prepare a sample as in the test for salicylic acid -by heating 50 grams of the meat in 50 cc. of water. Add 10 cc. of a -concentrated solution of glacial phosphoric acid, and strain through a -cotton bag. Neutralize with sodium hydrate and evaporate to dryness or -to a small volume. After treating with 3 cc. of concentrated sulfuric -acid, heat till white fumes appear. Add 4 or 5 crystals of potassium -nitrate and continue heating until the solution is colorless or nearly -so. When cool dilute with water, add an excess of ammonia, and place in -a narrow vessel like a test tube. Add one or two drops of ammonium -sulfid carefully so that the liquids do not mix. If the surface of the -liquid immediately becomes red, benzoic acid is present. - -If this test is not carefully performed, it is worthless, as other -substances give similar results. - -Confirm its presence by neutralizing the aqueous solution of the -extracted benzoic acid with sodium hydroxid; concentrate to a very small -volume. Acidify with sulfuric acid. A white flocculent precipitate shows -the presence of considerable benzoic acid. - - -CANNED MEAT - -If in preparing canned meat only fresh meat is used, there is little -need for the use of preservatives, but as considerable smoked and cured -meat is thus used, preservatives may find their way into canned meat. - -The same preservatives should be looked for as in fresh and smoked meat -and the same test made for each. - - -HEAVY METALS - -_A. H. Allen's Method._--About 25 grams of the substance is mixed slowly -with enough strong, pure sulfuric acid to just moisten the mass, -avoiding an excess. Heat on a water-bath for a short time, then raise -the temperature gradually, and maintain till the chlorids seem to be -decomposed. It must not be hot enough, however, to volatilize the -sulfuric acid. Then add 1 cc. of strong nitric acid and heat till red -fumes are given off. Freshly ignited magnesia in the proportion of 0.5 -gram for each cc. of sulfuric and nitric acid previously used is now -stirred into the mass and the whole ignited at a dull red heat. This is -best done in a gas-muffle. When cool, moisten the ash with nitric acid -and gently re-ignite, repeating this treatment till the carbon is -entirely consumed. Treat the residue with 8 or 10 drops of strong -sulfuric acid, heat till fumes are given off, cool, boil with water, -dilute to about 100 cc. and saturate with hydrogen sulfid, filter, -examine as follows: - - ==========================++=========================================== - Zinc and iron may be in ||Lead, tin, copper, and calcium, if present, - solution. Add bromine ||will be in the precipitate and residue. - water to destroy hydrogen ||Fuse the mass in a porcelain crucible for - sulfid and to oxidize the ||at least ten minutes with 2 grams each of - iron, boil and add ammo- ||potassium and sodium carbonates and half - nium hydrate in excess, ||as much sulfur. After cooling, boil with - boil again and filter. ||water and filter. - ---------------+----------++---------------------------+--------------- - The precipitate|Filtrate, ||Residue. Add hydrochloric |The filtrate may - will contain |when blue,||acid and boil as long as |contain tin. - the iron and |proves the||hydrogen sulfid is given |Acidify with - the phosphates.|presence ||off. A few drops of bro- |acetic acid, and - |of nickel.||mine water will complete |if tin is pres- - | ||the oxidation of the |ent a yellow - | ||copper sulfid. Filter, and|precipitate of - | ||add ammonium hydroxid in |stannic sulfid - | ||excess to the filtrate. |will form. - | ||When the filtrate is blue,| - | ||it indicates the presence | - | ||of copper. Acidify the | - | ||filtrate with acetic acid | - | ||and test for lead by | - | ||adding potassium chromate,| - | ||a yellow precipitate being| - | ||formed when it is present.| - ---------------+----------++--------------------------+---------------- - |I. Heat to|| | - |boiling || | - |and add || | - |potassium || | - |ferrocya- || | - |nid. A || | - |white pre-|| | - |cipitate || | - |or turbi- || | - |dity in- || | - |dicates || | - |_zinc_. || | - ===============+==========++==========================+================ - - -FISH SALT DRIED AND OYSTERS - -This kind of meat is often preserved with boric acid and borax. They may -be detected by the method given under fresh and smoked meat. - - -COLORING MATTER - -Sausages and other chopped meat preparations, together with corned meat -that has been cured without saltpeter, are often treated with artificial -coloring matter. - -Aniline red and cochineal carmine are usually employed for this purpose. -The former may be detected, according to Allen, by picking the meat -apart and treating it with methylated spirit, strain or filter the -extract and take up with water. Then a piece of white wool (nun's -veiling will do) is immersed in the boiling liquid and, if it is dyed -red, rosaniline is present. - -Cochineal-carmine may be detected by the method used by Klinger and -Bujard. Cut up fine about 20 grams of the meat and heat in a water-bath -with water and glycerine mixed in equal parts. If the above coloring -matter is present the liquid will become quite red in color, if not -present a slight yellow color results from this treatment. If a -spectroscope is available this dye is easily recognized. - - -STARCH - - -IN SAUSAGE, DEVILED MEAT, AND SIMILAR PRODUCTS - -Cracker and bread crumbs are often added to these preparations and their -presence is best detected by examining the amount of starch present. Do -this by boiling some of the sample in water, and when cool adding a drop -or two of iodin reagent. The usual blue color is produced if much -starch is present. If there is only a little starch, it may be necessary -to examine it under the microscope to determine whether the starch is -from the pepper and other spices used or from some cereal. - - -DISEASED MEAT - -_The following method is recommended by Ebers._--Hold a small piece of -the suspected meat over a mixture of 1 cc. hydrochloric acid, 3 cc. -alcohol, and 1 cc. of ether. The formation of ammonium chlorid fumes -shows that decomposition has begun. Do not mistake the fumes of the acid -for those of ammonium chlorid. - - -HORSE FLESH - - -IN SAUSAGE AND MINCE MEAT - -This sophistication is not common in this country. Horse flesh is -detected by testing for glycogen, which is present in it in larger -quantities than in other meats. - -_Courley & Coremon's Test._--Boil 50 grams of the meat for a half hour -with water, strain, and to a portion of the filtrate add a few drops of -potassium iodid-iodin solution (potassium iodid 0.4 gram; iodin 0.1 -gram; water 20 cc.). If considerable horse meat is present the glycogen -will color the liquid dark brown, which disappears on heating, but -returns on cooling. - - -EGGS - -It sometimes happens that one wishes to know the age of eggs without -opening them. - -_Delarne's Test._--Place the egg in a 10 per cent solution of common -salt. Perfectly fresh eggs sink to the bottom. Those remaining -immersed, but suspended in the liquid, are at least three days old, -while those rising to the surface and floating are more than five days -old. The older the egg, the higher it floats and the more it will stand -on end. This test is not applicable to eggs that have been preserved. - -Hold the egg between a bright light and the eye, and if the air chamber -is small, and no dark spots but instead a rather uniform rose-colored -tint is seen, the egg is fresh. If the contents appear cloudy and the -air chamber larger, the egg is not fresh. The darker the contents of the -egg the older it is. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CEREAL PRODUCTS - - -FLOUR - -Sometimes a cheaper or inferior grade of flour is substituted for one of -higher quality, and even a different kind of flour may be substituted, -as corn meal in wheat flour, or wheat in rye flour. Alum may be added by -millers to cover up traces of bad flour, and by bakers to make the bread -white when a bad or cheap flour is being used. Copper sulfate also may -be added to improve the appearance. Occasionally rye flour is made from -rye upon which ergot has developed. Stannous chlorid and potassium -carbonate are added to ginger cake to give the same color to the product -made of molasses and a poor grade of flour as that made from good flour -and honey. - - -ALUM - -_Wynther Blyth Method._--Add a little water to the sample and macerate. -Soak pieces of gelatin in the solution and leave for a half day, remove -the gelatin and dip the pieces in a mixture of equal volumes of a fresh -tincture of logwood and a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate. The -gelatin strips will turn blue if alum is present. - -_Bell & Carter Method._--Make a fresh 5 per cent tincture of logwood in -methyl alcohol. Dampen about 10 grams of the flour with water and add 1 -cc. of the logwood tincture and the same quantity of a saturated -solution of ammonium carbonate. Pure flour gives a pinkish color which -fades to buff or brown. The presence of alum produces a lavender or -bluish tint which becomes more distinct as it dries. - - -COPPER SULFATE - -This adulterant may be detected in either flour or bread, by soaking the -flour or bread in a dilute solution of potassium ferrocyanid acidulated -with acetic acid. If copper be present a purplish or reddish-brown -coloration will be produced. - - -SUBSTITUTED FLOURS - -_Vogel's Method._--Make a mixture of alcohol (70 per cent), 95 parts, -hydrochloric acid 5 parts. Treat a sample of the flour in a test tube -with this reagent. Shake well. Heat to boiling and allow to settle. A -colorless fluid shows the flour to be pure, a straw-colored tint -indicates the presence of gruffs with bran, an orange-yellow proves the -presence of corn-cockle flour, a flesh-colored liquid indicates the -presence of ergot, while a green color indicates buckwheat flour. - - -CORN MEAL IN WHEAT FLOUR - -_Kraemer claims to be able to detect as small amount as 5 per cent of -maize in wheat flour, by the following test._--Mix a gram of the flour -with 15 cc. of good glycerin, and heat to boiling for a short time. If -corn meal is present, there will be an odor like that of pop corn. - - -WHEAT IN RYE FLOUR - -_Kleeburg recommends the following test._--A little of the flour is -mixed on a piece of common window glass or microscope slide, with -sufficient water (at 45 deg. C.) to float the flour particles. Spread the -mixture out over the glass, and press another glass down upon it. When -wheat flour is present, white spots will be seen, and if the glasses are -slid upon each other the spots will pull out into threads, and the -thicker and longer they are the more wheat flour there is present. - - -ERGOT IN RYE FLOUR - -_Boettger gives the following chemical test for ergot._--Heat 10 to 15 -minutes with an equal quantity of ether, adding a few crystals of oxalic -acid. When ergot is present a reddish color develops. - -_Another Method._--Bul. 51, Bureau of Chem. - -Digest 20 grams of the suspected flour, with boiling alcohol, till no -more color is extracted. Add 1 cc. of sulfuric acid (1 : 3), and if -ergot is present the solution will be colored red. - - -BREAD - - -ALUM - -Moisten a piece of the bread with water, and then with a logwood -solution (5 grams logwood digested in 100 cc. of alcohol). If alum is -present the bread will become lavender blue in two or three hours. Pure -bread would have a red-brown tint. To prove the presence of alum, the -blue color must be permanent at the temperature of boiling water. (The -logwood used in this test must be pure.) - -_Blyth's Test._--Macerate 150 grams of the sample for 45 or 50 hours in -a couple liters of water; after straining through muslin, evaporate to a -small volume over a low flame. Immerse a strip of gelatin in this -liquid, and then in a logwood solution (same as in last test), and if -alum is present it will acquire the lavender color. - -If the bread in either of these tests is sour, the following -modification (Vanderplanken) must be made. Reduce 15 grams of the sample -to a paste with water and some pure chlorid of sodium, adding 10 drops -of a fresh alcoholic solution of logwood, after which add 5 grams of -pure potassium carbonate. Mix well, and after washing with 100 cc. of -water into a vessel allow to settle. If alum is present the liquid will -soon become reddish-violet, and if not present it will be blue. - - -COPPER SULFATE - -SEE TEST FOR COPPER SULFATE IN FLOUR - - -GINGER CAKE - -Tin may be detected by the method for heavy metals under meat. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -LEAVENING MATERIALS - - -BAKING POWDERS - -Baking powders consist of bicarbonate of soda and an acidifying agent as -acid potassium tartrate, acid calcium phosphate, tartaric acid or alum. -Some powders contain both acid calcium phosphate and alum. The kind of -powder is determined by testing for these. Gypsum has been added to -baking powders to increase the weight. - - -TARTARIC ACID - - -FREE OR COMBINED - -_Wolff's Method._--If no starch is present, mix a little of the powder -with some dry resorcin. Add a few drops of sulfuric acid and heat -gently. A rose-red color forms if tartaric acid or tartrates are -present. The color should disappear when diluted with water. When starch -is present, mix well by shaking about 5 grams of the powder with 250 cc. -of cold water. Let the insoluble matter settle and pour the liquid upon -a filter. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness, treat the powdered residue -with a few drops of a 1 per cent solution of resorcin. Add 3 cc. of -strong sulfuric acid, heat slowly. A rose-red color forms if tartaric -acid is present. The color should be destroyed on the addition of -water. This test is applicable in the presence of phosphates and the -acid may be free or combined. - - -TARTARIC ACID - - -FREE - -Make an absolute alcoholic extract of 5 grams of the powder and -evaporate the alcohol. Add sufficient dilute ammonia to dissolve the -residue, place in a test tube and drop in a crystal or two of silver -nitrate. Heat gently, and a silver mirror will form if tartaric acid is -present. - - -SULFATES - - -CALCIUM, ETC. - -Boil a portion of the sample gently with strong hydrochloric acid, add -barium chlorid. A white precipitate of barium sulfate will form if -sulfuric acid is present. - - -GYPSUM - - -CALCIUM SULFATE - -Ash a portion of the sample and make the usual qualitative tests for -calcium sulfate. - - -AMMONIUM SALTS - -Extract a few grams of the sample with cold water, boil the extract with -sodium hydroxid and place a piece of moist red litmus paper in the -steam. It will be colored blue if ammonia is present. - - -ALUM - -Reduce to an ash about 2 grams of the powder in a platinum dish. Extract -with boiling water, add ammonium chlorid solution to the filtrate until -a distinct odor of ammonia is given off. - -If a flocculent precipitate forms it indicates the presence of alum. - -This test for alum is applicable in the presence of phosphates. - -_Mrs. Richards._--Cover some logwood chips (they must be pure) with -water and bring to a boil. Repeat this four times, saving only the last -decoction. Shake some of the sample (a couple of teaspoonfuls) in a -beaker half full of water. When it ceases effervescing, strongly acidify -with acetic acid. Add a few drops of the logwood extract, and if alum is -present a bluish-red color will appear. - - -CREAM OF TARTAR - -Cream of tartar is bitartrate of potassium and is obtained from the lees -deposited in wine casks. If gypsum has been used to clarify the wine, it -will be present in the cream of tartar as calcium tartrate. - -Other adulterants of cream of tartar are acid calcium phosphate, starch, -gypsum, and alum. - - -TARTARIC ACID - - -FREE OR COMBINED - -If the sample is known to be free from starch the following test may be -made: - -Mix a bit of the powder with a small quantity of dry resorcin and add a -few drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. Heat slowly, and if a rose-red -color forms, which disappears when diluted with water, there is present -either tartaric acid or a tartrate. - -When the sample contains starch, shake about 4 or 5 grams of it a number -of times with 250 cc. of cold water in a large flask. Pour on a filter -after the insoluble material has settled and evaporate the filtrate to -dryness. The residue is to be tested for tartaric acid and tartrates, -the same as when starch was absent. - - -ALUMINIUM SALTS - -Mix equal quantities (about 1 gram) of the sample and sodium carbonate -and burn to an ash. Extract with boiling water and filter. Add to this -filtrate enough ammonium chlorid solution to cause a distinct evolution -of ammonia. The formation of a flocculent precipitate shows the presence -of aluminium. This test may be used when phosphates are present. - - -AMMONIA - - -PRESENT IN THE FORM OF AMMONIA ALUM OR AMMONIUM CARBONATE - -Make a cold water extract of the powder and boil it with sodium -hydroxid. Test the steam with moist red litmus paper. - - -EARTHY MATERIALS - -Treat the sample with warm potassium hydroxid. A residue indicates some -earthy material. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -CANNED AND BOTTLED VEGETABLES - - -No class of foods on the market has less need for antiseptics than -canned goods, yet their use is rather common. Products thus treated are -easier canned and are not so apt to spoil. The chemicals used as -preservatives are sulfurous acid, and the sulfites, salicylic acid and -saccharin, benzoic acid, and sometimes formaldehyde. Sulfurous acid is -used to bleach such foods as canned corn. Saccharin possesses some -antiseptic properties, but its main use is as a sweetener. Alum is used -to make pickles hard and crisp. - -Some canned or bottled goods, as tomato-catsup, is colored with -cochineal or coal-tar dyes. Green pickles, beans, peas, and such -vegetables are colored by copper salts or are cooked in copper vessels, -with the addition of acetic acid, hence the beautiful green color. -Turmeric is sometimes used to color mixed pickles. - -The heavy metals as lead, zinc, and tin are generally present in canned -goods, the amount varying with the corrosive power of the vegetable. - -When there is a year of scarcity in corn, peas, beans, and such -vegetables, the dried product is often soaked and canned. Some of this -goods is sold for the regular green vegetable, while some may be -properly marked "Soaked Goods." - - -PRESERVATIVES - -It is best to make a systematic examination for the different -preservatives. The sample may be prepared by mixing 50 grams of the -pulped material with sufficient water in a 250 cc. graduated flask. Add -phosphoric acid till distinctly acid in reaction. Fill to the mark with -water. Place in a distilling flask, and distil in a linseed oil or a -paraffin bath till 30 cc. have been collected. Save this distillate for -the following tests. - - -FORMALDEHYDE - -To 5 cc. of the above distillate in a test tube, add 2 or 3 drops of a 1 -per cent aqueous solution of phenol and mix well. Incline the tube and -carefully pour down the side 5 cc. of concentrated commercial sulfuric -acid so that the two liquids do not mix. If formaldehyde is present -there will be a crimson zone at the plane of union of the solutions. -This coloration takes place when the formaldehyde is present in the -proportion of 1 part in 100,000 parts. When there is a greater quantity -of formaldehyde present a white turbidity or a light-colored precipitate -forms above the coloring. - -_Phenylhydrazine Hydrochloric Test._--Dissolve 2 grams of -phenylhydrazine hydrochlorid and 3 grams of sodium acetate in 20 cc. of -water. Add 2 to 4 drops of this reagent and the same number of drops of -sulfuric acid to 1 or 2 cc. of the above distillate, to be examined in a -test tube. A green coloration is produced when formaldehyde is present. - -_Hydrochloric Acid Test._--Add 5 cc. of the distillate to be tested to -about 5 cc. of milk known to be pure, and about 10 cc. of concentrated -hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) which contains 1 cc. of a 10 per cent -ferric chlorid solution to each 500 cc. of the acid. Heat slowly to 80 deg. -or 90 deg. C. over the free flame, agitating it at the same time to break up -the curd. A violet coloration indicates formaldehyde. - - -SULFUROUS ACID AND THE SULFITES - -Free sulfurous acid is not largely used as a food preservative, though -its salts are quite commonly employed. - -_Detection._--Mix 150 grams of the finely ground sample with enough -water to make a thin paste. Acidify with phosphoric acid and distil till -25 cc. have been collected. (The delivery tube of the condenser should -dip below the surface of a little water.) Treat the distillate with a -few drops of bromine water and boil for a short time. If a precipitate -forms on the addition of barium chlorid the presence of sulfurous acid -is indicated. - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -Acidify 50 cc. of the sample with sulfuric acid, and shake vigorously -with 50 cc. of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum spirit. -When the liquids have separated, draw off as much as possible of the -solvent and filter. If an emulsion forms use a centrifugal machine, and -evaporate with a small flame. If needle-shaped crystals form, salicylic -acid is present. Add a few drops of water and a drop of very dilute -ferric chlorid solution in such a way that the solutions will come -together slowly. The presence of salicylic acid gives a purple or violet -color. - - -SACCHARIN - -This is used quite extensively as a sweetening agent in canned sweet -corn, and other similar products. - -Macerate about 20 grams of the sample after mixing with 30 to 40 cc. of -water and strain through muslin. Acidify with 1 or 2 cc. of sulfuric -acid (1 to 3) and extract with ether. (If an emulsion forms, use a -centrifugal machine.) Separate the ether layer and let the ether -evaporate spontaneously and use the residue in the following tests: - -Take up a part of the residue with water and taste. If it is very sweet -saccharin is present. Confirm by the following: - -_Schmidt's Test._--Add about 1 gram of sodium hydroxide to another part -of the residue, and heat in an air-oven or oil bath, for half an hour at -about 250 deg. C., to convert the saccharin into salicylic acid. After it -has cooled, acidify with sulfuric acid, extract and test for salicylic -acid with 2 or 3 drops of ferric chlorid solution, letting the solutions -come together slowly. A purple or violet coloration proves the presence -of salicylic acid, which in turn indicates the presence of saccharin. -This test cannot be used if salicylic acid was used as a preservative in -the original product. A test for the acid should first be made. - -_Bornstein's Test._--Heat the remainder of the above ether residue with -resorcin and a very little sulfuric acid till it begins to swell. (It is -best to do this heating in a test-tube.) Let cool till the action stops, -heat again and repeat the operation several times. After cooling the -last time, dilute with water and add sodium hydrate till neutral. If -saccharin is present, there will be a red-green fluorescence. - - -BENZOIC ACID - -Acidify 50 cc. of the sample with sulfuric acid and shake vigorously -with 50 cc. of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum spirit. -Let the liquids separate, then draw off as much as possible of the -solvent and filter. (Use a centrifugal machine if an emulsion forms.) -Separate the extract into 2 parts and evaporate each to dryness over a -small flame and make the following tests: - -_Ferric Chlorid Test._--Dissolve one of these residues in ammonia, and -evaporate to dryness on a water-bath. Take up the residue with warm -water, filter, and collect the filtrate in a small test tube. Add a drop -of ferric chlorid solution, and if benzoic acid is present a -characteristic flesh or brownish colored precipitate of ferric benzoate -forms. Sometimes in such products as sweet pickles, a basic ferric -acetate precipitate comes down and the following test had better be -applied. - -_Peter's Method._--Take about 0.1 gram of the second part of the above -ether residue, place in a large test tube (about 50 cc.) and dissolve in -5 to 8 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid. Add from 0.5 to 0.8 gram of -barium peroxide, a little at a time. Shake each time and cool in water -if necessary. This should produce a permanent froth on the sulfuric -acid. Let stand 25 or 30 minutes, then fill the tube three fourths full -of water, shake and cool rapidly to the temperature of the room, and -filter off the barium sulfate. Extract with chloroform or ether. Remove -the extract and test it for salicylic acid with dilute ferric chlorid. -(See first test under salicylic acid.) In this method salicylic acid -must first be proven absent. - -_Mohler's Test._--Treat the remainder of the second part of the above -ether residue with 2 or 3 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid. Heat till -white fumes appear. Add a few crystals of potassium nitrate and when -cool dilute with water. Add an excess of ammonia, then a drop or two of -ammonium sulfid. If a red color appears immediately on the surface, it -shows the presence of benzoic acid. - - -COLORING MATTER IN CATSUPS AND TOMATOES - - -COCHINEAL - -_Girard and Dupre Test._--Shake well a portion of the sample with water -and filter, acidify with hydrochloric acid, then extract with amyl -alcohol, and if cochineal is present the extract will be colored yellow -or orange, the particular shade depending on the amount of cochineal -present. Remove the amyl alcohol and wash with water until it is -neutral. To half of this, add a very dilute solution of uranium acetate, -drop by drop, and shaking well after the addition of each drop. -Cochineal, if present, will produce a characteristic emerald-green -color. - -Confirm by adding a drop or two of ammonia to the second half of the -amyl alcohol extract and a violet coloration will be produced if -cochineal is present. - - -COAL-TAR COLORING MATTER - -_Sostegni and Carpentieri Test._--Free from grease a piece of woolen -cloth (nun's veiling will do) by boiling first in very dilute caustic -soda solution and then in water. Acidify a portion of the sample with 2 -to 4 cc. of 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid and filter. Strips -of the cleansed cloth are boiled in this filtrate for 5 or 10 minutes, -then removed, washed in water and boiled with very dilute hydrochloric -acid solution. Wash out the acid and dissolve the color from the cloth -by boiling in a solution of ammonium hydroxid (1 to 50). (The time -required will depend upon the dye present.) Remove the cloth from the -solution and acidify the latter with hydrochloric acid and another piece -of the cleansed cloth is immersed and again boiled. This second dyeing -fixes only coal-tar colors on the cloth, hence, no fear of mistaking -them for the natural color of the vegetable. - - -IN GREEN PICKLES, BEANS, PEAS, ETC. - - -COPPER SALTS - -Burn 20 grams of the sample to an ash and wet the ash with concentrated -nitric acid, dilute with water and boil. Add ammonia till strongly -alkaline and filter. If the filtrate is blue, copper is present. - -Confirm by acidifying the filtrate with acetic acid and adding potassium -ferrocyanid. A red or brownish precipitate or coloration proves the -presence of copper. The test for other heavy metals may be made by the -general method given under meats. - - -IN MIXED PICKLES - - -TURMERIC - -Shake with alcohol to extract the color. Soak a piece of filter paper in -the extract and dry in an air oven at 100 deg. C. Wet the filter paper with -a weak solution of boric acid to which a very little hydrochloric acid -has been added. If turmeric is present, a cherry-red color will appear -when the filter paper is dry. - - -"SOAKED" VEGETABLES - - -PEAS, BEANS, AND CORN - -There is really no chemical test for this class of foods. Certain -helpful directions given in Bul. 65, p. 54, of the Bureau of Chem., will -assist in identifying such goods. All or nearly all of the green color -of peas and beans is destroyed by the process of "soaking." They have -the appearance of the well-matured product, and are firm and mealy with -well-formed cotyledons. The process of soaking starts the growth of the -caulicle of the pea. The kernel of corn is plump and hard and does not -have the milky consistency of the immatured product. The characteristic -succulence of the green pea, bean, and corn is absent in the soaked -product. - - -ALUM IN PICKLES - -This is sometimes added to the pickling solution to produce hardness and -crispness. - -Burn to ash a sample of the pickles, and, if they are free from copper, -fuse in a platinum dish with sodium carbonate. Extract with boiling -water, and after filtering add ammonium chlorid solution. If alum is -present, a flocculent precipitate will form. - - -EXAMINATION OF THE CAN OR BOX IN WHICH VEGETABLES ARE SEALED - -Generally when the ends of a can are convex, instead of plane or -concave, it is spoiled. In the souring of canned sweet corn, it is -exceptional that the ends are forced outward. - -Strike the can and the spoiled cans will give a dull sound while the -good ones will give a distinct tone. Some practice will be necessary to -use this test. - -One can judge of the amount of tin dissolved by the corrosion of the -inside of the can. - -Reject cans that show much rust around the cap on the inside of the -head. - -If more than one hole is found soldered in the cap, reject the can. Cans -of salmon are the only exception that has come to the author's notice. A -second hole, in general, indicates that decomposition had set in and the -can had been punctured and resealed. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -FRUITS AND FRUIT PRODUCTS - - -Salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and saccharin are used to preserve fruits. -The last is also added as a sweetener instead of sugar. Many fruit -products lose their color with age, and to give them a lasting color -they are treated with a coal-tar dye, cochineal, acid magenta, or -caramel. - -A very small per cent of the jams and jellies sold are strictly pure. -These cheap products are made up principally of apple juice and -commercial glucose; artificial essences are added to imitate the real -flavor. - -In cheap jellies made of apple juice and glucose syrup, a "coagulator" -is used; usually sulfuric acid and alum, also citric and tartaric acids -may be used for this purpose. - -Starch, gelatin, and agar are used as gelatinizing agents. - -Fruits put up in tin cans may dissolve the heavy metals as tin, zinc, -lead, and even arsenic. - - -PRESERVATIVES - -_Preparation of the Sample._--Dissolve 25 or 30 grams of the sample in -water which has been acidified with sulfuric acid (1 to 3), then extract -with ether, and remove the ether layer and let it evaporate -spontaneously. The residue may contain salicylic acid, benzoic acid, or -saccharin. Take up with a little water and make the following tests: - - -SALICYLIC ACID - -Place a few drops of this extract in a test tube and add a drop or two -of a 0.5 per cent solution of ferric chlorid. If salicylic acid is -present, there will be a purple coloration. - - -BENZOIC ACID - -_Mohler's Test._--Add 2 to 3 cc. of strong sulfuric acid to a second -portion of the above ether extract and heat until white fumes appear. -Then add a few crystals of potassium nitrate and heat again. Continue -adding the nitrate and heating till the solution is colorless or only a -very light yellow. Dilute with about 5 cc. of water when cool, -neutralize with ammonia. It should be filtered when not clear or when -crystals of ammonium or potassium sulfate are formed. Add a few drops of -ammonium sulfid to the filtrate in such a way as to prevent the mixing -of the liquids. The sulfid will be on top. If a bright cherry-red color -forms where the two liquids meet, either benzoic acid or saccharin is -present. Distil and the benzoic acid will pass over, extract the -distillate in the usual way and apply the above test to it for benzoic -acid. - - -SACCHARIN - -Taste a third portion of the ether extract. A very sweet taste indicates -saccharin. A further test can be made by adding 1 or 2 grams of sodium -hydroxid to the rest of the ether extract and heating a half hour in an -oil bath at 250 deg. C. Dissolve in water when cool, acidify with dilute -sulfuric acid and extract with ether. The saccharin will have been -converted into salicylic acid, which may be identified by the usual test -for that acid. This test presupposes the absence of salicylic acid in -the original material. - - -COLORING MATTER - - -COAL-TAR DYES - -To attempt to identify the particular dye used in every case would be -quite beyond the object of this set of simple tests. A general test -showing the presence of a coal-tar dye is probably all that is usually -desired. - -_Sostegni and Carpentieri Test._--Such a test may be made by dissolving -15 grams of the fruit product in 100 cc. of water, filtering and -acidifying with a small quantity of a 10 per cent solution of -hydrochloric acid and again filtering. Place in the filtrate strips of -white woolen cloth (nun's veiling will do) which have been freed from -grease by boiling first in very dilute caustic soda solution, then in -water, and boil for 5 to 10 minutes. Remove the cloth and wash it in -water, then boil in very dilute hydrochloric acid. Stir the cloth in -water to remove the acid and dissolve the color by boiling in a solution -of ammonium hydroxid (1 to 50). The time required will depend upon the -particular dye used. Remove the cloth from the solution and acidify the -latter with hydrochloric acid, a slight excess is better, and another -piece of the cleansed cloth is immersed and again boiled. Nothing but -coal-tar dyes will color in this second dyeing. - - -COCHINEAL - -_Girard and Dupre Test._--See tests for cochineal under "Catsups and -tomatoes." - - -ACID MAGENTA - -_Girard and Dupre._--Make about 100 cc. solution of the fruit, filter, -and neutralize with potassium hydroxid (strength 5 to 100); about 2 cc. -will be needed. Add 4 cc. of mercuric acetate solution (1 to 10), shake -and filter. By this treatment the filtrate should be colorless and -slightly alkaline. Add sulfuric acid till there is a slight excess. A -colorless solution indicates the absence of acid magenta, while a light -violet-red shows its presence, providing the amyl-alcohol extract showed -no other dye to be present. - - -CARAMEL - -_Amthor's Test._--10 cc. of a solution of the fruit is put into a deep, -narrow glass (a bottle may be used). Add 30 to 50 cc. of paraldehyde, to -be gaged by the intensity of the coloring. Then add a sufficient -quantity of absolute alcohol to make the solutions mix. If caramel is -present, a brownish-yellow to dark-brown precipitate will be formed, -decant, wash the precipitate once with absolute alcohol, dissolve in a -little hot water and filter. The shade of color is proportional to the -amount of caramel present. - -To verify the test, pour the colored fluid into a freshly prepared -solution of phenylhydrazin (2 parts phenylhydrazin-hydrochlorid, 3 parts -sodium acetate, and 20 parts water). Much caramel produces a dark-brown -precipitate in the cold, and is hastened by slightly heating. A very -small amount of caramel will require several hours to precipitate. - - -APPLE-JUICE IN JELLIES MADE OF SMALL FRUITS - -Very often cider is added to other fruit juices to give them the proper -consistency in jellies, jams, and marmalades. - -Its presence may some times be determined by making the usual starch -test. A large quantity of starch is normally present in apples, but is -less as they ripen, and finally disappears in the ripened fruit. There -is no starch, or only a mere trace, in small fruits even when green. It -is readily seen that if the juice is taken from green apples that there -will be starch found in the artificial jelly or jam, though its absence -does not prove the absence of cider. - -Make the starch test as follows: - - -STARCH - - -IN JELLIES, JAMS, AND SUCH PRODUCTS - -Make a solution of the jelly or jam and destroy the color by heating -nearly to the boiling point and adding dilute (1 : 3) sulfuric acid and -potassium permanganate until the color is destroyed. This treatment does -not affect the starch, and when cool add iodin, preferably potassium -iodid-iodin (potassium iodid, 0.4 gram; iodin, 0.1 gram; water, 20 cc.). -If a great quantity of starch is present an almost black precipitate -will be formed. Smaller amounts give the usual blue color. - -Whenever starch is found to be present, it is best to make a -microscopical examination in the case of jams and marmalades. If the -starch is normally present the grains will be seen within the cell walls -after the iodin treatment. - -Starch is nearly always present in the apple and some other fruits, so -unless it is present in jelly and such products in considerable quantity -it is not likely that it was added. - - -GELATIN - - -IN JELLIES - -_Henzold Test._--Add water to some of the jelly and boil for a short -time, filter and treat the filtrate with an excess of a 10 per cent -solution of potassium bichromate and boil again. After cooling add 2 or -3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid. A white flocculent precipitate -forms if gelatin is present, and it gradually collects in a lump at the -bottom. - -_E. Beckmann's Method._--Treat the jelly with 95 per cent alcohol and -wash the precipitate with alcohol to free it from the sugar, then drive -off the alcohol by heating. Add a very little water to the residue and -neutralize the extract with calcium carbonate. Then add formalin and -evaporate to dryness. By this treatment gelatin is rendered insoluble. - -Pure fruit jellies have only 1 to 2 per cent of insoluble precipitate, -while those jellies in which gelatin is used have 70 to 86 per cent of -insoluble precipitate. - - -AGAR AGAR - -Boil the sample with 5 per cent sulfuric acid. Add a crystal or two of -potassium permanganate, and wait till it settles, and examine the -sediment for diatoms with a microscope. Their presence shows the use of -agar. - - -HEAVY METALS - - -TIN, ZINC, LEAD, AND COPPER - -_A. H. Allen's Method._--(See test for heavy metals under canned meat.) - - -ARSENIC - -_Marsh's Test._--Fit a 100 cc. flask with a two-holed rubber stopper, -through which passes a long-stemmed separatory funnel reaching nearly to -the bottom, and a delivery tube which connects with a bulb tube -containing a little acetate of lead solution. This in turn is connected -with a calcium chlorid tube and this with a small, hard glass tube, 15 -or 20 cm. long, not over 0.5 cm. bore, and drawn to small size in the -middle. The large part next the chlorid tube is protected by fine wire -gauze which extends to within a half inch of the constricted part. Two -burners may be so placed as to heat the gauze. The flask should be -placed in water and the bulb tube may be. Four grams of arsenic-free -zinc, and 40 cc. of dilute pure sulfuric acid (1 to 8) are placed in the -flask. Let the hydrogen flow at least a quarter of an hour, then heat -the gauze for 15 or 20 minutes. There should be no deposit in the tube. -Now, char a portion of the sample, dissolve in water and pour into the -separatory funnel, letting it run slowly into the flask. A dark deposit -in the glass tube shows that arsenic is present, but if after an hour no -darkening takes place it is quite safe to say that no arsenic is present -in the fruit. - -[Illustration: Apparatus for Marsh Test] - -_Gutzeit's Test._--Place a gram of pure zinc, 5 cc. of dilute sulfuric -acid (6 per cent) and about 1 cc. of a solution of the sample in a deep -test tube. Cover the tube with three thicknesses of filter paper, fitted -tightly over the mouth of the tube. Place on the upper paper a drop of -strong silver nitrate solution. Place the tube in a dark place and leave -for 10 minutes. If a bright yellow stain forms on the filter paper, and -turns black or brown when water is added to it, arsenic is present. -Unless one is certain of the purity of the reagents used it is advisable -to make a blank test, using distilled water instead of the fruit. - -Oxidize all sulfids to sulfates before applying the above test. To find -out whether they are present or not, substitute lead acetate for the -silver nitrate on the filter paper. To avoid some of these difficulties -treat according to the following method: - -_Preparation of the sample according to Leach._--If possible reduce the -sample to a dry char by treatment with concentrated nitric and sulfuric -acids so that it may be powdered in a mortar. Dissolve out the arsenic -by repeated treatment with boiling water. Save this extract, and, when -cool, filter and submit to Marsh's test which is given above. - -In case the sample is too much of a solid to get the arsenic out by the -above treatment, it may be prepared according to the directions of -Chittenden and Donaldson: Heat 100 grams of the macerated sample with 23 -cc. of pure, strong nitric acid to a temperature of 150 deg. C. or 160 deg. C. -Assist the action by stirring occasionally. When the fruit becomes a -deep yellow or orange color, remove the heat and add 3 cc. of pure, -strong sulfuric acid. It should be stirred while nitrous fumes are -passing off. Heat again to about 180 deg. C., and before it cools add, drop -by drop, 8 cc. of pure concentrated nitric acid. It should be stirred -constantly while the acid is being added. Heat at 200 deg. C. till sulfuric -acid fumes begin to come off and only a dry mass remains. Powder the -mass and exhaust it with boiling water, filter and test the solution -when cold with Marsh's test. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -FLAVORING EXTRACTS - - -LEMON EXTRACT - -The important ingredients of lemon extract are lemon oil and citral, its -aromatic constituent. Oil of citronella and oil of lemon grass are -sometimes substituted for lemon oil. Methyl alcohol is sometimes used in -place of the more expensive spirit alcohol as a solvent for the lemon -oil. - - -LEMON OIL - -The presence of lemon oil may be detected by adding a large excess of -water to a small amount of the extract in a test tube. If the mixture -does not show some cloudiness, it is a strong indication that no lemon -oil is present. The degree of cloudiness gives an idea of the amount of -oil present. - - -CITRAL - -This is present in the oil of lemon grass, which is sometimes used as a -substitute for lemon oil. Citral may be detected by the following test -by Burgess: - -Add 20 cc. of sulfuric acid to 85 cc. of water. Dissolve in this mixture -10 grams of mercuric sulfate. Shake 2 cc. of the sample with 5 cc. of -this reagent in a test tube. If citral is present, the liquid will be -bright red, and will quickly disappear and give place to a whitish -compound, which floats on top. - - -OIL OF CITRONELLA - -This is often substituted for lemon oil. It may be detected by the same -test which was used for citral. Instead of the red color and the white -compound, citronella gives a bright yellow color, which does not -disappear for some time. - - -TARTARIC OR CITRIC ACID - -Precipitate the oil by the addition of an equal volume of water. Filter -and add a very little of the filtrate to a test tube nearly full of cold -lime water. A precipitate will form if tartaric acid is present and it -will dissolve in an excess of ammonium chlorid or acetic acid. Filter, -or, in case no precipitate forms, heat the liquid. Citric acid is -precipitated in the presence of a large excess of hot lime water. - - -METHYL ALCOHOL - -_Mullikin and Scudder._--Take 2 ft. of No. 12-15 copper wire and bend at -right angles about 8 or 10 inches from one end. Grasp this bent end and -an ordinary lead pencil side by side in such a way that the bend will be -about the middle of the pencil. Wind the wire around the pencil and -toward the free end of the short part of the wire until you have a coil -3 or 4 cm. long. Remove the pencil and twist the unwound parts together -for a handle for the coil. - -Dilute a portion of the sample 3 or 4 times, and oxidize 10 cc. of the -diluted liquid (preferably in a test tube) by heating to a red heat the -above copper coil in the oxidizing flame of a Bunsen lamp. Thrust the -heated coil quickly into the liquid contained in the test tube. In a -second withdraw and immerse in water. Continue this operation till the -oxid of copper fails to be reduced (usually 4 or 5 times is sufficient). -Cool the liquid by immersing the tube in water. Separate into two parts -and test each for formaldehyde by the following methods: - -_Mullikin, S. P._--Place one of these parts in an evaporating dish, and -add to it 1 cc. of strong ammonia, boil gently over the free flame till -the vapors cease to smell of ammonia. Add 2 or 3 drops of strong -hydrochloric acid and heat just to boiling, and cool quickly by dipping -the dish in cold water. Make the test for formaldehyde: Add a drop of a -solution of resorcin (1 : 200) and pour this mixture slowly down the -side of an inclined test tube which contains 3 cc. of strong sulfuric -acid, taking care to keep the liquids separate. After 3 minutes give the -tube a rotary motion by rolling between the hands for a minute or more -but only gradually mixing the water and acid, but mixing only about half -of the acid. - -Flecks of a rose-red color form if methyl alcohol is present. Bands of -color or flecks of other colors, even though they be tinged with red or -a rose-red solution without the precipitate, should never be taken as -proof that methyl alcohol is present. These conditions, however, are -good grounds for repeating the test; 10 per cent or even less may be -detected by this test. - -_Hydrochloric Acid and Ferric Chlorid Test._--Add a few drops of the -other part of the above oxidized liquid to about 10 cc. of milk, known -to be free from formaldehyde, in a porcelain casserole, and add 10 cc. -of commercial hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2) which contains 1 cc. of 10 -per cent ferric chlorid per 500 cc. Heat slowly over the open flame -nearly to boiling. Give the liquid a rotary motion to break up the -curd. If formaldehyde is present, the liquid will be colored violet. If -not, it slowly turns brown. The presence of formaldehyde proves that -methyl alcohol was in the original extract. - - -COLORING MATTER - -_Preliminary Test._--Treat the sample with strong hydrochloric acid, and -if tropaeolin or methyl orange be present the solution will turn pink; -Martius yellow partially decolorizes the solution; dinitrocresols -decolorizes the solution. Turmeric or naphthol yellow produces no color -change. - - -TURMERIC - -Turmeric may be detected by soaking a piece of filter paper in the -sample, drying and dipping it in a dilute solution of boric acid or -borax which has been slightly acidulated with hydrochlorid acid. Dry -again and a cherry-red color forms if turmeric is present. Add a drop of -dilute alkali and if turmeric be present the paper will be colored dark -olive. - - -COAL-TAR COLORS - -Evaporate some of the extract to dryness; take up the residue with water -and extract the coal-tar colors if present, and test for them by the -method given under canned vegetables. - - -VANILLA EXTRACTS - -The best grades of vanilla extract are made by treating vanilla beans -with 50 per cent alcohol. Coumarin, an extract from tonka beans, may be -used in making the extract. This of course would make a cheaper product. -If less than 50 per cent alcohol is used in making the extract, some -alkali must be added to dissolve the resins which will not dissolve in -a weaker alcohol. In artificial extracts some such coloring matter as -caramel or tannin is used. - -_Preliminary Test._--To a portion of the extract add a few drops of lead -acetate solution. The absence of a bulky flocculent precipitate shows -the extract not to be of high quality. Leach recommends that normal -acetate of lead be added to the sample, and if a precipitate does not -form it is conclusive evidence that it is not a pure extract. - -When a precipitate forms with the above reagent, it should settle -immediately and leave a clear and almost colorless liquid. When there is -a mere cloudiness only, it may be due to caramel, in which case the -extract is to be suspected. - - -ALKALI - -Shake a portion of the sample with twice its volume of water. If no -precipitate forms, an alkali is present. A flocculent reddish-brown -precipitate shows no alkali is present. If the solution is milky it -indicates the presence of a foreign resin. - -Add hydrochloric acid drop by drop to the diluted extract. Nothing more -than a mere turbidity should result. Should it be quite turbid and the -color fading after a time, it shows that an alkali has been used. - - -FOREIGN RESINS - -Mix a portion of the extract slowly with twice its volume of water, -frequently shaking the mixture. When this solution is milky, it -indicates a foreign resin. - -_Hess' Test._--Dealcoholize 25 cc. of the sample by concentrating on the -water-bath, adding water from time to time to retain the original -volume. When no alkali is present in the extract, pure vanilla resin -will be thrown down as a reddish-brown flocculent precipitate. Collect -the resin, whatever its color, on a filter, and wash. Save the filtrate -to test for caramel. Place a piece of the paper and resin in a dilute -solution of potassium hydroxid. If the resin is that of pure vanilla it -will dissolve, giving a deep-red color, and is reprecipitated when the -alkali is neutralized with hydrochloric acid. Dissolve another part of -the precipitate in alcohol, and to a part of this solution add a few -drops of ferric chlorid; and to the other part, hydrochloric acid. There -should be no marked coloration in either case if the resin is that of -pure vanilla. Foreign resins nearly always produce a coloration. - - -CARAMEL - -Shake the bottle of vanilla, and if the bubbles, which form, are a -bright caramel color, keeping the color till all are gone, the presence -of caramel is indicated. - -Concentrate a portion of the filtrate, which was saved in making the -test for foreign resins, at a rather low temperature until it has about -the same color as the original extract. Add a few drops of strong -hydrochloric acid and heat very gently. If caramel is present, a -yellowish-red flocculent precipitate will form. After the liquid cools, -filter and wash with water. Should this precipitate contain caramel, it -will not dissolve in water, ether, and alcohol, but will dissolve in -sodium hydroxid, dilute alcohol, and glacial acetic acid. - - -TANNIN - -Test another portion of the filtrate made in testing for foreign resins, -with a few drops of a solution of gelatin. A slight precipitate only -should form due to the presence of a small amount of tannin normally -present in this filtrate. A large excess shows that it has been added to -the extract. - - -COUMARIN - -_Leach's Test._--Dealcoholize a portion of the sample as above and treat -with ammonia, add 3 or 4 volumes of chloroform in a separatory funnel. -Evaporate the chloroform extract in an oven, not permitting the -temperature to rise above 60 deg. C. To the residue add a few drops of -water; warm gently, and add a little of a solution of 1 gram of -crystallized potassium iodid in 50 cc. of water, and the solution -saturated with iodin. If coumarin is present, a brown, precipitate will -form, and if stirred with a rod it will collect in dark green flecks. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -SACCHARINE PRODUCTS - - -HONEY - -Bees are sometimes fed with cane sugar. Often glucose syrup is poured -over honeycomb from which the honey has been extracted, and the mixture -sold as genuine honey. - -Gelatin may be added to increase the weight or to thicken the more -voluble adulterants. - -The ash of genuine honey is not over 0.3 per cent. Whenever the ash is -greater than this it should be tested for calcium sulfate, the presence -of a considerable quantity of which is an almost certain proof that -starch glucose or invert sugar has been added to the honey. Sulfates may -be detected by adding barium chlorid to the aqueous solution of the -honey and precipitating barium sulfate. - -If the ash is high and considerable chlorids are present, molasses has -quite probably been added to the honey. The presence of chlorids may be -determined by the addition of silver nitrate which precipitates silver -chlorid. - - -CANE SUGAR - -The presence of cane sugar can be detected with certainty only by the -use of the polarimeter. Its presence in large quantity gives a high -right-handed rotation. - - -COMMERCIAL GLUCOSE SYRUP - -_Allen's Test._--Make the test for dextrine which is present in -commercial glucose, but not in pure honey. Dilute a portion of the honey -with an equal volume of water and add methyl alcohol with constant -stirring until there is a permanent turbidity. If glucose syrup is -present a heavy gummy precipitate will soon form. Genuine honey gives -only a slight milkiness. - - -GELATIN - -Dilute a portion of the sample and add a solution of tannic acid. A -precipitate indicates the presence of gelatin. - -Treat the sample with alcohol, and gelatin, if present, will be left -undissolved, and it will give its characteristic odor on ignition. - - -MAPLE SYRUP - -This is sometimes adulterated with glucose, molasses, golden syrup, and -with ordinary white sugar. There are no satisfactory simple chemical -tests for these substances. - -Pure maple syrup should have an ash not lower than 0.35 to 0.40 per -cent. A lower ash shows that cane sugar has been added. A higher ash -would indicate the presence of molasses or brown sugar stock. These last -two adulterants, if present in great abundance, may be detected by -taste. - - -GLUCOSE - -This may be detected by the use of the polarimeter. Pure maple syrup -gives 53.1 to 60 direct, and--22.2 to--21.9 after hydrolysis. Maple -syrup adulterated with glucose gives 80 to 100 direct and 18.9 to 45.6 -after hydrolysis (according to Ogdon). - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -SPICES - - -MUSTARD - -Mustard is often adulterated with mustard hulls, wheat, and rice. And -when white-colored flour of any kind is used, turmeric, Martius yellow, -or a coal-tar color is employed to give the mixture the color of -mustard. Cayenne pepper is occasionally used to impart pungency to -diluted mustard. - - -FLOUR - -Boil 2 grams of the mustard in 4 or 5 cc. of distilled water for about -10 minutes. After it is cool, add a few drops of iodin solution slowly, -avoiding a large excess though having a little uncombined iodin. If a -blue color is produced, some starchy matter has been added to the -mustard. The intensity of the reaction is an indication of the amount of -starchy matter used. Pure mustard contains no starch and hence gives no -reaction with iodin. - - -COLORING MATTER - -Pure mustard is a very light dull yellow, and whenever the sample is -bright yellow, there is good grounds for suspecting the presence of some -artificial coloring matter. - - -TURMERIC - -Add strong ammonium hydroxid to the mustard, and if turmeric is present -an orange-red color is usually produced. - -Make an alcoholic extract of the sample and dip a piece of filter paper -in it, and when dry draw it through a cold, saturated solution of boric -acid in water. An orange or red-brown tint produced on the paper -indicates the presence of turmeric. - -Thoroughly mix 2 or 3 grams of the mustard with castor oil and filter. -If turmeric is present the filtrate will appear fluorescent. - -Extract a portion of the sample with 3 times its weight of wood alcohol -and filter. Evaporate one half of the solution to dryness and add a -little hydrochloric acid to the residue. This will turn red whenever -turmeric is present, and if an excess of alkali be added it will change -to a greenish blue. Evaporate the other half to dryness and moisten with -a solution of boric acid and dry on a steam bath. A cherry-red color -indicates turmeric. - - -MARTIUS YELLOW OR ANALOGOUS COAL-TAR COLORING MATTER - -Extract the slightly acidified sample with 95 per cent alcohol and dye -wool as directed under "Vegetables." The wool will be dyed a bright -yellow. - -_Allen's Test._--Treat a portion of the sample with cold alcohol, and -shake vigorously for 5 minutes, then filter and evaporate the filtrate -to dryness; add enough water to take up the residue and dye some white -wool in this liquid as in the last test. When the dyed wool is wrapped -in white paper and heated to 120 deg. in an air bath, part of the coloring -matter will be transferred to the paper. The coloring matter dissolves -readily in dilute ammonia or hot water, and on the addition of -hydrochloric acid the solution is decolorized and a yellow precipitate -formed. This distinguishes it from picric acid. - - -CAYENNE PEPPER - -_Allen's Test._--Boil 1 gram of the mustard for a few minutes with -alcohol, filter, and evaporate to dryness at about 100 deg. Taste the -residue and cayenne may be recognized by its pungency. Or heat a portion -of the extract, and smell the fumes. Irritation of the lungs and -coughing will surely follow if cayenne pepper is present. - - -PEPPER - -Pepper may be adulterated with wheat, buckwheat, pepper husks, ground -olive stones, spent ginger. Cayenne pepper is sometimes added to -adulterated pepper to give it the normal pungency. Many of these -adulterants can be detected only by the aid of the microscope. - -_Neuss's Test._--True pepper turns an intense yellow when covered with -strong hydrochloric acid. Any adulteration can be detected at once by -the color. - - -GROUND OLIVE STONES OR "POIVRETTE" - -Make a paste of the pepper with caustic alkali. Dilute with a large -quantity of water and wash by decantation. Olive stones will be colored -a bright yellow; pepper-husks will appear dark. - -_Jumeau's Test._--Dissolve 5 grams of iodin in a mixture of 50 cc. of -ether and 50 cc. of alcohol. Cover the bottom of a porcelain capsule -with the finely ground pepper, and add just enough of the iodin mixture -to wet the entire mass, and mix well till it has the same consistency -throughout. Let dry in the air, then powder and examine it, and if olive -stones are present they will be colored yellow. Pure pepper would have a -deep brown color. - -Aniline acetate, one part aniline in 3 parts acetic acid, colors pure -pepper gray or white and olive stones yellowish brown. - - -CAYENNE - -Heat some of the red particles found in the pepper and their -characteristic vapor is produced. Dissolve the particles in alcohol or -ether and the same vapors are produced. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -VINEGAR - - -Vinegars may be adulterated by the addition of mineral acids as sulfuric -or hydrochloric. Caramel or the coal-tar dyes may be employed to improve -the color or to give color to an artificial product. Malic acid is -always present in cider vinegar. Potassium acid tartrate occurs in true -wine vinegar. Poisonous metals may be present in vinegars containing -free mineral acid. Entirely artificial cider vinegar is often found on -the market. - - -PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE FOR TESTING - -If the vinegar is turbid from any suspended matter, it should be -filtered. The samples should be analyzed at once, and in the laboratory -they should always be kept in glass-stoppered bottles. - -_General Observations._--Ignite a little of the vinegar residue on a -clean platinum wire in a colorless Bunsen flame, and if it is pure cider -vinegar the flame will be colored the characteristic lilac color of -potassium. The sodium flame is absent or only a mere trace of it is -present. But in all artificially colored vinegars, spirit sugar and -glucose vinegars, the sodium flame predominates. - -The residue of cider vinegar is thick, viscid, or mucilaginous, of a -light brown color, astringent acid taste though not unpleasant. The -solids of sugar-house vinegar, those from colored spirit and wood -vinegar, each have a bitter taste on account of the caramel used to -color them. The residue of the sugar-house vinegar has the odor of -molasses. Wood vinegar when present gives a residue with a tarry or -smoky taste and smell. Glucose vinegar gives the odor of scorched corn. -Solids of fruit vinegars are quite soluble in alcohol, except a granular -residue in grape vinegar, while the solids of malt and glucose vinegars -are almost insoluble. - -The ash of fruit vinegars and malt vinegars has a distinct alkaline -reaction, while that of spirit and wood vinegars is very feebly -alkaline. - - -FREE MINERAL ACIDS - -The ash of pure cider vinegar is always alkaline. If a vinegar should -show a neutral reaction this would certainly indicate the presence of a -free mineral acid. If the ash be alkaline, no acid except nitric could -have been present, and this is seldom, if ever, used as an adulterant of -vinegar. - - -WHEN THE ASH IS ALKALINE APPLY - -_Ashby's Test._--Extract 0.5 gram of logwood in 100 cc. of water and dry -a drop or two on a porcelain surface. Then add a drop of the vinegar and -dry again. If the residue is red, a mineral acid is present; if yellow, -mineral acids are absent. When only a very small amount of the acid is -present the red coloration will be destroyed on diluting with water, but -may be restored by concentrating the liquid. - - -SULFURIC ACID - -Sulfuric acid, if present, will cause the vinegar to leave a charred -mass when evaporated over the water-bath. - -_Frear's Method._--Mix 5 cc. of the sample and 5 or 10 cc. of water, and -add a very little of a solution of methyl violet (made by dissolving one -part of methyl violet 2 B. in 100,000 parts of water). A blue or green -coloration shows the presence of mineral acids. - - -SULFURIC ACID AS DISTINGUISHED FROM SULFATES - -_Allen's Method._--Evaporate 100 cc. of the vinegar down to one tenth -its volume, and when cold add 50 cc. of alcohol. Sulfuric acid remains -in solution while the sulfates are precipitated. Dilute the solution and -precipitate the acid with barium chlorid. - - -HYDROCHLORIC ACID - - -FREE - -Place a definite quantity of the vinegar in a distilling flask and -distil off half. Add a few drops of silver nitrate to the distillate. If -a precipitate forms, hydrochloric acid is present. - - -MALIC ACID - -_Leach's Method._--To 5 cc. of the sample, add a few drops of a solution -of calcium chlorid (1 : 10); make slightly alkaline with ammonia. Filter -off any precipitate that may form, add 20 to 30 cc. of 95 per cent -alcohol to the filtrate and heat to boiling. If malic acid is present, a -voluminous flocculent precipitate will form. A precipitate may form in -vinegars containing dextrine. Make a further test for malic acid by the -following: Filter and treat the precipitate with a little alcohol, and -when dry add concentrated nitric acid and evaporate to dryness on a -water-bath. Treat the residue with sodium carbonate, boil for a short -time, filter. Add acetic acid to the filtrate till slightly alkaline, -boil till carbon dioxid is expelled, and if on the addition of calcium -sulfate a precipitate forms, it indicates the presence of malic acid. - - -COLORING MATTER - -CARAMEL - -The residue of vinegar to which much caramel has been added has an -unusually dark color and bitter taste. - -_Crampton and Simons' Method._--Shake well together in a corked flask 50 -cc. of the vinegar with about half as many grams of fullers' earth; -after standing for half an hour filter. Vinegar containing no artificial -color will show scarcely any change in color when thus treated. A -caramel-colored vinegar will be decolorized in proportion to the amount -of caramel present. - - -COAL-TAR COLORS IN WINE VINEGAR - -Test by the usual test for coal-tar dyes. See under canned vegetables. - - -METALLIC IMPURITIES - -Vinegars containing free mineral acids are sometimes found to contain -poisonous metals. - -Evaporate 200 to 400 cc. of the vinegar to dryness, add a little sodium -hydroxid to this residue and burn to an ash over a low flame. It may be -necessary to add a little potassium nitrate once or twice. Add a little -dilute hydrochloric acid and saturate with hydrogen sulfid and test for -lead, zinc, copper, and arsenic according to Allen's method given under -canned meats. - - -SPICES TO INCREASE PUNGENCY - -_Leach._--Neutralize a portion of the vinegar with sodium carbonate. The -presence of spices is easily detected by tasting this mixture. - -_Another Test._--Exactly neutralize a little of the vinegar as above, -evaporate to smaller bulk and taste as before, then shake the -concentrated liquid with ether, separate the ethereal layer and -evaporate it, and taste the residue. - - -TARTAR IN WINE VINEGAR - -The presence of tartar in vinegar proves it to be wine vinegar. - -_Allen's Method._--Evaporate a portion of the vinegar and treat the -residue with alcohol; a granular residue of tartar remains undissolved. -To prove that it is tartar, decant the alcohol and dissolve the residue -in a little hot water, cool, rub the inside of the vessel with a glass -rod, and if tartar was present acid potassium tartrate will be deposited -where the rod touched the vessel. The test will be more sensitive if an -equal volume of alcohol is added. - - -FREE TARTARIC ACID IN WINE VINEGAR - -_Test as for Tartar._--Treat the alcoholic solution of the extract with -an alcoholic solution of potassium acetate. Rub the sides of the vessel -as before, and if tartaric acid is present the streaks and sometimes a -precipitate forms where the rod touches the vessel. - - -GLUCOSE - -Glucose is present when both direct and invert readings are -dextro-rotatory. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -FATS AND OILS - - -LARD - -Lard is very often adulterated with cottonseed oil, cottonseed stearin -and beef stearin. Their being very much cheaper accounts for the -sophistication. - - -COTTONSEED OIL - -_Halphen's Test._--Dissolve 1 per cent of sulfur in a given volume of -carbon bisulfid. Add an equal volume of amylic alcohol. Mix 3 to 5 cc. -of this reagent with an equal volume of the melted lard in a test tube. -Close with a cotton stopper and boil for 15 minutes in a bath of -saturated brine. The presence of cottonseed oil is indicated by a -deep-red or orange color, little or no color resulting in its absence. -Lard from hogs fed on any of the various cottonseed products may give a -faint reaction when this test is applied. - - -COTTONSEED STEARIN - -Since cottonseed stearin is only the more solid portions of cottonseed -oil, the above test may be applied, but to distinguish it from the -latter it is necessary to make determinations quite beyond the scope of -this set of tests. - - -BEEF-STEARIN - -It is very difficult to identify beef-stearin by chemical tests. It is -usually detected by use of the microscope. Leach gives the following -method: Make a solution of 2 to 5 grams of the fat in 10 to 20 cc. of -ether. Let stand a half day, at about the room temperature. Loosely -stopper the tube with cotton to prevent too rapid evaporation of the -ether. It is well to vary the conditions of heat, amount of solvent, and -rate of crystallization, to get the best possible results. It may often -be well to separate the crystals thus obtained by filtering and -recrystallizing from ether. Separate the crystals that form at the -bottom of the test tube from the liquid portion by pouring on a small -filter. Wash them several times with ether, but not sufficient to remove -the mother liquor entirely. In case it is all removed, and the crystals -are too fragile to mount, add a drop of alcohol. Crystals of lard -stearin are flat rhomboidal plates, one end being oblique to the sides, -and they do not appear to be regularly grouped. Beef-stearin crystals -are rod-shaped, or needles often apparently curved with pointed ends, -and are arranged in clusters like the ribs of a fan, the crystals -radiating from a common point. Under certain conditions the lard -crystals are not irregularly grouped, but are arranged like the parts of -a feather, where one part seems attached to another close at hand. -Considerable experience is necessary to use this test with absolute -certainty. - - -OLIVE OIL - -Olive oil is one of the most commonly adulterated foods. The commonest -adulterant probably is cottonseed oil. Other foreign oils, such as -peanut, sesame, and rape, are sometimes used. - -_Preliminary Test._--Pure olive oil turns from a pale to a dark-green -color in a few minutes, when it is shaken with the same volume of -concentrated nitric acid or sulfuric acid. Whenever a reddish to an -orange, or brown coloration results, the presence of a foreign vegetable -oil is indicated (probably a seed oil). - -Bach gives the following results of strong nitric acid on the common -oils. Olive oil when shaken with nitric acid gives a pale green, which -changes to an orange yellow after heating five minutes. With similar -treatment peanut oil gives pale rose and brownish yellow; rape oil, pale -rose and orange yellow; sesame oil, white and brownish yellow; sunflower -oil, dirty white and reddish yellow; cottonseed oil, yellowish brown and -reddish brown; castor oil, pale rose and golden yellow. - -_Pontet's Test; Elaiden Test._--Treat 1 cc. of mercury with 12 cc. of -cold nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42) and shake 2 cc. of this freshly-made -solution with 50 cc. of the sample in a bottle every 10 minutes for 2 -hours. Oils which are principally olein, or mixtures of olein and solid -esters like palmatin and stearin, give more or less solid products, but -olive oil is remarkable for the firmness of the canary or lemon-yellow -mass which is formed. After standing a day the mass cannot be pierced -with a glass rod and sometimes it gives forth a sound when struck. - -This test requires considerable experience to be used with any great -degree of certainty. - - -COTTONSEED OIL - -Carbon bisulfid containing 1 per cent of sulfur in solution is mixed -with an equal amount of amyl alcohol. Equal volumes (about 3 cc.) of -this reagent and the sample, are mixed in a test tube, which is loosely -stoppered with cotton, and heated in a bath of boiling saturated brine -for a quarter of an hour. The presence of cottonseed oil is shown by the -formation of a deep-red or orange color. Little if any color is produced -in its absence. If no color is produced it is well to add another cc. of -the reagent and heat 5 or 10 minutes more, and to repeat this again if -no color forms. Lard and lard oil from animals fed on cottonseed meal -may give a faint reaction. - - -PEANUT OIL (ARACHIS OIL) - -_Bellier's Test._--Saponify a gram of the sample with 5 cc. of a -solution of 85 grams potassium hydroxid in a liter of strong alcohol. -This may be done in a small Erlenmeyer flask on the water-bath. Then -boil for two minutes, neutralize exactly with dilute acetic acid (use -phenolphthalein as the indicator). Cool the mixture by placing the flask -in water at 17 deg. to 19 deg. C. A precipitate usually forms. Add 50 cc. of 70 -per cent alcohol which contains one per cent by volume of concentrated -hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.2). Shake the flask vigorously and cool -again as before. If no precipitate forms the oil is not adulterated with -peanut oil. The presence of 10 per cent or more of peanut oil produces a -precipitate, even a smaller amount will produce a cloudiness after -standing between 17 deg. and 19 deg. C. for 30 minutes. - -Some varieties of olive oil from Tunis give the same turbidity when the -70 per cent alcohol is added. To distinguish these from peanut oil heat -the mixture on the water-bath till everything has dissolved, and cool to -17 deg. to 19 deg. The cloudiness will not appear if the oil is pure, but will -reappear if peanut oil is present. - - -SESAME OIL - -_Badouin's Test._--About 0.1 of a gram of cane sugar is dissolved in 10 -cc. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.20) shaken vigorously with 20 grams -of the sample for a minute or more. After standing for a while the -aqueous solution will separate from the oil. If 1 per cent or more of -sesame oil is present, the aqueous solution will be colored crimson. - -_Tocher's Test._--Dissolve 1 gram of pyrogallic acid in 15 cc. of strong -hydrochloric acid. Add an equal volume of the oil in a separatory -funnel. When it has stood a minute, draw off the aqueous solution and -boil. In the presence of sesame oil it is colored red by transmitted -light, and blue by reflected light. - - -RAPE OIL - -_Palas' Test._--Make a 1 per cent solution of fuchsin and a 30 per cent -solution of sodium acid sulfite. Mix together 20 cc. of each of these -solutions and add 200 cc. of water and 5 cc. of strong sulfuric acid. -After the solution is decolorized, 10 cc. of the sample is shaken with -it. If rape oil is present, the color will be partially restored. To -prevent the formation of the color by contact with the air have the -vessel full of the mixture. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -BEVERAGES - - -COFFEE - -Coffee is often colored with such substances as Scheele's green, chrome -yellow, iron oxide, Prussian blue, indigo and turmeric. Imitation coffee -beans have been made of wheat flour, bran, rye, chicory and peas. - -_Allen's Preliminary Test._--A good preliminary test for ground coffee -is to sprinkle some of it on the surface of cold water. The oil of true -coffee prevents the particles from being readily soaked, and so they -float for some time. Chicory and most of the other adulterants of coffee -contain no oil, but do contain caramel, which is quickly extracted by -the water producing a zone of brown color about such particles. They -become soaked and quickly sink. The liquid containing pure coffee -diffuses uniformly without coloring the water to any perceptible degree. -Chicory and similar roots give a dark brown, turbid infusion. Roasted -cereals do not impart so distinct a color to water. - - -COLORING MATTER - -Shake the coffee beans in cold water and make the regular qualitative -tests for the inorganic coloring matters--Scheele's green may be -identified by testing for copper and arsenic; chrome yellow, by testing -for lead chromate; iron oxide may be detected by its characteristic -tests. - -Organic coloring matter is best extracted with alcohol. Prussian blue -may be detected by dissolving it from the sediment with hot caustic -alkali, acidifying with hydrochloric acid, treating it with a drop of -ferric chlorid. If present, ferric ferrocyanide, a blue precipitate, -will be formed. Indigo is not discharged by sodium hydroxid, while -Prussian-blue is. It will form a deep blue solution with sulfuric acid. - -Test for turmeric as under mustard. - - -IMITATION COFFEE BEANS - -Most imitation coffee, as already stated, is heavier than water. Coffee -contains no starch, so the imitation beans made of cereals may be -detected by testing for starch. - - -STARCH - -_Allen's Method._--Boil the coffee in 10 parts of water. When perfectly -cold add to it a little sulfuric acid, then a strong solution of -potassium permanganate, drop by drop, with constant shaking, till the -liquid is almost decolorized; strain or decant and add to the solution a -solution of iodin. If 1 per cent or more of starch is present, a blue -coloration will be produced. - - -CHICORY - -_Rimmington's Test._--Boil a portion of the sample with water which -contains a little sodium carbonate; decant, wash and treat the residue -with a weak solution of bleaching powder for several hours. The solution -will be decolorized. The coffee will be at the bottom as a dark layer -while the chicory will be a light layer above it. - -_Albert Smith's Test._--Boil 10 grams of the sample in 250 cc. of water; -strain and add basic lead acetate in slight excess. A precipitate forms, -and when it has settled the supernatant liquid will be colorless if the -coffee is pure, but more or less colored if chicory is present. - - -TEA - -Tea is adulterated by the substitution of inferior grades for those of -better quality, by the addition of exhausted leaves and foreign leaves, -by the use of coloring matter or "facing" such as Prussian blue, indigo, -or turmeric to color green tea, and sometimes graphite to color black -tea. Foreign astringents (generally catechu) are added to conceal the -presence of exhausted leaves. An imitation tea, "lie tea," is made of -the stems and dust with mineral matter, and some starch or gum to hold -these together. - - -FOREIGN LEAVES - -Though there are several chemical tests for foreign leaves, none are as -satisfactory as a microscopical examination. Soften the leaves by -soaking in hot water, unroll carefully and examine with a hand lens or -low power of the microscope. Compare with a genuine leaf--the shape, -margin, and venation. - - -EXHAUSTED TEA LEAVES - -Sometimes such leaves may be detected by a physical examination. They -are often more or less unrolled and broken on the edges. But the only -certain way of ascertaining their presence is to determine the soluble -ash which is from 2.5 to 4 per cent in pure tea and usually less than -0.8 per cent in exhausted tea. - - -LIE TEA - -This imitation tea is easily detected by pouring hot water over the -leaves. If they are artificial, they will break down into the fragments -of which they were made. - - -FACING - -Organic coloring matter may be detected by the same method used for -detecting such colors in coffee. - - -CATECHU - -_Hager's Test._--Boil a little of the tea in water, and add to the -extract an excess of lead monoxid. If the tea is pure the addition of a -solution of silver nitrate produces only a slight grayish precipitate, -but when catechu is present a yellow flocculent precipitate forms. - - - - -A FEW OF THE BEST BOOKS ON FOOD ANALYSIS - - - ALLEN, A. H., Commercial Organic Analysis, 1898. Price, $29.50. - - BLYTH, A. W., Foods, their Composition and Analysis, 1903. Price, - $8.40. - - HASSALL, A. H., Food, its Adulterations and the Methods for their - Detection, 1874. - - LEACH, A. E., Food, Inspection and Analysis, 1905. Price, $7.50. - - LEFFMANN, H., and BEAM, W., Select Methods of Food Analysis, 1905. - Price, $2.50. - - U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bureau of Chem., Bulletin 13, Parts 1-10, Food - and Food Adulterants, 1887-1902. (Some of these are out of print.) - - Bulletin 46, Methods of Analysis of Foods, 1899; Bulletin 65, - Provisional Methods for the Analysis of Foods, 1902. - - WILEY, H. W., Foods and their Adulteration, 1907. Price, $4.00. - - - - -CHEMICALS - - -The following are the chemicals used in making all the tests in this -book. Most of these are found in every chemical laboratory.[1] - - Acetic acid - Ammonium carbonate - Ammonium chlorid - Ammonium hydroxid - Ammonium sulfid - Amyl alcohol - Aniline - Barium chlorid - Barium peroxide - Boric acid - Bromine - Calcium carbonate - Calcium chlorid - Calcium sulfate - Cane sugar - Carbon bisulfid - Castor oil - Chloroform - Diphenylamine - Ether - Ethyl alcohol - Ferric chlorid - Formalin - Fuchsin - Gelatin - Glycerol - Hydrochloric acid - Iodin - Lead acetate (basic) - Lead oxide - Lime water - Litmus paper - Logwood chips - Mercury (metallic) - Mercury sulfate - Methyl alcohol - Molybdic oxide - Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.42) - Oxalic acid - Petroleum spirit - Phenolphthalein - Phenylhydrazine hydrochlorid - Phosphoric acid - Potassium bichromate - Potassium carbonate - Potassium chromate - Potassium ferrocyanid - Potassium hydroxid - Potassium iodate - Potassium iodid - Potassium nitrate - Potassium permanganate - Pyrogallic acid - Resorcin - Silver nitrate - Sodium acetate - Sodium acid sulfite - Sodium carbonate - Sodium chlorid - Sodium hydroxid - Sulfur - Sulfuric acid - Tannic acid - Turmeric paper - Zinc (arsenic free) - -[1] The more uncommon ones may be obtained from Eimer and Amend, 205-211 -Third Avenue, New York. - - - - -INDEX OF AUTHORS AND TESTS - - - PAGE - Allen, A. H., Heavy metals in fruits and fruit products, 37 - in meat, 11 - in vinegar, 58 - Sulfuric Acid (distinguished from Sulfates) in - vinegar, 57 - Tartar in vinegar, 59 - Amthor, Caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - Ashby, Free mineral acids in vinegar, 56 - Beckmann, Starch in jellies, 38 - Bell and Carter, Alum in flour, 16 - Boettger, Ergot in rye flour, 18 - Bornstein, Saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Blyth, Alum in bread, 19 - Courley and Coremon, Horseflesh in other meats, 14 - Ebers, Diseased meat, 14 - Frear, Sulfuric acid in vinegar, 57 - Geisler, Coal-tar colors in butter, 6 - Girard and Dupre, Acid magenta in catsups and tomatoes, 35 - Cochineal in catsups and tomatoes, 29 - Cochineal in canned vegetables, 29 - Gutzeit, Arsenic in canned fruits, 39 - Hehner, Formaldehyde in milk, 3 - Henzold, Starch in jellies, 6 - Hess and Doolittle, Process or renovated butter, test for, 49 - Kaemmerer, Sulfurous acid in meat, 9 - Kleeburg, Wheat in rye flour, 18 - Klinger and Bujard, Cochineal carmine in meat, 13 - Kraemer, Corn meal in wheat flour, 17 - Leach, Caramel in milk, 1 - Malic acid in vinegar, 57 - Salicylic acid in milk, 4 - Salicylic acid in meat, 10 - Lythgoe, Coal-tar colors in milk, 2 - Marsh, Arsenic in canned fruits, 38 - Martin, Coloring matter in butter, 5 - Mohler, Benzoic acid in meat, 10 - Benzoic acid in fruit and fruit products, 33 - Peter, Benzoic acid in canned vegetables, 28 - Richards, Mrs., Alum in baking powders, 22 - Rimmington, chicory in coffee, 66 - Schmidt, Saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Smith, chicory in coffee, 66 - Sostegni and Carpentieri, Coal-tar dyes in canned vegetables, 29 - Stoke, Gelatin in milk, 2 - Tocher, sesame oil in olive oil, 64 - Vanderplanken, Alum in sour bread, 19 - Vogel, Substituted flours, 17 - Wynter Blyth, alum in flour, 16 - Wolff, Tartaric acid (free or combined) in baking powders, 20 - - - - -INDEX - - - PAGE - Acid magenta in fruit and fruit products, 35 - Agar agar in fruit and fruit products, 37 - Alkali in vanilla extract, 45 - Allen, A. H., heavy metals in fruit and fruit products, 37 - in meat, 11 - in vinegar, 58 - sulfuric acid in vinegar, 57 - tartar in vinegar, 59 - test of coffee, 65 - Alum in baking powders, 22 - in bread, 18 - in flour, 16 - in pickles, 31 - Aluminium salts in cream of tartar, 23 - Ammonia in cream of tartar, 23 - Ammonium salts in baking powders, 21 - Amthor, caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - Annatto in butter, 5 - in milk, 1 - Aniline red in meat, 13 - Apple juice in jellies made from small fruits, 36 - Arsenic in fruit and fruit products, 38 - Ashby, free mineral acids in vinegar, 56 - - Bach, test of olive oil, 62 - Baking powders, 20 - Adulterations of, 20 - Alum, 22 - Ammonium salts, 21 - Gypsum, 21 - Sulfates (calcium, etc.), 21 - Tartaric acid (free), 21 - Tartaric acid (free or combined), 20 - Beckmann, gelatin in jellies, 38 - Bell and Carter, alum in flour, 16 - Beef stearin in lard, 61 - Benzoic acid in meat, 10 - in canned vegetables, 27 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Blyth, alum in bread, 19 - Boettger, Ergot in rye flour, 18 - Borax in fish and oysters, 13 - in meats, 9 - Boric acid in fish and oysters, 13 - in meat, 9 - in milk, 4 - Bornstein, saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Bread, 18 - Adulterations of, 18 - Alum, 18 - Copper sulfate, 19 - Butter, 5 - Adulterations of, 5 - Coloring matter, 5 - Annatto, 5 - Coal-tar colors, 5 - Marigold, 6 - Saffron, 6 - Turmeric, 6 - Cottonseed oil, 7 - Oleomargarine, 7 - Process or renovated butter, 6 - - Cane sugar in honey, 49 - Canned and bottled vegetables, 24 - Adulterations of, 24 - Alum in pickles, 31 - Coal-tar colors, 29 - Cochineal, 29 - Coloring matter, 29 - Copper salts in green pickles, beans, peas, etc., 30 - Turmeric in mixed pickles, 30 - Examination of can or box, 31 - Heavy metals other than copper (see under meats), 11 - Preservatives, 25 - Benzoic acid, 27 - Formaldehyde, 25 - Saccharin, 26 - Salicylic acid, 26 - Sulfurous acid, 26 - Soaked vegetables, peas, beans, and corn, 30 - Caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - in milk, 1 - in vanilla extract, 47 - in vinegar, 58 - Catechu in tea, 68 - Cayenne pepper in black pepper, 54 - in mustard, 53 - Cereal products, 16 - Chicory in coffee, 66 - Citral in lemon extract, 42 - Citric acid in lemon extract, 43 - Coal-tar colors in butter, 5 - in canned vegetables, 29 - in fruit and fruit products, 35 - in lemon extract, 45 - in milk, 2 - in vinegar, 58 - Cochineal carmine in canned vegetables, 29 - in fruit and fruit products, 35 - in meat, 13 - Coffee, 65 - Adulterations of, 65 - Chicory, 66 - Coloring matter, 65 - Imitation coffee beans, 66 - Starch, 66 - Coloring matters - Acid magenta in fruit and fruit products, 35 - Annatto in butter, 5 - in milk, 1 - Aniline red in meat, 13 - Caramel in fruit and fruit products, 36 - in milk, 1 - in vanilla extract, 47 - in vinegar, 58 - Copper salts in canned vegetables, 30 - Coumarin in vanilla extract, 48 - Copper sulfate in bread, 19 - in flour, 17 - Copper salts in canned vegetables, 30 - Cottonseed oil in butter, 7 - in lard, 60 - in olive oil, 62 - stearin in lard, 60 - Courley and Coremon, horseflesh in other meats, 14 - Cream of tartar, 22 - Adulterations of, 22 - Aluminium salts, 23 - Ammonia, 23 - Earthy materials, 23 - Tartaric acid (free or combined), 22 - - Dairy products, 1 - - Ebers, diseased meat, 14 - Eggs, test for freshness, 14 - Elaiden test, 62 - Exhausted tea leaves in tea, 67 - - Facing in tea, 68 - Fats and Oils, 60 - Lard, 60 - Adulterations of, 60 - Beef stearin, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 60 - stearin, 60 - Olive oil, 61 - Adulterations of, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 62 - Peanut oil, 63 - Rape oil, 64 - Sesame oil, 64 - Fish, preservatives in, 13 - Flavoring extracts, 42 - Flour, 16 - Adulterations of, 16 - Alum, 16 - Copper sulfate, 17 - Substituted flours, 17 - Corn meal in wheat flour, 17 - Ergot in rye flour, 18 - Wheat flour in rye flour, 18 - Flour in mustard, 51 - Formaldehyde in canned vegetables, 25 - in milk, 3 - Frear, sulfuric acid in vinegar, 57 - Fruit and Fruit Products, 33 - Adulterations of, 33 - Agar agar, 38 - Apple juice in jellies made from small fruits, 36 - Arsenic, 38 - Coloring matter, 35 - Acid magenta, 35 - Caramel, 36 - Coal-tar dyes, 35 - Cochineal, 35 - Gelatin in jellies, 37 - Heavy metals, 38 - Preservatives, 33 - Benzoic acid, 34 - Saccharin, 34 - Salicylic acid, 34 - Starch in jellies, jams, and such products, 37 - - Gelatin in honey, 50 - in jellies, 37 - in milk, 2 - Geisler, coal-tar colors in butter, 6 - Ginger cake, stannous chlorid in, 19 - Girard and Dupre, acid magenta in fruit and fruit products, 35 - cochineal in catsups and tomatoes, 29 - in canned vegetables, 29 - Glucose in honey, 50 - in maple syrup, 50 - Gutzeit, arsenic in canned fruits, 39 - Gypsum in baking powders, 21 - - Heavy metals in canned vegetables, 11 - in fruit and fruit products, 38 - in meat, 11 - Hehner, formaldehyde in milk, 3 - Henzold, gelatin in jellies, 37 - Hess and Doolittle, test for process butter, 6 - Honey, 49 - Adulterations of, 49 - Cane sugar, 49 - Commercial glucose, 50 - Gelatin, 50 - Horseflesh in sausage and mince-meat, 14 - Hydrochloric acid in vinegar, 57 - test for formaldehyde, 3, 25 - - Imitation coffee beans, 66 - - Kaemmerer, sulfurous acid in meat, 9 - Kleeburg, wheat in rye flour, 18 - Klinger and Bujard, cochineal-carmine in meat, 13 - Kraemer, corn meal in wheat flour, 17 - - Lard, 60 - Adulterations of, 60 - Beef stearin, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 60 - stearin, 60 - Leach, caramel in milk, 1 - malic acid in vinegar, 57 - salicylic acid in meat, 10 - in milk, 4 - Lemon extract, 42 - Adulterations of, 42 - Citral, 42 - Coloring matter, 45 - Coal-tar dyes, 45 - Turmeric, 45 - Lemon oil, 42 - Methyl alcohol, 43 - Oil of citronella, 43 - Tartaric or citric acid, 43 - Lemon oil in lemon extract, 42 - Lie tea in tea, 67 - Lythgoe, coal-tar colors in milk, 2 - - Malic acid in vinegar, 57 - Maple syrup, 50 - Adulterations of, 50 - Glucose, 50 - Marigold in butter, 6 - Marsh, arsenic in fruit and fruit products, 38 - Martin, coloring matter in butter, 5 - Martius yellow in mustard, 52 - Meats, 8 - Adulterations of, 8 - Canned, 11 - Coloring matter (see under sausages, etc.), 13 - Heavy metals, 11 - Preservatives (same tests as under smoked and fresh meat), 11 - Coloring matter, 13 - Aniline red and cochineal-carmine in sausage chopped meat - preparations, and corned meat, 13 - Diseased meat, 14 - Fresh and smoked, 8 - Preservatives, 8 - Benzoic acid, 10 - Boric acid, 9 - Potassium nitrate, 8 - Salicylic acid, 10 - Sulfurous acid, 9 - Fish, salt, dried and oysters, 13 - Preservatives, 13 - Borax (same as under fresh meat), 13 - Boric acid (same as under fresh meat), 13 - Horse-flesh in sausage and in mince-meat, 14 - Starch in sausage, deviled meat and similar products, 13 - Metallic impurities in vinegar, 58 - Methyl alcohol in lemon extract, 43 - Mineral acids in vinegar, 56 - Milk, 1 - Adulterations of, 1 - Coloring matter, 1 - Annatto, 1 - Caramel, 1 - Coal-tar dyes, 2 - Gelatin, 2 - Preservatives, 3 - Boric acid, 4 - Formaldehyde, 3 - Salicylic acid, 4 - Starch, 2 - Mohler, benzoic acid in meat, 10 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Mustard, 51 - Adulterations of, 51 - Cayenne pepper, 53 - Coloring matter, 51 - Martius yellow or analogous coal-tar dyes, 52 - Turmeric, 52 - Flour, 51 - - Oil of citronella in lemon extract, 43 - Oleomargarine in butter, 7 - Olive oil, 61 - Adulterations of, 61 - Cottonseed oil, 62 - Peanut oil, 63 - Rape oil, 64 - Sesame oil, 64 - Olive stones in pepper, 53 - Oysters, preservatives in, 13 - - Peanut oil in olive oil, 63 - Pepper (common), 53 - Adulterations of, 53 - Cayenne pepper, 54 - Ground olive stones, 53 - Peter, benzoic acid in canned vegetables, 28 - Pontet, general test of olive oil, 62 - Potassium nitrate in meat, 8 - Preservatives: - Benzoic acid in canned vegetables, 27 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - in meat, 10 - Boric acid in fish and oysters, 13 - in meat, 9 - in milk, 4 - Formaldehyde in canned vegetables, 25 - in milk, 3 - Potassium nitrate in meat, 8 - Saccharin in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Salicylic acid in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - in meat, 10 - in milk, 4 - Sulfites in canned vegetables, 26 - Sulfurous acid in canned vegetables, 26 - Process or renovated butter, 6 - - Rape oil in olive oil, 64 - Resins, foreign, in vanilla extract, 46 - Richards, Mrs., alum in baking powders, 22 - Rimmington, chicory in coffee, 66 - - Saccharin in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - Saffron in butter, 6 - Salicylic acid in canned vegetables, 26 - in fruit and fruit products, 34 - in meat, 10 - in milk, 4 - Schmidt, saccharin in canned vegetables, 27 - Schmidt, Albert, chicory in coffee, 66 - Soaked vegetables, 30 - Sostegni and Carpentieri, coal-tar dyes in canned vegetables, 29 - Spices in vinegar, 59 - Stoke, gelatin in milk, 2 - Substituted flours, 17 - Corn meal in wheat, 17 - General test for, 17 - Wheat flour in rye, 18 - Sulfates in baking powders, 21 - Sulfuric acid in vinegar, 56 - Sulfurous acid in meat, 9 - Stannous chlorid in ginger cake, 19 - Starch in fruit and fruit products, 37 - in milk, 2 - - Tannin in vanilla extracts, 47 - Tartar in vinegar, 59 - Tartaric acid in baking powders, 20, 21 - in cream of tartar, 22 - in lemon extract, 43 - in wine vinegar, 59 - Tea, 67 - Adulterations of, 67 - Catechu, 68 - Exhausted tea leaves, 67 - Facing, 68 - Foreign leaves, 67 - Lie tea, 67 - Tocher, sesame oil in olive oil, 64 - Turmeric in butter, 6 - in lemon extract, 45 - in mixed pickles, 30 - in mustard, 52 - - Vanilla extract, 45 - Adulterations of, 45 - Alkali, 46 - Caramel, 47 - Coumarin, 48 - Foreign resins, 46 - Tannin, 46 - Vanderplanken, alum in sour bread, 19 - Vinegar, 55 - Adulterations of, 55 - Coloring matter, 58 - Caramel, 58 - Coal-tar colors in wine vinegar, 58 - Glucose, 59 - Malic acid, 57 - Metallic impurities, 58 - Mineral acids (free), 56 - Hydrochloric acid, 57 - Sulfuric acid, 56 - Spices, 59 - Tartar in wine vinegar, 59 - Tartaric acid (free) in wine vinegar, 59 - Vogel, substituted flours, 17 - - Wynter Blyth, alum in flour, 16 - Wolff, tartaric acid free or combined in baking powders, 20 - - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - -This text follows the source document in spelling and hyphenation, -including inconsistencies, except as mentioned below. Inconsistencies in -section heading have been retained as well. - -The index entries are not always in alphabetical order; this has not been -changed. - -Changes made to the text: - -Some missing or wrong punctuation has been corrected silently. - -Ratios have been changed to x : y where relevant. - -Minor typographical errors corrected: - -Page vii: Commerical to Commercial - -Page 16: oelomargarine to oleamargarine - -Page 49: invert suger to invert sugar - -Page 62: ... (about 3 cc. of this ... to ... (about 3 cc.) of this ... - -Page 71: seasame to sesame - -Page 68: A FEW OF THE BEST BOOKS ON FOOD ANALYSIS has been considered a -separate chapter. - -Page 69: the page header CHEMICALS has been used as the chapter heading. - -The following words in the indexes have been changed to conform to those -in the text: Bechman to Beckmann; Kammerer to Kaemmerer; Klingler to -Klinger; Winter-Blyth and Winter Blyth to Wynter Blyth. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Detection of the Common Food -Adulterants, by Edwin M. 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