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diff --git a/43549.txt b/43549.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e480c0c..0000000 --- a/43549.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,18535 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Trans-Himalaya, Vol. 2 (of 2), by Sven Hedin - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Trans-Himalaya, Vol. 2 (of 2) - Discoveries and Adventurers in Tibet - -Author: Sven Hedin - -Release Date: August 24, 2013 [EBook #43549] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRANS-HIMALAYA, VOL. 2 (OF 2) *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Greg Bergquist and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - - - - - - - - -TRANS-HIMALAYA - - -[Illustration] - - MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED - LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA - MELBOURNE - - THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO - ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO - - THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. - TORONTO - - -[Illustration: Aron Jonason Photogr. - - 189. SVEN HEDIN. - - _Frontispiece_] - - - - TRANS-HIMALAYA - - DISCOVERIES AND ADVENTURES IN TIBET - - BY - - SVEN HEDIN - - - WITH 388 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS, WATER-COLOUR - SKETCHES, AND DRAWINGS BY THE AUTHOR - AND 10 MAPS - - IN TWO VOLUMES - VOL. II - - MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED - ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON - 1910 - - - - -_First Edition 1909_ - -_Reprinted 1910_ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER XXXV PAGE - IMMURED MONKS 1 - - CHAPTER XXXVI - OVER THE CHANG-LA-POD-LA 12 - - CHAPTER XXXVII - TARGO-GANGRI AND THE SHURU-TSO 25 - - CHAPTER XXXVIII - TO THE OUTLET OF THE CHAKTAK-TSANGPO IN THE - BRAHMAPUTRA 38 - - CHAPTER XXXIX - MUHAMED ISA'S DEATH 52 - - CHAPTER XL - ALONG BYWAYS TO TRADUM 64 - - CHAPTER XLI - A PEEP INTO NEPAL 77 - - CHAPTER XLII - IN SEARCH OF THE SOURCE OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA 89 - - CHAPTER XLIII - THE SOURCE OF THE SACRED RIVER--A DEPARTURE 99 - - CHAPTER XLIV - A NIGHT ON MANASAROWAR 110 - - CHAPTER XLV - MORE LAKE VOYAGES 122 - - CHAPTER XLVI - A STORMY VOYAGE OVER THE HOLY LAKE 133 - - CHAPTER XLVII - ON THE ROOF OF THE GOSSUL MONASTERY 144 - - CHAPTER XLVIII - OUR LAST DAYS ON TSO-MAVANG 154 - - CHAPTER XLIX - ADVENTURES ON LANGAK-TSO 166 - - CHAPTER L - THE SOURCE OF THE SUTLEJ 178 - - CHAPTER LI - A PILGRIMAGE ROUND KANG-RINPOCHE 189 - - CHAPTER LII - OM MANI PADME HUM 200 - - CHAPTER LIII - THE DISCOVERY OF THE SOURCE OF THE INDUS 207 - - CHAPTER LIV - A RESOLUTION 215 - - CHAPTER LV - A NEW CHAPTER 226 - - CHAPTER LVI - UP TO THE HEIGHTS OF DAPSANG 237 - - CHAPTER LVII - ON THE ROOF OF THE WORLD 248 - - CHAPTER LVIII - FORTY DEGREES BELOW ZERO 258 - - CHAPTER LIX - IN THE SNOW 267 - - CHAPTER LX - DEATH OF THE LAST VETERAN 272 - - CHAPTER LXI - THIRTY DAYS OF STORM 282 - - CHAPTER LXII - ADVENTURES OF OURSELVES AND PUPPY IN NAGRONG 292 - - CHAPTER LXIII - THROUGH THE HIGHLANDS OF BONGBA 302 - - CHAPTER LXIV - TSONGPUN TASHI 313 - - CHAPTER LXV - BUPTSANG-TSANGPO, ONE OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE - HEART OF TIBET 321 - - CHAPTER LXVI - IN THE ROBBERS' PARADISE 332 - - CHAPTER LXVII - APRIL 24 343 - - CHAPTER LXVIII - HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF SAKA 353 - - CHAPTER LXIX - KAMBA TSENAM, FATHER OF THE ROBBERS 364 - - CHAPTER LXX - THE SEVENTH CROSSING OF THE TRANS-HIMALAYA--TO THE - HEAVENLY LAKE OF THE THRONE MOUNTAIN 374 - - CHAPTER LXXI - ANOTHER JOURNEY ACROSS THE WHITE PATCH 385 - - CHAPTER LXXII - THE LAST DAYS IN UNKNOWN COUNTRY 395 - - CHAPTER LXXIII - THE TRANS-HIMALAYA 401 - - CHAPTER LXXIV - SIMLA 415 - - INDEX 425 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - 189. Sven Hedin _Frontispiece_ - - 190. Hermit's Grotto near the Chang-la-Pod-la 12 - - 191. Robert and Rabsang by the Ice on the Way to the - Chang-la-Pod-la 18 - - 192. A Lhadse decked with Mani-Stones and Prayer-Streamers 18 - - 193, 194. Nomads south of Targo-gangri 24 - - 195. Mendicant Lama blowing on a Human Bone 24 - - 196. Tibetan Boy 24 - - 197. Kubi-gangri from Camp 201 26 - - 198. Targo-gangri from a Hill near Camp 150 26 - - 199. The Chomo-uchong Group from the Kinchen-la, May 23, 1907 26 - - 200. Lundup's Squadron. To the left a part of Targo-gangri, Camp - 150 28 - - 201. Lundup (on horseback to the left) and his Retinue prevent me - from proceeding to the Dangra-yum-tso 30 - - 202, 203, 204. Targo-gangri from the South 32 - - 205. The Shuru-tso, with Targo-gangri in the Background 34 - - 206. On the Upper Raga-tsangpo 36 - - 207. Angden-la 36 - - 208. Chomo-uchong from the east 36 - - 209, 210. Angden-la, a Pass on the Trans-Himalaya 38 - - 211. Manis on the Way to the Angden-la 40 - - 212. Chomo-uchong from Lamlung-la 44 - - 213. Panorama from the Ta-la. The Brahmaputra Valley and the - Himalayas in the Background 44 - - 214. Beggar at Tashi-gembe 50 - - 215. Young Tibetan at the Mouth of the Chaktak-tsangpo 50 - - 216. Wandering Lama with a Wooden Glove in his Hand, such as is - used to protect the Hands in the Prostration Pilgrimage - round the Holy Mountain Kailas 50 - - 217. The Corpse of Muhamed Isa 54 - - 218. Muhamed Isa's Funeral Procession 56 - - 219, 220, 221. The Interment of Muhamed Isa 58 - - 222. Woman at the Mouth of the Chaktak-tsangpo in the Tsangpo 64 - - 223. Tibetan of Saka 64 - - 224. Lama in Saka-dzong 64 - - 225, 226, 227, 228. Tibetan Boys and Girls of Saka and Tradum 70 - - 229. Woman of Nyuku 74 - - 230. Two Tibetans 74 - - 231. The Gova of Tuksum 74 - - 232. Girl at Pasa-guk 74 - - 233. View from the Kore-la towards the south-west 78 - - 234. Gulam Razul's Tents in Gartok 82 - - 235. Landscape in Upper Nepal 82 - - 236. A Chhorten in Nepal 84 - - 237. Group of Tibetan Women 84 - - 238. Women in the Village of Namla 88 - - 239. Inhabitants of the Village of Namla 88 - - 240. Lama in my Boat 92 - - 241. Loading the Boat with Boxes on crossing the Brahmaputra 92 - - 242. Panorama of Kubi-gangri and the Langta-chen Glacier, with the - Source of the Brahmaputra (from a height of 16,453 feet, - July 13, 1907) 102 - - 243, 244, 245. The Mountains at the Source of the Brahmaputra 106 - - 246. Tibetans on the Bank of the Soma-tsangpo 110 - - 247. Group of Natives of Langmar 110 - - 248. Robert in the Boat 118 - - 249. Sheep-shearing at Tugu-gompa on Manasarowar 124 - - 250. The God of the Lake rising from Tso-mavang 130 - - 251. Temple Hall of the Lake-God of Tso-mavang 134 - - 252. Chenresi's Image in Tugu-gompa 134 - - 253. The Lhakang Hall in Tugu-gompa 138 - - 254. Lama with Prayer-Drum 140 - - 255. Lama before the Temple Door in Tugu-gompa 140 - - 256. Yanggo-gompa 146 - - 257. Interior of the Temple, Tugu 146 - - 258. A Dreamer. Lama in Yanggo-gompa on Manasarowar 148 - - 259. The old Nun in Yanggo-gompa 150 - - 260. The Holy Lake Manasarowar from Tugu-gompa, with Kailas - in the Background _Coloured_ 152 - - 261. Boy on the Upper Tsangpo 162 - - 262. The young Prior of Langbo-nan 162 - - 263. Temple Vessels in Chiu-gompa 166 - - 264. Two Children in Shigatse 166 - - 265. Kailas behind Nyandi-gompa 170 - - 266. My Pack-Sheep 170 - - 267. Part of Kailas 174 - - 268. Kailas from Diri-pu 182 - - 269. Confluence of the Two Arms of the Indus 182 - - 270. Tibetan Female Pilgrims at Kailas 188 - - 271. The Gova by whose help the Source of the Indus was - discovered (seated) and Tibetans at Kailas 194 - - 272. Gulam Razul beside Bales of Chinese Brick-Tea 198 - - 273. Tibetan Tent 202 - - 274. Monastery of Gar-gunsa 202 - - 275. Images at Chushut 202 - - 276. The Policemen from Simla 206 - - 277. My Boat on the Indus 206 - - 278. Ladaki Women 206 - - 279, 280, 281. At the Monastery Door in Tashi-gang between Gartok - and Ladak 210 - - 282. Dancing Women in Chushut, a Village on my Way back to Ladak 212 - - 283. Old Woman 216 - - 284. Lama in Chushut 216 - - 285. On the Way to Tankse 220 - - 286. In the Indus Valley on the Way to Ladak 220 - - 287. The new Horses and Mules at Drugub 220 - - 288. Robert in Winter Dress 224 - - 289. Abdul Kerim, the new Caravan Leader 226 - - 290, 291, 292. Lobsang, Gulam, Kutus--my last trusty Followers 228 - - 293. Beggars 230 - - 294. Abdul Kerim's new Tent 230 - - 295. My Brown Puppy with my Cook, Tsering 234 - - 296, 297, 298. My White Ladaki Horse 234 - - 299. Panorama from Camp 422, Bongba 238 - - 300. Panorama from Camp 277, Shyok Valley 238 - - 301. View from Camp 307 _Coloured_ 258 - - 302. The small salt Lake south of Camp 309 _Coloured_ 258 - - 303. Horses going to drink at the Lake near Camp 310. Abdul Kerim - on the left _Coloured_ 258 - - 304. Mountain north-east of Camp 310; the freshwater Lake in the - Foreground _Coloured_ 258 - - 305. Storm Clouds over the Snowy Mountains south of Camp 312 - _Coloured_ 258 - - 306. Camp 307 262 - - 307. Camp 333. The Beginning of a Storm 262 - - 308. Camp 335. Lemchung-tso, looking east 262 - - 309. Camp 401. Kanchung-gangri from the north 262 - - 310. My Dying Pony 264 - - 311. Lost beyond Recovery 268 - - 312. "If this continues a few days longer, we are lost" 270 - - 313, 314, 315, 316, 317. Panoramas from the Camps 318, 333, 335, - 359, 360; in the last two, Sha-kangsham 284 - - 318. The Author as a Shepherd 298 - - 319, 320, 321. The Summits of Lunpo-gangri from Camps 379, 381, - and 383 326 - - 322. Wrestling 332 - - 323. Two Guides 332 - - 324. Boy with Hat 332 - - 325. Shepherd Boy 332 - - 326. Sonam Ngurbu, Chief of the Chokchu Province 334 - - 327. Dorche Tsuen, Governor of the Saka Province 334 - - 328. Man with a singular Cap, in Sonam Ngurbu's Escort 334 - - 329. Tagla Tsering, the Chief who refused to let me go to the - Dangra-yum-tso 334 - - 330. Travelling Ladaki Merchant in West Tibet 340 - - 331. Oang Gye, Son of the Governor of Saka 340 - - 332. Panchor, the Yak-slayer, my Guide on the Journey to the - Teri-nam-tso 340 - - 333. Woman of Yumba-matsen 340 - - 334. Tibetans with Yaks 344 - - 335. Dorche Tsuen on the March 344 - - 336. Farewell Entertainment for the Tibetans on May 5, 1908 348 - - 337, 338, 339, 340. The Dancers at the Camp-fire: Tubges, Kunchuk, - Suen 350 - - 341. Inner Court of Selipuk 354 - - 342. Dorche Tsuen and Ngavang on Horseback 354 - - 343. The Author in Tibetan Dress 358 - - 344, 345. Soldiers of the Garrison of Saka-dzong, belonging to our - Escort 360 - - 346. Armed Tibetan from the Country between the Teri-nam-tso - and the Dangra-yum-tso 360 - - 347. Boy with small Gun on the southern Shore of the Teri-nam-tso 360 - - 348. Trooper of the Escort 364 - - 349. Tibetan of Teri-nam-tso 364 - - 350. Young Shepherd of Bongba 364 - - 351. Guests at the Opening of my Tent on the Bank of the - Teri-nam-tso 366 - - 352. The Yaks fording the River Soma-tsangpo 366 - - 353. Nima Tashi, Commander of the Government Escort on the - way to the Teri-nam-tso _Coloured_ 368 - - 354. Nuns of Mendong _Coloured_ 368 - - 355. A High Lama of Chokchu _Coloured_ 368 - - 356. The Prior of Selipuk _Coloured_ 368 - - 357. Two Lamas of Mendong 370 - - 358. My Sheep crossing the River Soma-tsangpo 370 - - 359. Village below Lunkar-gompa on the Tarok-tso _Coloured_ 374 - - 360. Mendong Monastery west of the Teri-nam-tso _Coloured_ 374 - - 361. Selipuk Monastery south-west of the Nganglaring-tso - _Coloured_ 374 - - 362. Holiday Costumes and Ornaments of Tibetan Women of Kyangrang - in the Trans-Himalaya _Coloured_ 374 - - 363. Crossing the Kangsham River 376 - - 364. The Village of Lunkar 378 - - 365. Group of Tibetans at the Teri-nam-tso 378 - - 366. The Village of Lunkar from the Temple Hill 382 - - 367. The southern Shore of Manasarowar with grazing Yaks 382 - - 368. Lunkar-gompa 386 - - 369. Selipuk-gompa 386 - - 370. The Trans-Himalaya from Abuk-la 388 - - 371. Storm over the Trans-Himalaya 388 - - 372. Sonam Ngurbu and his Followers on Horseback 392 - - 373. Some of our Horses on the Way to Kamba Tsenam's Tent 392 - - 374. Lama of Chokchu taking leave of the Prior of Selipuk 396 - - 375. Lama of Chokchu on Horseback 396 - - 376, 377. Boys sitting 398 - - 378. Young Lama 398 - - 379. Old Woman 398 - - 380. Colonel T. G. Montgomerie 404 - - 381. Abbe Huc 404 - - 382. Altar Table with Images of Gods in Mangnang-gompa _Coloured_ 406 - - 383. The Author in Tibetan Costume at the Mission Station in Poo 408 - - 384. The last Members of the last Expedition in Poo 412 - - 385. My Puppy 416 - - 386. Takkar in his new Home with the Missionaries in Poo 416 - - 387. Simla 418 - - 388. The last Members of the Expedition at the Entrance of the - Viceregal Lodge in Simla 420 - - - - -MAPS - - - 8. The Sources of the Brahmaputra, Sutlej, and Indus. - - 9. A Map of the Trans-Himalaya by Dr. Sven Hedin. - - 10. A Map of Tibet showing Dr. Sven Hedin's Routes 1906-1908. - - (_At end of Volume._) - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV - -IMMURED MONKS - - -We had heard of a lama who had lived for the last three years in a cave -in the valley above the monastery of Linga, and though I knew that I -should not be allowed to see either the monk or the interior of his -ghastly dwelling, I would not miss the opportunity of at least gaining -some slight notion of how he was housed. - -On April 16, 1907, eighteen months to a day after I had left Stockholm, -dreary windy weather prevailed, with thickly falling snow and dense -clouds. We rode up to Linga, past rows of fine _chhortens_, left the -last dormitories behind us, saw an old tree-trunk painted white and red, -passed a small pool with crystal-clear spring water thinly frozen over, -and heaps of _mani_ stones with streamer poles, and then arrived at the -small convent Samde-puk, built on the very point of a spur between two -side valleys. It is affiliated to the Linga monastery, and has only four -brethren, who all came to greet me heartily at the entrance. - -It is a miniature copy, outwardly and inwardly, of those we have seen -before. The _dukang_ has only three pillars and one divan for the four -monks, who read the mass together, nine prayer-cylinders of medium size -which are set in motion by leathern straps, a drum and a gong, two masks -with diadems of skulls, and a row of idols, among which may be -recognized several copies of Chenresi and Sekiya Kongma, the chief abbot -of Sekiya. - -A few steps to the south-west we passed over a sheet of schist with two -stone huts at its foot containing brushwood and twigs for burning. In -Samde-pu-pe were two small temples with altars of mud. In one of them -were idols of medium size and sea shells, and before them incense -smouldered, not in the usual form of sticks, but in powder. It was -strewn in a zigzag line, was lighted at one end, and allowed to smoulder -away to the other. Within was a statue of Lovun with two lights before -it, and a shelf with writings called Choena. Rain water had percolated in -and formed white vertical channels in the plaster, and under the ceiling -_kadakhs_ and draperies fluttered in the draught. Here the mice were -less disturbed than in the ghostly castle Pesu. - -Close at hand at the foot of the mountain is the hermitage, _dupkang_, -in which a hermit spends his days and years. It is built over a spring -which bubbles up in the centre of the single room, a square apartment -with each side five paces long. The walls are very thick, and are in one -solid mass, unbroken by windows. The doorway is very low, and the wooden -door is shut and locked; but that is not enough, so a wall of large -blocks and smaller stones has been built before the door, and even the -smallest interstices between them have been carefully filled up with -pebbles. Not an inch of the door can be seen. But beside the entrance is -a tiny tunnel through which the hermit's food can be pushed in. The -amount of daylight which can penetrate through the long narrow loophole -must be very small; and it does not shine in direct, for the front of -the hut is shut in by a wall, forming a small court, which only the monk -who brings the anchorite his daily ration may enter. A small chimney -rises from the flat roof, for the hermit may make himself tea every -sixth day, and for this purpose some sticks of firewood are pushed -through the loophole twice in the month. Through the chimney, too, a -feeble light may fall, and by means of these two vents the air is -renewed in the cell. - -"What is the name of the lama who is now walled up in this cell?" I -asked. - -"He has no name, and even if we knew it we durst not utter it. We call -him merely the Lama Rinpoche" (according to Koeppen, lama means _quo nemo -est superior_, one who has no one over him; and Rinpoche means gem, -jewel, holiness). - -"Where has he come from?" - -"He was born in Ngor in Naktsang." - -"Has he relations?" - -"That we do not know; and if he has any, they do not know that he is -here." - -"How long has he lived in the darkness?" - -"It is now three years since he went in." - -"And how long will he remain there?" - -"Until he dies." - -"May he never come out again into the daylight before his death?" - -"No; he has taken the strictest of all oaths, namely, the sacred vow -only to leave the cell as a corpse." - -"How old is he?" - -"We do not know his age, but he looked about forty." - -"But what happens if he is ill? Cannot he get help?" - -"No; he may never speak to another human being. If he falls ill he must -wait patiently till he is better again or dies." - -"You never know, then, how he is?" - -"Not before his death. A bowl of _tsamba_ is pushed every day into the -opening, and a piece of tea and a piece of butter every sixth day; this -he takes at night, and puts back the empty bowl to be filled for the -next meal. When we find the bowl untouched in the opening we know that -the immured man is unwell. If he has not touched the _tsamba_ the next -day our fears increase; and if six days pass and the food is not taken, -we conclude he is dead and break open the entrance." - -"Has that ever happened?" - -"Yes; three years ago a lama died, who had spent twelve years in there, -and fifteen years ago one died who had lived forty years in solitude and -entered the darkness at the age of twenty. No doubt the Bombo has heard -in Tong of the lama who lived in the hermitage of the monastery -Lung-ganden-gompa for sixty-nine years, completely shut off from the -world and the light of day." - -"But is it not possible that the prisoner may speak to the monk who -pushes the _tsamba_ dish into the loophole? There is no witness present -to see that all is correct." - -"That could never happen and is not allowed," answered my informant with -a smile; "for the monk outside would be eternally damned were he to set -his mouth to the loophole and try to talk to the recluse, and the latter -would break the charm if he spoke from within. If the man in there were -to speak now, the three years he has passed there already would not be -put down to his credit, and he would not like that. If, however, a lama -in Linga or Samde-puk falls ill, he may write his complaint and a -request for the anchorite's intercession on a piece of paper, which is -placed in the _tsamba_ bowl and pushed into the opening. Then the -recluse prays for the sick man, and if the latter has faith in the power -of prayer, and holds no unseemly conversation in the meantime, the -intercession of the Lama Rinpoche takes effect after two days and the -patient gets well again. On the other hand, the recluse never makes any -communication in writing." - -"We are now only a couple of paces from him. Does he not hear what we -are saying, or, at least, that some one is talking outside his den?" - -"No, the sound of our voices cannot reach him, the walls are too thick; -and even if it were the case, he would not notice it, for he is buried -in contemplation. He no longer belongs to this world; he probably -crouches day and night in a corner, repeating prayers he knows by heart, -or reading in the holy books he has with him." - -"Then he must have enough light to read by?" - -"Yes, a small butter lamp stands on a shelf before two images, and its -light suffices him. When the lamp goes out it is pitch-dark inside." - -Filled with strange thoughts, I took leave of the monk and went slowly -down the path which the recluse had only passed along once in his life. -Before us was the splendid view which might never delight his eyes. When -I had descended to the camp I could not look up the monastery valley -without thinking of the unfortunate man sitting up there in his dark -hole. - -Poor, nameless, unknown to any one, he came to Linga, where, he had -heard, a cave-dwelling stood vacant, and informed the monks that he had -taken the vow to enter for ever into darkness. When his last day in this -world of vanity dawned, all the monks of Linga followed him in deep -silence, with the solemnity of a funeral, to his grave in the cave, and -the door was closed on him for the rest of his life. I could picture to -myself the remarkable procession, the monks in their red frocks, silent -and grave, bending their bodies forward and turning their eyes to the -ground, and walking slowly step by step as though they would let the -victim enjoy the sun and light as long as possible. Were they inspired -with admiration of his tremendous fortitude, compared with which -everything I can conceive, even dangers infallibly leading to death, -seems to me insignificant? For, as far as I can judge, less fortitude is -required when a hero, like Hirose, blockades the entrance of Port -Arthur, knowing that the batteries above will annihilate him, than to -allow oneself to be buried alive in the darkness for forty or sixty -years. In the former case the suffering is short, the glory eternal; in -the latter the victim is as unknown after death as in his lifetime, and -the torture is endless, and can only be borne by a patience of which we -can have no conception. - -No doubt the monks escorted him with the same tenderness and the same -sympathy as the priest feels when he attends a criminal to execution. -But what can have been his own feelings during this last progress in the -world. We all have to pass along this road, but we do not know when. But -he knew, and he knew that the sun would never again shine warmly on his -shoulders and would never produce lights and shadows on the -heaven-kissing mountains around the grave that awaited him. - -Now they have reached their destination and the door of the tomb stands -open. They enter in, spread a mat of interlaced strips of cloth in a -corner, set up the images of the gods, and lay the holy books in their -place; in one corner they place a wooden frame like those go-carts in -which infants learn to walk, and which he will not use till death comes -upon him. They take their seats and recite prayers, not the usual -prayers for the dead, but others which deal with the glorified light -and life of Nirvana. They rise, bid him farewell, go out and close the -door. Now he is alone and will never hear the sound of a human voice -except his own, and when he says his prayers no one will be there to -hear him. - -What were his thoughts when the others had gone, and the short hollow -echo had died away of the noise he heard when the door was shut for the -last time, only to be opened again when he was a corpse? Perhaps -something like what Froeding has expressed in his verse: - - Here breaks the soul from every bond - That fetters to this life its pinion; - Here starts the way to the dark beyond, - The land of eternal oblivion. - -He hears the brethren rolling the heavy stones to the door with levers, -piling them up one on another in several layers, and filling up all -chinks with smaller stones and fragments. It is not yet quite dark, for -there are crevices in the door, and daylight is still visible at the -upper edge. But the wall rises. At length there is only a tiny opening -through which the last beam falls into the interior of his tomb. Does he -become desperate; does he jump up, thrust his hands against the door and -try to catch one more glimpse of the sun, which in another moment will -vanish from his sight for ever? No one knows and no one will ever know; -not even the monks who were present and helped to block up the entrance -can answer this question. But he is but a man and he saw how a flagstone -was fitted over the hole through which a last ray of daylight fell; and -now he has darkness before him, and wherever he turns there is -impenetrable darkness. - -He assumes that the other monks have gone down again to Samde-puk and -Linga. How shall he pass the evening. He need not begin at once to read -his holy books; there is plenty of time for that, perhaps forty years. -He sits on the mat and leans his head against the wall. Now all his -reminiscences come with great distinctness into his mind. He remembers -the gigantic characters in the quartzite, "Om mani padme hum," and he -murmurs half dreaming the holy syllables, "Oh! thou jewel in the lotus. -Amen!" But only a feeble echo answers him. He waits and listens, and -then hearkens to the voices of his memory. He wonders whether the first -night is falling, but it cannot be darker than it is already in his -prison, his grave. Overcome by the travail of his soul, he sleeps, tired -and weary, in his corner. - -When he awakes, he feels hungry, crawls to the opening and finds the -bowl of _tsamba_ in the tunnel. With water from the spring he prepares -his meal, eats it, and, when he has finished, puts the bowl in the -loophole again. Then he sits cross-legged, his rosary in his hands, and -prays. One day he finds tea and butter in the bowl and some sticks -beside it. He feels about with his hands and finds the flint, and steel, -and the tinder, and kindles a small fire under the tea-can. By the light -of the flame he sees the interior of his den again, lights the lamp -before the images, and begins to read his books; but the fire goes out -and six days must pass before he gets tea again. - -The days pass and now comes autumn with its heavy rains; he hears them -not, but the walls of his den seem to be moister than usual. It seems to -him a long time since he saw the sun and the daylight for the last time. -And years slip by and his memory grows weak and hazy. He has read the -books he brought with him again and again, and he cares no more for -them; he crouches in his corner and murmurs their contents, which he has -long known by heart. He lets the beads of his rosary slip through his -fingers mechanically, and stretches out his hand for the _tsamba_ bowl -unconsciously. He crawls along the walls feeling the cold stones with -his hands, if haply he may find a chink through which a ray of light can -pass. No, he hardly knows now what it is like outside on sunny paths. -How slowly time passes! Only in sleep does he forget his existence and -escape from the hopelessness of the present. And he thinks: "What is a -short earthly life in darkness compared to the glorious light of -eternity?" The sojourn in darkness is only a preparation. Through days -and nights and long years of solitude the pondering monk seeks the -answer to the riddle of life and the riddle of death, and clings to the -belief that he will live again in a glorified form of existence when his -period of trial is over. It is faith alone which can explain his -inconceivable fortitude of mind. - -It is difficult to picture to oneself the changes through which the lama -passes during successive decades in the darkness of his cell. His sight -must become weak, perhaps be extinguished altogether. His muscles -shrink, his senses become more and more clouded. Longing for the light -cannot pursue him as a fixed idea, for it is in his power to write down -his decision to curtail his time of trial, and return to the light, on -one of the leaves of his books with a splinter dipped in soot. He has -only to place such a paper in the empty _tsamba_ bowl. But the monks had -never known a case of the kind. They only knew that the lama who had -been walled in for sixty-nine years had wished to see the sun again -before he died. I had heard from monks who were in Tong at the time that -he had written down his wish to be let out. He was all bent up together -and as small as a child, and his body was nothing but a light-grey -parchment-like skin and bones. His eyes had lost their colour, were -quite bright and blind. His hair hung round his head in uncombed matted -locks and was pure white. His body was covered only by a rag, for time -had eaten away his clothing and he had received no new garments. He had -a thin unkempt beard, and had never washed himself all the time or cut -his nails. Of the monks who sixty-nine years before had conducted him to -his cell, not one survived. He was then quite young himself, but all his -contemporaries had been removed by death, and new generations of monks -had passed through the cloisters; he was a complete stranger to them -all. And he had scarcely been carried out into the sunlight when he too -gave up the ghost. - -In analysing the state of such a soul, fancy has free play, for we know -nothing about it. Waddell and Landon, who took part in Younghusband's -expedition to Lhasa, and visited the hermits' caves at Nyang-toe-ki-pu, -say that the monks who have there retired into perpetual darkness first -underwent shorter experiences of isolation, the first lasting six -months, and the second three years and ninety-three days, and that those -who had passed through the second period of trial showed signs that they -were intellectually inferior to other monks. The cases which the two -Englishmen have described seem not to have been so severe a trial as the -one I saw and heard about in Linga, for in the Nyang-toe-ki-pu caves the -lama who waited on the recluse tapped on a stone slab which closed the -small opening, and at this signal the immured lama put his hand out of -this door for his food; he immediately drew the stone shutter to again, -but in this way he would at least see the light of the sun for a moment -every day. In the cases described by Waddell and Landon the immured -monks had passed some twenty years in confinement. Waddell, who has a -thorough knowledge of Lamaism, believes that the custom of seclusion for -life is only an imitation of the practice of pure Indian Buddhism, which -enjoins periodical retreats from the world for the purpose of -self-examination and of acquiring greater clearness in abstruse -questions. In his opinion the Tibetans have made an end of the means. - -Undoubtedly this opinion is correct, but it is not exhaustive. It may be -that the future hermit has in religious delusion come to the decision to -allow himself to be buried alive. But does he clearly conceive what this -means? If he became dull and insensible like an animal in his cell, all -his energy and his power of will would be deadened, and what seemed to -him, when he entered, to be worth striving for, would gradually become -more and more indifferent to him. But this is not the case, for he -adheres firmly to his decision, and therefore his energy must remain -unimpaired. He must possess a steadfast faith, an immovable conviction, -which is exposed to a harder trial because he is alone and death alone -can visit him in his cave. Possibly he becomes by degrees a victim of -self-delusion, so that his longing for the last hour in the long night -of his den gives place to the feeling that he is always at the moment -when the hour-glass of time has run down. He must have lost all idea of -time, and the darkness of the grave appears to him only as a second in -eternity. For the means he formerly had of marking the flight of time -and impressing it on his memory no longer exist. The changes from winter -to summer, from day to night, are only made known to him by the rise or -fall of the temperature in his den. He remembers that several rainy -seasons have passed by, and perhaps they seem to him to follow closely -on one another while his brain is clouded by monotony. It is -inconceivable that he does not become insane, that he does not call out -for the light, that he does not jump up and run his head against the -wall in the agony of despair, or beat it against the sharp edges of the -stones till he bleeds to death and frees himself by committing suicide. - -But he waits patiently for death, and death may delay its coming for ten -or twenty years. His remembrance of the world and life outside his cell -becomes fainter and fainter; he has long forgotten the dawn in the east -and the golden clouds of sunset; and when he looks up his dimmed eyes -perceive no stars twinkling in the night, only the black ceiling of his -cave. At last, however, after long years have passed in the darkness, -suddenly a great brilliancy flashes out--that is, when Death comes, -takes him by the hand, and leads him out. And Death has not to wait, -entreat, and coax, for the lama has waited and longed for his welcome -and only guest and deliverer. If he has had his mind still clear, he has -taken the little wooden stand under his arms so that he may die in the -same sacred position in which Buddha is represented in all the thousands -of statues and pictures which have come under our notice in our -wanderings through the cloister temples of Tibet. - -When the _tsamba_ bowl, which has been filled daily for so many long -years, remains at last untouched and the six days have expired, the cave -is opened and the abbot of the monastery sits down beside the deceased -and prays for him, while all the other monks pray in the _dukang_ hall -for five or six days together. Then the body is wrapped in a white -garment, a covering called _ringa_ is placed on his head, and he is -burned on a pyre. The ashes are collected, kneaded together with clay, -and moulded into a small pyramid, which is deposited in a _chhorten_. - - -The Linga monks said that an ordinary lama, when he dies, is cut in -pieces and abandoned to the birds. This process is performed here by -five lamas, who, though they belong to the monastery, attend the service -in the _dukang_, and drink tea with the other monks, are still -considered unclean, and may not eat with the other brethren. Also when -nomads die in the neighbourhood, their services are required, but then -the relatives are bound to provide them with horses and to undertake -that the property of the deceased shall pass into the possession of the -monastery. - -For days and weeks I could not drive away the picture I had formed in my -mind of the Lama Rinpoche, before whose cell we had stood and talked. -And still less could I forget his predecessor, who had lived there forty -years. I fancied I could hear the conch which summoned the monks to the -funeral mass of the departed. I pictured to myself the scene in the cave -where the lama, crouching in rags on the floor, stretches out his -withered hands to Death, who, kindly smiling like the skull masks in the -temples, gives him one hand while he holds a brightly burning lamp in -the other. The features of the monk are transfigured in a reflexion of -Nirvana, and forgetting the "Om mani padme hum" that for tens of years -has reverberated from the walls of his den, he raises, as the trumpet -blasts sound out from the temple roof, a song of victory, which calls to -mind the following strophe from the myths of another people (_Frithiof's -Saga_, Blackley's translation): - - Hail, ye deities bright! - Ye Valhalla sons! - Earth fadeth away; to the heavenly feast - Glad trumpets invite - Me, and blessedness crowns, - As fair, as with gold helm, your hastening guest. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI - -OVER THE CHANG-LA-POD-LA - - -We had stayed three days near the monastery Linga, when we went on -north-westwards on April 17 up the narrow My-chu valley, in which the -volume of water was now considerably diminished. Space does not permit -me to describe in detail this wonderful road and its wild beauty. From -the expansion of the valley at Linga routes run eastwards and westwards -into the mountains, with branches to numerous villages, of which I noted -down the names and approximate positions. The traffic is now much less, -but still numerous _manis_ and other religious symbols stand beside the -solitary path. - -We ride along the steep slopes of the right bank; below us the river -forms rapids, and the way is dangerous, especially with a horse that is -not sure on its feet. Robert's small bay filly stumbled and fell, so -that the rider was thrown headlong to the ground. Had he rolled down the -slope he would have been lost; but fortunately he fell towards the -mountain. - -We encamped in the village Langmar, consisting of a few scattered -houses, at the entrance of the small side valley Langmar-pu. - -[Illustration: 190. HERMIT'S GROTTO NEAR THE CHANG-LA-POD-LA.] - -We still have hired horses, and now yaks also, and the caravan is -divided into the same detachments as before. Sonam Tsering and Guffaru -command their sections. Tsering's party sets out last and is the last to -come to rest, and Muhamed Isa supervises the whole. In the evening he is -massaged by two men selected for the purpose, of whom Rehim Ali is one. -There is still _chang_, the harmless, but still intoxicating, beer. -Among the singers at the camp-fires, Tsering, as usual, deserves the -first prize. He gives me no end of amusement; he sings like a cow, or at -best like a burst temple drum. His voice cracks continually, and he -loses the time and the melody without being the least put out. But he -considers his singing very fine, and the others take pleasure in it; one -can tell from a distance that the tears are coming into his eyes. -Sometimes he pauses to explain the subject of the ballad and take a -drink, and then he goes on again. When all the others are asleep, and -all is so quiet in the camp that the rushing of the stream is audible -and from time to time the bark of a dog, Tsering's rough voice trilling -harshly still resounds among the mountains. - -Next day we draw near to the main crest of the Trans-Himalaya, for to my -great surprise and delight we have been conducted in this direction. -Granite still predominates, and in it erosion has excavated the wild -forms of the valleys; the way is tolerably good, but very stony; small -strips of ice lie along both banks of the stream, within which the -bright green water fills the valley with the roar of its impetuosity. -The dark green of a kind of juniper called _pama_ is a relief to the -eyes, which otherwise perceive nothing but grey slopes of detritus. - -The river here is named Langmar-tsangpo, but it is really only the upper -course of the My-chu. It is formed by the Ke-tsangpo coming from the -north and the Govo-tsangpo from the west. The former, called in its -upper course Ogorung-tsangpo, descends from the main watershed of the -Trans-Himalaya, and must therefore be considered the main stream. I was -told that its source may be reached in a day and a half from the -junction of the valleys. On the left bank of the Govo a thicket of -_pama_ shrubs grows, and a safe bridge of three arches spans the river. -Over this bridge runs the important trade route to Tok-jalung which I -have mentioned above. Herds of yaks and flocks of sheep graze on the -slopes, and circular penfolds remind us of our life in the Chang-tang. A -little farther up we cross the Govo, which is half frozen over; springs -and brooks from the side valleys adorn the scene with cascades of ice. -The river is said to be here so swollen in summer that it cannot be -crossed at any point. To the north and south snowy mountains are -visible. - -In the village of Govo, consisting of seven stone houses, barley is -cultivated and yields a moderate crop; but the inhabitants are not -dependent on the harvest, for they also possess sheep, goats, and yaks, -with which they migrate northwards in summer. Govo is the last village -where agriculture is pursued, so we here find ourselves on the boundary -between tillage and grazing, and also between stone houses and black -tents (Illust. 182). - -We have, then, still time to look into an ordinary Tibetan stone hut -belonging to a family in comfortable circumstances. The walls are built -of untrimmed bare stones, but the crevices are stopped with earth to -keep out the wind. Through a labyrinth of walls and over round stones -where the tripping foot seldom touches the ground we come to two yards -where goats and calves are kept. In a third is a loom, at which a -half-naked coppery-brown woman is working, and in a fourth sits an old -man engaged in cutting up _pama_ shrubs. - -From this yard we entered a half-dark room, with a floor of mud, and two -openings in the roof, through which the smoke escapes and the daylight -enters. The roof consists of beams overlaid with a thatch of brushwood, -which is covered all over with soil and flat stones--it must be nice and -dry when it rains. There sat an elderly woman telling off her _manis_ on -a rosary of porcelain beads. - -The next room is the kitchen, the general living-room and the principal -apartment of the house. At a projecting wall stands the stone -cooking-range with round black-edged holes for saucepans and teapots of -baked clay. A large earthen pot, standing on the fire, contains barley, -which is eaten parched; a stick with a stiff piece of leather at the end -is twirled round in the barley between the palms so that it may be -roasted equally. It tastes delicious. - -I went about, turned over all the household utensils and made an -inventory, and not in Swedish only, but also in Tibetan. There were many -different vessels of iron, clay, and wood for all kinds of purposes, a -large wooden ladle, a tea sieve of sheet-iron, an iron spoon, an ash -shovel, iron fire-tongs, and a thing called a _thagma_, an iron blade -fitted into a piece of wood, something like a closed pocket-knife, and -used to dress newly woven material. A large clay jug was filled with -_chang_. A small cubical vessel divided into four by small cross pieces -of wood is used to measure corn. Brick-tea is pulverized with a stone -shaped like a cucumber in a deep wooden cup. A knife-blade with a haft -at either end is used in preparing and tawing hides. Under one of the -smoke vents stood a small hearth for an open fire with an iron tripod. A -large leathern sack was filled with _tsamba_, and two sheep's stomachs -held fat and butter. On a rack a quantity of sheep's trotters, dusty and -dirty, were arranged; when they are several months old they are used to -make soup, which is thickened with _tsamba_. Tea, salt, and tobacco are -kept in large and small bags. - -We saw likewise all kinds of religious objects, votive bowls, -joss-sticks, and small image cases; also bales of home-woven textiles, -coloured ribands for sewing on skin coats and boots, knives, hatchets, -sabres and spears, which, we were told, are for fighting thieves and -robbers; a pair of bellows, two sacks of dry dung for fuel, baskets, -hand-mills for grinding barley, consisting of two round flat stones with -a handle on the upper one; lastly, an oil-lamp and an oil-can, and a -cylindrical tub with iron hoops full of water. In a corner lay heaps of -skins and garments, and against the wall were two sleeping-places still -in disorder. - -In another store-room there were provisions in sacks, barley, green -fodder, peas, and great joints of meat. Here three young women and a -troop of children had taken refuge; we left them room to escape, and -they ran away screaming loudly as if all the knives in the house were at -their throats. In the room were balances for weighing, consisting of a -rounded staff with a stone weight at one end and a dried yak hide at -the other. Behind a partition straw was kept. There are high -inconvenient thresholds between the rooms, and the usual bundles of rods -on the roof to protect the house from evil spirits. - -After this expedition we inspected the tents of our escort, where a fire -was burning in a broken clay pot, and a skillet stood over it on a -tripod. The smoke escapes through the long slit between the two halves -of which the tent is composed. The owners of the tent were writing their -report to the authorities in Shigatse, informing them that we were on -the right road. At the same time they were eating their dinner of -mutton, a year old, dry and hard; it must not come near the fire. One of -them cut it into strips and distributed it among his comrades. He had -been for twenty years a lama in the monastery Lung-ganden in Tong, but a -few years before had been ejected from the confraternity because he had -fallen in love with a woman. He spoke of it himself, so it was doubtless -true. - -Robert's bay horse was reported dead on the morning of April 20. His -late tumble now seemed to us like an omen; though fat and sleek, he died -suddenly about midnight. We now ride on again towards higher regions -over uncomfortable blocks of stone, but the valley becomes more open and -the relative heights diminish. Though the little that is left of the -stream still swirls and foams, the ice becomes thicker, and at last -covers almost all the bed, and the water is heard rushing and murmuring -under it. Juicy moss skirts the banks, the view becomes more extensive, -and the whole character of the landscape becomes alpine. We saw ten men -with guns in a sheepfold, carrying gun-rests with yellow and red -pennants on one of the prongs; perhaps they were highway robbers. Dark -clouds sweep over the ridges, and in a minute we are in the midst of -icy-cold drifting snow, but it does not last long. - -The last bit of road was awful, nothing but boulders and debris, which -we could sometimes avoid by riding over the ice of the river. The -camping-ground was called Chomo-sumdo, a valley fork in a desolate -region, but the escort had seen that some straw and barley were brought -up on yaks for our horses. - -From here we had to ride on the ice, smooth and firm after 27 degrees of -frost in the night. The neighbourhood is not, however, uninhabited, for -yaks and sheep were seen grazing in many places, belonging to nomads -migrating northwards or merchants coming from Tok-jalung. At two black -tents the people were packing up for the day's march; they had goats, -with strips of red cloth bound round the ears. - -A little farther up is a precipitous rock on the right side of the -valley, and two caves open their black mouths in the wall. The lower one -(Illust. 190) is the entrance to a passage leading to the upper, where a -famous hermit has fixed his solitary abode. The upper opening has a -partly natural balcony decorated with streamer-poles and ribands. Below -the lower stand _mani_ cairns, long garlands of string with coloured -prayer-strips, a prayer-mast, and a metal idol in a niche of the rock. - -We tethered our horses at the edge of the ice and went up to the lower -grotto. Here two young nuns from Kirong (on the border of Nepal) met us, -and two mendicant monks from Nepal, one of whom spoke Hindustani, so -that Robert could converse with him. The nuns were pretty, well-grown, -sun-burnt, and somewhat like gypsies; their large black eyes had the -shimmer of velvet, and their black hair was parted on the forehead and -fell in luxuriant waves over their shoulders; they were clothed in red -rags and wore Tibetan boots adorned with red ribands. They spoke -cheerfully and pleasantly in strikingly soft, extremely sympathetic -voices, and were not in the least timid. Their simple dwelling, which we -saw, was in the great entrance of the grotto, under a smoke-blackened -vault, surrounded by a small wall and a palisade of _pama_ branches, and -partly hung with cloth. A sleeping-place was made of rugs of interwoven -strips of cloth, and a tea-kettle was boiling on the fire. One of the -men had a thick pigtail and a red lama frock; the other wore a -sheepskin, and had not had his hair cut in the present, twentieth, -century. The dwelling proper was situated in a higher part of the -cavern. - -All four had come in autumn, and were waiting for the warmer season to -proceed to Lhasa, and return thence home again. In the meantime they -voluntarily waited on the two holy hermits sojourning in this mountain, -and thereby earned their living and gained merit, according to the ideas -of their order. When they go off again on their wanderings, other -serving brethren and sisters will be found ready to take their place. - -A winding staircase on the left, partly natural and partly constructed -of flagstones, leads to the upper regions of the cavern. At first it is -dark, but becomes lighter as we approach a loophole in the rock. Here -and there are streamer-poles, and the holy syllables are incised. From -the loophole the staircase turns steeply to the right; if we slipped on -the smooth stone we should tumble down right into the nuns' kitchen, -which from here looks like the bottom of a well. The passage ends at a -point where a small stone staircase goes up to a trap-door covered with -a slab. Pushing aside the slab, one reaches the larger grotto chamber of -which we had seen the opening from the valley. But the serving brothers -and sisters would not take us so high. - -In this upper grotto, Choma-taka, the 100-years-old hermit, Gunsang -Ngurbu, of high repute in all the country for his holiness, has dwelt -for seven years. Gunsang means hermit, and Ngurbu is a very common name -signifying precious stone. Every seventh day his attendants place -_tsamba_, water, tea, and fuel on the steps under the trap-door, and -these things are taken in by the old man, who may not speak with men, -but only with the gods. Through a hole under the slab I caught sight of -a _chhorten_ constructed of stones and mud, and some painted pictures of -gods on the wall of the grotto. Behind the _chhorten_, and unfortunately -out of sight, the old man sat in a niche in the wall, crouching down and -saying his prayers; now and then he blows a shell horn. - -[Illustration: 191. ROBERT AND RABSANG BY THE ICE ON THE WAY TO THE -CHANG-LA-POD-LA.] - -[Illustration: 192. A LHADSE DECKED WITH MANI-STONES AND -PRAYER-STREAMERS. - - (N.W. of the Kore-la.)] - - -I wished to push aside the shutter and mount into the upper grotto, but -the consciences of my companions would not permit such a thing for -all the money in the world. It would disturb the old man in his -meditations, and interrupt the period of his seclusion, and, moreover, -the old man would throw stones at us. The life of the hermit Ngurbu must -be idyllic compared to that of the immured Linga monks, for he sees the -valley, the sun, the whirling snow, and the stars sparkling in the sky; -but he must suffer from ennui. In another grotto, side by side with -Ngurbu's, lives another hermit, but the two have never met and know -nothing of one another. They may eat no meat, only _tsamba_ and tea, and -they receive these from the neighbouring nomads and the travellers -passing along the road. - -After this digression we cross the ice of the river again and pass up -over the ever-present detritus. Before us is the flattish saddle of the -Chang-la-Pod-la. We accomplish the ascent with great effort, the icy -wind blowing right in our faces. I cannot commence my observations at -the cairn till I have warmed my hands over a dung fire. The view is -limited, flat, and of little use for orientation. However, towards the -way we have come, we can see the deeply eroded valleys, and we seem to -be higher than the ridges enclosing them. The height is 18,284 feet. -Chang signifies north, north country; Pod or Poe, Tibet, _i.e._ Tibet -proper, chiefly inhabited by a settled population. Chang-la-Pod-la is, -then, the pass between the northern tableland of the nomads and the -country to the south having drainage to the sea. It is this property of -a boundary between these two regions which renders the Trans-Himalaya of -such prime importance, and therefore there are many passes called -Chang-la-Pod-la. Often and often I was told that a pass, whatever might -be its especial name, was a Chang-la-Pod-la when it lay on the watershed -between the inland drainage of the north and the river basin of the -Tsangpo in the south. I had then crossed the Trans-Himalaya a second -time by a pass lying 44 miles to the west of the Sela-la, and had been -able to ascertain that the huge range of the Nien-chen-tang-la extends -thus far. It was still more my earnest desire to follow it step by step -to the west. - -After we had encamped on the pass, where the thermometer fell at night -to -91/2 deg., we rode on April 22 slowly down the valley of the Shak-chu -river, which gradually becomes broader, and is begirt by flat rounded -mountains, in which rock _in situ_ seldom occurs. We have passed from -the maze of mountains intersected by the affluents of the My-chu, -abundantly fed by the rains, on to the wide plains of the plateau -country, and notice again that the Trans-Himalaya is also an -extraordinarily important climatological boundary. - -The Lapsen-Tari is a heap of clods with a sheaf of rods stuck in the -middle, from which streamer strings are carried to other rods. From this -point there is a fine view over the plateau and its wreath of mountains. -To the north, 55 deg. west, we see the Targo-gangri again, but more -majestic, more isolated, and more dominant than from the Ngangtse-tso, -where, shrouded in clouds and surrounded by other mountains, it was less -conspicuous. - -Just at the mound we passed the last corner which obscured the view, and -suddenly the whole grand mountain appeared in its dazzling whiteness, -shining like a lighthouse over the sea of the plateau, in a mantle of -firn fields and blue glistening ice, and rising bold and sharply against -the sky of purest azure blue. The mound is therefore placed where the -traveller coming from Shigatse first comes in sight of the holy -mountain. Our guides bared their heads and murmured prayers. Two -pilgrims, whom we had seen at the grotto of the hermits, lighted a fire -and threw into it a scented powder, an offering of incense to the gods -of Targo-gangri. South and south-west runs a lofty range, of uniform -height, with patches of snow glittering in the sun on its -brownish-purple summit--another part of the Trans-Himalaya. - -As we sat here a trading caravan came along the road to Penla-buk, which -lies on the west side of the Dangra-yum-tso, and is a rendezvous for -gold-prospectors and wool-dealers. Our tents formed a little village on -the Kyangdam plain, where wild asses abound, and some sixty nomads of -the neighbourhood encamped around it. - -In the evening the escort from Ghe presented themselves to inform me -that as we were now in the Largep district, subject to the Labrang, they -would return home and consign us to a new guard. The latter consisted of -five men far advanced in life. Their leader was a small grey-headed man -with trembling hands and very indistinct enunciation. When the Ghe men, -who longed to return to their warmer villages, had gone off next morning -in spite of a violent storm, I had a serious talk with the new men. They -intended to lead us over the pass Sha-la (Trans-Himalaya) in the -south-west, where the Targo-tsangpo rises, on the banks of which we had -passed the day. According to Nain Sing's map this river flows round the -east side of Targo-gangri, and then enters the Dangra-tso, as the holy -lake is called here. But Nain Sing was never there, and I wished to gain -an insight into the geography of the country. So we came to an agreement -that we should travel north-westwards; and I pointed out to the men that -Raga-tasam was put down in our passport as the next place; that two -roads led thither, one over the Sha-la, the other deviating northwards -to the Targo-gangri, and that I had chosen the latter. The passport -prohibited us from visiting Lhasa, Gyangtse, and the monastery -Sekiya-gompa, but contained not a single word about the road to the -Dangra-yum-tso. They ought then to comply with my wishes. The old man -hesitated, pondered awhile, and summoned his followers to a council. His -tent was soon full of black, bare-headed men in grey sheepskins. Then -the consultation was adjourned to Muhamed Isa's tent. After some -consideration they agreed to my proposals, on the condition that I -should pay them a whole _tenga_ per day for each yak instead of half a -_tenga_. I rejoiced at the hope of seeing the holy mountain coming -closer and closer, and its finer details becoming more conspicuous, of -beholding it in cloud and sunshine, disappearing behind the hills and -peeping out again like a man-of-war in a rough sea with high white waves -round the bow, or, more correctly, like a ship under full sail on the -sea of the plateau. Of course I exposed myself to annoyances by ignoring -the passport, but geographical discoveries were concerned and all -considerations must be set aside. - -On Vega day, April 24, we had a strong wind in our faces, it was cold, -and Targo-gangri partly disappeared behind the clouds. Escorted by the -old gentleman and four horsemen who were as much alike as if they had -been cast in the same mould, and who had all matchlocks on their backs, -I rode along the bank of the Targo-tsangpo in the contracting valley -which slopes with an extremely gentle gradient, imperceptible to the -eye, to the lake. At last the valley becomes so narrow that the ice -fills all its bottom. The road therefore leaves the river on the left, -and passes over flat hills, among which we cross a succession of small -affluents. Black tents, tame yaks grazing, stone folds for sheep, wild -asses, and millions of field mice recall to mind the Chang-tang. The -wild yak, however, does not occur in this country. The feathered kingdom -is represented by ravens, wild ducks, and occasionally a small bird. -When we came to the Bumnak-chu, a right-hand tributary of the -Targo-tsangpo, a large number of men came to meet us, saluting with the -tongue, and gazing at us cheerfully and good-temperedly with their long -black unkempt hair, their small grey skins, and their torn boots. - -On April 25 we rode over the Ting-la pass; at its foot is a _mani_ in -good preservation, with a yak skull as ornament, a form of prayer being -incised in the frontal bone between the horns. From the top of the pass -Targo-gangri is seen expanded into a row of peaks covered with snow. The -whole region is like a sea with a strong swell on, and the Targo-gangri -is as white foaming surf on the coast. A little later the summits of the -mass stood clearly out white on a background of bluish-black clouds; the -highest two, twin peaks, had the form of a Tibetan tent on two poles. - -Our camp in the Kokbo valley contained not fewer than eleven tents, for -now we had about forty companions of all ages, and at least a hundred -yaks. The loads were transferred to other yaks on the march to spare the -animals. When the caravan moves over the rounded hills it is like a -nomad tribe on the march. Most of our Tibetans ride yaks or horses. - -We had made a short march, and plenty of time was left for me to go -about, make a visit to each tent, and see how the men were getting on. -They were all drinking tea and eating _tsamba_, their greatest pleasure -in life. The dung fire burns in the middle, and the form of the tent -certainly is the cause of the draught which prevents smoke from -collecting inside. Round about stand kettles, teapots, and wooden cups. -A huge quantity of provisions lies at the sides. Saddles and harness are -deposited in a row before the tent. When I enter, all rise, but I beg -them to sit down again and go on eating, while I take a seat on a barley -sack at the door of the tent. All have the right arm bare, and many both -arms; when they let their sheepskins fall down their backs the whole -body is naked down to the waist. They are copper-brown and covered with -a layer of dirt, but well-grown, powerful, manly, and in good -proportion. The cook of the tent community pours out tea for all, and -then each one brings out his own bag and takes out a pinch of _tsamba_ -to sprinkle into his tea. They eat meat either raw or boiled in a pot. -They are all quiet and orderly, no angry words are heard, no quarrelling -and shouting, they are all the best of friends, and make themselves -comfortable after their day's march, talking and laughing together. -Their wigs are dust-traps and make them look like Indians. Most of them -wear a pigtail, consisting mostly of plaited threads with white bone -rings and small silver image boxes which have a couple of turquoises -inlaid in the lid. Some have the pigtail wound round the head, forming a -singular crown, the diadem of the wilderness. - -In another tent the dinner was finished and the "covers" were empty. -There a man sat with an awl, cobbling a torn boot; another sewed the -girths of his saddle on firmly; and a third lay on his back, with legs -crossed and an arm supporting his head, and took his after-dinner nap. -Seen from above he makes a very absurd figure with his huge nostrils, -into which mice might easily walk in mistake for their holes. A smirking -youth is smoking his pipe, while his neighbour busily and carefully -searches for suspected lodgers in his sheepskin. - -I drew several of them without exciting the least uneasiness; on the -contrary, they made a joke of the sitting, and laughed heartily when -they saw their counterfeits, which they embellished with prints of their -buttery fingers on the margin. They asked me why I drew them, and for -what purpose I wished to know their names and ages. They were all -sympathetic, polite, and friendly, and I enjoyed their society (Illusts. -193, 194). - -A begging lama, too, looked in; he was on the way to Kailas, and was -quickly sketched, to the intense amusement of the other men. He bore a -lance with a black tassel and red strips, a timbrel, an antelope horn to -protect himself against snappy dogs, and a trombone of human bone, which -he set in a corner of his mouth when he blew it. It caused him much -amusement to be the object of universal attention, and he took advantage -of it to make acquaintance with the nomads with a view to an appeal to -their liberality (Illust. 195). - -[Illustration: 193, 194. NOMADS SOUTH OF TARGO-GANGRI.] - -[Illustration: 195. MENDICANT LAMA BLOWING ON A HUMAN BONE.] - -[Illustration: 196. TIBETAN BOY. - - Sketches by the Author.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII - -TARGO-GANGRI AND THE SHURU-TSO - - -Hitherto we had experienced no difficulties, but at Kokbo the state of -affairs seemed disquieting. Our old man informed me that he had sent a -message to the nomads at the Targo-gangri mountain, asking them to hold -yaks in readiness. They had answered that they could not think of -serving a European without express orders, and that they would resort to -force if our present guards led us to the lake. The old man, however, -was not put out, but believed that he could soon bring them to their -senses. - -On April 26 we march north-westwards in a sharp wind over the pass -Tarbung-la. The sacred mountain exhibits all the beauty of its sixteen -peaks, and north, 33 deg. west, is seen the gap where we expect to find the -Dangra-yum-tso. The view is of immense extent. The valley widens out and -passes into that of the Targo-tsangpo. Four antelopes spring lightly -over the slopes; black tents are not to be seen. - -When we again reach more open ground, one of the most magnificent views -I have seen in this part of Tibet opens out to the west-south-west, a -gigantic range of uniform height, with snow-covered pinnacles and short -glaciers between, which is scarcely inferior to Targo-gangri in imposing -beauty and massiveness. The chain is bluish black below the snowy -points; at its foot lies a lake unknown to us, the Shuru-tso. The -journey to the Ngangtse-tso north-north-east by the way of the -Shangbuk-la pass is reckoned as only three days' march. On the eastern -flank of Targo-gangri five glaciers are deeply embedded, while to the -east of the mountain the flat open valley of the Targo-tsangpo comes -into sight, which we gradually approach, passing over five clearly -defined terraces, relics of a time when the Dangra-yum-tso was much -larger than now. Two wolves make off in front of us, and the old man -gallops after them, but turns back when they stop as if to wait for him. -"If I had had a knife or a gun," he says, "I would have killed them -both." - -At length we descend to the valley of the Targo-tsangpo down a bold -terrace with two ledges, and here the river is divided into several -arms, and wild ducks and geese swarm. Brushwood grows on the banks. On -the right bank lies our camp, No. 150, not far from the foot of the -majestic Targo-gangri (Illust. 198). - -Thus far we were to come, but no farther. Here a troop of twenty -horsemen armed to the teeth awaited us, who had been sent by the -Governor of Naktsang from Shansa-dzong, with orders to stop us "in case -we should attempt to advance to the holy lake." This time they had kept -a sharper watch, and had anticipated that I would take all kinds of -liberties. They had left Shansa-dzong fifteen days before, and had been -camping here three days, awaiting our arrival. If we had hurried we -should have been before them again. One of the two leaders was the same -Lundup Tsering who, as he told me himself, had stopped Dutreuil de Rhins -and Grenard, and had been in January with Hlaje Tsering at the -Ngangste-tso. He informed me that Hlaje Tsering was still in office, but -had had much trouble because of us, and had been obliged to pay a fine -of sixty _yambaus_ (about L675) to the Devashung. When I remarked that -Hlaje Tsering had told me himself that he was so poor that he had -nothing left to lose, Lundup answered that he had extorted the money -from his subordinates. All, too, who had sold us yaks and served us as -guides had been heavily fined. The next European who attempted to get -through without a passport would have no end of difficulties to contend -with (Illust. 200). - -[Illustration: 197. KUBI-GANGRI FROM CAMP 201. S. 19 deg. E., Ngomo-dingding -(1), with the Ngomo-dingding Glacier below. S. 2 deg. W., Absi (2), with the -Absi Glacier, S. 21 deg.-35 deg. W., the Massive of Mukchung-simo (3).] - -[Illustration: 198. TARGO-GANGRI FROM A HILL NEAR CAMP 150. N. 32 deg. W., -Sershik-gompa (4). N. 26 deg.-13 deg. W., the Dangra-yum-tso (5) in the -distance.] - -[Illustration: 199. THE CHOMO-UCHONG GROUP FROM THE KINCHEN-LA, MAY 23, -1907 (cf. Illustration 212). - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Lundup pointed to a red granite promontory, 200 yards north of our camp, -and said: "There is the boundary between the Labrang (Tashi-lunpo) and -Naktsang (Lhasa). So far we can let you go, but not a step farther; -if you attempt it, we have orders to fire on you." - -They read the passport from Shigatse, and affirmed that the words -therein, "on the direct way to Ladak," did not mean that we had -permission to make all sorts of detours, and, above all, we might not go -to the Dangra-yum-tso, which is holy and is in the territory of Lhasa. -Gaw Daloi had given orders that he should be informed daily which way we -were travelling. If they did not obey this order they would lose their -heads. It was evident, then, that I should have to give up the -Dangra-yum-tso for the third time, and just when I was only two short -days' march from it. - -The outline of the mountain stood out sharp and white in the moonshine -against the blue-black starry sky. The next day there was a storm, and -not even the foot of Targo-gangri was visible, much less the icy-cold -heights where the winds sing their heavenly choruses among the firn -fields. In the evening, however, when the weather had cleared, the whole -mass stood clearly out, covered with freshly fallen snow. - -Again we held a long palaver with the horsemen from Naktsang. I told -them that I would not leave this camp till I had at least seen the lake -from a distance. To my delight they replied that though they were -obliged, much against their inclination, to cause me the disappointment -of not visiting the lake, they would not prevent me from seeing it from -a distance, but that they would keep a good watch lest I should ride off -behind yonder red mountain to the north. - -They had scarcely gone when our old Kyangdam guide came to complain that -the horsemen from Naktsang had threatened his life because he had -brought me here. I sent for the Naktsang men again and impressed on them -strongly that they had no cause of complaint against my escort, for it -was entirely my fault that we were here. They promised that they would -not again treat the Kyangdam men harshly, as they had most fortunately -caught me just at the right moment. The Kyangdam men could not thank me -enough for restoring peace, and their joy was still greater when I -presented the whole party with money to supplement their scanty store of -provisions. They gave vent to their delight by performing games, dances, -and wrestling bouts in front of my tent, and their happy laughter and -shouts were echoed till late in the night from the mountains. - -Then came twelve more soldiers from Naktsang with fresh orders that we -were under no circumstances to be allowed to proceed farther northwards. -But all were friendly and polite; we joked and laughed together, and -were the best of friends. It is singular that they never lose their -patience, though I am always causing them worry, perplexity, and -troublesome journeys. - -The chief of Largep was more unyielding than our old friends the -Naktsang gentlemen. He would not let me climb the red mountain, but -insisted that we should leave the district next day and travel straight -to Raga-tasam. However, I snubbed him, demanding how he, a small -chieftain in the mountains, could dare to speak so peremptorily. Even -the Chinese in Lhasa, I said, had treated us pleasantly and had left us -the fullest freedom. I would not leave the spot until I had seen the -lake. I threatened to tear the Shigatse passport in pieces, and send off -at once a courier to Tang Darin and Lien Darin, and wait for their -answer at the foot of Targo-gangri. Then the chief became embarrassed, -got up in silence, and went away with the others. But they were with me -again in the evening, and with a humble smile they said that I might -ride up the red mountain if I would promise not to go to the shore of -the lake. - -A thin veil of mist lay over the country all day long. But when the sun -set, the western sky glowed with purple flames, and the cold glaciers -and snowfields were thrown up by a background of fire. - -[Illustration: 200. LUNDUP'S SQUADRON. TO THE LEFT A PART OF -TARGO-GANGRI. CAMP 150.] - -At last, on April 29, we take to the road and ride up the affluent -Chuma, flowing down from the right and called in its upper course -Nagma-tsangpo. We climb higher and higher up regularly curved lake -terraces; the view widens out the nearer we approach the summit, where -the Ladakis are waiting for us with a fire. The southern basin of the -Dangra-yum-tso was clearly visible as a bluish sabre-blade, and the -valley of the Targo-tsangpo widens out like a trumpet to the broad plain -beside the shore. It was the easier to trace the course of the river to -the neighbourhood of the lake because it was marked all along by white -glistening ice flakes and dark spots where bushes grow. At the end of -July the river is said to rise so high that it cannot be crossed. So -when letters have to be delivered to nomads on the eastern foot of the -mountain they are weighted with a stone and thrown across a narrow part -of the stream. - -The water of the lake is said to be as salt as that of the Ngangtse-tso, -and is not fit for drinking; but nevertheless pilgrims drink it, because -it is holy. At this time the winter ice was breaking up, and long sheets -of ice lay only at the shore. In contrast to most other lakes of Tibet, -the Dangra-yum-tso runs north and south, and it narrows in the middle, -just as Nain Sing has drawn it on his map; but he has made the lake a -little too large, and has especially exaggerated the dimensions of the -southern basin. A horseman can travel round the lake in five ordinary or -seven short days' journey; the pilgrim road closely follows the lake -shore. The pilgrims always make the circuit of the lake in the direction -of the hands of a watch, if they are orthodox; but if they belong to the -Pembo sect, like the monks of the Sershik-gompa, they begin their march -in the opposite direction. Most of them come in late summer or autumn. I -was told that the pilgrimage round the lake, which of course must be -made on foot, was in honour of Padma Sambhava, the saint who came to -Tibet in the year 747, became the founder of Lamaism, and enjoys almost -as great a reputation as Buddha himself. He is called in Tibet Lopoen -Rinpoche, and his image is generally found in the temples. - -Sershik-gompa, of which we had frequently heard, and which Nain Sing -names Sasik Gombas on his map, stands on an even slope at the eastern -foot of the mountain. The monastery is under the Devashung, and has -twenty Pembo brethren and an abbot named Tibha. Some of the monks are -said to be well off, but on the whole the convent is not rich; it is -supported by nomads in Naktsang, Largep, and Sershik. The monastery is -constructed chiefly of stone, but it also contains timber transported -hither from the Shang valley. There is a _dukang_ and a number of small -images of gods. The Targo-gangri massive can also be travelled round, -and only one pass has to be crossed, namely the Barong-la (or Parung), -which lies between Targo-gangri and the mighty range on the west of the -Shuru-tso. - -The short, lofty, meridional range which is called Targo-gangri, and is -rather to be considered an isolated massive, ends in the north not far -from the lake, the flanks of the last peak descending gently to its flat -plain. Nain Sing calls the massive Targot-la Snowy Peaks, and the -district to the south of the mountain Targot Lhageb (Largep). The river -is marked Targot Sangpo on his map. His Siru Cho to the east of the lake -is known to no one here, and his Mun Cho Lakes marked to the south of it -actually lie to the west of the lake. His representation of the -mountains to the south of the lake is confused and fanciful. Some nomads -named the holy mountain Chang-targo-ri. - -On the way back I took levels, assisted by Robert, and found that the -highest recognizable terrace lay 292 feet above the level of the river. -The Targo-tsangpo is here certainly not more than 61/2 feet higher than -the surface of the lake. As the Dangra-yum-tso is surrounded, -particularly on the south, by rather low, flat land, the lake must -formerly have been of very large extent. At that time the Targo-gangri -skirted the western shore as a peninsula. - -In the night there was a noise like an avalanche falling; it became -feebler and died away. The horses and yaks of the Tibetans, frightened -by something or other, had stormed the detritus slope of the terrace. -Half an hour later I heard whistling and shouting; the men were coming -back with the runaways. - -[Illustration: 201. LUNDUP (on horseback to the left) AND HIS RETINUE -PREVENT ME FROM PROCEEDING TO THE DANGRA-YUM-TSO. - - Targo-gangri and the river Targo-tsangpo in the background.] - -Before we took leave of our troublesome friends they were photographed -on horseback (Illust. 201). They all wore roomy, dark cerise-coloured -mantles, and, unlike the bare-headed Largep men, a bandage round the -head, in many cases drawn through silver rings like bangles. One had a -tall white hat like a truncated cone, with a flat brim, a head-covering -I remembered seeing in Nakchu. Their guns, with the military pennants on -the forks, they had slung over their shoulders, and their sabres stuck -out horizontally from their girdles in silver-bound scabbards decorated -with three pieces of imitation coral. Over the left shoulder some -carried a whole bandolier of _gao_ cases with glass fronts, through -which were visible the little innocent gods which bring their wearers -good fortune on their journey. Their fat little horses stamped and -snorted, longing for their old well-known pastures on the shores of the -Kyaring-tso. They also were decked with needlessly heavy but dainty -ornaments. The white horses with red riders on their backs made a -particularly striking picture. It was a varied scene in the blazing -sunshine, with the snowy summits of Targo-gangri as a background and -Nain Sing's lake to the north. I begged them to greet Hlaje Tsering -heartily from me, and tell him that I hoped to see him again. - -And then they struck their heels into their horses, drew together into -close order, and trotted gaily up to the level surfaces of the river -terraces. Captivated by the appearance of the departing troop I ran -after it, and watched the dark column grow smaller at the red spur, -where the old shore lines seemed to run together. Singular people! They -rise like goblins from the depths of their valleys, they come one knows -not whence, they, like us, visit for a few short days the foot of the -snowy mountain, and then they vanish again like a whirlwind in the dust -of the horses' hoofs and beyond the mysterious horizon. - -We, too, set out, and I left the Dangra-yum-tso to its fate, the -dark-blue waters to the blustering storm and the song of the rising -waves, and the eternal snowfields to the whisper of the winds. May the -changing colours of the seasons, the beauty of atmospheric effects of -light and shade, gold, purple, and grey, pass over Padma Sambhava's lake -amidst rain and sunshine, as already for untold thousands of years, and -the steps of believing, yearning pilgrims draw a chain around its -shores. - -Accompanied by Robert and our aged guide, I rode across the river, which -carries about 140 cubic feet of water, and up to a spur of Targo-gangri -in order to procure a rock specimen. One glacier tongue after another of -the long series on the east side of the mountain passes out of sight, -and now the gap disappears through which we had seen a corner of the -lake, and far away to the north on its other side the outlines of -light-blue mountains. - -Six hundred sheep were grazing on a slope without shepherds. Now and -then a hare was started in the thick tufts of steppe grass. From the -screes on our right was heard the pleasant chirp of partridges. When we -were far away two shepherds came up out of a gorge and drove the sheep -down to the river. At the lower end of the moraine of a glacier stood a -solitary tent. I asked our old man what the spot was called, but he -swore by three different gods that he had no notion. The most southern -outskirt of Targo-gangri hid the rest of the range, but before we -reached camp No. 151 it appeared again foreshortened. This camp stood on -the left bank of the river. - -[Illustration: 202, 203, 204. TARGO-GANGRI FROM THE SOUTH.] - -May 1. Spring is come; we have, indeed, had as much as 29 degrees of -frost during the preceding nights, but the days are fine and clear, and -it is never as trying as in the Chang-tang, even riding against the -wind. At camp No. 150 we had been at a height of 15,446 feet; now we go -slowly down, following the river at first, but leaving it on the left -when we see it emerge from the mountains as through a gate. Over a -singularly uniform and continuous plain without fissures or undulations -we now approach in a south-westerly direction the threshold which -separates the Shuru-tso from the Dangra-yum-tso. On the south-west side -of Tangro-gangri appear six glaciers, much smaller than those on the -north and east, and rather to be regarded as spurs and corners of the -ice mantle which covers the higher regions of the massive. The Shuru-tso -is seen as a fine blue line. We approach its shore and find that the -lake is completely frozen over. We make a halt to photograph and to -draw a panorama. Our old man smokes a pipe, and Robert and Tashi try -which can snore loudest. When I am ready we sneak off quietly from the -two sleepers. Tashi is the first to awake, understands the joke, and -also sneaks off. At last Robert awakes and finds himself alone, but he -soon overtakes us on his mule. - -Now we have the lake close on our right. To the south rise grand -mountains, one of the loftiest chains of the Trans-Himalaya, raven black -beneath the sun, but the firn-fields glitter with a metallic lustre. -Considerable terraces skirt the bank, and the valleys running down from -the east to the lake cut through them, forming hollow ways in which a -solitary tent stands here and there guarded by a savage dog. We encamp -on the terrace above the Parva valley, our eight black tents contrasting -strongly with the yellow soil (15,594 feet). Our old Tibetans from -Kyangdam now bid us farewell and receive double payment as a present. In -front of us are the congealed waters of the Shuru-tso, longing to be -released by the warm spring winds; to the south rises the Do-tsengkan, a -mighty elevation clothed in eternal snow; in the south-west the sun -sinks behind the huge crest of the mountains and the shadows pass -silently across the ice. Soon the evening red lingers only on the peaks -of Targo-gangri and Do-tsengkan, and then another night falls over the -earth. It is a pity that the Tibetans do not understand the relations of -the sun and the planets, for they might regard the solar system as a -unique immeasurable prayer-mill revolving in space to the glory of the -gods. In the darkness the lofty mountains to the north-west are misty -and indistinct, but when the moon rises they and the lake are -illuminated alike and seem to be connected. From our terrace we seem to -have a bottomless abyss below us. - -On May 2 we ride southwards along the shore (Illust. 205). Like the -Dangra-yum-tso, the Shuru-tso runs almost north and south, lying in a -longitudinal valley which has this direction, so unusual in Tibet. There -is open water along the bank, and the waves splash against the edge of -the porous ice, on which wild ducks sit, often in long rows. Owing to -the swell the water on the bank is black with decayed algae and rotting -water-weeds, in which wild geese cackle and scream. As we come to the -regularly curved southern shore of the lake, with its bank of sand, we -see the well-known signs of a storm on the plain before us, white dust -swirls, stirred up in spirals from the ground by the wind, like the -smoke of a shot. After a time we find ourselves in the path of the -storm--it will not need many such storms to break up the whole lake and -drive its loosened ice-sheets to the eastern bank. We ride across the -river Kyangdam-tsangpo, which comes from the Trans-Himalaya, and bivouac -on its western terrace (15,548 feet). Here we have the whole lake in -front of us to the north, and behind it Targo-gangri, now smaller again. - -Here our attendants were changed. The Largep chief, who had been so -overbearing at first, was as meek as a lamb at the moment of parting, -and gave me a _kadakh_, a sheep, and four skins of butter. Every morning -when the caravan sets out Ishe comes to my tent to fetch my two puppies; -Muhamed Isa has the third, which he means to train up to be a wonderful -animal, and the fourth has been consigned to Sonam Tsering. They have -grown a deal already, and howl and bite each other on the march, when -they ride in a basket on the back of a mule. They are graceful and -playful, and give me great amusement with their tricks. - -From the little pass Dunka-la we had a grand and instructive view over -the great Shuru-tso, which is of a somewhat elongated form and is convex -to the west. Next day we crossed the pass Ben-la in a south-westerly -storm. It raged and blew day and night, but the air remained quite -clear. On the 6th we rode up a steep path to the Angden-la. In the -rather deep snow and the tiring rubbish the horses can get on only a -step at a time, and have often to stop and rest. Tsering rides past us -with his yak caravan, and four Ladakis have stayed behind in the valley -suffering from acute headache. At the top of the pass (18,514 feet) -stands a huge cairn with strings and streamers, their prayers rising to -the dwellings of the gods on the wings of the wind (Illusts. 207, 209, -210). - -[Illustration: 205. THE SHURU-TSO, WITH TARGO-GANGRI IN THE BACKGROUND.] - -No words can describe the panorama around us. We stand above a sea of -mountains with here and there a predominant peak. To the south we see -the Himalayas clearer and sharper than before, and can perceive where -the valley of the Brahmaputra runs on this side of the white ridge. To -the north the Shuru-tso is much foreshortened, and the Dangra-yum-tso is -hidden by Targo-gangri, which is sharply defined, though we are six -days' journey from it. Nay, even the contours of the mighty mountains on -the north-east shore of the lake, which we saw in winter from the north, -are distinguishable, and they lie fully ten days' journey from here. I -sit at the fire, drawing and making observations, as on all the passes. -I am again on the Trans-Himalaya, 53 miles from the Chang-la-Pod-la, and -now cross it for the third time. Northwards the water drains to the -Shuru-tso, southwards to the Raga-tsangpo. My feet stand on the oceanic -watershed, my eyes roam over this huge system, which I love as my own -possession. For the part where I now stand was unknown and waited -millions of years for my coming, lashed by innumerable storms, washed by -autumn rains, and wrapped in snow in winter. With every new pass on the -watershed of the gigantic rivers of India which I have the good fortune -to cross, my desire and hope become ever greater to follow its winding -line westwards to regions already known, and to fill up on the map the -great white blank north of the Tsangpo. I know very well that -generations of explorers will be necessary to examine this mighty -intricate mountain land, but my ambition will be satisfied if I succeed -in making the first reconnaissance. - -We leave the cairn and the fire, its smoke covering the summit of the -pass as with a torn veil, and follow the brook, of which the water will -some day reach the warm sea after a thousand experiences. I turn a page -and begin a new chapter in my life as an explorer; the desolate -Chang-tang remains behind me, and Targo-gangri sinks below the -horizon--shall I ever see its majestic peaks again? - -We descend rapidly with the wind in our faces. Large blocks of ice fill -the valley bottom between walls of black schists and porphyry. Several -large side valleys open into ours, and deserted hearths are signs of the -visits of nomads in summer. Our valley unites with the large Kyam-chu -valley, which is 6 miles broad and descends from the Sha-la, the pass of -the Trans-Himalaya over which our Tibetans had wished to guide us. The -land round the nomad tents of Kyam is flat and open. - -On May 7 we march on in a terrible wind with the blue mirror of the -Amchok-tso on the south. The ground is flat and hard. A hare runs like -the wind, as if his life were in danger, over this flat, where he cannot -find the slightest cover. Eight sprightly antelopes show us their -graceful profiles as they spring lightly along, rising from the horizon -against a background of sky. Robert has drawn his fur over his head, and -sits in the saddle like a lady, with both his legs dangling on the -sheltered side, while Tashi leads his mule. But as the wind still blows -through him, he lays himself on his stomach across the saddle. My horse -sways when the wind catches the broad breast of its rider. The wind -howls and moans in my ears, it whines and whistles as it used to do in -the Chang-tang, a whole host of indignant spirits of the air seem to -complain of all the misery they have seen in the world. - -The plain is called Amchok-tang, and we march over it, following the -main stream. Amchok-yung is a village of five tents, where are some fine -_manis_ bedecked with yak skulls, antelope horns, and slabs of -sandstone, one of them, of a regular rectangular form, measuring 40 -inches. The inhabitants of the village disappeared as if by magic; only -an old man gave us his company as we inspected two of the tents. But -when we had ridden on, the people crept out again from behind dung -heaps, hillocks, and grass tufts, where they had hidden themselves. - -The wind bores thick yellow sand out of the ground into a spout, which -is so dense that it looks black on the shady side. It winds up in -cyclonic spirals like the smoke of a tremendous explosion and, like a -strange ghost, dances across the plain, and does not fall to pieces till -it reaches the foot of the eastern mountains. - -[Illustration: 206. ON THE UPPER RAGA-TSANGPO.] - -[Illustration: 207. ANGDEN-LA.] - -[Illustration: 208. CHOMO-UCHONG FROM THE EAST.] - -In our camp of this day, situated on the north-west shore of the -Amchok-tso, we heard Chinese and Tibetan officials spoken of who were -shortly to ride through the country in all directions, counting the -tents, people, and herds. It was thought that this inspection was -connected with the new taxation which the Chinese intend to introduce. - -My boat lay ready on the strand, for May 8 was to be devoted to an -excursion on the Amchok-tso. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII - -TO THE OUTLET OF THE CHAKTAK-TSANGPO IN THE BRAHMAPUTRA - - -The lake was free from ice, and only on the northern shore some blocks -rocked on the surf. A south-west wind swept constantly over the country, -and there was no prospect of good weather. A dozen Tibetans followed me -at a respectful distance. I begged them to come nearer and see us start. -The boat was brought down to the water, Rehim Ali and Shukkur took their -places, and Lama carried me to the boat through the slowly deepening -water. A promontory to the south, 34 deg. E., was fixed as our goal, and the -oarsmen began their struggle with the waves. For the first hour the lake -was so shallow that the oars struck the bottom and stirred up inky-black -mud. Shukkur cries out in time with the oars, "Shubasa, ya aferin, -bismillah, ya barkadiallah"--to cite only a few words of his -inexhaustible repertoire. Rehim Ali's oar gives me a splash as it dips -in, but I am soon dry again in the wind. The swell stirs up the mud from -the bottom, and the water is so shallow that the waves show a tendency -to break even out in the middle of the lake. - -[Illustration: 209, 210. ANGDEN-LA, A PASS ON THE TRANS-HIMALAYA.] - -Now the sandspouts begin their threatening dance on the western shore, -and in that direction the water gleams white. The storm sweeps over the -Amchok-tso, and the two Mohammedans must put forth all their strength to -force the boat forward against wind and water. The swell grows heavier, -the depth is 7.9 feet, and the water assumes a greener hue. Shukkur Ali, -our old fisherman, puts out his line, but nothing but floating algae will -bite. In several places are seen wild ducks, gulls, and wild geese. -Nomads have just arrived and are putting up their tents in a gorge on -the eastern shore. At length we reach the promontory, having sounded a -maximum depth of only 12 feet. - -After observations have been taken, a panorama sketched, and dinner -eaten, we again set off in a northerly direction, and the boat dances -before the brisk wind lightly as a wild duck over the waves. We sail -past three more tents, sound 10.2 feet, and approach the northern shore, -where the water is only 20 inches deep, and is a muddy soup. We run -aground at a distance of 100 yards from the bank. Rabsang comes up -running, leading my horse by the bridle, and some other Ladakis follow -him. They help us to land, and light a much needed fire at the foot of -the sand terrace which here rises from the bank. - -The river Kyam-chu enters the Amchok-tso on the north side, and only 11/4 -miles to the west of its muddy delta the Dongmo-chu flows out of the -lake towards its confluence with the Raga-tsangpo in the east. Properly -speaking, the Dongmo is only the continuation of the Kyam-chu, with the -lake hanging like a bag on its right bank. - -After the boat has been folded up, Muhamed Isa has to show us the way on -horseback over the grass-grown sandhills. He guides me across the twenty -shallow and treacherously swampy delta arms of the Kyam-chu. It is dark, -but a beacon fire has been lighted in the camp, and the cakes of dung -are heated to whiteness in the strong wind, and shine like electric -light. - -Next day I was up before the sun, in order to take an observation. The -thermometer had sunk in the night to 0.3 deg., and the wind blew regularly -as a trade-wind. It is pleasant to see the day dawn in the east, and -life begin anew among the tents. The hired yaks have lain tethered -during the night, and now they are allowed to wander freely over the -pasture. Sleepy yawns are heard in the tents, and men come out and make -up the fires; the jug bubbles in which the morning tea is stirred up -with butter, and kettles are set on three stones over the fire. The -puppies play in the open, and are glad that they have not to roll about -to-day in a basket. - -The days and months fly by to a chorus of storms, and spring still -delays its coming. In the evening songs of the Ladakis I fancy I hear an -undertone of home-sickness, and they rejoice at every day's march which -brings us a little further westwards. When we woke next morning, it blew -as fresh as ever, and Robert had made himself a mask with Tibetan -spectacles sewed into the eye-holes; he looked very comical in this -contrivance, which was very appropriate in this land of religious -masquerades. - -The road, ascending the broad valley of the Pu-chu, led over open, -slightly undulating ground to Serme-lartsa. Here old Guffaru was -reported sick; he suffered from colic, and was well nursed. But late at -night Robert came breathless to my tent to tell me the old man was -dying. When I came to the tent the son, whose duty it was to keep the -shroud ready, sat weeping beside his father, while the other men warmed -their caps over the fire and applied them to the body of the patient. I -ordered him a cold compress, but he asked me, to the intense amusement -of others, just to go back to my tent again. Muhamed Isa laughed till he -rolled over. Guffaru sat upright on his bed, moaned and groaned, and -begged me to go away. I gave him a strong dose of opium, and next -morning he was so brisk that he walked all the way, though a horse was -at his disposal. The remains of Burroughs and Wellcome's medicine chest -had saved his life; he was thankful and pleased that his shroud was not -required this time. - -[Illustration: 211. MANIS ON THE WAY TO THE ANGDEN-LA.] - -On May 11 we mounted to the pass Lungring (17,697 feet) in a bitterly -cold snowstorm, and descended the valley of the same name to the bank of -the upper Raga-tsangpo. On the 12th we marched upstream; the valley is -broad, and is bounded on the north by great mountains. The thermometer -had sunk to -0.8 deg., and the storm was dead against us. Occasionally it -abated so much that we could hear the footfalls of the horses on the -detritus, but we were benumbed when we came to the camp. Thick snow -fell all the afternoon. My puppies sat together in the tent door and -growled at the falling flakes, but when they saw it was no use, they -snapped at the flakes as though they were flies and pawed at them. Then -they went back into the tent, lay on the frieze blanket in the corner, -and let it snow on. - -On the next day's march we passed Kamba-sumdo, where the two head -sources of the Raga-tsangpo unite; the one, coming from the west, is -named Chang-shung, the other, from the south-west, Lo-shung, _i.e._ -"Northern" and "Southern Valley." The Chang-shung is the larger. The -Lo-shung we had to cross twice, and found the bed full of stones -connected by slippery ice. In the west a large snow-covered ridge -appeared, the Chomo-uchong, or "High Nun," which was discovered by Nain -Sing. Ryder measured it and produced an exact map of it. Belts of snow -descend from the white summits down the dark flanks. Other Tibetans -called it Choor-jong (Illust. 212). - -Still marching south-westwards we approached at an acute angle the great -main road between Lhasa and Ladak, the so-called _tasam_. As though to -show its importance a caravan was just at the time travelling westwards -in three columns. It moved so slowly through the landscape that we had -to watch the mountain spur behind to convince ourselves that the small -black lines were moving at all. Soon afterwards we pitched our tents in -Raga-tasam (16,234 feet), a station on the great high-road, where we -came in contact with the route of the English expedition under Ryder and -Rawling for the first time since leaving Shigatse. Whatever the -immediate future had in store for me, it was above all things my desire -to avoid this route as much as possible. For the map which Ryder and -Wood had executed is the best that has been surveyed of any part of -Tibet; I could add nothing new to it with my modest equipment. But if I -passed to the north or south of their line of march, I could supplement -their map with my own explorations. In this I actually so far succeeded -that out of eighty-three days' marches to Tokchen on the Manasarowar -only two-and-a-half days' march ran along their route. - -As I now perceived that we should have to travel on the road which Nain -Sing in the year 1865, and Ryder and Rawling and their comrades in 1904, -had passed along, I wrote, after consultation with Robert and Muhamed -Isa, to Tang Darin and Lien Darin in Lhasa. I represented in an urgent -appeal to the former, the High Commissioner, that it could not clash -with any treaty if I, being already in Tibet, travelled to Ladak by one -road or another, provided that I actually did go thither, and that I -therefore begged permission to take the following route: I wished to -take my homeward way past the lake Tedenam-tso, of which Nain Sing had -heard, then to visit the Dangra-yum-tso, and thence to proceed to Tradum -and to the Ghalaring-tso, the holy mountain Kailas, the Manasarowar -lake, the sources of the Indus and the Brahmaputra, and lastly Gartok. -To the other, the Amban of Lhasa, I also wrote about the way I desired -to take, and promised to send him a report about it from Gartok. I told -both that I wished for a speedy answer, and would wait for it in -Raga-tasam. - -As soon as I had come to a decision, I called Tundup Sonam and Tashi, -and told them to get their sleep over by midnight. Then I wrote the -above-mentioned letters and letters to my parents and to Major O'Connor. -When my correspondence was ready, it was past midnight. The camp had -lain several hours in sleep when I made the night watchman waken the two -messengers and Muhamed Isa. Their orders were such as they had never -received before. They were to travel day and night along the 220 miles -to Shigatse and hand over my letters to Ma. They need not wait for an -answer, for I had asked the Mandarins to send me special couriers. -Provisions they need not take, for they would be able to get everything -on the great high-road, and I gave them money to hire the horses they -required. They would be able to reach their journey's end in ten days, -and in a month we ought to have an answer. If they did not find us in -Raga-tasam on their return, they were to follow in our track. - -Tundup Sonam and Tashi were in good spirits and full of hope when -Muhamed Isa and I accompanied them outside the camp, and watched them -disappear into the dark night. They made a detour to avoid the twelve -black tents standing here, lest the numerous dogs of the village should -bark. It was not far to the great high-road, and at the next _tasam_, as -the stations are called, they could hire horses at daybreak. Muhamed Isa -and I sat a while in my tent in lively conversation about our prospects. -Not till I had crept into bed after a tiring day did it occur to me that -it was perhaps cruel to let the two men ride alone day and night through -Tibet. But it was too late, they must now fulfil their mission. - -There was no hurry now. We stayed here seven days. Westwards the way was -open, but not the way I wished to take, and therefore we were prisoners -in our own tents. "Patience," whispered the ceaseless winds. The unknown -land lay to the north; I could not give it up till all my efforts had -proved fruitless. We had cold unpleasant weather, with frequently more -than 36 degrees of frost, and on the night of May 15 as much as 46.4 -degrees. The Tibetans said that this neighbourhood is always cold, even -when spring reigns all around. - -I lay on my bed and read _David Copperfield_, _Dombey and Son_, and _The -Newcomes_, for I had now a whole library to read through, the gift of -the obliging Major O'Connor. Robert gave me lessons in Hindustani, and I -drew types of the people. A puppy of the same age as our own warily came -up to my tent and got a breakfast. Mamma Puppy was by no means pleased -with this wayside guest, who looked comical, as shy and quiet as a -mouse; he sat by the hour together at the fire and looked at me, at -length falling asleep and turning on his side. When he appeared again at -dinner, he was thoroughly worried by Puppy, but nevertheless went calmly -to the family mat and laid himself down. Puppy was furious, but so -dumbfoundered at this unexpected impudence that she laid herself down on -the ground beside the mat. - -Tibetans came every day to my tent and implored us to make a start. When -this proved useless, they declared at length, that they could no longer -supply us with provisions, for no more were to be had in the -neighbourhood. I asked them, as an experiment, whether they would -forward two letters to the Mandarins in Lhasa, but they replied that -they had no authority to do this. They were much astonished when they -heard that I had sent off letters five days previously. For two days I -lay in bed, for I was quite at an end of my strength, and made Robert -read to me. - -On Whitsunday, May 19, we had another long palaver. The Tibetans read to -me the instructions they had received from Lhasa, which were dated "on -the tenth day of the second month in the year of the fiery sheep." I was -there called Hedin Sahib, and the orders contained the following -clauses: "Send him out of the country. Let him not turn aside from the -_tasam_, and guide him neither to the right nor to the left. Supply him -with horses, yaks, servants, fuel, grass, and everything he wants. The -prices he must pay are the usual prices fixed by the Government. Give -him at once anything he asks for and refuse him nothing. But if he will -not conform to the directions on his passport, but says he will take -other routes independently, give him no provisions, but keep firm hold -of him and send off messengers at once to the Devashung. Do not venture -to think for yourselves, but obey. Any one in the provinces who does not -obey will be beaten; so run the regulations you have to conform to. If -he gives no trouble, see that the nomads serve him well and do him no -harm on the way to Gartok. Then it will be the business of the Garpuns -(the two Viceroys) to take him under their protection." - -And yet I was not satisfied. I told them that I could not think of -conforming to my passport, which was contrary to my religion, and that I -must go northwards from the Chomo-uchong to Saka-dzong. They were quite -at liberty to send messengers to the Devashung. We would wait. Then they -held a council, and at length agreed to let us take the northern route, -but we must set out on May 21. - -[Illustration: 212. CHOMO-UCHONG FROM LAMLUNG-LA.] - -[Illustration: 213. PANORAMA FROM THE TA-LA. (The Brahmaputra Valley and -the Himalayas in the background.) - - Sketches by the Author.] - -I lay on my bed and dreamed of the tramp of horses coming both from the -east and the west, of the roads open to me to the mysterious mountain -system in the north, round which my plans and my dreams circled -continually like young eagles. - -So we set out on May 21, north-westwards, and saw the summits of the -Chomo-uchong disappear behind its outskirts. From the camp we could see -several valleys in the north-west drained by the source streams of the -Raga-tsangpo. Just beyond Raga-tasam we again left the route of the -English expedition, and on the 22nd climbed up to the pass Ravak-la, -which lies on a low ridge between two of the source streams of the -Raga-tsangpo. On the 23rd we crossed four passes. The Kichung-la is the -watershed between the Raga-loshung and the Chungsang, a river which -takes an independent course to the Tsangpo. The ascent to the fourth -pass, the Kanglung-la, was very tiresome, the ground consisting of wet -alluvium, wherein the horses sank so deep that we preferred to go on -foot and splash through the mud. We were now on the heights whence the -water flows down to three of the northern tributaries of the -Brahmaputra; the third flows to the Chaktak-tsangpo, which runs to the -west of Saka-dzong. Here and there the snow, owing to wind, melting and -freezing again, has assumed the form of upright blades, two feet high -and sharp as a knife. Far to the south appear parts of the Himalayas, -and we are here in a grand landscape of wild and fantastic relief. Now -and then the view is obscured by dense showers of hail. - -On the morning of the 24th all the country was hidden by thickly falling -snow, and the weather at the end of May was more winterly than on the -Chang-tang in December. We ride between steep cliffs down a deeply -eroded valley, and side valleys run in with narrow deep openings. In one -of them is a frozen waterfall. We often cross the clear water of the -river which rushes along on its way to Saka-dzong and the -Chaktak-tsangpo. Violent gusts of snow sweep through the valley from -time to time, and then we can hardly see our hands, and the ground and -the mountains become white. In the beautiful junction of valleys called -Pangsetak our tents and those of the Tibetans were heavily weighted with -snow. - -On the 25th we go down further. Nomad tents are as rare as on the -preceding days, for people come here only in summer. The path runs -frequently up along the left terrace, high above the valley bottom, -where the river has formed two large basins of dark-green water. We -amused ourselves with rolling stones down the steep slope; they knocked -against other boulders, dashed with a thundering noise into the valley, -tearing up sand and dust, bounced up from the ground, and finally -plunged into the basin, raising a cloud of spray. It was childish but -very diverting. The valley passes into a plain, in the southern part of -which runs the great high-road between Raga-tasam and Saka-dzong. The -river we had followed down is the Kanglung-bupchu, but in Saka it is -called Sa-chu-tsangpo. We pitched our camp in the mouth of the valley -Basang on the north side of the plain. - -From here to Saka-dzong is a short day's journey. But, instead of -travelling along this road, which Ryder has already laid down on his -map, I wished to see the place where the Chaktak-tsangpo unites with the -upper Brahmaputra. That would involve a long detour of four days' -journey, and to this our friends from Raga would not consent without the -permission of the Governor of Saka. We therefore stayed a day in the -Basang valley, while a messenger was sent to him. When the answer came -it was, to our surprise, in the affirmative, but under the condition -that the main part of the caravan should proceed straight to Saka-dzong. -I even received a local passport for the excursion. - -Among other natives who at this time sat for me as models was a youth of -twenty years, named Ugyu, who had lived some years before with his -mother and sisters in a valley to the north, where their tent was -attacked and pillaged by robbers. They had defended themselves bravely -with sabres and knives, but the robber band had had firearms, and Ugyu -had been struck by a bullet, which had passed through his shoulder-blade -and lung, and had come out at his breast. Large scars showed the course -of the bullet. When one remembers that the leaden bullets of the -Tibetans are as large as hazel-nuts, one is astonished that the boy did -not die of internal haemorrhage. He appeared, on the contrary, -extraordinarily healthy and blooming, and had an amiable, sympathetic -disposition. - -I sat on a barley sack before Muhamed Isa's tent and sketched. -Meanwhile, the baggage and provisions were made ready for the excursion. -My excellent caravan leader stood, tall and straight as a pole, watching -the others filling the sacks we were to take with us. He had the boat -also and everything we wanted for river measurements packed up. In the -evening he arranged a farewell ball for Tsering, Shukkur Ali, Rabsang, -Islam Ahun, and Ishe, who were to accompany Robert and me to the -Tsangpo. He had bought in Shigatse a large fine guitar, on which he -played himself in his tent. This evening the dancing and singing went -off more gaily and merrily than ever. We expected good news from Lhasa, -and were glad that the people in Saka had granted the permission I had -asked for. - -On the morning of May 27 the weather was really fine after a minimum of -only 23 deg.; had the spring come at last? The main caravan had already gone -off westwards to Saka, and my party was ready when Muhamed Isa came to -say farewell. He was ordered to remain in Saka till I returned, and to -try by all means to gain the confidence of the officials by friendliness -and prudent conduct. My small caravan was on the road to the south, and -we stood alone on the deserted camping-ground. After he had received his -instructions we mounted into our saddles at the same time and I rode -after my men. I turned once more in the saddle and saw Muhamed Isa's -stately form upright on his grey horse, his pipe in his mouth, his green -velvet cap on his head, and the black sheepskin loose on his shoulder, -trotting quickly in the track of the caravan. It was the last time I saw -him thus. - -Soon we cross the great high-road, the _tasam_, and ride slowly up to -the pass Gyebuk-la (15,846 feet), marked by four _manis_, which are -covered with green flags of schist with incised Buddha images. The -well-worn path, and three caravans of yaks which are just coming over -the pass on the way to Saka-dzong, show us that this is an important -trade-route. Two of the caravans came from the great town Tsongka-dzong, -which lies five days' journey southwards, not far from the frontier of -Nepal. From Saka the caravans go over the Gyebuk-la, cross the -Brahmaputra, ascend the Samderling valley, and by the Sukpu-la and -Negu-la passes reach Tsongka-dzong, which supplies the nomads living in -the north with barley. From Gyebuk-la there is a grand view over the -sharp peaks and the glacier tongues of the Chomo-uchong. On the southern -slopes of the pass there are _pama_ bushes almost everywhere, and it is -pleasant to see their fresh green needles again. - -The road runs down the Kyerkye valley. On a smooth wall of rock "Om mani -padme hum" is hewn in characters a yard high. At camp No. 167 the -Tibetans of the neighbourhood came kindly to meet me and bid me welcome, -and two of them led my horse by the bridle to my tent, as is the custom -in this country. - -Next day we march down the valley with fresh guides, and see several -ruins telling of happier times now gone by. Terraced structures for -irrigating the fields indicate that barley is grown in the district. In -front of us is now the broad valley of the Brahmaputra, and we come to -an arm of the river where a ferry is established to transport caravans -and goods on the way between Tsongka-dzong and Saka-dzong from one side -of the river to the other. - -Camp No. 168 was pitched at the extremity of the tongue of gravel -between the two rivers. The Chaktak-tsangpo had here a breadth of 92.2 -feet, a maximum depth of 2.4 feet, an average velocity of 4.56 feet, and -a discharge of 664 cubic feet per second. Its water was almost quite -clear, and in consequence of its greater velocity forced its way far -into the muddy water of the Brahmaputra. The latter had at mid-day a -temperature of 48.9 deg., while the water of the tributary was a little -warmer, namely, 49.8 deg.. Our companions told us that all who come to the -great river drink of the water, because it comes from the holy mountain -Kailas, or Kang-rinpoche, in the far west. - -Shukkur Ali sat with his ground line at a deep bay with slow eddies and -pulled out of the water ten fine fish, a species of sheat with four soft -barbs. He had raw meat as bait on his five hooks; at one end of the line -a stone was tied, so that it could be thrown far out into deep water, -and the other end was made fast to a peg driven in to the bank, and a -stone was laid on the line so lightly in the fork of the peg that it -fell when a fish bit. The fisherman can then occupy himself meanwhile -with some manual work, such as mending shoes. He puts his fish in a -small enclosed basin. The fish had white flesh, and were delicate. - -On May 29 we measured the main river at a place where a low island -divides it into two channels 175.5 and 180.4 feet broad respectively, -with a maximum depth of 3.8 feet. Here the Brahmaputra carries 2532 -cubic feet of water, and 3196 after receiving the Chaktak-tsangpo. At -the confluence of the Dok-chu we had found only 2966 cubic feet, but the -measurement was made a month and a half earlier. The ratio of the -Brahmaputra to the Dok-chu was 5:2, and of the Brahmaputra to the -Chaktak-tsangpo 7:2. The Dok-chu is therefore considerably larger than -the Chaktak-tsangpo. - -On May 30 we followed the broad valley of the Chaktak-tsangpo towards -the north-west and west-north-west till we came to a district named -Takbur, whence we intended to ride next day over the Takbur-la to -Saka-dzong. But it did not come off; for before I was awakened, came a -chief with five attendants and made a horrible disturbance with my men -and our Tibetans from Kyerkye. The latter he beat with the flat of his -sword, and he took away from the former the milk and butter they had -bought the evening before, saying that no one had permission to sell us -provisions. He told Robert that he had orders not to let us pass through -to Saka-dzong, and that he would make us stay here three months. We -might not hire yaks also--which was very inconvenient, as we had only a -horse and a mule after all the hired animals had gone. We might not buy -provisions; but this was not of much consequence, for Robert had shot -four wild-geese and found a large quantity of eggs, and the river was -full of fish. - -I accordingly sent Islam Ahun and Ishe to Saka with a message that -Muhamed Isa should send us five horses immediately. Then I summoned the -supercilious chief to my tent, where he confirmed the accounts of my -men. He declared that I had no right to deviate a single step from the -great high-road, and that the district in which we were was under him, -not under Saka-dzong, and therefore the local passport was worthless. He -intended to carry out the orders he had received, as he valued his head. -When I told him that I should report his uncivil behaviour to the -Mandarins in Lhasa, he jumped up and drew his sword threateningly, but -when he saw that my composure could not be shaken he quieted down. In -the evening he came to tell us that we might cross the Takbur-la, and -brought us both yaks and provisions. Who he was we could never discover, -for in Saka no one would acknowledge that he knew him. Perhaps it was -only a childish attempt to cure me of further deviations from the main -road. However, it was a pity that we had lost a day here. When the -morning of June 1 dawned, Islam Ahun and Ishe came with our horses, -which we did not now need, and brought me greetings from Muhamed Isa, -who sent word that all was well with the caravan; they were on friendly -terms with the authorities, and were permitted to buy all they required. - -We set off again northwards and marched through the Takbur valley, where -there was abundance of game--hares, pheasants, and partridges--some of -which Tsering shot, and foxes, marmots, and field-mice. In the distance -we saw a grey prowling animal which we took for a lynx. There were also -kiangs, which seemed very unconcerned. North-west, north, and north-east -huge snowy mountains were seen from the Takbur-la (16,621 feet), of -which Ryder and Wood had taken bearings. Like those Englishmen, I -considered it certain that these peaks lay on the watershed of the -Tsangpo, and belonged to the crest of the Trans-Himalaya. I had -afterwards an opportunity of proving that this was a mistake. From the -pass a river runs down to join the Sachu-tsangpo. Here we saw a number -of yaks in the luxuriant grass, and a nearly tame kulan kept them -company. - -[Illustration: 214. BEGGAR AT TASHI-GEMBE.] - -[Illustration: 215. YOUNG TIBETAN AT THE MOUTH OF THE CHAKTAK-TSANGPO.] - -[Illustration: 216. WANDERING LAMA WITH A WOODEN GLOVE IN HIS HAND, SUCH -AS IS USED TO PROTECT THE HANDS IN THE PROSTRATION PILGRIMAGE ROUND THE -HOLY MOUNTAIN KAILAS. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Where the river emerges into the Saka plain, we passed on its left side -over a last small spur of the mountain on which the pass is situated, -and here I rested for an hour with Robert, to draw a panorama of the -interesting country. Tsering marched on with his men, and disappeared as -a speck on the great plain. To the east-north-east the white houses of -Saka-dzong could be seen in the distance, and with the glass we could -make out the camp, two black tents and a white, the latter Muhamed -Isa's. - -Then we too passed across the plain. On the left stood four tents, where -the sheep were being driven into the fold for the night. At one place -the road divides; travellers who have nothing to do in Saka-dzong take -the southern road. We cross the Sa-chu river and the overflow of a -spring; there is a strong wind from the west, and we long for the tents -and the warmth of the camp-fires. At last we are there. Guffaru comes to -greet us, and all the others call out to us "Salaam!" and "Ju!" I look -in vain for Muhamed Isa's stalwart figure, and inquire for him. "He is -lying in bed and has been ill all day," they answer. I suppose that he -has his usual headache again, go to the brazier in my tent, and let -Robert, as usual, unpack the things I require for my evening work. We -were tired and chilled through and longed for our supper. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIX - -MUHAMED ISA'S DEATH - - -We had not been sitting long when Rabsang came to say that Muhamed Isa -had lost consciousness, and did not answer when he was spoken to. I now -perceived that he had had an apoplectic fit, and hurried off with Robert -to his tent, which stood close beside mine. An oil-lamp was burning -beside the head of his bed, where his brother Tsering sat weeping. The -sick man lay on his back, tall, strong, and straight. The mouth was a -little drawn on the left side, and the pupil of the left eye seemed very -small, while that of the right eye was normal. The pulse was regular and -strong, beating 72. I at once ordered hot bottles to be laid at his -feet, and a bag of ice on his head. His clothes were loosened; he -breathed deeply and regularly. The eyes were half open, but were -lustreless. I called his name loudly, but he gave little sign; he tried -to turn his head and move his right arm, uttered a low groan, and then -remained still again. Robert was shocked when I told him that Muhamed -Isa would not see the sun rise again. - -While we were sitting beside his bed I inquired the circumstances from -Rehim Ali and Guffaru, who had been with him all day long. During the -four days they had waited for us here, he had been quite well, and had -never complained of headache. He had tried, in accordance with the last -instructions I had given him at the camp in the Basang valley, to win -the friendship and confidence of the authorities. The day before he had -been still in excellent spirits, had drunk tea with his most intimate -friends in the caravan, and had sung to the accompaniment of the -guitar. - -On this day, June 1, he had got up with the sun, drunk tea, and had had -a stormy interview with two Tibetans from the dzong. They had refused to -supply the caravan with provisions, and then insisted that the caravan -should leave the place at once. He had answered that the Sahib would -soon be back, and that it would go badly with them if they did not obey -him. They had gone away in anger, and then Muhamed Isa had breakfasted -about ten o'clock, and had slept an hour. When he rose, he had -complained of headache. - -When the sun had reached its noonday height he had gone to look out for -us, and had then had a violent attack of sickness, fallen on his left -side and lain senseless. The other men hurried up, carried him to his -tent, and massaged his body. He was restored thereby to consciousness, -and spoke much but indistinctly, and chiefly with the god of Islam: - -"I was a Lamaist but went over to Islam; help me now, O Allah, out of -this severe illness; let me recover; forgive me my sins and all the -wrong I have done to others; let me live, O Allah, and I will always -keep thy commandments and will never omit my prayers." - -Then he had admonished the others to do their duty as heretofore, and -thanked them that they had so patiently assisted him in his misfortune. -Now and then he had asked for cold water. He had felt his left arm with -his right hand, and asked whose arm it was, and had also said that he -did not feel the shoe on his left foot. The whole left side was quite -paralysed. Sitting upright, and supported by cushions, he had made the -following request to Guffaru: "Thou, who art old, and keepest the -commandments of religion, wilt not pollute thy hands if thou takest a -knife and cuttest my neck; cut deep down to the spine, for that will -relieve my infernal headache." In his fearful suffering he struck his -right hand against a box. About an hour later another stroke deprived -him of speech, and after that he had only made a sign with his right -hand, as though in despair at the approach of death. Towards four -o'clock Tsering had come and thrown himself over him, weeping loudly. -Muhamed Isa had also wept, and pointed to his lips to intimate that he -could not speak. When we entered his tent about five o'clock his -consciousness was almost gone. He remained in the same condition for an -hour and a half, breathing quietly, with his mouth closed. I went -therefore to my dinner, which Adul had prepared for me. - -Robert and I studied Burroughs and Wellcome's medical handbook, to see -that nothing had been omitted. About eight o'clock we returned to the -sick-bed. Muhamed Isa was now breathing with his mouth open--a bad sign, -showing that the muscles of the jaws were relaxed; the pulse beat 108, -and was very weak. The despair of old Tsering when I told him all hope -was gone, was heart-rending. Half an hour later the breathing became -slower and weaker, and about nine o'clock the death-rattle commenced, -and the struggle of the muscles of the chest to supply the lungs with -sufficient air. About every fortieth respiration was deep, and then -there was a pause before the next came. They were followed by moans. His -feet grew cold in spite of the hot bottles, which were frequently -changed. At a quarter-past nine the breathing became still slower and -the intervals longer. A death spasm shook his body and slightly raised -his shoulders; it was followed by another. - -The Mohammedans whispered to Tsering that he should leave his place at -the head, for a Mohammedan must hold the lower jaw and close the mouth -after the last breath. But the sorrowing brother could only be brought -to leave his place by force. A third and last spasm shook the dying man, -produced by the cold of death. After a deep respiration he lay still for -20 seconds. We thought that life had flown, but he breathed again, and -after another minute came the last feeble breath, and then old Guffaru -bound a cloth under the chin and covered the face with a white kerchief. -Then all was still, and, deeply moved, I bared my head before the awful -majesty of Death. - -[Illustration: 217. THE CORPSE OF MUHAMED ISA.] - -Horrified and dismayed, the Mohammedans poured into the tent, and the -Lamaists after them, and I heard them from time to time call out in -low tones, "La illaha il Allah!" Tsering was beside himself: he knelt by -the dead, beat his forehead with his hands, wept aloud, nay, howled and -bellowed, while large tears rolled down his furrowed sunburnt face. I -patted him on the shoulder, and begged him to try and compose himself, -go into his tent, drink tea, and lie down and rest. But he neither heard -nor saw, and the others had to carry him to his tent, and I heard him -wailing in the night as long as I lay awake. Yes, Death is an awful -guest. We could hardly realize that he had so suddenly entered our -peaceful camp. - -I had a long conversation with Robert in my tent, and old Guffaru was -sent for to receive my orders for the funeral. The Mohammedans were to -watch in turn beside the body through the night. Early next morning the -permission of the authorities would be obtained for the choice of a -burying-place, and then the interment would take place. - -At midnight I paid a last visit to my excellent, faithful caravan -leader, who had fallen at his post in the prime of life. He lay long and -straight, swathed in a shroud and a frieze rug, in the middle of his -tent. At his head burned his oil-lamp, slightly flickering in the -draught. The dead watch of five men sat mute and motionless, but rose -when I entered. We uncovered his face; it was calm and dignified, and a -slight smile played round the lips; the colour was pale, but slightly -bronzed from the effect of wind and sun (Illust. 217). Arched over him -was the half-dark bell of the tent--the tent which had fluttered in all -the winds of heaven on the way through the Chang-tang, and from which -Muhamed Isa's merry jests had so often been heard in quiet cold Tibetan -nights amidst the sound of flutes and guitars. Now depressing silence -reigned around; only the stars sparkled with electric brilliancy. - -How empty and dreary everything seemed when I woke on Sunday, June 2, -the day of Muhamed Isa's funeral! I went out and looked at the grave; it -lay about 300 yards to the south-west of the camp. The Mohammedans had -been early in the village to borrow a door, and had washed the body on -it. Then they had wrapped it in Guffaru's shroud, which was of thin -linen, but quite white and clean. Muhamed Isa and I had often laughed -together over the old man's singular fancy of taking this death garment -on the journey. Over the shroud (_kafan_) they had wrapped a grey frieze -rug. The body lay now in the bright sunshine before the tent, on a bier -consisting of the bottom of the two halves of the boat fastened -together, and provided with four cross-poles for the bearers. - -When all was ready the eight Mohammedans raised the bier on to their -shoulders, and carried their chieftain and leader, royally tall, -straight and cold, to his last resting-place. I walked immediately -behind the bier, and then came Robert and some Lamaists; the rest were -occupied at the grave, and only two remained in the camp, which could -not be left unguarded. From Tsering's tent a despairing wailing could -still be heard. He had been persuaded not to come to the grave. He was -heart and soul a Lamaist, and now he was troubled at the thought that he -would never see his brother again, who had looked forward to the -paradise of the Mohammedans. Some Tibetans stood at a distance. Slowly, -solemnly, and mournfully the procession set itself in motion (Illust. -218). No ringing of bells, no strewn fir-branches, no chants spoke of an -awakening beyond the valley of the shadow of death. But above us the -turquoise-blue sky stretched its vault, and around us the lofty, -desolate mountains held watch. In deep mournful voice the bearers sang, -"La illaha il Allah," in time with their heavy steps. They staggered -under their burden, and had to change it frequently to the other -shoulder, for Muhamed Isa was big, corpulent, and heavy. - -[Illustration: 218. MUHAMED ISA'S FUNERAL PROCESSION.] - -At length we ascended a gravel terrace between two source streams. The -bier was placed at the edge of the grave, which was not quite ready -(Illusts. 219, 220, 221). It was deep, lay north and south, and had a -cutting or niche on the left side, under which the body was to be laid, -so that the earth might not press on it when the grave was filled in. -Four men stood in the grave and received the body, and placed it, -wrapped only in the white shroud, under the arch, arranging it so that -the face was turned towards Mecca, where the hopes of all true believing -pilgrims are centred. - -Scarcely was all set in order when a painful incident occurred, an evil -omen: the overhanging vault of loose, dry gravel fell in, burying the -corpse completely, and partly covering the four men. There was silence, -and the men looked at one another irresolute. Shukkur Ali broke the -oppressive silence, jumped into the grave, out of which the others -clambered, dug out the body again, and removed the gravel from the -shroud as well as he could. A wall was then erected of sods cut from the -bank of the brook so as to protect the body, the outer space was filled -in with sand and stones, and finally a mound a yard high was thrown up -over the grave, two stone slabs being placed at the head and foot. - -When all was done the Lamaists went home, but the Mohammedans remained -at the grave to pray for the deceased, sometimes kneeling, sometimes -standing up with their palms before their face. Shukkur Ali, who had -been Muhamed Isa's old friend and comrade on many of his journeys in -Asia, broke out into violent weeping and wailing, but the others mourned -more quietly. Finally, I said a few words in Turki. During all my -journeys I had never had a more efficient, experienced, and faithful -caravan leader; he had maintained discipline in the caravan, been a -father to the men, and taken the best care of the animals; he had been -an excellent interpreter, and had treated the natives with prudence and -tact. By his happy, humorous disposition he had kept all the others in -good temper. In difficult situations he had always found the right way -out. In unknown country he had climbed passes and summits to look for -the best route--he had always gone himself and not sent others. His -memory would always be cherished and honoured among us, and he had also -earned a great name in the exploration of Asia, for during thirty years -he had served many other Sahibs as faithfully and honestly as myself. - -We went silently home after our day's work. - -In the lectionary of this Sunday occurred the Bible text, "Thou fool, -this night thy soul shall be required of thee." - -Muhamed Isa had travelled far, and was highly respected in Asia. He had -been in Saka-dzong before, in the year 1904, as Rawling and Ryder's -caravan leader. He little thought then that he would return once more, -and here set up his tent for the last time after his long wanderings. In -the _Geographical Journal_ of April 1909, p. 422, Rawling refers to him -as follows:-- - - Having mentioned Saka Dzong, let me break off one moment to pay a - token of respect to the memory of that faithful servant of Sven Hedin - who died here. Mohamed Isa was one of the finest characters it has - been my fortune to be thrown with. Trustworthy and indomitable in his - work, his knowledge of Asia was unequalled by any native, for he had - accompanied Younghusband in his famous journey from China, he was with - Carey, with Dalgleish who was afterwards murdered, and with Dutreuil - de Rhins, when he was a helpless witness of his master's violent death - at the hands of the Tibetans. He acted as my caravan bashi in the - Gartok expedition, accompanied Sven Hedin during his recent journey, - and died, after thirty years of faithful service, at this desolate - spot. - -From letters I subsequently received from Younghusband, O'Connor, and -Ryder, I learned that they also deeply mourned his loss. - -The grave terrace rose close to the great high-road between Ladak and -Lhasa on its northern side. The mound was next day covered with cut sods -arranged in steps, and a small flagstone was set in the ground at the -head of the grave, whereon passing Mohammedans could spread out a carpet -and pray for the repose of the deceased. On a slab of slate, smoothed -down with a chisel, I scratched the following inscription in English and -in Roman letters: - - MUHAMED ISA - CARAVAN LEADER UNDER - CAREY, DALGLEISH, DE RHINS, YOUNGHUSBAND - RAWLING, RYDER AND OTHERS - DIED - IN THE SERVICE OF SVEN HEDIN - AT SAKA-DZONG, ON JUNE 1, 1907 - AT THE AGE OF 53 YEARS. - -[Illustration: 219, 220, 221. THE INTERMENT OF MUHAMED ISA.] - -The writing was then cut in the stone by Islam Ahun. The name was also -engraved in Arabic, and at the top the formula, "Om mani padme hum," in -Tibetan characters, that the people of the country might respect the -grave. Future travellers will find the stone in its place--if the -Tibetans have not taken it away. - -In the afternoon of June 3 I sent for Tsering to my tent. He was now -calm and resigned. He was to be my cook and body-servant as before, but -his pay would be raised to 20 rupees a month, and this rise was to date -back to our departure from Leh. He was allowed to keep the watch I had -given to his brother. Guffaru, the oldest of the men, was Muhamed Isa's -successor as caravan bashi, received the same increase of pay as -Tsering, and was allowed to use Muhamed Isa's grey horse and saddle. In -future he would live with two other men in the tent of the deceased. - -As I foresaw that the discipline would not be what it was in Muhamed -Isa's time, I spoke seriously to the men, telling them that they must -obey Guffaru as blindly as they had his predecessor, that they ought to -hold together as before and continue to serve me faithfully. If any one -began to quarrel and was disobedient, he would at once be handed the pay -due to him and be sent off to go where he liked. Now that we travelled -with hired yaks I could very well spare half the men, and therefore it -was their interest to conduct themselves so that they might be retained. -Rabsang and Namgyal answered in the name of all, that they would hold -together, serve me faithfully, and follow me anywhere. - -Then Robert was commissioned to look through the property of the -deceased in the presence of Tsering, Guffaru, Shukkur Ali, Rehim Ali, -and the Hajji, and after he had made an inventory, to pack it in -separate boxes, which were ultimately to be delivered to his wife in Leh -together with his outstanding pay. Among his things were some articles -of value which he had bought in Shigatse--carpets, tea-cups with metal -saucers and covers, ornaments, and woven materials. He had left behind -only 10 rupees in ready money, a proof that he had been thoroughly -honest in his management of the business of the caravan. - -After all relating to the interment had been carried out, the -Mohammedans came to ask for a few rupees to enable them to hold a -memorial feast in the evening in honour of the deceased. They would make -a pudding, called _halva_, of flour, butter, and sugar, drink tea, and -kill a sheep. The heathen also, as the Mohammedans called their Lamaist -comrades, were to be present. They sang, ate, and drank, and probably -hardly thought of the departed. - -Two gentlemen from the dzong had been with me on June 2. The Governor -himself was absent, travelling in his province to number the tents under -his administration and to draw up a list of all the inhabited -valleys--all by order of the Chinese. Pemba Tsering, the second in -command, was very agreeable and polite, but regretted that he could not -supply us with provisions any longer, as he must be prepared to furnish -necessaries to the men who were constantly passing to and fro between -Gartok and Lhasa. To confirm his words he called up the five Govas or -district inspectors of the country, who declared that the poor country -could not supply all the _tsamba_ and barley we required. I intimated to -them that we should still remain a few days awaiting the answer from -Lhasa; then they rose, protesting that I might stay here as long as I -liked, but that they would not provide me with provisions. - -On the same day a large white-and-blue tent was set up by our camp, but -it was not till June 4 that the occupants, the Govas of Tradum and -Nyuku, paid me a visit. They had heard of our long stay, and wished to -find out the state of affairs for themselves. The Nyuku Gova began the -conversation: - -"Saka and Tradum are put down on your passport, but not Nyuku. Should -you, nevertheless, go thither, I will allow you to stay one night, but -not longer, for it is stated in the passport that you must travel -straight to Tradum." - -"My dear friend," I replied, "when once I am in your place we shall -become such good friends that you will ask me to stay a whole month to -consolidate our friendship. Should you afterwards visit me in India, -your visit will be the more agreeable the longer it lasts." - -He nodded with a roguish smile, and no doubt considered me a wag, but -added that he must obey the orders he had received from the Devashung. - -"When I am in correspondence with the Mandarins in Lhasa, and am waiting -for their answer, the Devashung has no right to interfere." - -"Very well, then it will be best for you to remain here and not come to -Tradum or Nyuku; provisions are still scarcer there." - -Afterwards Pemba Tsering came again, bringing two sacks of barley and a -sheep. He had become much more compliant since he had talked with the -other officials, and promised he would try to procure what we needed. We -had still two poor horses and a mule from Shigatse, and he was to have -one of the animals as a reward. After some consideration he chose the -mule. The two horses we sold for a mere trifle to a stranger. - -Now we longed to get away from this miserable Saka-dzong and its sad -associations. Out in God's open, glorious Nature the winds blow away -sorrow. We daily calculated, Robert and I, how long it would be before -Tundup Sonam and Tashi returned. If the answer were sent by the -so-called Chinese flying post, it might arrive any moment. But the days -passed and there was no news. One day some horsemen rode past our camp -on the way to the west, and reported that they had seen my two -messengers in Kung Gushuk's garden in Shigatse, but they knew nothing of -their further intentions. "Patience," whispered the west wind again. In -the maze of difficulties in which we became ever more involved, my hopes -rested on the answer of the Chinamen. I had told the officials here that -I would set off at once if they would allow us to take a more northern -route to Nyuku, but, as they would not hear of it, we remained where we -were. - -When I looked out of my tent my eyes were attracted to the dark grave on -its hill. It seemed as if the grave held us fast, though we longed to -get away from it. All was dreary and dismal; we missed Muhamed Isa, and -his absence caused a great blank. But life goes on as usual. When the -sun rises, the women of the village stroll about collecting dung into -baskets, while the men drive the yaks and horse to pasture. They sing -and whistle, children scream and dogs bark. Blue smoke rises from the -chimneys of the village or from the black tents standing within walls -among the houses. From the roof of the Saka-gompa with a statue of Padma -Sambhava the single lama of the monastery blows his conch. Ravens and -bluish-grey pigeons pick up all kinds of morsels among the tents, and -the wolves which have come down in the night retire again to the -mountains. Riders and caravans pass eastwards to a better land, where -poplars, willows, and fruit trees are clothed in their finest summer -dress. But we are prisoners in this desolate country, with Muhamed Isa's -grave as a focus. - -I soon perceived what a depressing effect the loss of the big powerful -caravan leader had on my men: they became home-sick. They talked of the -warmth of their own firesides, and they took to crocheting and knotting -shoes for their children and acquaintances. They gathered round the -evening fire and talked of the pleasant life in the villages of Ladak. -Robert remarked how dreary and disagreeable Tibet was, and how warm and -delightful it was in India; he was pining for his mother and his young -wife. I should like to know whether any one was more eager to be off -than myself, who had so much before me which must be accomplished. Yes, -I saw only too plainly that I could not achieve all I was striving for -with my present caravan; it was worn out and used up, which was really -not to be wondered at after all it had gone through. My fate was driving -me back to Ladak. But I must endeavour to make the most of my chances on -the way. And then? All was dark to me. But I knew that I would never -give in, and would not leave Tibet till I had done all that lay in my -power to conquer the unknown land on the north of the upper Brahmaputra. - -On the morning of the 5th came our old friend the Gova of Raga-tasam. -He had heard that we were in difficulties, and offered to speak a good -word on our behalf to Pemba Tsering. Afterwards the two came to my tent -and informed me that I might take the northern route to Nyuku. The Gova -received one of our best horses for his trouble. Now we had six left of -our own horses, among them three veterans from Leh, two other horses and -a mule. Next evening Guffaru came for the first time to receive -instructions, and on June 7 we set out early. - -I stopped a moment at the grave. It was striking and imposing in all its -simplicity. In its dark chamber the weary one slumbers till the end of -time. He listens to the howling of the western storms and the wolves, he -freezes in the cold of winter, but he does not see the summer sun, and -with longing for the well-remembered past he hears the horses stamping -on the hard pebbles. I thought of the Lama Rinpoche in his dark den at -Linga. - -Farewell, and grateful thanks! - - - - -CHAPTER XL - -ALONG BYWAYS TO TRADUM - - -The day was brilliant; it was not spring, it was summer. Flies, wasps, -and gadflies buzzed in the air, and worms of all kinds crept out of the -ground to enjoy the warm season, all too short here. It was hot, 70.2 deg. -at one o'clock. The sun seemed to be as scorching as in India. The -Sa-chu valley widens out westwards; wild-geese, herons, and ducks sit on -the banks of the river, and choughs croak on the mountain which we skirt -on the right side of the valley. The fresh grass has sprouted out of the -earth in its green summer garb, but it will not really thrive till after -the warm rains. We meet a caravan of 200 yaks in five sections, each -with two whistling drivers. - -"Whence have you come?" I ask. - -"From Tabie-tsaka, where we have been to fetch salt." - -"Where does the lake lie?" - -"To the north, in Bongba, thirty days' journey from here." - -"Does the road cross over high passes?" - -"Yes, there is a high pass twelve days to the north." - -And then they passed on with their light-stepping yaks towards -Saka-dzong. It was the first time I had heard this important lake -mentioned, and I envied the men of the salt caravan who had traversed -this way through the Trans-Himalaya quite unknown to Europeans. - -[Illustration: 222. WOMAN AT THE MOUTH OF THE CHAKTAK-TSANGPO IN THE -TSANGPO.] - -[Illustration: 223. TIBETAN OF SAKA.] - -[Illustration: 224. LAMA IN SAKA-DZONG. - -Sketches by the Author.] - -We left the _tasam_ on our left; we turned aside north-westwards -straight to the Targyaling-gompa standing with its red _lhakang_, its -small white buildings, and its large _chhorten_ on a terrace immediately -above the spot where Guffaru has pitched the camp. Twenty lamas came -down to find out whether we were thieves and robbers who intended to -attack the convent. "Certainly not," Guffaru answered, "we are peaceful -travellers passing the night here." "We will not allow it," they -replied; "you must remain on the high-road." I now sent Rabsang up, and -he was surrounded at the gate by thirty monks. He was told the same; a -European had never been here, and none should ever enter the monastery. -If the gentlemen of the _dzong_ attempted to get us in, they should pay -the penalty with their lives. Charming ecclesiastics! Even Rabsang, who -was a Lamaist and wore several _gaos_ on his neck, was not allowed in. -He was in the service of a European. So inimically disposed were these -monks that they stopped up the channel we drew our water from. The -Devashung, they said, had nothing to do with them. We had heard in -Saka-dzong that these monks were bellicose and independent; there they -had said that the free-booter who had stopped us on May 31 must have -been a disguised monk. But we could do without them and their monastery, -which seemed small and unimportant. - -Here our four puppies fell ill of a peculiar complaint: they ran about -restlessly, snuffed and sneezed, had matter in their eyes, and no -appetite. At night I heard one of my tent companions whine and howl, and -next morning he lay dead on his rug. - -Leaving Rawling's and Ryder's route to the left, we proceeded to the -bank of the Chaktak-tsangpo and then northwards along the river. It has -a swift current, but does not form rapids; to the south is seen the -portal through which it emerges from the mountains. At the village -Pasa-guk, which is larger than Saka-dzong, we bivouacked on the right -bank. The river here was 141 feet broad, 2 ft. 7 in. deep at most, and -carried 629 cubic feet of water. On May 28 it carried 664 cubic feet, -but it receives the Sa-chu and other tributaries below the village -Pasa-guk. - -In the middle of the village is a _serai_ with a large store of salt in -bags. Here a market is held from time to time, salt being the medium of -exchange. I tried to obtain further information about the country in -the north, but when I compared the different data together, the result -was a hopeless muddle. For instance, I asked travellers who came from -Tabie-tsaka, how far they marched each day, and where they passed lakes, -rivers, and passes; and when I added the distances together and laid -down the direction on the map, the line reached to Kashgar, all through -Tibet and Eastern Turkestan! It was impossible to obtain useful data -about the country to the north. I must see it with my own eyes. But how -would that be possible? - -The Hajji came to me, angry and excited, to complain that Guffaru had -struck him. I sat in judgment and heard evidence. The Hajji had refused -to watch the horses when his turn came, and the caravan bashi had -therefore thrashed him. The sentence was, that the Hajji should receive -his discharge in Nyuku. - -Robert and I sat on the velvety grass on the bank and gazed with longing -eyes at the half-clear water dancing merrily on to its destination at -the coast. An old man and a youth joined us, and entertained us with -dance and song. The old man danced and stamped on the ground in a -three-cornered mask of goat leather with red strips and bells, and the -youth sang this unintelligible song: - - Hail, O God, god of the pass! - Many stars sparkle in the night. - To-day is a fine day. - Would that rain might come! - Give me a bit of tea or a small coin. - O, Cook, give me a pinch of meal and a radish. - Such is the mask that is worn in the Chang-tang. - At the right ear a curl, neither large nor small, - At the left a pin, neither large nor small; - Neither shade nor sun. - There is a father's pin and a mother's pin. - Everywhere we have pins with branches, - For they guard us from all dangers. - The horse holds his head high, - And the rider holds his head high. - The gods are high, the earth is low. - You have gold and silver galore. - May your cattle multiply, your flocks and your property increase! - May your family increase! - The King of Ladak sits between a golden and a silver king. - Now is the song ended. - -On June the 10th I left the Chaktak-tsangpo to the right, unfortunately -without having learnt whence it comes. We ascended a side valley named -Rock, in a north-westerly direction. We had previously passed two towers -which had formerly been the fort of a rebellious lama. He was at feud -with Saka-dzong, but was defeated. In the camp at the pool Churu the -evening seemed to me fearfully long. Home-sickness had become -infectious. The Ladakis sang no more, but made shoes for their children, -and thereby turned their thoughts more intently to their home. I too -found no rest after the day's work. If we only knew what answer the -Mandarins would send, but our messenger did not return. We seemed to -have stumbled into a morass and to be stamping in it without moving on. -Oh, thou dreary, awful Tibet, thou black, poor superstitious folk! In -the stillness of the night the step of the camp watchman was pleasant -company. - -After a night temperature of 14.4 deg. we rode on westwards over a very flat -pass, a watershed between the Chaktak-tsangpo and Nyuku, along a road -which had once been a _tasam_; numerous ruins and _manis_ were memorials -of that time. The district was thickly peopled by nomads, and black -tents were often seen where sheep bleated and dogs barked; women and -boys guarded the flocks, and yaks grazed on the slopes. The country -calls to mind the summer pastures on the Pamir. A second puppy died in -the night, and was almost eaten up by ravens before morning. - -On June 12 we came again to the _tasam_ at Nyuku where we set up our -camp. The Gova of Nyuku, whose friendship I had gained at Saka-dzong, -was very obliging, and said that I was quite at liberty to make another -detour to the north, as I seemed to dislike the high-road. It would take -me up to a pass, where almost all the mountains of the world could be -seen, especially Lumbo-gangri immediately to the north. Here we should -come in contact with people of the province of Bongba, who perhaps would -sell us all necessaries. In Nyuku the third puppy died. The Tibetans -said that it suffered from a throat complaint called _gakpa_, which is -very common in the country. Mamma Puppy gave herself no trouble about -her little ones when they were ill, but seemed rather to avoid them. We -washed them with warm water, and tended them to the best of our power, -and did everything we could think of to save the last. The Tibetans -could not understand how we could make such a fuss about a dog. - -Bluish-white flashes quivered over the mountains all the evening, and -their outlines stood out sharp and dark in the lightning. That is a sign -of the setting in of the monsoon rains on the southern flank of the -Himalayas, and all look forward to them. When rain falls up here, the -grass grows up in a couple of days, the cattle become fat and sleek, the -milk is thick and yellow; at the present time it is thin and white, and -produces little butter. The existence of the nomads, and indeed the -prosperity of the whole country, depends on the monsoon. It is the -summer pasture which helps the herds to endure the scarcity of the rest -of the year. If the rains fail, the stock languish and die. - -The night is silent. Only occasionally is heard the hearty laugh of a -girl or the bark of a dog. The camp watchman hums an air to keep himself -awake. - -The 13th was a lazy day; we had to wait for Tundup Sonam and Tashi. I -always shave myself on rest days--it is pleasant to feel clean, even -when there is no one to smarten oneself up for. Robert shot three -wild-geese, and caught two yellow goslings which walked into his tent -and made hay there. We put them in the crystal-clear Men-chu river, -hoping that some kindly goose-mamma would take to them. - -From here it is said to be only four days' journey to a district in -Nepal, where there are fir-woods. Just fancy: fir-wood as in Sweden and -in Simla! But we must remain in this dreary land. - -Just as we were starting on the following day the Hajji, Islam Ahun, and -Gaffar came to me, and demanded exemption from night duty and separate -rations if they were to stay with me. I called all the other men -together, and asked if any one else would join them now that they were -to be dismissed. But no one wished to. Our Hajji, the only one of the -Mohammedans who had been in Mecca--had indeed been twice there--was the -only rascal in the caravan. He had instigated the others. In my -experience Mecca pilgrims are always scoundrels. The Hajji declared that -he preferred robbers and tramps on the road to Guffaru and the other -Ladakis. The three men vanished from sight as we marched north-westwards -up the valley of the Men-chu. - -In camp No. 177, on June 15, I held a grand reception, for some chiefs -from the direction of Bongba came to visit me, and our old friend, the -Gova of Tradum, arrived. They decided that I might ride a short distance -to the north, but only on condition that I came back the same day. So on -the 16th we rode on fresh hired horses up to the Kilung-la, where the -view was instructive and showed the lie of the land. Before us was the -dark Lumbo-gangri with its deep wild valleys and steep cliffs, its small -glacier tongues and caps of eternal snow. The men of the district said -that the mountain was holy, and was a kind of portal or forecourt to the -Kang-rinpoche, the celebrated pilgrimage mountain near the sources of -the Indus. Behind Lumbo-gangri are the valley and river of the -Rukyok-tsangpo, which flows to the Chaktak-tsangpo. It was now clear to -me that these summits, of which bearings were taken by Ryder and Wood, -could not lie on the watershed of the rivers flowing to the ocean. But -no one knew the true aspect of the country farther north, and the Bongba -men had been ordered to stop us if we tried to force our way in that -direction. I could not by entreaties or threats obtain more than the -view from the Kilung-la. The further we proceeded westwards the more of -the blank space on the map was left behind us. That was exceedingly -annoying, but my hopes were still fixed on the Chinese letters from -Lhasa. - -On the morning of the 17th all the mountains were covered with snow, but -the day was warm and fine as we rode up to the Serchung-la, and saw to -the south-west the northernmost crest of the Himalayas and the broad -valley of the Brahmaputra. The valley descending from the pass is full -of brushwood and drifting sand, which is piled up in dunes to a height -of nearly 20 feet. - -After an interesting and successful march we came to the valley junction -Dambak-rong. But the day was not yet over. We heard that Nazer Shah's -son had arrived the day before at Tradum on his way to Ladak with -twenty-two mules. A messenger was therefore despatched to ask him to -wait for us, and give us tidings of Tundup Sonam and Tashi. The Gova of -Tradum also rode home to get all in order against our arrival. A short -time passed by, and then a horseman came up at a smart trot from the -Serchung valley. He had evidently followed our track; he rode straight -to my tent, dismounted, and handed me a letter with a large seal, -bearing the words, "Imperial Chinese Mission, Tibet," and the same in -Chinese characters. - -Now our fate would be settled. The Ladakis crowded round my tent. I -perceived that they hoped we should be obliged to return by the direct -road to Ladak. They longed for home, and were not inspired by the same -interests as myself. The tension was extreme as I opened the letter. It -was dated at Lhasa on June 3, and had been fourteen days on the way. It -was written in faultless English by Ho Tsao Hsing, first secretary to H. -E. Chang (Tang Darin), and ran as follows: - - DEAR DR. HEDIN--Your letter to His Excellency Chang dated the 14th May - was duly received. Knowing that you have arrived at Raka-tatsang, that - Devashung hindered you to proceed forward. His Excellency is very - sorry to hear such occurrence; and he instructed me to write you the - following:-- - - That in His Excellency's last letter to you he wrote you to return by - the way you came; and now he does not understand why you are taking - another road contrary to what he wrote you, consequently, you have met - with such inconveniences, to which His Excellency regrets very much - indeed. His Excellency has, now, again ordered Devashung and officials - along the way to give you all possible protection and comfort, but he - sincerely wishing you _not_ to change your direction to the N.W., - where both the country and people are wild [I wonder how he could know - that], and that accidents might happen, which His Excellency can - hardly bear any responsibility. - - Therefore, His Excellency wishes you only to return by the way as you - came, not to venture in other directions. - - His Excellency gives his best regards to you and wishing you a happy - and safe return.--I am yours very truly, - - HO TSAO HSING. - -[Illustration: 225, 226, 227, 228. TIBETAN BOYS AND GIRLS OF SAKA AND -TRADUM. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -That was all I got by the stratagem which had cost us so much loss of -time. A positive prohibition to proceed north-westwards to the land of -my dreams. Now the Devashung would issue fresh orders, and we should be -watched more closely than ever. Now the iron gates would be closed again -from the south, and the way to the forbidden land barred. Tang Darin was -as immovable as the State Secretary for India, Lord Morley. But he -stimulated my ambition, and for that I have to thank him. To begin with, -we seized the copy of our passport, which was to be transferred from -Gova to Gova all along the road. - -But not yet had this fateful day come to a close. At sunset came Tundup -Sonam and Tashi, dusty and ragged, with their bundles on their backs. -"Welcome and well done, 20 rupees each and new suits of clothes is your -reward. What news?" No letters, but only a note from Ma that he had -forwarded my letters to Lhasa, and sent a letter from Gulam Kadir to -Muhamed Isa. They had reached Shigatse in eleven days, and had rested -there three days. Then they had set out from Tashi-lunpo directly -westwards. They made a fast and long march on the first day, and climbed -up to the pass Ta-la at sunset, where nine highwaymen, two with guns and -the others with swords, fell upon them and threw them to the ground. The -two guns were set on their rests and the barrels pointed to the men's -heads, the seven swords were drawn, and one of the robbers said: - -"If you value your lives, hand out everything of value you have." - -Frightened out of their wits, the two Ladakis begged them to take all -they wanted if they would only spare their lives. The nine robbers then -opened their bundles and thoroughly plundered them, taking even their -little _gaos_ and images, as well as their cooking utensils and 18 -rupees in silver. They were allowed to keep the clothes they had on -their backs. By pure chance the robbers had overlooked a small packet of -30 _tengas_, which Tundup Sonam had put at the back of his girdle. The -robbers cleared them out in a minute, and then disappeared into the -mountains. Our two defeated heroes remained weeping on the battle-field -till dark, and then they went off very slowly at first, turning round -frequently and fancying they saw a robber in every shadow, but -afterwards they quickened their pace almost to a run. Deadly tired, they -crept under two boulders by the wayside, and next morning came to three -black tents, where they got food, and were told that a lama had been -robbed and stripped naked on the Ta-la two days before. But now they -were safe, and it was touching to see how delighted they were to be with -us again. They had seen Muhamed Isa's grave, and the conversation about -it reminded Tsering of his sorrow. - -On June 18 we travel across open country to Tradum, our route following -the northern side of the valley while the _tasam_ runs along the -southern. The ground was sandy. Small irritating horseflies buzz in the -nostrils of the horses and drive them frantic. They walk with their -noses on the ground like the wild asses to escape the flies. To the -right is the Tuto-pukpa, a mountain to which corpses are carried on yaks -from Tradum to be cut up. We ride between pools where wild-geese are -plentiful with their pretty yellow goslings. At a projecting rock, -cairns and streamer poles are set up; the wall of rock is black, but all -the side facing the road is painted red--"Ah, this is blood on Balder's -sacrificial stone." Here the village of Tradum can be seen, its temple -and its _chhorten_ on a hill. To the south-west the dark snow-crowned -rampart of the Himalayas appears, wild, grand, and precipitous. To the -south-east lies the _tasam_, a light winding riband, and our path runs -into it; it is 40 feet broad between grass-grown terraces of sand; it is -the great trunk-road of Tibet. - -We had scarcely set up our camp when the discharged Hajji and his two -companions came up and salaamed. But I was angry, and drove them away. I -afterwards heard that they wept, and I was heartily sorry that I had -been so unkind. But it was too late, for they were seen tramping out -wearily into the steppe when the shades of evening fell. - -The monastery Tradum-gompa is subject to Tashi-lunpo, and its five monks -live on the produce of their sheep and yaks, and carry on trade with -Nepal. Round the temple are eight _chhortens_, and in the _lhakang_, the -hall of the gods, the immortal son of Sakya is enthroned between the -eleven-headed, six-armed Avalokitesvara and other deities. On a small -hill of schist above the convent is a hermit's dwelling, where there is -a splendid view over the Brahmaputra valley and the Tsa-chu-tsangpo as -it emerges from the mountains. - -Here died our fourth puppy, which I had hoped to keep as a remembrance -of Shigatse. Mamma Puppy had now her mat to herself, and outside the -tents lay the two black dogs from Ngangtse-tso. - -The Gova of Tradum was an excellent, genial rogue, and had a thorough -contempt for the Devashung. He would not let me follow up the Tsa-chu -valley, but made no objection to an excursion to the Kore-la pass, two -days' journey off to the south-west, and belonging to the Himalayan -range which is the watershed between the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. He -also let us hire six horses, and gave us two guides for the journey, -which was to be commenced on the morning of June 20. - -The first night we were to encamp at the spot where the Tsa-chu-tsangpo -enters the upper Brahmaputra. I rode south-south-west with my usual -retinue over grassy steppe and sand-dunes. In front of us were three -wanderers with bundles on their backs and staves in their hands. When we -overtook them they stopped, came forward, and laid their foreheads on -the ground at my feet. It was the Hajji and the two other men. I was -glad of the opportunity of taking them into favour again. For the future -they were to follow our yaks. - -The camp was pitched on the right bank of the river, at the foot of the -hill crowned by the ruins of the old Liktse monastery. Here an important -trade-road crosses the river and a ferry maintains communication -between the banks. The Tsa-chu river had here a breadth of 351/2 yards, -and a depth of barely 40 inches, while the Brahmaputra was 120 yards -broad by 53/4 feet deep, and was much more imposing than farther down. The -absolute height was 14,977 feet. It was not easy to carry the rope -across the stream, for a strong south-west gale was blowing and the -waves were high. Robert rowed out from the right bank with the rope, and -from the left some Ladakis waded out as far as they could in the -shallow, slowly deepening, water to catch the end thrown to them and -secure it on shore. When at last we had stretched the rope across, it -broke with the pressure of the wind and the waves, and the work had to -be done again. We noted a temperature of 53.6 deg. in the air and of 59.7 deg. -in the water, but the men were so chilled by the wind that they had to -make a good fire. It also rained heavily--the first rain we had had -since we left Ladak--and thunder rolled among the mountains. - -For the first time the minimum temperature in the night, 37.8 deg., was -above freezing-point, and the morning was beautiful after the storm: the -sky was only half covered with bright summer clouds, not a breath of air -stirred, and the surface of the river was smooth as a mirror, only -slightly broken by slowly moving whirlpools. The ferry was already -plying across with passengers and goods. The ferryman is paid a _tenga_ -for each passage, and he crosses over twice in the hour. Our horses and -yaks were made to swim over the river after they had grazed at night on -the steppes on the left bank. - -[Illustration: 229. WOMAN OF NYUKU.] - -[Illustration: 230. TWO TIBETANS.] - -[Illustration: 231. THE GOVA OF TUKSUM.] - -[Illustration: 232. GIRL AT PASA-GUK. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -We rode 211/2 miles on the 21st, but first paid a visit to the little -Liktse-gompa monastery, which stands on the inner side of the hill, and -therefore has not the fine view obtained from the old ruined monastery -on the summit. From its window-openings the monks could watch the -oscillating life of the river during the various seasons of the year: -its slow fall in spring; its rise during summer, when volumes of turbid -water come down from melting snowfields and glaciers; its decline in -autumn, and the freezing of the river in the cold of winter. And they -could see the breaking-up of the ice in spring, and the great -clattering slabs dancing down the current. But now the prospect before -the eyes of the ten monks is only a wretched loamy valley between barren -hills, for their convent lies apart from all roads. Liktse-gompa is a -dependency of Sera, but receives no support from it, and possesses no -herds. The profits from the ferry are the only revenue of the monks. The -abbot, Punjun Dung, with a red turban and a grey beard, showed me the -gods in the _lhakang_, Buddha, Padma Sambhava, etc. Among the usual -sacred objects on the altar were two human skulls converted into -drinking vessels, one of them lined with silver. In the courtyard the -holy dog was chained up. - -Then we mounted and rode off quickly. We perceived at once that this -road is much frequented. On the steppe and in open soft valley bottoms -it is less clearly marked, for there every one marches where he likes; -but over passes and on spurs with hard stone the tracks converge from -all sides, and there the road has been trodden down and worn in the -course of centuries. On the small pass Tsasa-la we met a large caravan -laden with barley. - -"Where have you come from?" I ask. - -"From Mundang in the country of Lo Gapu." - -Mundang is marked on the English maps of Nepal, but who was Lo Gapu, -"the King of the Southern Land"? It sounded so grand. - -The next pass is called Dorab-la, and from the top we see the -Chockar-shung-chu, a broad valley with a brook draining partly from the -Kore-la, and flowing to the Brahmaputra. - -While we are resting, Guffaru passes with his black baggage-train in -close order, a troop of laden yaks, whistling and singing Tibetans, and -some Ladakis with our own horses as a rearguard. They soon disappear in -the dust of the road, two of our men resting a while in a cleft to take -a puff or two from their weather-worn narghiles. From this point they -march westwards to the rendezvous, while we continue southwards. - -In the valley leading up to the Ngurkung-la a large salt caravan on the -way to Nepal was encamped. The twelve leaders had piled up a fine -shelter of sacks of salt against the violent wind. We then came to the -very broad valley which ascends to the saddle of the pass visible in the -south. We rode up for hours, though the ascent was not noticeable, but -the wind was dead against us. To the right is the water-parting chain of -the Himalayas which we had seen from Tradum. A curious, sharply outlined -cloud, like a white torpedo, covered it, and from the northern extremity -small fleecy flakes parted from time to time and floated away. We camped -near some black tents in a side valley close to the extraordinarily flat -pass. - - - - -CHAPTER XLI - -A PEEP INTO NEPAL - - -It was on June 22 that I stood on the platform of the Kore-la pass and -gave a stolen glance into Nepal, and tried to get a glimpse of -Dhaulagiri peak, 26,670 feet high. But the morning was dull, heavy -clouds lay like pillows on the earth, and nothing could be seen of the -surrounding mountains. "We must wait till it clears," was the only order -I could give. But just then a milk-girl came from a camp of 20 tents -which was near at hand. The people were Nepalese subjects, but were -camping on the Tibetan side. The girl said that it was only a short -day's journey to the nearest permanent dwellings and gardens, and two -days' journey to Lo Gapu's summer residence. - -Then we thought: "We may as well ride down the southern side of the pass -as stay up here in the wind." No sooner said than done! The tents are -folded up, the animals laden, we mount and ride along the eastern side -of the valley up to the Kore-la, which from the Tibetan side little -resembles a pass, for to the eye the grass-grown on unfruitful loose -ground seems quite level. Of the snowy mountains on the western side of -the valley only the dark base is visible; layers of clouds lie close -above the earth; one feels as though one could push one's head against -the roof. A ruined house, where perhaps a frontier guard once dwelt, a -couple of long _manis_, and loose blocks of conglomerate stand on the -top. A caravan comes up from Nebuk in the bottom of the valley. - -We look round in vain for the actual watershed, and find it only by -noticing rivulets running together and flowing southwards. Here we light -a fire and take observations. The view is marvellous, at any rate a -relief such as we have not seen for a long time. The mighty snowy -mountains to the south, which yesterday broke through the clouds, are, -indeed, obscured, but our valleys fall steeply and unite into a large -valley, in the depths of which grassy plots and fields shine in deep -spring verdure amid the everlasting grey, yellow, and red landscape. -Down below the sun is shining, and behind us the sky is clear above the -Brahmaputra valley, while here and round all the snowy mountains float -opaque clouds. From the saddle lying west of our point of vantage -innumerable valleys radiate out; the surface of the ridges between them -is nearly level, or dips gently to the south-east, while the valleys are -deeply cut in like canons, and the promontories at the meeting of the -valleys are broken short off. Perhaps some of the nearest peaks of the -Himalayas rise like islands above the sea of clouds, for here and there -a reflexion from sun-lighted firn-fields seems to be trying to break -through the veil of clouds (Illust. 233). - -[Illustration: 233. VIEW FROM THE KORE-LA TOWARDS THE SOUTH-WEST.] - -We stand on the frontier between Tibet and Nepal. Behind us to the north -we have the flat, level land on the southern bank of the Tsangpo. We -have mounted only 315 feet from the river to the Kore-la, where the -height is 15,292 feet. And from the pass there is a headlong descent to -the Kali Gandak, an affluent of the Ganges. By means of a canal cut -through the Kore-la the Brahmaputra might be turned into the Ganges. -Northern India needs water for irrigation, but the gain would perhaps be -small, for the Brahmaputra in Assam would be as much diminished as the -Ganges was increased. Tibet would lose by the change, and a number of -villages on the Kali Gandak would be swept away. A new road would be -opened for the invasion of India from the north, and therefore on the -whole it is perhaps best for all parties concerned to leave things as -they are. But the changes here indicated will some time come to pass -without artificial aid, for the tentacles of the Kali Gandak are eating -back northwards into the mountains much more quickly than the Tsangpo -is eroding its valley. Some time or other, perhaps in a hundred thousand -years, the Ganges system will have extended its tentacles to the bank of -the Tsangpo, and then will be formed a bifurcation which, in the course -of time, will bring about a total revolution in the proportions of the -two rivers and their drainage areas. - -Now we are in Nepal and go on foot down the declivities. Here little has -been done to improve the road. Occasionally an awkward block of granite -has been rolled away, leaving a gap in the breastwork; in other respects -the caravan traffic has done most for the road, wearing it down. It is -easy and pleasant to go down southwards towards denser air; it becomes -warmer, and we breathe more easily; the verdure increases, and flowers -of different colours make the grass gay. We try to forget that we must -toil up all these slopes again; let us go down, down, to enjoy a summer -life, if only for twenty-four hours, and forget dreary Tibet. An hour -ago the wind blew icy cold on the pass, and now we feel the soft zephyrs -gently caressing the heights. Robert takes in deep draughts of the tepid -air and fancies he hears a whispered welcome to India; Tsering and -Rabsang become lively and contented, and I muse over a visit to the King -of the Southland. - -Three horsemen rode slowly up the ascent. Two of them were turning their -prayer-mills. They looked astonished. We asked whence they came and -whither they were going. They were going to the tent village on the -plateau. When they were told who we were, in answer to their question, -they dismounted and begged pardon for not greeting us at first. I -readily forgave them, for I looked like a ragged tramp. They advised us -to pass the night in one of the houses of Lo Gapu, and invited us to -visit them in their tent village on our way back. - -The gradient becomes less steep, and we come to an expansion where three -valleys meet, the Kungchuk-kong, which we have followed, in the middle, -the Pama on the east, and the Damm on the west. From the Damm valley -only comes a small gushing brook. We pass along the right side of the -united valley. On the same side a very large valley opens, the -Yamchuk-pu, with an irrigation channel running down from its brook to -the villages and fields below. In the village Yamchuk we come to the -first houses and trees. On the left side of the valley lies a large -monastery with avenues of trees and long rows of _manis_; it is called -Gubuk-gompa. Fields, grassy patches, and bushes become more numerous. -Then comes a succession of villages on the left side of the valley, -which is barely 21/2 furlongs broad. - -Below the side valley Gurkang-pu, on the left, pebble beds stand in -perpendicular walls with numerous caves and grottos. These are -apparently used as dwellings, for they are connected with the houses and -walls in front of them. Lower down we come to the village Nebuk, among -gardens. The architecture is of the usual Tibetan style, white and red -masonry, flat roofs, and decorations of streamer poles. The vegetation -becomes more luxuriant and the fields larger. We frequently pass ruined -walls and towers, perhaps relics of the time when Nepal was at feud with -Tibet. Now the densely peopled and well-tilled valley has a peaceful -aspect, and no frontier guards hinder our advance. - -The usual _manis_ lie along the road, and a large red _chhorten_ or -_stupa_ has a touch of the Indian style. Below three villages lying -close together the valley contracts slightly. Near a lonely house we -encamped in a lovely garden, with fine green trees, among waving -cornfields. A woman told us that this place, called Nama-shu, belonged -to Lo Gapu, and that no one might stay in the garden without his -permission. However, we established ourselves there, and inhaled with -delight the mild dense air, and heard the wind rustling through the -tree-tops. - -Soon two men appeared, who were in the service of Lo Gapu, asking for -information about us. They said that we were in the district Tso, and -that the river was called Tso-kharki-tsangpo. A village we can see just -below our camp was named Nyanyo, and from there Mentang, the residence -of Lo Gapu, could be reached by crossing only two spurs of the -mountains, He, they said, was a frontier chief, who paid no tribute to -the Maharaja of Nepal, but was obliged to pay a visit to His Highness -every fifth year. He had 500 subjects. The people for three days farther -south were Lamaists and spoke a Tibetan dialect, in which, however, many -Indian and Persian words were incorporated. - -When one of the men had obtained all the information he desired, he rode -down the valley to make his report to the frontier chief. Meanwhile we -held a consultation. I had only Robert, Tsering, Rabsang, and two -Tibetans with me, and our funds consisted of only 24 rupees. The -temptation was great to wander a few days more southwards through the -wild deep valleys of the Himalayas. Here, in the Nama-shu camp, we were -at a height of 12,487 feet, and therefore 2805 feet lower than the -Kore-la. Every day's journey southwards would bring us into a denser -atmosphere, and even now we were not far from shady coniferous woods. -But would it be prudent to advance further into Nepal? We were much -puzzled, and considered the matter from all sides. Our money would not -last more than two days. Our horses belonged to the Gova of Tradum, and -we had agreed with him that we would only take a look into Nepal from -the Kore-la, and now we had crossed the boundary and descended into a -land where our position was less secure than in Tibet. We might fall -into a trap before we were aware of it. Lo Gapu might arrest us and ask -for orders from Khatmandu. The greatest danger, however, was that the -Tibetans might close the frontier and render our return impossible, and -then say that now we had left their country we might not enter again. -And then we should be cut off from the main caravan, and all the results -of my journey would be endangered. I therefore decided to turn back -early next morning before Lo Gapu's men had time to come up and arrest -us. - -The evening was fine and long, and we enjoyed it thoroughly under the -rustling of the thickly foliaged trees. I felt perfectly comfortable and -breathed freely: the heart had not to labour so heavily as on the -Chang-tang; it worked for hours together without an effort; our feet -were warm, and we slept as we had seldom done. For in the Chang-tang if -one sleeps even eight hours one does not feel rested and refreshed on -rising; one does not derive the proper benefit from sleep. Here we -experienced a thoroughly comfortable feeling after our night's rest, and -our only disappointment came from the clouds, which concealed the -summits of the Himalayas to the south and south-south-west. Only now and -then the peaks looked forth for a minute. - -On June 23 we mounted our horses again. We had heard no word of Lo Gapu. -When the messenger had left us he was convinced that we should continue -our way down the valley, and the little potentate was perhaps now -expecting our arrival. He might wait! We rode slowly up to the Kore-la, -left our old road to the right, and camped at Kung-muga. - -I was sitting at my drawing when a horseman came clanking up. He held in -his hand a green flag, a messenger's badge among the Chinese and -Tibetans. I felt sure that he had some connection with strict measures -against us, but found that he was only the bearer of a proclamation from -Lhasa to all the stations as far as Gartok, that horses and baggage -animals should be supplied to two Chinamen who had been despatched to -find me out and talk with me, and convey to me a letter from His -Excellency, Lien Darin. They might be expected any moment. - -Midsummer Day was as dull as possible. The whole country was buried in -impenetrable fog, and even the adjoining tents were invisible. And when -it had cleared a little, the mountains were still concealed. We rode -north-westwards on an excellent road, and were astonished at the -numerous _manis_ with their close, fine, raised inscriptions on purple -and dark-green schist; other prayer stones had characters 1.2 or 1.6 -inches high, while the largest characters were nearly 8 inches high, so -that there was only room for one character on each slab. Then six slabs -were placed in a row to spell out the sacred formula, "Om mani padme -hum." On some votive stones the characters were red, cut out in round -pieces of granite with a white underlayer. The largest _mani_ was 262 -feet long. - -[Illustration: 234. GULAM RAZUL'S TENTS IN GARTOK.] - -[Illustration: 235. LANDSCAPE IN UPPER NEPAL. - - View looking South from Camp 182, Nepal.] - -We passed encampments with large herds; wild asses grazed along with -tame yaks. All the men we met halted and saluted us. The Gova of Tradum -came to meet us; he pulled a very solemn face, and wondered whether Lo -Gapu would be angry at our visit to Nepal. We reached Bando, near the -small lake Tsotot-karpo, over the small saddle Tasang-la, and found -Guffaru waiting for us with the caravan. - -On the 25th we made a short march up to Chikum, whence the Tsotot-karpo -is still visible. We had only provisions for one day, but the Gova of -Tradum offered to procure more if we would pay well for the horses we -had to hire. He had no fear, he said, of the Chinese who were coming; if -they scolded him for allowing us to travel on the south bank of the -Tsangpo, he would reply that it was easier to supply us with provisions -there than on the north side. He had formerly been a lama in -Tashi-gembe, but had lost his heart to a lady. To hush up the affair he -had started on a pilgrimage to Kang-rinpoche, but was caught and -forbidden to return. Then he had gradually worked his way up, and was -now chief of Tradum, and was just as great a rascal in secular life as -he had been in the religious life. However, he rendered us good service. - -The view from our elevated camp was magnificent. When the full moon had -risen up in the sky the small lake shone like a silver blade. The sun -had left only an afterglow on the western horizon, but the whole plain -of the Brahmaputra and the mountains of Chang-tang in the north were -clearly defined in dull clear shades, which left all the finer details -indistinguishable. A cloud with bright, silvery, white margins floated -before the moon. A little to the right another cloud caught a reflexion -of the sun, and showed golden margins. They were the angels of night and -day fighting for supremacy. Soon night had won the victory, and now the -moon cast a bright path over the lake, while all around was involved in -a general mist. - -When day had resumed its sway we rode in the morning air through swarms -of flies, stinging gnats, and horseflies up over the Tagu-la and down -the Tambak valley. To the west the most northerly chain of the Himalayas -made a magnificent display, and to the north-west lay the broad open -valley of the Brahmaputra, the river winding along the middle like a -blue riband. This evening, too, the return of night called forth a -brilliant play of colours and tone-effects. Light, restless, motionless -to the eye, but riven by the upper winds like old prayer-streamers on a -pass, the clouds sailed at sunset in the vault of heaven. The moon, the -friend of all nocturnal wanderers and sleepers in the open air, -illumines the surroundings of our tents, among which the blue smoke of -the camp-fires lies like a veil over the ground. The yaks stand still as -shadows, and now and then their teeth are heard grinding against the -cartilaginous process of the upper jaw. The Tradum Gova and his servants -hum their evening prayer and rattle their prayer-mills. - -In the morning comes a quickly passing shower and another before noon. -We notice all the signs of the sky, and wish for rain as much as the -Tibetans, not on our own account, but for the light-footed antelopes, -the wild asses, and the mountain sheep. The clouds are blue-black over -the mountains to the south, and from them hang down elegantly curved -fringes and draperies heavy with rain. One can hear in imagination the -drops splashing on the stones, and new-born torrents rushing down the -valleys. The trifling rain that has fallen in our neighbourhood can only -moisten the ground for a short time. The drops made a pleasant sound as -they pelted on the Tradum Gova's umbrella and on my Curzon hat. Thunder -rolled heavily and solemnly round about in the mountains, like an echo -of the trumpet of the last judgment. - -[Illustration: 236. A CHHORTEN IN NEPAL.] - -[Illustration: 237. GROUP OF TIBETAN WOMEN.] - -Then we cross the Nerung-tsangpo, come out into the great valley plain -of the Brahmaputra, and encamp in a country inhabited by numbers of -nomads. The Gova of Nagor was a tall, agreeable man, who procured us -_tsamba_, _chang_, and goose eggs--a pleasant change from our perpetual -diet of mutton. Robert and Shukkur Ali caught fish. The Gova told me -that his parents, who belonged to Kham, had made a pilgrimage to the -Kang-rinpoche and had left their little son behind, either by mistake -or on purpose. The youngster had grown up in the tents of the wild -nomads, and now, though a stranger, had become the chief of the -district. - -On the morning of the 28th we rode up to Namla-gompa, on a rocky -prominence, where the view was extensive and instructive. At the eastern -foot of the projecting mountain lies the village Namla, a few poor stone -cabins, and here the river Pung-chu, flowing out of the lake Ujam-tso, -enters the plain. The monastery contains some images of gilded bronze, -and seven monks, of whom one, a man of sixty-six, has lived fifty years -within its walls. They are poor and have to beg, but they receive -freewill offerings from the nomads living in the neighbourhood. - -Across a plain of cracked loamy soil, which is flooded at high water, we -gain our camp on the bank of the Tsangpo; the river looks like a lake, -and that this is also the case in late autumn is shown in Ryder's -remarkably conscientiously drawn and accurate map. The breadth here is -973 yards broad, and the maximum depth only 2.4 feet. It may, therefore, -be easily waded, and the yak caravan marches quietly through the water. -How different it is farther east, where the river, hemmed in between -steep mountains, is deep and tumultuous! In late summer it cannot be -waded here, and even a boat dare not venture over because of the -treacherous, shifting sand-banks. During our measurements the Ladakis -went across the river, measuring the breadth with poles and ropes, and -held the boat still while I investigated the velocity of the current. -When the work was finished, Rehim Ali began to carry Robert to the bank, -but he slipped on the smooth, clayey bottom, and both took an -involuntary bath, causing all the rest of us to laugh heartily. - -Next day the fragile baggage was conveyed across in a boat, and the rest -on hired yaks, which tramped through the turbid dirty-grey water. On the -northern bank we ride through peculiar country. Here are lakes and -swamps, caused by arms of the river, and lying amid a collection of -sandhills as much as 26 feet high. We try all directions to avoid -sandhills and deep creeks, and frequently ride straight through basins -with yielding ground; in some there is a slight current, while others -are stagnant. Here and there islets of sand rise out of the water, some -barren, others with grass and stalks. It is a thoroughly disintegrated -country, but full of pleasing variety. Gnats pursue us in regular -clouds. Some men go in front to pilot us. We often get into deep water -and have to turn back. The high water washes away the greater part of -the driftsand, and deposits it on the banks of the Brahmaputra lower -down. But when the river falls, fresh sand accumulates and forms new -dunes. The driftsand therefore finds a resting-place here on its way to -the east. We encamped by the last lagoon, and heard the fishes splashing -in the water. The whole country reminds me of Lob, the swampy region in -Eastern Turkestan, and the continual struggle there between driftsand -and flowing water. The district is named Dongbo, and here the Gova of -Tuksum and other chiefs awaited us. The first-named had heard that the -Chinamen, of whose coming we had been informed, had left Saka-dzong and -were on their way hither. He expected that they would arrive before -evening. - -On June 30 we made most of our march along the _tasam_, on which Nain -Sing and the English expedition had travelled; for I durst not pass -round Tuksum, which was mentioned on my passport. The greater part of -the way runs among fine, regular, crescent-shaped dunes, which move -eastwards over the plain before the prevailing wind. They are ephemeral -phenomena: they live and die, but are always replaced by others. The -horns of the crescent protrude far in the direction of the wind, and the -slope is very steep on the windward side, as much as 17 degrees, while -on the sheltered side it is as steep as the falling sand will allow. - -Ganju-gompa stands on an isolated hill to the west of the Ganju-la. It -is subordinate to the Brebung monastery, and has a _lhakang_ with twelve -pillars and four rows of divans, as well as four large drums. The -statues of the gods look down with gentle smiles on the homage paid to -them by nomads and travellers. Only five monks and as many dogs live in -Ganju. - -The whole population of Tuksum came out to meet us before their village. -It was agreed with the Gova that Guffaru and the main caravan should -proceed to Shamsang, while I with a couple of attendants travelled by -forbidden roads on the south side of the river. In the evening a -deputation of Ladakis came to wait on me with the request that they -should be allowed to give a feast in honour of Muhamed Isa, to be paid -for out of his outstanding pay. But I thought this a little too cool, -seeing that the money belonged to the widow of the deceased. They might -have a feast, however, at my own expense, but there would be nothing but -mutton, _chang_, and tea. - -On the morning of July 1 I had another application, this time from five -young beggar girls, ragged and black, with bundles in frames of wood on -their backs, and large pilgrims' staves in their hands. They had been, -like so many others, at the Kang-rinpoche, and reckoned it a year's -journey to their home in Kham. They beg their way from tent to tent. It -must be a serious burden to the nomads to maintain the numerous pilgrims -that pass along this road. - -We said good-bye to Guffaru and his followers on July 2, and riding in a -south-westerly direction over the plain, set up our camp 191 on the left -bank of the Brahmaputra, which here carried down 1978 cubic feet of -water. Next morning the baggage was taken over, and we had also the -honour of helping over the river a high lama, whose acquaintance I had -made in Tashi-lunpo. He wore a yellow robe with a red mantle, and had a -small yellow wooden hat as bright as metal. His servants were armed with -guns and swords, and took all their baggage over the river on yaks. But, -unfortunately, the yaks got into deep water and began to swim, so that, -of course, all their baggage was thoroughly soaked. We also helped a -shepherd with some lambs over to the other side, and if we had waited -longer we might have done a ferryman's work all day with our boat -(Illusts. 240, 241). - -Then we crossed over two other arms, and the total discharge of the -Brahmaputra at this place proved to be 3249 cubic feet. The figures, -however, obtained on gauging the river so near its source, are of -inferior value, especially when the melting of the snow has quite set -in, partly because the source streams rise towards evening, carrying the -water from the day's thaw down to the main valley, partly because the -volume of water depends to a great extent on the weather. At the first -downpour of rain the rivers are little affected, for the water is -absorbed by the dry soil; but when this is soaked through, the water -runs off, and the rivers swell enormously after a single rainy day. When -the sky is overcast without rain they fall, but in quite clear weather -the sun thaws the snow and causes the rivers to rise again. - -It was a long day's journey, for in many of the tents the people refused -to give us the help we wanted, and therefore we passed on to the great -tributary Gyang-chu, which comes from the south and receives many -streams from the northernmost range of the Himalayas. - -I have no time to give an account of the geography of this region on the -south side of the Brahmaputra. I will only say that during the following -days we were cut off from the main river by low mountains, and that we -did not encamp again on its bank till July 6, when we came to the Cherok -district. We had left several tributaries behind us, and the main stream -carried only 1554 cubic feet of water. - -After another short day's march we rejoined Guffaru's party in Shamsang -(15,410 feet) on the great high-road, where twenty-one tents were now -standing. The chiefs of the neighbourhood were very attentive, and did -not say a word against my proposal to go up to Kubi-gangri, which shows -its snowy peaks to the south-west, and in which the sources of the -Brahmaputra were said to lie. They procured us provisions for twelve -days, and we had not had so free a hand for some time. Here nothing had -been heard of Chinese or Tibetan pursuers from Lhasa. - -[Illustration: 238. WOMEN IN THE VILLAGE OF NAMLA.] - -[Illustration: 239. INHABITANTS OF THE VILLAGE OF NAMLA.] - - - - -CHAPTER XLII - -IN SEARCH OF THE SOURCE OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA - - -Now we were already far to the west; the force of circumstances had -forced us to leave behind us step by step ever larger areas of unknown -country to the north. I was vexed, but I would, at any rate, endeavour -to do all that was possible in my hampered condition. At Shamsang, -Ryder's Lahtsang, we were at the place where the actual source streams -of the Brahmaputra converged from various directions. I had long -determined to push on to the unknown source, unless the Tibetans placed -unsurmountable obstacles in my way. - -The learned and clear-sighted Colonel Montgomerie had sent Nain Sing in -the year 1865 up the valley of the upper Brahmaputra (Illust. 380). From -our Shamsang the Pundit crossed the Marium-la, and said in his report -that the sources of the river were certainly in the huge chain seen in -the south, and were fed by its glaciers. He did not, however, go to look -for the actual sources, but continued his journey westwards. - -The next year, 1866, Thomas Webber made an excursion into Tibetan -territory, and his route lay a little to the south of Nain Sing's. On -his sketch-map it may be seen that he crossed some of the source streams -of the Tsangpo, but of the tract in which the sources are situated he -gives no further indication than "Snowy ranges unexplored." And when he -says in his text that here are the sources of the great Brahmaputra, -which have their origin in the Gurla glaciers, the confusion is -hopeless; for the sources of the river lie 60 miles from Gurla, a -mountain which has nothing whatever to do with the Brahmaputra. - -The political expedition which, under the command of Rawling in the -close of the year 1904, had Gartok for its destination, and the chief -result of which was the admirable map of the upper Brahmaputra valley -surveyed by Ryder and his assistants (Map 7), travelled from Shamsang -over the Marium-la and north of the Gunchu-tso to Manasarowar. It was -therefore of the greatest importance to me to travel to the south of -their route through country they had not touched on. They travelled by -the same road as Nain Sing, and left the source of the river at a -distance of 40 miles to the south. From Ryder's report it might be -supposed that he considered the Marium-la to be the cradle of the -Brahmaputra; but in a letter I have recently received from him, he -states that such is not the case, but that he always recognized that the -actual source must lie among the mountains in the south-west, which he -has set down on his map from bearings taken of their peaks. Ryder also -remarks in his report that the principal headwaters come from there. - -Instead of entering into a diffuse discussion of the problem, I -introduce in this book small sketches of the maps of my three -predecessors, Nain Sing, Webber, and Ryder. No other traveller had ever -been in this region, and I would on no account miss the opportunity of -penetrating to the actual source of the Brahmaputra and fixing its -position definitely. - -How was this to be done? At Shamsang the source streams meet, and below -this point the united river bears the name Martsang-tsangpo. First of -all, I must, of course, gauge the quantities of water in the source -streams, and, if they were nearly equal, we must be content to say that -the Brahmaputra has several sources. - -With ten men, the boat, and the necessary measuring apparatus, I betook -myself first, on July 8, to the point on the southern side of the valley -where two streams run together, the Kubi-tsangpo from the south-west and -the Chema-yundung from the west. A short day's march farther west the -Chema-yundung receives the Marium-chu, which comes from the Marium-la. -First the united stream was gauged, and found to discharge 1554 cubic -feet of water per second, and immediately after the Chema-yundung, which -discharged almost 353 cubic feet. Subtracting this from the volume of -the united river, we get 1201 cubic feet as the discharge of the -Kubi-tsangpo. This river is then three and a half times as large as the -Chema, and it should be remembered that the Chema also receives the -water of the Marium-chu, so that its 353 cubic feet represent the united -volumes of two tributaries. - -When we encamped in the evening with the main caravan in the Umbo -district (15,427 feet), where the Chema-yundung and the Marium-chu -unite, the rivers were very considerably swollen, and the water, which -had been clear in the morning, had become turbid. Therefore only the two -measurements taken at the same time were directly comparable, and I will -pass over all the subsequent measurements. To arrive at the source we -had only to know that the Kubi-tsangpo is far larger than the two -others, so we had to follow its course up into the mountains, which none -of my predecessors had done. The Tibetans also said that the Kubi was -the upper course of the Martsang-tsangpo. - -On July 9 we parted from Guffaru and the main caravan, which was to keep -to the great high-road and cross the Marium-la to Tokchen, while Robert -and I with three Ladakis and three armed Tibetans followed the -Kubi-tsangpo up to its source. Our way ran west-south-west. Where we -crossed the Chema-yundung, a good distance above the last delta arms of -the Marium-chu, the river carried little more than 140 cubic feet of -water, and therefore the Kubi-tsangpo, flowing to the south-east of it, -is here fully eight times as large. At the ford our Tibetans drove a peg -with a white rag into the edge of the bank, and when I asked why, they -answered: "That the river may not become tired of carrying its water -down the valleys." - -At Tok-jonsung, where we bivouacked among some black tents, the Chema -looked very large, but its water ran very slowly. The nomads of the -district go up to the Chang-tang in winter. Here also we heard, as on -many former occasions, that smallpox was raging frightfully in Purang, -and that all the roads leading thither were closed. No country lies so -high that the angel of death cannot reach it. - -In the night the thermometer fell to 15.4 deg., but we were at a height of -15,991 feet. The snowy mountains in front of us to the south-west became -more distinct. The Chema river meandered with a slow fall, and we left -it on the right before we came to our camp in Sheryak. - -[Illustration: 240. LAMA IN MY BOAT.] - -[Illustration: 241. LOADING THE BOAT WITH BOXES ON CROSSING THE -BRAHMAPUTRA.] - -We ride on July 11 on to the south-west in a strong wind, passing -already porous, melting snowdrifts. Solid rock is not to be seen, but -all the detritus consists of granite and green schist. We follow a -clearly marked nomad path, leading up to the small pass Tso-niti-kargang -on the ridge which forms a watershed between the Chema-yundung and the -Kubi-tsangpo. The large valley of the latter is below us to the south. -The water of the Kubi-tsangpo is very muddy, but on the right bank is a -perfectly clear moraine lake. From the south-east the affluent Lung-yung -flows out of its deeply cut valley. The view is grand on all sides. From -north-west to north-east extends a confused sea of mountains, the crests -and ramifications of the Trans-Himalaya, intersected by the northern -tributaries of the upper Tsangpo. To the south we have a panorama -magnificent and overpowering in its fascinating wildness and whiteness, -an irregular chain of huge peaks, sharp, black, and fissured, sometimes -pointed like pyramids, sometimes broad and rounded, and behind them we -see firn-fields from which the snow slides down to form glaciers among -the dark rocks. Prominent in the south is the elevation Ngomo-dingding, -and from its glaciers the Kubi-tsangpo derives a considerable part of -its water. To the west-south-west lies the Dongdong, another mass with -glaciers equally extensive, and to the right of it are heights called -Chema-yundung-pu, from which the river of the same name takes its rise, -and flows down circuitously to the confluence at Shamsang. To the -south-east the position of the Nangsa-la is pointed out to me beyond -the nearest mountains, where the river Gyang-chu, which we came across a -few days before, has its source. - -We go down among moraines, granite detritus, and boulders. Here three -small clear moraine pools, called Tso-niti, lie at different heights. -The ground becomes more level, and we pass a _mani_, a rivulet trickling -among the rubbish, and a small pond, before we reach camp 200 in Lhayak, -on the bank of the Kubi-tsangpo, where the pasturage is excellent and we -find numerous traces of nomad camps. In several places we come across -large sheets of fine thin birch bark, which have been detached by storms -and carried by the wind over the mountains from the south. - -Our three musketeers told us that all the nomads now sojourning in the -Shamsang district would come up here in a few weeks to stay a month and -a half, till the snow drove them away again. In winter the snow lies 5 -feet deep, and many men and animals perish in the snowdrifts, when the -herds go too high up the mountains and are surprised by early heavy -falls of snow. The autumn before, I was told, 23 yaks were grazing up at -the foot of Ngomo-dingding when it began to snow furiously. Several -herdsmen hurried up to drive the animals down to lower ground, but the -snow was heaped up in such large quantities that they had to turn back -lest they should perish themselves. In the spring they went up, and -found the skeletons and hides of the unfortunate animals. The Shamsang -Gova had lately lost some horses in the same way. Even the wild asses -cannot escape from the spring snow. They cannot run when the snow is -deep, and after trying in vain to reach bare ground, they die of -starvation and are frozen in the snowdrifts. Our three guides, who -themselves pass the summer up here, assured me that the wild asses are -frozen in an upright position, and often stand on all fours when the -summer sun has thawed the snow. They had seen dead wild asses standing -in herds as though they were alive. - -The snow, which falls in winter on the source region of the -Brahmaputra, melts in spring, and together with the river ice produces a -flood of far larger volume, it is said, than the summer flood produced -by rain. This is probably true of the uppermost course of the Tsangpo, -but lower down the rain-flood is certainly the greater. In general, the -variations in the water-level are more marked in the higher lands, and -the further the water flows downstream the more the fluctuations tend to -disappear. - -"Is not our country hard and terrible to live in? Is not the Bombo -Chimbo's country (India) better?" asked my Tibetans. - -"I cannot say that; in India there are tigers, snakes, poisonous -insects, heat, fever, and plague to contend with, which are not met with -up here in the fresh air." - -"Yes, but that is better than the continual wind, the sharp cold, and -the fruitless waiting for rain. This year we have only had a couple of -light showers, and we shall lose our herds if more rain does not come." - -"Well, the summer in Tibet is very pleasant when it rains, while in -India it is suffocating; on the other hand, the winter in Tibet is -severe and cruel, but comfortable in India." - -"Tell us, Bombo Chimbo, is it you, with your glass and measuring -instruments, that is keeping back the rain this year? At this season it -usually rains heavily, but you perhaps prefer clear weather, to be able -to see the country and that the roads may not be soft." - -"No, I long for rain as much as you, for my animals are getting thin, -and cannot eat their fill of this poor grass, which has stood here since -last summer. Only the gods can control the weather, and the sons of men -must take the rain and sunshine as they are sent to them from above." - -They looked at one another doubtfully. It was not the first time that -they had ascribed to me powers as great as those of their own gods, and -it would have been difficult to have convinced them of their error. - -At midnight the men heard a one-year-old child crying and calling for -help on the bank of the Kubi-tsangpo. They woke one another in -astonishment, and Rabsang and two Tibetans went off with a gun, thinking -that it was a ghost. When they came near they heard the child weeping -quite distinctly, and our heroes were so frightened that they thought it -safest to make all haste back again. When I asked them how they knew -that it was a year-old child, they answered, that from the sound it -could not have been younger or older. When I suggested that it might -have been a wolf cub, as there were no human beings in the -neighbourhood, they declared that it must have been an uneasy spirit -wandering about the bank. - -There must have been something supernatural about, for I dreamed in the -night that all the fragments of birch bark which we had seen on our -day's ride were letters of invitation from the Maharaja of Nepal, that I -had accepted the invitation, and was lying half asleep on a soft carpet -of grass and listening to the rustle of the warm wind among the cedars -of the Himalayas. The dream was so vivid that I could not think all day -long of anything else but the warm beautiful land behind the mountains. - -Even in camp No. 200 I perceived fairly clearly how the land lay, but we -were not yet at the actual source, and therefore we continued our march -south-westwards on July 12. The foot of the snowy mountains seemed quite -near. The river is broad, and divided by islands of mud into several -arms. On the left side of the valley, where we march, are a couple of -walls of green and black schist, but elsewhere old moraines extend on -all sides. We cross a stream flowing from the country below Dongdong to -join the Kubi-tsangpo. The Tsechung-tso is a small moraine lake. The -valley bottom rises slowly, and consists of loose material sparsely -covered with grass. Occasionally a small erratic block of grey granite -is seen. Rags, dung, and fragments of bone lie on the summer -camping-grounds. At length the river becomes as broad as a small lake, -enclosed in morainic rubbish and driftsand. - -We camped at the stone wall of Shapka, one of the headquarters of the -nomads. Here, on the right bank of the Kubi-tsangpo, stands a dark -purple ridge of medium height with patches of snow, which melt in the -course of the summer. The land at the foot of this colossal mountain is -remarkably flat, and instead of a cone of detritus there is a stream -expanded into a lake. The water from the melting snow has washed away -all solid matter. - -As we came to camp No. 201, at a height of 15,883 feet, the peaks -disappeared in clouds, but just before sunset the sky cleared and the -last clouds floated away like light white steam over the glaciers of -Ngomo-dingding, which clearly displayed their grand structure, with high -lateral moraines and concentric rings of grey lumpy terminal moraines. -The surface, except where here and there blue crevasses yawned in the -ice, was white with snow and the porous melting crust. - -When the sun had set, nine peaks in a line from south-east to south-west -stood out with remarkable sharpness. Raven-black pinnacles, cliffs and -ridges rise out of the white snowfields, and the glaciers emerge from -colossal portals. A whole village of tents rising to heaven! The source -of the Brahmaputra could not be embellished with a grander and more -magnificent background. Holy and thrice holy are these mountains, which -from their cold lap give birth and sustenance to the river celebrated -from time immemorial in legend and song, the river of Tibet and Assam, -the river _par excellence_, the son of Brahma. One generation after -another of black Tibetans has in the course of thousands of years -listened to its roar between the two loftiest mountain systems of the -world, the Himalaya and the Trans-Himalaya, and one generation after -another of the various tribes of Assam has watered its fields with its -life-giving floods and drunk of its blessed water. But where the source -lay no one knew. Three expeditions had determined its position -approximately, but none had been there. No geography had been able to -tell us anything of the country round the source of the Brahmaputra. -Only a small number of nomads repair thither yearly to spend a couple of -short summer months. Here it is, here in the front of three glacier -tongues, that the river so revered by the Hindu tribes begins its course -of some 1800 miles through the grandest elevations of the world, from -which its turbid volumes of water roll first to the east, then -southwards, cutting a wild valley through the Himalayas, and finally -flowing south-westwards over the plains of Assam. The upper Brahmaputra, -the Tsangpo, is truly the chief artery of Tibet, for within its drainage -basin is concentrated the great mass of its population, while its lower -course is surrounded by the most fruitful and populous provinces of -Assam. The Brahmaputra is therefore one of the noblest rivers of the -world, and few waterways have a more illustrious descent and a more -varied and more glorious career, for nations have grown up on its banks -and have lived there, and their history and culture have been intimately -connected with it since the earliest times of human records. - -Busied with such thoughts, I went out again in the evening to gaze at -the cliffs of the nine peaks which showed like dim misty shadows, while -the ice and snowfields below, of the same colour as the sky, were not -perceptible in the night. Then a flash of lightning blazed up behind -Kubi-gangri, as the whole massive is called, and the crest crowned with -eternal snow stood suddenly out in sharp pitch-black contours. Singular, -entrancing land, where spirit voices are heard in the night and the sky -blazes up in bluish light. I listened for a long time to the brook -Shapka-chu, gently trickling down its stony bed to the bank of the -Kubi-tsangpo. - -We had still some way to go before we came to the actual source, and I -could not conscientiously leave Kubi-gangri without determining the -absolute height of the source by the boiling-point thermometer. Our -Tibetans were exceedingly friendly, and seemed to take an interest in -showing us this point, of which I had spoken so often during the past -days and about which I had put so many questions. I was really thankful -for, and overjoyed at, this unexpected favourable opportunity of fixing -the position of the source, though I knew that my excursion to -Kubi-gangri could only be a very cursory and defective reconnaissance. A -thorough exploration of this neighbourhood would require several years, -for the summer up here is short and the time for work is over in two -months. But though I succeeded in learning only the chief outlines of -the physical geography, I can count this excursion as one of the most -important events of my last journey in Tibet. Accordingly, we decided to -ride up to the source next day, July 13. Only Rabsang, Robert, and a -Tibetan were to accompany me. The rest were to wait for our return under -the command of Tsering. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIII - -THE SOURCE OF THE SACRED RIVER--A DEPARTURE - - -We started off in beautiful weather, not a cloud hanging over the -summits of Kubi-gangri. We followed the left bank of the Kubi-tsangpo, -and rode along the foot of the huge moraines, which here rise fully 470 -feet above the valley bottom, and which were formerly thrown up on the -left or western side of the gigantic glacier, whence proceeded all the -glacier tongues now remaining only in short lengths. The morainic -character is plainly recognizable, sometimes in curved ridges and walls -falling steeply on both sides, sometimes in rounded hillocks rising one -above another. The surface is often covered with fine pebbles, grass, -and lovely alpine flowers trying to make the most of the short summer. -Here and there a landslip has taken place, and then it can be seen that -the rock shows no trace of stratification. Occasionally we pass granite -boulders, but they are small, the largest not more than 280 cubic feet. -On the valley bottom are swamps with rank grass, and wild-geese are -enjoying the summer in the ponds. We twice met with fresh spoor of small -herds of wild yaks which had moved off to the right bank of the -Kubi-tsangpo. The horses' hoofs splashed in the swampy ground, seldom -varied by small patches of boulder clay. - -Numerous rivulets descend from the moraines. They are fed by the melting -snowfields, and therefore, in contrast to the glacier brooks, are -crystal clear. They have eroded deep valleys in the moraines, and one of -them has deposited a great dejection cone at the mouth, over which the -brook falls in ten channels, carrying 106 cubic feet of water. A very -considerable proportion of the upper Brahmaputra's water is derived from -melted snow. Rivulets rushed and spurted all about in the rubbish, and -all came from the snowfields, which struggled in vain against the heat -of the spring sun. - -Now we have right in front of us the immense glacier which descends from -an extensive firn basin on the western foot of the Mukchung-simo -massive. Between its terminal moraines and the older moraines we have -skirted, a rather voluminous stream has eroded its valley. Its water is -tolerably clear and green, so that it proceeds from snowfields. A little -below the terminal moraine it unites with the numerous arms of the muddy -glacier stream, of which the largest is the one which flows nearest to -the foot of the Mukchung massive. Even 200 yards below the confluence -the green water can be clearly distinguished from the brown, but -afterwards the cold currents intermingle. Where the river, still divided -into a number of meandering arms, turns past camp 201 to the north-east, -it receives considerable additions from the glaciers lying further east, -and thus the Kubi-tsangpo is formed. - -Then we ride up, zigzagging among boulders and pebble beds, over ridges, -banks, and erosion furrows, over brooks and treacherous bog, over grass -and clumps of brushwood, to a commanding point of view on the top of the -old moraine (16,453 feet). Before us is a chaos of huge, precipitous, -fissured, black, bare rocks, summits, pyramids, columns, domes, and -ridges, moraines, tongues of ice, snow and firn fields--a scene hard to -beat for wild grandeur. - -Here we made a halt, and I drew the panorama while the horses grazed on -the slopes. The largest glacier, which comes from the Kubi-gangri -proper, is entirely below us, and we have a bird's-eye view of it. It is -fed by three different firn-fields, and has two distinct medial -moraines, which here and there rise into ridges where the ice has been -thrust aside. The right lateral moraine is well defined, and is still -partially covered with snow. The left is broad in its upper part but -narrow below, where the green stream washes its base. Up above, a -glacier from the west runs into the main glacier, and where the two -join the side glacier is thrown up into a mighty wall, which merges into -the left lateral moraine of the other. All the bottom of the glacier -front is buried in rubbish, and the ice peeps out only here and there. -Here are several small sheets of water, some of an intensely blue -colour, others brown, with finely pulverized matter, showing that they -are connected with the water of the ground moraine. Two of these small -pools have vertical sides of blue ice like entrances to marvellous fairy -grottos. A series of marginal crevasses are still partly covered with -snow. The terminal moraine is a chaos of mounds, pebbles, and boulders, -with patches of snow on the shady side. In a hollow between these -hillocks flows the middle glacier stream, after passing two pools. The -terminal moraine does not increase in size, for its material is slowly -disintegrated and washed away by the stream, which winds in several arms -over the even bed of the valley bottom just below in the most capricious -curves. - -An excursion over the surface of the glacier would not be difficult when -one was once up on it. There are many dangerous crevasses concealed -under the snow which may be avoided by keeping to the rubbish heaps of -the medial moraines. The mass of the Kubi-gangri, which from our point -of view lies farthest to the right, to the west-north-west, is called -Gave-ting; from it descends the great side glacier. - -The front of the main glacier, where the largest of all the glacier -streams of the Kubi-gangri rises, is the actual source of the -Brahmaputra. The other streams which enter it south-east of camp 201 are -smaller and shorter. We could not get to them, for the horses sank too -deep in the sand and mud of the main stream. - -On our return we made a halt at the place where the principal branch of -the Kubi-tsangpo comes out from under the ice, and I found that the -source of the Brahmaputra lies at an altitude of 15,958 feet above -sea-level. I must leave details for the scientific report of this -journey, which will be published in due time. - -On July 14 it seemed very hot in my tent, for even at seven o'clock in -the morning the temperature was 45.1 deg.; in the night there had been -nearly 141/2 degrees of frost. The sky was perfectly clear, and therefore -I could not refrain from seeking another point of view to investigate -the beautiful glaciers of the Kubi-gangri. - -After arranging with Tsering that he should meet us in the valley of the -Dongdong river, we rode up the banks and ridges of the old moraine, -through its hollows and over its terraces of barren soil, which was now -soft and treacherous from the melting of the snow, past pools of clear, -green water, and to the highest point of its ridge, where there was -nothing to hide the view. - -I first took nine photographs, forming a consecutive series. Then a -cloak was thrown over the stand to make a shelter against the strong -wind, and in this sentry-box I sat for nearly four hours drawing a -panorama which embraced the whole horizon. Meanwhile my companions lay -down and snored, and I was glad to sit alone face to face with these -royal mountain giants. The whole architecture is fantastically wild, and -the only law which is strictly observed is that each glacier is confined -between two huge black crests of rock. - -[Illustration: 242. PANORAMA OF KUBI-GANGRI AND THE LANGTA-CHEN GLACIER, -WITH THE SOURCE OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA (FROM A HEIGHT OF 16,453 FEET, JULY -13, 1907). - - Sketch by the Author.] - -In order to give the reader a notion of the scene I here reproduce a -part of the panorama embracing the Kubi-gangri (Illust. 242). To the -south, 27 deg. E., is a tetrahedral peak, which our guide called -Ngoma-dingding. To the south, 11 deg. E., rises another summit, of almost -precisely the same form, which is called Absi. On the east of it lies -the Ngoma-dingding glacier, and on the west the Absi glacier. West of -this stands the lumpy Mukchung-simo group, with its culminating point -lying south, 24 deg. W. The northern side resembles a stable with straight -short stalls, each containing a small hanging glacier. To the south-west -rise two sharp pinnacles, and in the south, 57 deg. W., a couple of -dome-shaped summits consisting only of ice and snow; they belong to the -Langta-chen massive, and their firns feed to a great extent the glacier -in the front of which the Brahmaputra takes its rise. So the glacier may -be called the Langta-chen. To the south, 70 deg. W., 88 deg. W., and north, 83 deg. -W., rise the summits of the Gave-ting group. To the north, 55 deg. W., -three peaks of the Dongdong appear, from which one of the sources of the -Brahmaputra takes its rise, quite insignificant compared to the -Kubi-tsangpo. - -Towards the north-east the sharply defined valley of the Kubi-tsangpo -runs downwards, and in the distance are seen the mountains of -Chang-tang, pyramidal peaks of singular uniformity, and crowded together -in great numbers, which form a finely jagged horizon, and in consequence -of the great distance merge into the pink tint of the insignificant -snowfields. The Trans-Himalaya seems on this side to widen out and -become flatter than in the east. - -It was late when we rode down the steep path to the camp on the -Dongdong. And now we had to hurry westwards and make as many discoveries -and collect as much information as possible on forbidden paths, in spite -of the Mandarins and the Devashung. - -On July 15 we left our former route to the right and directed our steps -northwards over intricate moraines, seeing the snowy peaks of Dongdong -and Chema-yundung still more clearly from the pass Kargan-la. On the -16th the sky was overcast, a couple of hail showers fell, and the hills -around us changed to white. We rode north-westwards past two small -lakes, and again fell in with solid rock--green and black schist. From -the Tugri-la we had a fine view over a world of mountains, the names of -which I have no time to record. We crossed another saddle, Sen-kamba-la, -to reach the broad open valley of the Chema-yundung river, which -descends from a very extensive glacier in the south belonging to the -Chema-yundung-pu massive. Here were several nomad tents, and seven tents -inhabited by pilgrims from Bongba stood on a rise. They were on their -way with kith and kin to Kang-rinpoche to make the pilgrimage round the -holy mountain. Most of the pilgrims from the far east take this southern -route and return over the Marium-la. - -July 17. It was very hot in the saddle with a temperature of 50 deg. and -quite calm air. The brown puppy was very tired of travelling, and drops -fell from her hanging tongue, but she could not leave the antelopes and -hares in peace. She darted after them full speed, but never caught them, -and came back to me disappointed, but began again the useless pursuit. -The Ronggak-chu is an affluent of the Chema, and comes from the -north-west. We left the little double lake Kuru-chok in the south. To -the west-south-west is the place where the Chema-yundung receives the -Angsi-chu, the most westerly of all the headwaters of the Brahmaputra. - -In the valley of the Tynchung we encamped beside some accommodating -nomads, who quickly procured me fresh yaks, for the three musketeers -turned back here to Shamsang, after doing their work well. The whole -excursion to the sources of the Brahmaputra had cost 110 rupees, and it -was well worth more. The natives said that ten robbers had recently made -the neighbourhood unsafe, but immediately it was reported that a -European caravan was approaching Tynchung, they had entirely -disappeared, and therefore we were regarded as deliverers, and the -people could not do too much for us. A Hindu merchant from Almora was -camping here, buying sheep's wool and salt from the nomads, and selling -them frieze rugs and textiles from Agra and Amritsar. - -Next day we crossed the Marnyak-la (17,395 feet) and had the Angsi-chu -immediately below us, and on the 19th we left the river behind and -followed its small tributary, the Loang-gonga, up to its source at the -very low pass Tamlung or Tag-la, which is nothing more than a rise in an -open longitudinal valley. But this pass is exceedingly important, for it -is the watershed between the Brahmaputra and Manasarowar. Its height is -17,382 feet. To the south is spread out a succession of snowy peaks, and -to the west-south-west is seen Gurla Mandatta or Memo-nani, a majestic -and imposing group which belongs to the same Himalayan range as -Kubi-gangri. The pass is situated among old moraines, where is the -little insignificant lake Tamlung-tso, from which the Loang-gonga flows -out. At some distance to the south is seen the low watershed between the -Angsi-chu and the Gang-lung, a stream that comes from a massive of the -same name, and, as the Tage-tsangpo, falls into Manasarowar. The very -latest maps of western Tibet give a very incorrect representation of -this country, which has never been visited by a European before. Instead -of a clearly marked meridional range we found an open, hilly, -longitudinal valley with the watershed running among its moraines. Here -we took leave of the Brahmaputra, after passing half a year in its basin -since crossing the Sela-la. We encamped at a place where the Gang-lung -river breaks through a rampart of moraines, forming foaming cascades. - -During the following day's journey it flows through granitic moraines, -drift sand, and morasses, and becomes a considerable stream, receiving -numerous affluents from the south. A caravan of 50 yaks, and eight men -from Purang, armed with guns, and clad in blue with fur-lined cloaks, -were on the way to the fair in Gyanima. In the district Tagramoche, -where we bivouacked, were many nomads and beggars with staves and -bundles on the way to the holy mountain. We also met six merchants from -Ladak, who were carrying dried peaches for sale on 45 asses. They had -left home a month and a half previously. - -On July 21 we rode down the Tage-bup valley among savage cliffs. On its -bottom flows the Tage-tsangpo, changing its colour from light green over -sandy ground to bluish-purple over dark detritus. Langchen-kamba is a -small side-valley on the right, from which robbers are wont to sally -forth against defenceless travellers. Just below the valley a spring -bubbles forth with crystal-clear water at a temperature of 38 deg.. It is -considered holy, and is marked by a pole bedecked with rags and -streamers like a scare-crow. This spring is also called Langchen-kamba. - -A little farther down the spring Chakko stands on a steep slope on the -right bank, and its water (40.3 deg.) is collected in a round pit 3 feet -deep. A wall is erected about it, covered with flat stones, on which -figures of Buddha and holy texts are carved. Leaves from the holy -scriptures are thrust between the stones of the wall, and streamers and -rags fly from a pole. Through the water, clear as a mirror, could be -seen blue and red beads, two inferior turquoises, some shells, and -other trash, thrown in as offerings by pious pilgrims. The water is -supposed to have miraculous powers. Murmuring prayers, our guide filled -a wooden bowl with water and poured it over the head and mane of his -horse to protect it from wolves. With the same object he tied a rag from -the pole on to his horse's forelock. He drank himself a good draught to -render him invulnerable to the bullets of robbers. If a sheep or other -animal is ill it is only necessary to sprinkle it with the holy water to -make it well again. When a traveller or pilgrim stands at the well and -pours water with both hands over his head, it guards him against falling -into the hands of footpads, and from other misfortunes. And if he sits -and meditates, drinks, and washes his head, hands, and legs, and has -sufficient faith, then he finds gold coins and precious stones at the -bottom of the well. The sick man who bathes his whole body in the -miraculous water becomes strong again. It is a Lourdes in miniature. -While my men were engaged in their ablutions I sat at the edge of the -well and listened to the mystical music of the fluttering -prayer-streamers, and found this fascinating Tibet more enigmatical at -every step. - -Then we rode over the Tage-tsangpo, where its valley opens into the flat -basin of Manasarowar--a new chapter in the chronicles of our journey. -Again Gurla Mandatta showed itself in all its glory, and in the -north-west Kang-rinpoche or Kailas, the holy mountain, like a great -_chhorten_ on a lama's grave, rose above the jagged ridge which forms -the horizon in that direction. On seeing it all our men suddenly jumped -out of their saddles and threw themselves down with their foreheads on -the ground. Only Rabsang, a confirmed heathen, remained seated on his -horse, and was afterwards well scolded by Tsering. - -[Illustration: 243, 244, 245. THE MOUNTAINS AT THE SOURCE OF THE -BRAHMAPUTRA.] - -We are now out on open hilly ground, and see a glimpse of the holy lake -Tso-mavang or Manasarowar. We encamp by a small lake called Tso-nyak, -whither come Islam Ahun and Shukkur Ali, sent by Guffaru, who is become -uneasy at our long absence. We send them back again to Tokchen with -orders to Guffaru to proceed to the monastery Serolung-gompa on the -holy lake, where we will meet him. - -On July 22 we rode over the Tage-tsangpo, which here carried 291 cubic -feet of water, where Rabsang got a thorough wetting in consequence of -his horse coming a cropper among the boulders in the bed. Tsering said -that he deserved a dip because he had not saluted Kang-rinpoche. Camp -210 was set up in the broad valley Namarding, where a clear brook flows -to the Tage-tsangpo. The wind blew strongly, and the Tibetans said that -the waves on Tso-mavang were as high and dark as nomad tents. Should we -venture in our little canvas boat on the lake, exposed to all the winds? -It must be very rough before I consented to give up the trip, for the -lake had long been the subject of my dreams. - -Next morning Tundup Sonam appeared with the news that the Gova of -Tokchen would not let his yaks on hire for the journey to Serolung. I -had therefore to ride to Tokchen by a road over the pass Karbu-la, and -down the river Samo-tsangpo; it is full of fish, but we were asked not -to disturb them, for they came up from the holy lake. We were all -together again in Tokchen, and I found the Gova a decent fellow, who -welcomed me with a large _kadakh_ and a bowl of _tsamba_. - -Now an hour of parting was come, for I sent from Tokchen thirteen of my -men home to Ladak. I had several reasons for this. I did not need so -many men in western Tibet; twelve were enough, and a small, light -caravan accomplishes more and does not excite so much notice. The men -were to travel along the great highway to Gartok under the experienced -leadership of Guffaru, and there deposit all the baggage I could spare -with the British agent, Thakur Jai Chand. I also sent to him a letter -packet of three hundred pages to my parents, beside other -correspondence. Of particular importance was a letter to Colonel Dunlop -Smith, in which I asked for 6000 rupees, provisions, books, revolvers -and ammunition, and things suitable for presents, such as gold and -silver watches, as well as all the letters which must have accumulated -at the Viceregal Lodge. - -On the first evening, when I called together all the twenty-five men and -told them my decision to send away thirteen, and asked which of them -wished to go home, no one answered. They declared that they would follow -me until I was tired of Tibet. Then I picked out thirteen and retained -the best twelve men. Among these was Tashi, who with Tundup Sonam had -accomplished the adventurous journey to Shigatse. But when he saw that I -was in earnest about the dividing of the caravan, he begged me to let -him go home, so he was exchanged for another man. - -We stayed here two days to put everything in order. After the baggage -was re-arranged I had only four boxes left, and the rest were to be -carried away by Guffaru. Robert sat in my tent like a money-changer and -piled up sovereigns and rupees in small heaps, the pay, gratuities, and -travelling expenses of the men who were going home. Our treasury was -relieved of 2118 rupees all at once. The important correspondence was -enclosed in a case, which Guffaru carried in his belt. The men with him -were allowed to keep two of our five guns. Late in the evening Guffaru -came to my tent to receive his last instructions. Honest old Guffaru, he -had in the autumn of his life performed wonders in the winter in -Chang-tang, always composed and contented, always doing his duty in the -smallest particular. Now he sat, with the tears falling on to his white -beard, and thanked me for all I had done for him during the past year. I -bade him weep no more, but rejoice that the hard time was over for him, -and that he could return safe and sound to his people with 400 rupees in -his purse. When we left Leh he was as poor as a church mouse, and now he -was a rich man for his position, and he had not needed his shroud. I -told him that I should miss him very much, but that I could not entrust -the valuable baggage and important letters to any other hands but his. - -When I came out of my tent early on the morning of the 26th the 13 yaks -were laden and the thirteen men were ready to march off with their -Tibetan guides. I thanked them for their faithfulness and patience -during the time when they were exposed to so many dangers in my -service, begged them to remember that they were responsible for the -caravan on the way home, and told them that they must obey Guffaru, and -that their character would suffer if they did not bear with one another -on the way. If they were as conscientious on this journey as in my -service, it would be well for them in the future, and perhaps our paths -might cross again. - -Then old Guffaru came forward, and fell on his knees before me, weeping -loudly, and all the others in turn followed his example amid sobs and -tears; I clapped them all on the shoulder and hoped that this bitter -hour would soon be over. Then they took leave of their comrades, who, -deeply moved, sent greetings to their parents, wives, and children in -Ladak, and they marched off on foot, as they had travelled so many -hundred miles, silent, drooping, and downcast, and soon disappeared -behind the hills. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIV - -A NIGHT ON MANASAROWAR - - -After Guffaru had set out with his men, the small caravan was organized -which was to accompany me. It was led by Tsering, and the other men left -were Bulu, Tundup Sonam, Rabsang, Rehim Ali, Shukkur Ali, Namgyal, Adul, -Ishe, Lama, Galsang, and Rub Das. The Gova of Tokchen was given a -Kashmir shawl, a turban, and some rupees for the services he had -rendered us, and all the other Tibetans who had been friendly and -helpful received presents. The dividing of the caravan had also the -advantage that the Tibetans supposed that we were all making for the -same destination by different routes, and that I should join Guffaru in -Gartok and continue my journey to Ladak, as directed on the passport. - -[Illustration: 246. TIBETANS ON THE BANK OF THE SOMA-TSANGPO.] - -[Illustration: 247. GROUP OF NATIVES OF LANGMAR.] - -With Robert, Rabsang, and two Tibetans I now ride down the Tokchen -valley and up over the hills to the south-west. To the right of our -route the turquoise-blue surface of the holy lake is displayed; how -beautiful, how fascinating is the scene! One seems to breathe more -freely and easily, one feels a pleasure in life, one longs to voyage -over the blue depths and the sacred waves. For Manasarowar is the -holiest and most famous of all the lakes of the world, the goal of the -pilgrimage of innumerable pious Hindus, a lake celebrated in the most -ancient religious hymns and songs, and in its clear waters the ashes of -Hindus find a grave as desirable and honoured as in the turbid waters of -the Ganges. During my stay in India I received letters from Hindus in -which they asked me to explore the revered lake and the holy mountain -Kailas, which lifts its summit in the north under a cupola of eternal -snow, where Siva, one of the Indian Trinity, dwells in her paradise -among a host of other deities; and they told me that if I could give -them an exact description of the lake and river, they would remember me -in their prayers and their gods would bless me. But that was not why I -longed to be there. The lake had never been sounded--I would sink my -lead to the bottom and make a map of its bed; I would follow its -periphery and calculate how much water pours into its bosom on a summer -day; I would investigate its hydrographic relation to the adjacent lake -on the west, the Rakas-tal, a problem which various travellers in this -region, from Moorcroft and Strachey to Ryder and Rawling, have explained -differently; I would learn something of the monasteries and the life of -Hindu and Tibetan pilgrims, for the lake is sacred in the eyes of -Lamaists also, who call it Tso-mavang or Tso-rinpoche, the "Holy Lake." -How can Manasarowar and Kailas be the objects of divine honours from two -religions so different as Hinduism and Lamaism unless it is that their -overpowering beauty has appealed to and deeply impressed the human mind, -and that they seemed to belong rather to heaven than to earth? Even the -first view from the hills on the shore caused us to burst into tears of -joy at the wonderful, magnificent landscape and its surpassing beauty. -The oval lake, somewhat narrower in the south than the north, and with a -diameter of about 151/2 miles, lies like an enormous turquoise embedded -between two of the finest and most famous mountain giants of the world, -the Kailas in the north and Gurla Mandatta in the south, and between -huge ranges, above which the two mountains uplift their crowns of bright -white eternal snow. Yes, already I felt the strong fascination which -held me fettered to the banks of Manasarowar, and I knew that I would -not willingly leave the lake before I had listened, until I was weary, -to the song of its waves. - -We sat an hour and enjoyed the incomparable beauty of the scene. A -slight ripple ruffled the surface of the water, but in the middle the -lake was as smooth as if oil had been poured on it. The Tibetans said -that it was always smooth in the middle except when a storm raged. To -the south-south-west and south-west are seen the two summits of Gurla -Mandatta, the western very flat, and reminding me of the Mustag-ata in -the eastern Pamir. The Tibetans called the mountain sometimes Namo, -sometimes Memo-nani. South, 60 deg. W., a row of snowy heights rise behind -the Purang valley. To the west-north-west is seen the small pyramidal -hill where Chiu-gompa stands on the bank of the water channel which once -ran into Rakas-tal. To the north-west a couple of lagoons lie on the -shore of Manasarowar, and behind them rise chains and ramifications -belonging to the Trans-Himalaya, and among them Kailas or Kang-rinpoche, -the "Holy Mountain," called also Gangri or the "Ice Mountain," dominates -the horizon unless its summit is veiled in clouds. And lastly, to the -north, 20 deg. W., we see the double-peaked Pundi, not far from the shore, -and in the north the two valleys Pachen and Pachung, with roads which -lead over the watershed of the Trans-Himalaya to Chang-tang. - -When I asked our guides what they thought of a boat trip across the -lake, they answered unhesitatingly that it was impossible; mortals who -ventured on the lake, which was the home of the gods, must perish. Also -in the middle Tso-mavang was not level as on the shore, but formed a -transparent dome, and up its round arch no boat could mount; and even if -we succeeded in getting the boat up, it would shoot down the other side -with such velocity that it must capsize, and we should perish in the -waves because we had excited the wrath of the god of the lake. - -We mounted again and rode south-south-west over the hills to Serolung, -the golden valley, where the monastery Serolung-gompa is hidden in the -hollow. There I stayed four hours, making sketches and notes. Serolung, -which contains thirty monks, most of whom were away wandering among the -villages, is one of the eight convents which are set like precious -stones in the chain which the pilgrims stretch round the lake, in the -hope of acquiring merit in a future form of existence, of being freed -from the burden of sin and the tortures of purgatorial fires, nay, -perhaps, of sitting at the feet of the gods and eating _tsamba_ out of -golden bowls. - -Our camp No. 212 was pitched immediately south of the mouth of the -Serolung valley at the water's edge. The strip of ground on the bank is -quite narrow, and on the hills rising to the east of it are visible six -horizontal strand lines, the highest lying 162 feet above the present -level of the lake, which is 15,098 feet above the sea. - -On July 27 I had a good sleep, and spent the rest of the day in making -preparations for the first line of soundings, which was to cross the -lake in a direction south, 59 deg. W., where a gap appeared in the hills -framing the lake. We waited for good weather, but the wind blew -violently and the surf beat and foamed against the shore. I therefore -resolved to wait till night, for of late the nights had been calmer than -the days. On a trial trip we had found a depth of 130 feet not far from -the shore, so we made ready a sounding line 490 feet long. Perhaps even -this would not be long enough, for a lake lying among such high -mountains is sure to be deep. Shukkur Ali was to go with me, and he -accepted his fate with his usual composure, but Rehim Ali, the other -victim, was frightened; it was all very well in the day, he said, but in -the dark gloomy night on such a great lake! We should certainly have the -same trouble as on Lake Lighten, he thought. - -When the sun set the wind increased in strength, and heavy clouds spread -up from the south-west. At seven o'clock it was pitch dark all round, -not a star shone out, not a trace was visible of the outline of the -shore and of the snowy mountains, and the sea was buried in the shades -of night. But an hour later the wind fell, the air became quite calm, -but the waves beat in a monotonous rhythm on the bank. The smoke of the -camp fires rose straight up into the air. - -Then I gave orders to set out. The baggage was stowed and the mast -stepped to be ready if we had a favourable wind. Provisions for two days -were put in the boat. I wore a leathern vest, Kashmir boots, and an -Indian helmet, and sat on a cushion and a folded fur coat on the lee -side of the rudder, on the other side of which the sounding-line with -its knots lay ready on the gunwale. The log, Lyth's current meter, was -attached to the boat to register the whole length of the course, and -compass, watch, note-book, and map sheets all lay close beside me, -lighted by a Chinese paper lantern, which could be covered with a towel -when we did not want the light. I used the towel after every sounding to -dry my hands. Rehim Ali took his seat forward, Shukkur Ali in the stern -half of the boat, where we were cramped for room and had to take care -that we did not get entangled in the sounding-line. - -Tsering took a sceptical view of the whole adventure. He said that the -lake was full of wonders, and at the best we should be driven back by -mysterious powers when we had rowed a little way out. And a Tibetan -agreed with him, saying that we should never reach the western shore -though we rowed with all our might, for the lake god would hold our boat -fast, and while we thought that it was advancing it would really remain -on the same spot, and finally the angry god would draw it down to the -bottom. - -Robert had orders to wait at camp No. 212 for our return, and when we -put off from the bank at nine o'clock all bade us farewell in as warm -and gentle a tone as though they thought that they had seen the last of -us. Their spirits were not raised by the lightning which flashed in the -south and might portend a storm. The darkness, however, was not so -intense, for the moon was coming up, though it was still covered by the -hills rising behind our camp. But its light threw a weird gleam over the -lake, and in the south Gurla Mandatta rose like a ghost enveloped in a -sheet of moonshine, snowfields, and glaciers. - -At my command, the boatmen took a firm grip of the oars and the boat -glided out from the beach, where our men stood in a silent thoughtful -group. Our fires were seen for a while, but soon disappeared, for they -were burning almost on a level with the water. Robert told me afterwards -that the little boat sailing out into the darkness was a curious sight; -owing to the lantern and the reflexion of the light on the mast the boat -was visible at first, but when it reached the moon-lighted part of the -lake it appeared only as a small black spot, which soon vanished. - -The great lake was dark and mysterious in the night, and unknown depths -lurked beneath us. The contours of the hills on the shore were still -visible behind us, but we had not gone far before they were swallowed up -by higher mountains farther off, which gradually came into view. After -twenty minutes' rowing we stopped and let down the line, sounding 135 -feet. The roar of the surf on the beach was the only sound in the -silence of night, except the splash of the oars and the voices of the -oarsmen singing in time with their strokes. At the next sounding the -depth was 141 feet. If the bottom did not fall more rapidly our line -would be long enough. Every hour I recorded the temperatures of the air -and the water. Now the god of sleep paid us a visit; Shukkur Ali yawned -at every ninth stroke, and every yawn was so long that it lasted three -strokes. - -The air is quite still. A long, smooth swell causes the boat to rock -slightly. All is quiet, and I ask myself involuntarily if other beings -are listening to the splash of the oars as well as ourselves. It is -warm, with a temperature of 46.9 deg. at eleven o'clock. The next two depths -are 143 and 164 feet. My oarsmen follow the soundings with deep -interest, and look forward to the point where the depth will begin to -decrease. They think it awful and uncanny to glide over such great -depths in the dark night. Again blue lightning flashes behind Gurla -Mandatta, which stands forth in a pitch black outline, after appearing -just before in a white robe of moon-lighted snowfields. A little later -all the southern sky flames up like a sea of fire; the flashes quickly -follow one after the other, and shoot up to the zenith, seeming to stay -a moment behind the mountains, and it becomes light as day, but when the -glow dies out the darkness is more intense, and the sublime, poetic -solemnity of the night is enhanced. By the light of the flashes I can -see the faces of the two men, who are startled and uneasy, and do not -dare to disturb the awful stillness by their singing. - -When I let down the line at the fifth point, the two men asked -permission to light their water-pipes. The depth was 181 feet. A slight -south-westerly breeze rippled the surface. The cry of a water-bird broke -shrilly on the silence of the night, and made us feel less lonely. A -slight hiss of the surf breaking on the south-eastern shore was audible. -In the south the clouds gathered round the summit of Gurla Mandatta, the -breeze fell. We glided slowly over the inky black water, and between the -wave crests the path of moonlight wound in bright sinuosities; the depth -increased slowly 183.4 feet, 189.3, 192 and 212.6. The temperature was -still 45.9 deg., and I did not want my fur coat. - -The queen of night, with diamonds in her dark hair, looks down upon the -holy lake. The midnight hour is passed, and the early morning hours -creep slowly on. We sound 203, 200, 184, 184, 180, and 190 feet, and it -seems therefore as if we had passed the deepest depression. Leaning on -the gunwale I enjoy the voyage to the full, for nothing I remember in my -long wanderings in Asia can compare with the overpowering beauty of this -nocturnal sail. I seem to hear the gentle but powerful beat of the great -heart of Nature, its pulsation growing weaker in the arms of night, and -gaining fresh vigour in the glow of the morning red. The scene, -gradually changing as the hours go by, seems to belong not to earth but -to the outermost boundary of unattainable space, as though it lay much -nearer heaven, the misty fairyland of dreams and imagination, of hope -and yearning, than to the earth with its mortals, its cares, its sins, -and its vanity. The moon describes its arch in the sky, its restless -reflexion quivering on the water, and broken by the wake of the boat. - -The queen of night and her robe become paler. The dark sky passes into -light blue, and the morn draws nigh from the east. There is a faint dawn -over the eastern mountains, and soon their outlines stand out sharply, -as though cut out on black paper. The clouds, but now floating white -over the lake, assume a faint rosy hue, which gradually grows stronger, -and is reflected on the smooth water, calling forth a garden of fresh -roses. We row among floating rose-beds, there is an odour of morning and -pure water in the air, it grows lighter, the landscape regains its -colour, and the new day, July 28, begins its triumphal progress over the -earth. Only an inspired pencil and magic colours could depict the scene -that met my eyes when the whole country lay in shadow, and only the -highest peaks of Gurla Mandatta caught the first gleam of the rising -sun. In the growing light of dawn the mountain, with its snowfields and -glaciers, had shown silvery white and cold; but now! In a moment the -extreme points of the summit began to glow with purple like liquid gold. -And the brilliant illumination crept slowly like a mantle down the -flanks of the mountain, and the thin white morning clouds, which hovered -over the lower slopes and formed a girdle round a well-defined zone, -floating freely like Saturn's ring, and like it throwing a shadow on the -fields of eternal snow, these too assumed a tinge of gold and purple, -such as no mortal can describe. The colours, at first as light and -fleeting as those of a young maiden in her ball-dress, became more -pronounced, light concentrated itself on the eastern mountains, and over -their sharp outlines a sheaf of bright rays fell from the upper limb of -the sun upon the lake. And now day has won the victory, and I try -dreamily to decide which spectacle has made the greater impression on -me, the quiet moonlight, or the sunrise with its warm, rosy gleam on the -eternal snow. - -Phenomena like these are fleeting guests on the earth; they come and go -in the early morning hours, they are only seen once in a lifetime, they -are like a greeting from a better world, a flash from the island of the -phoenix. Thousands and thousands of pilgrims have wandered round the -lake in the course of centuries, and have seen the dawn and sunset, but -have never witnessed the display which we gazed upon from the middle of -the holy lake on this memorable night. But soon the magical effects of -light and colour, which have quickly followed one another and held me -entranced, fade away. The country assumes its usual aspect, and is -overshadowed by dense clouds. Kailas and Gurla Mandatta vanish -entirely, and only a snowy crest far away to the north-west is still -dyed a deep carmine, only yonder a sheaf of sunbeams penetrates through -an opening in the clouds. In that direction the mirror of the lake is -tinged blue, but to the south green. The wild-geese have waked up, and -they are heard cackling on their joyous flights, and now and then a gull -or tern screams. Bundles of seaweed float about. The sky is threatening, -but the air is calm, and only gentle swells, smooth as polished metal, -disturb the water, which looks like the clearest curacao. The boat moves -with weary slowness to its destination, for now, at six o'clock in the -morning, my oarsmen are tired and sleepy and quite at an end of their -strength. They sleep and row alternately. "Hem-mala-hem" calls out -Shukkur Ali, accenting the last syllable, when he energetically grasps -his oar, but he goes to sleep between, and the oar hovers in the air; -his own voice wakes him up, he dips the oar in and goes to sleep again. - -[Illustration: 248. ROBERT IN THE BOAT.] - -The hours pass by, but there is no sign that we are nearing our -destination. We cannot decide which bank is nearest, and we seem to be -in the centre of this boundless lake. In the midst of Gurla Mandatta is -seen a huge deeply eroded ravine, its entrance standing out -picturesquely below the dense mantle of clouds. For a moment, when all -around lay buried in shadow, the interior was lighted up by the sun, and -it presented a fantastic appearance, resembling a portal into a hall of -the gigantic dome lighted up by innumerable candles. The valleys and -erosion channels between the different spurs of the massive are sharply -defined, and wind down to the lake among flat cones of detritus, the -outer margins of which cause the variations in the depth of the bottom. -This now increases again to 200, 203, 213, and 240 feet. At fourteen -points, these included, the bottom temperature is observed. The sounding -occupies a considerable time. The line must first be paid out to the 230 -feet, and then be held still till the thermometer has assumed the bottom -temperature, and then it must be drawn up again, the depth must be -noted, the thermometer read, the temperature of the surface water and -the air must be ascertained, and the log-reading taken. - -Five furlongs to the north the smooth swell shows a curious fiery yellow -colour, and I cannot make out the origin of this singular reflexion. The -clouds gather in the south-west, and a breeze sweeps over the lake, -producing waves which retard still more the progress of the boat. Rehim -Ali cannot keep himself awake any longer, and Shukkur Ali is very -comical in his overpowering sleepiness. The old man looks like a -weather-beaten sea-dog in a south-wester--his Ladaki cap with its -spreading flaps. He snoozes innocently with his oars up, and rows again -and again in the air, still calling out his constant "Shu-ba-la-la." He -talks in his sleep. Rehim Ali wakes up and asks him what is the matter, -and no one knows what it is all about. Towards seven o'clock the dustman -pays me a visit, but is not admitted. Only for a moment I see red wild -asses running over the water, hear harps playing sweetly in the air, and -behold the great black head of a sea-serpent rise above the waves and -then sink down again; green dolphins and small whales arch their backs -among the waves--but no, I must keep awake, for a storm may come down -upon us any moment. I give my boatmen a good douche with the hollow of -my hand, wash my own hands and face, and order breakfast--a hard-boiled -goose egg, a piece of bread, and a bowl of milk, and then I light my -pipe and am as lively again as a lark. At the twentieth sounding-place, -259 feet deep, the other two follow my example. - -At nine o'clock, when we have been exactly twelve hours on the water, we -sound a depth of 268.4 feet, but the south-western shore seems to our -eyes as far off as ever. Rehim Ali thinks it is awful to have so much -water under the keel. The clouds on Gurla lift a little, and we see -deeper into the recesses of the great valley the more we come opposite -its mouth. The lower points of the snowfields come into sight below the -clouds. West of them is seen a broad erosion channel, grey with detritus -and dotted with dark brushwood. The water reflects the forms of the -mountains like a mirror; it turns blue when the sky is clear, but green -again as soon as the clouds gather. A shoal of fishes plays in the water -and splashes on the surface. - -And again the hours of the day pass by. We glide slowly forwards, now -over calm rising swell, whispering gently as spirit voices, now over -small pyramidal waves produced by the meeting of two systems of -undulations from different directions. Four small squalls from different -quarters threaten us, but we catch only a flip of their tails, which -cannot stir up the waves to a dangerous height. The last, from the -south-east, is the strongest, and then the sail is hoisted. But still -the shore seems far distant; perhaps Tsering was right with his -Lamaistic wisdom. - -All details, however, become sharper and clearer. Gurla turns three -mighty gables towards the lake, and between them huge fans of detritus -and erosion channels come to view. The fans become flatter towards the -shore, and extend under the water down to the greatest depths of the -lake; on the north shore, where a wide plain lies, the lake bottom might -be expected to sink more slowly. Gurla is a splendid background to the -holy lake--no artist in the world could conceive anything more -magnificent and interesting. - -Then we sounded 253, 243, 253, 223, 190, 177, and 82 feet, and perceived -at length that the shore was near, for yaks and sheep were visible on -the hills. The sea was now fairly high, and we had to bale the boat -twice, and my fur coat on the bottom was wet. The two tired and sleepy -men laboured painfully at the oars. We talked of how pleasant it would -be to land, kindle a fire, and take our tea and food, but the shore -still retired before us, and the hours of the afternoon slipped past. -Gurla seemed to rise in the south directly from the water, its level -skirts and low slopes being much foreshortened. The monks of the -monastery here do not depend for water on the brooks, but drink the holy -water of the lake, which has in reality the taste of the purest, most -wholesome, spring water. Its crystal purity and dark greenish-blue -colour are as beautiful as the flavour, and to pilgrims from a distance -the water of Manasarowar is preferable to sparkling champagne. - -At last we were released from imprisonment in the boat. We saw the -bottom through the clear water, and a few strokes of the oar brought the -boat to a wall of clay and decaying weeds, which the winter ice had -pushed up on the bank. Inside the wall lies a longish lagoon, with mud -in which one sinks to the knee. The time was half-past one, so we had -been 161/2 hours on the lake. But when we had reached the shore we found -it impossible to get on land. After I had thought over the matter, while -the men looked about them, we rowed northwards, and after an hour and a -half discovered a place where the boat could be drawn ashore. Then we -had been eighteen hours on the water. - -A herdsman was seen, but he made off quickly. Fuel was collected and a -fire lighted. Tea was infused and mutton fried, and when the three of us -had eaten our dinner a temporary tent was constructed of the oars, mast, -and sail, in which I lay down to sleep towards seven o'clock, wrapped in -my fur, and with the life-buoys for a pillow. I had toiled for -thirty-one hours continuously, so I went to sleep at once, and knew -nothing of the storm which raged all night, or of the twenty-five -pilgrims who passed by at dawn on their circuit of the holy lake. - - - - -CHAPTER XLV - -MORE LAKE VOYAGES - - -I was awakened at six o'clock, having felt no cold in the night, for the -minimum temperature was 40 deg.. The morning was fine, only too warm; the -pilgrims had gone away; we ate our breakfast, pushed the boat into the -water, and rowed about 90 yards from the shore towards the -north-north-east and north-north-west, describing a slight bend to camp -No. 214. On our left hand was a row of pebble mounds, gradually rising -to the top of the promontory which separates Manasarowar from Rakas-tal. - -Soon the monastery Gossul-gompa was seen on its pebble terrace, nearly -130 feet high, like a swallow's nest hanging over the lake. A group of -lamas stood silently watching the boat; they had never in their lives -seen such a contrivance on the holy lake. When we drew near they -vanished like rats into their holes, and only an old man remained -sitting by a balustrade. I asked him the name of the monastery, and he -said Gossul-gompa. The next point shut out the convent. The shore -lagoons continue, though the margin below the hills is only 30 to 60 -feet broad. The clay in which the lagoons are embedded is impermeable to -water, but the lake has only to rise a couple of feet to find an outlet -over the sandbank behind into the Rakas-tal, or Langak-tso, on the west. -And when the channel at the north-west corner is silted up, as it is -now, the Manasarowar has a subterranean outlet to the neighbouring lake, -and its water consequently remains perfectly fresh. - -I now intended to camp a little to the north at some suitable spot, and -thence row the following day over the lake to our headquarters near -Serolung-gompa. We took bearings of a cinnabar-red hill lying on the -north side of a slightly indented bay of the western shore. A fresh -southerly breeze was blowing, we hoisted the sail, and flew whizzing -over the lake. The pilgrims watched our voyage with the greatest -astonishment, and the monks of Gossul cautiously followed us on the -hills, no doubt wondering how such sacrilege would end. The wild-geese -swam with their young ones out into the lake, while other swimming birds -took themselves off some 100 yards inland, perhaps taking the boat for a -curious water-bird of unusual size. - -We went ashore at the red promontory, and while fuel was being collected -and the camp arranged, I reconnoitred the neighbourhood from the heights -above the landing-place. On the inner side of the shallow bay I found a -hollow with its bottom lower than the surface of the lake, and filled -with salt water, and on the west side of this swamp lies the lowest dip -in the isthmus separating the twin lakes. Up there runs the pilgrim -road, worn down by hundreds of thousands of weary feet. Three armed -horsemen rode along the way. They came up without dismounting, and -evidently did not know what to make of me. They could easily have taken -me prisoner now that I was separated from my men, but they did not think -of it, and rode on. A furious storm swept over the lake, its surface was -wildly agitated, and covered with white horses. The farther, eastern -part was of a deep green colour, while on our western shore it was -lighter. The water of the shore lagoons was dark purple from the -reflexion of the dense clouds. Towards four o'clock the air became -oppressively still, then the wind sprang up, and an equally violent -north-west storm came down raging and roaring. The wild south-easterly -waves were suppressed by it, and the undulations remained uncertain till -the new wave system was established. There was rain in many places round -the lake, but we felt only a few drops. About six o'clock the sky looked -threatening, with pitch-dark clouds all around, and not a trace could be -seen of the eastern shore; we seemed to stand on the coast of the -ocean. Soon after the wind veered round to the east-south-east, and then -the surf beat all the evening against our beach. How fortunate that the -weather had not been like this the evening before! - -We sat two hours by the fire and talked. Its flames flickered and darted -in all directions, so that they singed Shukkur Ali's goat's beard. The -weather was still so threatening that we made a shelter of the boat, in -which I lay down early to sleep. Before dozing off I listened to the -roar of the waves, and thought I heard all kinds of mysterious sounds in -the night, but it was only the cry of water-birds and the howling of the -wind among the hills. - -The men had orders to call me before sunrise, for we must hasten if we -wished to reach camp No. 212 before darkness set in. It was scarcely -light when I came out of my shelter. The last provisions were consumed -by the morning fire, and then we put off about half-past four in dull, -disagreeable weather. The strong west wind carried us rapidly away from -the shore--indeed, it was really too strong for our sail and mast, but -it took us on and doubled our pace. We had been sheltered under the -hills, but when we were a few minutes from the beach the lake became -uncomfortably rough. But it was of little consequence, for we sailed -with the waves and took in no water. - -The men, too, were more alive than on the first nocturnal voyage. They -had evidently made up their minds to reach their destination before -night, and they rowed like galley-slaves with the whip hanging over -them; they seemed to run a race with the west wind, and try to get away -before the waves rose too madly. The water hissed and foamed round the -boat, and bubbled in the wake as when butter is browned in a pan, and -beneath us the lake boiled up. It was a fine voyage as we rocked, -spinning rapidly over the holy waves. - -[Illustration: 249. SHEEP-SHEARING AT TUGU-GOMPA ON MANASAROWAR.] - -Shukkur Ali's refrain to the strokes of the oars is now "Ya pate, -parvardigar Rabel, alehmin" or "Illallah," while Rehim Ali responds to -the cry of his comrade with "Haap"--the _p_ jerked out quickly and -loudly like an explosion--and with the refrain "Illallah," or -"Svalallah." The Arabic words are, as usual in Ladak, much corrupted, -but they lighten the work, and after Shukkur Ali had yelled them out -thirty-five times in a minute for nine hours as loudly as his vocal -cords would let him, he was dreadfully hoarse in the evening. - -Then the soundings were 131, 171, 171, 177, 177, 185, 187, and 177. Out -beyond the abrasion terrace and its rather steep escarpment, the lake -bottom is practically level. Hanging cloud fringes show that rain is -pouring down in torrents on most sides, but we escape it. My excellent -boatmen row twice as fast as on the first night, but it is impossible to -induce them to row in time. If I loose the rudder a moment, my boat -falls off to the north or south instead of making east, where camp No. -212 lies. If it is dark before we reach the shore, our men are to light -a pile of wood to guide us. - -The day draws to an end, the wind sweeps away the clouds, and they seem -to gather round the mountains, which form a grand wreath around this -pearl of lakes. The wind dies quite away, the sun scorches my -weather-beaten face, and it is trying to the eyes when the sparkling -gold of the sunbeams falls straight upon them. Their blinding light -makes it difficult to distinguish our goal, but I hold the compass in my -hand. The waves sink and become more languid, and the sea is again -smooth as glass. Now we move more slowly, for the wind no longer pushes -behind, but the men are unwearied; their boat-song dies away over the -water, awaking no echo. The hills of the eastern shore show no -perceptible difference in size between one sounding-point and the next. -I sit dreaming, the rhythmical song and the splashing of the oars -exercising a soporific effect. I seem to hear the tramp of a horse which -bears a rider in silver harness over the granite mountains of the -Trans-Himalaya through an unknown land, and in the dream I perceive that -the features of the rider are my own. Then I am sad, for the dream is -false. I have certainly crossed the Trans-Himalaya by three passes, but -the most important part of the exploration has not been accomplished. -That I have done my utmost in dealing both with the Tibetans and the -Chinese to gain access to the country north of the Tsangpo is no -consolation to me. If one can storm the opposing bulwark of Nature, one -should be able to overcome the obstinacy of man. Up yonder in the north, -behind Kailas, the Trans-Himalaya extends its granite ramparts, and I -must go there though it cost me my life. I must go there, if I clothe -myself in the rags of a mendicant lama and beg my way from one black -tent to another. - -But we are still on the holy lake; it is a day of rest and a summer's -day. I feel the skin of my face cracked by the burning of the sun. The -hours crawl so slowly over the lake; patience, patience. The clouds -display wonderful tone-effects; white and grey, sharply defined, they -lie in different stages before the mountains, and behind them dark blue -and purple curtains seem to hang down. We might be gliding over the -bright floor of a temple hall, its walls richly decorated with flags and -standards, which hang down from golden hooks on the ceiling of the sky, -and touch the dust of earth with their fringes. The genii of Siva's -paradise seem to hover round us. Now Shukkur Ali has taken to a new cry: -"Ya aferin adett," to which he adds "Ya, Allah," as he lifts his oar, -and Rehim Ali chimes in with "Shupp." The depth still remains about 180 -feet. To the south-east curious clouds are reflected in the lake, and a -mist seems to be creeping over the water. All the tones are so light, -airy, and grey that the landscape, which surrounds us like a ring where -the water ends, seems hardly real. The twin summits of Pundi on the -north-east are dark and solemn, and equally dark and solemn is the -mirror of the lake. Silver beads drop from the oars and glitter like -diamonds in the sun. I could live and die on this heavenly lake without -ever growing weary of the wonderful spectacle always presenting fresh -surprises. - -Meanwhile a light south-easterly breeze disturbs again all the -reflexions. The valleys Pachen and Pachung open their doors wider and -wider, and allow us to see deeper into the recesses of the mountain. We -recognize the hills above camp No. 212, but the tents are not visible. -But we see a white spot on the northern shore which we take for a gompa. -The depth is somewhat over 197 feet; "Ya bismillah hum!" is Shukkur -Ali's exclamation. At the sixteenth point the depth has again decreased, -the south-easterly breeze has ceased, and the lake is again a sheet of -glass. Now the tents can be seen as tiny specks, and we hope to complete -this line also without a storm. A long, low, smooth swell of closely -following waves, like the wake of a distant steamer, comes to meet us. -How has it been produced, since the lake is quite peaceful? Perhaps by a -slight convulsion of the earth's crust, which has disturbed the shore. -The undulations on this round lake are very peculiar. At point No. 20 -the depth is only 128 feet, and now we have not far to go. - -Crack! Shukkur Ali's oar broke off in the middle with a bang, and the -boat drew rapidly away from the blade end, which had to be picked up. -The good man was so dumbfoundered and bewildered that he stammered, -"That does not matter," and went on rowing with the shaft in the air. -Now, when the tents were so near, he had developed too much strength. -"It is well that the old man does not burst himself," I thought. We tied -the parts together with a piece of string. There was a stir on the shore -when we landed. The waiting men showed by word and gesture how glad they -were to have us back again after giving way to all kinds of dismal -forebodings about our sad fate. Just as they caught sight of the boat -out on the lake, Robert was about to send out patrols up and down the -shore. All was well in the camp, except that the Tibetans were troubled -because their provisions were at an end. I gave them money to buy -_tsamba_ at the monastery. In the evening I discussed with Robert a plan -of rowing southwards to investigate the lake bit by bit. We bought a -plank and two staves in Serolung, and on the first leisure day Shukkur -Ali cut out with an axe two excellent oars, after a pattern I had cut -for him from the lid of a cigarette box. - -On the next day, the anniversary of my arrival in Leh, a new month -began. Every time I write in my diary "the first," I wonder what the -new month holds in its lap--new discoveries or new disappointments? But -I hope always, and believe that all will come right at last. Rabsang and -Tundup Sonam rowed, and Robert steered along the three-feet line about -55 yards from the land, while I sat in the bow, compass in hand, and -drew a map of the shore-line, the hills and valleys, and all the details -that are characteristic of a lake. Charles A. Sherring states in his -book on western Tibet that Mr. Drummond, Commissioner of Bareilly, -sailed in 1855 in a boat on Manasarowar, but no result has come to my -knowledge; on the contrary, I find that the very latest map of the lake -needs a thorough correction. Soundings had never been taken before, and -the object of my boating expeditions was to collect material for a -detailed isobathic map. When we left behind us the basin of the -Brahmaputra at the pass Tamlung, I had already suspected that -Manasarowar was a member of the hydrographic system of the Sutlej, and I -wished to try if I could not make a contribution towards the solution of -this problem. I knew that my investigations could only be inadequate, -but they yielded a number of facts hitherto unknown. Among these are the -systematic sounding of the bed, by means of which conclusions may be -drawn as to the origin and formation of the lake. I soon convinced -myself that the lake depression had been excavated by old glaciers from -the southern mountains, as I at first conjectured, and was not dammed up -by moraine walls across the broad valley. But want of space forbids me -to enter fully into a discussion of this interesting question. - -We glide in a flat curve to the south-west, and have to increase our -distance from the shore that we may not run aground on the sandy bottom. -The water at this season of the year has a fairly constant temperature -of about 50 deg.. Then we approach the mouth of the Tage-tsangpo. For about -two-thirds of a mile the river flows parallel to the shore of the lake, -being separated from it by an embankment 13 feet high, which has been -cast up by the waves and the pressure of the ice. Here we encamped among -driftsand and bushes, and measured the Tage-tsangpo. Its breadth was -56.8 feet, its maximum depth 3.4 feet, and its discharge 397.6 cubic -feet a second, or 106 cubic feet more than where we last gauged it above -the Na-marden affluent. I have already related how we first came in -contact with this river at the pass Tam-lung-la; its source stream, the -Gang-lung-chu or "water of the ice valley," comes from the Gang-lung -mountain in the south, and so there is a glacier or "ice valley" in this -mountain which is the origin of the Tage-tsangpo. It is seen from the -Tam-lung-la, and is the glacier which I venture to call the Sutlej's -genetic source or the real original source. We shall return to this -attractive problem. - -From every camp on the lake Robert rowed out with two men at right -angles to the beach, sounding the depth every five minutes. By means of -these radiating lines we discovered the saucer-shaped form of the lake, -for, as I have already remarked, the lake bottom is on the whole very -even. Now, from camp No. 215, Robert rowed out to a depth of 121 feet. - -On August 2 we continued our boating excursion, while the caravan -marched along the shore. All went excellently well, we heard not a word -of any officials in pursuit of us, and the Tibetans placed yaks and -mules at our disposal with the greatest willingness. A couple of showers -fell, loud thunder rolled in Gurla Mandatta, and a violent -south-westerly breeze forced us to come to a halt and wait at a place on -the shore where the brook from the Nima-pendi valley debouches, forming -a delta within a broken mole. Fish are plentiful in the brook, but here -also the Tibetans asked us not to catch them, and we respected their -wishes--only stupid and uncouth men wound the religious feelings of -others. By this brook the lake receives a tribute of 49.4 cubic feet per -second, while the Richung-chu entering farther to the west-south-west -contributes 63.6 cubic feet. - -We passed Yanggo-gompa under sail at a rather short distance, and -steered straight for Tugu-gompa, picturesquely situated on a strand -terrace. Here begin the long lagoons and mud embankment we had seen from -the western beach, and we were carried comfortably ashore and greeted -politely by a band of Hindus consisting of pilgrims and traders. A -number of Tibetan shepherds from the north were staying here, where a -not unimportant wool market is held every summer. A group of monks stood -on the roof. Our camp was pitched close to the foot of the monastery, on -the shore road, and had a fine view over the lake and Kailas behind it. -At the southern wall of the convent is a yard enclosed by a stone wall, -where 500 sheep were packed like herrings in a barrel, to be shorn in -turn by Hindus and Botias who come from Almora and the border country in -the south. The nomads receive eight annas (8d.) for every sheep, good -interest on their live capital. The wool from 500 sheep is said to -amount to 16 yak-loads (Illust. 249). - -[Illustration: 250. THE GOD OF THE LAKE RISING FROM TSO-MAVANG. - - Sketch by the Author.] - -We paid at once a visit to the monastery, where the thirteen monks and -their abbot, Tabga Rinchen, received us with the greatest kindness and -politeness, showed us everything, and explained to us the various temple -halls. They had heard of my voyages on the lake, and had now seen with -their own eyes my boat sailing before a favourable wind, and they -expressed their sincere conviction that I must possess occult powers to -defy with impunity the god of the holy lake. But they understood that -this was owing to my friendship with the Tashi Lama, who had given me -his holy blessing. The monastery Tugu-gompa is a dependency of -Shibeling-gompa in Purang, and most of the monks come from there to -spend three years on the lake. They own herds in Chang-tang, trade, and -seem to be in good circumstances; at any rate, they help the poor -pilgrims who have nothing to eat on their wanderings round Tso-mavang. -They receive gifts from well-to-do pilgrims. The temple halls are -picturesque, handsome and in very good order. You enter from an upper -balcony into an outer hall with wall paintings, among which is a picture -of Tso-mavang with the fish-god, Madoe Gemo, rising from the waves -(Illust. 250). He has seven water-snakes in his hair, and the lower part -of his body is like a green dolphin. The lake is as deep as it is broad, -and concentric rings encircle the rising god. The abbot said that the -fish-god comes up to greet the god of Tso-mavang, Hlabsen Dorche -Barva, who gallops in a cloud of grey fiery tongues and smoke on a pink -horse, and is armed with spear, bow and quiver. In the background stands -Kang-rinpoche, the holy mountain. The whole picture is wanting in -perspective and proportion, but it is curious and interesting, and the -Lamaist artist has done his best to idealize the holy lake by his -drawing and colouring. I made a copy of this work of art, which has some -relationship with our old country paintings. - -From the entrance hall a small door gives access to the holiest shrine -in all Tugu-gompa, namely, the hall of the lake god. He is represented -only as a mask, surrounded by _kadakhs_, and seems to peep out from -between curtains. A couple of flames burn before him and the usual bowls -are placed on a stool table. No man but the monks themselves may enter -this little alcove, but I obtained permission to sit on the threshold -and draw a sketch of it (Illust. 251). I regarded this unknown Hlabsen -Dorche Barva almost with reverence, for he ruled over my beloved lake -and had been so gracious to me. - -But the finest sight of all was the view from the monastery roof. The -highest parts of Gurla Mandatta, here called Mama-nani or Mamo-nani, -were concealed by the lower flanks, for we were too near to it, but the -surface of the lake stretched out northwards to an immense distance. A -lama, who had served at several different times in the convent, asserted -that the lake rose 24 to 28 inches in rainy summers, and declared that -eighteen years before the water had reached to the foot of the red -facade of the monastery. This seemed improbable, for the distance -between the lake and the monastery was 323 feet, and the foot of the -convent facade (the right corner looking from the strand) lay 20.67 feet -above the level of the lake. I quote these figures to enable a future -explorer to determine whether the lake has risen or fallen since August -2, 1907. - -I passed the next days in the monastery, sketched the lamas at their -various temple services, and fell in love with this pleasant, handsome -Tugu-gompa. Punso Lama, a young monk, was my particular friend, and -showed me everything with the inexhaustible knowledge of a trained -museum attendant. Three officials of the Devashung had established -themselves in the entrance hall in the company of the four ghostly -kings, and mattresses, bundles, tables, swords and guns lay or stood in -profane disorder at the entrance to the dwelling of the high gods -(Illusts. 252, 253, 257). - -Meanwhile Robert rowed out from the southern shore, and sounded the -depths down to the contour of 207 feet. On August 5, we paid a visit to -Yanggo-gompa, which contains ten monks and a nun. They told me that they -came from the Hor country in the north of central Tibet, and therefore -call themselves Horpa, but also Dokpa; the Changpa are the nomads of -Chang-tang. The abbot is from Sekiya-gompa. In the monastery's -_gunkang_, a dark subterranean crypt, hang masks, _kadakhs_, drums, -spears and guns. I asked for what purpose the monks wanted the firearms, -as one of their fundamental dogmas forbids them to extinguish the light -of life, and they answered that with these guns many wild yaks had been -killed, whose flesh had been used for human food, and that therefore the -guns had been installed in a place of honour in the monastery. Yamba -Tsering, a monk twenty-two years old, sat with his head against a wooden -pillar, and gazed in silence at the dim light which fell into the crypt -through an impluvium; he looked like a dreamer, a searcher after hidden -truth (Illust. 256). Beside him sat the wrinkled nun. Both found their -way into my sketch-book (Illusts. 258, 259). The foot of the monastery -facade lies exactly 143/4 feet above the level of the lake, and the river -Richen-chu, entering the lake behind the convent, discharges 62.15 cubic -feet of water. - -Yanggo-gompa was the third of the eight monasteries of the holy lake -which I had visited, and I wished to see them all without exception. And -I also wished to gauge all the streams falling into the lake. It -fluctuates from day to day, according as there is rain or sunshine, but -only by exact measurements could I arrive at the volume which is poured -into the clear basin of Tso-mavang during a day of summer. - - - - -CHAPTER XLVI - -A STORMY VOYAGE OVER THE HOLY LAKE - - -On August 6 we stayed at Tugu-gompa, one of the most interesting -monasteries I have seen in Tibet. I was engaged all day long, with -Robert and Rabsang to assist me, in measuring with a tape the dimensions -of the three storeys, and drawing plans of them. The third, however, is -little more than a roof balcony. I have no space to give the results -here. As we were on the roof, eight monks were sitting in the inner -court counting their receipts, which were duly entered in a cash-book. -Their rupees and _tengas_ lay in heaps on a short-legged table. I gave a -handful of rupees, throwing them among the piles, and disturbing the -calculations of the monks. However, they were very thankful for this -unexpected contribution, which seemed to fall from heaven. - -About thirty Hindu pilgrims set up their shabby tents near us. In the -evening they lighted a fire on a flat metal dish, which was pushed out -on to the water, and shone like a beacon fire by the bank. This floating -pyre was meant as a homage to the lake. - -On August 7 I was awakened early when the sun was pouring fresh gold -over the blue lake, and a lama on the convent roof was blowing -long-drawn heavy notes from his shell horn over the surface. I hastened -to the shore where the boat lay ready with its usual equipment, Shukkur -Ali and Tundup Sonam put the sounding-line in order and stowed our -baggage. The Hindus lined the bank like the wild-geese, left their -clothing on land, and waded, with only a cloth round their loins, to -bathe in the holy beatifying water of the lake. It must be very -refreshing to people from the close jungles of India to wash in such a -cool morning in water at only a few degrees above freezing-point. Most -of them, however, go in no farther than up to their knees. There they -squat down, or scoop up the water in their joined hands, and throw it -over them. They make symbolical signs, fill their mouth with water and -send it out in a stream, hold their hands flat against their faces and -look at the rising sun, and perform all kinds of absurd, complicated -manipulations, which I remember seeing at the ghats of Benares. They are -sunburnt, thin and miserable, and they are too thinly clad--I did not -see a single sheepskin--and they complain of the severity of the -climate, catch chills, and come to my tent for medicine. Some stood -about an hour in the water before they returned to the beach to put on -their clothing, and then they sat in groups talking. But they return to -the valleys of India convinced that they have performed an action -well-pleasing to the gods, and they take with them small metal-bottles -filled with holy water from Manasarowar to give to their relations. They -believe that one of the ways of salvation runs past Manasarowar. They -are always hopeful, and that is a fine thing for poor pilgrims on the -face of the earth. - -[Illustration: 251. TEMPLE HALL OF THE LAKE-GOD OF TSO-MAVANG.] - -[Illustration: 252. CHENRESI'S IMAGE IN TUGU-GOMPA. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -They stared with astonishment at our boat, which was driven out from the -shore by powerful strokes, perhaps with envious eyes, for many asked me -afterwards to let them go with me, that they might for the rest of their -lives look back to the time when they floated on the sacred waves. The -lake lay smooth and still, but at the first sounding-station (115 feet), -the lake god shook himself, a north-westerly breeze sprang up, and the -waves splashed and danced briskly against our bow, for our third line of -soundings was carried north, 27 deg. W., towards camp No. 214. We sounded -174, 207, 226, 236, 236, 246, and 253 feet, while the waves increased, -and the boat rode well but with diminished speed. Gurla Mandatta was -almost clear, but Kailas was buried in clouds. The wind fell and the sun -glowed, and everything foretold a fine day. At the ninth point the -depth was less, 246 feet; we had passed the line of soundings made in -the night and its great depths. Afterwards the depths were 223, 197, -187, 194, and 200 feet. - -The north-westerly breeze began to blow again, and at mid-day clouds -gathered in the north. A heavy bluish-grey layer of clouds sank down -slowly on the mountain flanks, and from its under side rain fringes hung -down, greyish-purple on a compact dark background. All the mountains and -the whole strand disappeared, and the masses of cloud seemed as though -they would fall on the lake. We passed the fifteenth station, which -showed a depth of 200 feet, and kept a steady course towards the red -promontory. The rowers put forth all their strength when I had pointed -out to them that we were drawing near to the shelter of the bank, and -that the waves were becoming smaller the farther we advanced. We had -left Gossul-gompa a good distance to the left; I could not see the -monastery myself, but the men saw it as a small white speck in the -distance. - -Just before one o'clock yellow swirls of dust and sand appeared near the -landspit which we were making for. They became denser and larger, and -looked yellow and dismal on the dark purple background of gathering -clouds. It was not the first time I had seen such storm warnings. - -"We are in for a storm," I said quietly. - -"God is with us," replied Shukkur Ali quite as calmly. - -"Row on and we shall get in before the waves are high." - -"If we turn straight to the shore, it will be nearer," suggested Shukkur -Ali. - -"No, we will not alter the course, we will make straight for our goal, -and we shall soon be in the shelter of the hills on the shore; there are -only three soundings to be taken, and they can be left for another -time." - -The wind fell again, and it began to rain in a few large drops, which on -reaching the surface of the water remained an instant as separate round -beads, as though they were covered with a film of oil. Then followed an -extremely heavy shower of hail which lashed the water as it streamed -down, enveloped us in semi-darkness, caused the lake to leap up in -millions of tiny fountains, and in two minutes made the inside of the -boat white. Nothing was visible but ourselves and the boat, only water -and hail, which scourged the lake like rods and produced a hissing -gurgle. Now and then the clouds were lighted up by quivering lightning, -and the thunder growled heavily and threateningly in the north. Then the -men turned round, but could see nothing in the mist; they were uneasy -and we all felt that there was danger ahead. - -The hail was followed by pelting rain, a downpour of such furious -impetuosity that I could not imagine any more tremendous. It fell in -such quantities and with such force that we were bowed down by it. I had -on three shirts and a leather vest, but after a short time I felt that -the water was streaming down my bare skin, which had this advantage that -all the future douches that awaited us could make no further impression. -I had my fur coat on my knees with the skin side up, and in all its -hollows the water collected in small pools. A quantity of water fell -into the boat and washed about with the stroke of the oars. The shore -was not visible, and I steered by the compass. - -"Row on, we have not much farther to go." - -At length the rain became finer, but at four minutes after one o'clock, -we heard a deafening roar in the north-east, a sound such as only a -storm of the greatest violence can produce. Hail and rain were nothing -to it; now that the heavy sheets of water were withdrawn the storm had a -free course and swept suddenly and furiously over the lake. Why had we -not started an hour earlier, instead of watching the religious ablutions -of the Hindus? No, the god of Tso-mavang was angry and would teach us -once for all not to treat so lightly the lake which splashes his -dolphin's tail with its green water. How we envied the monks in -Gossul-gompa, and our men down in the south under the peaceful walls of -the Tugu monastery! What would they say, what would they do, if we were -drowned like cats in this raging lake? - -For a minute we struggled frantically to keep our course in spite of -the waves which swept upon us from the right. They swelled up with -astonishing rapidity, and every wave which dashed against the taut -canvas of the boat and dissolved into spray, made a cracking sound as -though the little vessel were about to burst. The next was still larger; -I warded it off with my Indian helmet, and Tundup Sonam received a cold -buffet which disconcerted him for a moment. After the third, which threw -its foaming crest over the gunwale, the water stood 4 inches deep in the -boat, the little nutshell with the weight of three men lay far too deep -in the water, and the water we had shipped gurgled, lapped, and splashed -hither and thither with the roll of the boat. - -Now I perceived that the attempt to hold our course was hopeless. We -must fall off with the wind and waves. We had Gossul-gompa to the south, -50 deg. W., and the storm was from the north-east; we could find refuge in -the monastery, if we could get so far. The difficulty was to turn at -right angles without capsizing. Twice I failed, and we shipped more -water, but the third time I succeeded, and now, if we had any care for -our lives we must prevent the boat from veering up into the wind; the -storm came a little from the right. Tundup Sonam, who rowed the -starboard oar in the bow, had all the work, while Shukkur Ali had only -to dip in his oar occasionally at my command, but though outwardly calm -he was too excited and eager, and when my voice could not be heard amid -the howling of the storm, I put my hand on his knuckles to make him -leave the oar alone. - -Now began a voyage such as I had never experienced in all my journeys in -Tibet. The storm increased to a hurricane, and under its pressure the -waves became as high as the billows of the Baltic in stormy weather; a -steamer would have rolled in such a sea, and we in the little canvas -boat had to negotiate the unexpected cross rolls following one another. -Lashed, hunted, and persecuted by the raging force of the wind, we swept -over the lake. Every new wave that lifted us up seemed bigger than the -last. Some had sharp smooth crests, as though moulded out of mountain -crystal, and reflected the dark clouds in the north. It seemed as -though a bottomless, watery grave yawned in front of us which might at -any moment swallow up our boat. Others came rolling up foam-capped, -hissing and thundering behind us, and we shuddered at the thought that -they might fill the boat in an instant and send it to the bottom, but it -rose bravely over the crests. The view was open on all sides, the sun -was visible in the south, Gurla Mandatta was clear and sharp, to the -south, 50 deg. W., even the terrace on which Gossul-gompa stands could be -seen, and it was black and threatening only in the north. During the -second when the boat was balanced quivering on the crest of the wave, we -might fancy ourselves transplanted to a lofty pass in Chang-tang with a -world of mountain ranges all round us, while the foam of the waves had -an illusive resemblance to the fields of eternal snow. - -But this wave also passes on and the boat sinks into a hollow, we fall -into a water grotto, the nearest waves conceal the view, the walls of -the grotto are of the purest malachite behind us and like emerald in -front. Now we are lifted up again--"At it, Tundup Sonam, or the huge -foaming crest will thrust us down!"--he puts forth all his strength and -the wave passes us. It is irregular and reminds us of the pyramidal -summit of Kubi-gangri; two such crests tower up in front of us, and -their edges are shattered into spray by the wind. They are as -transparent as glass, and through one of them the image of Gurla -Mandatta's bright white snowfields is refracted as in a magnifying -glass. We have a watery portal in front of us and the tips of the waves -are gilded with the faint reflexion of the sun in the south. - -[Illustration: 253. THE LHAKANG HALL IN TUGU-GOMPA. - - Sketch by the Author.] - -We struggle bravely and I sit on the bottom of the boat pushing the -rudder with all my strength to keep the boat in the right direction, -while the spray, lashed by the wind, spurts over us as from a fire-hose. -Frequently a broken crest slips over the gunwale, but we have not a hand -free to bale out the water. We see the boat filling slowly--shall we -reach the bank before it sinks? The mast and sail lie with two reserve -oars tied fast across the middle of the boat. If we could set a sail the -boat would be easier to handle, but it is not to be thought of now, -when we can hardly keep our balance sitting down and stiffening -ourselves with our feet, with the heavy blows and the unexpected -positions the boat assumes according to the form of the waves, their -slopes, curves and curls. And, besides, in such a storm the mast would -break like glass. - -We had turned at right angles to our line of soundings for now we -thought only of saving our lives, if that were possible--to reach the -land before the boat sank. Then, in the most critical moment, when an -irregular wave threatened the boat, I called on Tundup Sonam to put -forth all his strength, and he did it too well, so that the oar broke -with a crack. Now all hung by a hair, we could not manage the boat and -it must inevitably capsize and be swamped under this foaming crest. But -Tundup Sonam realized the danger, and with a quick grasp tore loose a -reserve oar, while Shukkur Ali backed with the leeward oar; after -another douche we trimmed the boat again. - -The longer the storm lasts and the larger the expanse of lake left -behind us in the north-east, the higher rise the waves; we are swept -forwards, we rock up and down on the lumpy lake, and fresh cold douches -are constantly poured over us from the crests as they split into spray -like plumes of feathers. How small and helpless we feel in the presence -of these roused infuriated forces of Nature, how imposing and awful, and -yet how grand and splendid is this spectacle! The two men had never in -their lives seen anything to equal it. I sit with my back to the -pursuing billows, but the men have them before their faces, and I know -when large waves are approaching by their muttered "Ya Allah!" Tundup is -as pale as he can be with a sun-tanned skin; Shukkur Ali seems composed, -but he does not sing to-day as he dips in his oar. Tundup afterwards -confided to me that he was quite convinced that we should perish. - -It is impossible to keep my eye-glasses dry and clear, and I have not -for a long time had a dry thread on me. Shukkur Ali turns round and says -that the monastery is in sight, but it is too far for my eyes. "Look at -the wave yonder," I call out. "Is it not beautiful?" He smiles and -murmurs his "Ya Allah." Its crest breaks close to us like a waterfall, -and, air being forced into the water, it rises again in bubbling foam -and the lake seems to boil and seethe. Hitherto there has been drizzling -rain, but now the air is clear. The lake assumes a different hue, the -waves are dark and bright, close to us black as ink, but lighter towards -their tips, and the horizon of the lake is often seen through the next -wave as through a sheet of ice. - -Thus we are driven on, and the time seems endless. For five quarters of -an hour we have striven with the freaks of the lake god, and every -minute has seemed to us an hour. At last the monastery Gossul appears -and grows larger, the details becoming distinguishable, and I see the -white facade with its upper border of red, its windows and roof -streamers, and some monks behind a balustrade with their eyes fixed on -the boat. And below the cloister terrace there is wild foaming surf. How -we are to land I cannot imagine; I have experienced such adventures -before, but never anything as furious as to-day. We envy the monks up -above with firm ground under their feet, and should like to be beside -them. The log has been out all the time, and now I draw it in with a -quick pull and call out to the men to be ready to jump overboard when I -give the sign. I place the note-book and the map I have sketched to-day, -all dripping with water, into the front of my leather vest, that at any -rate I may not lose the figures I have obtained. - -[Illustration: 254. LAMA WITH PRAYER-DRUM.] - -[Illustration: 255. LAMA BEFORE THE TEMPLE DOOR IN TUGU-GOMPA. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -We have only a few minutes more. With the help of Shukkur Ali I manage -to get out of my heavy soaked boots, and have scarcely done so when the -boat is pitched violently into the breakers on the shore. Here the water -is as brown as oatmeal, and the undertow sucks out the boat again. Now -Tundup Sonam wishes to jump out of the boat but I advise him to try -first with the oar if he can reach the bottom; he feels no ground and -has to wait patiently. The boat receives a blow from behind and -threatens to capsize; the oarsmen work as if they were possessed to -fight against the undertow, and before I am aware Tundup has jumped out, -and, up to his breast in water, draws the boat shorewards with all his -might. Now we two follow his example, and with our united strength -succeed at last in drawing the boat up the beach before the raging surf -can dash it to pieces. One more hard pull and we have drawn it up over -the mud embankment into the lagoon, which the waves cannot reach. - -Now we had had enough, and we threw ourselves down on the sand, quite -tired out. The fearful excitement and tension of body and mind during an -hour and a half was followed by stupor and weariness; we had nothing to -say to one another, and I gave no orders for the night. We were -shipwrecked men, and had every reason to be pleased and thankful that we -had firm ground under our feet again, and had escaped safely from the -green graves which had yawned below us, threatening to engulf us if we -had not been on the alert in critical moments. - -We had only dozed a few minutes when two monks and three young novices -came gently over the sand and approached us cautiously, as if they were -not quite certain whether we were alive or dead. When we got up they -greeted us kindly, and inquired how we were and whether we needed help. -They were deeply interested, and told us how they had seen from their -balcony the boat tossing on the waves, and had been convinced that it -must founder in the unusually violent storm that had swept over the -lake. They had been frightened to death, and said that it was fearful to -see the boat sink in the trough of the waves, and every moment they -expected that it would not appear again. On landing we were immediately -below them, and the sight was too terrible. Were we hurt at all, and -would we come up into the monastery and spend the night in their warm -rooms? But I thanked them for their kind offers and preferred to sleep -as usual in the open air. If they could get us fuel and food we should -be much obliged. - -They bowed and disappeared in their maze of staircases, and presently -came back with sacks full of dung, brushwood, and billets, and soon a -grand fire was burning on the terrace. They kindled it themselves, for -our matches and tinder were quite useless. Then they went off to fetch -some eatables, for the contents of our packet of provisions were turned -into paste by the water. - -Meanwhile we made ourselves comfortable on the narrow strip of ground -below the monastery. Two large caves opened into the terrace, their -vaults black with smoke, for pilgrims and herdsmen spend the night in -them. They would have sheltered us from the wind, but they were so dirty -that we preferred to pitch our camp at the edge of the bank. It was wet -with rain, but we scraped out dry sand with our hands. The boat was -taken to pieces and emptied--it was half full of water--and then it was -set up by the fire as a screen. - -When the fire had burned up and was glowing hot, we stripped ourselves -stark naked, wrung out one garment after another, and crouched by the -fire to dry our under-clothing and ourselves. Each had to look after -himself, for we were all in the same plight. I spread out my things as -near as possible to the fire and hung them over the oars and life-buoys -to expose them to the wind and heat. Meanwhile I dried my woollen vest -bit by bit, turned it inside out, held it to the fire on this side and -that, out and inside, and when it was quite dry put it on again. Then -came the turn of my unmentionables, then of my stockings, and so on. -Nothing could be done with the leather waistcoat and the fur coat; they -would not be dry by night, but what did it matter? It was at any rate -better here than in the crystal halls of the lake king. - -It is still broad daylight, but the storm rages, Gurla Mandatta and all -the country to the south has disappeared, for the gale is passing off in -that direction. There is fine close rain again. Falcons scream in the -holes of the pebbly slopes--dangerous neighbours for the bluish-grey -pigeons cooing on the rocks. - -The monks came down again with sweet and sour milk and _tsamba_, tea we -had ourselves, and the simple dinner tasted delicious. Then we sat a -couple of hours by the fire while the storm continued. I dried my diary -and entered the notes which form the contents of this chapter. Between -whiles Shukkur Ali entertained me with stories of his adventures during -his travels in the service of Younghusband and Wellby. Now that he had -escaped death by the skin of his teeth, the past returned more vividly -to his memory, and when once he was started on his reminiscences he -could not be stopped, good old Shukkur Ali. I listened with one ear and -wrote with the other--I had almost said--not to appear uninterested; -and, after all, the chief thing to Shukkur Ali was that he could -prattle. - -At last the northern sky becomes clear, and all the mountains are white -with snow; before only Kailas and its next neighbours were distinguished -by white caps, but now all is white. We are certainly past the early -days of August, but is it possible that autumn is already beginning? The -summer has been so short that we have hardly had time to get accustomed -to it. - -Another night falls on the earth. Impenetrable darkness surrounds us, -and only in the zenith a few stars sparkle. The swell still roars -against the strand, but Tso-mavang is gently falling asleep. Above us -towers the monastery on its steep wall like a fortress, and the monks -have retired to rest. The falcons are heard no more, and the pigeons -have sought their nests. - - - - -CHAPTER XLVII - -ON THE ROOF OF THE GOSSUL MONASTERY - - -In the middle of the night I was awaked by a terrible row; a dog from -the monastery had crept under my men's half of the boat to see what it -could find, but chanced to fall into the hands of Shukkur Ali, and got a -good thrashing. The temperature fell to 37.4 deg.. Rabsang came riding up at -sunrise. The men had feared that we must have perished in the waves. He -brought provisions and a packet of letters from Thakur Jai Chand, the -British commercial agent in Gartok, who was at the time in Gyanima, -where the fair was being held. He wrote that Colonel Dunlop Smith had -directed him on June 27 to try to obtain news of me. Guffaru had -performed his task satisfactorily, and all my baggage was safely -deposited in Gartok, and my voluminous correspondence had been forwarded -to Simla. From Mr. Sherring, who had made a journey to Manasarowar some -years previously, I received a very kind letter; he had also had the -kindness to send me his interesting book on western Tibet, while his -wife had added a whole packet of English and French newspapers, -literature the more acceptable that the extensive library presented to -me by O'Connor had long been read through and dispersed to the four -winds of heaven. It was a singular coincidence that where I had suffered -shipwreck I was so unexpectedly brought again into contact with the -outer world. - -I was deeply moved by Rabsang's information that the monks in -Tugu-gompa, when they saw the storm burst over our frail boat, had burnt -incense before the images of the lake-god and implored him to deliver -us from the waves. They had done it of their own accord, and not at the -request of any one. They said it would be deplorable if we were lost; -they had a heart, and were not so unfeeling as might be supposed. Few -proofs of sympathy have touched me like this. - -Accompanied by Rabsang, I ascended in the early morning the winding path -up to the monastery. At the turns and projections stand cubical -_chhortens_ and votive cairns, and here and there a streamer flutters on -a mast. A _samkang_, a hermit's dwelling, hangs over a cavern produced -by the fall of a huge mass from the slope of the pebble terrace eleven -years ago. I told the monks that they should not put too much confidence -in the ground on which their monastery stands. They reckon millions of -years for the soul's wanderings, but their earthly dwellings are not -built for eternity. They answered calmly that the monastery had already -stood for one hundred years, and that it would certainly stand as long -as they were living there; for in general the monks are changed every -three years, and they come here from the monastery Shibeling in Purang, -by which they are maintained. There are only three of them, but I saw -also four novices, seven, nine, ten, and eleven years old respectively, -running about as actively as mice, and waiting on the monks. Their -mother, a nun from Purang, also lives in the monastery. She had been -married before she "took the veil," and when her husband died she -dedicated herself and all her children to the Church. I afterwards -learned that one of the "boys" was a girl; they were so like one another -that I could not distinguish between them. At first they were shy and -timid, but after I had given them a few silver coins they were soon at -ease with me. They appeared small and stunted for their age, but the -abbot told me that they had mourned so much at the death of their father -that their growth was checked. Almost all the day they were bringing -water from the lake in clay jugs, which they carried in a basket -suspended by a strap round their forehead; they carry therefore with the -muscles of the head and neck, which are consequently so much developed -that they seem too large for the body. But they also receive instruction -and take their first uncertain steps in the domain of wisdom; the eldest -is said to have already acquired considerable knowledge. - -I went into the temple and studied it thoroughly. I remained there -twelve hours, drew, took measurements, made all kinds of inquiries, and -took notes. Every part is handsome, interesting, and well-kept. The -_lhakang_ is like an old armoury, a museum of fine, rare articles, which -show great artistic skill, and have been designed, carved, modelled, and -painted with unwearied patience and real taste. The hall, supported by -eight pillars, has two red divans; a statue of Buddha in gilded bronze, -and a number of other idols; drums hanging in stands, lacquered tables -with the usual religious objects, and a large quantity of votive bowls -in the brightest brass and of uncommon, tasteful forms. On both sides of -the pillars hang _tankas_ in four rows, which are as long as standards -and triumphal banners, and are so arranged that they do not prevent the -light from playing on the faces of the gods. In a corner surely waves a -Swedish flag? Ah, it is only a blue and yellow _tanka_, but it reminds -me of the golden period of our fame and victories. - -The _lhakang_ of Gossul is not built on the usual plan; the skylight is -wanting, and instead there are three windows in the facade facing the -lake. But the gods do not see the lake, for the windows are pasted over -with paper on a trellis-work of laths. Why is the beautiful view -concealed and the daylight excluded? To enhance the mystical gloom -within and excite the greater wonder and reverence in the minds of the -pilgrims who come in half-blinded from the daylight, and that they may -not see that the gold is only gilded brass, and that the marks of the -brush and the chisel may not be too profanely evident. The poorer a -monastery, the darker are its temple halls; the darkness hides their -poverty and helps the monks to impose on the faithful. - -[Illustration: 256. YANGGO-GOMPA.] - -[Illustration: 257. INTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE, TUGU. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Somchung is the name of a small compartment no larger than a cabin. On -its divan are cushions and pieces of cloth arranged in circles to -form two nests, in which two monks sit during the night service. On the -altar table before Sakya-muni's image stand forty bowls filled with -water, and on another table some peacock's feathers in a silver vase, -with which the gods are sprinkled with holy water to the cry "Om a hum." - -In former times robbers and footpads harboured here, and had their -hiding-places in the caves below the monastery. From these they fell -upon the pilgrims and killed many of them. Then the god of Tso-mavang -appeared to Jimpa Ngurbu, a noble lama, and ordered him to build the -monastery, that it might be a sure stronghold for the protection of -pilgrims, and for the honour of the gods. Even now the country is not -safe. Last year two scoundrels, who had plundered the nomads, were taken -and executed; and we ourselves saw ten Gurkhas, armed with guns, who -rode past us in search of a robber band which had stolen their horses -and sheep. - -The monks said that the lake usually freezes in January; in stormy -weather the ice breaks up, but when the weather is calm and the frost is -sharp, the whole lake freezes over in a single day, and breaks up again -in a single day when it is stormy. Unfortunately the statements made -about the level of the water and the discharge are contradictory and -untrustworthy. A lama, thirty-five years of age, now staying here, had -lived on Tso-mavang as a child. He said that he well remembered the time -when the water flowed out of the lake to Rakas-tal in such quantities -that a horseman could not cross the channel, which is called Ganga, -without danger. But now this channel had ceased to carry water for nine -years. I was shown where the shore line ran last autumn, five fathoms -farther inland, so that the lake must then have been 221/2 inches higher. -I was also shown a yellow block of stone, to which the water was said to -have reached twelve years ago, and this point lay 10-1/3 feet above the -present level of the lake. Such a rate of fall is improbable, though -this statement accorded fairly well with the information I had received -at Tugu-gompa. The threshold of the one cave lay now 22.57 feet, and -that of the other 120.4 feet from the shore, 18.86 feet above the -water. I was told that when the monastery was built, one hundred years -ago, the lake had reached both these caves, and that only a small path -was left along the strand by which the caves could be approached. -However, the dates of the Tibetans are exceedingly uncertain, and to -arrive at safe conclusions we must resort to the statements of European -travellers. I will make a few remarks on them later. When I asked one of -the monks what became of all the water poured into Tso-mavang by all the -rivers and brooks, he replied: - -"However much it rains, and though all the tributaries are full to -overflowing, no change is noticeable in the lake, for as much water is -evaporated as flows in. In our holy books it is written that if all the -tributaries failed, the lake would not sink and disappear, for it is -eternal and is the abode of high gods. But now we see with our own eyes -that it is always falling, and we do not know what this means." - -The following records may be useful to future explorers: the lower edge -of the massive threshold of the main gateway in the facade of -Gossul-gompa lay on August 8, 1907, exactly 122.7 feet above the surface -of the lake, as I ascertained by the help of a reflecting level. - -[Illustration: 258. A DREAMER. LAMA IN YANGGO-GOMPA ON MANASAROWAR. - - Drawn by T. Macfarlane from a Sketch by the Author.] - -We ascended to the roof of Gossul-gompa. It is flat, as usual, with a -chimney, parapet, and streamers. No language on earth contains words -forcible enough to describe the view from it over the lake. It was, -indeed, much the same as we had seen from various points on the shore, -but the light and shade was so enchanting and the colouring so wonderful -that I was amazed, and felt my heart beat more strongly than usual as I -stepped out of the dark temple halls on to the open platform. Tundup -Sonam said in his simple way that the lake with its encircling mountains -seemed like the sky with its light clouds. I, too, was the victim of an -illusion which almost made me catch at the parapet for support. I -wondered whether it was a fit of giddiness. I took, to wit, the border -of mountains on the eastern shore for a belt of light clouds, and the -surface of the sea for part of the sky. The day was perfectly calm and -the lake like a mirror, in which the sky was reflected; both looked -exactly the same, and were of the same colour, and the mountains, which -in consequence of the distance were all blended into a dark shadow, were -like a girdle of clouds. The air was not clear, everything was of a dull -subdued tone, there was no colour to speak of, but all was grey--sky, -land, and water, with a tinge of blue, a fairy scene of glass, with -decorations of white gauze seen through a thin blue veil of incense -rising from the altar of the mighty god of the lake. - -What has become of the earth, if all is sky and clouds? We are not -totally bewitched, for we are standing on the roof of the monastery -leaning against the parapet. A dream-picture in the most ethereal -transitory tones floats before us. We seem to stand on a promontory -jutting out into endless space, which yawns around us and in front. And -where is now the holy lake, which yesterday nearly robbed us of life, -and on which the storm was so furious that I still seem to feel the -ground quaking under my feet? Has the Gossul monastery been changed by -some whim of the gods into an air-ship which is bearing us away to -another planet? Its streamers hang motionless on their poles, and -nothing can be seen of the mountains, country, and ground. - -"Oh yes, if you lean a little over the parapet," says a monk, smiling. -True! Then the illusion vanishes, to my great chagrin. I should have -liked to remain a while under its enchantment. Just below us runs the -narrow margin on the bank, with its black dam of clay and water-weeds, -and its elongated lagoons. Through the crystal-clear water we see the -yellowish-grey mud on the lake bottom, the dark fringe of weeds, and the -dark depths beyond. It is like a huge aquarium covered with plate-glass. -Two flocks of geese are swimming on the water, producing diverging -ripples. All is so indescribably quiet; so ethereal, transparent, and -transitory, so subtile and sensitive, that I scarcely dare breathe. -Never has a church service, a wedding march, a hymn of victory, or a -funeral made a more powerful impression on me. - -Did fate compel me to pass my life in a monastery in Tibet, I would -without hesitation choose Gossul-gompa. There I would observe the -fluctuations of the lake and the annual curves of the temperature. I -would sit up there like a watchman, gaze over the lake, and watch how -its aspect changed every hour during the twelve months of the year. I -would listen to the howling of the autumn storms, and would notice on -calm November days how the belt of ice along the shore broadened from -day to day, if only to melt again in the course of a day. The ring of -ice would creep on ever nearer to the middle of the lake, be destroyed -again and again by new gales, and then begin again to enchain the -waters. And at length, on a day in January, when the layers of water -were cooled through and through and no wind disturbed the air, I should -see the god of Tso-mavang stretch a ringing roof of glass over his green -palace, and the winter storms bestrew it with white powder and drive the -whirling snow in dense clouds over the ice, with its smooth, dark-green -surface peeping out here and there. And on calm days the lake would lie -a white plain, lifeless and lonely under its white shroud, and I should -sit by the bier of my friend longing for the spring. In vain would the -first storms of spring contend with the solidity of the ice and its -brave resistance, but at last the sun would come to help the wind, and -would make the ice brittle and rotten. Leads and fissures would start up -in all directions, and the next storm that swept over the ice would -overcome all resistance, flinging about the ice blocks and piling them -up one on another, driving them to the shore, and sweeping breakers over -them so that they would be crushed, splintered, pulverized, and melted -in the rolling surf. Then I should rejoice at the victory of the storm, -the release of Tso-mavang and its restoration to life, and would listen -to the song of the waves and the screaming of the wild geese. - -[Illustration: 259. THE OLD NUN IN YANGGO-GOMPA. - - Sketch by the Author.] - -Perhaps an hour such as I spent at the parapet of Gossul comes only once -a year. The effect is the result of a certain temperature, a certain -percentage of humidity, calm air, preceded by rain and a north-easterly -storm. How seldom are all these conditions fulfilled? At most once a -year, and just at this hour, this hour of all hours, I stood on the -roof and saw the blue lake at rest after its play. - -Wonderful, attractive, enchanting lake! Theme of story and legend, -playground of storms and changes of colour, apple of the eye of gods and -men, goal of weary, yearning pilgrims, holiest of the holiest of all the -lakes of the world, art thou, Tso-mavang, lake of all lakes. Navel of -old Asia, where four of the most famous rivers of the world, the -Brahmaputra, the Indus, the Sutlej, and the Ganges, rise among gigantic -peaks, surrounded by a world of mountains, among which is Kailas, the -most famous in the world; for it is sacred in the eyes of hundreds of -millions of Hindus, and is the centre of a wreath of monasteries where -every morning blasts of conches sound out from the roofs over the lake. -Axle and hub of the wheel, which is an image of life, and round which -the pilgrims wander along the way of salvation towards the land of -perfection. That is Manasarowar, the pearl of all the lakes of the -world. Hoary with age when the books of the Veda were written, its blue -billows have in the course of centuries seen innumerable troops of -faithful Hindus and Tibetans arrive at its banks, there to drink, bathe, -and find rest for their souls. There are certainly more beautiful lakes -in the world. Its western neighbour, for instance, Langak-tso, is more -picturesque. But there is none which unites with natural beauty such an -influence on the faith and souls of men. That is why the roar of its -waves is so attractive, and a sojourn on its shore so fascinating. -Standing up on the convent roof, while silence reigns around, one -fancies one hears innumerable wanderers approaching, and the echo of -their stumbling feet on the holy path around the lake. And one casts a -glance into the night of past centuries, which have left no trace of -their aspirations and vain search after an imaginary blessedness. But -Tso-mavang remains the same as it was then, and its azure-blue eye sees -new generations treading in the footsteps of the old. - -After such an hour everything else seems commonplace. Not till the blush -of evening flooded the lake with a purple tinge could I tear myself away -and go down to my camp on the shore. Once more I turned to Tso-mavang -and called out a loud prolonged "Om a hum." Rabsang said nothing, but I -could see that he was wondering whether I had become the latest convert -of the Lamaistic church, and with the more reason because I had insisted -on travelling round the lake in the orthodox direction--southwards by -the east bank and northwards by the west bank. - -The tracks of 120 yaks were discernible in the sand, which had passed -northwards in the morning laden with brick tea. An old Hindu, who was -performing the circuit of the lake in the same direction as the -Tibetans, begged to be allowed to camp beside us, because he was afraid -of robbers; we regaled him with tea, bread, and tobacco, and he asked us -to accept a handful of rice. It is singular that the Hindu pilgrims seem -to hold the Lamaistic monasteries in veneration; at least I saw them bow -before the Lamaistic gods in Tugu-gompa, and place a handful of rice in -the bowl which a monk held out to them. - -After a temperature of 43.9 deg. in the night the morning air seemed quite -warm. A fresh easterly breeze ruffled the surface of the lake, and the -foam-tipped waves shone in the sun, but the day was beautiful and I was -full of life, and eager to go out upon the lake. The old Hindu said that -he had resolved to postpone his pilgrimage and go with us in the boat, -but I assured him that we would take no unnecessary ballast. But he -followed us on the bank as we rowed through the surf to Camp No. 213, -easily recognizable by its old fire-place, and when we steered thence -seawards straight towards Tugu-gompa, visible as a white speck in the -south-east, he was so eager to go with us that he ran into the water and -did not turn back till it reached to his middle. He was certainly a -little silly; he had talked nonsense all the evening, though no one had -listened to him. - -[Illustration: 260. The Holy Lake Manasarowar from Tugu-gompa, with -Kailas in the background. - - Water-colour Sketch by the Author.] - -The new line of soundings was marked No. 4 on my map of the lake. Its -greatest depth was 249 feet. At the ninth sounding-station the red metal -disc of the current-meter became entangled in the sounding-line. It was -torn away from its screws and twisted like a boomerang in mad gyrations -down through the crystal-clear water to a depth of 207 feet, there to -sleep in the mud of Tso-mavang till the day of judgment. Fortunately it -could easily be replaced. - -When we landed at the monastery, all our men, and the monks and the -pilgrims on the shore, were there to receive us. The first we caught -sight of was the old crazy Hindu. His fellow-countrymen had taken it for -granted that we must have perished in the storm, and therefore were very -astonished to see us come back alive. But as I was now here again, they -thought that they might take advantage of it, and asked me to present -them one and all with new trousers, a request that I considered very -importunate. - -On August 10 I sat in my tent door and painted Kailas in different -lights (Illust. 260). Its white summit stood out cold and bare against a -bright blue cloudless sky, and the lake was of a deep, dazzling -ultramarine. When a breeze swept over the surface it was in the distance -like clear green malachite. After sunset the sky was orange-coloured, -and the lake, of just the same colour, reflected the outlines of the -mountains in quivering serpentine lines. The evening before, the whole -western horizon had glowed with bright red flames. - - - - -CHAPTER XLVIII - -OUR LAST DAYS ON TSO-MAVANG - - -At this time Robert had perfected himself more than I in the Tibetan -language, and he talked it almost fluently. Therefore, while my whole -time was taken up with other work, he was able to obtain information -about the country and people, and perform certain tasks I set him. On -the left, shorter wall of the vestibule of Tugu-gompa was an inscription -for the enlightenment of pilgrims, and this Robert now translated into -Hindustani and English. Freely rendered it runs as follows: - - Tso-mavang is the holiest place in the world. In its centre dwells a - god in human form, who inhabits a tent composed of turquoise and all - kinds of precious stones. In the midst of it grows a tree with a - thousand branches, and every branch contains a thousand cells in which - a thousand lamas live. The lake tree has a double crown, one rising - like a sunshade and shading Kang-rinpoche, the other overshadowing the - whole world. Each of the 1022 branches bears an image of a god, and - all these images turn their faces towards Gossul-gompa, and in former - times all the gods gathered together here. Once golden water was - fetched from the lake, and with it the face of Hlobun Rinpoche in - Chiu-gompa was gilded, and what was left was used to gild the temple - roofs of Tashi-lunpo. In old times the water of the lake flowed over a - pass named Pakchu-la to the Ganga-chimbo. Water flows into the lake - from all sides, cold, warm, hot, and cool. Water passes from the lake - to the Ganga-shei and comes back again. Vapour rises annually from the - lake and hovers over it once in the year, and then sinks down into the - centre, and the next year the process is repeated. If any one brings - up clay from the middle of the lake, that clay is really gold. The - lake is the property of the lake-god. The lake is the central point of - the whole world. Sambu Tashi grew out of the lake tree. Sochim Pema - Dabge is of very holy, clear, and pure water. The Gyagar Shilki - _chhorten_ stands in the lake. The palace of the lake-god is in the - lake. All the lamas there recite their prayers with one voice. All the - gods assemble together in the lake and sit there among _chhortens_ of - all kinds, embellished with gold and precious stones. The spirit king - of the southern land resides here in a golden house, and is not angry - when any one comes to wash and purify himself. If we pray to the - spirit king of the southern land, we shall be very wealthy and - fortunate. Four large rivers and four small flow out of the lake by - underground channels. The four large ones are one warm, one cold, one - hot, and one cool. (The Karnali, Brahmaputra, Indus, and Sutlej.) If - any one washes in the lake he is cleansed from sin and all impurities. - If any one washes once in the lake, the sins of his forefathers are - forgiven, and their souls are relieved from purgatorial fires. Datping - Ngacha came with 500 pilgrims from Kang-rinpoche to wash in the lake. - Lo Mato Gyamo met him and begged him to come to Tso-mavang. Dachung - Ngacha and the pilgrims came with heaps of flowers and strewed them in - the lake. Dachung Ngacha went three times round the lake and then - ascended into heaven. - -Of particular interest is the suggestion made here that the four large -rivers stream out of Tso-mavang by subterranean passages. As regards the -Sutlej this belief is, in my opinion, quite correct. I was told that the -fifth Tashi Lama, whose mausoleum we had seen in Tashi-lunpo, once made -the pilgrimage to Tso-mavang and went down to the shore at Tugu-gompa to -offer a _kadakh_ to the lake-god. The _kadakh_ remained suspended in the -air, that is, it was actually hanging on one of the branches of the holy -tree, but as the tree is only visible to Rinpoches and genuine -incarnations, the _kadakh_ seemed to ordinary mortals to hang alone in -the air. - -On August 11 we bade a long farewell to the amiable monks of Tugu-gompa, -and gave them liberal presents. They accompanied us down to the shore, -when we put off on our voyage westwards. Into a large lagoon of the -shore, brown and dirty owing to the numerous gulls and wild geese which -here wallow in the mud, a brook from Gurla Mandatta runs, and now -discharges 37.8 cubic feet of water in a second. All the way along runs -a rubbish heap, the continuation of the pebble terrace on which -Tugu-gompa stands. The lake bed consists sometimes of sand, sometimes -of detritus--offshoots of the detritus cone of Gurla Mandatta. Large -collections of weeds form dark patches. Up above, at the mouths of two -valleys of Gurla, are seen foaming streams, and it is strange that they -do not debouch into the lake. But the explanation is easy. Twenty to -fifty yards from the bank numerous small holes in the sand of the lake -bed open and close like the valves of an artery, and the surface of the -lake above them bubbles. These are springs. The streams disappear in the -detritus cone, and the water runs below over impermeable layers of -glacial clay. At the edge of the cone the water comes up again under the -surface of the lake. I perceived, then, that I must gauge the rivers at -the points where they emerge from the mountain valleys, if I would -ascertain the exact amount of the tribute Tso-mavang receives. - -Near camp 218, quite close to the shore, a spring came to the surface, -and where it welled up it had a temperature of 38.1 deg., and therefore -brought down the cold of the glaciers to the lake. As the melted water -of the Gurla glaciers retains its low temperature on its subterranean -course, it probably assists in keeping the water of the lake cool during -the summer. Whole shoals of fish sported at the surface of the water, -and snapped at plumed gnats, which were gathered in thick clouds. - -On August 12 I rode with Rabsang and a Tibetan up to the foot of Gurla -Mandatta. We crossed the great highway between Tugu-gompa and Purang. A -wolf took to flight; occasionally a hare leapt up out of the steppe -grass, and locusts flew about noisily. We rode into the mouth of the -Namreldi valley, a resort of robbers, and its crystal stream, between -walls of solid rock, carried 101 cubic feet of water, as compared to the -37.8 cubic feet at the place where it enters the lake. The rest of the -water, therefore, pours into the lake under the detritus. A few miles -farther west we halted at the mouth of the Selung-urdu valley, which has -a glacier in its upper part. At half-past nine o'clock the bed was dry, -but at half-past one a river with rapids and waterfalls poured down a -volume of 63.9 cubic feet of exceedingly muddy water, which reached the -lake in the subterranean springs. The view from this elevated spot is -magnificent. We have a bird's-eye view of Tso-mavang, and in the west -gleams the bright blue Langak-tso. The survey we can here take of the -country is very instructive. The denudation cones of Gurla Mandatta, -consisting of sand, rubbish, and boulders, extend northwards like -inverted spoons; their extremities dip under the surface of the lake, -and cause the fluctuating depths sounded on lines 1 and 2. From camp 218 -Robert executed a line of soundings at right angles to the bank down to -a depth of 190 feet. - -Every day with its observations brought me nearer to the solution of the -problem I had proposed to myself. As we rode northwards on the 13th -along the western shore we dug wells at some places 10 yards from the -bank. The ground consisted of alternate layers of sand and clay: on the -top, sand; then a layer of decaying vegetable remains; then a foot and a -half of sand which rested on clay. A pit 2 feet deep slowly filled with -water up to the same level as the surface of the lake. The water -permeates the sand and rests on the clay. If this layer of clay -stretches, as seems likely, across the narrow isthmus to the shore of -Langak-tso, it is evident that the water of Tso-mavang filters through -the beds of sand and pebbles to the western lake. I was already -convinced that even now when the old canal has ceased to act, an -underground connection must exist between the two lakes. But the fact -that the water of Tso-mavang is quite sweet is no proof that the lake -has an outlet, seeing that it is only a few years since the canal was -silted up. - -Again we encamped below the hospitable monastery Gossul. On August 15 I -rode with Rabsang and a Tibetan across the hilly isthmus between the two -lakes in order to get a look at the country on this side also. We -ascended sharply to the highest point of the ridge, where there is a -fine view over Langak-tso with its picturesque rocky shores and -projecting points and capes, its bays and islands, and its frame of -steep mountains. In form it is very different from its neighbour, which -is round and has no islands. We stood at a height of 16,033 feet, and -therefore were 935 feet above the surface of Manasarowar. Then we rode -down a valley clothed with brushwood, which emerges on to the flat, -irregularly curved shore belt. Here are old, very plainly marked, shore -lines, the highest 67.9 feet above the level of the lake. When the -Langak-tso stood so high it had an outlet to the Sutlej, and the old bed -of this river may be seen leading off from the north-eastern corner of -the lake. - -A strong south wind blew, and rolled the waves to the shore, where I sat -a good hour, drawing and making observations. Then we rode again over -the isthmus, at its lowest (15,289 feet) and broadest place. A salt -swamp, begirt by hills, lies on its eastern half, quite close to the -shore of Tso-mavang, with its surface 7.7 feet above that of the lake. -In the sand and rubbish between the two are abundant streams of water, -passing from the lake to the swamp. The swamp lies in a flat hollow of -clay, in which the water evaporates, and the trifling quantities of salt -contained in the lake water accumulate. At this place, then, the water -of the eastern lake is prevented from seeping through to the western. - -The following day we sailed with a favourable wind to the north-western -corner of Tso-mavang, where Chiu-gompa stands on a pyramid of rock. This -spot, camp No. 219, was to be our headquarters for several days. The -outline of Tso-mavang is like that of a skull seen from the front, and -we had now to explore the very top. A day of rest was devoted to a -preliminary investigation of the channel where several cold and hot -springs rise up; two of the latter had temperatures of 117 deg. and 122 deg. -respectively, while in testing the third a thermometer graduated up to -150 deg. did not suffice, and the tube burst. A spring of 117 deg. in a walled -basin is said to be used as a medical bath, but one must be a Tibetan to -stew in water so hot. A small stone cabin beside it serves as a -dressing-room. A little farther down the channel is spanned by a bridge -constructed of four beams resting on two stone piers; it is in -extraordinarily good condition, and is another proof that the canal -contained water not so very long ago. On the piers of the bridge -watermarks are still conspicuous 181/2 inches above the present stagnant -pools, smelling of sulphur and full of slimy weeds, which are fed by -springs. Young wild-geese were swimming in one of them, and had great -difficulty in protecting themselves from the brown puppy. - -Chiu-gompa, the fifth of the eight monasteries of the lake which I -visited, is small, and contains fifteen lamas who enter it for life, -while the abbot is changed every three years. It owns some yaks, 500 -goats, and 100 sheep, which are employed in transporting salt to Purang, -where the monks barter it for barley. One monk, a youth twenty years of -age, named Tsering Tundup, is one of the Tibetans whom I think of with -particularly kind and warm feeling. His mother also lived in the -monastery, and looked after the sheep and goats when they were driven in -the evening into the penfolds. He was unusually handsome, refined, -amiable and obliging, and showed me everything with full explanations. -From his small bare cell he could dream and gaze at the holy lake in the -east, and could see on the west Langak-tso, despised by the gods; but -yet he was melancholy, and on that account we were sympathetic. He -acknowledged openly that he was weary of the monotonous life in -Chiu-gompa; every day was like the last, and the monks had hard work to -procure a scanty subsistence, and must always be prepared for the -attacks of robbers. It must be pleasanter to live as we did, and roam -about freely among the mountains. He asked me if he might come with us, -and I replied that I would willingly take him to Ladak. Then his face -brightened, but he begged to be allowed to think over the matter until I -returned from my next trip on the lake. - -It rained all night, and in the morning everything was wet--even the -things in my wind-beaten and torn tent, where little puddles had been -formed. But Tsering came with the linen, so I was not so badly off. We -had a long voyage before us, to camp No. 212, the first place we had -encamped at on the holy lake. The programme of the excursion also -included visits to the three other monasteries, the gauging of the -volumes of water in the streams from the north, and the drawing of a -map of the northern shore. We therefore took provisions for four days, -which Rabsang and Adul were to transport along the bank on horses' -backs. We were to meet them at the entrance to the valley Serolung, at -Serolung-gompa. This last voyage was to complete my investigation of the -lake, but precisely because it was the last it was looked forward to -with fear by my men. They thought that I had so long defied the god of -the lake that now my time was come, and that he would avenge himself and -keep me for ever. - -But the morning was beautiful, and when at half-past five we rowed out -over the smooth lake, the temperature was 48.6 deg.. The cloud cap of Gurla -extended down to the water, and nothing could be seen of the country to -the south. The Pundi mountain was covered with snow and had a wintry -appearance. At the first sounding-station (66 feet) the tents were seen -as white specks hovering above the lake. Chiu-gompa stands proudly on -its rocky point, and is a landmark visible from all parts of the lake -shore except from the west. At the second station the sounding was more -than 130 feet. Shukkur Ali and Tundup Sonam row like galley-slaves, for -they hope to finish this line, and then the work will be at an end. -Sometimes the boat passes through belts of foam and weed. At the fifth -station (161 feet) the tents can still be seen with the glass, but after -that they disappear. Gossul's memorable monastery can also be dimly -descried on its rock. - -"Now we have traversed a third of the way," I said. - -"Thank God!" replied Shukkur Ali. "I hope the weather will hold up -to-day." - -A large fish floated on the water, belly up; fish washed ashore are used -by the people as medicine. The depths remain the same; the lake bed is -very even. But at the thirteenth point we found 108 feet, and at the -fourteenth 180 feet, which indicated a ridge in the lake bed or a cone -of detritus from the foot of the northern mountains. At about an hour's -sail from the eastern shore we saw Rabsang and Adul coming up, and they -waited for us at the rendezvous. They proposed we should pass the night -in a stone cabin at the right side of the mouth of the Serolung valley, -but I refused, for pilgrims and tramps are wont to harbour there. Six -monks from the convent, old friends of ours, paid me a visit, and four -happy, laughing women, black and dirty, came rushing like a whirlwind -down the slopes with baskets of fuel on their backs. Puppy had followed -Rabsang, and had found at a monastery on the way an elegant little -cavalier with a red collar and bells. With a feeling of satisfaction at -having completed this last line of soundings, I went to sleep on the -sandy shore under the light of the everlasting stars. - -Next day I rode with Rabsang 17 miles to the north, in order to measure -the volumes of water in the Pachen and Pachung valleys. We arranged to -meet the others on the northern shore, whither they were to row with the -baggage. Were we long away they were to light a beacon fire on a hill -for our guidance. We followed for a time the shore with its banks of -mud, small projections, and lagoons, and then we rode through the -Samo-tsangpo from the Tokchen valley, and passed on the left hand two -small lakes in the midst of rich pasturage, where a number of kiangs -grazed, glared at us, pricked up their ears, and ran away at a slow -gallop; then we crossed the _tasam_, or the great trunk-road, and rode -up the sharply sculptured Pachen valley, with a foaming river carrying -69.9 cubic feet of water. Then we rode westwards, up and down hills, and -enjoyed a new view of the holy lake with Gurla Mandatta in the -background. The Pachung river carried 83.3 cubic feet of water. When our -work was done we rode south-westwards. Wild asses were on the meadows; -they are nearly tame, for no one puts an end to life on the shores of -the holy lake. Thirty mares stood on a mound guarded by a stallion; the -sun was sinking, and perhaps this is how these animals prepare for the -dangers of the night. Now and again a mare left the group and made a -circuit about her sisters, but the stallion ran after her immediately -and forced her to return to the others. This game was frequently -repeated, and it seemed to me that the mares were making sport of the -stallion. - - -We ride over swampy meadows and small sandhills; nothing can be seen of -the lake; we should like to hear its waves roaring under the south-west -breeze, but new hills always crop up in front of us. At last we catch -sight of the smoke of the camp-fire. Adul had caught a kiang foal four -months old, which was ill and kept always turning round. The mother came -to look after it in the night, but gave it up for lost, and it died soon -after. - -August 20 was spent in surveying a map of a part of the northern shore -which is very slightly curved, and in a sounding excursion on the lake -out to a depth of 154 feet. While the surface water had a temperature -55.6 deg. everywhere, with an air temperature about constant, the -temperature at the bottom sank from 56.1 deg. to 46 deg. at the depth of 154 -feet. - -We gradually began to suffer want. The collops which Adul tried to pass -off on me on the morning of the 21st were decidedly bad, and therefore -landed in Puppy's stomach. As Rabsang and I rode northwards to -Pundi-gompa, the temperature was 56 deg. and really too warm, so that a -shower of rain was not unpleasant. Pundi lies on a rocky ledge in a -ravine; its abbot is eighty years old, and has eight monks under him. -One was a Chinaman from Pekin, who had lived forty years in the convent -and had become a thorough Tibetan, though he had not forgotten his -mother tongue. From there, too, there is a splendid view over the lake. -As we were about to ride down to camp No. 222 on the shore, a messenger -came from Robert with the news that the authorities in Parka had refused -to provide us with transport animals or assist us in any way, for they -had never heard that we were permitted to spend a whole month on the -lake. He also said that our Ladakis were much frightened by all kinds of -stories of robbers which were current in the neighbourhood, so that -every one was anxious for my presence. - -[Illustration: 261. BOY ON THE UPPER TSANGPO.] - -[Illustration: 262. THE YOUNG PRIOR OF LANGBO-NAN. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -The camp was quite close to the monastery Langbo-nan, at the mouth of -the Gyuma-chu. After we had measured this river and ascertained that it -discharged 73.8 cubic feet of water, we had tracked up all the waters -pouring into Manasarowar on the surface, and we found that the whole -volume was 1094.8 cubic feet in a second, or 94,590,000 cubic feet in -twenty-four hours, which would make a cube measuring nearly 456 feet -each way. But how much water flows to the lake by underground passages -which we could not measure? Probably a volume considerably in excess of -the surface water; for Manasarowar lies in a trough between huge -mountains which are constantly feeding the subterranean springs. At any -rate the surplus water, so far as it is not lost by evaporation, -filtrates through subterranean passages to the Langak-tso, which lies -lower. - -On the 22nd we again rowed straight out from the bank into the lake till -we reached a place where the depth was 135 feet, and then sailed back -with a favourable wind to the starting-point. It was the last time that -I sank my lead in the holy water, and I was quite convinced that I -should never do it again, for I had now 138 soundings, evenly -distributed over the lake and affording ample material for the -construction of an isobathic map. It was comical to hear Shukkur Ali -when I remarked to him that this was our last voyage on Tso-mavang. He -held his hands before his face as if he were about to pray, and said -solemnly that in spite of all dangers "we had had the good fortune to -bring our work to a successful conclusion by the favour of Allah, the -favour of the Sahib, the favour of the papa and the mamma of the Sahib, -and the favour of all his relations." I ventured to remark that he had -forgotten the favour of the lake god, but he dismissed the suggestion -with a wave of the hand, and said he had no more faith in the god. - -Afterwards I rode with Rabsang up to the monastery Langbo-nan, while the -others went on to Chiu-gompa. I shall omit here a description of this -convent, where the most remarkable sight was the twelve-year-old abbot -Tsering, an intelligent, frank, and lively boy, with sharp bright eyes, -white teeth, a fresh, healthy complexion, and an attractive appearance -(Illust. 262). He sat on a divan before a lacquered table in his -library, called _tsemchung_, and showed a great interest in all my -plans, glanced into my sketch-book, tried my field-glass, and asked me -for a couple of pencils. During the hour I spent in his cell we became -good friends, and when at length I bade him farewell we little thought -that we should meet again only a year later. - -As we made the round of the monastery we came in the gallery of the -court upon a poor fellow who lay ill and seemed to be suffering. I asked -him how he was, and he told me that on August 18, the day when Rabsang -and Adul came to meet us, he was taking eleven mules and two horses -laden with _tsamba_ and barley to Parka, the Gova of which was the owner -of the caravan. Where the Pachung river enters the eastern lagoon he was -attacked at eleven o'clock in the morning by twelve robbers, who rushed -down from the direction of the Pachung valley. They were all mounted, -and armed with guns, swords, and spears, had two spare horses for -provisions, and wore masks on their faces. They dismounted in a moment, -threw a mantle over his head, tied his hands behind his back, and -cleared him out, taking among other things 400 rupees, and then they -rode off again to the Pachung valley, which Rabsang and I had hurriedly -visited the next day. He then summoned help by shouting, and in a very -pitiable condition found refuge in Langbo-nan. He showed us some deep -stabs in his legs, his skin coat, and the saddle, which had suffered -severely when he made a desperate attempt to defend himself. This was -the incident which had so alarmed our Ladakis. - -The way from here to Chiu-gompa is charming. Perpendicular, sometimes -overhanging rocks of green and red schist fall to the shore, which here -has a shingly beach only 20 yards broad. Two gigantic boulders stand -like monuments on the shore, and on the rocky walls we see black caves -and hermits' dwellings, and we often pass the usual three stones on -which tea-kettles of pilgrims have boiled. Farther to the west the -projections form a series of recesses in lighter tones; at one of these -cliffs a new and fascinating view is displayed. A water mark lying 51/2 -feet above the present level of the lake is very easily recognized. On -the rocky pinnacles eagles sit motionless as statues, watching for prey. - -Chergip-gompa is built on a terrace in the broad mouth of a valley. It -is a small, poor monastery, but it has its _lhakang_ and its vestibule -with a large bronze bell, in which the six holy characters are cast. -When the bell is rung at morning and evening the unfathomable truth is -borne on the waves of sound over the lake, which, with its blue surface -and its background of the snowfields of Gurla Mandatta, forms a charming -landscape as seen from the court of the monastery. But its sound is -heard by no one but Chergip's single monk. Poor man, what must be his -feelings in winter evenings when storms sweep the drifting snow over the -ice of Tso-mavang! - -I remained with him fully two hours, for he had much to tell. He had -travelled far, had been at Selipuk and the Nganglaring-tso, and offered -to conduct me thence in twenty days to the Dangra-yum-tso; he had no -suspicion that I was roaming about in the forbidden land under a -political ban. But he revived my desire to visit the great unknown -country to the north of the holy river. I was full of thoughts, full of -plans, and full of an insatiable _desiderium incogniti_ which never left -me in peace, when at length I departed from the eighth and last -monastery of Tso-mavang as the evening spread its dark veil over the -lake I had conquered. - -We had still a long way to go to the camp. At the last mountain spur -stands a _chhorten_, from which our fire was visible. Soon we sat again -among our companions. Late at night two horsemen rode past our camp; the -watchmen called out "Who's there?" but they made no answer. Then Rabsang -awoke and thoughtlessly sent a bullet after the unknown men, being -convinced that they were robbers. My men had reached such a pitch of -nervousness that they saw robbers everywhere. - -This was our last night on the shore of the Tso-rinpoche, the "holy -lake," and I listened sadly to the song of the surf dying away as the -wind fell. - - - - -CHAPTER XLIX - -ADVENTURES ON LANGAK-TSO - - -I have not interrupted the description of my life on the revered lake -with notices of our political troubles. Suffice it to say that we -succeeded in staying there a whole month. Mounted and other messengers -often came to make complaints, and then my men simply replied: "The -Sahib is out on the lake, catch him if you can; he is a friend of the -lake god, and can stay as long as he likes among the branches of the -holy tree." And when I came back again they had gone off. In consequence -of the boat trips they could not control my movements, but when we -encamped by Chiu-gompa they became more energetic. During my absence -came messenger after messenger with orders that I must at once betake -myself to Parka and continue my journey thence to Ladak. On August 23 I -sent Robert and Rabsang to Parka to make terms with the authorities, but -they would not under any circumstances allow me to visit Langak-tso, my -next stage. If I liked to stay a month or a year at Chiu-gompa it was -nothing to them, for the monastery was not in their district, but the -western lake was in their jurisdiction. They advised that I should come -as soon as possible to Parka for my own sake, and would send in the -morning fifteen yaks to carry my luggage. - -[Illustration: 263. TEMPLE VESSELS IN CHIU-GOMPA.] - -[Illustration: 264. TWO CHILDREN IN SHIGATSE. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -But I wished to see Langak-tso at any cost. So when the fifteen yaks -arrived next morning, I quickly made up my mind to send Tsering, -Rabsang, and four men with the baggage to Parka, while Robert and the -other six men would go with me to Langak-tso. Our own six horses and -the last mule from Poonch could easily carry the boat and our bit of -luggage. The yaks were laden and my men disappeared behind the hills. My -own small caravan had orders to camp on the shore of Langak-tso where -the old channel enters. I went with Robert and two men on foot and -executed a series of exact levellings over the isthmus separating the -two lakes. At the same time I drew a map of the course of the channel. -The measuring tape was nailed fast to an oar which Robert carried; the -theodolite I carried myself. The distance between the pole and the -instrument amounted to 55 yards, and was measured with tapes by our two -assistants. The pole was placed on an iron dish that it might not sink -into the soft ground. - -The lakes were visited in 1812 by Moorcroft, who found no connecting -channel. In October 1846 Henry Strachey found there an arm of the lake -100 feet broad and 3 feet deep. Landor declared that any connection was -inconceivable, for, according to him, the isthmus was 300 feet high at -its lowest part. Ryder found in the late autumn of 1904 no water running -out of Manasarowar, but he heard from the natives that a little water -passed through the channel during the rainy season. Sherring also saw no -running water, but he thought it probable that the lake overflowed after -rainy summers. As for me, I followed the bed of the channel from one -lake to the other and found that in the year 1907 no water flowed from -the eastern into the western lake, and in 1908 the condition was the -same, though both my visits occurred in the rainy season. There must be -very heavy falls of rain before Manasarowar can overflow, for the -highest point of the channel bed lies more than 61/2 feet above the level -of the eastern lake. - -The circumstance that different travellers in different years have given -different accounts is, however, very easily explained. All depends on -the precipitation: if it is abundant, the surface of Manasarowar rises; -if it is very abundant its water drains off to the Langak-tso -(Rakas-tal). If the summer is dry, as in the year 1907, the Langak-tso -receives no water through the channel, but certainly by subterranean -passages. On the whole, both these lakes are falling like the other -lakes of Tibet, and the time is approaching when the subterranean outlet -will be cut off and both lakes will be salt. - -As we deliberately measured the channel and came to its highest point -from which its bed dips towards the west, I threw a farewell glance at -Tso-mavang, and experienced a feeling of bereavement at the thought that -I must now leave its shores, and in all probability for ever. For I had -known this gem of lakes in the light of the morning red and in the -purple of sunset, in storms, in howling hurricanes when the waves rose -mountain high, in fresh southerly breezes when the waves sparkled like -emeralds, in full sunshine when the lake was smooth as a mirror, in the -silver beams of the moon when the mountains stood out like white -spectres after the dull yellow light of evening was extinguished, and in -peaceful nights when the stars twinkled as clearly on the smooth surface -of the lake as above in the vault of heaven. I had passed a memorable -month of my life on this lake, and had made friends with the waves and -become intimately acquainted with its depths. To this day I can hear the -melodious splash of the raging surf, and still Tso-mavang lingers in my -memory like a fairy tale, a legend, a song. - -We went on westwards along narrow creeks and pools of stagnant water, -but when the evening had become so dusky that I could no longer read the -figures on the measuring pole, we gave up work, marked the last fixed -point, and made for the camp, which we reached in complete darkness. - -In the morning the work was continued. We had had a minimum of 22.6 deg. in -the night, and a violent south-west storm rendered it difficult to read -the instruments. The hundred-and-fourth point was fixed at length at the -edge of the water of Langak-tso. I have no space here to analyse the -results. The channel runs west-north-west, and the line measured is -10,243 yards long, or twice as long as represented on the most recent -maps. The surface of Langak-tso lay 44 feet below that of Tso-mavang, -which agrees very well with the difference of height on Ryder's map, -namely 50 feet. There is no water beyond the ninety-fourth fixed point -in the bed, The Tibetans related a legend concerning the origin of the -channel. Two large fishes in Tso-mavang were deadly enemies and chased -each other. One was beaten, and in order to escape he darted right -through the isthmus, and the windings of the channel bed show the course -of the flying fish. - -The morning of August 26 was dull, damp, and cold. Heavy clouds floated -over the earth, heralds of the monsoon rains, and Langak-tso looked -anything but inviting for a sail. But we had the whole day before us, -and any moment horsemen might come from Parka, take us by the neck and -lead us back, whether we liked it or not, to the path of duty. -Langak-tso has a very irregular outline. Its chief basin in the south is -begirt by rocks, in the north there is a smaller expansion, and between -the two runs a contracted channel. All we could venture to do was to row -over the small basin westwards and then to the south-east, to a place on -the eastern shore whither our camp could be moved. It could be done in a -few hours, so we took nothing but the mast and sail. - -Tundup Sonam and Ishe were my boatmen, and we set out at half-past five -o'clock. We were at first in the lee of a promontory, but when we had -passed it the whole lake came down upon us with rolling, foaming -billows, showers of spray, and threatening surge. The waves were crowded -together in the narrows to leeward, and assumed curious irregular forms. -Among them tossed masses of water-weed; the water was bright green and -as clear and sweet as that of Tso-mavang. We are a little beyond the -promontory; would it not be better to turn back? No; never turn back, -never give in; still forwards! We were wet, but we kept our equilibrium -and parried the cunning assaults of the rolling waves. "Row hard and we -shall soon get into the shelter of the great point on the western -shore." I even managed to take soundings, and found that the greatest -depth was 541/2 feet; the lake bottom was almost level. We had fought -with the waves for four hours before we landed on the north side of the -promontory, where we were sheltered from the wind. - -Here we draw the boat to land and reconnoitre. The cape runs -north-eastwards, and is covered with driftsand which is in constant -motion. On the shore plain to the south-west yellow sandspouts move -about, whirling like corkscrews in the direction of the wind, and our -promontory receives its share of this load of sand. On the north the -dune is very steep; from time to time fresh sand falls down the slope -and slips into the lake, where the waves sweep it away. From the sharp -ridge of the dune the driftsand is blown like a dense plume to the lake, -and the water is tinged with yellow for quite 200 yards in the direction -of the wind by myriads of grains of sand, which fall to the bottom and -build up a foundation under water on which the promontory can extend out -into the lake. The wind has been strong, and now we have a storm. -Patience! We cannot go back. The driftsand now floats so thickly over -the lake that the eastern and northern shores are invisible; we might be -sitting on a dune in the heart of the Takla-makan desert. - -We slipped down to the sheltered side of the dune, but here, out of the -wind, it was still worse. We were enveloped in clouds of sand which -penetrated everywhere, into our eyes, ears, and noses, and irritated the -skin where it came into contact with the body. The moaning howl of the -storm was heard above and around us. My oarsmen slept or strolled about, -but their footprints were at once obliterated by the wind. I played with -the sand like a child--let it roll down the lee-side, built a small -peninsula, which was immediately destroyed by the waves, and a harbour -mole, which the sea beat over and broke up--and watched how new layers -and clumps of dead seaweed appeared on the sand slope, and how the dry -sand formed falls and cascades as it rolled down. But the storm did not -abate. - -[Illustration: 265. KAILAS BEHIND NYANDI-GOMPA.] - -[Illustration: 266. MY PACK-SHEEP.] - -We lay waiting there for four hours. On the eastern shore our men had -moved the camp a little farther south. We saw the tents quite plainly. -Should we venture to creep along the shore southwards so as to reach -a point opposite the camp? Out beyond the promontory the dark-green lake -ran uncomfortably high, but we were a match for the waves--the men had -only to put their weight on to the oars. So we crept along the shore, -where we got some shelter, but we had to be careful that we were not -carried out into the heavy seas. After rowing round two points we landed -on the lee-side of a third, where the boat was drawn ashore again. Heavy -seas with thundering, towering waves dashed against the southern side of -the point, so that we could go no farther, for no pilot would encounter -such billows in a canvas boat. I stood on the top of the promontory and -enjoyed the fine spectacle. Robert's tent shone brightly in the setting -sun. We saw the men, the horses grazing on the bank, and the smoke of -the camp-fire beaten down by the storm. The crossing would barely take -an hour, but between us and them yawned the dark-green abyss of -tyrannical, all-conquering waves. - -The sun sets and we still sit and wait, confused by the rush of the -spirits of the air and water. This time they have played us a pretty -trick, and we have been caught. To the north rises Kang-rinpoche, lofty -and bright as a royal crown. Its summit is like a _chhorten_ on the -grave of a Grand Lama. Snow and ice with vertical and slightly inclined -fissures and ledges form a network like the white web of a gigantic -spider on the black cliffs. - -And the day, a long day of waiting, neared its inevitable close. Shadows -lengthened out over the foaming waves, the sun set, and the Pundi -mountain, our old friend of Tso-mavang, glowed like fire in the sunset. -Clouds of a deep blood-red colour, with edges of orange, and tinted -above with reddest gold, hovered over its summit. It was as though the -earth had opened and volcanic forces had burst forth. The hours passed -by, the glow died out, the outlines of Pundi became indistinct and were -at length swallowed up in the darkness. We were in the dark while the -camp-fire blazed on the eastern shore. Our hopes were now centred on the -night and the moon. The storm had raged thrice twenty-four hours, and it -must end some time; but it was just as strong. And as it was useless to -wait, and I could not appease my gnawing hunger with a piece of bread -and a cup of tea, I wrapped myself in the sail, burrowed into the sand, -and fell into a sound sleep. - -The rain pelting down on the sail woke me twice, and about four o'clock -in the morning the cold thoroughly roused me. A dreary, grey, rainy -outlook. But Ishe proposed that we should try to get over, for the storm -had slightly abated in consequence of the rain. We first made sure that -the tackle was in good order, and then stepped into the boat and rowed -out along the sheltered side of the promontory. But scarcely had the -nose of the boat passed beyond the point when it received a shock that -made all its joints crack. "Row, row as hard as you can," I yelled -through the howling storm; "we shall get over before the boat is full. -It is better to be wet than suck our thumbs for twenty-four hours more." -To the south, 52 deg. E., the tent canvas shone white in the morning grey. -We strayed far out of our course, but cut the waves cleanly, and steered -towards the surf. We just managed to get over. We were received on the -other side by our men, who helped us to draw the boat ashore and had -fire and breakfast ready for us. - -Namgyal had returned from Parka and brought news that the Gova -threatened to drive away my men in order to force me to leave -Langak-tso. Bluff, however, has no effect on me. A more serious matter -was that Puppy had not been seen for forty-eight hours, and that Shukkur -Ali, who had gone the morning before to Chiu-gompa in search of her, had -not been heard of since. Puppy at length found her way into camp -herself, and then it was Shukkur Ali who was missing. - -On the 28th the storm continued. We afterwards heard from Tibetans that -stormy weather frequently prevails on Langak-tso, and the lake is -agitated, when Tso-mavang is smooth and calm. Tundup Sonam concluded -that Tso-mavang was a pet of the gods, while demons and devils ruled -over Langak-tso. We had heard a tale in Gossul-gompa that the preceding -winter five Tibetans, armed with swords and guns, had crossed the ice -to reach Parka by a shorter way, but in the middle of the lake the ice -had given way, and all five were dragged down by the weight of their -weapons to the bottom. - -I wished for fine weather that I might be able to cross over the lake to -the islands. As, however, we were obliged to give up all thoughts of a -voyage, I determined to pass round the lake and at any rate draw an -outline map of it. We commenced, then, with the eastern shore, which -makes a regular curve towards the east. The white mule from Poonch -carried the boat. Some Ovis Ammons were seen on the rocks, which Tundup -Sonam stalked unsuccessfully. Shukkur Ali turned up again as cool as a -cucumber, having searched in vain for Puppy, which was snoring in my -tent in most excellent condition. - -August 29. We go to sleep amidst the roaring of the waves and the -howling of the storm, and awake again to the same uproar. It is always -in our ears as we ride along the shore. We might be at the foot of a -waterfall. Now we follow the south shore westwards. Here the cliffs are -almost everywhere precipitous, and the rocks are porphyry, granite, and -schist; the shore strip is extremely narrow and steep, and is divided -into sharply marked terraces. It descends right down to great depths, -and shallow, gradually sloping places are not to be found. A human skull -lay in a bay bobbing up and down in the waves, and not far off were -other parts of a skeleton. Was it one of the men who had been drowned in -the winter? At this discovery my men conceived a still greater aversion -to Langak-tso, which even took human life. I perceived that they were -wondering what further foolhardiness I might indulge in. - -A sharp-pointed peninsula running north-westwards delayed us. On the bay -beyond a caravan was camping, and we were glad to meet Tibetans again -when all others had withdrawn from us; and they were glad to meet a -European who had been at the Luma-ring-tso, their home. But they could -not understand why we passed round all projections and went right round -all the bays, instead of following the direct road running a little -farther to the south. One of them held out his hands towards me with -the fingers spread out, and said that the south shore of the lake had as -many indentations. When I told him that I wished to draw a map of the -lake, he said that it was of no consequence what the shore was like, as -only egg-gatherers came there. - -When we had passed two projecting points we encamped at the extremity of -the cape which lies in a line with the southernmost island. It was -stormy, but here we found shelter under a cliff with a streamer pole on -the top. Stone walls, rags, and eggshells were evidence of the visits of -men. On the east and west of the cape were open bays with heavy seas, -and to the north, 19 deg. E., we saw the southern point of the island--a -dark precipitous rock, rising like a huge roll of bread from the waves. -We had already heard of this island, Lache-to, on which the wild-geese -lay their eggs in May, and are robbed of them by men from Parka who come -over the ice. I could not therefore omit to visit it. The island lay -quite near. We would return immediately, and Adul might begin to roast -the wild-goose which Tundup had shot on the march. We wanted no -provisions, but Robert advised Ishe to take a bag of _tsamba_ with him, -lest he should have to wait too long for his dinner. - -[Illustration: 267. PART OF KAILAS. - - Sketch by the Author.] - -These two men took the oars when we put off. The shelter of the cape was -deceptive. Two minutes from the bank I tried to take a sounding, but the -line made a great curve before it reached the bottom, for the storm -drove the boat northwards. Then we fell upon another device: the boatmen -had only to hold their oars in the air and let the wind carry the boat -along. But a little farther out we could not sail so easily, for the -wave system of the eastern open part of the lake came into collision -with that from the west. Here the waves rose into hillocks and pyramids, -and had to be negotiated with the oars. We rapidly drew near to the -island, and its rocks became higher and looked threateningly dark and -dangerous. When we were close to the southern point I perceived that it -was impossible to land there. The bank of rubbish and blocks was very -steep, and we and the boat would have been dashed in pieces in the -foaming breakers. The situation was critical. Robert wished to land on -the lee-side of the northern point, but that would have been risky, for -the storm swept unchecked along the sides of the island, and if we did -not get under the land at the right moment we should be driven out into -the open lake at a distance of two days' voyage from the northern shore. -We rocked up and down on soft green crystal. I steered close to the -eastern bank, where the waves were just as high. Here we had no choice. -I turned the bow towards the land, and the men rowed for all they were -worth. A nasty billow threw us ashore. Robert jumped out, slipped, and -got a ducking. Ishe hurried up to help him. Three billows broke over me -before I got to land. We were all three drenched, but we were glad to -have firm ground under our feet, and to have reached the island safely -in spite of the treacherous storm which might have driven us past this -open roadstead. - -Then Robert and I went round the island while Ishe collected fuel. -Though we could only walk slowly over the detritus, we took but -twenty-five minutes to go round the island and ascertain its form by -compass bearings. It is longish, runs from north to south, and consists -of a single rock falling on all sides steeply to the water. During our -walk the wind dried us. Then I drew a panorama of Gurla Mandatta, and -after that the spot of earth to which fate had led us prisoners was -subjected to a closer investigation. At the north-eastern foot of the -elevation is a rather flat pebbly plateau. Here the wild-geese breed in -spring, and here lay still several thousand eggs, in twos, threes, or -fours, in a nest of stones and sand. - -That was a discovery. Ishe had a bag of _tsamba_, but that was all. -There was every probability that we should have to stay the night here, -and now we had a quite unexpected store of provisions to last for -months. And some time this persistent wind must cease. We played at -Robinson Crusoe, and found our situation very advantageous. But the -egg-collecting was the most interesting. The eggs were pretty and -appetizing as they lay half embedded in the sand, and I pictured to -myself the happy cackling that must go on in the spring when the goose -mothers sit with expectant hearts on the hard nests, and the sun floods -Gurla Mandatta with a sea of light. - -We broke two. They were rotten. We tried others which lay in the shade -and deeper in the sand. They gave out a horrible stench when the shell -broke with a crack on a stone. But of about 200 eggs we broke, we found -eight which were edible, and we did not want more. We helped Ishe to -collect dry plants lying on the slopes, and at sunset we had a huge heap -which we had piled within a small ring fence. In the middle the fire was -lighted, and we sat leaning against the wall which sheltered us from the -wind. We were warm and comfortable, and our satisfaction reached its -height when Ishe's store of _tsamba_ was divided into three equal -portions, and was eaten out of a wooden bowl with the hand in place of a -spoon. The greatest inconvenience was that we had no other vessel but -Ishe's small wooden bowl, and therefore whenever one of us wanted a -drink he had to tramp down to the shore. - -The storm still howled over the rock and through the holes and crannies -of the wall. Then the thought shot through my mind: "Is the boat moored -securely? If it should be carried away! Then we are lost. Ah, but it may -be cast ashore on the northern bank, and our men may fetch it and come -across to the island. No, it will be filled with water, and be sunk by -the weight of the zinc plates of the centre-boards. But then we can -mount in the morning to the southern point and make our people -understand by signs that we want provisions. We have drifted to the -island in eighteen minutes. They can make a raft with the tent poles and -stays, load it with provisions, and let it drift with the wind to the -island. And we may find more fresh eggs." - -Such were the thoughts that Robert and I exchanged while Ishe was -feeling about in total darkness at the landing-place. "What if we have -to stay here till the lake freezes over, four months hence?" I said. But -at this moment we heard Ishe's steps in the sand, and he calmed us with -the assurance that both the boat and the oars were safe. - -Then we talked together again and kept up the fire. The storm had -abated, but sudden gusts came down from all quarters. We inspected the -water, and found that we could make for the mainland without danger. But -first we took all the remaining fuel and piled it up into a blazing -bonfire, which shone like a huge beacon over the lake. If any Tibetan -saw it, he must have thought that an enchanted fire was burning on the -desolate island. - -The moon was high when we put off and the lake was still rough. But soon -the black cape where our camp stood was seen on the southern shore -against the dim background of mountains. In the middle of the sound the -depth was 113 feet. We shouted with all our might, and were soon -answered by a fire on the point, to which our people had come down. And -the roasted wild-goose, which had waited so long for us, and a cup of -hot tea tasted delicious in the early hours of morn. And still more -delightful was it to creep into bed after our short visit to the goose -island, which raised its dark, mysterious, dolphin-like ridge in the -moonlight. Never again would my foot tread its peaceful strand. - - - - -CHAPTER L - -THE SOURCE OF THE SUTLEJ - - -We had scarcely dressed in the morning before the storm raged again. -Galsan and a gova from Parka overtook us here. The former brought -provisions, the latter had strict orders from his chief, Parka Tasam, to -tell me that if I did not at once betake myself to Parka, he would send -off all my baggage to Langak-tso, and force me to move on to Purang. But -the gova himself was a jovial old fellow, and he received my answer that -if Parka Tasam ventured to meddle with my boxes, he should be -immediately deposed. If he kept quiet a couple of days, I would come to -Parka, and the rather that I found it impossible to navigate the lake at -this season of the year. - -Then we marched on westwards, in and out of the bays and round all the -projections produced by a mountain elevation north of Gurla, which -prolongs its ramifications to the lake. The constantly changing views, -as we wind in and out and wander between land and water, are -indescribably beautiful and charming. The two large islands lying far -out in the lake we see wherever we may be. One is named Dopserma; other -water-birds breed there, but no geese. In winter yaks and sheep are -driven over the ice to the island, where there is good pasturage. When -cattle disease rages in the country the animals on Dopserma do not -suffer. - -We passed round the sharp-pointed westernmost bay in a furious storm and -blinding clouds of sand, and encamped on the shore again. The same -agreeable weather continued also on the last day of August as we -travelled north-eastwards and saw the Langak-tso in a new and beautiful -aspect. The air was now clear, Kang-rinpoche and Gurla Mandatta were -unclouded, and stood as sentinels above the lakes. We passed the point -where Tundup Sonam, Ishe, and I had waited so long, and by the sand-dune -where we had lain four hours. - -At the north-western bay we cross the old bed of the Sutlej, consisting -of treacherous, quaking bog or dry, hard clay; it is broad, has no -terraces, and has been much degraded and smoothed down by deflation and -driftsand in later times. Two springs rise up in the middle, and flow in -the direction of the lake. Westwards the bed seems quite level, but -actually it rises slowly and evenly to a flat culmination, on the other -side of which it dips down towards the Indus. - -Now it had become dark, and we rode hour after hour among low hills and -dunes and over meadows and water channels. I thought we had lost our -way, when the bells of grazing cattle were heard, a fire appeared, and -Rabsang came to meet us with a lantern in order to lead us to the -village Parka, where my tent was set up in a courtyard. - -During the much-needed day of rest we allowed ourselves in Parka, I -negotiated now and then with the govas of the neighbourhood. They asked -me to set off definitely for the west next day, and I promised to do so, -but on the condition that I might stay three days in Khaleb, half a -day's journey to the west. They consented without inquiring into my -further intentions. I wished, be it known, to pass round the holy -mountain by the pilgrim road, but saw that the authorities would never -grant their permission. It could be done only by stratagem. - -Here I received a second very kind letter from Mr. Cassels, who happened -to be in Gyanima on official business. Unfortunately the force of -circumstances prevented us meeting. He gave me a pleasant surprise with -three packets of tea, which were the more welcome as I had latterly had -to put up with brick-tea. - -Here also the truth of the report that had so long followed us, that six -Chinese and Tibetan officials from Lhasa had been sent to bring me to -reason, was at length made clear. The report was certainly true, but -when the gentlemen on reaching Saka-dzong heard that I had marched on -westwards some time before, they simply turned back again. - -I obtained all kinds of information about the two lakes and their -periodical outlets, from Tibetans who had long lived in the country. -Four years before some water had flowed from Tso-mavang to Langak-tso, -which confirms Ryder's statement. Twelve years ago the outflow had been -so abundant that the channel could not be passed except by the bridge. -The channel is sometimes called Ngangga, sometimes Ganga. The water of -Langak-tso is said to drain off underground, and to appear again at a -place in the old bed called Langchen-kamba, and this water is said to be -the true source of the Sutlej, and to find its way to the large streams -which form this river, called in Tibetan Langchen-kamba. Twelve years -and forty-eight years ago the spring in the old bed is said to have -emitted much more water than now. Sherring collected similar data in -1905. - -Langak-tso is said to have been so poisonous in former times that any -one who drank of its water died, but since the holy fish broke through -the isthmus and passed into the lake, the water has been sweet. -Langak-tso freezes in the beginning of December, half a month sooner -than its eastern neighbour, and the freezing proceeds slowly and in -patches, whereas Tso-mavang freezes over in an hour. Langak-tso also -breaks up half a month before Tso-mavang. Both have ice 3 feet thick. In -winter the surface of Tso-mavang falls 20 inches beneath the ice, which -consequently is cracked and fissured, and dips from the shore; but -Langak-tso sinks only one or two thirds of an inch. This shows that it -receives water constantly from the eastern lake, but only parts with a -trifling quantity in winter. - -With regard to the goose island, I was told that three men are -commissioned by the Devashung to settle on the island as soon as the -wild-geese arrive, to protect them from wolves and foxes. They receive 8 -rupees, a sheep, and a lump of butter as wages. At this time, in May, -the ice is still two feet thick, but the egg-gatherers must take care -that they are not cut off from the mainland by a storm. Some years ago -it happened that two watchmen were isolated on the island in this way. -They lived there eight months, subsisting on eggs and green food, and -returned over the ice next winter as soon as the lake was frozen over. -But one of them was so enfeebled that he died on reaching Parka. - -After a lively feast held by the Ladakis in the evening, we rode on -September 2 north-westwards, accompanied by an old grey-headed gova, who -had become a particular friend of mine. The weather was fine, but we now -felt biting cold in the morning, much as at home on the islets off the -coast when the yellow leaves have fallen and a thin sheet of ice has -spread over the inlets. All Parka was on foot to witness our departure. -With us set out a high lama whom I had known in Leh. His retinue looked -well in their yellow dresses against the grey and green ground. He had -been in Shigatse, and had lately made the circuit of the holy mountain. -During the march we waded through the rivers Dam-chu, Sung-chu, La-chu, -and Khaleb, which together carried about 350 cubic feet of water per -second to Langak-tso. - -The nearer we came to the holy mountain, the less imposing it appeared; -it was finest from Langak-tso. In form it resembles a tetrahedron set on -a prism. From the middle of its white top a belt of ice falls -precipitously down, and below it stands a stalagmite of ice, on to which -a thick stream of water pours from above. The stream splits up into -glittering drops of spray and thin sheets of water--a grand spectacle, -which one could watch with pleasure for hours. - -Our camp on the Khaleb moor had the advantage of being far from the -haunts of men--a very necessary condition, for here I contrived to make -three excursions without permission. The second of these took a whole -day, September 6, and its aim was the old bed of the Sutlej. Where we -reached it, the bed seemed to contain stagnant water both to the east -and west, and the ground was quite level. At the place which seemed -highest, we tested it with the boiling-point thermometer and found that -it stood about 30 feet above the lake. Following the bed westwards we -come first to a large pool of sweet water with large quantities of ducks -and water-weeds, then to a series of freshwater swamps connected by -channels, and at length to a brook, which flows slowly south-westwards. -The brook pours into a large freshwater pool, No. 2, which has no -visible outlet. But when we proceed farther west to the point where the -bed is contracted between walls of solid rock, we come upon two springs -forming a new brook, which flows through a clearly marked valley to the -south-west. I am convinced that this water filtrates underground from -Langak-tso. A year later I followed the old bed a day's march farther -west, and found at Doelchu-gompa permanent springs of abundant water, -which likewise well up on the bottom of the bed. From here and all along -its course through the Himalayas the Tibetans call the Sutlej -Langchen-kamba, the Elephant river; the hill on which the convent -Doelchu-gompa is built is supposed to bear some resemblance to an -elephant, and hence the name. The spring at Doelchu is called -Langchen-kabab, or the mouth out of which the Elephant river comes, just -as the Brahmaputra source is the Tamchok-kabab, or the mouth out of -which the Horse river comes, and the Indus source is the Singi-kabab, or -the mouth from which the Lion river comes. The fourth in the series is -the Mapchu-kamba, the Peacock river or Karnali. The Tibetans assert that -the source of the Sutlej is at the monastery Doelchu, not in the -Himalayas or the Trans-Himalaya, from which, however, it receives very -voluminous tributaries. They are also convinced that the source water of -the Langchen-kamba originates from Langak-tso. And I would draw -particular attention to the fact that the first of the two holy springs -which pour their water into the Tage-tsangpo is also called -Langchen-kamba (see p. 105), a proof that in old times the source was -supposed to lie to the east of Tso-mavang. - -[Illustration: 268. KAILAS FROM DIRI-PU.] - -[Illustration: 269. CONFLUENCE OF THE TWO ARMS OF THE INDUS. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Now I advise any one who takes no interest in the source of the Sutlej to -skip the following quotation. During my stay in Kioto in December 1908, -Mr. Ogawa, Professor of Geography in the University there, showed me a -collection of Chinese books. One of them, _Shui-tao-ti-kang_, or _The -Elements of Hydrography_, is a compilation of the author Chi Chao Nan in -the 26th year of the Emperor Kien Lung, that is, the year 1762, and in -this work, Book 22, is the following communication concerning the source -of the Sutlej, which Professor Ogawa was kind enough to translate for me -literally:[1] - - The Kang-ka-kiang comes out from Kang-ti-ssu-shan, on the south-east - of which there stands Lang-chuan-ka-pa-pu-shan ( = Langchen-kabab), - magnificent like an elephant. The relief is gradually accentuated more - and more towards the south-western frontiers, and culminates at - Kang-ti-ssu-shan ( = Kailas). The mountain has a circumference of more - than 140 li. On all sides the mountain forms precipitous walls more - than 1000 feet high above the surrounding mountains, and accumulated - snow seems as if hung on cliffs. Hundreds of springs pour down from - the top, but flow under the ground on the foot of the mountain. It is - situated in the extreme west of the Tsang region, 310 li north-east of - Ta-ko-la-cheng in A-li, more than 5590 li south-west of Si-ning-fu in - Shensi province. Its longitude is 36 deg. 4' W., and its latitude 30 deg. 5' - N. In olden times the place was unknown, but can be doubtfully - identified with A-nok-ta-shan in the annotation of Shui-ching. In the - neighbourhood there are four high mountains, of which the southern is - called Lang-chuan-ka-pa-pu-shan, lying 250 li south-by-east of - Kang-ti-ssu-shan, and 270 li east of Ta-kola-cheng. The natives call - it so, because the form of the mountain resembles an elephant. On the - east of this mountain there stands Ta-mu-chu-ko-ka-pa-pu-shan (= - Tamchok-kabab), which is the source of the Ya-lu-tsang-pu river (= - Yere-tsangpo or Brahmaputra). Springs come out from the northern foot - of the mountain, and accumulate into a lake (35 deg. 5' W., and 29 deg. 1' - N.). The water flows north-westwards for 70 li, and receives a stream - coming from the north-east. The stream lies in the mountains 80 li - north-east of Lang-chuan-ka-pa-pu. Two streams flow westwards from the - mountain and turn north-westwards after their junction. It now takes a - sinuous course for 60 li, turns south-westwards, and joins the main - river. This is a source. - - The river flows further to the west-by-north for 40 li, then to the - north-east, to be met by the water of lake Kung-sheng (= Gunchu-tso), - which sinks under the ground of the lake basin, but which, after - reappearing, and after receiving three northern affluents, runs - south-westwards to the river. - - The lake of Kung-sheng-o-mo has two sources--one coming from the - north-east, from Ta-ko-la-kung-ma-shan, and flowing 150-160 li; the - other from the east, from the western foot of Ma-erh-yo-mu-ling ( = - Marium-la) in the western frontiers of Cho-shu-te. This last-mentioned - mountain forms the eastern boundary of A-li, and is the chief range - going south-eastwards from Kang-ti-ssu. The water (of the lake - Kung-sheng) flows westwards for more than 50 li, and forms another - lake, 80 li wide, and without an outlet. However, more than 10 li - farther to the west there is a third lake with a subterranean source - and with a length of 30 li. A stream comes from the north to the lake. - The river now flows south-westwards for 60 li, and receives a stream - coming from the north-east. 40 li farther south-westwards it receives - a stream coming from the northern mountains; farther south-westwards - the river meets the water from Lang-chuan-ka-pa-pu-shan. - - The water forms the lake Ma-piu-mu-ta-lai ( = Tso-mavang). From south - to north it is 150 li long, from east to west 80 or 100 li wide, and - has a circumference of more than 200 li. On the northern side of the - lake there are two streams coming from the north. The lake is situated - 120 li to the south of Kang-ti-ssu. The water flows out from the west - of the lake into the lake Lang-ka (= Lan-gak-tso) at a distance of 60 - li. The latter lake receives a stream coming from the north-east. Lake - Lang-ka has a narrow rectangular shape, pointed and elongated, the - length from south to north being 170 li, and the width from east to - west 100 li. Its northern pointed corner has the stream coming from - north-east. There are three sources on the southern foot at a distance - of 70 li from a southern branch of Kang-ti-ssu; they flow southwards, - unite into one stream, which takes a south-westerly course for 150-160 - li before entering the lake. The lake is the same in circumference and - area, but different in outline. - - The water (of lake Lang-ka) flows out from the west, and after running - westwards for more than 100 li it turns to the south-west, and is now - called the Lang-chu-ho, and takes a sinuous course for more than 200 - li. Then it receives the Chu-ka-la-ho coming from the north-east. - -This description of the position of the source of the Sutlej is of such -extraordinary interest that I do not like to reserve it for my -scientific work, and the less so that it supports the theory I expressed -when in India, that the Tage-tsangpo is nothing but the uppermost -section of the course of the Sutlej, or, in other words, that the source -of the Tage-tsangpo is also that of the Sutlej. Many quotations have -been looked up during the discussion that has arisen on this problem, -but they cannot compare in importance with the one just cited, which, -moreover, is sixty years older than the oldest of the others, namely, -Gerard's opinion that the Gunchu-tso is the source of the Sutlej. - -The description in Chi Chao Nan's _Hydrography_ is distinguished by the -same careful conformity with the truth and conscientiousness as all -other Chinese geographical descriptions. Compare the description of -Kailas (Kang-rinpoche) with what I have already said about it. - -Lang-chuan-ka-pa-pu is the Chinese translation of the Tibetan -Langchen-kabab, which literally means the "Source of the Sutlej." When -the Chinese author informs us that east of Langchen-kabab lies -Tamchok-kabab, which is the source of the river Yere-tsangpo -(Brahmaputra), we must admit that his description is quite in accordance -with the truth, as I, the first European to visit this country, have -myself discovered; for on the Tamlung-la I stood on the pass which parts -the water between the Brahmaputra and Sutlej, and immediately to the -south of the pass I saw Gang-lung-gangri and the glacier from which the -Tage-tsangpo takes its rise, and in which the source of the Sutlej lies. - -It is further said that the lake Gunchu-tso has two source streams--one -from the north-east, from the mountain Ta-ko-la-kung-ma, which is -evidently identical with D'Anville's Tacra-concla; the other from the -west side of the pass Marium-la: an account which agrees with Ryder's -map in all particulars. At present the Gunchu-tso is completely cut off -and is salt; it therefore is no longer connected with the Sutlej system. -But 147 years ago it had an outlet which ran partly underground, and -then, rising up again, joined the Langchen-kamba or Tage-tsangpo. And -that the Tage-tsangpo was at one time considered by the Tibetans to be -the headwater of the Sutlej is apparent from the fact that its name, -Langchen-kamba, is still applied to the upper of the two sacred source -streams in the valley of the Tage-tsangpo. - -And, again, it is said: This water, that is, the water of the -Langchen-kabab, or the headwater of the Sutlej, forms the lake -Ma-piu-mu-ta-lai, the Tso-mavang or Tso-mavam, as the name is also -pronounced; on D'Anville's map (Map 2) it is written Ma-pama Talai, and -D'Anville explains that Talai signifies lake. He might have added that -it is the same word as in Dalai Lama, the priest, whose wisdom is as -unfathomable as the ocean; for the Chinese word Talai or Dalai means -ocean. By the use of this word the Chinese author wished to imply that -Tso-mavang is much larger than the other lakes mentioned in his text. - -The surplus water, as there is every reason to assume, flowed in the -year 1762 from Tso-mavang through the channel to Langak-tso. The length -of the channel was 60 li, which corresponds to my 51/2 miles. All the -northern tributaries which flow into the two lakes from the valleys of -the Trans-Himalaya are correctly noted. The lake Langak is called -Lang-ka. On D'Anville's map, the material for which was supplied by the -Jesuits who lived in Pekin in the time of the Emperor Kang Hi (at the -beginning of the eighteenth century), the lake is named Lanken. On the -same map the river flowing thence westwards is called Lanc-tchou -(Sutlej), but it is suggested, absurdly enough, that it is the upper -course of the Ganges. D'Anville names the mountains south of Tso-mavang -Lantchia-Kepou, which is Langchen-kabab, and the mountains lying to the -south-east of them Tam-tchou, that is, Tamchok, in which he quite -correctly places the origin of the Yarou Tsanpou, the Brahmaputra. The -material for the map of the whole Chinese Empire, which the Jesuits -presented to the Emperor Kang Hi in the year 1718, was collected between -the years 1708 and 1716, and the Emperor procured information about -Tibet through natives, who were prepared for their work by the Jesuits, -just as in later times English topographers have trained Indian pundits. - -From D'Anville's map we learn that 200 years ago the Sutlej flowed out -of Langak-tso through the bed I have already described. Professor -Ogawa's translation of the Chinese text shows us that even in the year -1762, or perhaps some years before, the river still emerged from the -Langak-tso. And it is expressly said that the river Chu-ka-la-ho -(Chu-kar, which, however, is said to descend from the north-east instead -of the south-east) is only a tributary. - -In the year 1846 Henry Strachey found no visible outlet, but he says -that there is one underground, and considers it probable that the -channel also may carry water when the lake has risen after heavy rains. - -On July 30, 1908, I heard from the chief lama of the monastery -Doelchu-gompa, who was born in the neighbourhood and was then fifty-five -years old, that when he was quite young, water occasionally flowed out -of the lake. But when he was ten years old, that would be in the year -1863, this water had failed, and since then no more had been seen. On -the other hand, the springs in the bed are constant both in winter and -in summer, and are independent of the precipitation. The monks believe -that the water comes from Langak-tso, but nevertheless they call it the -Langchen-kabab, the river which flows out of the mouth of the elephant. - -My investigations on the spot, as well as the Chinese quotation, prove -that Colonel S. G. Burrard is quite right in his masterly description of -the rivers of the Himalayas and Tibet (Calcutta, 1907), when he includes -Tso-mavang and Langak-tso and all their affluents in the drainage basin -of the Sutlej, and therefore I will here cite two sentences of Colonel -Burrard: - - The connection between the two lakes may be taken as established, but - that between the western lake and the Sutlej basin is still open to - question. If the water from Rakas-tal flows into the Sutlej once a - century, and then only for such a short period as to be observed by no - one, we shall still be justified in including the lakes in the - catchment area of the river. - -And in this connection I would point out that the water-level of Tibetan -rivers and lakes is subject to periodical fluctuations, dependent on the -precipitation, of the same kind as the Brueckner periods. The level in -the two lakes varies from year to year. At the present time they are -very low, but there is nothing to prevent them rising gradually in a -more or less distant future. Tso-mavang may rise so that its water may -again flow through the channel to Langak-tso, and this lake at length -may discharge its surplus water, as formerly, through the dry bed of the -Sutlej. It is more probable, however, that Langak-tso is approaching a -time when it will lose its subterranean outlet also, and be quite -isolated, like Gunchu-tso and Panggong-tso, and consequently become salt -in time. But after it has lost its outlet it may be a long time, as -Professor Brueckner informs me, before the lake becomes noticeably salt. -The next step in the development will be that Tso-mavang will be cut off -from Langak-tso and likewise become salt. - -However, we need not plunge into speculations and prognostications of -the future, which may have surprises in store about which we can form -only more or less probable conjectures. It is our duty to rely solely on -fact and observation. - -And now that we are agreed that the two lakes belong to the drainage -area of the Sutlej, the question is: Which of the rivers debouching into -Tso-mavang is the headwater of the Sutlej? Naturally, the longest and -the one which carries most water. The river which once flowed out of -Gunchu-tso has no claim to this honour, and the Gunchu-tso must be -rejected as the source of the Sutlej. The Tage-tsangpo discharged 388 -cubic feet of water per second, while all the other streams entering -Tso-mavang carried at most 100 cubic feet each. The source of the -Tage-tsangpo in the front of the Gang-lung glacier is therefore the -source of the Sutlej. - -[Illustration: 270. TIBETAN FEMALE PILGRIMS AT KAILAS.] - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] I have only omitted a couple of sentences, which have no - immediate connection with the problem. - - - - -CHAPTER LI - -A PILGRIMAGE ROUND KANG-RINPOCHE - - -We are again on the Khaleb moor and the day is September 3, on which we -are to begin the circuit of the holy mountain. The head Gova of Parka is -with us to hold me in check, but I take very good care not to betray my -plans. Tsering, Rabsang, Namgyal, and Ishe are to go with me; they are -Lamaists, and are glad of the opportunity to come nearer the gates of -salvation by wandering round the holy mountain. We take provisions for -three days, the absolutely necessary instruments, sketch- and -note-books. The stand of the large camera and one of the boat's -tarpaulins are to serve as a tent. The whole baggage is only a light -load for a horse. I ride my small grey Ladaki and the four men march on -foot, for no one may ride round the holy mountain unless he is a -heathen, like myself. The rest of the caravan is to wait for us in -Khaleb, and my tent is to be left untouched that the Tibetans may think -that I am expected back in the evening. - -Tsering, Namgyal, and Ishe start early, and Rabsang and I a little -later. The Gova and his men come to ask what it all means and whither I -am going, but I answer only, "I shall soon be back again," and ride off -to the north, 30 deg. E., to the mouth of the Dunglung valley. - -The others wait for us among the first moraines, and then we proceed in -close column up and down among old moraines which have been thrust down -by vanished glaciers. A party of pilgrims from Kham in the distant east -are resting on the bank of the Dunglung river. They have pitched their -tents, and their horses are grazing on the fresh grass. From the top of -the moraine is seen the northern part of our stormy Langak-tso. - -We ride up the valley and soon have on both sides solid rock of hard -green and violet conglomerate, with huge cones of detritus at the foot -of the slopes. Enormous boulders of conglomerate have fallen down here. -On the left bank of the river, where the road comes up from Tarchen, -stand a small cubical house and several _manis_ and _chhortens_ in long -rows: it is a sacred road, the road of pilgrims round Kang-rinpoche. - -The cliffs assume ever wilder forms, falling perpendicularly to terraces -and pebble screes, forming steps and ledges, fortifications, battlements -and towers, as though built by human hands. They consist of sandstone -and conglomerate, and the strata dip 10 deg. to the south, and to the eye -appear horizontal. A small bridge spans the river. A party of pilgrims -behind us is just crossing it. But we are on the right bank, and above -us Nyandi-gompa is perched on its terrace. Above it rises the vertical -wall of a huge mountain mass, a dangerous background for the monastery. -Up on a ledge dwells a hermit, and quite at the top stands a streamer -pole named Nyandi-kong. Five years ago a huge block fell down upon the -monastery and laid half of it in ruins. The block still lies in the -inner court. It was early in the morning after long-continuous rain; no -one was hurt, but the monastery had to be rebuilt. - -Two monks, two old women, and a boy received us kindly, and said it was -the first time they had seen a European in Nyandi. The monastery, as -well as the three others on Kailas, is under Tarchen-labrang, which is -situated on the southern foot of the mountain, where the pilgrims begin -and end their circuit. Curiously enough, these monasteries belong to -Tongsa Penlop, the Raja of Bhotan. The preceding year, 1906, was a year -of the fire horse, and the year 1918 will be a year of the earth horse; -every twelfth year is a horse year, in which wood, fire, earth, iron or -water is prefixed to the name horse; the Tibetan cycle (the period of -time which is the base of the reckoning) extends over sixty years with -the names of twelve different animals. Every horse year, and accordingly -every twelfth year, crowds of pilgrims come to Kailas. The monks said -that they cannot be counted, but they knew that in the year 1907 more -than 5000 pilgrims had been at Nyandi, of whom the greater part came -from Ladak. - -The _lhakang_, or hall of the gods, is very original. Four pillars -support the roof. The altar, like a Chinese kiosque of wood painted in -colours, stands alone and in deep shadow, but so many votive lights are -placed in front that they seem like a festival illumination. An especial -lamp hangs before the image of Sakya-muni, which stands against a wall. -In front of the altar is a huge copper vessel with a cover, which is -called Tosungjoen. It is said to have flown in old times from India -through the air. In winter it is filled with butter, in summer with -_chang_. A lama with a brass ladle poured the consecrated beverage into -the bowls of my men, and out of the silver bowls with peacocks' feathers -he poured holy water into the hollow of their hands; they drank of it -and besmeared their faces with the rest. All, except Rabsang, paid due -reverence to the statues and prayed, and Tsering had murmured his -prayers all the way along and let the beads of his rosary slip through -his fingers. Two fine elephant's tusks (_langchen-sala-rapten_) were set -up before the altar. - -In the Tsenkang hall is a figure of Hlabsen clothed in gold brocade and -_kadakhs_, the god of Kang-rinpoche and Tso-mavang. In the ante-chamber -is a whole arsenal of guns and swords and wooden and leathern shields, -each with four iron bosses. On the outside of the monastery, which -fronts the holy mountain, rows of artistically sculptured slabs are -affixed. On six of them each of the holy characters is incised, and each -of the gigantic characters is again filled in with the invariable alpha -and omega of Lamaism, "Om mani padme hum." On other flagstones gods are -carved with wonderful dexterity, and one feels a vain desire to buy one -or two of them. - -The view from the roof is indescribably beautiful. The icy summit of -Kang-rinpoche rises amid fantastic fissured precipitous rocks, and in -the foreground are the picturesque superstructure of the monastery and -its streamers (Illust. 265). - -But time flies. After spending three hours in Nyandi, we say farewell to -the monks, descend the steep path zigzagging among rubbish and boulders, -and continue our journey to the north-north-east along the right bank of -the river. At every turn I could stand still in astonishment, for this -valley is one of the grandest and most beautiful in its wildness that I -have ever seen. The precipice on the right side of the valley is divided -into two stages with a terrace between them, and in the midst gapes a -dark ravine. On the left side the rock forms a single vertical wall, and -here the eyes fall on a succession of singular forms of relief, rocks -like congealed cascades, citadels, church towers, and embattled -fortifications, separated by canon-like hollows. Water from melting -snowfields pours down the steep slopes. One such jet of water is quite -800 feet high and white as milk; the wind turns it into spray, but it -collects again, only to be split up against a projection. The rock -around it is wet and dark with spurted drops. A natural rock bridge -crosses a small cleft with vertical walls. - -Immediately beyond the monastery the summit of Kailas is lost to view, -but soon a bit of it is seen again through a gap. We passed twelve -pilgrims, and soon after a second party resting on a slope. They put on -solemn faces and do not talk with one another, but murmur prayers, -walking with their bodies bent, and leaning on a staff--frequently, too, -without a staff. How they have longed to come here! And now they are -here and walk round the mountain, which is always on their right. They -feel no weariness, for they know that every step improves their -prospects in the world beyond the river of death. And when they have -returned to their black tents in distant valleys, they tell their -friends of all the wonders they have seen, and of the clouds, which sail -like the dragon ships of old below the white summit of Gangri. - -Small conical cairns are everywhere. Tsering never omits to take up a -stone from the margin of the road and lay it as his contribution on -every such votive pile, and thereby he does a good deed, for he makes -the way less rough for those who come after him. The sun looks out -through a gap, and throws a bright yellow light into the valley, which -otherwise is in shadow. The icy peak again appears much foreshortened. -Several tributaries come in from the sides, and towards evening the -river rises, containing quite 280 cubic feet of water. - -A man from Gertse has been going round the mountain for twenty -successive days, and now has just accomplished his tenth circuit. -Dunglung-do is a very important valley junction, where three valleys -converge--the Chamo-lung-chen from the north, 70 deg. W., the Dunglung from -the north, 5 deg. W., and the third, called in its upper course Hle-lungpa, -which we ascend. We now have granite on both sides. Kailas turns a sharp -edge to the north, and from here the peak resembles a tetrahedron more -than ever. Again the mountain is concealed by an elevation of the ring -which girdles it as Monte Somma encircles Vesuvius. The main river -swells up towards evening; the other two are spanned by bridges. Numbers -of boulders lie all about. All is granite, and therefore the mountain -forms are rounder and more lumpy (Illust. 267). - -At length we see the monastery Diri-pu in front of us, standing on the -slope on the right side of the valley. A huge block of granite beside -the path up to it bears the usual sacred characters, and there also are -long _manis_, streamers, and cairns. All the pilgrims we have overtaken -in the course of the day turn into the monastery, where they can pass -the night free of charge. The convent is crammed full after the arrival -of a party of pilgrims belonging to the Pembo sect. These, of course, -wander round the mountain in the reverse direction, and the orthodox -cast contemptuous glances at them when they meet. I prefer to pitch my -tent on the roof, where the luggage of the pilgrims is piled up. Here -also there is a fine view of Kailas, raising its summit due south. With -a temperature of 40 deg. at nine o'clock it is cold and disagreeable, for a -strong wind blows, and my tent, consisting only of the camera-stand -covered with a linen cloth, is too small to allow of a fire being -lighted (Illust. 268). - -Since I had been successful in fixing the positions of the sources of -the Brahmaputra and Sutlej, my old dream of discovering the source of -the Indus was revived, and all my aspirations and ambition were now -concentrated on this object. When I now learned from the monks that the -point where the famous river issues forth from the "Mouth of the Lion" -was only three days' journey to the north-east beyond a lofty pass, -everything else seemed of trifling consequence compared to an advance -into the unknown country in the north. We held a council of war; we had -provisions only for two days more, and we had not brought enough money -with us, and, moreover, the state of affairs in Khaleb was too uncertain -to allow of greater hazards. I therefore decided to carry out my -original plan in the meantime and complete the pilgrimage, and -afterwards make the source of the Indus the object of a fresh excursion -from Khaleb, or, if the worst came to the worst, from Gartok. - -[Illustration: 271. THE GOVA BY WHOSE HELP THE SOURCE OF THE INDUS WAS -DISCOVERED (SEATED) AND TIBETANS AT KAILAS.] - -On September 4 we take leave of the monks of Diri-pu, cross by a bridge -the river which comes down from the pass Tseti-lachen-la in the -Trans-Himalaya, from the other side of which the water flows to the -Indus, and mount in an easterly direction over rough steep slopes -thickly bestrewn with granite boulders. On our right is the river which -is fed by the glaciers of Kailas; it is quite short, but is very full of -water. The path becomes still steeper, winding among immense blocks of -granite, and leads up to the first hump, after which the ground is a -little more even to the next break. Here we have a splendid view of the -short truncated glacier which, fed from a sharply defined trough-shaped -firn basin, lies on the north side of Kailas. Its terminal, lateral, and -medial moraines are small but distinct. Eastwards from Kailas runs off -an exceedingly sharp, pointed, and jagged ridge, covered on the north -side with snow, and belts of pebbles in the snow give all this side a -furrowed appearance. From all corners of the ice mantle and the -snowfields foaming brooks hurry down to the river. On our left, -northwards, the mountains consist of vertical fissured granite in -wild pyramidal forms. Kailas is protected on the north by immense masses -of granite, but the mountain itself is in all probability of -conglomerate, as shown by the nearly horizontal bedding plainly -perceptible in the projecting ledges, sharply marked snow-lines, and -belts of ice. The summit rises above this sea of wild mountains like a -mighty crystal of hexagonal form. - -A party of poor women and children climbed wearily up to the pass. An -elderly man, who was now making his ninth circuit, made no objection to -join our party; he knew the country and could give information about it. -On another rise in the ground, called Tutu-dapso, we saw hundreds of -votive cairns, 3 feet high--quite a forest of stone pyramids--like -innumerable gravestones in a churchyard (Illust. 270). - -Slowly and laboriously we climbed up this arduous pass, one of the most -troublesome on the whole journey. Thicker and thicker lay the boulders, -exclusively of granite in all possible varieties, some pink and some so -light a grey as to be almost white. Between two boulders lay a -suspicious-looking bundle of clothes. We examined it, and found that it -contained the body of a man who had collapsed in making the tour of the -mountain of the gods. His features were rigid, and he seemed poor and -emaciated. No one knew who he was, and if he had any relations they -would never learn that his pilgrimage had launched him into new -adventures among the dark mazes of the soul's migrations. - -Our old man stops at a flat granite block of colossal dimensions, and -says that this is a _dikpa-karnak_, or a test-stone for sinners. A -narrow tunnel runs under the block, and whoever is without sin, or at -any rate has a clear conscience, can creep through the passage, but the -man who sticks fast in the middle is a scoundrel. I asked the old man -whether it might not happen that a thin rogue would wriggle through -while a fat, honest fellow might stick fast; but he answered very -seriously that stoutness had nothing to do with the result of the trial, -which depended only on the state of the soul. Evidently our honest Ishe -was not certain which way the balance of his conscience inclined, for, -before we were aware, we saw him disappearing under the block, and heard -him puffing, panting, and groaning, scratching with his hands and trying -to get a foothold behind. But when he had floundered about inside long -and vigorously, he was at last obliged to call for help in a -half-strangled voice. We laughed till we could hardly keep on our feet, -and let him stay a while in his hole because of his manifest sinfulness. -Then the two other men dragged him out by the legs, and he looked -extremely confused (and dusty) when he at length emerged again into the -outer world, an unmasked villain. The old man told us that a woman had -become so firmly fixed that she had actually to be dug out. - -Some 200 paces farther in this maze of granite boulders, among which we -wandered as in lanes between low houses and walls, stands a test-stone -of another kind. It consists of three blocks leaning on one another, -with two hollows between them. The task is to creep through the left -passage and return by the right, that is, in the orthodox direction. -Here Ishe made up for his previous discomfiture by crawling through both -holes. I told him frankly that there was no skill required here, for the -holes were so large that even small yaks could go through. However, the -sinner had in this second stone an opportunity of preserving at least a -show of righteousness. - -Our wanderings round Kang-rinpoche, the "holy ice mountain" or the "ice -jewel," is one of my most memorable recollections of Tibet, and I quite -understand how the Tibetans can regard as a divine sanctuary this -wonderful mountain which has so striking a resemblance to a _chhorten_, -the monument which is erected in memory of a deceased saint within or -without the temples. How often during our roamings had I heard of this -mountain of salvation! And now I myself walked in pilgrim garb along the -path between the monasteries, which are set, like precious stones in a -bangle, in the track of pilgrims round Kang-rinpoche, the finger which -points up to the mighty gods throned like stars in unfathomable space. - -From the highlands of Kham in the remotest east, from Naktsang and Amdo, -from the unknown Bongba, which we have heard of only in vague reports, -from the black tents which stand like the spots of a leopard scattered -among the dreary valleys of Tibet, from Ladak in the mountains of the -far west, and from the Himalayan lands in the south, thousands of -pilgrims come hither annually, to pace slowly and in deep meditation the -28 miles round the navel of the earth, the mountain of salvation. I saw -the silent procession, the faithful bands, among which all ages and both -sexes are represented, youths and maidens, strong men with wife and -child, grey old men who would before their death follow in the footsteps -of countless pilgrims to win a happier existence, ragged fellows who -lived like parasites on the charity of the other pilgrims, scoundrels -who had to do penance for a crime, robbers who had plundered peaceful -travellers, chiefs, officials, herdsmen, and nomads, a varied train of -shady humanity on the thorny road, which after interminable ages ends in -the deep peace of Nirvana. August and serene Siva looks down from her -paradise, and Hlabsen from his jewelled palace, on the innumerable human -beings below who circle, like asteroids round the sun, in ever fresh -troops, round the foot of the mountain, going up through the western -valley, crossing the Dolma pass, and descending the eastern valley. - -We soon discover that most of these simple pilgrims have no clear idea -of the benefits their journey is supposed to confer on them. When they -are questioned, they usually answer that after death they will be -allowed to sit near the god of Gangri. But what they all believe most -firmly and obstinately is that the pilgrimage will bring them a blessing -in this world. It will ward off all evil from their tents and huts, will -keep away sickness from their children and herds, protect them from -robbers, thieves, and losses, will send them rain, good pasturage, and -increase among their yaks and sheep, will act like a talisman, and guard -themselves and their property as the four spirit kings protect the -images of the temple halls from demons. They march with light elastic -step, they feel neither the icy-cold cutting wind nor the scorching sun; -every step is a link in a chain which cannot be broken by the powers of -evil which persecute and torment the children of men. They start on -their way from Tarchen-labrang, and every new turn in the road brings -them a step nearer to the point where the ring closes. And during the -whole peregrination they pray "Om mani padme hum," and every time this -prayer is uttered they let a bead of the rosary pass through the -fingers. The stranger also approaches Kang-rinpoche with a feeling of -awe. It is incomparably the most famous mountain in the world. Mount -Everest and Mont Blanc cannot vie with it. Yet there are millions of -Europeans who have never heard of Kang-rinpoche, while the Hindus and -Lamaists, all know Kailas, though they have no notion where Mont Blanc -lifts up its head. Therefore one approaches the mountain with the same -feeling of respect as one experiences in Lhasa, Tashi-lunpo, Buddh Gaya, -Benares, Mecca, Jerusalem, and Rome--those holy places which have -attracted to their altars countless bands of sin-burdened souls and -seekers after truth. - -Our volunteer guide said that he was on his ninth circuit of the mountain. -He took two days to each, and intended to go round thirteen times. He -called the track Kang-kora, the Gangri circle. Many years before, he had -performed the meritorious feat called _gyangchag-tsallgen_, which consists -in measuring the length of the way by the length of the pilgrim's body. -One such pilgrimage is worth thirteen ordinary circuits on foot. My -pilgrimage was of no value at all, because I was riding, the old man said; -I must go on foot if I wished to derive any benefit from it. - -[Illustration: 272. _Gulam Razul beside Bales of Chinese Brick-Tea._] - -When we came a second time to Diri-pu some days later, we saw two young -lamas engaged in the prostration pilgrimage round the mountain. They -were from Kham, and from that part of the country "where the last men -dwell," and had been a year on the way to Kailas. They were poor and -ragged, and had nothing to carry, for they lived on the alms of the -faithful. They had come in nine days from Tarchen to Diri-pu, and -reckoned that they had still eleven days to finish their round. I -accompanied them for half an hour on foot to observe their procedure. -This consisted of six movements. Suppose the young lama standing on the -path with his forehead held slightly down and his arms hanging loosely -at his sides, (1) He places the palms of his hands together and raises -them to the top of his head, at the same time bending his head a little -down; (2) he lays his hands under his chin, lifting up his head again; -(3) he kneels upon the ground, bends forwards and lays himself full -length on the ground with outstretched arms; (4) he passes his hands -laid together over his head; (5) he stretches his right hand forwards as -far as it will reach, and scratches a mark in the soil with a piece of -bone, which shows the line which must be touched by his toes at the next -advance; and (6) he raises himself up with his hands, makes two or three -strides up to the mark, and repeats the same actions. And thus he goes -round the whole mountain. - -It is slow work and they do not hurry; they perform the whole business -with composure, but they lose their breath, especially on the way up to -the pass. And on the way down from the Dolma-la there are places so -steep that it must be a gymnastic feat to lie down head foremost. One of -the young monks had already accomplished one round, and was now on the -second. When he had finished, in twelve days, he intended to betake -himself to a monastery on the Tsangpo and be there immured for the rest -of his life. And he was only twenty years old! We, who in our superior -wisdom smile at these exhibitions of fanaticism and self-mortification, -ought to compare our own faith and convictions with theirs. The life -beyond the grave is hidden from all peoples, but religious conceptions -have clothed it in different forms among different peoples. "If thou -lookest closely, thou wilt see that hope, the child of heaven, points -every mortal with trembling hand to the obscure heights." Whatever may -be our own convictions, we must admire those who, however erroneous -their views may be in our opinion, yet possess faith enough to remove -mountains. - - - - -[Illustration: OM MANI PADME HUM] - -CHAPTER LII - -OM MANI PADME HUM - - -Now begins the last very steep zigzag in the troublesome path among -sharp or round grey boulders of every form and size, a cone of blocks -with steps in it. Dung-chapje is the name of a round wall of stone, in -the midst of which is a smaller boulder, containing in a hollow -depression a round stone like the cleft hoof of a wild yak. When the -faithful pilgrim passes this spot, he takes this stone, strikes it -against the bottom of the hollow and turns it once round like a pestle. -Consequently the hollow is being constantly deepened, and one day it -will be lowered right through the block. - -We mount up a ridge with brooks flowing on both sides. On every rock, -which has a top at all level, small stones are piled up, and many of -these pyramidal heaps are packed so closely that there is no room for -another stone. Thanks to these cairns the pilgrim can find his way in -snowstorm and fog, though without them he could not easily find it in -sunshine. - -At length we see before us a gigantic boulder, its cubical contents -amounting perhaps to 7,000 or 10,000 cubic feet; it stands like an -enormous milestone on the saddle of Dolma-la, which attains the -tremendous height of 18,599 feet. On the top of the block smaller stones -are piled up into a pyramid supporting a pole, and from its end cords -decorated with rags and streamers are stretched to other poles fixed in -the ground. Horns and bones, chiefly shoulder-blades of sheep, are here -deposited in large quantities--gifts of homage to the pass, which is -supposed to mark the half-way point of the pilgrimage. When the pilgrim -arrives here, he smears a bit of butter on the side of the stone, plucks -out a lock of his own hair and plasters it into the butter. Thus he has -offered up some of himself and some of his belongings. Consequently the -stone resembles a huge wig-block, from which black locks of hair flutter -in the wind. In time it would be completely covered with Tibetan hair, -were it not that the locks occasionally fall off and are blown away by -the wind. Teeth are stuck in all the chinks of the Dolma block, forming -whole rosaries of human teeth. If you have a loose tooth, dedicate it to -the spirits of the pass. Tsering unfortunately was toothless, or he -would gladly have conformed to this regulation. - -Heaps of rags lie all around, for the pilgrim has always a spare shred -to hang on a string or lay at the foot of the block. But he not only -gives, but also takes. Our old man took a rag from the heap and had a -large quantity of such relics round his neck, for he had taken one from -every cairn. - -The view is grand, though Kailas itself is not visible. But one can see -the sharp black ridge lying quite close on the south side with a mantle -of snow and a hanging glacier, its blue margin cut off perpendicularly -at the small moraine lake on the eastern side of the pass. - -While I sat at the foot of the block, making observations and drawing -the panorama, a lama came strolling up leaning on his stick. He carried -a book, a drum, a _dorche_, and a bell, and likewise a sickly-looking -child in a basket on his back. The parents, nomads in the valley below, -had given him _tsamba_ for two days to carry the child round the -mountain, whereby it would recover its health. Many pilgrims gain their -livelihood by such services, and some make the pilgrimage only for the -benefit of others. The lama with the child complained that he had only -made the circuit of the mountain three times, and did not possess money -enough to go round thirteen times. I gave him alms. - -Then he sat down on the pass, turned his face in the direction where -the summit of Kang-rinpoche was hidden, placed his hands together, and -chanted an interminable succession of prayers. After this he went up to -the block and laid his forehead on the ground--how many times I do not -know, but he was still at it when we descended among boulders to the -tiny round lake Tso-kavala. We followed its northern shore, and our old -friend told me that the ice never breaks up. - -But time slips away and we must hasten on. We walk, slide, and scramble -down steep slopes where it would be easy to tumble down head over heels. -The old man is sure-footed, and these slopes are old acquaintances. But -woe betide him if he turned round and went in the reverse direction. At -length we reach the main valley, called in its upper part Tselung, and -in its lower Lam-chyker. Through the large valley, which enters the main -valley on the right side, and is called Kando-sanglam, we now look -eastwards upon the highest pinnacle of the summit of Kailas, which has a -sharp edge towards the north-east, and still looks like a crystal. At -two _manis_ erected side by side we pass the border of the granite and -the conglomerate, which now appears again. The further we proceed the -more numerous are the boulders of this kind of rock, while those of -granite at length occur no more. We march south-west and bivouac on the -roof of the monastery Tsumtul-pu. All day long, at all the cairns and -all the resting-places, I have heard nothing but an endless murmur of -the words "Om mani padme hum," and now, as long as I am awake, "Om mani -padme hum" sounds in my ears from all nooks and corners. - -The temple had no other curiosity but a statue of Duk Ngavang Gyamtso, 5 -feet high, sitting as at a writing-desk, two not very large elephant's -tusks, and a five-branched chandelier from Lhasa. Our visit, therefore, -did not last long, and we rode down the valley in which the river -gradually increased in size. Here, too, _manis_ and _chhortens_ are -erected, and at the end of the valley, where again numbers of granite -boulders are accumulated, we see once more Langak-tso and the grand -Gurla group. - -[Illustration: 273. TIBETAN TENT.] - -[Illustration: 274. MONASTERY OF GAR-GUNSA.] - -[Illustration: 275. IMAGES AT CHUSHUT.] - -At Tarchen-labrang we reached the termination of the pilgrimage. Here -twenty-three tents were pitched, and we received the greatest attention, -were refreshed with milk and _chang_, and rested two hours. Then we left -the pilgrim road to the right, and came into sight of the fourth -monastery, perched high up on a terrace in the valley below the holy -peak. A curious local wind at the north-west corner of Langak-tso raised -up clouds of dust like the smoke of a burning town. A short while after, -we lay peacefully among our men in the camp on the Khaleb moor. - -By this pilgrimage round the holy mountain, which I had been able to -accomplish by an unexpected lucky chance, I had gained an insight into -the religious life of the Tibetans. It had also been, as it were, a -revisal of all the experiences I had already collected in this -connection. - -Our knowledge of Tibet is still defective, and some future traveller -will find sufficient material to show on a map of the whole Lamaistic -world all the great pilgrim routes to innumerable sanctuaries. On such a -map numerous roads would converge, like the spokes of a wheel, to Da -Kuren, the temple of Maidari in Urga. Still closer would the rays from -every inhabited spot of the immense territory of Lamaism run together to -their chief focus, Lhasa. Somewhat less thickly they would unite at -Tashi-lunpo. Innumerable winding roads and paths would start from the -farthest border countries of Tibet, all tending towards the holy Kailas. -We know that they exist, and no great imagination is required to -conceive how they would look on a map. But it is with the routes of -pilgrims just as with the flight of the wild-geese: we know nothing of -their precise course. Besides, among the principal foci are scattered a -number of smaller centres whence radii diverge to a sanctuary, a lake, -or a spring, and from the heart of all these wind-roses peals out a cry -to the faithful, similar to the exhortation of Isaiah: "Look upon Zion, -the city of our solemnities: thine eyes shall see Jerusalem" (Isa. -xxxiii. 20). - -In the ears of the Tibetan another saying rings, the mystical formula -"Om mani padme hum," not only on his wanderings to the goal of his -pilgrimage, but throughout his life. Concerning this Waddell makes, -among others, the following remarks: "Om-ma-ni pad-me Hum, which -literally means '_Om!_ The Jewel in the lotus!' _Hum!_--is addressed to -the Bodhisat Padmapani, who is represented like Buddha as seated or -standing within a lotus-flower. He is the patron-god of Tibet and the -controller of metempsychosis. And no wonder this formula is so popular -and constantly repeated by both Lamas and laity, for its mere utterance -is believed to stop the cycle of re-births and to convey the reciter -directly to paradise. Thus it is stated in the Mani-kah-bum with -extravagant rhapsody that this formula 'is the essence of all happiness, -prosperity, and knowledge, and the great means of deliverance,' for the -_Om_ closes re-birth amongst the gods, _ma_ among the Titans, _ni_ as a -man, _pad_ as a beast, _me_ as a Tantalus, and _Hum_ as an inhabitant of -hell. And in keeping with this view each of these six syllables is given -the distinctive colour of these six states of re-birth, namely: _Om_, -the godly _white_; _ma_, the Titanic _blue_; _ni_, the human _yellow_; -_pad_, the animal _green_; _me_, the 'Tantalic' _red_; and _Hum_, the -hellish _black_" (_The Buddhism of Tibet_, 148-9). - -Koeppen and Gruenwedel translate the four words: "O, Jewel in the -lotus-flower, Amen." - -Wherever one turns in Tibet, he sees the six sacred characters engraved -or chiselled out, and hears them repeated everywhere. They are found in -every temple in hundreds of thousands of copies, nay, in millions, for -in the great prayer mills they are stamped in fine letters on thin -paper. On the monastery roofs, on the roofs of private houses, and on -the black tents, they are inscribed on the fluttering streamers. On all -the roads we ride daily past wall-like stone cists covered with slabs, -on which the formula "Om mani padme hum" is carved. Seldom does the most -lonely path lead up to a pass where no cairn is erected to remind the -wanderer of his dependence all his life long on the influence of good -and bad spirits. And on the top of every such _lhato_ or _lhadse_ is -fixed a pole or a stick with streamers, every one proclaiming in black -letters the eternal truth. At projecting rocks cubical _chhortens_ or -_lhatos_ stand beside the road in red and white. On the sides of granite -rocks polished smooth by wind and weather figures of Buddha are -frequently cut, and below them, as well as on fallen boulders, can be -read in gigantic characters "Om mani padme hum." On the piers between -which chain bridges are stretched over the Tsangpo or other rivers, -heaps of stones are piled up, and on all these innumerable votive cairns -lie yak skulls and crania of wild sheep and antelopes. Into the horns -and the bleached frontal bones of the yak the sacred formula is cut, and -the incised characters are filled in with red or some other holy colour. -We find them again in innumerable copies and in many forms, especially -on the high-roads which lead to temples and pilgrims' resorts, as well -as at all places where there is danger, as on mountain passes and river -fords. And even the ferry boats of hide are decorated with blessed -streamers. - -In every caravan one man at least, and usually several, has a -prayer-mill in his hand. This is rotated by means of a weight round the -axle of the handle, and is stuffed full of paper strips bearing the holy -formula in many thousands of impressions. All day long, whatever the -duration of the journey, the believer turns his prayer-mill and babbles -in chanting tones "Om mani padme hum." The militia who are called out to -catch a robber band have on their ride more confidence in their -prayer-mills than in their guns and sabres, and, sad to say, there are -some even among the robbers who rattle off their Om and Hum in order to -make their escape. Among the escorts which accompanied me on various -occasions there were always one or two horsemen armed with a _mani_ -machine. One always sees this convenient praying instrument in the hands -of the people one meets. The herdsman murmurs the six syllables beside -his herd, his wife when milking the sheep, the merchant as he goes to -market, the hunter as he stalks the wild yak on untrodden paths, the -nomad when he sets out to move his tent to another pasture, the artisan -as he bends over his work. With these words the Tibetan begins his day, -and with them on his tongue he lies down to rest. The Om and Hum are -not only the Alpha and Omega of the day, but of his whole life. - -The mystic words rang constantly in my ears. I heard them when the sun -rose and when I blew out my light, and I did not escape them even in the -wilderness, for my own men murmured "Om mani padme hum." They belong to -Tibet, these words; they are inseparable from it: I cannot imagine the -snow-capped mountains and the blue lakes without them. They are as -closely connected with this country as buzzing with the bee-hive, as the -flutter of streamers with the pass, as the ceaseless west wind with its -howling. - -The life of the Tibetan from the cradle to the grave is interwoven with -a multitude of religious precepts and customs. It is his duty to -contribute his mite to the maintenance of the monasteries and to the -Peter's pence of the temples. When he passes a votive cairn he adds a -stone to the pile as an offering; when he rides by a _mani_, he never -forgets to guide his steed to the left of it; when he sees a holy -mountain, he never omits to lay his forehead on the ground in homage; in -all important undertakings he must, for the sake of his eternal -salvation, seek the advice of monks learned in the law; when a mendicant -lama comes to his door he never refuses to give him a handful of -_tsamba_ or a lump of butter; when he makes the round of the temple -halls, he adds his contribution to the collection in the votive bowls; -and when he saddles his horse or loads a yak, he again hums the -everlasting "Om mani padme hum." - -More frequently than an Ave Maria or a Paternoster in the Catholic -world, "Om mani padme hum" forms an accompaniment to the life and -wanderings of humanity over half Asia. The boundless vista opened out by -the six holy syllables is thus expressed by Edwin Arnold in the -concluding lines of his poem, _The Light of Asia_: - - The dew is on the lotus. Rise, Great Sun! - And lift my leaf and mix me with the wave. - Om mani padme hum, the sunrise comes. - The dewdrop slips into the shining sea. - -[Illustration: 276. THE POLICEMEN FROM SIMLA.] - -[Illustration: 277. MY BOAT ON THE INDUS.] - -[Illustration: 278. LADAKI WOMEN.] - - - - -CHAPTER LIII - -THE DISCOVERY OF THE SOURCE OF THE INDUS - - -Immediately on my arrival in Khaleb I told the old gova, who had the -hopeless and thankless task of watching my proceedings, that I now -intended to take the road past Singi-kabab, or the source of the Indus. - -"If you go thither, Bombo," he answered, "I shall at once send a courier -to the Garpuns, the two chiefs in Gartok." - -"I do not think that the Garpuns will have any objection to my taking a -more northerly route." - -"Oh yes, the Garpuns received orders from Lhasa five days ago to watch -carefully that you followed no other way but the great high-road to -Gartok. The Garpuns straightway sent couriers to twelve different -places--Parka, Misser, Purang, Singtod, and others--to make it known -that you were not permitted to travel on byroads. If this letter had not -reached me, I would willingly have let you march northwards, but now I -dare not for my own sake." - -"What would you do if I quietly disappeared one night? I can buy yaks in -Tarchen, and then I shall not be dependent on those I have from you." - -"Yes, of course. A man lives in Tarchen who has sixty yaks, and will -sell them as soon as he sees silver money. But I shall at once send word -to the Garpuns, and they will send men after you and force you to come -back. To buy yaks would therefore be useless waste of money. However, if -you like to let the main part of your caravan follow the high-road, and -make yourself an excursion of a couple of days northwards to the -Singi-kabab, and then join your caravan again, I will put no obstacles -in your way. But you do it at your own risk, and you will most certainly -be caught before you reach the source of the Indus." - -I was as much astonished as delighted by this sudden change in the -attitude of the gova, and arranged with Robert that he should lead the -main caravan in very short day's marches to Gartok, while I made as -rapidly as possible for the source of the Indus. I took only as many -things as a small leathern trunk would contain, and as companions only -five men, among them Rabsang as interpreter and Adul as cook, with our -own six animals and three dogs, one of which, a new purchase, ran away -on the first day. I had Robert's small tent, and our arsenal consisted -of two guns and a revolver, for robbers were said to make the country -very unsafe. I could not find a guide, but on the way to Diri-pu, where -I encamped once more, I came across an old man from Tok-jalung, who -wished to make the round of Kailas thirteen times, and gave me much -valuable information. But no money could induce him to accompany us -farther. - -On the 8th we continued our way through the valley that runs -north-north-eastwards from Diri-pu to the Tseti-la. The stream, divided -into many arms, was covered in the night by a thin coating of ice, -smooth as glass, where the water had run off, but it disappeared when -day came. The valley is broad, and the road showed traces of -considerable traffic, though we did not meet a soul. The marmots -whistled in front of their holes; the summer would soon be over for -them. Kang-rinpoche can be seen from many places, and here pilgrims from -the north have piled up cairns. Granite predominates everywhere, but -crystalline schists occur here and there. We followed the fresh tracks -of three horsemen. The gradient became steeper and the scenery assumed -more of an alpine character. We mounted up among huge cones of detritus -with babbling brooks of melted snow to the pass, which lay at a height -of 18,465 feet. Its plateau is singularly flat. On its northern side -camp No. 234 was pitched. - - -In the evening Rabsang reported that our fuel-gatherers had heard -whistles, and that these signals had been answered from the other side. -The men believed that there were robbers here, and did not dare to sit -outside by the fire lest they should be good marks for shots out of an -ambush. I quieted them with the assurance that no robber would venture -to attack a European, but gave orders to the watchmen to keep an eye on -our animals. - -The night passed quietly and the minimum temperature went down to 16.2 deg.; -autumn was come again into dreary Tibet. I had supposed that the -Tseti-la was the pass on the main divide, but we had not gone far when -we saw its brook, which flowed northwards, make a bend to the west, and -descend through a well-defined valley to the Dunglung. It therefore -belongs to the catchment basin of the Sutlej and not to the Indus, and -the Tseti-la is a pass of secondary order. But we soon reached the -actual pass, an extremely flat threshold. Here lies a small muddy lake -drained by a brook issuing from its eastern side, which we followed all -day. This pass is the Tseti-lachen-la, and it is a water-parting between -the Sutlej and the Indus. Its height is less than that of the Tseti-la, -for it is only 17,933 feet; it lies on the main chain of the -Trans-Himalaya. Kailas, therefore, lies a good day's journey south of -the watershed of the two rivers, and belongs entirely to the basin of -the Sutlej. - -From the lake we follow the little affluent of the Indus northwards. The -ground is marshy and rough. Here and there are seen three hearthstones. -A dead horse lies among the luxuriant grass. It is singular that no -nomads are encamped here. At length we see at a far distance quite down -in the valley men going downstream with large flocks of sheep. Tundup -Sonam and Ishe are sent after them, and by degrees the rest of us come -up with the party. They are nomads from Gertse, who have taken salt to -Gyanima and are now transporting barley on their 500 sheep. All the -valley is dotted over with white sheep, which trip along actively, -plucking the grass as they go. In front of us rises a steep purple -mountain chain, and along the flank turned towards us the Indus is said -to flow. We joined the men of the sheep caravan and camped together with -them. There were five of them, all armed with guns, and they said that -the district was frequently haunted by robbers, who at times seemed to -vanish altogether, and then suddenly came down like a whirlwind, and no -one knew whence they came. - -Our camping-ground on the bank of the Indus (16,663 feet) is called -Singi-buk. Eastwards the valley is broad and open, but the Indus itself -is here an insignificant stream. I was therefore not astonished when I -heard that it was only a short day's journey to the source, which, I was -told, does not proceed from snow or a glacier, but springs up out of the -ground. The men called the river the Singi-tsangpo, or Singi-kamba, and -the source itself Singi-kabab, though we afterwards heard the word -pronounced Senge more frequently than Singi. - -It turned out that one of the five men knew all about us. He was a -brother of the Lobsang Tsering on the Dungtse-tso who had sold us three -yaks the winter before (see Chapter XV.). It was a singular chance that -we should fall in with him. He said he had heard how well we had treated -his brother, and offered us his services--for a good reward, of course. -As he had travelled several times through this region, quite unknown to -Europeans, and was acquainted with all the passes, roads, and valleys, I -thought he would be very valuable to me, and I proposed to give him 7 -rupees a day, that is about half a month's pay of one of my Ladakis. Of -course he accepted the terms at once and soon became our intimate -friend. - -But these business matters were not yet settled. The man had a quantity -of sheep and barley. He consented to let us eight sheep on hire, and -sell us their loads, which would last our horses for a week. He was to -receive a rupee for the hire of each sheep, which was high, for a sheep -is worth only 2 to 3 rupees. The old man would therefore receive 18 -rupees every evening as long as he was with us; but it was cheap after -all, for the discovery of the source of the Indus was involved. - -[Illustration: 279, 280, 281. AT THE MONASTERY DOOR IN TASHI-GANG -BETWEEN GARTOK AND LADAK.] - -The large sheep-caravan had already started on September 10, when we, -with our new guide, whose own _tsamba_ was carried on a ninth sheep, -followed in its track. After an hour's march we crossed a tributary, the -Lungdep-chu, which comes from a valley in the south-east, with flattish -mountains in the background. - -A little farther up the Singi-kamba expands into a basin containing an -abundance of medium-sized fish. As we passed, the fish were darting -upstream in compact shoals, and passed a very shallow place with slight -swirls. Here Rabsang attacked them, but all his catch was only one small -miserable fish. Then we threw up a dam by the bank, with an opening on -one side, and the men went into the water and drove in the fish with -shouts and splashing. Then the entrance was built up. After we had -repeated this diversion three times, we had procured thirty-seven fine -fish, and I was eager for my dinner, which I usually looked forward to -with some loathing, for the hard dried mutton had become thoroughly -distasteful to me. Our old man, who sat and watched us, thought that we -had taken leave of our senses. Farther up, the fish were so crowded in a -quiet pool that they made the water seem almost black with their dark -backs. - -We rode up the valley, leaving on our right a red, loaf-shaped mountain -called Lungdep-ningri. Opposite, on the northern side of the valley, -were seen two fine Ovis Ammon sheep feeding on a conical elevation. They -bore splendid horns, and carried their heads royally. They soon -perceived us, and made slowly up the slope. But they paid too much -attention to our movements, and did not notice that Tundup Sonam, with -his gun on his back, was making a detour to stalk them from the other -side of the hill. After a while we heard a shot, and a good hour later, -when the camp was pitched, Tundup came back laden with as much of the -flesh of his victim as he could carry. Thus we obtained a fresh addition -to our somewhat scanty rations, and Tundup's exploit enhanced the glory -of this memorable day. In the evening he went off again to fetch more -meat, and he brought me the head of the wild sheep, which I wished to -preserve as a memento of the day at the source of the Indus. - - -The ground rises exceedingly slowly. Singi-yuera is a rugged cliff to the -north, with a large hole through its summit. Singi-chava is the name of -a commanding eminence to the south. Then we wade through the outflow of -the Munjam valley running in from the south-east. Above this the Indus -is only a tiny brook, and part of its water comes from a valley in the -south-east, the Bokar. A little later we camp at the aperture of the -spring, which is so well concealed that it might easily be overlooked -without a guide. - -From the mountains on the northern side a flattish cone of detritus, or, -more correctly, a slope bestrewn with rubbish, descends to the level, -open valley. At its foot projects a slab of white rock with an almost -horizontal bedding, underneath which several small springs well up out -of the ground, forming weedy ponds and the source stream, which we had -traced upwards, and which is the first and uppermost of the headwaters -of the mighty Indus. The four largest springs, where they issued from -the ground, had temperatures of 48.6 deg., 49.1 deg., 49.6 deg., and 50.4 deg. -respectively. They are said to emit the same quantity of water in winter -and summer, but a little more after rainy seasons. Up on the slab of -rock stand three tall cairns and a small cubical _lhato_ containing -votive pyramids of clay. And below the _lhato_ is a quadrangular _mani_, -with hundreds of red flagstones, some covered with fine close -inscriptions, some bearing a single character 20 inches high. On two the -wheel of life was incised, and on another a divine image, which I -carried off as a souvenir of the source of the Indus. - -Our guide said that the source Singi-kabab was reverenced because of its -divine origin. When travellers reached this place or any other part of -the upper Indus, they scooped up water with their hands, drank of it, -and sprinkled their faces and heads with it. - -[Illustration: 282. DANCING WOMEN IN CHUSHUT, A VILLAGE ON MY WAY BACK -TO LADAK.] - -Through the investigations made by Montgomerie's pundits in the year -1867 it was known that the eastern arm of the Indus is the actual -headwater, and I had afterwards an opportunity of proving by measurement -that the western, Gartok, stream is considerably smaller. But no -pundit had succeeded in penetrating to the source, and the one who -had advanced nearest to it, namely, to a point 30 miles from it, had -been attacked by robbers and forced to turn back. Consequently, until -our time the erroneous opinion prevailed that the Indus had its source -on the north flank of Kailas, and, thanks to those admirable robbers, -the discovery of the Indus source was reserved for me and my five -Ladakis. - -We passed a memorable evening and a memorable night at this important -geographical spot, situated 16,946 feet above sea-level. Here I stood -and saw the Indus emerge from the lap of the earth. Here I stood and saw -this unpretentious brook wind down the valley, and I thought of all the -changes it must undergo before it passes between rocky cliffs, singing -its roaring song in ever more powerful crescendo, down to the sea at -Karachi, where steamers load and unload their cargoes. I thought of its -restless course through western Tibet, through Ladak and Baltistan, past -Skardu, where the apricot trees nod on its banks, through Dardistan and -Kohistan, past Peshawar, and across the plains of the western Panjab, -until at last it is swallowed up by the salt waves of the ocean, the -Nirvana and the refuge of all weary rivers. Here I stood and wondered -whether the Macedonian Alexander, when he crossed the Indus 2200 years -ago, had any notion where its source lay, and I revelled in the -consciousness that, except the Tibetans themselves, no other human being -but myself had penetrated to this spot. Great obstacles had been placed -in my way, but Providence had secured for me the triumph of reaching the -actual sources of the Brahmaputra and Indus, and ascertaining the origin -of these two historical rivers, which, like the claws of a crab, grip -the highest of all the mountain systems of the world--the Himalayas. -Their waters are born in the reservoirs of the firmament, and they roll -down their floods to the lowlands to yield life and sustenance to fifty -millions of human beings. Up here white monasteries stand peacefully on -their banks, while in India pagodas and mosques are reflected in their -waters; up here wolves, wild yaks, and wild sheep, roam about their -valleys, while down below in India the eyes of tigers and leopards -shine like glowing coals of fire from the jungles that skirt their -banks, and poisonous snakes wriggle through the dense brushwood. Here in -dreary Tibet icy storms and cold snowfalls lash their waves, while down -in the flat country mild breezes whisper in the crowns of the palms and -mango trees. I seemed to listen here to the beating of the pulses of -these two renowned rivers, to watch the industry and rivalry which, -through untold generations, have occupied unnumbered human lives, short -and transitory as the life of the midge and the grass; all those -wanderers on the earth and guests in the abodes of time, who have been -born beside the fleeting current of these rivers, have drunk of their -waters, have drawn from them life and strength for their fields, have -lived and died on their banks, and have risen from the sheltered freedom -of their valleys up to the realms of eternal hope. Not without pride, -but still with a feeling of humble thankfulness, I stood there, -conscious that I was the first white man who had ever penetrated to the -sources of the Indus and Brahmaputra. - - - - -CHAPTER LIV - -A RESOLUTION - - -From the source of the Indus we travelled on north-eastwards with our -friendly guide to a locality called Yumba-matsen, which lies in lat. 32 deg. -N. And thence I betook myself to Gartok, the chief town of western Tibet -and the residence of the two Garpuns, where I arrived after many -adventures on September 26, having crossed the Trans-Himalaya for the -fifth time by the Jukti-la (19,111 feet high). I must, alas! omit a -description of this journey for the present, though it passed for the -most part through unknown country. Mr. Calvert crossed over the Jukti-la -two years before. - -In Gartok (14,656 feet) a new period began. This town is a turning-point -in the chronicles of my journey. In the first place, I again came into -contact with the outer world. Thakur Jai Chand, the British commercial -agent, handed me immediately on my arrival a thick packet of letters, -including a quantity from my dear home, and others from Lord and Lady -Minto and their daughters, from Colonel Dunlop Smith, Younghusband, -O'Connor, Rawling, and many other friends in Europe and Asia. Nothing, -however, was heard of the heavy consignment I expected from Simla. But -soon afterwards I heard from Dunlop Smith that all I had ordered was on -the way and would arrive in due course, and meantime I had to wait in -patience. - -The Garpuns at once sent me presents as a token of welcome, with the -usual polite phrases. They were of too great importance to visit me -first, so next day I went to them. The elder was ill; the younger, a -gentleman from Lhasa, thirty-five years of age and of distinguished -appearance, received me most cordially in his simple Government -buildings, and was so little angry at the liberties I had recently taken -that he did not even ask me where I had been. It was an irony of fate -that a letter in most friendly terms and most liberal in its -concessions, which I now received from Lien Darin by the hand of the -Garpun, had not reached me until it was too late. When Lien Darin -received my letter from Raga-tasam, he immediately sent off two Chinamen -fully authorized to come to an agreement with me about the route I was -to take. "For I shall be glad to know," said the Amban of Lhasa, "that -you are travelling by the road that suits you." He was quite convinced -that my movements, whichever way I took, would give no cause for -political complications. And he concluded with the words: "Now, I hope -that you will have a successful and peaceful journey, and I will pray -for your health and prosperity." - -How I regretted now that I had not stayed in Saka, and so much the more -when the Garpun told me that the two Chinamen had arrived with an escort -of four Tibetans only two weeks after we had left! But the Garpun was -friendly disposed towards me; he was the most powerful man in western -Tibet, and could still throw open all doors for me, if he dared and was -willing to do so. - -[Illustration: 283. OLD WOMAN.] - -[Illustration: 284. LAMA IN CHUSHUT. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -I was, indeed, pleased and thankful for the results which I had already -been able to secure. Besides many other problems that had been solved, I -had crossed the Trans-Himalaya by five passes, namely, the Sela-la, -Chang-la-Pod-la, Angden-la, Tseti-lachen-la, and Jukti-la, of which the -first four had been entirely unknown. But between the Angden-la and the -Tseti-lachen-la I had been obliged to leave a gap of quite 330 miles in -the exploration of the Trans-Himalaya. Of this region nothing was known -but the summits Ryder had seen from his route, and which he and Wood had -measured by observation. We also possessed some uncertain statements of -Nain Sing's journey in 1873, but his route lay to the north of the blank -patch, and this blank represented an area of 5300 square miles. I could -not return home without having done all that was humanly possible to -traverse the unknown country by at least one route. Precisely there was -the line forming the watershed between the Indian Ocean and the inland -drainage of the salt lakes on the Tibetan plateau. There many lakes and -rivers might be expected to exist, and there lay the large province of -Bongba, of which so many hazy reports had reached our ears from its -northern, eastern, and southern boundaries. But the greatest and most -important question of all was: Does the Nien-chen-tang-la run right -through Tibet in a westerly and north-westerly direction to the north of -the Tsangpo and the upper Indus? No European and no pundit had hitherto -ventured on this problem; but Hodgson, Saunders, and Atkinson had many -years before laid down a hypothetical range on their maps of Tibet. Did -it actually exist? Or was a labyrinth of ranges hidden under the white -space, or a comparatively flat plateau, on which foundation isolated -snowy peaks and chains were based? Hypotheses are absolutely worthless -compared to proved facts. Such facts I would procure. I knew that if I -did not succeed now in penetrating into the country which on the latest -English map of Tibet (1906, Map 1) bears only the word "Unexplored," one -fine day another explorer would come and rob me of this triumph. And -this thought I could not endure. - -In Gartok my old friend from Leh, the rich merchant Gulam Razul, was -staying (Illust. 272). I consulted him, and he was to be my delivering -angel. He took a very sanguine view of our position, for the Garpun owed -him 7000 rupees for goods delivered, and feared his influence; he could -therefore put pressure on the Viceroy of western Tibet. He first tried -stratagem, which, however, completely failed, for the Garpun replied he -was too fond of his head to expose it to risk by assisting a European -who had no permission to travel about the country. Then we tried gold, -but the Garpun answered most theatrically: "If this house were of gold -and you offered it to me, I would not take it. If you travel on -forbidden roads, I will send armed men after you who will force you to -return hither." - -He was incorruptible, and he was too strong for us. How sorry I was now -that I had not proceeded eastwards when I was in enjoyment of complete -freedom at the source of the Indus and in Yumba-matsen! But no, that was -impossible, for my cash-box was then not full enough, I had only five -men with me, and I could not have left the rest of my caravan to their -own devices. - -What if I went down into Nepal and came back again into Tibet by -unguarded roads? No, that would not do, for snow would soon close the -Himalayan passes. And if we tried to slink through to Rudok and thence -make eastwards? No, Rudok swarmed with spies. And soon Gulam Razul -learned also that the Garpun had sent orders throughout his territory to -stop me in case I attempted to travel even to Ladak by any other than -the main high-road. - -Thus we planned this and that, and mused day and night, sometimes in my -tent, sometimes in Gulam Razul's, and waited for the consignment from -Simla, heard bells jingle when couriers came from the east, saw one -merchant after another return from the fair in Lhasa, met the _serpun_ -or gold commissioner who came from Tok-jalung, and felt the cold of -autumn cut our skins more sharply as the thermometer fell to -11 deg.. - -Then in lonely hours I came to the resolution to return to Ladak and -thence, as in the year before, penetrate into Tibet from the north, -traverse the whole country once more, and cross the blank space. I knew -very well that by this roundabout way it would take half a year to reach -districts situated only a month's journey from Gartok. A new caravan -would be necessary, new dangers and adventures awaited us, and winter -was before us with its Arctic cold. But it must be done in spite of -everything. I would not turn back until the obstacles in my way became -quite insuperable. To enter Ladak, a country under British protection, -was a risk, and therefore I must make all haste to cross the frontier -again. I could not avoid Rawling's and Deasy's country, but what did it -matter? My aim was the unknown region, which I would try to explore by -some route or other. - -Gulam Razul and Robert were the only ones who were initiated into my new -plans, for in them I could place the blindest confidence. During our -conferences we spoke in Persian, and Robert kept a watch that no -eavesdropper came near my tent. Gulam Razul undertook to get together -the new caravan from Leh, and it was to reach at a certain time Drugub, -where I meant to dismiss my last thirteen men; they were worn-out and -longed to get home. Gulam Razul undertook the responsibility of finding -me fresh men. - -On October 20 we left Gartok to await in Gar-gunsa the arrival of the -consignment from India. Gulam Razul, Thakur Jai Chand, the postmaster -Deni Das, and the doctor Mohanlal, also moved thither. Robert had heard -in Gartok the sad news that his elder brother had died in Further India, -and now he received a fresh blow, for his little brother, ten years old, -had been drowned in Srinagar. He was inconsolable, and begged me to let -him go home to his mother, who had now only one son left. So I was to -lose him also. - -Gulam Razul had three large tents within his fence of boughs (Illust. -254). There he sat like a pasha on his divan, smoked a large silver -narghile, and received his guests with Oriental dignity. He was jovial -and agreeable, undertook to do everything, and thought nothing of -difficulties. There we made our plans and long lists of things to be -bought, and as my arrival in Ladak could not be kept secret for long, we -spread the report that I wanted a new caravan for a journey to Khotan, -and that I intended to travel to Pekin in the spring. For the success of -the plan it was essential that no one should have any suspicion of my -real intentions; for in that case, especial orders would be sent to -Rudok and to the nomads. My own servants and all Hajji Nazer Shah's -household believed therefore that it was my settled purpose to go to -Khotan, and that I had given up all thoughts of Tibet. I even went so -far as to send a telegram from Drugub to Reuter's correspondent in -India, my friend Mr. Buck, with the information that I was about to make -a short journey to Khotan. The object was to mislead the mandarins. If -no one else would help me, I must help myself, and, if necessary, with -cunning and trickery. None of my Indian friends must have any suspicion -of my real plans, not even Colonel Dunlop Smith; it would, of course, be -silly to put them in a position where they must either betray me or be -disloyal to their own superiors. Except Gulam Razul and Robert, only my -parents and sisters were let into the secret. But, unfortunately, I had -given them a far too optimistic estimate of the length of my enterprise, -and therefore when they heard no news they became day by day more -uneasy, and at last came to the conclusion that I had come to grief -(Illust. 234). - -On October 29, 1907, Gulam Razul's mules arrived, and were subjected to -a thorough inspection. They were in splendid condition--small, sturdy, -and sleek animals from Lhasa, accustomed to rarefied air, and, according -to the owner, capable of enduring hardships of every kind. Gulam Razul -even offered to buy them back at the price I paid, if they returned -alive. I paid for all the twenty 1780 rupees. I still possessed five of -my own animals, after a small white mule had been torn to pieces by -wolves in Gartok. A whole pack had attacked our last six animals, the -camp watchman had been unable to drive the wolves away, and the mule had -been horribly wounded. He had been seen running before the wolves with -his entrails trailing on the ground. The last mule from Poonch still -survived, as well as my little Ladaki grey and one of his fellows, the -veterans of Leh. - -[Illustration: 285. ON THE WAY TO TANKSE.] - -[Illustration: 286. IN THE INDUS VALLEY ON THE WAY TO LADAK.] - -[Illustration: 287. THE NEW HORSES AND MULES AT DRUGUB.] - -Gulam Razul also undertook to procure for me fifteen excellent horses -from Ladak at a price of 1500 rupees. The other purchases consisted of: -barley for the animals, 60 rupees; rice, 70 rupees; _tsamba_, 125 -rupees; provender sacks, 60 rupees; clothes for the new men, 152 rupees; -butter, 80 rupees; tea, 50 rupees; stearin candles and sugar, 104 -rupees; a Lhasa skin coat for myself, 40 rupees; and a sleeping-bag of -soft goatskin, also for myself, 25 rupees; in addition there was the -hire of the pack animals which conveyed my baggage to Leh, 40 rupees, -and the cost of transporting the newly purchased goods from Leh to -Drugub, 20 rupees. Eleven men were to be enlisted in Leh, all having -served in Hajji Nazer Shah's commercial house and known as honest -respectable people. They were to receive 15 rupees a month each, -though their usual wages had not been more than 12, and three months' -pay in advance. The caravan bashi was to receive 50 rupees a month and -be selected with very great care. My whole debt to Gulam Razul amounted -to nearly 5000 rupees, for those who had had the trouble of making all -these purchases were to receive a douceur over and above. I sent a note -of hand to Colonel Dunlop Smith, with directions that this sum should be -paid to Gulam Razul, in order that he might have security if I did not -return from this journey. - -On October 30 Gulam Razul sent his son to Leh to equip the new caravan, -which was to reach Drugub, ready in all particulars, on November 30. For -the valuable services rendered me on this occasion Gulam Razul -afterwards received from H.M. King Gustaf of Sweden the gold medal "for -distinguished service," and I recommended him to the Indian Government -for the title of honour, Khan Bahadur; of course I based my appeal in -this case on the great commercial services he had rendered to the Indian -Empire. - -In Gar-gunsa I heard news of a new treaty between Great Britain and -Russia, which had been concluded in October of this year. "Great Britain -and Russia bind themselves not to allow any scientific expedition of any -kind whatsoever to enter Tibet for the next three years without previous -agreement, and call upon China to act similarly" (Illust. 274). - -It seemed as though this clause were especially designed to meet my -case. I said not a word to Gulam Razul about it. But I saw that I could -no longer travel in Tibet as a European. Last year I had been successful -when the political situation was still unsettled, but I had taught both -the Chinese and Tibetans a lesson, and shown them that it was possible -for a European to travel right across the country. I had also placed a -weapon in their hands against me. I should not be able to manage it a -second time. Now they would keep their eyes open along the periphery of -the inhabited country. I must travel in disguise to attract as little -attention as possible. Another courier was therefore sent to Leh to -procure me a complete Ladaki costume in Mohammedan fashion. Gulam Razul -also was of opinion that, considering all circumstances, it would be -wisest to travel as a merchant. The new caravan leader was to be our -master, while I myself should figure as "the least of his servants," and -keep myself out of sight in all negotiations. - -The whole affair was a desperate game, a political and diplomatic game -of chess, the stakes being my own life or great geographical -discoveries. I, who had hitherto stood on the most friendly and -confidential terms with the Tibetans, must now avoid them as enemies. I -should not be able to see any Tibetan face to face, and should have to -conceal my own eyes in order not to be caught. Therefore a large pair of -round goggles with dark glasses was bought; inside them I fastened -polished glasses of the strength suited to my sight. My European outfit -was restricted as much as was at all possible; the large camera and the -boat were sent to Leh with my other baggage, and I took with me only a -small Richard's camera. - -The main point was that in inhabited districts I should conduct myself -with Oriental self-control and be entirely passive. The outcome of this -mad plan was to me enshrouded in impenetrable darkness. I only knew that -I must go northwards from Drugub in the direction of the Karakorum pass, -then turn to the east and south-east, and endeavour to cross from -Lemchung-tso the blank space lying to the south of Bower's route in -1891, and thence continue my journey through the great blank patch on -the north of the upper Tsangpo. If I were successful, I would go south -to India either through Nepal or through Gyangtse, where perhaps I might -have an opportunity of meeting Major O'Connor, as I had always wished to -do. Gulam Razul advised me to be very cautious, for the Rudok-dzong had -a paid spy in Drugub, who had to report on the movements of Europeans on -the English side of the frontier. This spy was one of the most dangerous -reefs in my fairway; the suspicion of the Tibetans was at once roused -when they found that I had bought twenty mules from Gulam Razul. The -Garpun sent a messenger to find out what I wanted them for. He was told -that they were for a journey to Khotan. - -Thakur Jai Chand had an excellent _jamadar_ whom he sent to meet the -baggage coming from India. At length, in the beginning of November, we -received news that the consignment was coming. Then Robert proposed to -go to meet our wished-for guests with some of our new mules. Late on the -evening of the 6th they all turned up when I was already in bed. They -were five policemen from Rampur, one of them suffering from inflammation -of the lungs and more dead than alive. When Robert met them they were so -starved and exhausted that he had first to massage the whole party to -put new life into them (Illust. 276). - -I at once gave orders to light a roaring fire and serve tea. They came -up with their laden mules, two Mohammedans, three Hindus--all in dark -blue uniforms with tall blue-and-white turbans, rifles, and bayonets. I -bade them welcome, thanked them for the excellent way in which they had -performed their task, and made their corporal give me an account of -their difficult and trying journey over the Ayi-la. Then they were shown -to sleeping-places in a tent, and next day I looked through the nine -chests sent to me by Colonel Dunlop Smith. Three of them contained 6000 -rupees in silver, all of the Queen's reign, none of the King's, for the -Tibetans will not take rupees on which King Edward's face is stamped. -The other boxes contained tinned meat of all kinds, preserves, -chocolate, cheese, cakes and biscuits; cigars, cigarettes and tobacco; -gold and silver watches, and revolvers with ammunition, for presents; -cartridges for two of our guns; note-books and map paper; a whole -library of new novels, including Jack London's _The Call of the Wild_--a -present from O'Connor and suitable reading for the adventurous time -before us; an anemometer and a hydrometer, presents from the chief of -the Central Meteorological Institute in Simla, Dr. Gilbert Walker; and a -host of other necessary and acceptable articles. The amiable Colonel, -his equally amiable sister, and his daughter, had had no end of trouble -in selecting and purchasing the things, packing them up and -transmitting them to Tibet. It was owing to their kindness that I was -able for a long time to live like a prince, and I cannot be sufficiently -grateful to them. - -Now I had nothing more to wait for. The policemen were well paid, and I -also bore the expense of their return journey and gave them winter -clothing; took a hearty farewell of my sincere friend Gulam Razul, -without whose help the new journey would have been impossible; thanked -Thakur Jai Chand and the other Hindus for their kindness, and started -off on November 9, 1907, north-westwards along the course of the upper -Indus. - -On the 26th we reached Tankse, where the dignitaries of the district and -even the _tesildar_ of Leh came to meet us. They had already heard that -I intended to travel to Khotan in midwinter. The following day was to be -a day of rest, for here I was to discharge all my old servants except -Robert and the Gurkha, Rub Das. When I had breakfasted, Tsering carried -out the plates and dishes, which now had many chips out of their enamel. -"This is the last time, Tsering, that you will wait on me." Then the old -man began to weep, and hurried out quickly. - -Then I summoned all the men to my tent and made them a speech, telling -them that they had served me faithfully and obediently, and had well -earned the comfort and repose that awaited them by their domestic -hearths in the bosom of their families. I wished them good fortune and -prosperity in the future, and reminded them of the loss we had all -sustained by the death of Muhamed Isa--good old Muhamed Isa, who, when -we were last at Tankse, had made all arrangements so cleverly and -conscientiously. And to show them that we were not the only ones who -mourned for him, I read them what Younghusband, O'Connor, and Rawling -had written to me about the deceased. - -[Illustration: 288. ROBERT IN WINTER DRESS.] - -While their five horses and five yaks were being loaded with all their -belongings, they came to me in my tent, one after another, to receive -their pay and an extra present. Tsering, Rehim Ali, Shukkur Ali, and -Tundup Sonam received especial gifts of money, the latter three -having exposed themselves to danger on my account. Old Tsering asked -to be allowed to keep the lame dog from the Ngangtse-tso; its bark -before his hut in Leh would remind him of the time when the dog kept -watch at our camp-fires. Shukkur Ali kept another dog from the same -country. Now I had only the brown puppy, which, with Robert and the mule -from Poonch, were among the oldest veterans of the caravan, all three -having accompanied me from Srinagar. - -And then came the bitter moment of parting. So much grief, such loud -weeping! They could hardly tear themselves away. The _tesildar_ was -quite overcome at witnessing the deep attachment of my simple followers. -The bonds were strong that were now torn asunder, for there is nothing -which knits men together so firmly as common sufferings and dangers. I -myself felt a catch in my throat, and, as the men reluctantly followed -their yaks down the road to Drugub, I stood and watched them until they -were out of sight. Then I dried my eyes before going into my tent, where -Robert and the _tesildar_ were waiting for me with tea and cakes served -up by Rub Das. I could not help thinking of a funeral repast after an -interment, at which a wreath of violets had been laid on the grave of a -departed friend. - -Next morning I awoke to new surroundings. All my old companions were -scattered to the four winds, and now they were gone all seemed empty and -deserted. Robert read off the meteorological instruments as usual, and -Rub Das laid my breakfast as noiselessly as an elf. I was glad that in -spite of everything I felt not the slightest irresolution. The same -angel who had protected me on my former journey would again attend my -steps. I seemed to hear once more in the distance the rustle of his -wings in the cold winter nights on the Chang-tang. - - - - -CHAPTER LV - -A NEW CHAPTER - - -As soon as we were ready we mounted our horses and rode down to Drugub. -Soon the old village came in sight with the house in which I had dwelt -six years before, and the garden in which we had halted in the year -1906. On a terrace below the village stood our three tents and a fourth. -The _jamadar_ Ishe, old Hiraman, who never omitted to greet me, and -young Anmar Ju, another of my old friends, salaamed and presented to me -my new men. These three had orders from the _tesildar_ to accompany me -to Shyok. - -"Who is the caravan bashi?" I asked. - -"I am," answered a little wrinkled old man called Abdul Kerim, and -wearing a large yellow skin-coat (Illust. 289). - -"What are the names of the others?" - -"Kutus, Gulam, Suen, Abdul Rasak, Sedik, Lobsang, Kunchuk, Gaffar, -Abdullah, and Sonam Kunchuk." - -"You are then eleven men altogether--three Lamaists and eight -Mohammedans?" - -"Yes, Sahib." - -"I shall at some future time take down your names, ages, places of -abode, the journeys you have made, the services you have been in, etc." - -It turned out that very few of them had ever been in the service of a -European, but all had been employed by Nazer Shah, and his son Gulam -Razul answered for them. Four had been in Lhasa, and almost all the -Mohammedans in Yarkand, and all seemed pleasant and cheerful, and were -in the prime of life. - -[Illustration: 289. ABDUL KERIM, THE NEW CARAVAN LEADER.] - -"Which of you is my cook?" - -"I am," answered Gulam, a comical little fellow, who immediately -received a lecture from Rub Das how I was to be attended on (Illust. -291). - -"Are you all Ladakis?" - -"Yes, Sahib, all except Lobsang, who is a Tibetan from Gar-gunsa, but -has married in Leh and has served with the Hajji Nazer Shah." - -I was somewhat loath to take a Tibetan with me on a journey where it was -essential to keep the Tibetans as long as possible in the dark. If -danger threatened, how easily he could betray me to his countrymen! I -considered whether I would not exchange him for another man, or simply -leave him behind. But how often had I reason subsequently to rejoice -that I had not given effect to the suggestion! With the exception of the -four Russian cossacks and Robert, Lobsang was the best servant who ever -accompanied me on my journeys through the wilds of Asia. He was a -splendid man, and I cherish a warm recollection of him (Illust. 290). - -All were now welcomed into my service, and I expressed the hope that -they would perform their duty as faithfully as their predecessors, -promised them an extra donation of 50 rupees each if I were contented -with them, and told them that I would pay the expenses of their return -home from the point where our journey ended, just as I had done before. -When it was known in Leh that I wanted fresh servants for the journey to -Khotan, Guffaru and all the men I had sent home from Tokchen presented -themselves and begged earnestly to be restored to my service. But the -old Hajji had received strict directions from his son. Not one of my old -servants might accompany me this time, for it would increase the danger -if we met Tibetans with whom we were already acquainted. - -The new horses seemed fine and strong, and stood, eating hay and barley, -in a long row along a wall, beside the mules and the veterans from Leh. -They were to be well fed, for the days of feasting would soon be over, -and it would be well if they put on flesh, on which they could fall back -in evil days. All the goods ordered were of the best quality, and -packed in new strong boxes covered with leather (Illust. 287). - -On the morning of November 29, 1907, three Tibetans came from -Rudok-dzong and set up their tents on our left wing. There, I thought, -now espionage is beginning. An hour later we heard the sound of bells up -in the valley. The noise became louder and louder between the cliffs, -and a great din was raised as thirty-four fine little mules with loads -of salt passed by my tent. All had a chain of small bells round their -necks, most of them were adorned with red and blue ribands, and some had -large red tassels hanging at their chests, which almost touched the -ground and swung about at every step. It was a bright and lively scene, -and the jingle of bells allured me out to fresh adventures in distant -regions. In the twinkling of an eye the animals were relieved of their -loads and driven up the valley like a herd of wild asses, to graze on -the scanty grass among the granite. The owners must then be traders. -They afterwards came into my tent, took tea and cigarettes, and asked -Abdul Kerim whither we were travelling. He answered without lying, "To -Khotan." It was I who lied. But had I told the truth, I should have been -stopped in fourteen days, and might as well have gone home at once. - -We had three new tents. The two larger accommodated my eleven servants; -the smallest, which was so small that one could only stand upright under -the ridge-pole, and could only hold a bed and two boxes, was mine. I -wished to have one as small as possible that it might more easily be -kept warm. All my baggage was re-packed. I gave some superfluous -articles to Robert and to the Rev. Mr. Peter in Leh. There was a very -thorough sorting out, and only what was absolutely indispensable was -packed, filling two boxes, one of which chiefly contained Swedish and -English books, sent by my sister Alma and Colonel Dunlop Smith. As soon -as they were read, they would be offered to the winds. When I moved at -night into my new tent and laid myself to rest in the large sleeping-bag -lined with sheep's wool, and covered myself, I was as warm and -comfortable as in a bed at home. - -[Illustration: 290. LOBSANG; 291. GULAM; 292. KUTUS--MY LAST TRUSTY -FOLLOWERS.] - -Gulam Razul's son, Abdul Hai, visited me, and our business matters were -transacted with him. Robert remained responsible for my heavy baggage -until he had deposited it in the house of the Hajji Nazer Shah. It -consisted of ten regulation horse-loads. In my leisure hours I wrote a -heap of letters, which Robert was to hand in at the post-office in Leh. - -We had now 21 mules and 19 horses, the brown puppy, and a large yellow -dog from Gartok. All the mules and horses, except mine and Abdul Kerim's -saddle-horses, carried loads (Illusts. 296, 297, 298). I rode my little -white Ladaki, which had grown marvellously strong again, and was as -spirited as one of the new horses. He and two others were the survivors -of the large caravan which had, on the former occasion, set out from -Leh. In order to make sure that Abdul Kerim took sufficient provender, I -told him he must not think that I would follow the direct road like -ordinary caravans. I might make excursions right and left, and often -remain stationary for a week at a time. He must, therefore, provide -barley for the animals for two-and-a-half months, and he must take care -that the provender we took with us lasted out. But it is stupid to trust -to others. All the heavy baggage from Simla, the silver money, and the -tinned provisions made four loads; Gulam's chests of kitchen utensils, -two; the tent, the bedding, and the belongings of the men made several -loads; all the other animals were to be laden with rice, barley, and -_tsamba_. We also took 25 sheep from Tankse. - -In the night of December 3 the thermometer fell to -10.1 deg.. Next morning -all the baggage was packed up and carried down the valley to Shyok by -coolies. Two fellows, as strong as bears, carried my two tent-boxes. The -animals carried only their new saddles. One group after another marched -off, and at last I remained alone. Then I shook hands with my faithful -companion, Robert, thanked him for his invaluable services, his honesty, -his courage, and his patience; asked him to greet for me the -missionaries, Dr. Neve, and warm India; took leave also of honest Rub -Das and all the others; mounted into my new Ladak saddle on my trusty -white, and rode down to the Shyok valley with Anmar Ju. I was the last -remaining of the original caravan, and was surrounded by men who were -complete strangers to me. But I was also strange to them, and they had -no suspicion of the foolhardy adventures I intended to lead them into. -The wind, however, was the same, and the same stars would twinkle in the -sky during the cold silent nights in Tibet. So I should not be quite -alone. - -It is little more than 6 miles to Shyok, and yet this short distance -took almost eight hours. We had to cross the river six times, which just -below the village of Drugub has cut a deep narrow passage between rocks -of granite and gneiss. The first crossing was easy, for there the river -had been frozen over in the night, and though the ice cracked, we passed -over by a path strewn with sand. At the second passage the river was -open, but broad and shallow, and the ice belts on both sides had been -strewn with sand. The third, where we had to cross over again to the -right bank, was very awkward, because ice belts suddenly ending in the -middle were flooded in consequence of a damming up of the ice lower -down. They could not therefore be strewn with sand, and we had to be -careful lest we should fall out of the saddle when the horses set their -feet down in the water 3 feet deep. It is little more agreeable when he -jumps up on the opposite edge, and his hoofs slide about before he can -get a firm foothold on the smooth ice. - -Below this place was the fourth crossing--the worst of all--and here the -whole train had come to a halt. On the right bank, where we stood, the -river was broad and deep, with icy cold, dark-blue, transparent water -winding down, but at the left bank lay a broad belt of ice. Suen, a -tall, black-bearded man with very Jewish features, bared his body and -examined the ford on horseback. In so doing he got into water so deep -that his horse began to swim. Then he jumped in himself and swam to the -edge of the ice, where it cost him great effort to climb up. Poor man! I -shivered as I looked at him; he had been quite under water. - -[Illustration: 293. BEGGARS.] - -[Illustration: 294. ABDUL KERIM'S NEW TENT.] - -Four of the others made an attempt a little higher up, and got over, but -they were up to their necks in water. Then the whole troop of mules and -horses were driven into the river; the horses managed best. One mule, I -felt sure, would be lost. He made no attempt to hoist himself on to the -ice until he had been pelted with stones from our bank. And when at -length he was up and was following the track of the others, the ice -cracked and gave way under him, and there he lay enclosed. All five men -had to pull him out and drag him over the ice to solid ground. - -Barely 100 yards farther down is the fifth ford. Between the two stands -a steep, smooth, projecting rock, its foot washed by the river. It is, -however, possible to climb over the rock up small fissures and over -slight projections and thus avoid the two detestable fords. Here all the -baggage was carried over by the coolies, and I myself climbed over the -rocks barefooted; a short way beyond this crag a strong man carried me -over smooth flooded ice. Here we had plenty of time for meditation, -while the animals were again driven through such deep water that they -almost had to swim. All were wet up to the root of the tail and many had -water over their backs. The poor creatures stood together closely in a -group, with pieces of ice hanging from their flanks and knocking -together like castanets. We kindled a fire that the five men who had -been in the water might undress, dry themselves, and change every stitch -of clothing. - -Then we went some distance downstream to a place where the heavy -provisions were piled up on the bank, and the poor animals had to enter -the icy water before they had got warm again. Here the baggage had to be -carried over the river by stark-naked men, who tried with staves in -their hands to keep their equilibrium among the treacherous rounded -stones in the river bed. An elderly man was seized with cramp when he -was half-way across, and could not move a step. Two bold youths jumped -into the water and dragged him to land. Two mules, which could not be -induced by coaxing or scolding to enter the water, were tugged over with -a rope. I had a guide before my horse, which was wet half-way up the -saddle, so that I had to tuck up my legs as high as possible, and in -this position it was very difficult to keep my balance, as the horse -made unexpected jumps among the blocks. The men raised such a loud -hurrah that the mountains rang again when I was over the last ford with -a whole skin; a blazing fire prevented any ill effects from my -foot-bath. Every man, who came across shivering, dripping, and blue with -cold, had to sit down immediately by the fire. I could not understand -why they were not frozen to death. - -Then we rode in the twilight up and down hill, and it was pitch dark -before a welcome blazing fire showed us that we were near the village of -Shyok. We gathered round it as we came up, and delighted in its -radiating heat. I could not help consoling myself with the thought that, -if any pursuers followed me up from the English side, they would at any -rate get a cold bath before they found me. - -In the night the temperature fell to only 15.4 deg., but here we were at a -height of only 12,365 feet. We stayed on December 5 in Shyok, to dry the -pack-saddles and give the animals a day's rest after their trying work. -In the evening the men held a farewell festival, for Shyok was the last -village in Ladak. As soon as the drums and flutes were heard, all the -women and girls of the country flocked to the dance. - -On December 6 we took leave of our last friends, and marched down the -slopes to the floor of the Shyok valley, where the altitude is 12,300 -feet; it was the lowest spot we were in for a long time (Illust. 300.) -For from here we mounted northwards up the valley excavated by the great -affluent of the Indus. There is no road or path to speak of, only -rubbish and rounded boulders, but the scenery is wonderfully fine, and -gigantic granite crags tower up on all sides. We crossed the river five -times, which here carries about 420 cubic feet of water and has belts of -ice of varying breadth. A solitary starved wanderer from Yarkand met us, -and was given a meal of _tsamba_. We pitched our camp among the bushes -in a bed of sand at Chong-yangal, where I had stayed in the year 1902. - -We were now alone. Only one man not belonging to the caravan was still -with us, Tubges of Shyok, who had charge of our sheep during the early -days of our journey, especially at the fords. In the evening I had a -conversation with Abdul Kerim, Kutus, and Gulam. I now told them that I -would not travel to Khotan by the ordinary road, because I knew it -already. We would strike more to the east, and the sooner we came up on -to the plateau the better. They replied that Tubges knew the country -well. He was called in to the consultation. What if we went through the -Chang-chenmo valley to Pamzal and the Lanak-la? "No," he answered, "that -is impossible; one can go as far as Oro-rotse, but there the valley -becomes as narrow as a corridor, and ice cascades and boulders cover the -bottom of the valley. Animals cannot get through even without loads." It -was then evident that we must continue up the Shyok valley and watch for -an opportunity of diverging eastwards. - -So on the 7th we went on between grand mountain gables, silent and -solemn, like Egyptian pyramids, like cathedrals and fortress towers. -Between them detritus cones descend to the valley floor, where their -bases are eroded by the high water of the summer flood and cut off in -perpendicular walls. It must be a magnificent spectacle when the turbid -thundering water rolls down from the melting snow of the Karakorum and -fills all the valley, making its way with tremendous force to the Indus. -An enormous block of perhaps 70,000 cubic feet has fallen down; it has -cracked in falling, as though a giant had split it with his axe; one -fancies one can see the gap it has left on the heights above. Four times -the path crosses the stream, and the rather narrow opening of the -Chang-chenmo valley is left on the right. We encamped among the dunes of -Kaptar-khane. In the night the temperature fell to 2.5 deg.. - -The way is terribly trying, nothing but detritus and blocks of grey -granite, against which the horses wear out their shoes. Again we crossed -the river twice and set up our tents in the oasis Dung-yeilak, where a -worn-out caravan from Khotan had already settled, and had sent a -messenger to Nubra for help, as several of their horses had foundered. - -As long as there was pasturage we could take matters quietly and make -short marches. Only too soon the grass would come to an end, and then we -must make more haste. So we rested a day when the merchant Muhamed Rehim -from Khotan arrived at the oasis with his caravan. But he only remained -an hour, for he wanted to reach warmer regions, and was glad to have the -Karakorum pass behind him. He earnestly advised me to wait till spring, -for the snow lay deeper than usual on the pass. One of his caravan men -also came to me and gave me a handful of dried peaches. "Does the Sahib -remember me?" he asked. "Certainly, you are Mollah Shah." The good -fellow, now fifty-seven years old, and with his beard greyer, had never -visited his home in Cherchen again since he had left my service in the -spring of 1902. What a singular wandering life, full of toil and -adventure, these Asiatics lead! He implored me to engage him again, but -I told him he ought to be glad to go down into Ladak instead of -returning to the frightful pass in the middle of the icy winter. It -would certainly have been pleasant to have with me an old tried -companion. But no, he would have been out of place in my Ladaki company. -Mollah Shah told us for our encouragement that a large caravan had lost -fifty-two horses on the pass, and had been obliged to leave behind the -greater part of their goods. - -None of my people knew yet my actual plans. As long as we were on the -great winter route to Eastern Turkestan they must all believe that -Khotan was my destination. We had also the advantage that all who met us -would report in Ladak that they had seen us on the great highway, and -thus no suspicion would be aroused. - -[Illustration: 295. MY BROWN PUPPY WITH MY COOK, TSERING. 296, 297, 298. -MY WHITE LADAKI HORSE.] - -December 10. It was colder, the minimum temperature being -2.4 deg.. My -Curzon hat was burned in the fire. In its place I put on a large -skin-cap which Muhamed Isa had sewed together, and wound round it a -pugree as a protection against the sun. Arms of the river with a gentle -current were covered with glittering ice, but the main stream, now much -smaller, was nearly free. At the camp at Charvak a spring brook dashed -down the rocks in a tinkling cascade, though the cold did all it could -to silence it. The animals were driven up the slopes where the grass -was better. A huge fire was lighted when the day declined, and a narrow -sickle of a moon stood in the sky. Where the animals were driven up, -there was a thundering fall of stones in the night, and some blocks -rolled down and lay among our tents. It was a dangerous place. - -We had a cold march on the way to Yulgunluk. When thick snow-clouds -cover the sky, the wind blows in the traveller's face, and the -temperature at one o'clock is 14.9 deg., one feels the cold dreadfully, and -has to tie a thick neck-cloth over the face. The valley is lifeless and -deserted. Hitherto we had only seen a hare, an eagle, and a raven; the -last followed us from camp to camp. Six times we crossed the stream; the -brown puppy was carried over, but the yellow dog found his way -across--he howled piteously whenever he had to go into the cold water. - -In Yulgunluk also, at a height of 13,455 feet, we encamped a day. Now -the thermometer fell in the night to -6.2 deg.. This was the last really -pleasant and agreeable oasis we came across. During the day of rest we -heard the horses neighing with satisfaction on the pastures and the -sheep bleating. The loads of provender were already smaller, so we could -load four horses with good knotty firewood. On the right side of the -valley rose a snowy mountain. As early as two o'clock the sun -disappeared, but it lighted up the snow long after the valley lay in -deep shadow; the sky was blue and cloudless. In the evening the men sang -at the fire just the same melodies as their predecessors. The winter -days are short, but they seem endlessly long to one tortured by the -uncertainty of his cherished hopes. By eight o'clock the camp is quiet, -and at nine Gulam brings in the last brazier after I have read the -meteorological instruments. How I long to get out of this confined -valley on to the plateau country! Here we are marching north-north-west, -and I ought to be going east and south-east. If we could find a way up -to the Chang-tang by one of the valleys to the east, we should be saved -much time and many a weary step. - -On December 13 we looked in vain for such a way. We crossed the river -twice more on its ice-sheet. At the second ford the whole caravan -passed over dry-shod, and only my small white horse broke through and I -wet my feet. After a third crossing we camped in a desolate spot just -opposite the Shialung valley. It looked promising. Tubges and Kutus were -sent up the valley to spy out the land. In the evening they returned -with the tidings that we could go a fairly long distance up the valley, -but beyond it became impassable owing to deep basins, abundant ice, and -large boulders, just as in the Drugub river. We must therefore keep on -the route to the Karakorum pass. This increased the risks for the -caravan, for it lengthened the distance; but, on the other hand, it -lessened the danger of discovery, for when once we had got into Tibet we -could avoid the most northern nomads. - -Now Tubges begged permission to accompany me to the end, and his -petition was eagerly supported by all the other men. I was the more -willing to take him that he was a skilled hunter. I had now twelve men, -and I made the thirteenth in the caravan. But we were not superstitious. - - - - -CHAPTER LVI - -UP TO THE HEIGHTS OF DAPSANG - - -Heavy clouds and piercingly cold wind increased the difficulty of our -march on December 14 up the valley. We saw two bales of goods, sewed up -in linen and with the stamp of a Turkestan firm, lying on the ground, as -though they had fallen from a dying horse, the carcase of which we had -passed. Higher up two more. They contained silken materials from Khotan. -So far the caravans come with failing strength after excessive exertions -on the pass. They are like ships which must throw their cargo overboard -when they begin to sink. At Koeteklik also we found passable grass and -firewood. Gulam is a capital cook; he prepares me the most delicate -cutlets and rissoles, and for a change gives me chickens and eggs. - -On the 15th there is little water in the valley; it runs under rubbish, -but farther up the river is again fresh and clear. We frequently pass -the remains of unfortunate caravans--dead horses, bales of goods, and -pack-saddles from which the hay has been removed to save the life of a -dying horse. We travel west-north-westwards, and therefore ever farther -from our goal. But at length we come to a valley which will lead us in -the right direction. We leave the Sasser valley to the left and enter a -valley portal full of treacherous ice, often as thin as skin. We wait -till our scouts have tried the ice, which they declare to be impassable. -Tubges, however, finds another, longer way, over steep hills, and at -their foot we pitch our camp. - -Next morning we went over a steep spur of porphyry to reach a better -place on the frozen river which was to afford us an easterly passage up -to Murgu. We crossed again and again the strip of ice, which was first -strewn with sand that the horses might not break their legs. As usual, -two scouts went in advance. One of them came back and called to us from -a distance that a fallen rock closed up the valley. On reaching the spot -I found that a landslip had lately taken place. The blocks of porphyry -barring the channel were as big as houses, and between them the river -formed deep basins covered with a thin coat of ice. We had therefore to -turn back and retrace our steps all the way down to camp No. 279, over -the terrible rock, which on this side was so steep that each animal had -to be shoved up separately, and the men had to look out for themselves -when a pack got loose and rolled down the acclivity. Then we went some -distance up the Sasser valley. A strong icy wind blew in our faces. -Beside a wall of rock the dogs put up a hare which took refuge in a -hole, but Kunchuk pulled him out again and he was condemned to be eaten. -Our camp this time was in an almost barren place, and after all the -fording of the river during the day icicles clinked on the flanks of our -wearied animals. - -It is evening again. The mountain spurs project, dark and rugged, into -the valley like huge sarcophagi, and on them rest moon-lighted -snowfields like shrouds. The Ladakis sing no more; their ditties are -frozen on their lips. It is awfully quiet. The kitchen fire flickers -with yellowish-red tongues in the white moonshine. One can almost hear -the sound of the frost outside. - -[Illustration: 299. PANORAMA FROM CAMP 422, BONGBA.] - -[Illustration: 300. PANORAMA FROM CAMP 277, SHYOK VALLEY. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -After Gulam has brought in the last brazier I undress myself, put on my -large woollen dressing-gown, set myself a while right over the fire to -get a little heat into my body before I creep into my lair of fur, and -smile to hear the yellow dog, who is lying outside, and barks and snarls -at the increasing cold in the angriest and most comical tones. No wonder -he is enraged, for the thermometer falls in the night to -12.8 deg.. Then I -hear a singular squeaking in Gulam's tent. We had already anticipated a -happy event, and now I inquired whether there was an addition to the -Puppy family. Four small puppies had again come into the world. They -had waited for the very coldest night we had yet experienced. Gulam had -contrived a cage of frieze rugs in which Puppy lay, licking her young -ones. Two of the tiny animals were of the female, two of the male sex; -the former were drowned, for we thought that the others would grow -stronger if they monopolized all the milk and heat that would otherwise -have been divided among four. I sat by the hutch and studied the -interesting group till I was so stiff with cold that I could hardly walk -back to my tent. Next morning the tiny curs were going on splendidly; -one of them whined in quite the orthodox fashion, and no doubt thought -what a grim cold country fate had launched him into. We determined to -take good care of them, for they would be pleasant companions for me. Up -here they would at any rate be immune from the sickness which had -carried off their elder sisters. Kunchuk had to carry them against his -bare skin to keep them warm. Half-way Mamma Puppy was allowed to occupy -herself for a while with her little ones, though these did not seem -quite to understand the milk business. - -We had a bad march on December 17. No shouts of encouragement were -heard, but the caravan moved on slowly and apathetically. Within half an -hour our feet were benumbed and lost all feeling. I wound the ends of my -_bashlik_ like a visor several times round my face up to the eyes, but -the breath turned it into a thick crust of ice which froze to my -moustache and beard, which I had allowed to grow since leaving Gartok to -suit my intended Mohammedan disguise. All the men put on their furs. -Dust and soil flew about, and our faces had a singular appearance. - -At a place where a Yarkand caravan was encamped, we turned to the right -up a very narrow valley, in which the floor, covered with bright -milky-white ice, looked like a marble pavement between the rocky walls. -Fortunately the Yarkand men had strewn sand over the ice, but still it -did not prevent several of our animals from falling, so that they had to -be loaded again. - -When we at length camped in Long the temperature was at zero even at -three o'clock. A second large Yarkand caravan, on the homeward journey, -was halting here. The leaders asked us to travel with them over the -Karakorum, but I refused, with the excuse that we could make only short -day's marches. Observation by any who might tell the Chinese in Yarkand -that I had again passed over into Tibet was exactly what I must avoid -above everything. - -Here lay a poor man, both of whose feet had been frost-bitten on the -Karakorum, so that the flesh and toes actually fell off. He crawled up -to our camp and wept over his disastrous fate. He had been engaged with -the Yarkand caravan we had met first, but as he had become incapable of -work owing to his wounds, the barbarous merchant had dismissed him in -the midst of the wilds and left him behind. In such a case it is hard to -know what to do. We could not cure him, and to take him with us or give -up a part of the caravan for him was out of the question. He said -himself that he would crawl to Shyok, but how was he to get across the -river? I let him warm himself at our fire, drink tea and eat, and on the -18th, when we went on after 561/2 deg. of frost in the night, I gave him -_tsamba_ for several days, matches, and a sum of money which would -enable him to hire a horse from a caravan travelling to Shyok. - -This day's march took us eastwards to a place called Bulak (the spring); -it should properly have been called Guristan (the graveyard), for here -lay at least twenty dead horses. During a ride of two hours I had -counted sixty-three carcases of horses; it is wonderful that trade on -this caravan route, the highest in the world, can be profitable. - -From there the route ran up the narrow fissured Murgu valley, at first -up and down over hills, where numbers of dead horses, which had once -been strong and fat, showed us the way. Then we descended a break-neck -path into the deep valley, where spring water at the bottom formed -cracked domes of ice. Then on the slopes of the left flank we climbed -again up a zigzag path; the snow became deeper and was piled up, -especially on the path, so smooth that if the horses had made a false -step we should have been lost beyond recovery. The landscape was -magnificent, but it could not be properly enjoyed when the temperature -about one o'clock was only 0.3 deg.. And then again we went down headlong to -the valley bottom, where we passed over a natural bridge of rock -improved by the hand of man. Our direction had been east, but now we -diverged more and more to the north and north-west. - -The snow becomes deeper, the sun sinks, the shadows creep up the -reddish-yellow hills, the wind is stronger, and one thinks: If this -lasts much longer I shall freeze. At last we halt at the foot of a -terrace on the right side of the valley, where the sheep are driven into -a cave to keep them warm in the night. I slip down from the saddle with -all my limbs numbed, and long for a fire. Not a trace of organic life -was to be seen at camp No. 283. The horses and mules were tethered so -that they stood in a close pack. - -At this unlucky camp I made the first discovery on this new journey -through Tibet. Abdul Kerim came to me at the fire and said: - -"Sahib, we have barley for eight to ten days more; but in that time we -shall reach Shahidulla, where we can get everything." - -"Eight to ten days! Are you mad? Did you not obey my orders? Did I not -tell you expressly to take barley for 21/2 months?" - -"I brought a supply with me which was enough for the journey to Khotan." - -"Did I not tell you that I was not going to Khotan by the ordinary -route, but by roundabout ways which would demand at least two months?" - -"Yes, Sahib, I have acted wrongly," answered the old man, and began to -sob. Abdul Kerim was an honest man, but he was stupid, and he had not -the great experience of Muhamed Isa. - -"You are caravan bashi, and the duty of a caravan leader is to see that -there is sufficient provender for the journey. When the ten days are -over, our animals will starve. What do you mean to do then?" - -"Sahib, send me with some animals to Shahidulla. I can be back again in -a fortnight." - -"You know that everything that happens in Shahidulla is reported to the -Amban of Khotan. The Chinese must know nothing of our intentions." - -My first notion was to dismiss Abdul Kerim at once and to write to the -Hajji Nazer Shah for more provender, which might be brought up on hired -animals. But what would they think in western Tibet and Ladak if I sent -for more provender from Leh when I was barely eight days' journey from -Shahidulla, which lies on the direct road to Khotan? My whole plan would -be betrayed and must fail. I should be stopped by the first nomads, -perhaps by the English whom I had so happily escaped hitherto. It was -only necessary to forbid the natives to supply me with provisions and -baggage animals. And if I procured all we wanted in Shahidulla, the -Amban of Khotan would send word to Kashgar, whence a telegraph line runs -through Asia to Pekin, where His Excellency Na Tang proved so absolutely -immovable when the Swedish Minister Wallenberg had given himself so much -trouble to obtain for me permission for a new journey through Tibet. Up -here in this desolate valley my position was strong. We had sneaked -quietly and cautiously through British territory without exciting -suspicion. But as soon as we came into contact with the outer world we -should be caught. - -I sat in my tent all the evening, considering the matter from all sides, -and measured the distances on my map with compasses. We were about 100 -miles from my camp No. 8 of the preceding year, where the grass was so -good. So far we could travel without the least difficulty. But beyond we -had 430 miles more, to the district on the Tong-tso. However, before we -came there we must meet with nomads and grazing land. The horses, -indeed, would be lost, but the Tibetan mules were, so Gulam Razul said, -accustomed to shift for themselves, and they were not given barley. The -first step was to reach the free open Chang-tang and get out of this -frightful mousetrap, the Shyok valley, which was always taking us -further north-north-west. Even if we had to sacrifice everything and -creep on all fours to the nearest tent, I would not give in: I would -not depart a hair's breadth from the original plan. - -Night came with a clear sky, twinkling stars and sharp frost; by nine -o'clock the temperature was down to -20.4 deg.. The animals stood quietly -crowded together to keep themselves warm. When I awoke occasionally I -did not hear them, and they might have vanished. The minimum was reached -at -31.2 deg.. When I was awakened, Kutus had been out on the prowl into a -broad valley, coming in from the east, and had found a road which, as -far as he could see, was excellent. We had still two days' journey from -camp No. 283 to the dreaded Karakorum pass, which I wished to avoid. If -we ascended the side valley eastwards, we should soon arrive at the main -crest of the Karakorum range and be spared two days' journey. I resolved -to try it. - -So we travelled on December 20 to the east-north-east over crunching -snow. The valley looked very promising, especially as old horse tracks -could be seen in some places. In the middle of the valley was the bed of -a brook covered over with smooth, treacherous ice, but elsewhere there -was nothing but detritus. After we had passed a hill thickly overgrown -with _burtse_ tufts, all vegetation ceased. At one o'clock the -temperature was -5.8 deg.. My beard was white with rime, my face-cloth -turned into a mass of ice, and all the animals were white. For hours we -slowly mounted upwards. In some places the valley was so contracted that -it was only 2 yards broad. The best of the day was over when the caravan -suddenly came to a halt. All was quiet in the front, and I waited with -Kutus for whatever was to happen. - -After a time came Abdul Kerim, much cast down, with the news that the -valley was impassable at two places. I went to look. The first barrier -of rocks might be forced, but the second was worse. We could certainly -have dragged the baggage over the ice between and under the blocks, but -there was no passage for the animals. Should we try to make a road along -which the animals could be helped over the blocks by the united strength -of the men? Yes; but first men must be sent up to find out whether -there were more of such barriers to cross. When they came back with the -news that the way was still worse above, I gave orders to pitch the -camp, as the shades of evening were falling. - -Good heavens, what a camp! Not a blade of grass, not a drop of water! -Again we sat in a mousetrap between steep mountain walls, where, at any -moment, devastating blocks might be detached from the sides by the -frost. The horses scraped about in the snow looking for grass. During -the night they roamed about, and stumbled over the tent ropes. The -thermometer fell to -30.6 deg.. One puppy lost his way, got outside, and -came of his own accord into my tent; fortunately for him I was awakened -by his whining, and gave him shelter in my bed, where he was warm and -comfortable. - -A frosty morning! we must take care not to touch metal, for it burns -like fire. A mule made his way into my tent and looked for something -edible in my washing-basin. To his great astonishment it stuck to his -nose, and he took it a few steps with him. The hungry animals had -consumed two empty sacks and six ropes during the night, and played the -mischief with one another's tails. In winter, life up here is a -desperate struggle with the frost. - -The orders for the day were to encamp in a place where there were stalks -of _yapchan_ and _burtse_, and remain there all the next day. I set out -at a temperature of -23.8 deg. and found the camp all ready on the right -side of the valley. The animals were immediately sent up the slopes, and -there grazed with a good appetite on the dry frozen stalks. During the -day of rest, pieces of ice were hewn out of the brook and melted in the -two large kettles of the men. Horses and mules were then able to drink -their fill. - -In the night a most welcome change took place in the weather, the whole -sky was overcast, and the thermometer fell only to 1 deg.; it felt quite -warm in the morning. Some mules had stampeded, but Lobsang found them -after a diligent search. I set out with Kutus soon after the caravan. We -had not gone far when we saw Muhamed Isa's white Shigatse horse lying -frozen stiff in the snow. He had been in a wretched state for some -days, and the last hardships had been too much for him. Worn-out and -emaciated he really needed a long, long rest. - -After a while we passed the valley junction and the unlucky camp No. -283, and were again on the great caravan route, the road of dead horses. -Four lay in a ravine quite close together, as though they did not wish -to part even in death. A large dapple-grey showed no change, but another -horse looked as if it were stuffed, and a third, with its outstretched -legs, resembled an overturned gymnasium horse. Some were nearly covered -with snow, and others had fallen in a curious cramped position, but most -of them lay as though death had surprised them when they were composing -themselves to rest after violent exertion. Nearly all were hollow: the -hide was stretched over the backbone and ribs, and they looked intact -from the back, but on the other side it could be seen that they were -only empty, dry skeletons, hard as iron, which rattled when the yellow -dog, who had nothing else to eat on the way, pulled them about. The dogs -barked at the first carcases, but soon they became familiar with the -sight of them. What sufferings and what desperate struggles for life -these dreary mountains must have witnessed in the course of time! Lying -awake at night one fancies one hears the sighs of worn-out pack animals -and their laboured breathing as they patiently go towards their end, and -sees an endless parade of veterans condemned to die who can endure no -more in the service of cruel man. When the dogs bark outside in the -silent night they seem to bark at ghosts and apparitions who try with -hesitating steps to make their way out of the snowfields that hold them -fast, and intervene between them and the juicy meadows of Ladak. If any -road in the world deserves the name "Via dolorosa," it is the caravan -road over the Karakorum pass connecting Eastern Turkestan with India. -Like an enormous bridge of sighs it spans with its airy arches the -highest mountain-land of Asia and of the world. - -Higher and higher our slow train ascends the fissured valley where here -and there small glacier tongues peep out between the steep crags. -Frequently old camping-places are seen with ripped-up pack-saddles. -Hurricanes from the south prevail here; fine red dust from weathered -sandstone flies like clouds of blood through the valley and colours the -snowfields red. The valley shrinks to a hollow way where a somewhat more -sheltered spot bears the name "Daulet Bek ulldi" (where Daulet Bek -died). Who was he? No one knows; but the name has remained. Probably an -ordinary trader from Khotan or Yarkand, or a pilgrim who died on his -wanderings, and therefore found the doors of paradise wide open. For -over the Karakorum pass runs the main pilgrim route from Eastern -Turkestan to Mecca. - -The valley becomes ever smaller--a mere corridor between walls of red -conglomerate. This is the Kizil-unkur, or the Red Hole, an appropriate -name. Here the caravan has pitched its camp. Not a sign of organic life. -The animals stand in a group, and the mules gnaw at the frozen dung of -former visitors. From this hole the way rises up to the Dapsang plateau, -where a snowstorm is now raging, and even in the valley flakes of snow -dance and whirl in the air. In the twilight Tundup Sonam comes up with -only twelve sheep; the others have been frozen to death on the way. -Night falls threatening and awful on the everlasting snow. Everything up -here is so dreary and cold (16,824 feet); there is nothing living far -and wide, and yet the yellow dog fills the ravine with his barking. - -The men set up the tents near together, and a very scanty fire burned -among them, for we had to be economical with the firewood from Koeteklik. -The Mohammedans started a low charming song in rising and falling tones, -and now and then a strong voice intoned a hollow "Allahu ekber." When -Gulam came with the brazier I asked him what it meant, and he said that -it was a _namas_ or hymn of prayer to Allah, that the Most High might -protect us in the morning from the snowstorm. For if a caravan is caught -in a snowstorm on the heights of Dapsang it is lost. - -I often heard this melodious hymn again in days of hardship, and it -always affected me painfully. Not as the reproachful warning clang of -church bells ringing for service, when I pass a church door without -going in, but because the men sang the hymn only when they were out of -spirits and considered our position desperate. It seemed as though they -would remind me that defeat awaited me, and that this time I had aimed -too high. - - - - -CHAPTER LVII - -ON THE ROOF OF THE WORLD - - -On Christmas Eve 1905 I had dined with Mr. and Mrs. Grant Duff in the -hospitable English Embassy, and on another day supped with Count -d'Apchier in the French Legation, and was invited to a reception by -Count Rex in the German Embassy,--all in Teheran, now in such a -disturbed state. The same day twelve months later I had still Muhamed -Isa and Robert with me, and we were in inhabited country. Little I -dreamt now that old Asia would demand still another Christmas Eve in my -life, and that on December 24, 1908, I should sit at table amid a circle -of pleasant and intelligent Japanese in distant Mukden, where a few -years before the thunders of war had rolled above the graves of the -Manchurian emperors. But this year, 1907, I was quite alone, and with -twelve satellites on the way to my--Ukraine. - -In the morning with a bright sun and calm weather the caravan marched -slowly up towards the heights of Dapsang, while Kutus and I followed in -the crunching snow. I had given Abdul Kerim orders to wait at the top. -After I had read the instruments and found a height of 17,808 feet, I -scoured the horizon with my field-glass--a confusion of snowy mountains. -Only to the north-east a broad erosion furrow sloped gently down, and I -chose that direction. - -"Now we leave the Karakorum route and ride eastwards," I said; "follow -my track; I will ride in front." The men stared in astonishment; they -had looked forward to the gardens and vineyards of Khotan, and I offered -them the granite and snowstorms of Chang-tang. They said nothing, -however, but silently and patiently followed in my footsteps. It was not -easy to lead the way, for the country was covered with deep snow. I -directed Kutus, and he went before my horse to test the depth. The -ground was quite level, but contained hollows where the snow lay 3 to 6 -feet deep; and the crust was exceedingly treacherous, for sometimes it -broke, and I was thrown out of the saddle, while the horse plunged and -floundered like a dolphin, and was almost suffocated in the fine dry -snow. We therefore turned back to try another direction. - -Lobsang, who was always on the alert when we were in a critical -situation, was already looking for a better way. But we must in any case -cross the valley, and the men tramped out a furrow in the snow, through -which the animals were led one at a time. The horses managed best, while -the mules often fell and caused long delays. How far would this snow -extend? It checked our progress and concealed any wretched pasture that -might exist in some ravine. We crawled on like snails. I went on foot, -and my skin coat felt as heavy as lead. But after several hours of hard -toil we reached the terrace skirting the right side of the valley, where -the snow was thinner and we made more progress. - -Camp No. 287 was in the most desolate spot I can remember in all my -travels, except the sandy sea of the Takla-makan desert. Behind us our -trail wound through the white snow and in front all was snow. The -animals were tethered close together, and they had a feed of corn in the -evening. - -After the day's work was over I lighted two candles--usually I had but -one--and set up the portraits of my family on a box, as I had often done -before on Christmas Eves in Asia. At half-past eight o'clock the moon -rose gloriously over the mountains to the east-north-east, and at nine -the thermometer had sunk to -16.8 deg.. I could not get the temperature -above -4 deg. in my tent, and my hands were so benumbed that I could not -hold a book, but had to crawl into bed, which was the best thing to -do--there one forgets Christmas with all its precious memories and its -melancholy solitude. - -The thermometer sank to -37.5 deg.. A horse lay frozen hard in his place in -the line; the others stood stupefied, with drooping heads, and great -icicles on their noses. Christmas Eve brought us good weather. I almost -longed for a snowstorm. We had no fear of pursuit, but if a Turkestan -caravan now went down to Kizil-unkur, the men would see our trail in the -snow and report that we were off to Tibet. A snowstorm would obliterate -all traces. - -Meanwhile we stumbled on eastwards through the snow. A spring supplied -water where all the animals got a drink. We halted in a ravine with -tufts of _yapchan_ (17,087 feet). The animals made greedily for the dry -hard stalks, which also provided us with a grand fire, and this evening -it was warm and comfortable in my tent. I rejoiced to think that the -days would again become longer, and subtracted the length of each day's -march from the distance between us and the Tong-tso. Ah, would we were -there! And there we should be only on the northern margin of the blank -space. What an immensely long way we had to travel! - -Next day we followed the same flat valley eastwards between mountains of -moderate height, making use of a path worn down by Pantholops antelopes. -The snow became less deep and was only occasionally troublesome, usually -covered with a crust as dry as parchment. When we had encamped in a -perfectly barren spot, I consulted with Abdul Kerim. Only two sacks of -barley were left. I saw that he had been weeping, and therefore I -restrained my wrath. The others, too, were astonished and doleful. I had -not yet said anything to them, but they understood that there was no -question of Khotan. The men had _tsamba_ for nearly three months and -rice for two. I therefore ordered that some should be given to the -horses when the barley was finished, but enough should be left for the -men to last two months. The others gathered outside the tent during the -consultation. Lobsang was calm and unconcerned, and could be heard -singing and whistling as he watched the animals. I took to him most, -perhaps because he was a Tibetan; but I liked them all, for they were -capital fellows. In the evening they sang hymns to Allah, knowing that -our situation was exceedingly critical. - -Next day we started early, and I rode at the head of the caravan. We all -had severe headaches, but the height was enormous (17,644 feet). We had -marched little more than a mile when we found sparse grass in a slight -hollow on the northern slopes. That was a Christmas box. Here we pitched -our camp. The animals ran up to the pasture with their loads on. How -they ate! It was a pleasure to see them. Suen cut ridiculous capers -between the tents. The men were in high spirits. I heard no more hymns -to Allah, but the caravan bashi, who seemed to think he was in some -degree responsible for the spiritual welfare of all the Mohammedans, -usually read every evening at sunset one of the five daily prayers. Our -supply of fuel was at an end, but Lobsang found a hard moss which burned -for a long time and gave out plenty of heat. Now I perceived that when -we should some time part, I should miss Lobsang most. - -On December 28, leaden clouds lay over the earth, and therefore the cold -was less severe. We continued our course eastwards, and marched slowly -till we came to a spring, which at the orifice had a temperature of -33.6 deg.. The water felt quite warm; it formed large cakes of ice in the -flat valley, which looked from a distance like a lake. While the men set -up the tents here, Puppy, as usual, took charge of her young ones in a -folded piece of felt. One of them had a white spot on the forehead and -was my especial favourite, for he never whined unnecessarily. To-day he -had opened his eyes and given a short glance at the cold inhospitable -world around him. However, before my tent was ready, he died quite -suddenly, and was buried under some stones that the yellow dog might not -eat him up. Mamma Puppy looked for him, but soon contented herself with -the last of the four. We would do all we could to keep this little -creature. - -On the way to the next camping-place, No. 292, we still followed the -same blessed valley which had afforded us such an excellent route since -Christmas Eve. The minimum temperature had fallen to -21.8 deg., as though a -cold wave were passing over the country. At one place some wild yaks had -left their visiting cards, and the men collected a sack of dung. -Evidently these animals come hither only in summer; the winter is too -cold even for them. A mule died before we reached a spring surrounded by -fair grazing. So far we had got on well, but had made little progress; -on the past six days we had covered only 47 miles. - -December 30. With a minimum of zero and a temperature at one o'clock of -3.2 deg. the range between day and night is not great. But now the sky was -covered with dense clouds; it snowed and became half dark; the men could -not tell in which direction they were marching, and asked where the sun -rose. We had the help of the longitudinal valley for another day's -journey, and we followed it down to a junction of valleys where there -was a huge sheet of ice. On the way I saw a flock of twenty-two wild -sheep, which fled with great agility up a slope of detritus, bringing -the stones rattling down. - -In the evening I informed Abdul Kerim, Gulam, and Kutus that we were to -advance into Tibet and steer our course past the Arport-tso to the upper -Brahmaputra. And I told them that I should travel in disguise in order -to escape notice. They were amazed, and asked if I should not expose my -life to danger daily; but I calmed them, saying that all would go well -if they only obeyed my orders implicitly. Our chief concern was to -preserve our animals, for if the caravan were lost we should never get -on. "Yes," answered the caravan bashi, "if we only find good pasture, so -that the animals can rest and eat their fill, we can certainly hold out -for two months, but they will not bear long marches." - -Here we stood at a parting of the roads. Our valley opened into another, -which came down from high mountains in the south, part of the Karakorum -range. The united streams continued their course northwards, and could -not be any other river but the upper course of the Karakash Darya; in -its lower valley on the Khotan Darya I had many years before almost -lost my life. Now the question was whether we should go up or down, and -we decided to devote the last day of the year to finding out which was -the better road, sending out Abdullah to reconnoitre south-eastwards, -Tubges north-eastwards. As in any case we should have to cross the ice -sheet, a path was sanded. - -We packed the 6000 rupees Colonel Dunlop Smith had sent from India in -two sacks, which were lighter than the wooden boxes, and these were to -be used as firewood some time when all else failed. At every camp our -baggage became lighter, as our provisions diminished, and I threw away -one book after another after I had read them. I had received from home -the numbers of a Swedish journal for half a year, and these were very -useful in lighting our camp-fires. We had still nine sheep left, but the -time was fast approaching when our meat supply would come to an end, for -we could hardly reckon on finding game so soon. - -New Year's Day 1908 was bright and sunny--a good omen as regarded the -dark riddles this year concealed. The two scouts returned with the same -report: that there were no obstacles in the way; and I let them discuss -the question themselves, and decide which way was the best. They chose -Abdullah's route, which led up the valley south-eastwards. The road here -was excellent. At the mouth of the valley we found a couple of small -round stone walls, which, however, might very well have been a hundred -years old. The sight of a dead yak had an enlivening effect on us, -contradictory as it may sound. Higher we mounted to where a lofty snow -mountain with glaciers could be seen at the end of the valley. Then we -stopped, and scouts were sent forwards. They declared that the way was -impassable, and voted that Abdullah should be thrashed. But as such -measures would have been of no use to us in our difficulty he got off -with a good scolding. He admitted that he had not been so far up as we -were now, yet on his return he had asked for, and been given, a bit of -tobacco for his reconnoitring work. I told him that he had done a mean -trick, and that he should never see the smoke of my tobacco again. - - -There was nothing to do but pitch our camp. A strong south-west wind -blew, and fine snow was driven down from all the crests and summits. -When the men went out to gather fuel they looked like Polar explorers. -After all, New Year's Day had brought us no good luck, but, on the -contrary, a retreat. - -This was commenced early on the morning of January 2, and we passed -again camp 293, and marched onwards over slopes of detritus on the -eastern side of the ice sheet. At one spot spring water formed a little -bubbling fountain in the midst of the ice. After the valley had turned -to the east-north-east we encamped in a corner where driftsand was piled -up into hillocks. - -I wanted to get out of this labyrinth of mountains and valleys which -pour their waters into Eastern Turkestan. We were still in the basin of -the Karakash river, and must sooner or later cross a pass separating it -from the salt lakes of the Chang-tang. On the 3rd we again mounted up -one of the head valleys and camped in its upper part, while the country -was enveloped in a furious snowstorm. It continued till late in the -evening, and what was most remarkable was that the stars shone all the -time though the snow was falling thickly. Before, there had been -blue-black clouds above us without a snowflake. Extraordinary land! - -Next day we rested. The animals had been without drink for a long time, -fuel was abundant, ice was taken from the river bed and melted in pots. - -In this region the mountains are less continuous, and form sharp peaks -and pyramids of small relative height. It snowed all night, but the -morning of January 5 was fine as we travelled eastwards along the route -Kutus had investigated. It led up over snow-covered ground to a small -pass (17,995 feet), on the other side of which another branch of the -Karakash crossed our course. We must get out of this entanglement, which -delayed our march and told on our strength. As long as the animals kept -up we had nothing to complain of. I was glad of every day that brought -us a little nearer to spring and out of the winter's cold. It penetrated -through everything. My feet had no feeling in them. Gulam rubbed them -and massaged me in the evening over the fire, but could not bring them -to life. The ink was turned into a lump of ice and had to be thawed -before the fire; when I wrote I had to bend over the brazier, and still -the ink congealed in the pen and froze on the paper. Singularly enough I -have still an unquenchable desire for ice-cold water and prefer it to -warm tea, but the water we usually get is far from pleasant. It is -generally Tubges who takes a spade and fills an empty sack with snow, -and then melts it in a kettle. Gulam tries to persuade me to drink tea, -and cannot understand how it is that I am not sick of water. It is no -use being thirsty in the night: a cup of water standing near the brazier -is frozen to the bottom in a quarter of an hour. - -After a temperature of -28 deg. and a stormy night, which drove the animals -to seek shelter in the men's tent, we crossed the broad valley up to the -next pass. We left a lofty snow-covered mountain to the south. At the -foot of a hill a wild yak was musing. When he saw our dark train against -the white snow he made straight towards us, but before long he took his -way through the valley and dashed in wild flight to the north, followed -by our two dogs. It was very encouraging to find something living in -this God-forgotten wilderness; for now we had lost even the raven. - -It was a steep and slow ascent up to the pass, which had a height of -18,005 feet. We were surprised to find that it was a snow limit, for -east of the pass there was no snow at all. As we descended the other -side along a broad, open, sandy valley we had to be careful that we did -not find ourselves without water in the evening. Far to the south -appeared an ice sheet, but it lay too far out of our course. We -therefore filled two sacks with snow from the last drift, encamped where -thin tufts afforded fuel, and sent five men with all the animals -southwards to the ice in search of water and fodder. - -The water question now became pressing, for apparently we could not -count on snow much farther. And we could not dig for water, as before, -for the ground was frozen into stone. We must therefore proceed -cautiously. We had a great open wilderness in front of us; we must make -our way from one point of support to another, and explore the routes in -advance, lest we might come to a catastrophe. I therefore gave orders -that, now that the loads were considerably smaller, a couple of our -animals should carry snow or ice. At every camp we left an empty -meat-tin. I think less of the time soon approaching when the excellent -goods from Simla will come to an end than of the fact that the burdens -of our animals are daily becoming lighter. The rock specimens I collect -do not weigh much. Of course the provender has long given out, but where -the pasturage is scanty or altogether absent, loaves of parched meal are -kneaded together for the animals. - -The men are to come back on the 7th, and we wait for them till mid-day. -There, too, they come: the black group is plainly visible; they march -and march, but come no nearer. Ah, it is only some black stones dancing -in the mirage. A little later Suen reports that some of the animals have -run away, and consequently we have to remain the whole day at this -dismal camp. - -How slowly the hours pass on a day like this! I am a prisoner in my own -tent, for cold and wind keep me from work out of doors. As long as the -sun is above the horizon I pass the time very comfortably, for I can see -the mountains, these silent, dreary, lonely mountains, where men never -wander, and I see the sandspouts whirling along before the wind. But -when the sun sets, the long winter evening begins, and I hear only the -howl of the storm without. Patience! Spring will come some time. Every -day that passes we are a step farther from this horrible winter. Brown -Puppy and her whelp keep me company, and I look upon them as comrades in -misfortune. She has her mat in a corner of the tent, and takes her meals -when I do. The whelp we call Black Puppy amuses me immensely. He has -begun to take notice of the world and the life around him. When the big -dogs bark outside the tent, he turns his head and gives a feeble growl. -When his mother leaves him on the mat in the cold, he makes an attempt -at a bark and seems to think it strange. He wanders about the tent, -though he is still so unsteady on his legs that he constantly topples -over. He has already conceived a highly salutary respect for the -brazier, and sniffs and shakes his head when he chances to come too near -it. Sometimes it happens that he misses his mother in the night, when -there may be as many as 54 degrees of frost in the tent; but his -complaining squeal awakens me, and I take him under the furs--an -attention he is very fond of. One morning he wakened me by crawling of -his own accord on to my pillow and trying to get into my bed. After that -I felt no concern about his future; he must learn how to make his way in -life, and that he was doing. - -On the 8th we went over a small pass 17,569 feet high. A horse and a -mule perished on the way. Camp 299 was pitched where the first pasture -was found, in a valley on the other side (16,946 feet). There was no -water, but we had four sacks of ice. Seven sheep were left, and the -raven had also come again. - -The aim of our next day's journey was to find water for the animals. My -trusty white Ladaki horse, which I always rode, used to get my washing -water every morning, and I used no soap that I might not spoil it for -him. From a small rise in the ground we were able to enjoy the view I -had so longed for--the great open plain we had crossed in the autumn of -1906. To the east-south-east I easily recognized the spur we passed -then, and we could not be more than two days' march from the Aksai-chin -lake. I had now followed for several days much the same route as Crosby, -and at the lake I should cross my own route of 1906, after which we -should go down towards the Arport-tso, and, as last year, intersect the -paths of Bower, Deasy, Rawling, and Zugmeyer. - -The whole country lay under a vault of dense clouds. After a march of -only 3 miles we found a flowing spring of beautiful water (33 deg.), where -camp No. 300 (16,329 feet) was pitched. In the evening my servants sang -bright and happy melodies again, and Suen performed his most ridiculous -dances. We were again up on the roof of the world, and all dreary Tibet -lay in front of us. Should we be able to cross it with our little -caravan? - - - - -CHAPTER LVIII - -FORTY DEGREES BELOW ZERO - - -With fresh blocks of ice in our sacks we set out on January 10 straight -towards the projection at the foot of which camp 8 had been pitched, and -where I knew that the grass was good. The great level barren plain -stretched between us and the spot, and we had 15 miles to cover. The -wind was boisterous, and we were frozen through in a minute. In the lee -of the caravan, which went in advance, lay a cloud of dust like smoke. -The yellow hue of the grass could be seen from a distance, and the sight -so refreshed my men that they began to sing on the march. The animals -understood that they were coming to good pasturage, and quickened their -pace without any shouts from the men. The tents were set up in the same -place as last year, and here I closed my long circuitous route through -Tibet. It was with a melancholy feeling I saw this place again, where -Muhamed Isa had raised his tall cairn. Now we had avoided all dangers -from Rudok, and we minded little that England and Russia had promised -each other not to let a European into Tibet for three years. The height -here was 16,198 feet. - -[Illustration: 301. View from Camp 307.] - -[Illustration: 302. The small salt Lake south of Camp 309. (Smudge in -sky caused by the freezing of the colour.)] - -[Illustration: 303. Horses going to drink at the lake near Camp 310. -Abdul Kerim on the left.] - -[Illustration: 304. Mountain north-east of Camp 310; the freshwater Lake -in the foreground.] - -[Illustration: 305. Storm Clouds over the snowy mountains south of Camp -312. - - Water-colour Sketches by the Author.] - -For several days I had spoken of this place with its good pasturage, and -when we broke up our camp on the 11th I was able to promise my men a -still better camp for the next night. They were astonished that I was so -much at home in these dreary regions. The track of the great caravan of -1906 was blown away by the passage of many storms, but the Aksai-chin -lake soon came into sight, its surface looking grey and dismal in the -chilly weather. Six kiang spoors converged to the fine spring of -fresh water near the shore, where we kindled our fires among the same -stones as last time. Pasturage and fuel are abundant in the -neighbourhood; it is a veritable oasis--the best camp we had had since -Koeteklik. But the storm still raged, and the salt waves rose high over -the lake, cooled down to 20.7 deg., though there was no sign of ice. In the -night it snowed hard again, and on the 12th, which was made a day of -rest, the lake lay blue amidst a landscape of shining white. - -When all goes well the Mohammedans read no prayers. Probably they think -that when we can help ourselves it is unnecessary to disturb Allah. - -We had to pay a horse as toll for the good pasturage. He lay frozen hard -in the camp on the morning of the 13th, after a night temperature of --18.4 deg.. The yellow dog remained beside him, and when he came late at -night into the next camp, he was so fat and puffed up that it was -evident he had stored up food for several days. Two ravens followed us -with their hoarse croaking. Snow fell thickly and hid the view. A herd -of antelopes disappeared like shadows in the mist. A sheep died on the -way, and two more had to be killed, for they were worn-out; we had now -only three left. The cold penetrated everywhere in the night, and the -thermometer sank to -33 deg.. - -On January 14 we made south-eastwards over a plain of soft, tiring -ground, which caused us the loss of a mule. The caravan moved very -slowly forward and in close order; the animals marched more comfortably -when they were together; those which would linger behind, overcome with -fatigue, were driven forward by the Ladakis. At camp 304 the grass was -poor, and two mules seemed to be near their end. The cold was fearfully -sharp in the night. The thermometer fell to -39.6 deg., or to nearly 40 -degrees below zero, and almost to the freezing-point of mercury. That -was the lowest temperature I ever recorded in all my journeys in Asia. - -But January 15 brought a fine morning and an Italian blue sky. Abdul -Kerim and all the other Mohammedans waited on me, in a tragi-comical -procession, with dried apricots and almonds, and a simultaneous cry of -"Aid mubarek," or "A blessed Festival." One of the festivals of Islam -fell on this day. Exceedingly comical was the procession of the four -Lamaists, who came up as the others retired; and Lobsang, who led them, -took off his cap and scratched his head in Tibetan fashion, but did not -put out his tongue--he had no doubt learned in Leh that this performance -was not pleasing to a European. I gave them 10 rupees each and handed -the caravan bashi a watch, which he was to wind up well every evening to -be sure of the time. - -On we marched again, moving slowly, for the ground rose. We proceeded -like a funeral procession, and Suen was the parson. There was no longer -reason to fear thirst, for half the country was covered with snow. But -every mile caused us a struggle, and it was long before we came to the -cliff we were making for. We left a huge snowy massive on the right -hand. - -Next day's march took us over a flat saddle to a small side valley where -there was some grass. The temperature had been down to -29.9 deg., and I -could not by any means get life into my feet. Sometimes they ached, -sometimes there was an uncomfortable pricking in my toes, and then again -they lost all feeling. During the day's rest we allowed ourselves in -camp 306 Tubges shot an antelope and an Ovis Ammon, a feat which -prolonged the lives of our last two sheep. In the evening the men were -cheerful and hopeful as they sat around the flesh-pot. - -Gulam Razul had presented me with six bottles of whisky, which, sewed up -in thick felt, had been brought all the way; for Ladakis maintain that -when a mule shows signs of exhaustion and weakness it can be cured by -giving it whisky or other spirits. But the bottles were heavy, so three -of them were emptied and set up as a memorial on some stones. Perhaps -some time or other they may be found by another traveller. The other -three were kept. - -On the 18th we continued to follow the same longitudinal valley. All the -ranges in this country run east and west, the usual direction in Tibet. -To the right was a lofty range we must cross if we would travel -south-eastwards. Through a gap in the northern mountains was visible to -the north-east the mighty snowy dome we had passed to the right of in -1906. Eastwards there seemed to be no obstacle in the way, but we -diverged south-eastwards up a valley. Before we encamped (Illust. 301) -another mule had fallen, and then we had lost a fourth of the caravan. - -Next day we proceeded further up the valley. Sometimes it was only 10 -yards broad between solid horizontal terraces. Below a steep crag lay -five pot-stones, and therefore Tibetan hunters must have come thus far. -The Ladakis were delighted to meet with signs of human beings again. The -valley opened out into an extensive plain, and a gap was seen to the -south-east, but as the ground was lower towards the east we turned our -steps in that direction. From the low threshold the view was anything -but encouraging--a world of mountains. We resolved to encamp where we -were (17,405 feet high) and to try the other, southern, passage next -day. - -A miserable camp! The storm raged so violently that the tents could -hardly be set up, and the iron tent-pegs beat together and rattled until -they were fixed. We had first to make a fire before we could use our -numbed hands, and a small stone wall had to be raised to prevent the -fire from being carried away. Now Nature and the elements were against -us, whereas we might in the future expect opposition from man. The -pasture was wretched, and a grey horse and the last mule from Poonch lay -dead in the morning. It was the senior of the veterans, for it had come -with me all the way from Srinagar and had done good service, and I was -grieved at losing it. Now there was only one creature left which had -seen the first beginning of the caravan, namely, our brown Puppy. She -and the little puppy kept me company in this oppressive, weary solitude. - -From camp 309, where we stayed a day, there was an uninterrupted view -over another longitudinal valley, to the south of the former. There lay -a contracted salt lake. At almost every camp, as on the former journey, -I drew a panorama of the surroundings, and tried sometimes to paint -small water-colour drawings (Illust. 302). Then I had to sit in the -opening of the tent and hold the block over the fire to prevent the -brush freezing into a lump of ice. But the sky, which should have been -of an even blue or grey tone, usually turned into a film of ice with -strange stars and crystals. - -In camp 310 we also remained a day, for the pasture was better than we -had found for a long time. The grass grew in sand on the shore of a -small freshwater lake with a free opening, where at length the animals -got a good drink after having had to quench their thirst with snow. We -had travelled 188 miles since Christmas Eve, or about 61/2 miles a day on -an average--a terribly slow pace. Now we had had a furious storm for -three days, and here yellow whirls of sand flew over the ice and the -wind moaned and rustled through the grass. Abdul Kerim sewed together a -long Mohammedan coat for me, which I was to wear under my fur when I -assumed my disguise. - -On January 24 the whole country was covered with dazzling snow and the -sun shone, but a stormy blast drove the fine snow particles in streaks -over the land, and a roaring sound was heard. Antelopes careered lightly -over the ground, dark against the white snow. A mule died on the way; -not even Tibetan mules can bear this climate. I was benumbed and -half-dead with cold before I reached the camp. - -After a temperature of -21.3 deg. the neighbourhood was enveloped in -semi-darkness by heavy clouds. The jagged mountains to the south -reminded me of a squadron of armoured vessels at gunnery practice in -rainy weather. Their grey outlines peeped out from the low clouds. The -valley was about 6 miles broad. Towards the east the snow lay less -thickly, and finally only the footprints of wild animals were filled -with snow, like a string of pearls in the dark ground. - -[Illustration: 306. CAMP 307.] - -[Illustration: 307. CAMP 333. THE BEGINNING OF A STORM.] - -[Illustration: 308. CAMP 335. LEMCHUNG-TSO, LOOKING EAST.] - -[Illustration: 309. CAMP 401. KANCHUNG-GANGRI FROM THE NORTH. - - In the foreground Lapchung-tso, the source of Chaktak- or - Charta-tsangpo.] - -As I turn over the leaves of my diary of this terrible journey how often -I come across the remark that this was the hardest day we had hitherto -experienced. And yet days were always coming when we suffered still -more. So it was on January 26. The sky was covered with such compact -clouds that we might fancy we were riding under a prison vault. The -storm raged with undiminished violence, and a quarter of an hour after I -had mounted my horse I was benumbed and powerless. My hands ached, and I -tried to thaw my right hand by breathing on it whenever I had to take a -note, but after reading the compass for two seconds my hands lost all -feeling. My feet troubled me less, for I had no feeling at all in them. -I only hoped I should reach the camp before the blood froze in my veins -(Illust. 305). - -Then we come at length to the Arport-tso and leave the northern basin of -the lake on our left, while a large basin swells out like a fjord -towards the south. A mountain spur sends out a cape into the lake, which -has a very irregular outline. It stands in our way. Shall we leave it on -the right or left? We come up to the middle of the lake shore and wait -while Lobsang goes to see if the caravan can travel over the ice. He -hurries forward and makes us a sign to follow. We go down to the beach -and along a spit which narrows down to a fine point. - -Here the ice on our left hand has been piled up into hummocks, 6 feet -high, of grand transparent green flat slabs, but on the right, as far as -we can see over the southern basin, the ice spreads its level smooth -sheet of a beautiful dark green colour like leaves of laurel and lilac. -We feel the usual fascination of the ice, and stand and stare down into -the dark cold depths. Drifting snow sweeps like comets' tails over the -smooth course. We stand on the very point of the promontory, with the -narrowest part of the Arport-tso in front of us, for the lake is -contracted like a wasp's waist. Here there are fences, walls, and -barriers raised by ice pressure, and between them snow is drifted up, -hard and dry on the surface. It would have been quite impossible to -march over the bare ice; the caravan would have been carried away like -chaff before the wind. But the snow affords us an excellent path. -Lobsang leads the way, guiding us in many a wind, but we get across and -come to the farther shore at the foot of a cliff. - -Worse followed, for the rocky point fell straight down to the lake on -its eastern side, and here we had slippery ice swept clear of snow -which we sanded. One horse or mule after another slipped and fell. Some -of them made no attempt to get up again, but were dragged over the ice -to firm ground, where their loads were put on again. Some fell with a -heavy thud on the hard treacherous ice. We had to double a whole series -of points in this way till we came to one where further progress was -impossible, for at its foot issued forth springs which produced large -openings in the ice. There icy cold waves beat with a sharp sound -against the edges of the ice under the lash of the wind, which drove -continually clouds of snow dancing like elves over the dark green field -of ice. We had to struggle up over steep slopes till at last we reached, -thoroughly tired out, an inlet where a few leaves of grass grew. We had -left a mule on the ice, and two men went back and gave it a drop of -whisky so that it could come on to the camp. But my brown horse from -Shigatse, which had so often carried me up to the east gate of -Tashi-lunpo, remained behind for good. It is sad and depressing when a -veteran dies. - -Arport-tso lies at a height of 17,382 feet. The water, which was drawn -from an opening in the ice, was quite potable. There was a high pass in -front of us to the south-east, but we could not reach it in one day, and -we camped on the plain at the south-east of the lake where Rawling had -once stayed. It was little more than a mile thither, but the grass was -good and the animals needed nourishment. It snowed thickly all day. It -was warm and comfortable under cover, and we pitied the poor animals -which were out grazing in the cold. The small puppy had grown so much -that he could wander alone between the tents watching for an opportunity -to steal meat. A sheep was slaughtered. - -At night the cold was more severe again, and the thermometer sank to --30.3 deg.. The sick mule sought shelter behind the men's tent, lay down at -once, and gave vent to a piteous sound. I went out to look at it, and -caused it to be put out of its misery. - -[Illustration: 310. MY DYING PONY. - - Sketched by the Author.] - -On the morning of the 28th we found two horses dead on the grass. One -was one of the veterans of Leh which Robert had ridden, and which also -bore me to the springs in the Sutlej bed. We had now only -twenty-three animals left, and my small white Ladaki was the last of the -veterans. Little I thought, as he carried me over the Chang-lung-yogma, -that he would survive a hundred and fifty comrades. Every morning two -long icicles hung down from his nostrils. He was taken great care of, -and I always saved a piece of bread from my breakfast for him. I had a -particular affection for him and for Brown Puppy. They had been with me -so long, and had passed through so many adventures. - -A loss of three animals in one day was serious for such a caravan as -ours. How would it all end? We had still an immense distance before us. -We struggled for three hours with halting steps up this terrible pass -which had a height of 18,281 feet. We encamped in the shelter of a rock -and killed the last worn-out sheep, and then had no live store of meat. - -The temperature fell to -24.5 deg., and the first sound I heard in the -morning of the 29th was the everlasting howl of the storm. We marched -south-eastwards through snow a foot deep. "One of our worst days," it is -styled in my diary. We cared about nothing except to get to our camp -alive. I had a scarf wound several times over my face, but it was -quickly turned into a sheet of ice, which cracked when I turned my head. -I tried to smoke a cigarette, but it froze on to my lips. Two horses -died on the way, and Abdul Kerim's horse took over the load of one of -them, while the man himself went on foot like the others. I followed the -track of the caravan with Kutus. Then we found Kunchuk Sonam and Suen -unable to go further; they suffered from pains at the heart. I tried to -cheer them up, and promised to give them medicine if they would follow -slowly in the track of the caravan. Was it now the turn of the men after -half the caravan had been lost? Quite overcome with fatigue they hobbled -at twilight into camp. - -Abdul Kerim came into my tent very cast down and asked if we should fall -in with nomads within ten days, for otherwise he considered our -condition desperate. In truth, I could give him no consolation, but -could only tell him that we must go on as long as there was a single -mule left, and then try to drag ourselves along to the nomads with as -much food as we could carry. Now we thought no longer of pursuers -behind, or of dangers before us, but only wished to preserve our lives -and come to country where we could find means of subsistence. Behind us -the snow obliterated our tracks, and the future awaited us with its -impenetrable secrets. - - - - -CHAPTER LIX - -IN THE SNOW - - -The storm howled round us all night long, and our thin tent canvas -fluttered in the blast. Gulam awaked me with the information, "It is -nasty weather to-day; we can see nothing." Even the nearest mountains -were hidden by the snow, and if I had not already taken a bearing along -the valley in the direction south, 35 deg. E., we could not have set out. -This day, January 30, we had to keep together, for the driving snow -obliterated the tracks immediately. We had two leaders, and I rode last -along the trail, which at first was marked as a black winding line, but -farther on, where the snow lay 2 feet deep, no ground or rubbish could -be seen. A brown horse which carried no burden lay down and died in the -snow. We could see the snow making ready its grave before it was cold. -It vanished behind us in the dreadful solitude. - -We move forwards at a very slow pace through the snowdrifts. The fury of -the storm carries away the warning shouts from the lips of the guides -and they do not reach our ears; we simply follow the trail. Lobsang goes -first, and he often disappears in the dry loose snow and has to seek -another direction. In the hollows the snow lies 3 feet deep, and we can -take only one step at a time after the spades have cut us a ditch -through the snow. One or other of the animals is always falling, and the -removal of his load and readjusting it causes a block, for all must -follow in the same furrow. All, men and animals, are half-dead with -fatigue and labour for breath. The snow sweeps round us in suffocating -wreaths; we turn our backs to the wind and lean forwards. Only the -nearest mules are plainly visible, the fifth is indistinct, and those at -the front are seen only as slight shadows amidst the universal -whiteness. I cannot catch a glimpse of the guides. Thus the troop passes -on a few steps till it comes to the next block, and when the mule -immediately in front of me moves on again it is only to plunge into a -hollow filled with snow, where two men wait to keep up its load. The -direction is now east and the ground rises. A few such days and the -caravan will be lost (Illust. 312). - -At length we come to a low pass (18,268 feet high). Even at sea-level -such a journey would be hard enough, but how much worse it is in a -country which lies some hundreds of feet higher than Mont Blanc, and -where there is nothing but granite. On the eastern side of the saddle -the snow lay 3 feet deep in some places, and it seemed as though we -should be stuck fast in the snowdrifts; and what had we to expect then? -For the provender was coming to an end, and we must go on if we would -find pasture. Now we went gently down, the snow became a little less -deep, and we came to an expansion of the valley where there were -stretches of ground swept bare by the blast. On the right appeared a -slope where Abdul Karim thought he saw blades of grass sticking up out -of the snow, and he asked permission to camp. It was difficult to set up -the tents that evening. At dusk the two sick men came up, their faces -blue and swollen. - -A miserable camp! The storm increased to a hurricane, and nothing could -be heard but its howling. When I looked out of my tent I could see -nothing that was not white, and there was no difference between the -ground, the mountains, and the sky--all being alike white. Not even the -men's tent could be distinguished in the driving snow. The fine -particles penetrated into the tent and covered everything with a white -powder. It was impossible to look for fuel, and at three o'clock the -temperature in the tent was 1.4 deg.. I could see nothing living outside, -and I might have been quite alone in this wilderness. - -[Illustration: 311. LOST BEYOND RECOVERY.] - -My trusty Gulam comes, however, at length with fire, for Lobsang and -Sedik have found some brushwood. Gulam says that Sonam Kunchuk is ready -to lay himself down on the snow and die, but I advise him to take a good -dose of quinine instead. Late at night the tones of the hymn to Allah -reach my ears, sounding softer and sadder than usual amid the raging of -the storm. We are moving towards a dark destiny, I have attempted too -much, and any moment the catastrophe may come. We are snowed up here, -the animals must die of starvation and I myself--well, it is but a -question of time. - -A little below the camp the valley made a turn to the right. Thither the -animals had gone at night, but came back as there was no grazing. A grey -mule had stayed behind to die. It lay in a curious position, as though -it had died in the act of getting up--on its knees with its nose pressed -against the ground, and was frozen hard in this position. Yet the -temperature fell only to -16.4 deg.. - -The storm continued with undiminished violence on January 31. We loaded -the nineteen mules and horses and marched down the valley at random in -the same dense snow. The snow came down in incredible quantities; such a -snowstorm I had never witnessed even on the Pamir. We could not travel -more than 23/4 miles, and then we halted and pitched the tents, which -looked dirty against the pure snow. Four big wild yaks were moving over -the slopes, tramping like snow-ploughs. The dogs made after them, but -soon gave up the chase, for they could not go far in the drifts. The -animals received their allowance of rice, and then trailed off to a hill -where they poked about for the scanty grass. - -I examined all the baggage with the help of Abdul Kerim and Gulam, and -discarded all that could be spared. Unnecessary clothing and worn-out -boots were burned, and reserve garments were brought out. My articles, -note-books, and instruments were stuffed into two small sacks. Writing -materials and other things for daily use were packed in a small handbag -from Stockholm. The other chests were used as firewood, when the men had -stripped off the leather coverings to make new shoe-soles. Even the box -for the cooking utensils and the provision boxes were burned, and all -the baggage was henceforth carried in sacks. By this means the loads -were made lighter and more convenient, though there was more trouble in -turning everything out of a sack when anything was wanted from the -bottom. - -In the afternoon there was a short break in the snowstorm. Beyond the -white limits of the valley was seen to the south-east the large lake -Shemen-tso, with a dark purple sky above it, presaging more snow. I took -bearings of the next day's route, and it was well I did so, for soon the -snow began to fall again unusually thickly. It snowed all day and all -night, and a swishing sound was heard as the snowflakes were driven by -the wind against the canvas of the tent and from time to time slipped -down. In the morning of February 1 piles of snow lay round the tents. -The minimum temperature was only -0.8 deg., and it felt quite pleasant. We -loaded our weary hungry pack animals and marched slowly south-eastwards. -The gale blew from the south, and the snow pelted on to our faces. - -Silently and heavily the fainting troop moved on towards the lake. All -the men's beards and moustaches were white with rime, and we seemed all -to have turned grey in a night. Abdul Kerim walked in front with his -staff, but he took a wrong direction, and I chose another leader. In -some places we were nearly suffocated in the snow, and the crestfallen -men stood in the drifts, at a loss what to do. But we plunged and -floundered on a bit, and then stood still; then a little bit further. -The pass over which we had made our way the previous day was no doubt -blocked by snow. Had we reached it two days later we should never have -forced a way over it. Now our retreat was cut off, and we must seek -safety southwards. It was some consolation to know that we had burned -our ships. - -[Illustration: 312. "IF THIS CONTINUES A FEW DAYS LONGER, WE ARE LOST."] - -Fortunately the ground sloped down, and as we toiled on hour after hour -the snow diminished and travelling became easier. But the storm, which -had now raged for a fortnight, showed no signs of abatement. Down on the -western flat by the lake the snow mantle was thin, and we encamped in -a spot where the grass was not bad. I gave the men some cigarettes every -evening--at other times they smoked yak-dung and filled their narghiles -with tea-leaves. - -The night was unusually mild, with the minimum temperature only 5.2 deg., -but the clouds were as dense as ever and the snow fell unceasingly. It -was dark all day, as though a curtain hung over the forbidden land. We -stayed at camp 319. The storm blew from the south-west more wildly than -usual. The animals grazed with their heads to leeward, and had to be -driven windwards again every time they came to the edge of the -restricted area of grass. On February 3, also, we remained where we -were. All night long the hurricane had raged, tearing, raving, ploughing -up the ground like a gigantic plough, and endeavouring to pull down our -tents. In the evening I secured everything that could fly away if the -tent were overthrown. In the morning all the animals had disappeared as -though they had been carried away by the blast; at any rate, they had -gone with the wind to the northern shore of the lake. - -Immediately beyond our camp was a spring of fresh water and a round fold -for sheep. I had ceased to look forward to spring, it seemed so -hopelessly distant, and to be farther off every day that passed. Brown -Puppy and Little Puppy kept me company as usual, and we played together -to pass the hours of our imprisonment. Gulam continued to rub my feet, -but with little result, for they remained numb and cold as ice. Then he -brought two pairs of _paipaks_ of thick felt and a pair of _charuks_ or -Yarkand boots of soft leather outside. They were really warmer than my -Kashmir boots, which were ruthlessly burned. - - - - -CHAPTER LX - -DEATH OF THE LAST VETERAN - - -Studded with twinkling stars the winter sky stretched its dark-blue -canopy over our lonesome camp, and 50 degrees of frost foretold a clear -day. On February 4 not a cloud hovered over the mountains, and this -plateau, abandoned by gods and men, which had lately been buried under -the white shroud of winter, was again illumined by bright sunlight. Sad -news was brought me in the morning: a horse and a mule lay dead beside -the tents. With the seventeen remaining animals we continued our journey -along the irregular northern shore of the Shemen-tso (16,266 feet). The -quantity of snow became less, and at camp 320 the gravelly ground was -almost bare. The view over the lake was grand. Captain Rawling's map of -this district is executed with great accuracy. - -On February 5, also, we encamped on the shore of the great lake, having -followed the curves of its bays and capes. A mule died on the way. -Though we had burned all we could dispense with, yet the loads were much -too heavy for the surviving animals. A big strong mule always led the -van, at the heels of Gulam; it carried at least two ordinary loads, and -yet was fat and fresh. There was no sign of human beings. A flock of -jackdaws were perched on a crag. At the camp the provisions were -inspected, and we decided to relinquish three heavy sacks of rice. The -rice was to be given on the following days, mixed with parched meal and -water, to the animals. Of my provisions, only two boxes of tinned meat, -some jam and biscuits, were left. We had not tasted meat for some time. -The storm raged all day and the sun had vanished again. - -On February 6 we passed a very abundant spring of water at a temperature -of 46.2 deg., which poured into the lake. There flocks of sheep had recently -drunk, and rows of cairns ran from the shore to guide antelopes into the -traps in the ground. Now no game was seen except a single kiang. A mule -died, and Abdul Kerim's yellow horse fell by the way. Only fourteen -animals reached the camp this day, and of these my small white Ladaki -was in the worst plight; he stumbled and fell, and I made a somersault -over his head. - -The day after, we made a short journey, left the lake and its barren -shore behind us, and set up our tents amid good grass. The weather was -fine; at one o'clock the temperature was 14 deg., and it felt as though -spring had come. All the animals lay down to rest and warm themselves in -the sun. Only my small Ladaki began to graze immediately; he would not -die, but would follow me to the end. Wild asses and antelopes grazed on -the steppe, and hares were plentiful. I was alarmed by a message that -three men could be seen at some distance to the north, and the caravan -bashi wished me to come and examine them through my field-glass. -Apparently they were on the way to our camp. But I had plenty of time to -put on my disguise. I watched them a long time, till at last they turned -into three wild yaks which had been lengthened out by mirage. We had no -need yet to trouble ourselves about men, but perhaps these yaks were -forerunners. - -Now I had ridden my small white horse for the last time. On February 8, -when we continued our march east-south-east after a minimum temperature -of -18.9 deg. he followed the caravan loose and unladen, and fell even -without a rider. I rode instead a grey horse from Tikze. We made barely -5 miles, but yet the journey was full of events. On the other side on a -low hill stood a Pantholops antelope, which did not run away though we -were quite close. We soon noticed that it was held fast and was -struggling to get free. The dogs rushed at it, but a couple of men -hurried on to keep them off. The animal was fast in a snare laid in an -antelope track, where also we noticed fresh footprints of two men. We -were evidently not far from winter hunters, who perhaps had already -caught sight of us. Perhaps they had seen me, the only one riding in -European dress. Perhaps it was too late to disguise myself. All my plans -would then be spoiled, and all the labours of the winter lost. - -But at any rate we had now fresh meat. Let us examine the ingenious trap -in which the game is caught. Plates of rib bones of antelopes are firmly -fixed in a ring of hard twisted vegetable fibres, which form a funnel -with the points in a ditch. The antelope is enticed into the trap by a -row of small cairns, and tramps about in the funnel, the plates giving -way, but forming immovable impediments when he attempts to draw his -hoofs out. But the snare must be held secure if it is to have the -desired effect. A rope as thick as a finger is made fast in the bottom -of the ditch, which is filled with water, and after freezing becomes as -hard as stone. The free end of the rope forms a noose above the ring of -fibres, which tightens when the animal first attempts to lift his leg -and holds down the funnel of ribs. The more the poor animal jumps about, -the faster is the hold of the twisted snare. - -The victim was slain; the dogs ate their fill of the entrails, and the -meat made ordinary loads for four men. Then we went on. At the mouth of -a valley to the south were seen a sheepfold and two black specks we took -for stones. Beyond a grass-grown mound we found a pool of fresh water, -and we pitched the camp near it. It was not long before the Ladakis were -sitting round a fire and roasting pieces of delicate, much-appreciated -meat. - -Now, when we were evidently in the neighbourhood of human beings, it was -time for me to give directions to my people. All were summoned to my -tent. I told them that we should succeed in crossing the forbidden land -only by craftiness and cautiousness, and that I had made the great -sacrifices which they had witnessed only to see regions where no Sahib -had ever been. If our scheme were to be successful, every man must do -his duty and play his part well. Whenever Tibetans put the usual -questions, whence we came and whither we were going, they should answer -that we were all, without exception, Ladakis, in the service of a -merchant named Gulam Razul, who had sent us to Chang-tang to find out -how much wool could be bought from the nomads next summer. Abdul Kerim -was our leader and chief, and had to manage our affairs. He was -therefore given 100 rupees for expenses, and every evening when no one -could spy upon us he was to render an account to me. I myself was one of -his servants, a Mohammedan named--Abdurrahman, the caravan bashi -suggested--but no; Hajji Baba sounded better to me. Accordingly, when we -came among Tibetans, they should never forget and call me Sahib, but -only Hajji Baba. All understood the matter and promised to do their -best. - -A little later, Lobsang came running up and declared that the two black -stones were tents. We went out and examined them through the -field-glass. Quite true; smoke rose from one of them, but neither men -nor animals were visible. I at once ordered Abdul Kerim, Abdul Rasak, -and Kutus to go and pay for the antelope, buy anything they could, and -obtain information. They soon came back again and asked if it would not -be wiser to avoid the tents and march on eastwards, the more so that the -inmates might be robbers. No; these men had seen us and might send a -report to Rudok, and then we should be stopped. It was best, then, to -enter into friendly relations with the men and lull them into security. -"Bismillah," cried the three and took themselves off, while the others -sat by the fire in lively conversation about the incidents of the day -and the prospects of the future. It was now sixty-four days since we had -left the last village in Ladak, while on the former journey we had been -in solitude for eighty-one days. - -After three hours my men returned. The two tents contained nine -inmates--two grown-up men, two women, three girls, and two boys. The -older man was named Purung Kungga, and he owned 150 sheep and 4 dogs, -but no other animals. During their journey from Yildan their tents and -goods were carried by sheep. They had arrived two months before, and -intended to stay half a month more. The day before they had just been to -look at their antelope trap, when they were alarmed at the sight of the -caravan. They took it for granted that only robbers could be travelling -in this district, which lay outside the haunts of honest and honourable -men. The antelope had, then, been not more than an hour in the trap. -Abdul Kerim paid 3 rupees for it, 3 for a sheep, and 1 for milk and -butter. We could get more milk early in the morning, but we should have -to send for it, for the nomads dared not come to our tents. We might -have kept the antelope without compensation, for we were wayfarers and -had a right to take what we found. In answer to their inquiry who we -were, Abdul Kerim repeated the yarn he had just learned. The country -about camp 324 is called Riochung. In one of the tents lay the hides and -meat of nine antelopes. The people lived almost exclusively on the game -they caught in their snares. - -So far we had been fortunate. With provisions for twenty-one days -instead of for seventy-five, we had struggled up to the Karakorum -instead of finding a passage to the east; we had been persecuted by -raging storms, biting cold, and deep snow all the way, and yet we had -lighted on the first men. They were like a rock in the ocean, and now -again we were to venture over the raging waves. This day found us only a -few miles up a gently sloping valley filled with ice. Little Puppy was -let loose and had to look after himself a bit. But he was soon tired, -and lay down till Kunchuk fetched him. - -February 10. The valley bottom is full of ice sheets, which we often -cross after they have been strewn with sand. We wander through a -labyrinth of clay hills. In an expansion to the left are seen three -stone cabins and some _mani_ heaps; here is the gold placer which -Rawling calls Rungma-tok, and the hunters we saw yesterday Getsa-rung. -The gold-diggers come hither only in summer. The camp to-day, No. 326, -is in an excellent spot, with a sandy soil, plenty of fuel, and an -unfrozen brook. It is pleasant to listen to the purling water, a sign of -approaching spring. East and south-east rises a wreath of lofty -mountains, which we have to surmount. As long as the ground is flat and -there is grass the animals do very well, but they cannot endure a high -pass. My white Ladaki has picked up again, and the men are ordered to -tend him carefully. - -February 11. We ascend the valley, and the snow becomes deeper again. In -one place are seen fresh tracks of three men. We camp behind a cliff to -get shelter from the wind, but first we have to cross the ice belt in -the valley bottom, where a path has been recently sanded. It is evident -that we shall soon fall in with men--perhaps on the march between the -two camps. Therefore I put on my new Ladaki costume with a girdle round -the waist. The white turban is kept ready at hand in case we meet -Tibetans. The _chapkan_ looks suspiciously clean, but Gulam undertakes -to soil it with fat and soot. My soft leather vest is sacrificed and cut -up for soles. After this camp Lobsang and Kutus were required to give me -every evening lessons in Tibetan, and I arranged all the new words in a -vocabulary, which afterwards grew to a considerable size. Thus we spent -a couple of hours each day when all my literature was at an end. I -especially practised the answers I was to give in case I, Hajji Baba, -were subjected to cross-examination. - -On the 12th we marched up through the snowdrifts in the valley, where -small, graceful, elegant Goa antelopes were seen on two occasions. The -camping-ground was so wretched that all the animals wandered back in the -night to the former camp, and therefore the next day was lost, and we -waited wearily. In my grey _chapkan_ I am too conspicuous among the -other ragamuffins, and whenever I have an opportunity I smear soot and -butter on it and cut holes in it here and there. A continuation of such -treatment will at length make it as disreputable as the others. I also -try to leave off washing my face and hands, but do not succeed in -looking as dirty as my men. With them the dirt seems to be engrained and -never to be removed, and they could grow potatoes under their nails. My -desire was to become like them as soon as possible, that I might escape -the notice of the Tibetans. - -February 14. Temperature -22.9 deg.. Again we are a few miles nearer our -destination and a day nearer spring. Our progress is slow, but we must -be glad that we can get along at all. Camp 329 is in the valley leading -to the pass, which we have taken several days to reach. A mule is -fatigued and is relieved of his load. Some grass is again found, and all -the animals go out to graze, except my small Ladaki, which stands beside -my tent with drooping head and icicles under his eyes. He has been -weeping, knowing well that he will never be able to cross over the pass -and that we shall leave him. I sit beside him for several hours, patting -and stroking him, and trying to induce him to eat lumps of meal mixed -with rice. He revives again and goes slowly after his comrades. - -February 15. Temperature -22.5 deg.. A hard, toilsome day. Through ice and -snow among sharp detritus we march up the valley. My white horse leads -the way of his own accord and I ride in the rear. We keep together for -some time, and ascend step by step towards the troublesome pass. But -first one and then another lags behind. Among them is my white horse. I -stop and whisper in pure Swedish into his ear: "Do not lose courage; put -out all your strength and climb the pass, and then you will go down in a -few days to fine rich pasture." He raises his head, pricks up his ears, -and gazes at me as I go on up to the pass with Kutus and Gulam. Only a -couple of lively mules follow my horse and halt where he halts, at every -twentieth step. - -At last we came up to the flat pass, which attains to the considerable -height of 18,553 feet. Here we waited a long time. The large black mule -passed first over the snowy threshold of the pass and then the others, -till nine baggage animals had gone by and my grey Tikze horse last. -Abdul Kerim reported that four animals were thoroughly tired out. I -ordered that they should be led step by step even till night if -necessary, and he went down to them again. A little later appeared -Tubges and Abdullah carrying two loads. One of the four animals had -already departed this life. - -To the west-north-west, the direction from which we had come, the view -was magnificent--a sea of wild, red, gigantic undulations, with snow -crowning the summits and streaming down their sides. During the last -days we had noticed schists, porphyry, red and grey granite. The country -was absolutely barren, and we must try to reach the nearest grass in the -descending valley, but it was full of snow, and the train moved slowly -and wearily through the drifts. I went on foot like the rest; every man -carried a load to help the animals. All were silent, and tramped and -balanced themselves in the track marked by the leader. The valley -contracted to a ditch, and where the first yak-moss grew we threw down -our burdens. A sorry camp in the close dismal valley. The last animals -stood tied together, and were fed with pulverized yak-dung and moss -mixed with meal and rice. - -At dusk the other men came up leading a mule. Three animals were gone, -and one of them was my small white Ladaki horse. He had struggled up to -the very top of the pass, where I had sat watching for him in vain, and -then had laid himself down to die. He had served me and carried me -faithfully and patiently for a year and a half, and had never from the -first been missing from the camping-ground, and now that the last of the -veterans was gone I felt very lonely. During the whole journey he had -never reached a higher spot than that whereon he died; on the very -saddle of the pass his bones would be bleached by the winter storms and -the summer sun. The caravan this evening was empty and forlorn, for I -had lost a trusty friend. Now Brown Puppy was my consoler, for she had -been with me from Srinagar, and her little whelp was the youngest and -least anxious member of our struggling troop. - -Two mules had crossed the pass but died in the valley. If another such -pass lay in our way the caravan would perish. The loads were much too -heavy for the surviving animals. A thorough weeding-out was necessary. -My ulster and most of my European clothes were burned. Felt mats, tools, -kitchen utensils, and spare shoes for the horses were thrown away. My -small Swedish bag was burned, and all the medicines except the quinine -jar were sacrificed; my European toilet necessaries, including my -razors, went the same way, and only a piece of soap was kept. All -European articles that were not absolutely indispensable were cast into -the fire. I tore out of Froeding's poems the leaves I did not know by -heart, and left the rest at the camp. The remaining matches were -distributed among the men; I kept myself twenty-four boxes, which must -suffice until the time when we must use only flint and steel to preserve -our incognito. - -Cold and sad the night spread its wings over the silent valley where our -lonely camp, a picture of desolation, was buried among black cliffs and -white snowdrifts, while the stars came out above like lights burning -round a bier. - -While the lightened loads were being placed on the animals I started on -foot followed by two men. One of them, Kutus, walked beside me, and I -steadied myself by his shoulder as we floundered through the drifts. The -wind blew furiously, and the snow danced in spirals and appeared as -white clouds on all the crags and ridges. After a march of about 3 miles -we encamped when we came to grass. Snow had to be melted in pots, for -the animals had been long without drink. This process did not take so -long now that only eleven animals were left. - -With tottering steps we continued to the east-south-east on the 17th and -18th, sometimes along valleys, sometimes over open country, and always -through deep tiring snow. Camp 333 (Illust. 307) was barely made ready -when a terrible storm burst over us. The sky had been clear, and then -all of a sudden the pure blue colour was wiped out by orange clouds of -dust which swept up from the south-west. I was sitting in the lee of my -tent when in an instant the contents of the brazier were carried away. A -heap of wild asses' dung which the men had collected also flew away, and -we saw the small round balls dancing up the slopes as though they were -racing. A herd of antelopes cantered past our camp, and their smooth -coats shimmered like satin and velvet according as the hair was exposed -to the wind and the light. Again our ears are filled with the din of the -storm. I hurry inside, and hear from time to time a shout when some part -of the men's tent threatens to give way, or the sound of iron against -iron when the tent-pegs have to be driven in again, or a singing -dying-away sound when my towel is seized by the blast and borne away -towards the foot of the mountains. We might be on an unsound vessel with -the sails flapping and beating in cracking strips, and the mountain -spurs, which still peep obscurely from the mist, might be dangerous and -threatening reefs, against which we are to be dashed in a moment. Grand -and majestic is such a storm when it sweeps over the earth in unbridled -fury. - - - - -CHAPTER LXI - -THIRTY DAYS OF STORM - - -On February 19 we had good country for travelling, declining gently to -the shore of the Lemchung-tso, which appeared in the distance. I -travelled mostly on foot, as I could easily do, for the storm had -abated, but, as usual, we were chilled through by the wind, though the -temperature rose to 28 deg. at one o'clock. At the foot of some hills in the -south we perceived numbers of black spots, which we took for tame yaks. -They soon resolved themselves, however, into whole troops of antelopes, -which sped in light springs over the plain northwards. Now were often -seen signs of the summer visits of the Gertse nomads. We had left -Deasy's and Rawling's routes a couple of days behind us, and now found -ourselves on the western margin of one of the largest blank spaces in -the map of Tibet. - -After a grey horse had perished in the night we had only ten animals -left, or a fourth of the original caravan. They were fed in the morning -with meal and spent tea-leaves in water, which they swallowed with -avidity. Our store of provisions would last out barely a month. - -We were 6 or 7 miles from the shore of the lake, and on arriving there -we encamped close to a cave in which a millstone and a couple of yak -hides had been left in the summer. Along the shore ran a path worn by -the feet of men. We stayed here a day and sorted out the baggage again. -All spare instruments, such as thermometers, measuring tape, -eye-glasses, etc., as well as some European garments, a couple of caps, -bandages, portfolios, were sewed up, together with some stones, in a -sack, and sunk in a hole in the ice, which covered the lake to a depth -of nearly 3 feet. Now I had only three changes of under-clothing left, -one of which might be sacrificed at the next sorting out--we were like a -balloon from which ballast is thrown out to keep it in the air till it -has crossed a sea and has firm ground below it. - -In the evening we hear a whole orchestra of roaring winds. The air hurls -itself down like cascades from the mountains on to the camp, and cannot -rush fast enough over the clear ice of the lake, where the moon produces -bright silvery streaks on the surface, while the mountains show a dark -outline to the north. Grazing and fuel are plentiful to-day, and -therefore we are in high spirits. The men sing, sometimes softly like a -swinging lullaby or rounded billows in a bay, sometimes in the wild and -passionate style of Asiatics, and dance around the fire. But when the -most violent gusts rush down, they pause, prepared to prevent the tent -from falling over the fire. They seem to sing responses to the storm, -and I am pleased with the performance, for it chases away thoughts of -the long hours of solitude, and calls forth pleasant dreams and hopes of -spring, warm winds, discoveries and adventures in Tibet. I wonder daily -how this journey will end, but every day I am a step nearer to the -answer. - -On February 22 we left the little freshwater lake on our left hand, -while the Lemchung-tso proper extended its partly frozen surface to the -right. In the middle the water was quite open and of a dark-green -colour, and was lashed into vapour by the storm. To the east-south-east -the country seemed favourable--an open plain, where no obstacle came in -our way. In front of us were two grazing animals--perhaps yaks or wild -asses. Gulam, who went in front, held up a field-glass and reported that -they were horses. So we were near nomads again. We searched about in -every direction but could perceive no tent. Had, perchance, the horses -strayed away? However, they were not shy, but became very sprightly when -they caught sight of us, galloped straight to the caravan, and greeted -every horse and mule individually. After this civility they followed us -all the way, prancing and neighing. They were three-year-old colts -which had never carried a saddle or a load--fat, fresh, and -nimble-footed, very different from our last three horses. When we -encamped they went off to the south and were lost to sight. The storm -increased in violence, and our last iron spade and a kettle were carried -away by the wind, but were afterwards recovered. - -February 23. The thermometer sank to -19.8 deg.. Our last ten animals made a -short day's march along the same easy valley. I could perceive no trace -of the "Snowy Range" of English maps in the prolongation of this valley. -We observed a couple of tents in the mouth of a valley to the north, but -we were now in no distress. I lived exclusively on tea, bread, and jam, -of which there were still two pots left. - -The storm continued next day also. We seldom covered more than 6 or 7 -miles. In the past month we had travelled 220 miles, 30 more than in the -previous month. During the evening and night the snow pelted on to our -tents. I still had my warm comfortable bed, but at a pinch it would also -go piecemeal into the fire. Everything that was discarded was burned or -buried, lest, if it were left, it might arouse suspicions. - -For another day's march we had the advantage of this fine longitudinal -valley, which imperceptibly rises to a flat threshold, beyond which we -passed a gold placer. The holes from which the auriferous sand is -extracted are 3 to 16 feet in diameter, and little more than 3 feet -deep. It is evident that some of them have been dug out last summer. A -little farther down gold had been searched for some time ago. Folds, -stone shelters for marksmen, and stone cairns were to be seen in several -places. - -[Illustration: 313, 314, 315, 316, 317. PANORAMAS FROM THE CAMPS 318, -333, 335, 359, 360; IN THE LAST TWO, SHA-KANGSHAM. - - After Water-colour Sketches by the Author.] - -Still lower down we came, on the following day, to a third placer, -situated where the valley contracts to a trough. Here large sheepfolds -and abundant tracks of men were found. The gold is washed out on flat -stones in a flume 100 yards long. The valley afterwards contracts to a -breadth of 5 yards, and the bottom is mostly filled with ice, here and -there forming ledges. These had to be levelled with axes and strewn with -sand, and each animal was led and held up by men. We could not afford to -let any one of them break his leg and be lost to us. Then the ice -came to an end, the valley opened out, and we pitched our tents in an -extensive flat. Towards the east the land was all favourable, and no -"Snowy Range" stood in our way. We could see 25 miles ahead. Tubges shot -five hares and we had a feast that evening. A pack of wolves howled -round the camp at night. - -February 27. A thousand wild asses were seen on the plain which sloped -down gently to the east-south-east. They formed dark lines, sometimes -large, sometimes small, sometimes spots like a rosary. Some herds -galloped off to a point about two hundred yards in front of the caravan, -where they stood and gazed and then dispersed, springing away in -graceful movements. Perhaps they were here for a great spring congress, -to decide questions relating to their territory and pastures. It is -certain that, like the nomads, they migrate at fixed seasons, for they -also are dependent on the occurrence of grass and its varying abundance -at different heights and different times of the year. - -Farther down the plain, beyond a small cliff, were five herds of kiangs, -the nearest of which numbered 133 head. They came galloping almost up to -us. Lobsang ran towards them. Then they set off in wild flight one after -another, their hoofs thundering over the ground, made a wide curve -behind us, and vanished in a dense cloud of dust, the hard beat of their -hoofs being still audible. A strong puff of wind dispersed the cloud, -and they came into sight again; they stood quaking with fear, and looked -at us, pricked up their ears, dilated their nostrils, and sniffed the -wind. - -To the south of our route we perceived two tents among small scattered -heights. Abdul Kerim and two men went off to them while we pitched camp -341. On their return they reported that the tents were the property of a -certain Tsering Ngorpel from Gertse, who had come hither with his family -for two months and was going back in a month. They were poor people, and -owned only 70 sheep and goats, 6 yaks, and 1 dog. The neighbourhood of -camp 341 the man called Senes-yung-ringmo, and he said that if we -marched south-eastwards we should almost daily meet with nomads from -Gertse and Senkor, districts in the south which I had passed through in -1901. They were afraid of our men and would not let them enter the -tents. Two fine sheep and a lump of butter were bought, and rescued us -from starvation for a time. The hare meat was discarded and given to the -dogs. - -We made the two sheep carry themselves our newly-acquired store of meat -to camp 342; we had no room for extra loads. We mounted slowly to a flat -pass. Three tents stood in a side valley and some men came out to look -at us, but we passed on without exchanging questions and answers. On -February 29 the wind raged furiously all day long. Clouds swept -ceaselessly over the country, and at one o'clock the temperature was -22.1 deg., quite low enough to chill a rider down to the bones and marrow. - -In front of us lay a large flat hollow, in the midst of which two small -lakes shone white with ice. We slowly approached the isthmus between -them. A herd of antelopes took to flight and nearly fell over a lonely -wild ass, which looked at them uneasily, but at the last moment they -turned off in another direction as though they were afraid of him. On -the left, in a deep trough running towards the lake, a flock of sheep -was driven along by two shepherds. Wait one moment. Hand me the turban. -Gulam wound it round my head, and then I went on foot like the rest. -Along the shore a young man was driving six yaks. Abdul Kerim and Gulam -went up to him while we set up the tents on the shore (15,200 feet). - -After a while they returned with the yak-driver, a boy of fourteen in a -large white skin hood. He was terribly frightened, and could with -difficulty be persuaded to come to our tents; our intention was that he -should guide two of our men to his dwelling. He called the lake -Lumbur-ringmo. As my disguise was now complete, I went to look at the -boy, who did not seem at all suspicious. - -Lobsang and Tubges followed the boy to his tent, and after a long time -returned with unwelcome news. Two Tibetans had rushed out of the tent, -stopped them, and asked roughly what they wanted. They replied very -quietly that they wished to buy food; but there was nothing of the kind -for sale. - -"But who are you?" an elderly man asked. - -"We are Ladakis in the service of a merchant, and we are on the way to -Saka-dzong," they answered. - -"No," the Tibetan exclaimed; "you lie. No merchant travels this way, -least of all in winter; there is no trade in Chang-tang." - -"We are not trading," Lobsang replied; "we are commissioned to inquire -how much sheep's wool can be bought up next summer." - -"Sheep's wool--in uninhabited districts! No; you are servants of a -European, who keeps himself out of sight in one of your tents. Out with -the truth, or it will be bad for you." - -"Ask the boy here," returned Lobsang in his most innocent tone, "if he -saw any European in our tent. We abhor Europeans as heartily as you. If -you doubt us, you can come to our tents and see for yourself." - -"No, thank you; we will not come to your tent," the old man answered, -and disappeared with his people behind the black hangings. - -Lobsang was very serious when he came back, and proposed that, if we had -not already come to a standstill, we should in future set up our camp as -far as possible from the nomads. I was alarmed, and I had a feeling that -we should not advance much farther into the forbidden land. It was also -disappointing to be so openly suspected to be a European. - -Now good advice was precious, for evidently the nomads would betray us -to the nearest authorities. At the evening's lesson in Tibetan, which -occupied some hours, I discussed the situation with Lobsang and Kutus. -It was resolved that Abdul Kerim should go early in the morning to the -tent, and if the nomads were still hostile we would try to lengthen our -day's march so as to get out of the way of a probable summons to stop. - -This time Lobsang met with a better reception, as he could present our -chief and leader, whom the nomads correctly addressed as _bombo_. The -old man introduced himself under the name of Sogbarong Tsering -Tundup--Sogbarong is his home in the west, and this name is placed -before his own much as Anders Persson i Stor-garden. The old man invited -his guests into his tent, took a couple of sheep's trotters, cut them in -pieces with an axe, threw them into the caldron, and offered some broth -to Abdul Kerim, saying it was the only tea he had. In the tent were five -antelopes cut up, a gun, a knife, and other articles. The old man did -not this time express any suspicions of us, but related that a European -with a large caravan had crossed the country to the east more than a -year ago. He did not suspect, of course, that that same European was -hiding in one of our tents. When the messengers came back they had a -fine fat sheep and a can of milk with them. - -This day, March 1, the wind was so strong that it was impossible to -travel. My tent fell over and was held fast by the load of sand and -stones on its folds. Not a trace of the surroundings was visible, and I -should have obtained no notion of country on the route. At two o'clock -Tsering Tundup and another Tibetan came to return the visit. They -emerged from the mist only when they were close at hand, and a couple of -men hastened to protect them from the dogs. The visit was a complete -surprise, but there was nothing which could excite the least suspicion. -My things were crammed into a sack, and I was disguised as usual; -indeed, I had now no other clothing to put on. Even if they had come and -looked into my tent there would have been no danger. - -Our guests had capacious sheepskin coats drawn up above the belt so as -to form the usual protruding bag where a large part of their property is -stored. They wore hoods of sheepskin and looked like Samoyeds or -Chukchis. They stood a while and chatted with our men in the wind, but I -did not hear a word, though they were standing only 3 yards from the -loophole in my tent through which I was watching them. After some -hesitation, they went into Abdul Kerim's tent, and then the yak question -was discussed. They had only six yaks, which they required for their own -journeys; but if we would buy sheep, they would let us have as many as -twelve, and each sheep could easily carry a fifth part of a mule's load. -The offer was accepted with pleasure, and the price was fixed at 38 -rupees. Then they went off through the storm and I felt safe again. - -The purchase was concluded on March 2, and the twelve sheep stood with -their heads together in the shelter of the men's tent. To start on our -travels was impossible, for we could not have kept our legs in such a -storm. We therefore remained here another day, and the men had full -occupation in sewing sacks for the sheep, arranging and weighing the -loads. I was worse off, for I had nothing to do and nothing to read, but -I sat and wrote Tibetan notes and entered new words in my lexicon. Then -I heard a hasty step coming towards my tent; it was Kunchuk bringing -fire. A rustle, an oath, all the contents are swept out of the shovel, -and the man has to crawl back to the camp-fire for more embers. So the -day passes and the storm roars, and every one is weary and listless. - -During these stormy days our animals lay for the most part quietly in a -hollow where they were sheltered from the wind. The storm kept them from -grazing, and they were much enfeebled by fasting. A white mule, -therefore, remained behind at Lumbur-ringmo-tso when we moved off -south-eastwards on March 3 with 3 horses, 6 mules, and 12 sheep, -delighted that we had passed this critical point with a whole skin. -Freshwater springs formed a number of picturesque ice volcanoes on the -shore of the small lake. Before we encamped behind a projecting cliff, -we met three large flocks of sheep with their shepherds. On such -occasions I always went on foot. The new sheep all carried burdens, and -gave invaluable help to our tired animals. They were tied up every night -between the tents that they might be safe from wolves, and the yellow -dog from Gartok proved an excellent guard. They bleated piteously the -first evening, probably distressed at leaving their native country. I -was sorry for them, for they had been treated as cruelly as Uncle Tom, -but in time they became quite accustomed to their new way of life. - -Violent storms prevailed all day and all the following day, on which we -passed two black tents. At every camp we had to take the greatest care -that no pieces of paper, match-boxes, candle ends, or cigarette stumps -were left lying about, for we might be sure that the Tibetans dwelling -near would come and search about after we had left the spot. Our route -took us over a low pass (16,030 feet). The rocks comprised weathered -schists, quartzite, and granite--the last only in detached blocks. On -the other side we followed a deeply excavated valley opening out on to a -plain, and we were just setting up our tent by a projecting rock when -two large black dogs came running towards us barking. Nomads, therefore, -were encamping in the neighbourhood, and we must be on our guard. Abdul -Kerim, who always showed himself prudent and tactful in delicate -negotiations, went off to a tent which stood on the other side of the -rock and was inhabited by four Senkor nomads who owned 400 sheep. The -chief of them was named Shgoge, and sold us three sheep at 3 rupees a -head, some butter and milk. He said that the country here, around camp -345, was called Pankur, and that we were three days' journey from the -encampment of the Gertse Pun, or the chief of Gertse. With him, however, -we had nothing to do. It was to our interest to avoid as much as -possible officials of all kinds, not to approach Gertse or Senkor in the -west too closely, and not too near my route of 1906 to the east. We must -steer our way through many pitfalls. Just in this district we crossed -the meridian of 84 deg. E., and my plan was to travel due south from the -Tong-tso right across the large blank space. The continual storms which -had done us so much harm, were so far advantageous to us that they -enabled us to cross the great wastes without being much noticed. This -day all was hazy from the dust, and our neighbours' sheep, which passed -my tent in long columns with shepherds and dogs, made a very curious -spectacle in the dense mist. - -March 5. Abdul Kerim obtained two more sheep, and now we had seventeen -to help the mules and horses. Our intention was to increase our sheep -caravan by degrees, and make ourselves independent of the other animals. -We must also have a spare horse for Abdul Kerim, for he was our master, -and it was incongruous that he should go on foot while I, a simple -caravan man, rode. This day we had the storm at our back, and we -travelled 81/2 miles over the same even, excellent ground which had made -progress easier since we left Lemchung-tso. We encamped at a sheepfold -and enjoyed the feeling that there were no neighbours to spy on us. A -sheep was slaughtered; only the worst were sacrificed for food, and were -to be replaced by new ones when an opportunity presented itself. - - - - -CHAPTER LXII - -ADVENTURES OF OURSELVES AND PUPPY IN NAGRONG - - -On March 6 we made another hop towards our destination. It is difficult -to travel over the high plateaus of Tibet in winter, and we could not -march more than four hours a day. The morning was clear, but we had not -gone far beyond a small lake, with its mantle of ice covered with -driftsand and dust, before the storm increased in violence and made me -reel in the saddle. The clouds of dust became thicker, the sandspouts -were dark reddish-brown at the base, and the gusts tore up furrows in -the ground like ploughshares, while frequently spiral forms were seen -which could only be produced by cyclonic whirlwinds. On the left hand -shimmered a lake, its surface partly white with gypsum and salt, partly -streaked brown with driftsand, and with open water only in two places; -it was the ghost of a lake which was doomed to disappear. - -Two built-up fireplaces served us capitally for a camping-ground on the -shore where the grazing was good. On the eastern side of the lake was a -brick-red ridge of medium height, which I wished to paint in order to -record the effective tones in the dust mist. I waited for the others -with Kutus and Gulam, and we had scarcely induced a fire to burn before -the storm rose at noon to a hurricane. Now everything vanished--lake, -ridge, all except the nearest tufts of grass. The fire was fenced in -with stones and clods lest it should be blown away, sand and minute -pebbles beat against my dry skin coat, and I had to cover all my face, -for the skin smarted as though lashed by whip-cord, if it were exposed -for a second to the wind. Fortunately the others made their way to us. -Every man had to lend a hand to raise my tent. At length Gulam came -crawling backwards and yelled into my ear that the tent was ready. With -straddling legs and all my muscles on the stretch I fought my way to it, -and was glad to catch hold of a tent rope before I was blown down. At -last I was under cover and could recover my breath. The tent cloth was -puffed out like a balloon, and threatened every moment to burst with a -report. The sand and rubbish beat upon it, producing a deafening noise. -It was as dark as at twilight, and the wind roared and whined through -the grass. The men tried to set up their own tent, but when the wind had -overturned it twice they let it lie, weighting it with the baggage that -it might not fly away. Five Ladakis lay in the lee of my tent rolled up -like hedgehogs, and I let them come in, where they sat silent and -motionless for a couple of hours. The others had crept under the ruins -of their unfortunate tent. Puppy and Little Puppy lay in a corner and -kept each other warm. However, the temperature was 35.8 deg., and we had not -had such warmth for three months. A long and dismal evening! It was with -difficulty I got a piece of bread, a cup of tea, and a piece of dried -meat. We were deaf and dizzy when at length we sought repose under our -rugs, while the storm continued to rage outside. - -I awoke to hear the same old music, and to go out to my horse was like -plunging into icy-cold water. Neither the sky nor the horizon was -visible, and the mountains were dim shadows. With Kutus and Gulam I led -the way, following a path trodden by men. Dark, chill, and doleful was -the land of eternal twilight, frost, and the wicked demons of the air. -After a march of 8 miles we halted at the edge of a belt of ice, a -frozen stream in several branches, which ran to the south-west. The gale -flew over the clear sheet of ice, and the red dust was swept over it -like flames. With the assistance of Kutus I slid over to the other side, -and in the shelter of the opening of a small valley we made the usual -fire. - -The caravan came to the edge of the ice. It was impossible to sand a -path, for the grains would have been swept away. The animals were led -across singly, each helped over by several men. For all that a mule fell -and gave a fearful wrench to one of its hind legs, and with great -difficulty it was helped up to the camp. All of us had grey distorted -faces, our eyes ran, full of sand and dust. My lips bled and my teeth -were black. March is the worst month, but we had never experienced such -bad weather before. What is the use of looking forward to spring when -the days are darker as time goes on? - -The injured mule had evidently dislocated its leg. It was thrown down -and a rope was fastened round its hoof and the end was pulled by the -men. When it was at full stretch Lobsang hit the rope hard with a -tent-pole in order to set the dislocated joint in place again, but I -could not perceive that the operation had any effect. No; the mule was -lost to us just when we could ill afford to lose one of our best -animals. - -And it was lost indeed, for on the morning of March 8 it could not take -a step. It was sad to pass the death sentence, and a pitiful sight when -the fresh warm blood spurted out in powerful jets and moistened the -barren soil. It lay quiet and patiently, and after a few convulsions -expired, and was left in solitude when we moved on over the dreary -waste. - -But before starting I had ascended a hill and looked around. Which was -more expedient--to travel north-east or south-west? Both directions lay -out of our course. I decided for the south-west, and hastened down to my -tent, where Gulam served up breakfast. Brown Puppy and Little Puppy gave -me their company to get their share. Little Puppy had grown so much that -he could do what he liked with his mother. When I gave her a piece of -meat the young one flew upon her and took it away. I had to hold Little -Puppy that his mother might eat in peace. When we set out, Puppy and the -yellow dog remained behind with the slaughtered mule, finding a -convenient point of departure in an open wound in the soft muscles of -the neck. There they stood gorging when we started along the ice-belt of -the stream towards the south-west. - -With my usual followers I rode in advance. The suffocating, blinding, -deafening storm was right in our faces. Gulam walked in front, stopped, -looked through the field-glass, and gave me the sign to dismount. The -stream swept round the foot of a cliff in front of us. - -"What is it?" I asked Gulam when we came up to him. - -"A large stone house with a wall and a couple of smaller huts. They are -not visible at this moment because of the mist, but they lie close to -the foot of the mountain." - -"Yes; now they can be seen. It is strange that no dogs rush at us." - -"What is to be done? Shall we turn back? Surely a chieftain lives here, -and he will come and search us down to the skin." - -"No; it is too late, for we must have been seen already." - -How I regretted that we had not travelled to the north-east! But we must -put on a good face in our unlucky situation. We passed the village at a -distance of 100 yards, and halted in the shelter of the dark porphyry -crag crowned by two _chhortens_ and a _mani_. At least it was pleasant -to get shelter for a moment. It was like taking refuge in a gateway when -it pours. All around was dead and dreary; no one was seen; only a couple -of jackdaws croaked, and a hare sped out of its form so near us that we -could have caught it with the hand if we had been alert. Kutus and Gulam -went out to gather fuel. I searched the suspicious neighbourhood with -the field-glass, where treachery seemed to lurk behind every projection. -It cleared a little towards the south-east, enough for me to detect a -black tent of unusual size about 200 yards off. Four strings with -prayer-streamers were stretched out from a high pole. I had been in -hopes that we should get past the first dwellings, as no dogs had shown -themselves, but I had never heard of an uninhabited tent. And the -outward appearance of this tent indicated the presence of an important -chief. Thanks to the mist, we had stumbled right on to his camp, and he -would not be caught napping by poor strolling Ladakis. - -Gulam had been to the large house, the yard door of which stood open, -and had found in a shed a large quantity of fuel of a kind of shrub the -Tibetans call _ombo_. So we waited and waited, expecting to see the -caravan emerge from the mist, but when nothing was heard of it Kutus -went out to search. It had wandered quite out of its course, and had -made a long circuit round the house and tent, for the leaders were -convinced that I wished to slip by unnoticed. A horse had fallen, and -now we had only two left, and 5 mules out of 40 animals. - -The three tents were set up in a line close together, and Abdul Kerim -went with Kunchuk to the large tent. We saw through the mist that a man -came out to meet them, and that all three went into the tent, and then -we waited with our hearts in our mouths. The men returned at dusk with -good news. The tent was inhabited by a lonely old Amchi-lama, _i.e._ a -monk-doctor, who at the same time looked after the souls of the Nagrong -nomads, determined from astrological books the lucky and unlucky days -for baptisms and other affairs, and assisted people with the same -remedies when they were sick, died, and finally were buried. He was from -Sera in Lhasa, and had lived three years in Nagrong. The tent was a -movable temple, furnished inside with altars, burning butter lamps, and -votive bowls, where the hermit performed service--we heard him beating a -temple drum at midnight. It belonged, as well as the large house, to the -Gertse Pun Bombo, or the chief of the Gertse district, who a few days -before had gone off a day's journey to the east, with his flocks, -children, and all, but was soon expected back in consequence of a -dispute between two of his subjects. Perhaps, after all, it was well we -travelled south-west instead of north-east, for we might have fallen -into the jaws of the Gertse Pun himself. This potentate comes to Nagrong -in late summer and takes up his abode in the stone house, while a -hundred nomad tents are set up around and a fair is held. - -The old lama had no servants, but every third day a man came to bring -him wood. He must find it dull in the long winter evenings, when he -hears the storm roaring outside, and silence reigns within around the -gods who answer his prayers and the rolls of his drum with a smile of -reconciliation. But probably he is a philosopher and has no fear of the -dangers of the night. In his tent lay several sacks full of _tsamba_, -barley, rice, and butter, but he had no authority to sell anything -without the permission of the Gertse Pun. Instead, he pointed out where -the tent of the Pun's brother-in-law stood, where all kinds of prime -goods could be bought. - -We therefore decided to remain where we were over March 9, and Abdul -Kerim with three attendants sought out the brother-in-law, met with a -friendly reception, and bought five sheep and two goats, besides two -sheep-loads of rice and as much barley, and also a bag of tobacco, which -the men had long wanted. All day long I was a prisoner in my tent; my -period of freedom was over. And when the evening came and enveloped the -dreary Nagrong valley in its shadows, I could think of nothing else but -my old trusty comrade, the oldest of all that had been with me in Tibet, -Brown Puppy. In the company of the yellow dog she had remained in the -morning with the mule which had dislocated its leg, and I had seen -nothing of her since. We had hoped, however, that she would find us -again, as she had so often done before, but now we were convinced that -she had lost our trail, and, desperate and crazy with anxiety, was -seeking for us over hill and dale, only to wander farther and farther -from the right direction. It was useless to send men after her, and it -was not advisable to divide our small party at such a critical time. The -dogs had remained a long time tearing at the mule's neck, and when at -last they were satiated they had started to follow us and had lost our -track in the terrible wind and sand clouds. If they once crossed over -ice they would never find our track again. Now thoughts of my old tent -companion worried me more than anything else. Only that very morning she -had lain on her felt rug in the usual corner, and we had breakfasted -together. Where was she? what was she doing at this moment? Day and -night she would run barking and whining over desolate Chang-tang with -her nose to the ground, searching for our track till her paws were torn -and painful. What would she do when night came down with its dreadful -darkness and its prowling wolves? Were the dogs keeping together, or -were they seeking us along different paths, having lost each other? -Would Puppy some time find a home with friendly nomads and lead a -comfortable life again, or would she come to want and be tied outside a -poor tent, and, pining in hopeless sorrow, remember her past life, -which, from when she lapped milk in my room at Srinagar, had been spent -in my caravan? I was never to receive an answer to these questions, for -the parts she and the yellow dog played in our romance were ended. For -the future her life would shape itself differently, but I was never to -gain any knowledge of the remaining chapters of her existence. I lay -awake at night thinking of her misfortune, and looked every morning to -see if perchance she had come back in the night and was lying in her -usual corner, and I fancied I heard her trotting outside my tent in the -dusk, or thought I could distinguish the profile of a lonely -half-starved dog on a mound or crag with its nose up and howling at the -storm. For some time I suffered from a delusion, imagining that a shade, -the restless soul, the invisible ghost of a dog followed me wherever I -went. I felt the presence of an invisible dog which followed me into my -tent, and among the Tibetans, and always whined and pleaded for help, -and I was worried that I could give no help or consolation to my lost, -wandering friend. But soon we had other things to think of, other dogs -became my friends, and we were daily entangled in a skein of troubles -which must lead to a crisis, and the cares of the past paled before the -gravity of the moment. - -[Illustration: 318. THE AUTHOR AS A SHEPHERD.] - -March 10. Such a day as this is interesting to look back on, but it was -hard and cruel as long as it lasted. Before six o'clock I was awakened -with the disquieting information that two Tibetans were approaching our -tents. I made haste to dress myself and paint my face and hands black -with a thin coating. Meanwhile the strangers arrived and were invited -into Abdul Kerim's tent, where I heard them talking pleasantly about -sheep and money--so they were not spies; our time had not yet come. -One of the guests was the brother-in-law, the other a neighbour of his, -who, when he heard what a good price we paid for sheep, said he was -ready to sell us four he had brought with him, as well as a lively goat. -Abdul Kerim had received a general order to buy all the sheep he could -procure, so he took them. The goat was, as has been said, a lively -beast, and he ran off at once and could not be caught again. - -The two Tibetans went off to the lama's tent to drink tea, but the -critical time was not yet over, for probably they would return to see us -start. Therefore, while the tents were still standing, I set out with -Tubges, Little Kunchuk, and "Snoring Kunchuk," as we called Sonam -Kunchuk on account of his terrible timber-sawing propensities, when they -drove our thirty-one sheep down the valley. As we went off the Tibetans -came out and watched us, but did not suspect anything wrong. To escape -detection I had hurriedly turned to sheep-driving (Illust. 318), but I -soon found that I had no natural aptitude for this occupation, so -invigorating, but so trying to the patience. I fancied I imitated my -Ladakis as closely as possible, whistled and shouted in the same way, -and threw out my arms when a sheep left the crowd, but the animals -showed me not the least obedience, but went where they liked when I was -near. After an hour's walk in the teeth of the wind I had had enough, -and while the other shepherds went on with the sheep, Kunchuk and I -stayed in a cranny out of sight of the lama's tent, while I could look -over all the valley. - -At length the other men came with Abdul Kerim riding at their head. Our -coats and turbans were of the same colour, so that any Tibetans who -happened to be watching could not tell if it were Abdul Kerim or I that -was riding. I now took my horse and went on in front with my usual -companions. At eleven o'clock the storm rose to a furious pitch and -dashed in our faces. Driftsand swept over the ground in dense masses; we -were nearly suffocated, and we seemed to stand still while the country -moved past us at a giddy pace. We crossed the valley in order to follow -its western flank. The clouds of dust obscured the sun; nothing could be -seen beyond a distance of 20 yards; chaos surrounded us. We stopped to -get our breath, and lest we should miss the others, but as soon as they -appeared like phantoms in the mist we set off again. I have experienced -many sandstorms in Takla-makan and the Lob-nor desert, but hardly any so -bad as this was. In Turkestan one simply encamps when a storm comes on, -but what is the use of encamping to await the end of a storm which lasts -thirty days? We strayed among small dunes, and, though the valley fell -in the direction we were travelling, we seemed as though we were -mounting to a lofty pass in consequence of the pressure of the storm. -The driftsand rattled against my dry, hard coat, which, from the -constant friction, became heavily charged with electricity. About every -other minute there was a discharge, and I felt uncomfortable and often -painful prickings, especially in the soles of the feet, the hands, and -knees. At every such discharge the horse also pulled up and became -nervous. At last, when my grey Tikze horse refused to go further, and we -had quite lost sight of the others, and could not see where we were -going, we came to a halt and huddled together with our backs to the -wind. The electrical discharges continued even now, but were weaker. If -I placed the tip of a finger near Gulam's or Kutus' hand a small -electric spark was felt and seen, and both of us felt the shock. The men -were exceedingly astonished, and hoped it was not witchcraft. - -We sat waiting for three hours, and were prepared for an uncomfortable -night. But Kutus came upon the other men just when they were giving up -all attempt to find us before night. We encamped among the dunes, and -before long all articles which were set out in my tent vanished under a -thick layer of sand. - -On the morning of the 11th the storm had somewhat abated; and, wearied -and stiff after our experiences of the previous night, we continued our -journey southwards and encamped at a deserted sheepfold. By nine o'clock -compact sandspouts twisted slowly over the plain like spectres, so the -storm was again at its usual height. We had _tsamba_ for only one day, -but it did not count for much as long as we had such a good supply of -meat. We were glad to get out of reach of the Gertse Pun; in this -drifting sand it was impossible to find our trail--yes, even for our own -dogs. Little Puppy did not miss his mother, but felt very important at -being sole master on the ground, and barked at our sober sheep. It was, -however, a serious matter for us that we were deprived of our -night-watch in districts where we had most need of them. We must try to -procure fresh dogs as soon as possible. - -On March the 12th we marched the usual weary 61/2 miles to the -east-south-east through a fine, broad, longitudinal valley, and pitched -our camp in a hollow full of rubbish. Our three tents were now always -placed close together, so that, if any stranger came unexpectedly to my -tent, I could crawl into Abdul Kerim's without being seen from outside. -My Ladak _chapkan_ began to assume a more satisfactory colour, but we -still did all we could to defile it and make it sooty and greasy. Little -Puppy lent me his assistance by biting and tearing the sleeves so that -they hung in rags. It would not be long before I had the appearance of a -regular ruffian. - -It snowed heavily all night, and in the morning the snow lay so deep, -and the country was so thickly covered, that we thought it best to -remain stationary. We were still farther removed from Brown Puppy, and -it was vain for her to seek our trail. Perhaps it was providential that -both she and the white horse were lost before they could betray us. -Tibetans have wonderfully sharp eyes for animals, and recognize them -again when they have seen them only once. Now the danger was over, for -all the veterans had gone. Perhaps Puppy sacrificed herself that I might -be successful! All the same, I seemed to see her wandering disconsolate -and distressed about the desolate wastes in the north. - - - - -CHAPTER LXIII - -THROUGH THE HIGHLANDS OF BONGBA - - -When I awake to another day of uncertain fortune and adventures life -seems gloomy and solitary, and the longer the time the more I long for -an end of my difficulties. When Gulam awoke me on the 14th, he -complained that Abdul Kerim did not keep the watch I had given him in -order; either the watch or the caravan leader was at fault, but he -believed it was the latter, for the watch could not be blamed if it were -wound up only every other day. Gulam affirmed that when Abdul Kerim was -asked what o'clock it was, he always answered seven, whatever time it -might be in the twenty-four hours. - -The thermometer fell to -11 deg. in the night, but the day was fine. The -wind blew as usual, but the sun came out and we thought of spring again. -Three shepherds were taking some hundreds of sheep to the west, which -had been driven off from their pasturage by the recent snow and were -looking for uncovered land. We were only a day's journey from the -Tong-tso (14,800 feet), they said, and the Tong-tso was the point from -which we were to start southwards to traverse unknown country. If I -succeeded in crossing it only by a single route, all the troubles of the -past winter would not have been in vain. The shepherds' information was -correct, for the next day we bivouacked on the western shore of the -Tong-tso, which we found exactly at the place where the immortal pundit, -Nain Sing, inserted it on his map. To the south-east towered the huge -massive Sha-kangsham, along the northern foot of which I had ridden in -1901. - -Now we had to find a convenient pass over the mountain which barred our -way to the south. A gap was seen to the south-east, and we directed our -steps towards it. On our right, two tents stood at the foot of a hill, -and Abdul Kerim was sent to them while we encamped in a deep narrow -ravine, at the bottom of which we found a large quantity of wind-driven -kiang dung and dry tufts of grass. On his return, our good leader -reported that he was rudely received by two men, named Nakchu Tundup and -Nakchu Hlundup, who came from the district Nakchu, three days' journey -distant to the south, and had a wife in common. They first asked how -many we were and how many guns we had, just as though they wished to -know whether they and their neighbours might venture to attack us. They -then said that they had seen a man riding at the head of our party, -while all the rest, Abdul Kerim included, went on foot, and that it was -not hard to guess that the mounted man was a European. When Abdul Kerim -replied that no Europeans travel in winter, for they are too much afraid -of the cold, and that we were only wool-buyers from Ladak, the Tibetans -shook their heads and answered that they had never heard of Ladakis -travelling in this country in winter. But, nevertheless, Abdul succeeded -in gaining their confidence, and when he had paid double the market -price for two yaks and six sheep, the Tibetans forgot their suspicions, -all for the sake of filthy lucre. The purchase was to be completed the -following morning. Then the new animals were fetched, and their carrying -power was a welcome assistance to our animals. Fortunately, the nomads -had in general the greatest respect for our tents. It was important for -us to make liberal bargains with men who at first had been hostile to -us. On the other hand, they often abstained from betraying us, even if -they had suspicions, for if it were known that they had been well paid, -the nearest chief would confiscate their receipts and would also punish -the unfortunate men who had dared to traffic with suspected individuals. - -During the day's march I rode in front as usual, with my two companions -on foot. A tent lay concealed behind a cliff, and we did not notice it -until we were some way past it, and then it was too late to dismount. -Two fellows were outside and looked after us, and if they compared notes -with their neighbours they would have good cause for suspicion. At our -camp that day we had a visit from an old man and two young people, who -had their tent near and came to see what kind of men we were. They said -that they were very poor, and begged for some coppers. We were on the -border of the district Bongba-changma, which contains 300 tents, and, -like the whole province of Bongba, is subject to the governor Karma -Puntso, whose tent stood at a distance of six days' journey to the -south. He was a man of twenty-five years of age, lived in a large tent, -and had been in office only a year, since his father died. It was -assuring to know that he could have no experience of Europeans and their -crafty ways. After the strangers had received a couple of _tengas_ from -Abdul Kerim, they went home again in the rays of the evening sun, -delighted to find that we were not robbers. - -Then the temperature fell to -16 deg.; the winter was remarkably trying, but -the day, March 18, was still fine, and I travelled all the way on foot, -driving the sheep while we were passing several tents. Among them was -that of our old man of the day before, and he proved to be a man of -property, who sold us various much-needed articles of food. On the way -Tubges shot seven partridges, whereupon two Tibetans came forward and -protested, saying that only Europeans shot partridges. Abdul Kerim -assured them that he preferred partridges to mutton. Again there was -talk of Karma Puntso. Perhaps it would be better to choose another way. -No; then the governor would be still more suspicious. We encamped on the -northern side of a small pass, where we had no troublesome neighbours. - -March 19. Breakfast, a delicate partridge and a cup of tea, was just -over when it was announced that three Tibetans were coming up to our -tents. But they stopped at a respectful distance, and Abdul Kerim went -up to them. My tent was opened in this direction, but was closed again -just in time. The Tibetans' errand was to ask if we had any medicine -suitable for a man who had a pain in the foot. In reality, their object -was to spy upon us when we set out, for they stayed all the time and -looked about. After my hands and face had been coloured black, I stole -by the secret passage into Abdul Kerim's tent, while Kutus and Gulam -crawled by the same way into mine to pack up. Then I went with Lobsang -and Kutus, and drove the sheep up the track leading to the pass (16,135 -feet). We had not gone far when Abdul Kerim came riding on my horse and -made frantic gestures to us to stop. A Tibetan horseman, followed by a -big dog, would meet us in a few moments on the path. We therefore took a -roundabout way among hillocks, while the caravan encountered the -Tibetan. In this way we escaped the danger. Soon came Kunchuk and Sedik, -leading the dog with a rope on either side--a savage brute, which barked -till he foamed at the mouth, and tried to bite those who were taking him -away from his master. He was of the species called _takkar_, and Takkar -was his name. He reminded me of a St. Bernard; he was coal black, with a -white patch on the chest and neck, and was as savage as a wolf. They had -bought him for 2 rupees. - -Moreover, Abdul Kerim had also bought the rider's horse for 86 rupees, -and he came jogging cheerfully after us as we rode down from the summit -of the pass to a longitudinal valley abounding in tents and herds of -sheep and yaks, and at two spots were seen mounted men, who looked -uncomfortably like a levy. The new horse was eleven years old, the owner -said, and if he passed well over his fifteenth year, he would live to -thirty--but we did not want him so long. He was a new member of our -troop and excited general interest, and Takkar became quieter when he -saw an old friend and comrade in misfortune. - -At the camp we had to be careful, for nomads dwelt near and shepherds -wandered with their flocks on the slopes around. To prevent Takkar from -running away he was tied by the neck to a tent pole, an operation by no -means easy. He was tied fast with ropes, his legs were fettered, and a -felt mat was thrown over him, on which four men sat while the others -made him fast to the pole. Immediately he was let loose he rushed at -those nearest him, but was held back by the pole. It was a sin to drag -him from home against his will; he was another Uncle Tom who suffered -for our sake, but I hoped that we should soon understand each other. To -console him in his captivity he was given the blood and entrails of the -slaughtered sheep. - -We crossed another small pass (19,537 feet) on the 20th, and the -insignificant lake Shar-tso, where a fine spring bubbles up out of the -ground by the shore. From a couple of tents to the west we bought tea, -butter, and _tsamba_ sufficient for several days, and heard again about -Karma Puntso. This time it was said that he lived three days to the -west, and we hoped to slip past without any disturbance. The country -about camp 359 is called Luma-shar, and we stayed on the northern bank -of the large river Kangsham-tsangpo, which comes from the northern flank -of Sha-kangsham, the huge massive which I left to the south of my route -in 1901, and which showed us a magnificent view of its western side. The -mountain lay about a couple of days' journey to the south-east. - -The next day we were to cross the river, an exceedingly unpleasant -business; for though there had been 32 degrees of frost in the night the -ice, except close to the bank, would not bear. Abdul made an attempt -with his horse, but the animal came down on his nose in the middle of -the river. Then Lobsang took off his boots and went across the river -barefooted, and came back again to help in conducting our pack animals -gently and firmly across. To get the sheep over was the worst -difficulty; they had to be pushed and pulled by the horns, one at a -time. Almost all the men of the caravan got a refreshing bath in the -stream (Illust. 363). - -On the other side we ascended to a small pass where there was a splendid -view over the ridge, which seemed to run west-south-west from -Sha-kangsham and which barred our way to the south. Abdul Kerim, -Kunchuk, and Sedik went with an exhausted mule to a few tents standing -to the right of our route, with the object of bartering the worn-out -beast for a couple of sheep, but the nomads said they would not take it -as a gift. Instead, our men bought rice, sour milk, butter, salt, and a -sheep, so that we were provided for some days. From the camp also Abdul -Kerim took a long walk to some tents in the neighbourhood. Now poor -Abdul Kerim had to do penance for his sins, and if he had erred in -taking too little barley from Ladak, he made up for it by his conduct on -this adventurous journey. - -From camp 360 the highest peak of Sha-kangsham lay south, 73 deg. E. -(Illust. 317). - -Takkar is still irreconcilable, and heartily detests Kunchuk who bought -him. But he also barks at us as soon as we show ourselves outside the -tents. On the march he is resigned as long as he is near our new horse, -but at other times he is savage. The only one that dares go near him is -Little Puppy, who teases and sports with him and bites his ears. Takkar -treats Little Puppy with supreme contempt, and only when the young one -presumes to snatch his new uncle's food he growls angrily, but then -Little Puppy pricks up his ears, puts his head on one side, and looks at -him. He little thought that the new dog could have bitten off his head -like a chicken's if he had wished. In reality, Takkar was glad to have a -playfellow in his captivity, though at first he held himself aloof to -maintain his dignity. - -The next morning Lobsang and Tubges went back to the nomads' tent and -returned with three more sheep, a lump of butter, and a bag of tobacco. -Their appetites were wonderful to behold. The others had left for them -half a pot of tea mixed with butter, thick and red. One cup disappeared -after another, and they emptied the pot to the last drop. Then they took -some meat out, which they ate up like wild beasts. What was left they -stuffed into their waistbelts, to have it handy in case they were hungry -before we reached the next camp. - -We continued on our way to the south, passing on our left hand an open -plain which extended up to the foot of the skirts of Sha-kangsham. We -passed tents and flocks at one or two places, and encamped on a hill of -loose material beside a spring. The nomads around had nothing to sell, -but gave Abdul Kerim much valuable information. On such occasions -Kunchuk used to sit and secretly note down all the geographical names. -Among other details we now heard that if we held on our journey to the -south for seven days we should fall in with a rich merchant from Lhasa, -named Tsongpun Tashi, who was wont to take up his quarters in winter in -the heart of the Bongba province to sell tea to the nomads. We might be -certain that if we came into the neighbourhood of his camp we should -again be in a critical situation. - -Now Lobsang and two weather-beaten Ladakis complained that they slept -badly, because it was too warm in the tent. The former wore a set of -underclothes, and above only a garment of thin woollen material. In this -costume he had travelled all the way from Drugub, and slept in 72 -degrees of frost with only a couple of sacks over him, for he had sold -his skin coat to one of his comrades at the commencement of the journey. -Only a Tibetan can survive such an experience. - -On March 23 we struggled up to the Chaklam-la, which we also heard -called Amchen-la. The path up to it is steep, and we moved exceedingly -slowly up the ascent. The sheep and the two yaks beat us hollow. From -the last tent the path was visible all the way up to the pass, so I was -obliged to travel on foot, and I might have collapsed from palpitation -of the heart and loss of breath if Lobsang had not gone behind and -pushed me. The lives of two mules had been ebbing away during the -previous days, so the animals were left where nomads could take -possession of them. A black horse was also giving in, and the newly -bought one had to take over his load. My grey horse was no longer worth -much. Chaklam-la, with its 17,339 feet, was a heavy trial to us, and I -was not delighted with the view which unrolled itself to the south--a -labyrinth of mountains, where it was plain to see that the ranges all -stretched from east to west. From the pass there is a steep descent to -the river Sangchen-chu, which flows westwards. We encamped on its bank. -Now Takkar was becoming resigned to his fate. He was certainly annoyed -at being tied to the pole, but he found that he got good and plentiful -food and that we were kind to him. He barked only at Kunchuk, whom he -could never forgive. - -When we broke up our camp on March 24, we hesitated whether we should -make for the south-west or south-east, for high mountains rose to the -south. If we went south-westwards we should come too near to Karma -Puntso, and so we chose the south-easterly route. We had first to cross -the ice of the river, 130 yards broad, where a path was sanded. The -sheep had to be dragged over one by one by the horns, and the yaks would -not venture on the ice till they saw that it bore the horses and mules. -Gulam went first on foot, and had the usual order to give a sign if he -saw a tent or shepherds. We had not gone far when he stretched out his -left hand, which meant that I must dismount and go on foot while Abdul -Kerim rode my horse. It was only a shepherd with his flock. As soon as -the danger was past I exchanged places with the caravan leader. - -A little farther on I found that I had lost my cigarette case, which -also contained some unmounted family portraits and one or two pieces of -sticking-plaster. It would be terrible if a Tibetan found it. Only a -European could own such a thing. Lobsang and Kutus went back and -searched along the track while I lay and waited on a bank. They found -the case, and each received a cigarette as a reward, and we sat and -smoked while Abdul Kerim with Kunchuk and Tubges went down to a tent, -where there were only women, and bought some provisions. At the camp in -the evening snow fell, and at night the thermometer sank to zero. Now we -had only 21 sheep left, and we must try to increase our flock, or, still -better, buy a dozen horses. In this region, and in Bongba generally, it -was difficult to buy sheep. Everywhere the nomads complained that their -flocks had been decimated by the cold, wind, and snow, and the pasturage -was unusually poor, because the rains had failed at the end of the -preceding summer. Sheep-breeding is their means of subsistence, and if -they lose their flocks they are impoverished and can do nothing but -wander about begging from more fortunate people. They have therefore a -decided objection to diminish their flocks by artificial means, as we -may say; the flocks must fluctuate, increasing in good times and -diminishing in bad, but they must not be reduced by sale. Therefore they -often refuse to sell even at double the proper price. Still harder was -it to buy horses in Bongba. - -In the night our animals wandered back to the former camp. While Lobsang -and Kutus went after them most of the day slipped by, and therefore we -remained at camp 363. Kunchuk and Tubges spied a tent in a valley to the -south, where they bought rice, barley, _tsamba_, milk, and _chura_--a -kind of cheese, so that we had food for several days. Thus we got our -livelihood in small portions, bit by bit and from tent to tent. Our own -flock had now shrunk to 21 head, all carrying burdens. - -A solitary wild-goose flew screaming over our camp. Had he got lost, or -was he a scout sent out to see if the ice were broken up on the lakes to -the north? Doubtless he would soon return to his tribe and make his -report. It seemed to me that he had been despatched too soon. - -From February 24 to March 24 we had traversed only 190 miles, owing to -the cutting storm, loss of animals, and now at length the difficult -country. We now seldom made a day's march of as much as 7 miles. - -It is most irritating that a tent, like a sentinel-box or a spying eye, -always stands at the northern foot of a pass, so that I have to walk all -the way. This day also, when we crept up to the Sanchen-la, a small -shelter stood on the saddle, 17,572 feet high. Southwards there were -still more mountains. At a distance of 20 to 25 miles north, 60 deg. E., -rose the highest peak of Sha-kangsham, a fine sight in the beautiful -weather, when not a cloud obstructed the view. Five Ovis Ammons careered -in nimble and elastic springs over the heights, and small agile Goa -antelopes leaped along the southern slope, where we scrambled down among -detritus. The Pantholops antelope is not seen in this region. - -Close to where we encamped at Nema-tok was a tent, and the inmates sold -us a sheep's load of rice. An old man, whom my fellows called familiarly -_ava_ or father, came to look at our black horse which we wished to -sell, as it could evidently not travel much farther. But the old man -said he would not give a rap for the horse. He informed us that in nine -days nomads from all quarters would repair to the place where Karma -Puntso dwelt, to buy tea and pay their taxes to the Government. Tsongpun -Tashi was a powerful and influential man, he said. We drew near to this -potentate with a feeling of uneasiness and growing respect. He enjoys -peculiar privileges from the Devashung. He sells tea to the nomads on -credit. When they sell their sheep's wool in summer at the _tasam_ they -pay their debts to him in _tengas_ or in goods. Tsongpun Tashi makes a -good profit on these transactions, and therefore it is to his interest -to stand well with the Devashung. If he, who must have the reputation of -being more intelligent and sensible than the simple nomads, were to let -us pass by with impunity, he would have to answer for it to the -Devashung and would lose his privileges. We were therefore evidently -coming to a most critical moment. - -Nothing venture, nothing have! If I would explore the blank space in the -heart of which I now found myself, I must expose myself to various -annoyances and run great risks. For a moderately intelligent man it -could be no particular pleasure to go on foot through desolate wastes -like a vagabond, and drive a flock of refractory sheep. I was already -thoroughly weary of this work, for I had no talent or training to -perform it properly. I had to paint myself black every morning like a -negro, and I sat with a brush before the looking-glass, smearing my face -three times over to produce an evenly dark complexion. My eyes were -concealed with a pair of large round Tibetan spectacles with my own -polished glasses fixed inside. This time I was much more carefully -disguised than in 1901, when I tried to get through to Lhasa as a -Mongol, but was held fast in the strong claws of Kamba Bombo. My turban -was too white, so it was dipped in a dye of boiled butter and ashes, and -became at once quite shabby. My soft leather boots were in holes, so -that the toes came out. It was well that I ran no risk of meeting -acquaintances from Stockholm or London. - -This journey was painful and trying to the nerves. Day and night I lived -in the greatest anxiety lest I should be discovered and ignominiously -unmasked. The farther we advanced southwards the more I was troubled by -this apprehension. Should we succeed, or should we be forced back when -we had traversed only half the distance across the blank space? Should I -never cross the Trans-Himalaya again? At every stage our watchfulness -and cautiousness increased, and also the tension of our nerves. I must -always be on my guard and never hold a cigarette in my hand when we were -on the march. My map sheets and compass I thrust into my bosom to be -near at hand. When I collected a rock specimen, took a bearing with the -compass, or made a drawing near a tent, Lobsang had to screen me, and he -became astonishingly adept at this game. The sun I could observe only -when we were quite sure that no Tibetan could see the instrument. -Sometimes I sat and drew a panorama through a peephole in the tent -cloth. The sheep were my refuge, and with them I set out first, and had -not to take part in the packing and loading, and I was spared from -watching the animals at night, as in 1901. In both cases I was -practically a prisoner in my tent, where the evening hours seemed very -long. Nothing is so trying and irritating to the mind as this anxiety in -which I lived, travelling in disguise, and expecting any moment to come -to a crisis in my fate. - - - - -CHAPTER LXIV - -TSONGPUN TASHI - - -March 27. Nearly -4 deg. in the night--still winter. But at one o'clock the -temperature rose to 461/2 deg.--spring was coming. - -An old man sold us four sheep in the morning, and then prowled about our -tents. He could not at all understand why we had come hither, especially -at this season, but Abdul Kerim told him that when we left Tok-jalung -the most severe cold was over. This was a new story we had invented, -because it was more probable than the former, and would pass better in -the southern parts of the country. - -Here, also, stood the usual tent with a view up to the pass, and I was -obliged to go on foot up to the summit of the Ladung-la with its 17,395 -feet. But here the view was encouraging; we had level or declining -ground before us for four days. The descent from the pass to the south -was precipitous, and we stumbled and slid through the rubbish, which -rattled down behind us, and I had the satisfaction of ruining my boots -and clothes more than ever. The valley turned off to the right, -south-west, and in the Janglung district, where we encamped, a young -shepherd informed us that we should come to Tsongpun Tashi's tent next -day. - -Numerous springs bubbled up from the valley bottom and formed a little -clear brook full of fish between grassy swards. Here some of us halted -and used Kutus's girdle as a net. At the first haul we caught 18 fish, -and we did not cease till we had 160--not large ones, but quite -sufficient to feed all thirteen of us. It was amusing to see Little -Puppy as he stood watching attentively and regarding the sprawling -fishes, barking and shaking his head. He had never in his life seen -running water before, and must have supposed that he could walk upon it -as safely as on clear ice. Quite unsuspiciously he jumped down from the -grass, where the brook was 2 feet deep, and entirely disappeared under -the water. When he had, with much difficulty, struggled up again, he was -much amazed and disconcerted, and prowled about growling with -displeasure at the cold bath. After that he kept far away from the -deceitful brook. - -March 28. Now we saw that we could trust Takkar, so we let him loose. He -did not run away, but was in the best of tempers, and flew like an arrow -over the slopes, enjoying his freedom, and played with Little Puppy, who -became furious when the huge brute came racing down on him with playful -leaps, so that he rolled over and over on the ground. - -Abdul Kerim was to go on the new horse with the Ladaki saddle, -accompanied by two men, to look out for Tsongpun Tashi. He had plenty of -money to buy anything he might find, and in reply to searching questions -he was to say that we had orders from Gulam Razul to meet one of his -caravans in Raga-tasam, which in about ten days was to leave Lhasa, and -then accompany it to Ladak. - -I had to ride my grey horse barebacked, but I had not got far before we -passed two tents, where four Tibetans came out to look at us. Two of our -men went and talked to them while the rest of us followed the brook -through the valley. A little further and we had to be careful again, for -there were three more tents and two large flocks, the owner of which -possessed 3000 sheep. Sheepfolds, old camping-places, and _manis_ were -all around, for we were on a great highway, and therefore I kept close -to the sheep, and whistled and shouted at them. At the mouth of a side -valley, on the left, stood a large white tent with blue borders, which -was said to belong to the chief of the district, the Gova Chykying. A -man came out of the tent, hurried after us, and asked whence we came and -whither we were going. Two women came out of a tent inhabited by -beggars, and put the same questions. A mile or so farther we were out of -sight of tents, and I jumped on my grey horse, but I could not ride far, -for more tents appeared farther down the valley. We encamped by the side -of the brook in the Kung-sherya country, where the valley is very broad -and open, and tents are seen in many directions. From one of these, -which stood below ours, a man came and made inquiries. He said that one -of the tents, which looked large and important, belonged to Takyung -Lama, abbot of Mendong-gompa, a monastery three days' journey to the -south-east. Now we were in a warm corner, with the district chief, a -high lama, and Tsongpun Tashi as near neighbours, and the Governor of -the great province of Bongba not far off. It would be a marvel if we -succeeded in making our way out of this wasps' nest. One thing was -certain, that we must make off next morning, before news of our arrival -had spread about. - -After we had waited several hours Abdul Kerim came. We could see at a -long distance that he had bought a horse, which was laden with sacks and -bags containing rice, barley, butter, and _tsamba_. Tsongpun Tashi -proved to be an old man of a poverty-stricken and mean appearance, but -his large tent was full of goods, sacks, and packets of tea, and his -movable shop was very well stocked. Naturally he was much surprised at -the visit, but he swallowed the story that Abdul Kerim dished up for -him. He had even given him the names of all the places where we ought to -camp on the way to Saka-dzong and Raga-tasam, and advised us to be well -on our guard in a district he called Bupgo-lathit, where there were -always robbers. He related that a band of robbers had, a few weeks -before, attacked and plundered Targyaling-gompa, the monastery where we -had met with such a hostile reception in June of the preceding year. -Forty men with horses and guns had been levied to chase the band, but -Tsongpun Tashi said that these forty men were little better than robbers -themselves, and that we ought to inquire about them, so as to avoid them -as they returned. Abdul Kerim promised Tsongpun Tashi to barter our sick -black horse for some provisions, but Abdul Kerim did not know that -Abdullah had already exchanged the horse at the beggars' tent for two -sheep and a goat. There the faithful horse would see happy days again -when the grass grew up. - -After Abdul Kerim had drunk tea he went on to visit the Gova Chykying, -who came out of his tent and said that Takyung Lama had that very day -imposed on him eight days' _yangguk_--that means that he must not -transact any kind of business, but must devote himself entirely, on -account of his sins, to contemplation in his own house. That was fine -for us; the Gova was reduced to a negligible quantity. - -March 29. Temperature 13 deg. in the night, and 55 deg. at seven o'clock--this -is spring. Welcome mild salubrious breezes, come to thaw our frozen -joints! - -Early in the morning came a couple of our men tramping along with -another dog, light yellow, dirty, and loathsome. He was inhospitably -received by Takkar, who immediately gave him a sharp pinch in the neck, -and seemed to think that the new member of the caravan was quite -superfluous as long as he kept watch himself. - -Far in the north a solitary Tibetan appeared, and approached our camp. I -was sitting at breakfast, and was hoping that we should soon leave this -dangerous place. I went out and looked through the field-glass; the -stranger was making straight for our tents. Soon Abdul Kerim came and -said that it was Tsongpun Tashi himself. He stopped at some distance and -called to us to tie up our dogs, for Takkar had rushed at the old man, -who defended himself with stones. The men were purposely slow in -fastening up the dogs, in order to give me time to put the interior of -my tent in order. On such occasions my note-books and instruments were -crammed into a rice sack, which always stood ready. There was no other -furniture, for we had burned all European articles and boxes long -before. - -Meanwhile, Abdul Kerim conducted Tsongpun Tashi into his tent, which -stood close against mine, and I listened to their conversation at a -distance of little more than a yard. By degrees the talk became, to say -the least of it, lively. Tsongpun Tashi raised his voice more and more, -and Abdul Kerim was evidently in a serious dilemma. - -"Did you not promise to give me the black horse in exchange for butter? -Bring the horse immediately. If you do not keep your word, I will detain -the whole pack of you here. We do not let men that break their word -escape in Bongba. I thought yesterday that you were honest men, but now -I see what you are up to. Now I shall begin by searching your tents." - -With that he got up as angry as a wasp and went out. But Gulam, who was -always alert and never lost a word of a conversation, had let Takkar -loose again. As soon as Tsongpun Tashi showed himself at the tent door -the dog flew at him again. He backed, and Abdul seized the opportunity -to call out in a gruff voice: "Kutus, take Hajji Baba with you and go -and look for the lost horse." - -"What horse is that?" asked Tsongpun. - -"It is one of our horses which has run away up the mountain, and we -cannot set out till we have found him." - -"What colour is he?" asked Tsongpun with uncomfortable inquisitiveness. - -"Grey," replied Abdul Kerim, who had difficulty in concealing his -uneasiness, for it was he who had pledged the black steed without -knowing whether it was still in our possession. - -"Very well, I shall stay here till you have found the grey horse." - -During the minute this conversation lasted Tsongpun Tashi had walked -towards the opening of my tent, when Kutus came running up from the -other side, seized me by the collar, and whispered "Come." We hurried -off to a crag on the north-east, and so just escaped the clutches of -Tsongpun. - -"What man is that?" the old man asked, pointing at me, as I was making -off with clumsy waddling steps. - -"Hajji Baba, one of my servants," answered Abdul Kerim, without moving a -muscle. - -We did not look round as we went off to the point, and were glad when at -length we were hidden by a projecting rock. Then we scrambled up a -fissure whence we could see all around. Here we lay a weary time with -our hearts in our mouths, while Tsongpun Tashi waited for the runaway -horse, which had not run away at all, for all our animals stood ready -laden before our tents. But he must have lost patience. After Gaffar had -gone to the tent to try and get back the black horse, but met with a -refusal, for the horse had been fed with barley and was getting on -splendidly, Tsongpun Tashi seemed to make in that direction himself, -accompanied by Gaffar. But he changed his mind, for he turned back -half-way, and soon we saw him going to the fine tent of the soul-doctor, -which stood about 300 yards farther down the valley. He was attended by -one of our men, who helped him to carry the sacks in which the goods -acquired the previous day were packed. - -We remained quiet in our hiding-place of much-weathered green schist, -full of quartz veins, from which we could peep out without being seen. -We were supposed to be looking for the lost horse. But now the caravan -was ready, and began to move down the valley past the abbot's tent. -Tsongpun Tashi's errand had been to take farewell of the prelate, who -was setting out this day for Mendong-gompa, absolutely unknown in all -the maps in the world, and his yaks stood tethered and surrounded by a -troop of servants. Abdul Kerim was shrewd enough to send no messenger -after us, but leave us to take care of ourselves. And so we did when we -had had enough of the green schist--we could not lie still till -doomsday. But we had to pass the abbot's tent, and there sat Tsongpun -Tashi, unless he were among the men outside. We sneaked on. Kutus walked -next the tent to screen me. My disguise was perfect, and I had a black -face. We passed with some trepidation quite close to the tent; two -savage dogs rushed at us and we threw stones at them, thereby deranging -our order of march and making a change of front. Confounded dogs! We had -passed the tent, and, so far, had done well. But if Tsongpun Tashi -noticed us--and he could scarcely fail to do so, for the dogs barked so -furiously--he would certainly wonder in which direction the grey horse -had made off. If he had no suspicion of us he must be, beyond -comparison, the greatest ass that I had ever fallen in with. - -We made haste and soon overtook the others, and were lost among them. -The valley sloped down--a fortunate thing for me, as I had to travel on -foot where so many pitfalls surrounded me on all sides. Abdul Kerim rode -grandly on my horse at the head of the party. On the left were a -white-and-blue and a black tent with twenty yaks. Two men hurried up to -us, and Abdul Kerim met and spoke to them. We marched along the ice belt -of the brook, and passed five more tents, and, at all, the men came out -to look at us. I walked with the sheep farther from the tents than the -caravan. We passed twenty tents that day; it was a dangerous stretch of -country, and it was strange that we came through safely. - -A woman, carrying a load of wool on her back, overtook us. She was so -bold as to join herself to the caravan and ask to be allowed to put her -wool on one of the yaks. Never have I so heartily wished a woman at the -devil. Abdul Rasak took the woman in hand and offered to carry half her -load to her tent, and so they jogged along the road far ahead, and freed -us from her suspicious company. - -We took it for granted that she was a spy. When we encamped below a -sheepfold, there she was again, established herself inside the fold, -lighted a fire and fetched water. She must drink tea before she went on -homewards, she said; but fortunately she toddled off before dusk. - -I sat in the setting sun and noted down the varied incidents of the day. -I sat in the opening of my tent enjoying the soothing rustle of the -spring, when what should I see but Takkar himself, who came up to me -anxiously and humbly, made the most expressive gestures, put his head on -one side and began to paw my arm. I looked at him and he looked at me, -and at last we understood each other. - -"I could not know," he said, "that you were nice men when you tied me by -the neck to this horrible tent pole. I thought that you would tease and -torment and starve me, and throw stones and dirt at me, as the Tibetans -have done ever since I can remember. But I see that you are well -disposed towards me, and give me two good meals of mutton every day. I -know that you, in spite of your rags, are a bombo-chimbo, and that Abdul -Kerim is only a servant. Be at ease, I will not let any one come near -your tent; I will watch over you at night, I will never betray you, I -will follow you everywhere; you may trust in me. But now come and play -with me a little; take away this useless tent pole, and let us be no -longer strangers." - -His shrewd brown eyes showed plainly that this was what he meant to say, -word for word. I took his shaggy head in my arms and squeezed it. Then -he jumped up on me and began to dance and yelp with joy, and enticed me -out of my tent. Then I took hold of him again, untied the knots, and -released him from his pole, to the great astonishment of my men, who -were sitting in the open around a fire. No one had ever ventured so near -to Takkar, except Little Puppy, and without the slightest jealousy the -little cub joined in the game, which henceforth whiled away daily a -couple of hours of my weary captivity. - - - - -CHAPTER LXV - -BUPTSANG-TSANGPO, ONE OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE HEART OF TIBET - - -It was with a feeling of relief that we broke up our camp on March 30, -after we had succeeded in extricating ourselves from the net which had -so nearly held us fast in its meshes. Through here runs the so-called -Serpun-lam, or gold-inspectors' road, which extends through the interior -of Tibet from Lhasa to Tok-jalung, and is one of the greatest high-roads -of the country. We did not yet feel quite safe, but we had heard some -assuring news: Karma Puntso had taken a journey of several days -northwards to a place in Chang-tang where he owned large flocks of -sheep. Most of the nomads in Bongba had sent their sheep to the north, -where the grazing was much better. This was of great advantage to us, -for now only women, old men, and children remained in the tents of -Bongba, while most of the men were following the sheep. It was part of -the trial of my patience that I could not have the slightest dealings -with Tibetans, for I should have betrayed myself at once by my defective -utterance of the language. I never talked with them, but pulled the -strings of my marionettes from my place of concealment. - -The wild-geese had now commenced their migrations, and we constantly -heard their cries above our tents. On March 30 we found an excellent -path along the river in which we had caught fish just below Ladung-la. -The country was very open and flat, and we passed at some distance from -twelve tents. Near the last we pitched camp 368, and bought a black -horse. We had now four horses, of which one was a veteran from Ladak; -now I rode the first horse we had bought--a brown one. The last three -mules and the two yaks from the Tsong-tso were in good condition. When -we encamped near natives, Takkar was tied up outside the entrance to my -tent to keep off inquisitive visitors. He had been bred and reared among -Tibetans, and had never seen any other people in his life till lately, -and yet now he became mad with rage if he saw a Tibetan only at a -distance. I had often to pay various sums in rupees to those of his -two-legged fellow-countrymen whose unprotected legs he had bitten, and -he was never contented without a slight effusion of blood. - -We followed the river south-south-westwards for another day's journey to -camp 369, where some poor nomads were encamping by a sheet of snow. -Sha-kangsham's summit came into sight again, this time to the north, 30 deg. -E., rising like a gigantic beacon above the mountains. Five days' -journey to the west-north-west was pointed out the salt lake, -Tabie-tsaka, the position of which I had sought in vain to ascertain -from the _tasam_. In the afternoon when I sat outside to draw a -panorama, nomads were strolling and peering about, so that I had to post -watchmen. In the evening all around was pitch-dark: there was no moon, -only dense clouds. Our animals had disappeared, and as there was good -reason to fear wolves and horse-stealers, eight men were sent out to -look for them. They had revolvers, and fired a few shots to let any -possible disturbers of the peace know that we were armed. The animals -would not freeze, for the temperature fell in the night only to 18 deg., and -in the morning they had come back again all right. The only one missing -was the greyish-yellow dog; thinking, perhaps, that he had fallen into -bad company, he had gnawed through his rope and run home in the night to -his miserable tent. - -Now the path runs south-south-west up to the little easy pass Satsot-la -(15,932 feet), in red porphyry and with a way-mark. In the wide valley -in front of us lies the lake Chunit-tso, and on its farther side rises a -red mountain of regular form. We pass several _manis_, and on the right -hand a miniature lake called Chabuk-tso, where Tubges shot two -wild-geese. The honorary huntsman often supplied me with game; he was -called by his comrades simply Shyok, after his home, just as we call one -of our acquaintances Joenkoeping or Falsterbo. - -We crossed a great road running to the north-west; hundreds of yaks had -recently passed--no doubt a salt caravan on the way to Tabie-tsaka. Then -we passed a circular wall, where a solitary man came out and looked at -us, but retired behind the wall when he found that we would have nothing -to do with him. A fine _mani_ decorated with horns stood on a terrace, -and just below it we halted for the night by a sheet of ice produced by -springs. We had scarcely set up the tents when a caravan of several -hundred sheep, laden with salt, came along from the north-west. Only two -armed guides were with it; they had been to Tabie-tsaka, and were now -going home to Yangchut-tanga, twenty days' journey to the south-east. In -the same direction 400 yaks were grazing, which were said to belong to -the Gova of the district. In the evening we had a visit from a traveller -who was going home to his tent farther south. He promised to sell us -three sheep in the morning. Would he keep his word? - -Yes, certainly; he met us with the sheep next day as we were passing -along the western shore of the Chunit-tso (15,574 feet) southwards. At -the northern extremity of the lake a warm sulphurous spring burst forth. -We were told that if a man drinks of it he becomes ill, but if he mixes -the water with some from an adjacent cold spring he is cured of any -complaint he may suffer from. Sick sheep and goats are dipped in the -warm water and become well again at once. The spring is holy, and a -_mani_ heap is set up near it. The lake is slightly salt and frozen. Two -small brooks enter it from the mountains on the west; a third brook, -Lungnak-bupchu, formed a large sheet of ice, and in the mouth of its -valley stood a couple of tents, and their dogs came down on us like a -whirlwind, but received such a thrashing from Takkar that they showed -themselves no more that evening. - -April 3. We left the southern end of the lake behind us and ascended a -small valley leading up to the low pass Nima-lung-la, near which we -encamped in a barren spot between granite crags. An eagle-owl sat in a -cleft and at twilight uttered its shrill piercing cry. Lobsang said that -this bird was thought much of in Tibet, because it warns honest men of -thieves and robbers. When the eagle-owls sit and scream, robbers are -certain to be in the neighbourhood. - -On April 4 we had only half an hour's march to the threshold of the -Nima-lung-la (16,017 feet), from which there is a magnificent view over -the Trans-Himalaya--a series of dark rocks with black, snow-crowned -peaks. Between us and the range extended a wide, perfectly level plain, -full of pools, marshes, and rivulets. At one of them sat two Tibetans -cutting up a yak which had died. They confirmed the information we had -received before, that we were now in the district Bongba-kemar, a day's -journey from Bongba-kebyang, and that we must follow the river -Buptsang-tsangpo for several days upwards to reach Saka-dzong by the -pass Samye-la. I had still a very dim and indistinct notion of the -geographical configuration of this region. Was the range in front of us -to the south a continuation of Nien-chen-tang-la, which I had crossed at -the Sela-la, Chang-la-Pod-la, and Angden-la; or was it another range -disconnected from the former? During the following days we should obtain -an answer to this question. Should we be successful, and be able to -complete this exceedingly important meridional traverse through an -unknown part of Tibet? It would be more than provoking to be stopped -just at the northern foot of the Trans-Himalaya. - -Camp 374 was pitched below the opening of a valley where there were two -tents. The nomads warned us against the water in the pools of the plain: -our horses would lose their hair if they drank of it. "Snoring" Kunchuk -complained of toothache, but was cured at once by two resolute comrades. -The operation was performed with pincers properly intended for -horse-shoe nails. To get at the tooth better, they put a stone in the -patient's mouth. "Do not kill me," he shrieked when the tooth jumped -out. - -On April 5 we travelled altogether 101/4 miles to the south. The country -was perfectly barren, and the ground was entirely covered with red -porphyry detritus. A small spring surrounded by grass seemed to us quite -an oasis, and there we encamped near a sheepfold and a _mani_ heap. - -Another day's march and we came to the Buptsang-tsangpo, "the deeply -excavated river," and followed it to the south. The river is divided -into several arms, and already contained a deal of water, though for the -most part it was frozen. This valley is about 3 miles broad and has a -very gentle slope. The locality where we encamped after passing fourteen -tents was called Monlam-gongma (15,820 feet). Hence the river was said -to flow five days' journey to the north-north-west and pour into a large -lake, called the Tarok-tso. We might have attempted to make an excursion -in that direction, but it was more important to complete the meridional -line while the country was still open to us. Two huge snowy peaks which -the nomads here, as on the _tasam_, called Lunpo-gangri, or "the great -ice mountain," were said to lie to the right of the route we ought to -follow to Saka-dzong. This information was exceedingly puzzling, and I -saw that Lunpo-gangri with the summits triangulated by Ryder and Wood -could not be a prolongation of the mighty range I had crossed by three -passes, and which, farther east, bears the name Nien-chen-tang-la. - -After a vain attempt to get rid of our enfeebled yaks, we continued up -the great river along its right or eastern bank terrace. A south-westerly -storm which commenced some days before still continued. In the Amchung -country (camp 376) we had a neighbour called Kamba Dramdul, who could not -give much information, but what he said was of deep interest. We had -still some days' journey to the Samye-la--all up the Buptsang-tsangpo -valley, with _gangris_ or snowy heights on both the right and left sides. -On the pass we should be quite close to the peaks of Lunpo-gangri. I -already suspected that the great range we had on our left--that is, -towards the east--was a continuation of Nien-chen-tang-la, while -Lunpo-gangri was a quite independent chain without the least connection -with the former. - -The eastern range increased in magnitude on the following day's march, -and among its dark ramifications rose some rather flat summits capped -with eternal snow. We kept for the most part to the top of the terrace -on the right bank, which was 50 to 65 feet above the river, and fell -steeply to the even valley bottom where the stream meandered. Here the -valley was about 2 miles broad. The ice mantle of the river became wider -and thicker the higher we mounted, but the rise was very gradual. From -camp 377 the culminating peak of Lunpo-gangri lay south, 23 deg. E. Every -day's journey we accomplished without adventures strengthened our -position. The nomads must think: If these men travel right through the -whole of Bongba without being stopped, they cannot be impostors. - -On April 10 we travelled 81/2 miles up the Buptsang-tsangpo, and we were -astonished to find so voluminous a river up on the isolated plateau -country. On its banks ducks and geese cackled in large numbers. Tubges -shot several of them; it was a sin to disturb their dreams of spring and -love. No human being was seen this day. I had a feeling of repose when -we could see no black tents, and for the sake of peace I would readily -abstain from sour milk. The view to the south-south-east was -magnificent; the peaks of Lunpo-gangri stood out against the pure blue -sky in dazzling white, with shades of light blue indicating ice. On the -east also of our route appeared a whole world of mountains. Most -unexpectedly the summits of Lunpo-gangri have a much grander and more -imposing appearance from the northern side, towards the plateau country, -than from the south side, the valley of the Brahmaputra, most probably -because on the southern side they are too near. Up in the north we saw -them at all distances, and for several days we had them right in front -of us. - -[Illustration: 319, 320, 321. THE SUMMITS OF LUNPO-GANGRI FROM CAMPS -379, 381, AND 383. - - From Water-Colours by the Author.] - -In the night of April 11 the temperature sank to -1.7 deg., and on the -preceding nights to 3.7 deg., 13.5 deg., and 17.2 deg.. The cold increased as we -mounted higher. We came to an expansion in the valley where three -glacier streams unite to form the Buptsang-tsangpo, just as in the case -of the Brahmaputra, and also on the northern flank of one of the -world's mightiest mountain systems. Our camp 379 (16,112 feet) was -pitched close to the river in Bupyung-ring. The eastern headwater comes -partly from the Samye-la, partly from mountains adjoining on the -south-west. The middle one descends from a massive called Yallak-mallak, -and the western from Chomo-gangri; south-east of this mountain is -Lunpo-gangri, which is drained to the sea, both from its northern and -its southern flank (Illusts. 319, 320, 321). - -Bupyung-ring is one of the finest and most beautiful regions I have seen -in Tibet. The flat wide valley, surrounded by mountains with ice and -snow, is clothed with abundant grass and traversed by numerous -water-courses. Everywhere are seen traces of camping-places. At the time -we passed through only a few tent villages remained, but the valley is -full of life in summer when the nomads come down from the north. When -the melting of the snows properly sets in during summer, and afterwards -in the rainy season, the Buptsang-tsangpo swells up so tremendously that -the river cannot be crossed for three months, and communication between -the banks is interrupted. From its source to its outlet in the Tarok-tso -the river is probably nearly 100 miles long, and is possibly the largest -river in Tibet which does not flow to the sea. The only rivers that can -vie with it are the Sachu-tsangpo, which flows into the Zilling-tso, and -the Soma-tsangpo, which falls into the Teri-nam-tso. The Sachu-tsangpo -was far larger than the Buptsang when I crossed it in the rainy season -in 1901. But the Buptsang is also a large river in spring, and in the -rainy season must swell as much as the Sachu. The Buptsang-tsangpo has -hitherto been unknown to Europeans, but we find the Tarok-tso on -D'Anville's map, and a river entering the lake from the south, which no -doubt is identical with the Buptsang-tsangpo. The Jesuits who resided in -Pekin two hundred years ago, and were ordered by the Emperor Kang Hi to -compile a map of the whole Chinese Empire, procured information even -about this remote region from Chinese and Tibetan sources. - -During the past days our two yaks had become so wearied and footsore -that we had to get rid of them at any price. We therefore stayed a day -in Bupyung and bartered them for nine sheep, which took over the loads -of the yaks. Now we had again thirty-one sheep and some goats. - -On the 13th we came to the foot of the mountain where commenced the -actual steep ascent to the pass itself. Here were four tents inhabited -exclusively by women and children. The men had gone a couple of days -before to Gova Tsepten's tent. It is incumbent on this chief to collect -a certain number of men and yaks, which for about three months are -posted on the _tasam_ ready to transport goods on behalf of the -Devashung without compensation. This is a kind of _corvee_ which is -exacted not only all along the road between Lhasa and Ladak, but on all -other great high-roads in Tibet. Naturally this injudicious system is a -great annoyance to the nomads, who have to leave their flocks in the -meantime to the care of women and children. If any one wishes to escape -this compulsory service he must supply a substitute, pay him, and -furnish him with yaks and provisions. The year before, when we travelled -with hired horses from Shigatse, the poor nomads served us, but we -always paid them honourably and gave them handsome gratuities as well. - -After a night temperature of -0.8 deg. we rode up to the pass on the 14th, -over and between hills and across the brook which brings its tribute -from the Samye-la to the Buptsang-tsangpo. Solid rock could not be -found, but all the detritus and boulders were of grey granite; seldom -was a piece of porphyry noticed. The usual observations were made on the -pass, and the boiling-point thermometer was read off. The view of -Lunpo-gangri was grander than ever, now that its peaks were quite near. -The distinctly marked valley of the Buptsang-tsangpo disappeared in the -distance to the north-north-west, while to the south-east nothing could -be seen but a flat saddle, whence I concluded that we were not yet on -the actual water-parting pass. We had not followed the track of the -caravan far, before we saw a brook coming from the south-east, which -also belonged to the Buptsang-tsangpo. On its bank, where we also -halted, was encamped a caravan of 8 men and 350 yaks, which was carrying -salt to Saka-dzong, six days' march farther. These men could not -understand why we, merchants from Ladak, chose such a way, and asked how -we found it out. They were treated to the usual story about the -wool-trade in summer, and they regretted that they could not serve us -with their yaks, as they were called out for Government transport on the -great high-roads. Now we wondered whether they would let the Governor of -Saka-dzong know that they had met with a party of Ladakis on byways, and -if this news would injure us. Perhaps, after all, it would be best to -avoid Saka-dzong altogether. - -On April 15 it was our chief desire to get in advance of the yak -caravan. Before they had begun to load up their animals I started off -with the sheep, and came in good time to the summit of the Samye-la with -its streamer-decked poles. Though we were all the way in sight of the -yak-men's camp, I must, at any cost, determine the height of the pass, -and the distance was so great that they could not see what we were -doing. After boiling the thermometer, whence we obtained a height of -18,133 feet, I also drew a panorama. To the south and south-east was a -world of mountains belonging to the Lunpo-gangri range, which lay to the -south, and to Nien-chen-tang-la on the north. We were therefore standing -on the actual watershed between two gigantic ranges, which are both -members of the Trans-Himalayan family. And this pass, the Samye-la, -occupies the highest and most important rank from a hydrographic and -orographical point of view that any pass in Asia can lay claim to, for -it is a divide between the isolated drainage area of the plateau on the -north and the boundless ocean, on the south. It ranks, then, with the -Sela-la, Chang-la-Pod-la, and Angden-la, and is much more important than -the Tseti-lachen-la, which is only a watershed between the Sutlej and -the Indus, and than the Jukti-la, which parts the waters between the two -arms of the Indus. At the Samye-la I attained my chief desire, to cross -the Trans-Himalaya between the Tseti-lachen-la and the Ang-den-la, and -gain another point on the immense boundary line on the north of the -basins of the great Indian rivers, and I succeeded in proving the -unbroken continuance of the Trans-Himalaya for 118 miles west of -Angden-la. A most extraordinarily interesting discovery also was that -the Angden-la and the Samye-la, though of exactly the same value as -watersheds, do not lie on the same chain. The Angden-la is situated on -the western prolongation of the chain which stands on the southern shore -of Tengri-nor and is known by the name of Nien-chen-tang-la, but the -Samye-la lies in a longitudinal valley between this chain and -Lunpo-gangri. Accordingly, I could strike out once and for all the -continuous mountain range which Hodgson and Saunders constructed at -their writing-table, and represented as running north of the upper -Brahmaputra. Here also I considered what name I should give to the -colossal mountain system which runs in the north parallel to the -Himalayas. The name Lunpo-gangri had at least as much claim as -Nien-chen-tang-la, but both were unsuitable, as they only denoted -certain ranges in a whole system, and therefore had only local -significance. Then it came to me like a flash--Trans-Himalaya is the -name which I will attach to this gigantic mountain system. - -While I sat and pondered over the great idea which had come to me this -day without any merit of my own, I was recalled to the business of the -moment by Lobsang, who informed me that the yaks were moving in a black -line up to the pass. Then we got up and went on foot down the slopes -bestrewn with troublesome rubbish and granite boulders. Soon trickling -rivulets collected into a small brook. I regarded with pleasure this -little stream leaping among the stones, and listened to its purling -song. It was the old melody, and we had recently heard it from the -brooks of the Buptsang-tsangpo. And yet I seemed to hear an undertone of -another kind, a sound in the water which suggested a new aim. The -Buptsang-tsangpo is doomed to final annihilation in the Tarok-tso and -Tabie-tsaka, where the water is evaporated and dispersed to the four -winds of heaven. But the brook we now followed debouches into the -Chaktak-tsangpo and Brahmaputra, and its destiny is the Indian Ocean, -over which runs the way to my home. - -We had just set up our tents before the yaks came tramping up in close -order, followed by their whistling and singing drivers. They went round, -not to come too near us. Were they afraid of us or were they suspicious? -Were they a cloud, no larger than a man's hand, from which, in due time, -a destructive tornado was to burst over our little band, which now for -the second time crossed the forbidden land without leave? - - - - -CHAPTER LXVI - -IN THE ROBBERS' PARADISE - - -In former times the glacier tongues of Lunpo-gangri ran down into the -valley, and traces of them were very conspicuous as we descended to -lower country on April 16. The valley is quite full of old moraines, -consisting exclusively of granite, and some of them are superficially -concealed under fine matter and moss. We passed the large yak caravan -again, which was encamping after a very short march. Evidently the men -intended to stay over the next day, for the loads were taken off the -yaks and piled up. When they mean to set out again the next day they -leave the loads on the yaks, for they think it too much trouble to load -and unload 350 yaks for a single night. They might stay for us as long -as they liked; we should get in advance and pass by Saka-dzong before we -were denounced. But no, it would be wiser to avoid Saka-dzong -altogether; not to escape the sight of Muhamed Isa's grave, but not to -needlessly expose ourselves to suspicion. It was perfectly evident that -the authorities would wonder why a small party of Ladakis went along -byways instead of following the great _tasam_, and they would hold an -inquiry over us. - -[Illustration: 322. WRESTLING. 323. TWO GUIDES. 324. BOY WITH HAT. 325. -SHEPHERD BOY. - -(INHABITANTS OF THE PROVINCE OF BONGBA.) - - Sketches by the Author.] - -After the moraines came to an end we traversed a more open expansion of -the valley, with luxuriant grass and millions of detestable mouse-holes. -We were right glad when Takkar pinched the necks of one or two of these -obnoxious rodents. Tubges supplied me with partridges, and one of our -goats yielded me a drop of milk. From camp 383 Lunpo-gangri's summits -are seen foreshortened, and one of them is as small as an umbrella. -Several peaks are seen to the east-south-east, the continuation of the -range, and it is not difficult to infer that Chomo-uchong, the isolated -mountain beside the _tasam_, lies in the eastern prolongation of -Lunpo-gangri. I took bearings of the higher summits in the neighbourhood -from every camp, and shall hereafter make known the results. - -The other men make the "Snorer's" life miserable. At eight o'clock he -crawls into his lair beside the sheep, and immediately begins his -wood-sawing. Some one yells at him, and he wakes up and makes some witty -remark, which makes the men laugh, and he never loses his temper. In two -minutes he is asleep again and sawing as hard as ever, and is roused by -another shout. Only when the others have fallen asleep is he left in -peace, and can saw as hard as he likes. - -Little Puppy behaves splendidly, is lively, playful, and affectionate. -At night he sleeps on the rugs at my feet and helps Takkar to keep -watch. They are my companions, and it will be hard to part from them. - -April 17. 0.7 deg.. How long this winter has been! Now Lobsang has come to -the conclusion that the yak drivers will not denounce us, for fear lest -they should be called to account for not spying upon us better. We -continue our way down the valley. How delightful only to go for some -days to lower country. In some places we see summer camping-grounds; now -the country is desolate and deserted. - -The river carries down about 70 cubic feet of clear water per second; it -has open water only in the middle, and elsewhere is covered with margins -of ice 2 feet thick, and icicles hang from their edges. On the banks, -field-mice dart about between their holes. The valley contracts and the -river often skirts steep cliffs of schist. Most of the tributaries, and -the largest of them, come from the chain which is the immediate -continuation of Nien-chen-tang-la. The ice becomes thicker the more the -valley contracts and the longer it is in shadow. We often cross it from -one bank to the other, where it forms a bridge. Stags' horns are set up -on a _mani_ heap; where do they come from? This valley runs between the -two ranges like the Buptsang-tsangpo. On this day we never see a man or -a tent. - -In the evening a night owl again sat screeching above the camp, and the -Ladakis were convinced that it meant to warn us against robbers. If -these knew that a European with European weapons was in the caravan they -would not attack it; but we were only Ladakis, and the Tibetans despise -Ladakis and look upon them as cowards. - -On the 18th we travelled southwards to the place (15,407 feet) where our -valley enters the Rukyok valley, running down from the west-north-west, -at the bottom of which some of the Lunpo-gangri summits were again -visible. Still no men were to be seen, only numerous summer -camping-places. Two horsemen rode past our camp on the other, right, -side of the valley. What did they want? Were they spies? We had every -reason to suspect a spy in every human being. No; they were kiang -hunters from Gertse, who had left their home and were seeking new -dwellings in another province, because of some unpleasantness with the -Gertse Pun, the potentate whom we were carefully making away from. They -informed us that we were a day's journey from Pasa-guk, where I had -encamped the year before, and three short marches from Saka-dzong. It -was hazardous to pass so near a governor's residence. Abdul Kerim bought -one of the riders' horses for 100 rupees. - -This day I put on for the first time a new Ladaki costume. The other was -too warm, and, being red, was conspicuous among the others. The new coat -was made of worn, tattered sackcloth, and was stained with ashes and -soot. In this I looked just like the other men. Now I painted my face -regularly every day, and he must be a very smart fellow who could find -out that I was not a genuine Ladaki. We had hitherto got on remarkably -well, and had only a day's journey to a place where I had been the year -before. But the nervous tension increased more and more, and I wondered -every morning what surprises the new day had in store for us. - -[Illustration: 326. SONAM NGURBU, CHIEF OF THE CHOKCHU PROVINCE. 327. -DORCHE TSUEN, GOVERNOR OF THE SAKA PROVINCE. 328. MAN WITH A SINGULAR -CAP, IN SONAM NGURBU'S ESCORT. 329. TAGLA TSERING, THE CHIEF WHO REFUSED -TO LET ME GO TO THE DANGRA-YUM-TSO. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -April 19. As we were starting, two men passed on foot, driving before -them 200 sheep laden with salt. Our way was the same as theirs and we -had to pass them. While I drove our own sheep down the road, Abdul Kerim -stopped and talked with the men, to draw off their attention; but we -could see that they were interested in our strange party, and looked -closely at us. I limped, thinking that the Tibetans had never seen a -lame European, if they had seen any European at all. But the people had -seen me in Pasa-guk and Saka-dzong the year before, and then I did not -halt. I had come off well from our troublesome neighbours and also past -the large yak caravan, which a couple of days ago had turned off another -way but had now come into ours again. We met a large sheep caravan with -a mounted party; a woman was said to be the wife of the Gova of Rukyok. -The people we had just met were not so dangerous as those that followed. - -We left the Rukyok river farther and farther to the right, and directly -to the south appeared quite close the lofty summit which rises above -Pasa-guk. We had left the salt-laden sheep and the yaks behind us, and -we came at length to the bank of our old friend the Chaktak-tsangpo, -which was considerably smaller than at the end of May and beginning of -June the year before. Here we left the high-road to the south, and -marched northwards along the Chaktak-tsangpo's right, or western bank, -where we soon encamped on a meadow (15,203 feet). - -When Abdul Kerim came back he was very solemn. He had had great -difficulty in answering questions why we followed a byway along the -Chaktak-tsangpo instead of taking the highway to Saka-dzong as all other -travellers did. He had replied that we were sent to find out how much -sheep's wool would be for sale in the country next summer. Then the men -of the salt caravan had said: "You cannot be afraid of robbers; they -frequent the mountains up here. Are you well armed?" - -"Yes, we have two guns and some revolvers." - -"You will want them. We see that you are peaceful people, so we warn -you. Six days ago a robber band, eighteen men strong, each with his -horse and gun, attacked a tent village here in the neighbourhood. They -pillaged 3 tents, took 400 sheep and about 200 yaks, and made off by -the road you intend to follow. Men were collected and sent after them, -but two were killed and the others ran away. No one knows where the band -is now. If you value your lives, keep a sharp watch at night. If they -attack you, let them plunder you; you are only thirteen, and cannot -defend yourselves." - -This was why Abdul Kerim looked so anxious, and it was not to be -wondered at. Now we also ran the risk of a night attack, as if it were -not trying enough to travel in disguise by byways through the forbidden -land. As long as there was daylight the animals were allowed to wander -about and graze, but at dusk they were driven up near to the tents. In -the evening the men could talk of nothing but robbers. Lobsang, who was -a Tibetan himself, took the matter quietly. He said that there were -organized bands of as many as a hundred men with a chief at their head, -who ordered where raids should be made. But at this season of the year -they sat round their fires and tried to look innocent. In his opinion -the air must be warmer before they would move. If a robber was caught in -the neighbourhood of Gartok, his head and one arm must be sent as a -proof to Lhasa, he added. In the principal towns punishment is very -severe. For theft an eye is taken out and a hand cut off. A Gova or -other magistrate who catches a robber receives a reward or promotion, -but one who neglects his duty is punished. We heard that the district -near Geddo by the upper Raga-tsangpo is notorious as a regular nest of -robbers, and is visited by professional freebooters from Nakchu. - -In the twilight the Mohammedans among my Ladakis sang the same melodious -hymn I had first heard at Kizil-unkur. "Allahu ekber" echoed among the -rocky cliffs; "and it is very effective in protecting true believers -against the wiles of the heathen." They had all at once become deeply -religious again in the robbers' paradise. "Allahu ekber," God is great. - -The night passed peacefully, and early the next morning it was reported -that five horsemen were approaching our tents from the north. The -field-glass reduced them to two men, a woman, and some yaks. They made a -circuit as though they were afraid of us, but Abdul Kerim hailed them -to get information about the road. Then we marched on directly eastwards -along the northern bank of the Chaktak-tsangpo. The ascent was very -gradual, the valley fairly broad and with abundant pasture. No tent was -seen, but summer camps were numerous. A cairn marks the place where the -Chaktak-tsangpo, coming from the north, 10 deg. W., unites with its -tributary the Gebuk-chu from the east. To the north-north-east rise two -snowy peaks of medium height with small glaciers. It was evident that -the Chaktak-tsangpo flows from the country to the north of them, for the -deeply excavated transverse valley of the river could be clearly traced. -The main river may carry down about 250 cubic feet in a second, and the -affluent about 70. In this district the river is called Kamchung-chu; -the name Chaktak-tsangpo (Charta-tsangpo, as it is incorrectly called by -Nain Sing) is not applied to it above Pasa-guk. We encamped in the angle -between the two rivers near a meadow where three horses were feeding. -Their owners, who were bivouacking behind a projection near at hand, -were from Rukyok and had lost many of their sheep in winter from -disease, and had been to a warm spring to dip and save the remainder. We -were here about due north of Saka-dzong and about two days' journey from -it. But between us and the Governor's residence rose a ridge which is a -link in the chain of Lunpo-gangri. In the evening and at night our -watchmen fired, as usual, some revolver shots, to inform any chance -robbers that we were on our guard. - -April 21. As the tents were being taken down, our neighbours went by -with 200 sheep. I turned my back to them and busied myself with loading -a mule. Then I travelled with the sheep, for there were several more -tents farther up, and I could not ride till we came to an uninhabited -part of the valley. Several side valleys opened on the left, and at -their ends could sometimes be seen a part of the main crest. We know -absolutely nothing of the country to the north of it, but that it cannot -be the watershed between the plateau and the sea is evident, and was -shown by the Kamchung transverse valley. - -After crossing the river twice over bridges of porous ice we encamped -near a sheepfold where dry dung was plentiful. The last nomads had told -us that next day we should come to a large tent, the property of an -influential old man named Kamba Tsenam, who owned 1000 yaks and 5000 -sheep. He would evidently be our next difficulty, and if we slipped past -him the country would be open to us as far as Raga-tasam. We are -satisfied when, as on this day, we have again gained nearly 9 miles -without being interfered with; but how shall we fare to-morrow?--this is -the standing question we ask ourselves every evening. It is certainly an -advantage to travel along out-of-the-way paths where we escape notice, -but if any sharp gova or governor hears us spoken of, he cannot help -being suspicious of our strange proceedings, and institute a close -inquiry. Now the salt caravan which we passed has already arrived at -Saka-dzong; we are, indeed, to the east of that place, but we travel so -slowly that we can never escape pursuit. Our excitement grows daily. I -am tired and weary of this self-imposed confinement, and long for it to -come to an end. What shall we do then? That I know not. We have -penetrated so far that a crisis must come. I have managed to travel -through Bongba, but my plans for the immediate future are very -indefinite and depend on circumstances. We will get on as far as we can. - -April 22 was a day when we knew that the definite crisis was coming very -much nearer. Abdul Kerim, Kunchuk, and Gaffar set out first to pay a -visit to Kamba Tsenam and keep his attention riveted on the sale of food -and horses. We followed after, and crossed the river twice on cracking -bridges of ice, kept along the northern bank, and passed a side valley, -at the mouth of which stood three tents, where our men were in the midst -of a group of Tibetans who were showing their horses. Gulam had warned -me in time, so I dismounted and went and looked after our last mules. As -soon as we were concealed by a bank terrace I could ride again. The -pleasure did not last long, for at the next side valley on the north I -had to dismount again before another tent, where a pack of savage dogs -were encountered by Takkar and Little Puppy, who, save the mark, would -help to defend us, but received a nip in the neck and had to be rescued. -Here we lost Kutus and Tubges, who remained at the tent, while our -diminished party continued on its way eastwards. - -At a spur on the northern side of the valley a couple of elegant _mani_ -heaps were erected, and by one of them a streamer pole was set up. It -had snowed thickly ever since eight o'clock, but the valley was so -narrow that we could not pass all the tents unseen. Just at the -projecting point a large valley ran in from the north: we only guessed -at it, for everything was hidden in the snowstorm. Gulam went a little -way ahead and gave me the sign to dismount. Immediately in front of the -point stood four tents and a small stone cabin, where a man stood -watching us, and also a chief's tent of such huge dimensions that I -never saw its like; it was as large as a house. Here we left Lobsang and -Abdul Rasak, and went on eastwards with a much diminished party. The -chief volume of the Gebuk-chu comes from the northern valley; in our -valley, which we knew led to the Gebuk-la, only a brook was left. We set -up our tents on the terrace at the mouth of a northern side valley. All -the country was white, and not a shadow could be seen of the -surroundings. - -Our three tents stood as usual close together, mine with its opening up -the valley, that is, eastwards. After a while the men left behind came -up and gave their reports in turn. They had bought provisions for two -days, and had learned that the district was called Gebuk-yung. The next -day we should go over the Gebuk-la and encamp at the foot of the -Kinchen-la, from the top of which we should see Raga-tasam the following -day. Of course it was risky for three parties of our men to visit three -tents near together, for the Tibetans always asked about the routes we -had followed and our plans, and our men might in their haste give -discordant answers. In the large tent Lobsang had been cross-examined, -and had answered that we came from the Gertse Pun, who had advised us to -take this byroad because we should reach Raga-tasam two days sooner -than if we went through Saka-dzong. "Quite true," the Tibetans answered, -but also warned us against robbers, for thirteen Ladakis would be but a -mouthful for an ordinary robber band, and the country was very unsafe. -"It is well for you that you have good weapons," they said. - -Lastly, Abdul Kerim turned up with his purchases. He had learned that -all the tents we had seen in the day belonged to Kamba Tsenam, who lived -himself in the largest, but he happened to be in Saka-dzong, where an -assembly had been convened in anticipation of an impending visit from a -high Chinese official, and the question what present should be made to -him had to be decided. Kamba Tsenam owned thirty-five horses, which were -grazing beyond Gebuk-la, and if the rich nomad returned in the evening -we should certainly be able to buy some from him. - -"You say," declared an elderly man in Kamba Tsenam's service, "that you -are a _tsongpun_ (merchant) from Ladak. Why then do you travel by this -dangerous side route? Here you can drive no trade. How have you found -the way? Why have you travelled in winter? Why do you ask the names of -the valleys?" - -"I have to write down all the names," he answered, "that we may find the -way again in summer, for I am commissioned to make large purchases of -wool." - -"That is well, you shall have several hundred bales of sheep's wool from -us. I will give you a guide in the morning; you will pay him a rupee for -two days. Without him you cannot find your way over the Gebuk-la, -especially when the ground is covered with snow." - -[Illustration: 330. TRAVELLING LADAKI MERCHANT IN WEST TIBET. 331. OANG -GYE, SON OF THE GOVERNOR OF SAKA. 332. PANCHOR, THE YAK-SLAYER, MY GUIDE -ON THE JOURNEY TO THE TERI-NAM-TSO. 333. WOMAN OF YUMBA-MATSEN. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Abdul Kerim had thanked him for his kindness and then had come to look -for us. We were sitting and deliberating when two riders armed with guns -came up to our tents. They were close upon us when they appeared out of -the snowstorm. We just managed to close my tent and fasten up Takkar -before the entrance. The elder man was Abdul Kerim's friend from the -large tent, the other the youth who was offered to us as a guide. They -tied up their horses and went nonchalantly into Abdul Kerim's tent. Here -they sat and gossiped for an hour, and offered a large handsome white -horse for sale at the price of 127 rupees. Abdul Kerim bought it, -whereupon they asked how much money he had with him, and whether he was -not afraid of being attacked. Afterwards they went about the tents and -looked around, and I drew a breath of relief when they at last vanished -in the snow with the other horse. - -Now we considered the situation. To refuse the guide would seem -extremely suspicious, for the snow already lay a foot deep, and the -path--all we had to depend on--was covered up. But to have a stranger, a -spy, in the caravan for two days and a night was still more dangerous. -When Kutus and Sedik went back a little later to the large tent to fetch -a bowl of sour milk, they were told to say that our _tsongpun_ did not -want a guide, for we should remain quiet a day, either here or at the -next camp. "Your _tsongpun_ speaks with two tongues, he does not know -what he wants," the men answered. - -We left this dangerous place on April 23 before the sun was up, and I -went first with the sheep in case our neighbours paid a morning visit. -The weather cleared and the sun came out, and then the snow quickly -evaporated. Farther up all the valley floor was covered with a -continuous sheet of ice. In front of us was seen the pass Gebuk-la. Here -a little old man was following ten mares. He pretended not to see us, -but he was soon overtaken by Abdul Kerim and Kunchuk, who kept him -company most of the day. With Lobsang I rested half an hour on the pass, -at a height of 16,978 feet. To the east and south-east of us lay an -entanglement of mountains and valleys, and without the horse-tender we -had so fortunately found it would have been quite impossible to find our -way over the succession of small saddles which followed. To the -south-south-east the snowy massive of Chomo-uchong rose in radiant -sunshine; to the north was a huge crest, which I, like Ryder, took for -the main range of the Trans-Himalaya and the watershed, but this turned -out afterwards to be a mistake. - -The horse-driver took us up a secondary saddle, at the eastern foot of -which runs a deeply eroded valley, which, coming from the north, 10 deg. E., -is the upper section of the valley we followed last year, and which -runs down to Basang, where I saw Muhamed Isa for the last time among the -number of the living. Here was the driver's tent, and to escape his -company during the night we continued our march after the stranger had -given us instructions about the way. Our camp 390 was situated in the -mouth of a small valley on the ascent to the Kinchen-la, where we were -overwhelmed in a terribly dense and violent snowstorm. - -The guide, who had so fortunately appeared at the right moment, had said -in the presence of our men that he was Kamba Tsenam's brother and a -great yak-slayer. The year before he had seen in Saka-dzong a European -whose caravan leader, a big strong fellow, had inspired respect wherever -he showed himself. But he had died suddenly in Saka, and his comrades -had digged a long hole in the ground where they had laid him. He thought -it strange that Ladakis, who were of the same faith as the Tibetans, -would travel with and serve the hated Europeans. - -For the future we determined to observe yet greater caution. Two or -three Ladakis should always wear dark eye-glasses, so that mine might -not seem so peculiar. As soon as we could buy woollen material all the -men should have new clothes, so that I in my rags would seem the poorest -and meanest of the party. - - - - -CHAPTER LXVII - -APRIL 24 - - -In these days our life was dismal and lonesome, and our future -uncertain. We went as in the dark, feeling with our hands lest we should -fall. Every day which passed without any untoward event came upon me as -a complete surprise. We had now only two days' journey to Raga-tasam on -the great highway, where caravans and travellers fare to and fro, and -Government officials are responsible that no unauthorized person slips -past. I was thoroughly sick of my disguise and the constant uncertainty, -and longed for a crisis to free me from my embarrassment. But to deliver -ourselves, of our own free will, into the hands of the Tibetans was out -of the question. They must detect us themselves, and till then the -strain on our nerves must continue. - -April 24--the anniversary of the _Vega's_ return to Stockholm in 1880! -At sunrise the whole country lay under a bright wintry shroud of white -snow. The thermometer had fallen to 21/2 deg., but when the sun mounted up the -horses steamed, and light clouds of vapour rose up from the snow, so -that we might have been riding through a land of sol-fataras and -fumaroles. Our caravan animals struggled bravely up the tough ascent. Of -sheep we had only twenty left, and two of them were veterans from -Lumbur-ringmo-tso. Twice we thought that the pass, Kinchen-la, was just -before us, but new heights rose farther back, and we worked our way up -hills, among which brooks run down towards Basang and Saka-dzong, where -Muhamed Isa sleeps in his mound. To the south-west Chomo-uchong's -summits presented a grand sight. At length we made the last ascent up -to the top of the pass, where the height is 17,851 feet above sea-level. -At the other side a river runs north-east, one of the headwaters of the -Raga-tsangpo. To the west there is a brilliant spectacle, the summits of -Lunpo-gangri rising in sharp and savage beauty from a maze of mountains -and ridges, which shine in lighter bluer shades the more remote they -are. To the north-east we catch a glimpse of an outlying ridge covered -from foot to crest with new-fallen snow. The broad flat valley of the -Raga-tsangpo stretches eastwards as far as the eye can see. In the far -distance to the east-south-east a grand snowy crest shines forth, the -northernmost of the Himalayan system (Illust. 199). - -We stayed a long time at the top, and I sketched a panorama. Then we -followed the track of the caravan over the lower shoulders of two -mountains, and found our camp pitched in a valley with good grass and a -brook partially frozen. My tent looked towards its bank, and all three -stood as usual in a line. This day also had passed satisfactorily, but -all would be different next day, for then we should come to Raga-tasam, -where we encamped last year and stayed a week. Camp 391 was, then, the -last where we could still feel at ease, for we had seen no living being -all day long, and had no neighbours. Here, then, we must arrange some -fresh safeguards. - -We must sort out from our already scanty baggage all articles that might -excite suspicion, as, for example, the small padded leather box in which -the theodolite was packed; for the future it would be rolled with its -inner wooden case in my bed. Further, the hypsometer's leather case and -the actinometer, which probably would never be used again. Whatever was -combustible was to be thrown into the fire and the rest buried. A couple -of rugs of camel's wool were also to be discarded. - -[Illustration: 334. TIBETANS WITH YAKS.] - -[Illustration: 335. DORCHE TSUEN ON THE MARCH.] - -To begin with, we must make a change in our housing arrangements. I was -to sleep for the last time in my old weather-beaten tent, where our -chief, Abdul Kerim, was henceforth to set up his quarters and receive -guests. For me a compartment of about 2 square yards, not larger than -my bed, was partitioned off in Abdul Kerim's tent. This crib, which, -when the camp was set up, was enclosed on all sides, was henceforth to -be my prison cell. It was like a secret drawer in a bureau, and when it -was ready I inspected it and found it somewhat narrow but comfortable. - -Suen was my hairdresser, and he had just completed his business when -Abdul Kerim looked in at the tent opening and whispered that four men -with yaks were coming up the valley on the road we had to go down from -the Kinchen-la. I hurriedly set my disguise in order and wound the -turban round my head, while the flap was fastened, and Takkar was tied -up before my tent. Then I looked through the peephole in the tent canvas -on the side towards the upper end of the valley, and saw eight men on -foot in dark-blue and red dresses, with red scarves round their heads, -all armed with guns and swords, and leading nine horses; one man led two -laden horses. What in the world did this mean? They were not robbers, -for they came suddenly and at night. They seemed rather men in -Government service; the two in front were certainly officials. My men -occupied themselves at their fire; I could see that they were a prey to -the greatest uneasiness. - -The strangers came straight to our camp-fire as if it were the end of -their journey. They formed a circle round Abdul Kerim, Lobsang, Kutus, -and Gulam, and began an animated but subdued conversation. Three of -them, evidently servants, led the horses to a spot barely thirty paces -from my tent and right in front of it. There they took off all the -saddles and loads, sent off the horses to graze, brought out pots and -cans, arranged three stones in order, collected fuel, made a fire, -fetched water in a large pot and cooked tea. It was plain that they -intended to camp here for the night, and that they had intruded on us -for the purpose of watching us. - -The other five entered Abdul Kerim's tent, threw themselves down, and -continued the conversation in the same low quiet voice and in thoroughly -polite and measured tones. I could not catch what they said, but that -the affair was serious I could only too plainly perceive, for I heard my -name mentioned--Hedin Sahib. After a good hour's conversation they went -out again and made a tour round my tent, but the furious Takkar would -not let them approach the door. But they discovered the peephole in the -side of the tent, and a man put his finger in and looked through the -hole, but I was lying against the folds of the tent on the same side, so -he could not see me. Then they went and threw themselves down in a -circle round the fire, brought out their wooden cups and drank tea. They -sat right in front of the entrance to my tent, and I could not get out -without being seen. - -Then Abdul Kerim whispered from the back of my tent and inside his own, -and told me what the men had said. The leader, a stoutish young man of -good appearance, had put the usual questions and received the usual -answers. Then he had uttered the following words in a serious and -decided tone: - -"News of your arrival has come to the Governor of Saka-dzong through two -salt caravans which passed your party above Pasa-guk. As it has never -occurred that a merchant from Ladak has come from the north and has -travelled on the byway through Gebuk, the Governor and the other -authorities in Saka suspected that Hedin Sahib might be concealed among -you, and the more so because he himself expressed his wish last year to -come back again and travel through the mountainous regions in the north. -Therefore my comrades and I received orders to follow your trail, -overtake you, and subject you to the most searching examination. We are -in no hurry, and in the morning we shall get several yak-loads of -provisions. You protest that Hedin Sahib is not among you disguised as a -Ladaki. Well, it may be that you are telling the truth. But remember, -_tsongpun_, that we shall carry out our orders to the letter. You are -thirteen men from Ladak, you say, and I can see only ten. Where are the -others?" - -"They are out collecting fuel." - -"Good. When you are all assembled here we intend to search you down to -the skin. Then we shall turn out all your baggage and empty every sack -we find in your tents. And if in this examination we find nothing -belonging to a European, it will remain for you to give a written -declaration that no European is among your party concealed or disguised, -and under this declaration you must set your name-stamp. Then you can -travel early in the morning where you like, and we shall return to -Saka." - -When I heard this report the situation became quite clear to me, and I -at once decided what I would do. But first I crept by the secret way -into the caravan leader's tent, where I found myself surrounded by my -retainers, except three, who were to warn us if the Tibetans came back -again. - -"What is to be done?" I asked Abdul Kerim. - -"The Sahib knows best himself. As far as I can see, our condition is -hopeless," answered the honest man, who had got us out of many a scrape -before. - -"What does Lobsang think?" - -"It would not be wise to give them such a declaration," he answered with -a very troubled face. - -"Sahib," suggested Kutus, "if they give us breathing-time till night, -the Sahib and I can hide among the mountains as at the time when we were -close to Tsongpun Tashi. When the search is over we can rejoin the -caravan farther down. I can carry the Sahib's papers, and other European -articles can be buried in the ground under the tent." - -"They know that we are thirteen," remarked Gulam. - -Under the force of circumstances we had made our way right across Tibet -with a trumped-up story, but to let Abdul Kerim confirm a false document -with his name-stamp on my account was a little too strong even for my -geographical conscience. I could not consent to that. Whatever might -happen, our position was still a strong one. We were in the heart of -Tibet. The next move would be that we should be sent out of the country, -and by whatever way we were obliged to go, I should certainly gain -something more. I would absolutely refuse to go to Ladak, but I would be -content to go to India through Nepal, or, better still, through -Gyangtse. - -"No," I said to my men as I rose up, "I shall give myself up to the -Tibetans." - -Then they were all amazed, and began to cry and sob like children. - -"Why do you weep?" I asked. - -"We shall part here for good, and the Sahib will be killed," they -answered. - -"Oh no, it is not so bad as that," I said, for it was not the first time -I had been caught by Tibetans. - -When I walked out of the tent I heard behind me the murmur of Mohammedan -prayers: "Allahu ekber--Bismillah rahman errahim." - -In my usual disguise from top to toe, and with my face painted black, I -walked with slow, deliberate steps straight to the circle of Tibetans. -When I was close to them they all rose up, as if they knew that I was no -ordinary Ladaki. - -"Sit down," I said, with a dignified gesture of invitation, and sat down -myself between the two principal men. In the one on my right hand I -recognized at once the Pemba Tsering of the year before. I clapped him -on the shoulder, saying, "Do you know me again, Pemba Tsering?" He -answered not a word, but looked with wide-opened eyes at his comrades, -and nodded towards me, as much as to say "It is he." They were mightily -dumbfoundered and disconcerted: no one spoke, some looked at one -another, others gazed into the fire, one threw a couple of sticks among -the stones, and another took small sips of tea. - -Then I spoke again: "Yes, truly, Pemba Tsering, you are quite right; I -am Hedin Sahib, who visited Saka-dzong last year. Here you have me -again; what do you mean to do with me?" - -Abdul Kerim, Lobsang, and Kutus stood behind, trembling like aspen -leaves, and expecting that preparations for an execution would be the -next move. - -[Illustration: 336. FAREWELL ENTERTAINMENT FOR THE TIBETANS ON MAY 5, -1908.] - -Still they made no answer, but began to whisper together in groups. The -younger official, who was evidently the cock of the walk, for the others -looked at him and waited for him to speak, began to look through his -papers, and picked out one which he read in silence. As they were so -long in recovering from their consternation--for they had not expected -to get hold of me so easily--I sent Kutus for a box of Egyptian -cigarettes, and offered them all round. Each took one with thanks, and -lighted it after I had set an example and showed them that the -cigarettes were not filled with gunpowder. Then the ice was broken, and -the leader began to speak very softly and without looking at me. - -"Yesterday strict orders came from the Devashung that the Governor of -Saka would be held responsible for Europeans who might sneak into the -country from the west, and if any European showed himself he must be -immediately forced to return by the way he came. When the report reached -Saka of a caravan two days' journey off, the Governor suspected that it -might be you, Hedin Sahib, and we have now accomplished our task. In the -Governor's name we forbid you to take another step eastwards. We beg you -to conform in all things to our directions; our heads and your personal -safety are at stake. To-morrow you will follow us over the Kinchen-la to -Saka-dzong." - -"I said last year that I must and would see the mountain region north of -Saka. Now I have seen it, and you have not been able to prevent me. You -see then that I can do more in your country than yourselves. Now I -intend to travel back to India, but by which way only Lien Darin, Amban -of Lhasa, shall decide. It is therefore my intention to write to him, -and I shall not go anywhere before his answer comes." - -"We do not wish you to travel by any other way than the one you choose, -but we have no authority to forward a letter to Lhasa; the Governor will -decide the question himself. It is with him you must treat; you must -meet him personally. Therefore we will accompany you to-morrow to -Saka-dzong." - -"No, sir, anywhere else you please, but not to Saka-dzong. You know that -my caravan leader died and lies buried there. It is against my -principles to visit a place where I have buried a faithful servant. You -shall never get me to Saka-dzong even if you raise all Tibet." - -"If it would trouble you to see Saka-dzong again, we will certainly not -urge you to go thither. Will you instead have the kindness to follow us -to Semoku by the Tsango, on the _tasam_, which is only two days' journey -to the south-west? I will then write to the Governor and ask him to meet -you there." - -"Good; I will follow you to Semoku to-morrow." - -"Thanks; I will at once send an express messenger to inform the -Governor, so that you may not have to wait at Semoku. But tell me why -you have come back again? You travel and travel in Tibet and you are -always sent away, but always come back again. Had you not enough last -year, when you were obliged to leave the country by the road to Ladak? -And now you turn up again among us. How is that possible, and why are -you come?" - -"Because I love your country and your friendly people to such a degree -that I cannot live without them." - -"H'm! It is very kind of you to say so, but would it not be better if -you were to love your own country a little more? As long as we do not -travel in your country, you should not travel in ours; we remain at -home, and the best thing you can do is to remain in your country." - -"As long as I can sit in a saddle I shall come back. You can inform the -Devashung at your leisure that their Excellencies may look for more -visits." - -[Illustration: 337, 338, 339, 340. THE DANCERS AT THE CAMP-FIRE: TUBGES, -KUNCHUK, SUEN.] - -They laughed pleasantly and looked at one another, as much as to say: -"If he likes to come back, he is welcome as far as we are concerned." -And my Ladakis laughed and were extremely astonished that our last day -of freedom had come to so peaceful and merry an ending. The Tibetans -were exceedingly agreeable, polite, and gentle, and never uttered a hard -or peevish word about the trouble that I had again brought upon them. -And when the old wool story, which Abdul Kerim a little while before had -tried to cram down their throats, was referred to, they laughed heartily -and thought that it was a grand device. They are so accustomed to lie -themselves that they have a great admiration for any one else who -succeeds in deceiving them. They thought it very wonderful that we had -been able to cross the whole country without detection, and believed -that I must possess some mysterious powers of which they knew -nothing, and that they must be very cautious in dealing with me. - -The young official, who was named Rinche Dorche, but was called Rindor, -a contraction of the two names, wrote a long letter to the Governor of -Saka, saying that I was the same Hedin Sahib who had been here the year -before, that we had come to a friendly agreement to proceed to Semoku, -that I did not wish to travel to Ladak but straight to India, and that -Lien Darin alone was to decide on the route. The letter was sealed, and -despatched by a mounted courier over the Kinchen-la. - -Then we talked and jested again, and before sunset we were as intimate -as though we had been friends from childhood. We might have made an -appointment to meet in this barren valley and been glad to have found -one another. It was easy to understand that the Tibetans were pleased. -They little thought when the sun rose that they would make such a good -catch before evening. The successful issue of their mission would be of -great advantage; they would be commended by the Governor and gain -promotion. For my part I had a feeling of unmixed satisfaction. Our -freedom was at an end, but for me it had been nothing but an exceedingly -enervating captivity. Now, for the first time, I felt perfectly free, -and was no longer a prisoner in my own tent; I should have no need of -that wretched hiding-hole in Abdul Kerim's tent. The Tibetans laughed -loudly at my ragged, smutty, greasy dress of coarse grey sackcloth, in -which I looked like a convict, or, at best, like a begging monk of the -Grey Friars' confraternity. Then they understood how I had succeeded in -crossing Bongba unseen and unknown. How delightful it would be to throw -my rags into the fire and clothe myself in a clean neat Tibetan costume, -to be no longer obliged to hide my papers and instruments in rice sacks, -and not to have to paint my face black as a Moor's instead of washing -myself. As soon as we had parted from our new friends in the evening, -Gulam took a hand-basin of warm water into my tent, and then I had a -good scrubbing from top to toe, and the water showed that I wanted it. -He had to change the water four times before I was tolerably clean. Then -I clipped my Mohammedan beard to the skin, and sadly missed the razors -I had thrown away. But I was glad that we had not burned the things we -had condemned some hours earlier. - -Rindor begged the loan of one of our tents, as their own transport train -was not expected till the morning. Besides Pemba Tsering, there were two -other men I had known the year before. They were all very friendly, and -said that we had tipped them very generously. There was also a wrinkled -old man in the party, who was always smoking a Chinese pipe. His name -was Kamba Tsenam, and it was his tent near which we had so nearly been -detained two days before. - -Thus ended April 24, 1908. Strange, melancholy thoughts took possession -of me when I went to bed. The Tibetans had again thwarted my plans--I -know not how many times they had done so. Our future was dark as ever, -but it had arrived at a new stage, and on the 25th we should wake up to -begin a new chapter. The deep silence in the valley was only disturbed -occasionally by Takkar, when the faithful dog barked at the Tibetans. -His bark was re-echoed from both flanks as though three dogs kept guard -over us. And the everlasting stars glittered as before over our lonely -tents. - - - - -CHAPTER LXVIII - -HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF SAKA - - -On April 25 we rode in a compact body to the mouth of a valley east of -Chomo-uchong, called Radak. Six Tibetans guarded me on both sides, and -our journey had some resemblance to a convict train. Now I was not -obliged to dismount before we passed a tent. On the left hand was a -large open plain where Raga-tasam is situated. A shot was heard in the -deserted country, and Rindor sent two men to see what it was. An -antelope hunter! He was arrested and beaten; for the Government, at -ecclesiastical instigation, had forbidden the extinction of life for -three years, except in the case of sheep and yaks. I was reminded of the -agreement to forbid Europeans to travel in Tibet for three years. - -Now I drew my map of the route, took compass bearings, and sketched a -panorama quite at my ease. The Tibetans wondered at me and questioned -me, but did not trouble themselves much about my work. And I had plenty -of time to think of the line of policy I should adopt during the -following negotiations. I knew that they would urge me to return by the -way I had come, through Bongba, or by the road I had taken to Ladak the -year before. For my part, I had now had enough of Tibet and I longed to -get home, and wished to avoid routes that involved loss of time and that -I knew already. Now I only wished to travel to India _via_ Shigatse and -Gyangtse, and I would try to obtain permission to travel to these towns -by roads where no one had been before. After the excitement in which we -had lived so long came a reaction. I was worn-out, weary, and -indifferent to everything except the nearest way home. Therefore I sat -down and wrote a letter of fifteen pages to Lien Darin, referred to his -friendly letter sent to Gartok, gave an account of our last journey, -pointed out to him that no Great Power could take it amiss if I -travelled out of the country through Gyangtse, promised that in return I -would give him information about the occurrences of gold and salt I had -seen, and about the measures which should be taken for the promotion of -sheep-breeding,--all natural resources, which would contribute to the -advancement of China's newest province, Tibet. And I concluded my letter -with wishes for the happiness and prosperity of Lien Darin himself and -peace to his forefathers' graves. - -I did not doubt a moment that he would give his consent to such a modest -request, and I saw in my mind's eye the dramatic scene when I should -make my first call on Major O'Connor in Tibetan dress, and have a little -fun with him before I made myself known. But I may as well say at once -that this long epistle to Lien Darin was never sent. My opponent's -tactics lured me to a contest in which he was checkmated in two moves. -My merit was as little now as formerly; I was always a marionette, and -the hands which held the strings hung over the paths where the clouds -and stars move. - -In the evening I had a visit from Pemba Tsering and Kamba Tsenam. The -former was much more gentle and friendly than the year before; the -latter was a great humorist, who did not seem at all annoyed that he had -omitted to close the bag when he had us in it, and had let a valuable -booty fall into the hands of another. They had heard of my adventurous -voyages on Tso-mavang, and were astonished that I had escaped with my -life. - -[Illustration: 341. INNER COURT OF SELIPUK.] - -[Illustration: 342. DORCHE TSUEN AND NGAVANG ON HORSEBACK.] - -Two short days' marches took us over the pass Kule-la and down to the -valley where Semoku stands on the great high-road. Here stood some -scattered tents, and the Governor and his colleagues had established -themselves in the small stone house of the station. All the more -important posts in Tibet are entrusted to two gentlemen: thus, for -example, there are always two garpuns or viceroys in Gartok, a system -adopted with the intention that one shall control the other or shall -inform of the other if he is guilty of any roguery. In Saka-dzong, -however, the one governor seemed to be of higher rank than the other; at -any rate, he conducted all the negotiations as though he possessed -greater authority. - -As soon as we were ready Rindor and two other men came into my tent and -brought a message from the Governor that he awaited me in the -station-house. I answered, that if he wanted anything of me he might -come to my tent. It was not long before a party of men crossed the -hundred yards between our dwellings. I went out to meet them, invited -them to come in and sit down as far as the space allowed, took up my -position on my bed, and had before me three gentlemen, namely, Dorche -Tsuen, _pun_ or Governor of Saka-dzong (Illust. 327), Ngavang, his -colleague, and Oang Gye, his eighteen-year-old son (Illust. 331). A -crowd of servants, nomads, and soldiers massed together at the tent -door. - -Pun Dorche Tsuen is an unusually tall Tibetan, forty-three years old, of -sympathetic and refined appearance, dressed in a Chinese costume of -silk, with a small silk cap on his head, a pigtail behind, and velvet -boots. He is a man of wealth, owning large flocks in the province over -which he rules and a stone house in Lhasa, his home, for he is an _upa_ -or domiciled inhabitant of the province U, the capital of which is -Lhasa. There dwell three of his four sons, and one of them is a young -lama. His wife has been dead some years. - -Ngavang, his coadjutor, is a little, fat, kindly man in Tibetan costume, -but with a Chinese cap and pigtail. Oang Gye wears his hair in Tibetan -fashion, wears no head-covering, and, like his father, is exceedingly -sympathetic and good-natured. - -"I hope that you have had a successful journey and have not suffered -much from cold," said Dorche Tsuen. - -"Oh, it was cold, and we have lost our caravan, our clothes are in rags, -and our provisions are at an end, but, as you see, that is of no -consequence to us." - -"At the time of your visit to Saka-dzong last year I was in Tsonka, but -I received an account of your movements. You were sent away. Why have -you come back again?" - -"To visit the districts I was then prevented from seeing. I am ashamed -to have given you the trouble of coming here from Saka-dzong. I hope -that we shall soon come to an agreement about the route I am to take in -order to leave the country." - -Now I should have to play my cards well. I had changed my mind during -the last few days. I had rested, the reaction after the excitement of -travelling in disguise had passed away, and I was exceedingly eager to -attempt some new discoveries before I gave up the game. I had, it is -true, succeeded in making a very valuable traverse across Bongba. I had -travelled straight across the word "Unexplored" on the latest English -map of Tibet--yea, I had passed between the _p_ and _l_, so that "unexp" -lay on the west side of my route and "lored" on the east (see Map 1, -Vol. I.). But I had left quite untouched two extensive stretches of the -large blank patch, and I dreamed of nothing else than to cross Bongba -again by two fresh routes. It would certainly take four or five months -to return to India after a northerly zigzag course, instead of a couple -of weeks if I made for British territory through Gyangtse, as I intended -at first. But if I succeeded in making the northerly detour I should -carry home material of perhaps greater value than the discoveries -already made. Dorche Tsuen answered with firm decision: - -"As to your way back, I will tell you at once: not a step further east; -my head depends on it. Here you see the order I received a couple of -days ago from the Devashung. I will read it to you. Last year you -travelled without leave to Nepal, to Kubi-gangri, across the holy lake, -round Kang-rinpoche, and to Yumba-matsen. I know exactly where you went. -You cannot do the same this year. It is probably in consequence of your -journey in all sorts of forbidden directions that the Devashung has -distributed through the country instructions regarding Europeans. Two -officials have recently been sent from Lhasa to Shansa-dzong to see -that no European approaches the holy city from Naktsang. Some time ago a -Chinese officer with 200 soldiers was moved to Tingri to guard the -country from intrusion from the south. Not even a Gurkha or a Hindu can -now travel in Tibet without especial permission. The other day I -received a letter from the Chinese frontier official in Tingri which I -will read to you. As you see, he orders me to force any European who may -come to Saka from the north to return in his own footsteps. If he -refuses, I have to send off a messenger to Tingri, and shall receive -assistance in a few days from the soldiers stationed there. Times are -changed in Tibet. If you will not listen to me and travel back by the -way you came, I will send a messenger to Tingri. But, like you, I hope -that we shall come to an agreement without unpleasantness and outside -interference." - -My next move was a feint, namely, to try for the Gyangtse route; I would -in the end conform to his wishes and give up the Gyangtse route under -the condition that I should not be compelled to travel along roads I -knew already. I pointed out how near we were to Gyangtse, and how easily -he would get rid of me if I went thither, but nothing made any -impression on him. He only answered, "All that is true, but the road is -closed to you." - -"Well, I will give it up for your sake, but only on condition that you -forward a letter from me to the British Trade Agent in Gyangtse. You can -understand that my family are disturbed at my long absence and are -looking for news of me." - -"Yes, I can understand that, but I regret to say that I cannot forward -your correspondence. All the authorities in Tibet are strictly forbidden -to assist a European in any way, as he has no right to travel in the -country." - -"You will perhaps allow two of my own servants to carry a letter from me -to Gyangtse?" - -"No, never!" - -"Well, at least, you can inform the Devashung of my arrival, and ask the -Government to send notice of it to Gyangtse." - -"I sent a messenger to the Devashung as soon as I received the letter -from Rindor. They will know in Lhasa in a few days that you are come -here again." - -I had never induced any Tibetan magistrate to forward my letters. That -Dorche Tsuen refused to do me such a trifling service had the deplorable -consequence that my family did not receive any reliable report of me -till September, and therefore supposed that some misfortune had befallen -me. Instead of reaching the frontier in a couple of weeks, I was sent -back again into the silence of Tibet, and the waves washed again over -our track. But I took it for granted that news of our arrival on the -_tasam_ would penetrate to Gyangtse both officially and through reports, -and would then be made known everywhere. Such, however, was not the -case, and after we left the _tasam_ our fate was buried in the same -complete silence as before. - -"No, Hedin Sahib," Dorche Tsuen cried out, "the only way open to you is -the one by which you came from the north." - -"I will never travel by that road. It is no use talking about it." - -"You must." - -"You cannot force me to do so. To begin with, I will not let you know -which way I came, and I travelled in disguise." - -"It does not matter. It is very well known that you came from the -Samye-la and the Kinchen-la. Beyond that the escort I shall send with -you will ask the way from tent to tent." - -"The nomads will answer that they have seen no Ladakis, for fear of -being punished." - -"I shall find means of making them confess more than you think." - -"You can kill me if you like, but you shall never force me to travel -over the Samye-la. Remember that I am a European and a friend of the -Tashi Lama. You may lose your button." - -Much disturbed, Dorche Tsuen conferred in whispers with Ngavang. - -[Illustration: 343. THE AUTHOR IN TIBETAN DRESS. - -From a photograph by the Rev. Mr. Marx, in Poo.] - -"I will give way so far for your sake that I will allow you to return to -Ladak by the same road you followed last year, through Tradum, -Tuksum, Shamsang, Parka, and Gartok." - -That was the very solution I most feared. If there were any road in all -Tibet that I wished to avoid at any cost it was the road to Ladak. I -answered: - -"Never! Not a step on the great high-road to Ladak!" - -"But why? You ought to be thankful for so great a concession." - -"It is forbidden by the laws of my country for a man to return in his -own footsteps. You can cut my throat, but you will not force me to do -anything of the sort." - -"You must have strange laws in your country. May I hear which way you -really wish to take?" - -"I have already said through Gyangtse. You refused and I understand your -motive. You have urged me to go back to the north. Even in this respect -I will conform to your wishes, but only on the condition that I am not -obliged to retrace my steps. I will go over another pass east of the -Samye-la and northwards to the Teri-nam-tso and then westwards by the -shortest way out of Tibet." - -"That is not to be thought of. But let us take the matter quietly. Will -you agree to accompany me to Kamba Tsenam's tent, four days' journey -from here? You have been there already, and before we reach it we shall -have come to some understanding." - -"Yes, willingly." - -Opposition spurred me on. It now became a point of honour to win a new -game of chess. My position was very strong. The _tasam_ was eliminated. -If I could only cross the Trans-Himalaya by a more easterly pass, I -should by some ruse or other gain the Teri-nam-tso, Mendong-gompa, the -lower Buptsang-tsangpo, the Tarok-tso, Selipuk, and an eighth -Trans-Himalayan pass. Yes, now I must, if ever, play my cards well. I -still felt young and strong. The political entanglement which -encompassed me on all sides in Tibet rendered it difficult for me to -make geographical discoveries, but it stimulated my ambition. Therefore -I remember with particular warmth and sympathy all those who, in virtue -of their temporary power in the world, sought to raise obstacles in my -way. - -We then talked on various subjects. He wished to see our weapons, and -asked if he could buy a revolver. "No; you shall have it as a present, -cartridges and all, if you will let me go the way I have proposed." - -"H'm!" - -"You must procure us all the provisions we need for two months, besides -new shoes, clothing, tobacco, horses, mules, yaks." - -"With pleasure; make out a list of all you want." - -It was done at once. Meal, _tsamba_, tea, sugar, Japanese cigarettes, -which were said to be procurable--all was to be brought from Tsongka, -whither mounted men were sent the same day across the Tsangpo and over -the Nevu-la. Everything was to be in our tents in a week. The rest could -be obtained from Saka-dzong. In the evening I paid an equally long -return visit to my valiant friend Pun Dorche Tsuen, and at night I -consigned my letter to Lien Darin to the flames. Ah no! no Chinese -interference in Tibeto-Swedish affairs. - -On the 28th we remained quiet and visited one another by the hour -together. The two governors sat on benches fastened to the wall, Rindor -and Oang Gye on mats on the floor, and all four played at dice. The two -dice were shaken in a wooden bowl, and turned out on to a round piece of -skin. The markers were small Indian snailshells. Then they played with -Chinese dominoes. Meanwhile they drank tea, smoked pipes, sang, joked, -laughed, and moved the bricks with wonderful and graceful dexterity. -Ngavang won ten _tengas_ and was greatly elated. In this way they pass -the time when the day's work is done. Rindor is the Governor's private -secretary, and on a bench and a table lay piles of documents and -letters, written on coarse Chinese paper, and folded up one on another. -The Governor's correspondence now comes to Semoku, and his daily work -must run its course. His province, Saka, is very extensive, and he -states with some pride that his power stretches to Sangsang in the east, -to the Nevu-la in the south, to the Marium-la in the west, and -northwards some days' journey beyond Kamba Tsenam's tent. - -[Illustration: 344, 345. SOLDIERS OF THE GARRISON OF SAKA-DZONG, -BELONGING TO OUR ESCORT.] - -[Illustration: 346. ARMED TIBETAN FROM THE COUNTRY BETWEEN THE -TERI-NAM-TSO AND THE DANGRA-YUM-TSO.] - -[Illustration: 347. BOY WITH SMALL GUN ON THE SOUTHERN SHORE OF THE -TERI-NAM-TSO.] - -The illustrious gentlemen were much amused with my costume. "You are -a Sahib," they said; "you were for six weeks the guest of the Tashi -Lama; you employ one caravan after another, and leave a quantity of -money behind you, and yet are dressed more shabbily than any of your -servants." - -At night their horses and mules were driven to the station-house by -soldiers, and we ought to have taken the same precaution, for our horses -were attacked by wolves. The brown horse we had bought two weeks before -for 100 rupees had his two right feet tied together lest he should run -away, and the wolves directed their attack on him, as he could not -escape, ate him up, and took the head off with them. At any rate it was -missing in the morning from the skeleton, which was pretty closely -stripped. - -On April 29 we rode together on the road down the Semoku valley, which -runs to the upper Brahmaputra (Illust. 335). This we left on the left -hand, as well as the _tasam_, and ascended a valley where the little -village of Ushy with its stone huts and barley fields is situated. The -150 inhabitants are at home only at seedtime and harvest; the rest of -the year they are away, tending their sheep. Thence we proceeded the -following day to the pass Ushy-la. The way is marked by a succession of -_mani_ heaps and _chhortens_, and the pass by rods so thin as to be -invisible at a distance, and the streamers they carry look like a flock -of tied birds. A little farther to the north-west we crossed the pass -Gye-la, where Chomo-uchong makes a fine display, and soon after we were -on the main pass of the same name (16,135 feet). From a hill near, the -eye can sweep over all the horizon, the peaks and glaciers of the -Himalayas, Chomo-uchong, and close at hand to the south-south-east the -Brahmaputra valley with the river meandering in several arms. We -encamped on the bank of the Sachu-tsangpo, which flows into the -Chaktak-tsangpo west of Saka-dzong. Here also lies a votive block of a -hard green rock, covered with offerings, bits of butter, and streamers. - -The 1st of May was celebrated by a march over the Lamlung-la, a -difficult pass, on the saddle of which, 16,791 feet high, the traveller -is again rewarded by a magnificent view over this complicated sea of -mountains. From here Chomo-uchong's seven summits appear in a compact -group; the central one is of a regular conical shape and is pure white -all over; the others consist chiefly of black cliffs and projections, -from among which issue small blue-tinged glaciers. The length of the -massive corresponds to that of Lunpo-gangri, of which it is a -continuation. - -In the Namchen valley our united camp formed quite a little village, for -all the chiefs of the country were convened to a consultation. And here -it was that Rindor and Pemba Tsering joined us with all the goods we had -ordered from Saka-dzong. We stayed here two days. The weather was raw -and chilly, and the temperature constantly fell to 8.2 deg.. There was no -spring as yet. But the wild-geese were on their migration, and when -Tubges once shot a gander at a neighbouring brook, Oang Gye came to -complain to me. He was quite overcome at this brutal murder, and could -not conceive how my servant could be so heartless and cruel. - -"You are right," I answered; "I am myself sorry for the wild-geese. But -you must remember that we are travellers, and dependent for our -livelihood on what the country yields. Often the chase and fishing are -our only resources." - -"In this district you have plenty of sheep." - -"Is it not just as wrong to kill sheep and eat their flesh?" - -"No!" he exclaimed, with passionate decision; "that is quite another -matter. You surely will not compare sheep to wild-geese. There is as -much difference between them as between sheep and human beings. For, -like human beings, the wild-geese marry and have families. And if you -sever such a union by a thoughtless shot, you cause sorrow and misery. -The goose which has just been bereaved of her mate will seek him -fruitlessly by day and night, and will never leave the place where he -has been murdered. Her life will be empty and forlorn, and she will -never enter upon a new union, but will remain a widow, and will soon -die of grief. A woman cannot mourn more deeply than she will, and the -man who has caused such sorrow draws down a punishment on himself." - -The excellent Oang Gye was quite inconsolable. We might shoot antelopes, -wild sheep, and partridges as much as ever, if only we left the -wild-geese in peace. I had heard in the Lob country similar tales of the -sorrow of the swans when their union was dissolved by death. It was -moving to witness Oang Gye's tenderness and great sympathy for the -wild-geese, and I felt the deepest respect for him. Many a noble and -sensitive heart beats in the cold and desolate valleys of Tibet. - - - - -CHAPTER LXIX - -KAMBA TSENAM, FATHER OF THE ROBBERS - - -At the Namchen camp we bought a large supply of rice, meal, barley and -_tsamba_, sugar, stearin candles, soap, and five hundred -cigarettes,--all procured from Tsongka. A rich merchant, Ngutu, who -owned fifty horses and mules and two hundred yaks, sold us two mules and -a horse, besides cloth for new garments, boots, and caps. Abdul Kerim -hastened to make me a Tibetan costume of fine Lhasa cloth; on my head I -wore a Chinese silk cap swathed with a red turban; I stalked about in -silk Chinese boots, and had an elegant sword in my girdle. In my Ladaki -saddle with its variegated fittings, and riding a milk-white stallion, I -looked in this makeshift outfit quite like a Tibetan of rank (Illust. -343). - -[Illustration: 348. TROOPER OF THE ESCORT. 349. TIBETAN OF TERI-NAM-TSO. -350. YOUNG SHEPHERD OF BONGBA. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Here a large meeting was held in Dorche Tsuen's tent, where the question -of my return route was discussed. Dorche Tsuen insisted on the necessity -of my crossing the Samye-la again, and I answered, as before, that I -intended to take no other way than over a pass east of the Samye-la. -Then he appealed to the nomads at hand, who no doubt had received their -instructions beforehand, and they all affirmed that the Chang-tang could -be reached by no other pass than the Samye-la. However, we had heard -from the horse-driver on the Gebuk-la that a way led over the mountains -directly north of Kamba Tsenam's tent. But then the nomads, who would -have to let us yaks on hire, replied that the road was so bad that we -could not reach the Tarok-tso in three months, and that, for their part, -they would not let their yaks go, and come to grief on the detritus -of the pass. Then we offered to buy yaks, but found no one who would -sell his animals. After Dorche Tsuen had informed me that those who -travelled from Saka into Bongba with hired yaks had to change both men -and pack animals at Buptoe on the upper Buptsang-tsangpo, I proposed to -divide my caravan into two sections, one of which, under Abdul Kerim, -would cross the Samye-la, while I with the other half marched over the -eastern pass; we would meet on the lower course of the Buptsang-tsangpo. -Ngutu, a genial old man of Mongolian origin, supported me, giving it as -his opinion that it was of no consequence which pass I crossed myself, -provided that the main part of the caravan went over the Samye-la; but -Dorche Tsuen was still obstinate, and tried to frighten me with a tale -of ten well-armed robbers whose haunts were in the country north of the -mountain I wished to pass over. - -"If the country is unsafe," I returned, "it is your duty to provide me -with an escort of ten soldiers." - -"The soldiers belong to the garrison of Saka-dzong, and cannot be -employed elsewhere." - -"Listen to me, Dorche Tsuen, and do not be so short-sighted. If you give -me ten soldiers, you will be able to control my movements. I will pay -them 2 rupees a man per day for their services, that is, 20 rupees a day -altogether. You can well believe that I cannot afford such a great -expense for a long time, and therefore you will have a guarantee that I -shall not take a long roundabout way. When I have rejoined Abdul Kerim's -party I shall be beyond the limits of your province, and the escort can -return." - -"That is true," exclaimed two voices in the crowd; "if he pays 20 rupees -a day, he cannot go far." - -Dorche Tsuen rose and called some of the other men to a consultation -outside the tent, and when he came back again he said that I might have -my wish, if I would sign a written declaration that I took upon myself -all responsibility for the consequences, for he wished to be free from -blame if any misfortune befell me. Of course I promised to sign such a -document with pleasure. - -Thus the matter was arranged. Nima Tashi (Illust. 353), a powerful man -of pleasant aspect, and dressed in a loose sheepskin, was to be chief of -the bodyguard, and as he said he did not know the road to the north, -Panchor (Illust. 332), a man fifty-five years of age, was ordered to act -as guide. He was called into the tent. I had not seen him before, but -Abdul Kerim said that he was the same man who on April 23 had shown us -the way to the foot of the Kinchen-la, and that he had seen me and -Muhamed Isa last year in Saka-dzong. He was a little, thin, wiry man who -had killed eighty yaks with the gun he always carried. To everything -that was said to him he agreed submissively with "La lasso, la lasso." -We could see that he was sly and knavish--just the stuff we wanted. - -With him and all the other company we rode on May 4 over the pass -Gara-la, and from its rather flat threshold saw Kamba Tsenam's tent -still in the same place. Here we crossed, then, our route of April 22, -and had made a loop round the snowy massive Chomo-uchong. - -Panchor was the elder brother of Kamba Tsenam, and it struck me as -curious that when the Governor of Saka pitched his tent beside that of -the wealthy nomad, the latter did not come out to welcome him. Now a -collection of tents had sprung up in the valley larger than at any of -the foregoing camps. Couriers and messengers came and went, small yak -caravans came up to the tents with provisions for the officials, and -nomads had come in from the neighbourhood to have a look at the -eccentric European who had come down like a bomb into the country and -had been caught at last. - -[Illustration: 351. GUESTS AT THE OPENING OF MY TENT ON THE BANK OF THE -TERI-NAM-TSO. - - (Over the opening a plaid is stretched as a protection against the - sun.)] - -[Illustration: 352. THE YAKS FORDING THE RIVER SOMA-TSANGPO.] - -Late in the evening Kamba Tsenam came sneaking into my tent. He was very -mysterious, and said that the Governor and his people had no notion that -he was paying me a visit in the darkness. He wished only to say that -Panchor could very well contrive that I should go almost anywhere I -liked. The escort had strict orders from the authorities, but only -Panchor knew the way, and could easily throw dust into the eyes of the -other men. I had only to make my wishes known to Panchor and he would -manage the rest. If also a band of fifty robbers swept down on us -like a whirlwind, they would disperse like sheep as soon as they knew -that Panchor with his never-failing gun was with us. Kamba Tsenam thus -revealed himself as a cunning rogue, who had not the slightest respect -for the authorities of Saka. The old fool promised that I should travel -by the roads I wished if, in return, I would contrive that he should be -governor of Saka. What he said was only idle talk, and he himself was a -fellow to be on our guard against. There was not a man in Bongba who had -ever heard of him, and his great power existed only in his own -imagination. In his own village he was known and flattered on account of -his great wealth, and he boasted that no robber dared to touch his -flocks, for he was their trusted friend. "I am the father of all the -robbers," he said modestly. - -I willingly accepted his invitation to visit his tent next morning. When -I had passed it the first time it was in a snowstorm, and I had looked -upon it as a serious menace to my plans and my freedom. Almost like a -thief in the night, expecting to be discovered every moment, I had -stolen past the black nomad dwelling. Now I approached it as an honoured -guest, only barked at by dogs. - -The huge tent, made of a number of pieces of material, is supported by -three veritable masts, firmly fixed in the ground. A stone wall runs -along the inner side, and in front of it are heaps of _tsamba_, rice, -and corn sacks. Baskets and boxes stand full of clothing. The altar, a -wooden shelf and a table are laden with _gaos_, images, votive bowls, -praying mills, and holy books. In one corner stand perhaps a dozen guns -with streamers on their rests, and in another as many swords. On the -hearth, built on the left of the entrance, always stands a large -tea-kettle boiling, ready for any guests that may come in. A battery of -wooden cups stands on a stone slab ready for use. The bluish grey smoke -rises up towards the chimney opening. Far away from the entrance, at the -right corner, the master of the house has his seat of honour, a small -divan with a stool table before it, and before this again a fireplace, -like a hollow cracked cannon-ball, filled with reeking dung embers. -Some of Kamba Tsenam's shepherds are sitting in a group drinking tea, in -another part some small black children are playing, and in a third the -women of the tent are tittering. With pure white short hair, wrinkled -like crushed parchment, stone-blind, and dressed like Monna Vanna only -in a cloak, Kamba Tsenam's eighty-three-year-old mother sits on her bed -and swings her prayer-mill with the right hand, while her left hand -keeps the beads of her rosary in constant motion. She prattles and -murmurs prayers, sometimes drops her rosary to catch a troublesome -insect, and sometimes lets the prayer-mill stop when she is plunged in -vague dreamy thought. Twice she asked if the European were still there -and if he had been offered tea and food. - -May 5, the last day we enjoyed Dorche Tsuen's society, had to be -celebrated in some way. I invited the whole party to a festival in the -camp. The two Governors and Oang Gye took their places in my tent, in -the middle of which our tea-cups were filled on an improvised table. The -day had been cold and muggy and snow fell, but we warmed our hands over -the fire, and sat wrapped in skin coats like four Tibetans of rank, -while the populace formed a circle outside. A fire was lighted in the -middle and was maintained by dung from four sacks. It was pitch dark -outside, but yellow flames threw a bright gleam over the dark Tibetans, -servants, herdsmen, nomads and soldiers, women and children, youths and -old men. They stood in wondering groups in their skin coats blackened by -the smoke of fires, bare-headed, with long black tresses hanging over -their shoulders. The light from the fire made a vain attempt to gild -them. They stood out in sharp effective relief against the deep shadows -(Illust. 336). - -[Illustration: 353. Nima Tashi, Commandor of the Government-Escort on -the way to the Teri-nam-tso.] - -[Illustration: 354. Nuns of Mendong.] - -[Illustration: 355. A high Lama of Chokchu.] - -[Illustration: 356. The Prior of Selipuk. - - Water-colour Sketches by the Author.] - -I charged Abdul Kerim to do his very best, and he informed me that the -programme would contain fifteen items, song and dance following -alternately without a pause. The first item was a dance with sticks to -represent swords; the second, a hunting episode: a wild animal, composed -of two crouching men with a piece of felt over them and two sticks for -horns, went prancing round the fire; a hunter with his gun crept about, -took aim at the monster, killed him with a single shot, and performed -with his friends a triumphal dance around the carcase. Then followed a -Ladaki dance, little Gulam leading the troop, and after that Suen -executed his remarkable dance before a lady, represented by a stick he -held before him. All the others kept time by clapping their hands, and -invited the Tibetans to join in, and my guests in the tent were -convulsed with laughter. - -The Mohammedans executed a Yarkand dance with Kutus as leader. They -danced round the fire, swinging their arms and skirts, and between the -fire and the tent they appeared only as black profiles, while on the -other side they were lighted up by the reddish-yellow flames, and their -perspiring faces shone like bronze. A song followed, waking a sonorous -echo in the mountains, and the Tibetans recognizing the air joined in, -and all the while the men clapped their hands. The smoke from the fire -took part in the dances and sometimes flew right in the faces of the -spectators, the singing became louder, the merriment more uncontrolled, -and the nomads laughed till they had to support themselves with their -hands on their knees, as Suen revolved in grotesque pirouettes over the -arena and the nomads tried to imitate him. The clumsy Abdullah performed -an indescribable dance with his back bent back, and when he bent himself -so much that he fell backwards to the edge of the fire, the delight of -the spectators was unbounded: they laughed till they were breathless, -hopped about and uttered wild yells, while the performer shook the -sparks from his coat and retired to his corner (Illusts. 337, 338, 339, -340). The Tibetans evidently enjoyed themselves; perhaps they had never -had such an amusing evening in their lives. Dorche Tsuen said something -of the sort. Ngavang gave way to his kindly laugh, and Oang Gye enjoyed -the unwonted spectacle like a child. For my part, I dreamed awhile and -thought of the unexpected and singular manner in which fate had allowed -me to choose my course. Through the clouds of smoke I seemed to see all -old Asia before me, and the adventures of past years behind me. A -carnival of old camp-scenes danced before my mind's eye, expiring like -shooting-stars in the night--merry songs which came to an end among -other mountains and the dying sound of strings and flutes. And I was -surprised that I had not had enough of these things and that I was not -tired of the light of camp-fires. - -The wind rises, the snow falls thickly and hisses in the fire, and the -flakes are lighted up from below. With white hair and shoulders the -Tibetans look like mist figures, and behind them hang the dark curtains -of night, from which is heard from time to time a pony's neigh or a -dog's bark. The last sack of fuel is emptied over the leaping flames, -burns up and sinks, and only embers are left, glowing in the ceaselessly -falling snow. Then my grateful guests rise at midnight, distribute gifts -to the performers, say farewell, and vanish like ghosts in the darkness -to seek their own tents. Now night reigns alone over the valley, the -surroundings lie silent and still, and only the pelting snow makes a -swishing sound against the tent. - -On the morning of May 6 the country was again white as in the depth of -winter. Quietly and lightly as cotton-wool the flakes fell, and all, the -Tibetans included, were more wrapped up than usual. The Governors and -their retinue came to pay a farewell visit, and then I went out with -them to their horses, took a last farewell, and thanked them for all the -kindness they had shown me in spite of the trouble I had given them. -Dorche Tsuen expressed a hope that we should meet again. It is much -easier to get on with men and lead them where you wish if you treat them -kindly and gently; you gain nothing by violence, harshness, and threats. -The Governor was a fine upright figure on his horse; his face was -entirely covered with dark spectacles and a red hood to protect it from -the blast (Illust. 342). His troop of mounted men was considerably -diminished after his escort had been told off to follow me. They struck -their heels into their horses and soon disappeared up the hill on the -way to the Gara-la. - -[Illustration: 357. TWO LAMAS OF MENDONG.] - -[Illustration: 358. MY SHEEP CROSSING THE RIVER SOMA-TSANGPO.] - -My caravan was now to be divided into two parties. Only five men were to -follow me, namely, Gulam, Lobsang, Kutus, Tubges, and Kunchuk. We had -eight goats to supply milk; our old sheep had been sold for a mere -trifle. A hundred rupees for the first five days were paid in advance to -the escort under Nima Tashi. No agreement was made with Panchor, but he -was to be paid well if he took me where I wished. The other seven -Ladakis were ordered to proceed under the command of Abdul Kerim over -the Samye-la to the Buptsang-tsangpo, follow the stream slowly -downwards, and wait for us near its mouth in the Tarok-tso. Whatever -they did, they were not to leave the Buptsang-tsangpo, or we might lose -one another. Rindor and Pemba Tsering were deputed to follow them over -the Samye-la to Buptoe, to bring the Kebyang people to reason if they -refused transport animals. My baggage was reduced to a minimum, and I -took with me only a thousand rupees. Abdul Kerim was responsible for the -remainder of the cash. He was an honest man, but a noodle. Some nomads -accompanied us with six yaks for the baggage (Illusts. 344, 345, 348). - -Though, according to our plans, we were to be separated only a few -weeks, the parting was touching, and many childish tears trickled down -weather-beaten cheeks. We had bought more horses, and all my five -Ladakis could ride. We rode up the valley in close order; the bottom was -full of loose rotten ice, lumpy tufts of grass with mice-holes among -them, frozen springs, and detritus of hard green schist. We marched -north-eastwards, and then due west, over the small double pass -Shalung-la, and down to the Gyegong valley, where we encamped at Kamba -Tsenam's sheepfolds to buy some sheep for food. The escort had got there -first, and sat in their black tent drinking tea. - -We sat talking with Kamba Tsenam and Panchor when a tall and strongly -built young fellow came and sat down at the opening of my tent. - -"I have seen the Bombo before," he said, "in the neighbourhood of -Nakchu. You had a Buryat and a lama with you. That is seven years ago." - -"Quite right. Have you brought me a message?" - -"No; I only wish to ask if you are disposed to buy two good yaks from -me. You can have them for half their value." - -"Thanks; we do not want any yaks now. What is your occupation?" - -"Robber!" he answered, without blinking. - -After he had gone, Kamba Tsenam informed me that some time ago the man -had killed a nomad in Rukyok, and now was come to treat about the -compensation for the murder. The authorities were looking eagerly for -the band to which he belonged, and Kamba Tsenam and Panchor knew exactly -where they were hiding, but would not betray them lest they should be -robbed of their property in revenge. Kamba Tsenam and his brother were -evidently on very confidential terms with the robbers of the country, -and I very much suspected that they were in league with some of them. In -Panchor we had certainly an actual robber chief as guide. He himself -told us that the Devashung had tried to engage him in their service as a -spy and guide, when they wished to track up an evaded robber band, but -he would not consent. He knew that we had a large quantity of money with -us, and we were not too safe in his company. He could very well arrange -a night attack and in the end play the innocent. He pretended not to -know the country beyond a couple of days' journey to the north, but when -he inspected our six horses he said: "This one you bought from an old -nomad to the west of Sha-kangsham, and this one from Tsongpun Tashi." If -he knew every horse in the country, he must also know the country very -well. I asked him to go over the names of our camping-places to the -north, but he gave only the first two, and added: "The rest you will -know as you go on, and if I cannot find them myself, there will always -be some robbers I can ask." - -On May 7 we took leave of the old robber chief Kamba Tsenam, and rode in -close order up to the pass Gyegong-la, which has a height of 18,012 -feet. The pass stands on a distinctly marked chain, which is called -Kanchung-gangri, and it was very interesting to find that all the water -on the northern side of the pass flowed to the upper Chaktak-tsangpo. -Kanchung-gangri is therefore not part of the main range of the -Trans-Himalaya, and the Gyegong-la is only a secondary pass. The great -watershed lay some days' journey farther to the north. - -On the northern side we passed a warm spring, Memo-chutsen, which at the -orifice had a temperature of 93.6 deg., while in another the water boiled -and steamed. The springs are surrounded by sinter, terraces, and basins -in which sick people bathe. - -Panchor had an old field-glass and diligently looked out for robbers and -wild yaks. He said that we ought always to keep together in case we were -attacked by robbers he did not know, and he bade us help with our -weapons in the defence. - -The camp this day was No. 400. - - - - -CHAPTER LXX - -THE SEVENTH CROSSING OF THE TRANS-HIMALAYA--TO THE HEAVENLY LAKE OF THE -THRONE MOUNTAIN - - -Twenty-nine degrees of frost on the night of May 8. Winter instead of -spring might be coming. A month ago it was much warmer in Bongba. But -now we are mounting up to the heights of the Trans-Himalaya, the weather -is cold, raw, and windy, the temperature seldom above freezing-point, -and to-day the whole country is again buried in snow. - -[Illustration: 359. Village below Lunkar-gompa on the Tarok-tso.] - -[Illustration: 360. Mendong Monastery west of the Teri-nam-tso.] - -[Illustration: 361. Selipuk Monastery south-west of the Nganglaring-tso. - - Water-colour Sketches by the Author.] - -[Illustration: 362. Holiday Costumes and Ornaments of Tibetan Women of -Kyangrang in the Trans-Himalaya. - - Water-colour Sketches by the Author.] - -We ride northwards and descend from a small saddle to the -Chaktak-tsangpo, near which we have to halt a while to warm ourselves at -a fire. The river bends to the west-south-west to break through -Kanchung-gangri. On its bank is seen a tent, eight horses, and a hundred -sheep. Panchor went off to-day to stalk a herd of ninety wild yaks, and -Nima Tashi, the captain of the bodyguard, was sure that a robber band -was in the tent, for no nomads are seen in this cold country. The -escort, particularly Nima Tashi, were dreadfully afraid of robbers; and -Panchor had told us that we could make them go anywhere by frightening -the soldiers with robbers. When Panchor appeared again, he said that the -suspected tent was really inhabited by the band which had the murder in -Rukyok on its conscience, and he added that if the people in Rukyok -would not let the matter rest, the band threatened to commit new crimes -in the country. I asked why the authorities did not seize the chief now -when he was so near, but Panchor shook his head and said that if he was -taken and killed, thirty others would be down on the country, and that -would be worse. A bandit's life in Tibet is on the whole a very -pleasant one. - -Following the stream upwards we came to the small lake Lapchung-tso, -entirely covered with ice, and set up camp 401 (17,037 feet) on its -eastern shore. It is enclosed among hills and surrounded on all sides by -lofty mountains. To the south Kanchung-gangri appears in all its -splendour. The snow is much more abundant on its northern than on its -southern side, and in the hollows between its summits three large and -several small glaciers, short and steep, are seen. From all the valleys -on the north, north-west, and north-east brooks descend to the -Lapchung-tso, and from the southern extremity of the lake the -Chaktak-tsangpo issues, and a little distance farther south-west breaks -through Kanchung-gangri. - -May 9. -0.9 deg. at this time of year! We move north-eastwards along the -eastern shore of Lapchung-tso, and follow a well-beaten road consisting -of quite fifty parallel paths. It is very interesting to draw another -line on the map of Tibet through a part unknown before. Here travel the -merchants whose destination is east Bongba and Chokchu, and here passes -a large part of the salt traffic from Tabie-tsaka, as well as pilgrims -on their way home from Kang-rinpoche. The last usually follow the -_tasam_ on their outward journey, but return by the northern route--this -is, that the whole pilgrimage may make a _kore_ or a loop of salvation. - -Our direction becomes now more northerly and we go up the Sangmo-bertik -valley, where the bottom is filled with ice clear as glass, but there is -good pasturage on the flanks. The country is quite flat between -Kanchung-gangri and the main crest of the Trans-Himalaya. In the -longitudinal valley between the two we see to the north, 60 deg. W., the -comparatively low saddle Dicha-la, which is, however, a watershed of the -first rank, for it parts the water flowing to the ocean from the -isolated drainage of the plateau. Over the Dicha-la runs the lately -mentioned road to the Buptsang-tsangpo and Tabie-tsaka. North, -north-west, and north-east are several _gangris_ with firn-fields and -snow, all belonging to the main range of the Trans-Himalaya. To the -east lies a pass, the Nakbo-kongdo-la, with the Nakbo-gongrong-gangri; -over this pass, which also seems to lie on the main watershed, a road -runs to Targo-gangri and Dangra-yum-tso. Between Raga-tasam and Ombo a -road crosses the Tsalam-nakta-la, mostly frequented by salt caravans. -From camp 402 we could still see Chomo-uchong to the south, 13 deg. E. - -A member of the robber band we saw the day before paid us a visit and -was evidently an old friend of Panchor. He gave us many interesting -details of the Teri-nam-tso and Mendong-gompa, which were afterwards -found to be perfectly correct. I never could make out Panchor. Either he -was in league with the devil himself, or he was a fully fledged knave at -his own risk and reckoning. He now assured me that it would be the -easiest thing in the world to take me to the Teri-nam-tso and perhaps -also to the Dangra-yum-tso. O gods of Naktsang, slumber in this cold -spring and do not warn your earthly vassals until it is too late! Yes, -if I could only contrive to cross the Trans-Himalaya twice more, I would -then willingly leave this mighty range to rest a thousand years under a -veil of clouds and glittering snowfields. It is strange that this wide -country, so near to the Indian frontier, should have remained absolutely -unknown till our late times. I am proud and delighted to know that I am -the first white man to penetrate to this wilderness. - -Panchor advised us to stay a day in the valley, for we should not find -pasture as good as here for a long time. I wondered how he could know -that, seeing that he had said recently that he had never been north of -the Sangmo-bertik-la. - -On the night of May 11 the thermometer fell to 3 deg.. We found ourselves in -a great enlargement of the Trans-Himalaya called Lap, and this region is -noted for its severe climate. Even in the middle of summer, when it is -warm everywhere else, it is cold in Lap. The ice breaks up on -Lapchung-tso only in the beginning of June after all the other ice is -melted. From the map it is seen that many considerable rivers, flowing -north and south, take their rise in this lofty swell. - -[Illustration: 363. CROSSING THE KANGSHAM RIVER.] - -The day's march took us up to higher ground, and the way was -dreadful--not a road at all, but a track winding among granite boulders -and yak-moss. And next day it was still worse. In raw wintry weather, -with a temperature of 1.2 deg., we wound up the ascent extremely slowly, -where all small and loose material had been removed, so that the animals -might at any moment break their legs among the stones. Here no other -vegetation was seen but a moss, yellow as the yolk of an egg, and -another shading into red. On the left we passed three small glaciers -with a blue tinge on their fronts. By one of them some wild yaks walked -meditatively. The weather was so cold that we had to stop frequently to -warm our hands at a small dung fire. Panchor insisted strongly on these -halts "in order that the Bombo may not be tired"; but I suspect it was -chiefly because he wanted a puff from his Chinese _gansa_. - -Though it was a great struggle for our horses, we came at last to the -Sangmo-bertik-la, at the giddy height of 19,094 feet, and now I stood -for the seventh time on the main crest of the Trans-Himalaya and the -watershed of the great Indian rivers. The view was closed in on all -sides and limited by adjacent heights. On a sharp ridge to the -north-west seven yaks were tramping in the snow. Panchor and one of the -soldiers went on foot in pursuit of them--to mount these steep hills on -foot and carry heavy, clumsy guns is tough work. We rode on among the -granite boulders; lower down green porphyry begins. The gradient became -more gentle, and where we encamped we could scarcely perceive in which -direction the valley sloped. - -The day had been stormy, and the blast continued on May 13. Little Puppy -went out to look at the morning, but crept back again and lay on his -mat. Takkar was still irreconcilable towards his countrymen, the -Tibetans, and inspired the greatest respect in all the escort and -Panchor. We rode on through the valley northwards, past numerous summer -camping-grounds, and recognized the characteristic low relief of -Chang-tang in contrast to the more deeply excavated valleys on the -southern side of the Trans-Himalaya. At the mouth of a side-valley -running in from the west the escort came to a halt, and Nima Tashi -explained that our road to Buptoe, where we had agreed to meet Abdul -Kerim's party, ran up this valley, and that they did not intend to go -farther north. They now showed their teeth for the first time, and were -not so pliant as we thought. They excused themselves on the ground that -their yaks were tired, that their provisions were at an end, and that -they had no orders to accompany us more than fourteen days. Panchor, the -scoundrel, took their part, and frightened us with the chief of -Bongba-chushar, who took tribute from all the robbers of the country, -and would certainly plunder us if we passed through his domain. After -long consideration we decided to camp where we were, to thoroughly -discuss the situation. Before the sun had set I had won them over, -though it was chiefly the chink of silver rupees which made them forget -all their scruples. It was agreed that they should receive their 20 -rupees every evening, and I gave them a goat in addition, as their -supply of meat was at an end. - -So on May 14 we rode farther north in blinding snow, and passed numerous -_manis_, nine standing in one row. The valley became more open, and was -more than a mile broad. We found no water at the camp, but two of our -yaks were laden with blocks of ice. Every evening we sat an hour -conversing with Panchor, and it was easy to check his statements. I told -him once and for all, that if he did not speak the truth he would -receive no extra gratuity. In the evening he declared that there were -dreadful apparitions at Muhamed Isa's grave, and that at night fearful -shrieks and groans could be heard from beneath. He was quite convinced -that spirits and demons haunted the grave, and said that no Tibetan -ventured to go near the place; this was well, for consequently the grave -would not be desecrated. - -[Illustration: 364. THE VILLAGE OF LUNKAR.] - -[Illustration: 365. GROUP OF TIBETANS AT THE TERI-NAM-TSO.] - -He gave me also much valuable information about the country round -Nam-tso or Tengri-nor, where he was born. He had gone twice round -Nam-tso, thrice round Tso-mavang, and twelve times round Kang-rinpoche, -which he intended to visit again soon, to complete the thirteenth -circuit of salvation. He considered it superfluous to make the -circuit of Dangra-yum-tso and Targo-gangri, for he had already tramped -so far that all his sins must be forgiven, and he was sure of promotion -in the next incarnation. Panchor had not the slightest doubt that a man -or horse which had drunk of the water of Tso-mavang or Nam-tso was for -ever immune from illness, robbers, and wolves. "It is just as though a -fire blazed out of that part of the body where the wolf intends to seize -him," he affirmed. But he considerably modified his statements after I -had told him that we had a mule which had drunk for a whole month of the -water of Tso-mavang and yet had been torn in pieces by wolves at Gartok. -"Yes," he replied, "the protection is only for Tibetans and their -animals, not for Europeans and their animals. And if the wolf itself -drank of the holy water it would avail nothing; he would still seize his -prey." - -On the 15th of May we set out again in a snowstorm, whereas I had been -looking forward ever since January to spring. It caused great merriment, -both among the Tibetans and the Ladakis, when one of the escort who did -not know Kunchuk's name, spoke of him as "that there calf." We had -travelled a good long way before they ceased to laugh at the newly -invented title, which stuck to Kunchuk ever after. - -The valley opens out on to a plain where kiangs, Goa and Pantholops -antelopes are plentiful. From the ridge of a hill we see to the east -another still larger plain, beyond which Targo-gangri would be visible -if the mountain were not shrouded in clouds and falling snow. Buchu-tso -is a small pool which dries up in summer. There lay three black tents, -and beyond another hill in the locality Kangmar, seven. When we -encamped, sixty men, women, and children came out and watched us. They -had gathered together here to pay their taxes to a collector from Saka. -The district is called Bongba-chushar, and the elderly Gova came to -visit us. He was a discreet man and put no awkward questions. Panchor, -who was accustomed to run with the hare and hunt with the hounds, had -probably given him an account of us beforehand. It seems he was -terribly frightened, for he had never in his life seen a European. -However, he gave us much valuable information about the country, among -other things, that the little twin lakes Mun-tso lay to the north of the -Barong-la and east of the Teri-nam-tso, not south of the Dangra-yum-tso -as on Nain Sing's map, which I had myself found to be incorrect. On the -way to the Teri-nam-tso we should be able in two places to steal goose -eggs; it was forbidden to the Tibetans for three years to take them, but -a European could permit himself anything without having to answer for it -to the gods of heaven and earth. - -After a day's rest we marched north-north-east to the broad longitudinal -valley of Soma-tsangpo. The river descends from the east-south-east, and -probably has its source in the great mountain system we saw from the -Shuru-tso. Here it runs west-north-west, but afterwards turns north and -north-eastwards, and therefore makes a sharp curve before it enters the -Teri-nam-tso. Its bed is flat and shallow, and at the time carried down -about 280 cubic feet of water per second, but it is so full in summer -that sometimes it cannot be forded. We camped at a spring in a valley at -the farther side, and on May 18 ascended the adjacent pass, Dongchen-la, -and on its south slopes twenty-four Ovis Ammon sheep were a fine sight. - -On the night of the 19th, the minimum temperature was 29.5 deg., and now it -felt as if spring were really come, or even summer. The way ran -north-west up a steep valley, where granite and dark schists were twice -observed _in situ_, to the small pass Teta-la (16,266 feet), where we -had at length a free view over the longed-for lake Teri-nam-tso, Nain -Sing's Tede-nam-tso, which he never visited nor saw, but only heard of, -and inserted with a broken line quite correctly on his map. The only -mistake he made was to draw the lake longer from north to south instead -of from east to west. - -To obtain an uninterrupted view we climbed up a height on the north side -of the pass (16,972 feet). The scene here displayed in all directions -was one of the grandest and most memorable tableaus I have seen in -Tibet. The "heavenly lake" lay like a great flat-cut turquoise framed -in mountains and hills shaded in pink, red, yellow, and purple, which, -towards the horizon, gradually passed into a light blue veil. Only to -the south-east quadrant is the view obstructed by adjacent heights -belonging to the chain on the crest of which we stand, and which runs -along the southern shore of the lake, but elsewhere the view is open, -dizzy, boundless, and the eyes scan both Sha-kangsham's majestic peak -and Targo-gangri's many-headed ridge, and the seven-times-mounted main -range of the Trans-Himalaya, with its snow-crowned heights rising in a -row of bright white domes to the south. Many other peaks and domes with -eternal snow rise over this sea of tumbled waves, but, after all, the -finest sight is the lake itself, which charms and fascinates the -spectator by its intense ultramarine hue, a couple of shades deeper and -stronger than turquoise. When one first comes to the saddle of the pass -and this wealth of colouring strikes the retina, one can scarcely -restrain an exclamation of astonishment and admiration. We look down -straight on the lake, and its southern shore is just below us. To the -west it extends for two days' journey, and widens out enormously, while -to the east it contracts and seems to stretch a good day's journey. Due -north-east the blue surface is broken by a steep rocky islet, with a -level shore only in the east, and further east one fancies one can -detect the hollow where the basin of the Dangra-yum-tso skirts the -northern foot of the divine Targo-gangri mountain. - -Beautiful weather, not a cloud on the blue vault of heaven, calm and -quiet, only the gentlest whisper over the hills sounding in the ears -like the tinkle of small bells and the vibration of strings. One feels -overwhelmed by this grand beauty, which speaks more powerfully to the -senses than the high mass of any archbishop. I stood several hours up -here and made a hopeless attempt to sketch the landscape, but succeeded -in producing only a feeble imitation of the reality. From the Teta-la -one commands a very considerable area of the heart of Tibet. How -extensive is the line of Sha-kangsham! How many are the points from -which I have viewed this wonderful mountain on different journeys! Like -a gigantic beacon, a marvellous landmark, it raises its snow-covered -dome above desolate Tibet. And we were far from its dripping glaciers -when for the last time it sank below the horizon like a dream of snow -and roses. - -At last we had to drag ourselves away and follow the track of the other -men to a little dreary valley where they had encamped near a couple of -tents. Even here the view was remarkable. How I now missed my old tried -boat, and how gladly I would have glided with sail and oar over the -heavenly lake! - -[Illustration: 366. THE VILLAGE OF LUNKAR FROM THE TEMPLE HILL.] - -[Illustration: 367. THE SOUTHERN SHORE OF MANASAROWAR WITH GRAZING -YAKS.] - -We remained four whole days at this miserable camp with its fine view -(15,646 feet). The fact was that Dangra-yum-tso now for the fourth time -began to haunt my dreams, and as the holy lake was only four days' -journey to the east, I would try to reach its shore. But Nima Tashi and -Panchor put all kinds of difficulties in the way: their yaks would -perish where there was no grazing, and it was impossible to hire yaks, -for all had lately gone to Tabie-tsaka for salt. I proposed to go on my -own horses and meet them at Mendong-gompa after the excursion, and to -this they made no objection at first. If I had not been by this time -heartily sick of Tibet, I would have played them a pretty trick, and -gone not only to Dangra-yum-tso, but further eastwards until I was -stopped. But I was weary of geography, discoveries, and adventures, and -wanted to get home. And besides, on comparing the lands east and west of -the Teri-nam-tso, I considered the latter far better worth visiting. The -former I had traversed by three routes, and two other travellers had -been there, but no one had been in the west, and we knew nothing about -it except the uncertain data which the Jesuits had gathered from the -natives two hundred years ago. In fact this land was the least known -part of Tibet, and the road to the Nganglaring-tso crosses the blank -patch in its longer direction. If the authorities had asked me which way -I would choose, I should have answered, the way to the Nganglaring-tso. -It would have been wisest to close at once with Nima Tashi's suggestion -to go straight to Mendong-gompa. But their opposition egged me on to -break another lance for Dangra-yum-tso. I ought to have remembered that -he who grasps at all loses all, for I was within an ace of losing -Mendong-gompa into the bargain. - -For when Nima Tashi saw that he could not make me give way, he secretly -sent a message to Tagla Tsering, the chief of Sangge-ngamo-buk, the -district we were in and which is subject to Naktsang. And Tagla Tsering -came. Last year he had been in Lundup's train when the latter had -stopped us at the foot of Targo-gangri and prevented us from going to -the shore of the holy lake. Now he looked very grand and important. Over -a mantle of panther skin he wore a belt of six bright silver _gaos_, and -in the belt was stuck a sword with a silver scabbard inlaid with -turquoise and coral, and at his side rattled knives and other pendent -articles. Over all, he wore a long reddish-violet mantle, and on his -head a Chinese silk cap. He was accompanied by six horsemen, and, the -day after, twenty more arrived, all armed to the teeth with guns, -swords, and lances; all in picturesque bright-coloured costumes, some -with tall brimmed hats on their heads, others with bandages round their -foreheads, Tagla Tsering evidently took the matter seriously, and tried -to get over me by talking of raising the militia (Illust. 329). - -The powerful chief meanwhile entered my tent, friendly and pleased, and, -like an old friend, bade me heartily welcome, and expressed his great -astonishment that I had come back again, though I had been forced the -year before to turn back. Had I not already brought about Hlaje -Tsering's fall, and would I cause the new Governor of Naktsang to meet -the same fate? Or what did I mean? - -"No, Hedin Sahib, you cannot travel to Naktsang. Turn to the west. Nima -Tashi had no authority to lead you even to the Teri-nam-tso; it was on -the Buptsang-tsangpo you were to meet the caravan. You talk of -Mendong-gompa. You have no right to travel thither. There is a nearer -way to the rendezvous. Mendong-gompa does not lie in my district, but -all the same I have sent written notices to all the govas in the country -to stop you if you travel to the monastery." - -Poor Nima Tashi was half dead with fright. He had thought to frighten -me, but now he saw that the chief and I sat together like old friends, -drinking tea and smoking cigarettes, while he was reprimanded for -bringing me too far. I told him afterwards that he was a noodle, and if -he now got into trouble in Saka it was his own fault. Tagla Tsering's -good humour was much enhanced when I promised to turn back and conform -to the arrangements of the chiefs on the way to Mendong, if by any -chance I was prevented from approaching the convent. - -We said farewell on May 24, and continued our journey westwards along -the southern shore of the lake. The water is salt and has an extremely -unpleasant taste, and cannot be drunk in any circumstances. Lamlung-la -(16,880 feet) is a commanding pass, which must be crossed to cut off a -peninsula. The rocks are granite and green schist. Hares and wild-geese -are very plentiful. Here and there are freshwater lagoons on the shore, -which forms a very narrow belt at the foot of the mountains. The -northern shore belt seems to be much broader. We followed the southern -shore another day to the spring Tertsi at the western extremity of the -lake, which forms a large regular expansion. - -I heard the name of this lovely lake variously pronounced by different -nomads. Nain Sing's Tede-nam-tso is incorrect. The Gova of Kangmar -insisted that Tsari-nam-tso was the correct pronunciation, and said that -the name was bestowed because _ri di tsa-la tso yore_, that is, "The -lake situated at the foot of the mountain." The nomads on the shore, -however, said Tiri- or Teri-nam-tso. At our camp 411 were two small -mountains on the shore, called Techen and Techung, or the Great and -Little Te, or more correctly Ti. _Ti_ is a lama's throne in a temple, -_ri_ signifies mountain, _nam_ heaven, and _tso_ lake. The whole name -therefore has the poetical meaning of the Throne-mountain's Heavenly -Lake. Its height above sea-level is 15,367 feet, or 413 feet lower than -Mont Blanc, which, if it lifted up its head from the turquoise billows -of the lake, would look like the small rocky islet in its eastern half. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXI - -ANOTHER JOURNEY ACROSS THE WHITE PATCH - - -We left on May 26 the heavenly lake, the shore of which had never before -been trodden by European or pundit, and saw its blue surface diminish to -a sabre blade between the mountains, and finally disappear in the east, -while we rode westwards over a wide plain, which was formerly under -water. Kutus, Lobsang, and Panchor accompanied me. We must hasten to -descend on the monastery before the monks got wind of us, and the -caravan and escort could come after and encamp near Mendong-gompa. -Panchor disappeared at the first tent we passed, and was not seen again -all day. He was a coward, and did not wish to be suspected of showing us -the way to the sanctuary. We had therefore to shift for ourselves and -find our way thither. - -Two men and a woman came out of a nomad encampment to the track we -followed, and asked if we had seen the European who was said to be -travelling about Bongba. In order to preserve my incognito till I came -to Mendong, I answered that he was coming behind with his caravan, and -if they kept on the look-out they would see an amusing figure. Probably -they had long given up all hope of seeing the stranger. My involuntary -disguise therefore did me good service, for the nomads took me to be, -like the other two men, servants of the expected European. - -Hour after hour we rode on westwards and looked in vain for a monastery. -But at last it cropped up all of a sudden. We were on the top of a bank -terrace 30 feet high, skirting on the east the channel of the -Soma-tsangpo, and saw at the foot of the opposite terrace the -quadrangular stone house of the monastery with its white walls and red -frieze, _chhortens_, _mani_ heaps, and streamers, and on the east and -west of it two tent villages, the upper inhabited by sixty monks, the -lower by forty nuns (Illust. 360). The Soma-tsangpo, also called Nyagga, -or Soma-Nyagga-tsangpo, now carried down 350 to 420 cubic feet of water, -which, divided into four channels, glided over a treacherously deepening -bottom. We managed, however, to ford it, and rode up to the gate of the -monastery, where ten monks, good-natured but reserved, met us. I have no -space to describe the religious organization of Mendong-gompa. It is -enough to say that hitherto it was quite unknown even by name, like so -many of the convents we visited the year before. The peculiarity of this -monastery is that the brothers and sisters live in black tents, and -every tent is a cell. The tents had a very comfortable and attractive -appearance, but the sisters, of whom I took some portraits, were hideous -to behold--old unwashed harpies, barbarous and demoralized. That there -is anything idyllic and fascinating in life in a nunnery in the wilds is -a pure illusion, which vanishes at once at the sight of these old apes. -They have also a puzzling resemblance to their male colleagues, and it -is often difficult to decide whether one of them is a man or a woman -(Illust. 354). - -When we left the solitary monastery on May 28 we decided to make for the -rendezvous on the Buptsang-tsangpo, where Abdul Kerim would no doubt be -uneasy at our prolonged absence. It had been arranged that we should be -separated only two weeks, but before we reached the river a whole month -would have passed away. - -[Illustration: 368. LUNKAR-GOMPA.] - -[Illustration: 369. SELIPUK-GOMPA.] - -So we set out early, followed the right bank of the Soma-tsangpo -southwards, and crossed the range, from the top of which, at the -Teta-la, we had first seen the Teri-nam-tso. The valley is quite 21/2 -miles broad, the strand terraces are well developed, the fall is slight, -and the rush of water is seldom heard; here and there stands a tent with -grazing flocks. One more sunrise and we ride through the river (Illust. -358), which, with the Sachu-tsangpo, Buptsang-tsangpo, and -Bogtsang-tsangpo, shares the honour of being one of the largest in -the interior of Tibet. Through the valley Goa-lung we rode up on May 30 -to the pass Goa-la (17,382 feet), flat and easy, lying amidst pink and -grey granite, and affording an instructive view over the Trans-Himalaya -to the south. To the south-west we see, close below the pass, the small -lake Karong-tso--a new discovery, like everything else in this country. -Our route ran to the west, when we, on June 1, rode, with the Karong-tso -on our left hand, and a crest of medium height on our right, through the -district Bongba-kemar, following the great route of the salt caravans -between Raga-tasam and Tabie-tsaka, which crosses the already mentioned -pass Tsalam-nakta-la. A high-road from Naktsang joins this. At camp 417 -we had the Chunit-tso near us on the north-west. - -Although we were at the beginning of June, the minimum sank below -freezing-point; in the night of the 1st the thermometer fell to 16.3 deg.. -But the day was warm, nay hot, when the sun shone and the air was still. -The dreary barren valleys lay waiting for the rainy season. The grass -was more than scanty, for last summer the rains failed. Our direction -turned more to the south-west. From camp 418 we saw, to the south, 60 deg. -E., the opening of a valley through which a highway runs through -Bongba-kyangrang over the Dicha-la to Lapchung. - -Our Tibetans know excellently well how to look after themselves on the -journey. On the march they twist string, talk, sing and whistle, and -shout at their yaks. In pitching their camp they set up their black tent -in a moment, first stretching out the ropes and fastening them into the -ground with wooden pegs, and then throwing the cloth over the poles. The -animals are unloaded and sent off to feed, and the men gather fuel and -make a fire in the tent, where all assemble to drink tea and sleep. -After a couple of hours they come out again, wrestle, play and laugh. In -the dusk one may be heard singing a monotonous ballad, which must, -however, be amusing, for the others laugh heartily at every verse. -Morning and evening they gabble their prayers, all together, murmuring -like bees in a hive. An old man, whom I knew the year before, has a -riding yak of his own, and brandishes the escort's prayer-mill. He is -never seen without this ingenious instrument. The men are always -good-natured and polite, help us to collect fuel, set up the tents and -load the animals, and frequently pay us a visit. We know them all by -name and are the best of friends. - -The temperature sank in the night only a few degrees below -freezing-point, and yet a snowstorm raged almost all day long on June 3. -We rode past a large marsh in the valley and up to the flat saddle -Merke-sang, with a view over the plain we crossed exactly two months -before on the way to the Buptsang-tsangpo. Camp 419 lay therefore in the -Bongba-kebyang district again. To the south-east is the pass Chiptu-la, -with the pilgrim route from Nakchu to Kang-rinpoche. To the south, 27 deg. -W., rises a snowy summit, at the foot of which a road leads over the -Dsalung-la to Tradum. As a watershed this pass is of the first rank, and -it sends off a voluminous tributary to the Buptsang-tsangpo. The escort -sent off a messenger in advance to this river to look out for Abdul -Kerim's party. - -June 4. It had snowed all night long, and we set out in the wildest -snowstorm. It was half dark, with heavy leaden clouds; not a glimpse -could be seen of the surrounding mountains; all was wet, muddy, and -evil-smelling; pools of melting snow lay on the ground, and seven -pilgrims from Kang-rinpoche were close upon us before they emerged from -the mist. We splashed through the soaked soil, but when we encamped on -the shore of the Buptsang-tsangpo the weather was much clearer. - -Before I proceed further I will mention that the great province of -Bongba is divided into twelve _tso_ or districts, namely: Parryang, -Laktsang, Buptoe, Tsaruk, Yeke, Tarok, Kebyang, Kemar, Parma, Changma, -Kyangrang, and Chushar. To each of these district names is usually -prefixed the name of the province, as, for instance, Bongba-parryang, -Bongba-laktsang, etc. We were now in Bongba-kebyang. - -[Illustration: 370. THE TRANS-HIMALAYA FROM ABUK-LA. (The three parts in -the illustration form a continuous panorama from East to S.S.W.)] - -[Illustration: 371. STORM OVER THE TRANS-HIMALAYA. (To the left the way -up to Samye-la; valley of Buptsang-tsangpo.) - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Some tents stood on the river bank. The nomads reported that Abdul Kerim -had gone a week before by a cross-cut over the mountain on the right, -down towards the Tarok-tso. There was no Gova here, but two natives -were ready to let us on hire the five yaks we required. They were shy -and timorous, but Panchor, the rogue, spoke well of us, and it was -agreed that they should accompany us to the boundary of Tarok-tso. On -the morning of June 5 we took farewell of Nima Tashi and his soldiers -and of Panchor, and rode between the hills on the left side of the -valley down the course of the Buptsang-tsangpo. Soon the valley -contracted to a ditch, but before long expanded again. On our left hand -we had the main range of the Trans-Himalaya, which, however, did not -present an imposing appearance, for we were always close to its foot. At -times we were enveloped in a snowstorm, and at Mabie-tangsam-angmo, -where we camped, we made haste to get a cover over our heads. When -Little Puppy heard the thunder rumble for the first time in his life, he -was very disturbed and barked with all his might, but he could not make -out whence the noise came, and he found it safest to fly into the tent -and hide himself behind my bed-head. - -June 6. Hail and snow! The whole country is hidden under newly-fallen -snow, as far as we can see. Is June to be reckoned among the winter -months? We have already had nine of them. It seems as though summer were -missed out this year and we were approaching another winter. But the -precipitation is welcome to the nomads, for it promotes the growth of -fresh grass. We march sometimes on the top, sometimes at the foot of a -lofty erosion terrace 80 to 100 feet high, which is a characteristic -feature in this large valley. Geese, wild asses, Goa antelopes, and -foxes are everywhere. A sharp bend in the river forces us to the -north-north-east for a time, and the valley is again narrow and -picturesque. At Tuta, which belongs to Bongba-tsaruk, we encamp close by -the Buptsang-tsangpo, where the wild-geese swim with their yellow chicks -in the clear water. - -Eighteen degrees of frost on the night of June 7. Yet the day was fine, -and flies, gnats, and other insects were more numerous than before. As -on the two preceding days we crossed several small affluents from the -Trans-Himalaya. The Buptsang valley expanded more and more, and at -length became 13 miles broad. We encamped in sight of the Tarok-tso, on -a level plain about 16 feet above the surface of the lake, and with two -nomad tents as our nearest neighbours. The height here was 15,197 feet. - -Our guides were the pleasantest and most complacent we had ever had, our -movements were not controlled by chiefs and soldiers, and Karma Puntso's -camp was far away--we might have travelled wherever we liked. But the -Buptsang-tsangpo and the Tarok-tso were the most interesting -geographical features in Bongba, and now we saw the lake close in front -of us. - -Our plan was to make on June 8 for Lunkar-gompa, which was seen perched -on its hill with a view over the lake. But it was not to be, for at six -o'clock Gova Pensa arrived on horseback accompanied by two servants. He -was dressed in a handsome blue cloak, looked about fifty-five years old, -and greeted us in a kind and friendly manner. After a while came half a -dozen more horsemen--evidently we were held up again. Gova Pensa asked -us to remain where we were for the day, for Gova Parvang, the district -chief of Tarok-shung, would come in the afternoon. He said it was -impossible to see Lunkar-gompa, for both the head lamas, with most of -the other twenty monks, were gone two days before to Kang-rinpoche, and -had left the temple gates locked. Only four nuns and two monks had been -left behind. Of Abdul Kerim's party he only knew that they had met Gova -Parvang, but did not know where they were now. - -Gova Parvang did not put in an appearance, but sent instead his -lieutenant, old Yamba, and seventeen other unarmed men to my tent. Yamba -had orders not to let us go to Tabie-tsaka if he valued his head. But he -added that if we went there of our own accord and with our own horses he -could not stop us, but yaks and provisions would not be supplied, and -the nomads had orders to avoid us like the plague. Would we, on the -other hand, go up a valley which opened out to the south-south-west by -which we could reach Tuksum in seven days over the Lungnak-la, he would -let us hire yaks, would sell us provisions, and provide us with guides. -Or if we would go over the Lunkar-la north-westwards to Selipuk, he -would also do his best to serve us. He advised us to take the latter -route, for he had been present when Gova Parvang forced Abdul Kerim to -take the direct road to Selipuk between the Tarok-tso and Tabie-tsaka. -We had, then, three different routes to choose from, which led over the -blank space on the map of Tibet, where there are no other black lines -but the meridians and parallels and the word "Unexplored." I did not -take a minute to choose; the middle road over the Lunkar-la was -naturally the most desirable, for I knew that it would yield me most -details to complete my knowledge of the intricate orography of the -Trans-Himalaya. On the morning of June 9 we hastily concluded our -business, obtained yaks and guides, bought barley, rice, and _tsamba_, -took farewell of the chiefs of Bongba-tarok, and steered our course -direct to the temple. We passed several tent villages, for the country -is densely peopled. At the foot of the mountain, on the left, a warm -spring rises out of the ground. Below the monastery hill stand twenty -small white stone cabins, each with a red frieze under the eaves and a -small quadrangular yard. In front of the village are two _chhortens_ -(Illusts. 359, 366). behind which two women with their children were -hiding. While the caravan continued up the Lunkar valley, I, with -Lobsang and Kutus, ascended the porphyry hill to the temple, which is -surrounded by a quadrangular wall. Some savage dogs rushed upon us and -snapped at Little Puppy, but there was no other sign of life. We went -into the court and found the temple door closed, and fastened with a -great iron lock. As I was sketching a panorama of the great beautiful -lake and its wreath of mountains, six men came up and told us in an -angry voice to go away. I rose up, went straight to the nearest of them, -and, pointing to the path down to the village, told them that if they -did not immediately make off they must put up with the consequences. -They turned round meekly without saying a word. - -The lake stretches from north, 26 deg. W., to north, 57 deg. E., but extends -further eastwards hidden behind a mountain. To the north-north-east two -rocky islets are seen near the northern shore. To the north-east the -Buptsang-tsangpo enters a bay, and in the far distance in the same -direction our old Sha-kangsham appears. The water of the Tarok-tso is -said to be sweet, but I had no opportunity of confirming this statement. -If it is correct, the lake must have a subterranean outlet to the -Tabie-tsaka lying to the north, though a small mountain offshoot lies -between the two lakes. - -We left the small inhospitable monastery and a couple of small white and -red houses, where the nuns have their cells, and soon rejoined our men -in the Lunkar valley. - -[Illustration: 372. SONAM NGURBU AND HIS FOLLOWERS ON HORSEBACK.] - -[Illustration: 373. SOME OF OUR HORSES ON THE WAY TO KAMBA TSENAM'S -TENT.] - -In the night the temperature was above freezing-point for the first -time. Our path ascended steeply to the south-west and south, and in -three hours we were at the streamer-decked cairn on the Lunkar-la, where -the height was 18,274 feet. From a height to the north-east of the pass -the Tarok-tso lies below the spectator as on a map, and in the north -from 20 deg. to 26 deg. E. is seen the white and yellow saline depression of -Tabie-tsaka, renowned throughout Tibet. At Goang-shung we got three new -guides with four yaks, who took us to the bank of the Gyenor- or -Goang-tsangpo--a small river which, coming from the mountain Kapta in -the south-east, falls into the Poru-tso. To the west rises a chain of -mighty snowy peaks. On the morning of June 12, after 8.8 degrees of -frost, the stream was covered with a third of an inch of ice, and I -missed the pleasant rippling sound of the evening. But the ice broke up -in the sunshine and rattled down in large flakes. We were conducted -still to the south-west; on the next day when we encamped on the lake -shore the direction was nearer west. From camp 428 (17,067 feet) we had -a fine view over the small lake Poru-tso, also called Yeke-tso because -it is situated in the district Bongba-yeke, the westernmost in the large -province of Bongba, which is under the control of Karma Puntso. To the -west of it follows Rigi-hloma or Rigi-changmo, which is subject to -Ngari-karpun, as the Garpun of Gartok is called here. Puru-tso is drying -up; the highest shore-line lies 354 feet above the present level of the -lake. The water is not fit for drinking, but, curiously enough, it still -contains fish. An extremely disagreeable odour rises from the beach. -The lake stretches from north-east to south-west. - -On June 14 we rode westwards and crossed the broad valley watered by the -Nyapchu-tsangpo, which, descending from the Men-la due south, falls into -the Poru-tso. The Men-la, a day's journey off, is a pass in a -longitudinal valley between two of the ranges of the Trans-Himalaya. -Over its threshold a road runs to Shamsang on the upper Tsangpo. A day -was spent on the bank of the Surle-tsangpo, which also flows to the -Poru-tso, and in the evening carried quite 210 cubic feet of water per -second. - -Here I was waited on by Gova Pundar of Rigi-hloma, an elderly man, who -gave me a _kadakh_, butter, meal, and milk, and sold us all the -provisions we required for several days, and his goodwill knew no -bounds. The people in this part of Tibet were always very friendly -disposed. In the Lob country the natives called me Padishahim or "Your -Majesty," a title that more than satisfied my ambition; but in Bongba -and Rigi I was often called Rinpoche or "Your Holiness," which I thought -a little too strong. But they meant well, and I accepted their -civilities as the most natural thing in the world. Gova Pundar knew -every inch of his country, and I pumped him thoroughly. Among other -interesting details, he informed me that thirteen days' journey to the -north, near the Lakkor-tso, was a monastery Marmik-gompa, a dependency -of Sera, with twenty-five monks and four nuns. In the year 1901 I had -been at the Lakkor-tso, and had heard the blast of the shell-horn at the -other side of a ridge, but I did not enjoy the same freedom as now, and -could not visit the monastery. - -We rode on the 16th in a snowstorm, with fresh men and yaks, through the -picturesque Surle valley, and on the 17th over stony moss-grown slopes -to the pass Sur-la or Sur-la-Kemi-la, 19,134 feet high, which, like the -Lunkar-la, is of the second order, for it is a divide between the -Poru-tso and the Shovo-tso. Before reaching the actual pass we had a -striking view west-south-west over a world of firn-fields, peaks clothed -with eternal snow, and glaciers, one of which, of large dimensions and -bluish green in front, with numerous moraines and rivulets, descends to -the Surle river. Here grey granite predominates; wild yaks are -everywhere; the country is barren and of a high alpine character. On the -other side of the Sur-la the ground descends rapidly among quantities of -medium-sized granite boulders. - -At camp 431 we were, then, in the district Rigi-changma. When we went on -farther down the valley from the pass on June 18, we suddenly heard wild -yells from a whole choir of four large and six small wolves, which were -strolling along a slope immediately to the left of the path. They were -greyish yellow, and seemed hungry and in a very vicious humour. Takkar -rushed heedlessly at them, but they faced him, and he thought it better -to turn back. They showed no signs of fear, but held their ground even -when we threw stones at them. At that moment two horsemen with weapons -and red hats came down from the Sur-la. They were pursuivants sent out -in advance to Selipuk to make preparations for the arrival of the -_serpuns_, or gold commissioners. These gentlemen are sent annually from -Lhasa to Tok-jalung, and their journey is burdensome to the nomads, for -they exact pack animals and food without payment. They take the road -north of the Teri-nam-tso and Tabie-tsaka, which is one of Tibet's great -arteries. It is called the Ser-lam, or the "gold road." - -Over a small saddle we came to the Pedang-tsangpo's valley, 61/2 miles -broad, which starts from the Trans-Himalayan pass Pedang-la, and runs -almost due north. Camp 432 was pitched on the river bank in a place -quite devoid of life. Our guides wished to turn back with their yaks, -but were persuaded to accompany us to the nearest tent village. What -could the Tibetans be thinking of? They left us without the slightest -supervision, and we enjoyed more freedom than ever before. We could now -have travelled anywhere we liked, eastwards to Tabie-tsaka or southwards -over the Trans-Himalaya; but the lakes in the north had most attraction -for me, and we should have to cross the lofty mountains in the south at -some time. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXII - -THE LAST DAYS IN UNKNOWN COUNTRY - - -On June 19 we proceeded north-north-east down the Pedang-tsangpo's -gently declining valley, sometimes near, sometimes at a distance from, -the fairly large river. On the right was the ridge of the Sur-la with -its snowy summits and small glacier tongues, and far in the north was -seen a huge crest called Ganglung-gangri, a prolongation of the Sur-la. -We found that this colossal range, like its eastern and western -neighbours, runs from north-north-west to south-south-east, and that the -orographical configuration is totally unlike the scheme set forth by -Hodgson, Atkinson, Saunders, and Burrard, for these gentlemen, quite -hypothetically, inserted a single chain parallel to the upper -Brahmaputra. In reality one wanders here in a labyrinth of mountain -ranges, one and all only parts of the gigantic system of the -Trans-Himalaya. - -The road was excellent, and after a long ride we set up our two tents on -the bank of a glacier stream while snow squalls and showers of pelting -rain came down alternately. Here we had to stay a day, that the genial -nomads of the neighbourhood might send for the district chief; for we -had nothing to eat, but had to buy whatever we could get. He came, and -we bought provisions for 50 rupees, and gave him 20 for his kindness. -Our treasury was almost empty, and I looked forward with trembling to -the time when we should be obliged, like wandering Jews, to sell -watches, revolvers, and horses to gain a livelihood. For here, in -Rigi-changma, no one had heard of Abdul Kerim and his men. We could not -tell what had happened. Had he gone quite off his head? He had 2500 -rupees with him; had he decamped, or had he been robbed? A letter was -despatched to Gova Parvang saying that if he did not get news of them in -a week he would have all the Devashung and the Mandarins about his ears. -At any rate we had made a splendid journey through unknown country, and -now we must make our way to the Shovo-tso we had long heard spoken of. -Properly we ought to have gone over the Pedang range on the west direct -to Selipuk, but it was not difficult to talk over the Gova, and on June -21 he had fresh yaks and guides ready. The latter were a young man and a -boy ten years old in a blue sheepskin. With these we could have gone off -anywhere, but I was tired and longed to get home. The valley of the -Pedang-tsangpo took us further to the north. It is unusual to find in -Tibet such a great longitudinal valley running north and south, for they -lie almost always east and west, and produce the peculiar parallelism so -characteristic of the country. We passed sixteen tents, and near the -last we crossed the Pedang-tsangpo, which runs to the Shovo-tso by a -more easterly course. Lobsang caused great amusement when he was -attacked by a furious dog, and, having no stones, threw his bright -sheath-knife at him; he missed, but the dog took the knife in his teeth -and ran off to his master's tent. - -Then we rode up to the Abuk-la pass, with a view both magnificent and -instructive. The bluish-green Shovo-tso is, like Poru-tso, longest from -north-east to south-west, and is surrounded by huge mountains, some of -them with eternal snow. To the north, 30 deg. E., we see the pass Ka-la, -over which the "gold road" runs. The name Ka-la occurs on a map of one -of Montgomerie's pundits by a single isolated mountain summit. In -reality the Ka-la is the very opposite of a mountain summit, namely, a -depression or saddle in a mountain range. We encamped on the southern -shore of the Shovo-tso, which lies at an absolute height of 15,696 feet. -The water is salt, and round the shore are seen old shore-lines of about -the same height as at Poru-tso. - -[Illustration: 374. LAMA OF CHOKCHU TAKING LEAVE OF THE PRIOR OF -SELIPUK.] - -[Illustration: 375. LAMA OF CHOKCHU ON HORSEBACK.] - -June 22. When we left the western extremity of the Shovo-tso we saw a -large caravan of yaks and sheep which seemed to have the same -destination as ourselves. Lobsang found out that the people were -_nekoras_ or pilgrims on the way to Kang-rinpoche, and that the owner of -the caravan was the Governor of Chokchu, Sonam Ngurbu (Illust. 372). We -left them behind and rode up to the pass Tela-mata-la. A horseman -approached us at a gallop, and made signs to us to halt. We waited for -him, all on the tiptoe of expectation, for we made sure that he brought -us a message from Abdul Kerim. Bah! it was only one of Sonam Ngurbu's -soldiers who wanted to ask our guides if a spring on the way to Selipuk -had any water in it this year. Sonam Ngurbu's caravan had come from -Tabie-tsaka and had not heard a word of our men. It seemed as though the -earth had swallowed them up. My orders had been that, whatever else they -did, they should wait for us on the Buptsang-tsangpo. Doubtless they had -been plundered by robbers; and we had only 80 rupees left. I blessed the -hour when I decided to keep myself all the maps, notes, sketches, and -rock specimens when we parted at Kamba Tsenam's tent. We could obtain -money by selling some valuables, and from Selipuk I could send a courier -to Thakur Jai Chand in Gartok. - -From Tela-mata-la we have again a striking view over almost all the -Sur-la range and over the mountainous region of Lavar-gangri to the -south of Selipuk. With every day's march the orographical configuration -becomes clearer, and soon the leading features of the blank space will -be nearly all ascertained. - -The temperature again sank at the midsummer season below freezing-point, -the reading on June 23 being 25.9 deg.. We rode through a small steep valley -up to the Tayep-parva-la (17,887 feet). The ground was so honeycombed -with mouse-holes that the horses trod on two or three at once. Little -Puppy caught a couple of field-mice by the neck, and we did not pity -them. A marmot which had ventured too far from its hole almost fell into -Takkar's clutches, but just saved himself in time. At the pass we made -the usual halt for observations, and I drew a panorama of the -surroundings. Between north and north-west the horizon is far distant -and the country level; only to the north, 5 deg. W., appears a small -snow-capped dome, but not another _gangri_. The view over -Nganglaring-tso, just below, is grand, all the mountains in shades of -pink, and the water of a deep ultramarine. A large part of its eastern -half is occupied by a large island, a mountain mass rising out of the -water with a contour as irregular as that of the lake itself, all -promontories, bays, and capes. To the north-west lie three small -islands. No European had ever seen Nganglaring-tso before, nor any -pundit. But the pundit sent by Montgomerie in 1867 to Tok-jalung -obtained some hazy information about the district "Shellifuk" and the -great lake "Ghalaring-tso," which was afterwards inserted in maps of -Tibet. The form given by the pundit to the lake, namely, an egg-shape -with the longer axis from north to south, does not at all correspond to -the reality; for the lake stretches east and west, and its contour could -not be more irregular than it is. The pundit places a small island in -the northern half, and adds the legend "Monastery on Island." In reality -Nganglaring-tso has at least four islands, but not a single monastery. - -On Midsummer Day we encamped by the roaring surf (15,577 feet), and on -the 25th we crossed the last hilly mountain spur which still separated -us from the extensive plain of Selipuk. From its height we again saw the -great chain of Sur-la, and to the south the Trans-Himalaya with -sixty-three snowy peaks, regular as the teeth of a saw. On the 26th we -rode over level country to the west-north-west. On the plain two mounted -Tibetans were pursuing a wild ass, which was wounded in the near foreleg -and had four dogs at his heels. The dogs did not bite him, but tried to -chase the animal in a certain direction. Time after time the men were -close on the game and dismounted; they did not shoot, but threw up dust -with their hands to frighten the wild ass and drive him as near as -possible to their tent, that they might not have to carry the meat far -(Illust. 356). - -[Illustration: 376, 377. BOYS SITTING.] - -[Illustration: 378. YOUNG LAMA.] - -[Illustration: 379. OLD WOMAN. - - Sketches by the Author.] - -Camp 439 was pitched on the bank of the river Sumdang-tsangpo, which -flows into the Nganglaring-tso without joining the rivers -Lavar-tsangpo and Aong-tsangpo, farther west, which unite and enter the -lake's most western bounds. Here Lobsang caught a wolf cub, a small wild -rogue, which much interested Takkar. But Takkar had a great respect for -his hereditary enemy and ventured to bite only his tail. Afterwards he -became bolder, and when the little creature found himself in a desperate -situation, he threw himself into the river to swim over to the other -side. Then Takkar gave a yell, jumped in and caught the cub, thrust him -down with his paws, seized him with his teeth and brought him to land, -where he ate every bit of him. - -We followed the river upwards on June 27 and encamped again on its bank -opposite the monastery Selipuk-gompa (15,696 feet), the abbot of which, -a Kanpo-lama, Jamtse Singe, was also chief of the district in secular -affairs (Illusts. 356, 374, 369, 341). Neither he nor any one else had -heard anything of Abdul Kerim, but he was so good as to search in his -holy books to find out where our men were, and he came to the conclusion -that they were somewhere to the south, and that in twenty days we should -either meet them or hear some reliable news of them. - -On June 28, at half-past nine in the evening, the country was shaken by -an earthquake--the only one I ever experienced in Tibet. However, it had -no effect on the good relations between me and the monks and Sonam -Ngurbu, the Governor (Illusts. 326, 375), who was also a guest in the -monastery, and had a high lama from Chokchu (Illust. 355) in his party. -The Governor gave us as much _tsamba_, rice, and sugar as would at a -pinch last us till we came to Tokchen, and he received a watch in -exchange. Of money we had only a few rupees left. I had never been in -such straits before. If I ever meet Abdul Kerim again, I thought, he -shall get what he deserves and a little more. - -When we set up our tents on the last day of June on the Rartse plain, -south of Selipuk, Lobsang announced at dusk that four men and four mules -were coming to the camp. They were Abdul Kerim, Sedik, Gaffar, and a -Tibetan. Our caravan bashi came frightened and confused to my tent, and -I thought it better that he should give an account of his stewardship -before I passed sentence on him. He reported that they had come to the -appointed rendezvous at the proper time, but there he had been hard -pressed by six Govas--Gova Parvang among them, who took the lead, and -ordered them to leave the place at once and go on to the Tarok-tso. As -they had no passport from Lhasa, they could expect no mercy, he said. So -they betook themselves to the northern shore of the Tarok-tso, where -they waited fourteen days, as the grazing was good and no one interfered -with them. They heard contradictory reports about us. At length a nomad -died on the lake shore, and a monk from Lunkar-gompa was summoned to his -tent to read the prayers for the dead. They met this man, and he said -that we had passed the monastery nine days previously. Then they packed -up all their belongings, intending to hurry after us next morning. But -horse-stealers had come in the night and stolen my grey Tikze horse and -a mule from Saka-dzong. This event cost them three days, but they never -recovered the stolen animals. While Suen, Abdullah, Abdul Rasak, and -Sonam Kunchuk followed slowly, the three others made forced marches -westwards, and now at last they were here and had all our cash with -them. Abdul Kerim escaped with a slight reprimand, but I afterwards -heard the other men badgering him. We found the others in Kyangrang, and -so the whole strength of the company, thirteen men, was complete when, -on July 8, we crossed the pass Ding-la (Illust. 213), 19,308 feet high, -the loftiest pass we had crossed in all this journey in Tibet, and on -past the small lake Argok-tso, which lies in the basin of the -Aong-tsangpo; and on July 12 we crossed the Surnge-la (17,310 feet). Two -days later we came to Tokchen, where another political entanglement -detained us nine days. But I cannot stay to give an account of it, for I -reached the limit of the space allowed me at Chapter LXIV., and my -publisher is impatient. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXIII - -THE TRANS-HIMALAYA - - -On the map of the Jesuits, now two hundred years old (D'Anville, 1733) -(Map 2), a series of mountains runs on the north side of the upper -Brahmaputra, bearing from east to west the following names: Youc, -Larkin, Tchimouran Coiran, Tchompa, Lop, Tchour, Takra concla, Kentaisse -(Kailas) Latatsi, etc. These mountains and ranges have never been -transferred to modern maps of Tibet, probably because geographers -regarded the material collected by trained Tibetans as too unreliable -and indefinite. Yet these chains of mountains are nothing else but the -Trans-Himalaya, though the representation is confused and inexact. - -When Brian Hodgson in his map of southern Tibet (_Selections from the -Records of the Government of Bengal_, No. xxvii.), here reproduced in -facsimile (Map 3), drew a huge unbroken chain north of, and parallel to, -the Tsangpo, he took a step which could only be based on the Jesuits' -map and the data he received in the year 1843 from the Maharaja of -Nepal. No doubt lofty mountains existed to the north of the -Tsangpo--that was known to the Jesuits even in the time of Kang Hi. But -Hodgson's hypothetical Nyenchhen-thangla (Trans-Himalaya), which he -looks upon as a prolongation of the Karakorum, and the natural boundary -between northern and southern Tibet, is by no means an original -conception, and is no advance on previous knowledge, or, more correctly, -theory. For already, in the year 1840, Dufour had inserted a similar -huge uninterrupted chain north of, and parallel to, the Tsangpo, on the -map which illustrates the famous description of the travels of the -Lazarist missionary, Father Huc (Illust. 381)--_Souvenirs d'un Voyage -dans la Tartarie, le Thibet et la Chine, 1844-46_. Dufour's map is even -better than Hodgson's, for he has adopted from the Jesuits' map a -northern affluent to the Tsangpo, passing through the great range, -which, like the Jesuits, he calls Mts. Koiran. - -Huc and Gabet were probably the first Europeans to cross the -Trans-Himalaya, and one wonders where they made the passage. Probably by -the Shang-shung-la along the Mongolian pilgrim road from Kuku-nor and -Tsaidam to Lhasa. It is vain to seek any information on the subject in -Huc's famous book. During the two years Huc stayed in Macao he worked up -the scanty notes he had made on his journey. He mentions Burkhan Bota, -Shuga, and Tang-la, and also the large village Nakchu, where the -caravans exchange their camels for yaks, but he says not a word about -the pass by which he crossed one of the mightiest mountain systems of -the world. He says, indeed, that he went over a colossal mountain range, -and as its position agreed with that of the Mts. Koiran of Dufour and -the Jesuits, he adopts this name, which he certainly had never heard on -his journey, and which probably was changed on its way from Tibet to the -Jesuits' note-books in Pekin. All he has to say of his journey over the -Trans-Himalaya is contained in the following sentences: "La route qui -conduit de Na-Ptchu a Lha-Ssa est, en general, rocailleuse et -tres-fatigante. Quand on arrive a la chaine des monts Koiran, elle est -d'une difficulte extreme" (ii. p. 241). - -Another attempt to represent the course of the Trans-Himalaya was made -by Trelawney Saunders in his map of Tibet (Map 6), which is found in -Markham's _Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet, and of -the Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa_ (London, 1879), and in Edwin T. -Atkinson's _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of -India_ (Allahabad, 1882). Like Dufour and Hodgson, Saunders draws a huge -continuous chain all through Tibet. For the western parts, north of -Manasarowar, and for the eastern, south of Tengri-nor, he has relied on -the cartography of the pundits; the rest, between 82 deg. and 891/2 deg. E. long., -is partly a reproduction of the Jesuits' map, partly pure fancy, and has -not the remotest resemblance to the reality, as will be apparent from a -comparison of Saunders' map with mine. I will only point out that the -Trans-Himalaya consists not of one chain but of many, and that the -source of the Chaktak-tsangpo lies to the south, not to the north of the -principal one. All the central and largest part of the system, which I -explored, is therefore quite incorrect on Saunders' map. - -In the year 1867 Colonel Montgomerie (Illust. 380) sent out three -pundits for the purpose of compiling a map of the country north of -Manasarowar. One of them was the incomparable and wonderful Nain Sing, -another was the man who was at Yiachan prevented from discovering the -source of the Indus. On their way to Tok-jalung they crossed the -Trans-Himalaya at the Jukti-la, which they called Gugti-la, assigning to -it a height of 19,500 feet: I found its height was 19,070 feet. Mr. -Calvert crossed the same pass a year before me. On their return they -crossed the Trans-Himalaya by following the eastern branch of the Indus -down to where it breaks through the range and unites with the Gartok -branch. - -A pundit also went between Manasarowar and Tok-jalung, past the -Ruldap-tso--a name and lake I sought for east and west in vain, but I -will not therefore deny its existence. Moreover, of this pundit's route -I have no precise details. It seems likely that he crossed the -Trans-Himalaya by a pass called Sar-lung. - -On January 8, 1872, one of Montgomerie's explorers, a young trained -Tibetan, travelled over the Trans-Himalaya by the Khalamba-la, 17,200 -feet high. In Markham's account of this journey it is said that he -returned across the mountains by the Dhok-la, though the actual -water-parting pass he came to was much more probably the Dam-largen-la. -This pass was crossed the following year (1873) by Nain Sing on his -famous journey from Leh to Lhasa, which is described so conscientiously -by Colonel Sir Henry Trotter. Nain Sing assigns to Dam-langren-la a -height of 16,900 feet. - -The great pundit A. K., or Krishna, who contends with Nain Sing for the -foremost place, crossed the most easterly parts of the Trans-Himalaya on -his journey in 1881, and more probably by the pass Shiar-gang-la than -the Nub-kong-la, as I have already suggested; but from his map it is -difficult to decide whether the Shiar-gang-la is a dividing pass of the -first rank or not. In any case, it is situated on the chain which forms -the watershed between the Salwin and the Brahmaputra, and is undoubtedly -an immediate continuation of the Nien-chen-tang-la, or Trans-Himalaya. A -similar assumption is also made by Colonel S. G. Burrard in his and -Hayden's admirable work, _A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the -Himalaya Mountains and Tibet_ (Calcutta, 1907). On map xvii. in this -work Burrard has, quite rightly in my opinion, inserted the prolongation -of the range, though we have no sure data about its course. - -[Illustration: 380. COLONEL T. G. MONTGOMERIE.] - -[Illustration: 381. ABBE HUC. - - For the portrait of T. G. Montgomerie my thanks are due to the - Colonel's widow, and for that of Pere Huc, probably not published - before, to Mr. E. Schwartz, Paris.] - -Thus we find that after Father Huc several of Montgomerie's and -Trotter's pundits, as well as Mr. Calvert in the year 1906, crossed the -Trans-Himalaya in Tibet. So far as I know, there are only two more names -to be added to these--namely, Littledale, who on his bold journey in -1894-95 passed over the system by the pass Guring-la (19,587 feet), and -Count de Lesdain, who crossed it by the Khalamba-la in 1905. Both -describe the magnificent spectacle Nien-chen-tang-la presents from -Tengri-nor, but the latter added nothing to our knowledge of the -Trans-Himalaya, for he made use of the same pass, the Khalamba-la, as -Montgomerie's pundit. In his narrative, _Voyage au Thibet, par la -Mongolie de Pekin aux Indes_, he mentions not a single pass, much less -its name. But he followed the western shore of Tengri-nor, and he says -(p. 340): "Des massifs de montagnes tres durs et absolument enchevetres -formaient un obstacle insurmontable. En consequence, je resolus de -suivre le premier cours d'eau, dont la direction ferait presumer qu'il -se dirigeait vers le Brahmapoutra. C'est ainsi que nous cheminames -plusieurs jours en suivant les bords d'une riviere sans cesse -grossissante, appelee Chang-chu...." This river is the Shang-chu, which -comes from the Khalamba-la. - -Two Frenchmen and two Englishmen have, then, crossed the Trans-Himalaya -before me, besides half a dozen pundits. Farther west in English -territory innumerable Europeans have passed over the system, especially -by the Chang-la, where I surmounted it three times. Between the Indus -and the Panggong-tso I travelled over the system on November 22, 1907, -by the easy pass Tsake-la. - -An extraordinarily valuable contribution to the knowledge of the -Trans-Himalaya was afforded us by Ryder and Wood on their remarkable -journey up the Brahmaputra in the year 1904. They had no opportunity of -crossing the system, or even of penetrating a day's journey into the -southern transverse valleys, but they took bearings of all the summits -visible from their route. And some of these, particularly Lunpo-gangri, -are among the very highest which, under a mantle of eternal snow, rise -up from the Trans-Himalaya. The absolutely highest is, according to -Ryder, 23,255 feet, and is therefore little inferior to -Nien-chen-tang-la with its 23,900 feet. Ryder and Burrard took it for -granted that these summits stood on a single continuous range, which -they represent on their map as the northern watershed of the -Brahmaputra. In his text (p. 95), however, Burrard rightly points out -that this chain, which he calls "the Kailas Range," is not the -watershed, for in some places it is broken through by affluents from the -north. Burrard commits the same mistake as Dufour, Hodgson, Saunders, -and Atkinson, in assuming the existence of a single continuous range to -the north of the Tsangpo. I pondered much myself over this problem, and -on a general map of the ranges of Tibet (1905) I inserted two ranges -north of the Tsangpo, a conception in accordance with F. Grenard's in -his _Carte de l'Asie Centrale_ of the year 1899. - -A history of geographical exploration in a region so little known as the -Trans-Himalaya must naturally be exceeding short and meagre. With all my -researches I have not been able to discover any other predecessors than -those already mentioned--that is, in those parts of the system which lie -within the bounds of Tibet--and not a single one in the central regions -of the Trans-Himalaya. That such an extensive region as southern Tibet -has been quite unknown till now, though it lies close to the Indian -frontier, has given rise to much reasonable astonishment, and in many -circles arguments and proofs, based on more or less apocryphal records -and vague hypotheses, have been laboriously sought out to prove that my -discoveries have not the priority claimed for them. The maps I have -reproduced in facsimile, when carefully compared with my own maps, -render any discussion on my part quite superfluous. - -[Illustration: 382. Altar Table with Images of Gods in Mangnang-gompa. - - Water-colour Sketch by the Author.] - -I cannot, however, pass over in silence an insinuation that the -discoveries I have made are to be found indicated on the famous -wall-maps in the Doge's Palace at Venice. The Chief Librarian of the -Royal Library in Stockholm, Dr. E. W. Dahlgren, writes in a letter to -me: "Only the grossest ignorance and silliness can find on these maps -traces of any discoveries previous to yours." Before my return home -Professor Mittag-Leffler, Director of the mathematical school in the -University of Stockholm, had sent for photographs of these maps with a -very detailed description, and he has kindly placed this material at my -disposal. This book is not the place in which to publish it, and, -besides, the following statement which Dr. Dahlgren has obligingly drawn -up at my request makes all further comment unnecessary: - - The Wall-Maps in the Sala dello Scudo, in the Doge's Palace at Venice - - These maps, four in number, were constructed by the noted cartographer - Giacomo Gastaldi in the middle of the sixteenth century, to take the - place of older maps which were destroyed by fire in the year 1483; at - least, it may be safely assumed that two of them, those of East Asia - and Africa, are the work of Gastaldi. - - The maps represent: - - 1. Asia from the mouth of the Indus eastwards to China and Japan, as - well as the Pacific Ocean and part of America. - - 2. Asia from Asia Minor to India (Kashmir). - - 3. Africa. - - 4. Italy. - - Only maps Nos. 1 and 2 have any interest for Sven Hedin. They - correspond completely with the photographs procured by Professor - Mittag-Leffler. - - All the maps were restored by Francisco Grisellini about the middle of - the eighteenth century. In map No. 2 great alterations seem to have - been made in geographical details as well as in the text and in the - decoration. As the map extends no farther east than Kashmir it has, of - course, no connection with Sven Hedin's discoveries. - - Map No. 1, on the other hand, has in many essential respects preserved - its original character. We can undoubtedly form a good notion of its - original appearance by comparing it with the maps in Ramusio's work - _Delle Navigazioni e Viaggi_ (2nd Edition, Venice, 1554) and with - Gastaldi's _Tercia Parte dell' Asia_ (Venice, 1561). The resemblance - to the former is very striking. In these maps, as in the wall-maps, - the south is to the top. - - On all these maps there is very great confusion in the representation - of the river systems of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra. The mountains - are drawn in at random, and even the Himalayas cannot be identified - with complete certainty, much less the ranges of Central Asia. As the - map was chiefly designed to illustrate the travels of Marco Polo, it - naturally gives no information about countries he did not visit. - - E. W. DAHLGREN. - -Father Huc concludes the account of his journey with the following -remarkable words: "Mais il ne suffit pas toujours du zele de l'ecrivain -pour faire connaitre des contrees ou il n'a jamais mis le pied. Ecrire -un Voyage en Chine apres quelques promenades aux factories de Canton et -aux environs de Macao, c'est peut-etre s'exposer beaucoup a parler de -chose qu'on ne connait pas suffisamment ... il est en general assez -difficile de faire des decouvertes dans un pays sans y avoir penetre." - -It was with such truths in my mind that I began the journey described in -this book, the object of which was that set forth by Sir Clements -Markham, when in connection with Littledale's last journey he made the -following statement (_Geographical Journal_, vol. vii. p. 482): "In the -whole length from Tengri-nor to the Mariam-la pass no one has crossed -them (the Trans-Himalaya), so far as we know ... and I believe nothing -in Asia is of greater geographical importance than the exploration of -this range of mountains." - -It is not for me to decide how far I have achieved my aim, but when I -passed over the Trans-Himalaya for the eighth time at the Surnge-la, I -had at least the satisfaction of seeing all the old hypotheses fall down -like a house of cards, and a new ground-plan laid down on the map of -Asia, where before the blank patch yawned with its alluring -"Unexplored." - -[Illustration: 383. THE AUTHOR IN TIBETAN COSTUME AT THE MISSION STATION -IN POO. - - Photograph by the Rev. Mr. Marx.] - -I have no space here for a complete monograph of the Trans-Himalaya, or, -indeed, the material for it, until the bearings and heights of the peaks -have been worked out, the rock specimens identified, and a detailed map -constructed from the sheets I drew. It will take a couple of years to -work up the material. I will here only communicate some general facts, -and will begin by citing the passes of first rank as watersheds, -appending the names of the travellers who have crossed some of them: - - Shiar-gang-la Krishna, 1881 - Shang-shung-la Huc, 1845 - Dam-largen-la Nain Sing, 1873 16,903 feet. - Guring-la Littledale, 1895 19,587 " - Tsebo-la - Shugu-la - Khalamba-la Pundit, 1872 17,200 " - Do. de Lesdain, 1905 - Sela-la Hedin, 1907 18,064 " - Chang-la-Pod-la Hedin, 1907 18,284 " - Sha-la - Angden-la Hedin, 1907 18,514 " - Tsalam-nakta-la - Dombe-la - Nakbo-kongdo-la - Sangmo-bertik-la Hedin, 1908 19,095 " - Saggo-la - Dicha-la - Samye-la Hedin, 1908 18,133 " - Dsalung-la - Lungmar-la - Pechen-la - Lungnak-la - Yor-la - Ganglung-la - Men-la - Pedang-la - Gebbyi-la - Yilung-la - Tarkyang-la - Surnge-la Pundit? Hedin, 1908 17,310 feet - Tseti-lachen-la Hedin, 1907 17,933 " - Jukti-la Nain Sing, 1867 - Do. Calvert, 1906 - Do. Hedin, 1907 19,070 " - -It has, then, been my lot to cross eight Trans-Himalayan passes, while -seven have been crossed by other travellers. Seven of my passes were -unknown before. Of the others I have seen the Dicha-la and Men-la, while -of the remainder I have only gathered oral information. The Jukti-la is -the watershed between the two headwaters of the Indus, the -Tseti-lachen-la between the Sutlej and the Indus, the Surnge-la between -the Sutlej and the Nganglaring-tso. Shiar-gang-la and Shang-shung-la lie -on the watershed between the Salwin and the Brahmaputra. All the others -lie on the great continental watershed between the ocean and the -isolated drainage of the plateau. It appears from the list that all the -passes crossed before by Europeans and pundits belong to the eastern and -western parts of the system. Between the Khalamba-la and the Surnge-la -the Trans-Himalaya had not been crossed in a single line, and it was -exactly between these two passes that the great white space was -situated. All that was known of it was the peaks fixed by Ryder and -Wood, and some summits seen by Nain Sing from the north. If the Pundit's -journey between Manasarowar and Ruldap-tso be disregarded, of which I -have no information, the interval between the Khalamba-la and the -Jukti-la measures 590 miles, or about as far as from Linkoeping to -Haparanda, or from London to Dornoch Firth. And between these limits lie -all the passes by crossing which I was able to trace the course of the -Trans-Himalaya, and prove that its known eastern and western sections -are connected and belong to the same mountain system, and that this -system is one of the loftiest and mightiest in the world, only to be -compared with the Himalayas, the Karakorum, Arka-tag, and Kuen-lun. -Between the Shiar-gang-la and Yasin, not far from the sharp bend of the -Indus, its length amounts to 1400 miles, but if it can be shown that the -Trans-Himalaya merges into the Hindu-Kush and continues along the -Salwin, its length extends to 2500 miles. On the north and south its -boundaries are sharp and clearly defined; the northern is formed by the -central lakes discovered by Nain Sing and myself, and the southern by -the unheard-of Indus-tsangpo valley. In breadth it is inferior to the -Himalayas, and its peaks are lower, but the heights of the -Trans-Himalayan passes are considerably greater than those of the -Himalayas. The average height of the five following Himalayan -passes--Shar-khalep-la, Man-da-la, She-ru-la, No-la and Kore- or -Photu-la--is 16,736 feet, while the average height of my first five -Trans-Himalayan passes is 18,400 feet. It may be said generally that the -dividing passes in the Trans-Himalaya of the first rank are 1600 feet -higher than in the Himalayas. But the highest peak of the Himalayas, -Mount Everest, with its 29,000, is 5100 feet higher than the -Nien-chen-tang-la, the culminating point, as far as we know. Herewith -are connected the different forms of relief predominating in the two -systems; the crests of the Trans-Himalaya are flatter, its valleys -shallower and broader, while the crests of the Himalayas are sharp and -pointed, its valleys deep and much eroded. The former system is more -compact and massive than the latter, as we may expect if we remember -that the Himalayas are deluged by the precipitation of the south-west -monsoon, and that its waters have for untold thousands of years degraded -its valleys, while the Trans-Himalaya on the dry plateau country -receives a comparatively insignificant share of the monsoon rain. Were -it possible to compare the volumes of the two systems, we should no -doubt find that the northern is much more massive than the southern, for -such a comparison must proceed from sea-level, and though the -Trans-Himalaya is the narrower of the two, its ascent begins from -heights of 10,000 to 16,000 feet, from the Tsangpo valley, while the -Himalayas rise from sea-level or a few hundred feet above it. As a -watershed the Trans-Himalaya occupies a higher and more important place -than the Himalayas. In the west the Himalayas parts the waters between -the Indus and some of its tributaries, and in the east the system is a -divide between the Brahmaputra and the Ganges. But every drop of water -which falls on the Himalayas goes down to the Indian Ocean. On the other -hand, all the central Trans-Himalaya is a watershed between the Indian -Ocean on the south and the enclosed drainage area of the plateau -depression on the north. Only in its western section is the -Trans-Himalaya also a watershed between the Indus and some of its -right-hand tributaries, and in its eastern between the Salwin and -Brahmaputra. Within the boundaries of Tibet there is only one river -which takes its rise from the northern flank of the Trans-Himalaya and -breaks through the system by a transverse valley; but this river is a -lion, and is called by the Tibetans the Lion river, the Singi-kamba or -Indus. The Salwin also springs from the northern flank of the system, -but finds its way to the ocean without passing through the mountains. -All the other rivers rising on the northern slopes, of which the -Buptsang-tsangpo and the Soma-tsangpo are the largest, flow into the -undrained salt lakes on the north. Only in the central parts of the -Trans-Himalaya, stretching, however, over a distance of nearly 600 -miles, does the continental watershed coincide with the main axis of the -system, for to the west the watershed runs northwards from the source of -the Indus, and then westwards, so as to leave the Panggong-tso within -the isolated drainage basin of Tibet, and in the east runs northwards -from the region between the source streams of the Salwin and Tengri-nor. - -I have called this book Trans-Himalaya, because the incidents and -adventures described in these two volumes occurred in this huge mountain -system lying to the north of the Tsangpo and in the country to the north -and south of it. When I first crossed the dividing range at the Sela-la -I thought of retaining the name Hodgson had assigned to it, that is, -Nien-chen-tang-la, and I did not change my mind after crossing the -Chang-la-Pod-la and Angden-la, for these three passes lie on one and the -same range, which on the southern shore of Tengri-nor is called -Nien-chen-tang-la. After crossing the Tseti-lachen-la and the Jukti-la I -supposed that these passes lay on the western prolongation of the -Nien-chen-tang-la, and that the conception of Hodgson, Saunders, -Atkinson, Burrard, and Ryder was correct. But after the second journey -right through Tibet, and after I had crossed Bongba in several -directions and found that there was no question of a single continuous -range, but that a whole collection of ranges quite independent of one -another existed, I perceived that the name Nien-chen-tang-la, which only -denotes one of all these ranges, could not be given to the whole system. -Equally inappropriate would be the names Lunpo-gangri, Kamchung-gangri, -Targo-gangri, or any other local name. Saunders' "Gangri Mountains" I -consider still more unsuitable, for every mountain in Tibet clothed with -eternal snow is called a _gangri_, and the name in this connection would -have a meaningless sound. Neither could I accept Burrard's "The Kailas -Range." A name must be found suited to the whole of this intimately -connected association of mountain ranges, a geographical conception -which would leave no room for misunderstanding, and I decided to call -the whole system, the connection and continuity of which I had succeeded -in proving, the Trans-Himalaya. - -Among English geographers many have approved of this name and an equal -number have disapproved. To the latter category belongs Colonel Burrard, -who points out that for some years back all the regions lying beyond the -Himalayas have been called Trans-Himalayan. And in a letter he has -lately written to me he says: - - Pupils of Montgomerie naturally ask why an old word should be given a - new meaning when it is possible to invent any number of new names for - newly discovered mountains. I do not see that it is necessary to give - an important name to newly discovered mountains. A new name will - become important because of the mountains to which it is attached, and - your mountains would have rendered any new name important. - -[Illustration: 384. THE LAST MEMBERS OF THE LAST EXPEDITION IN POO.] - -I cannot share Colonel Burrard's view, for I answer that just because -of the circumstance that Montgomerie's pupils, officials of the Survey -of India and pundits, have for fifty years and more called the country -north of the Himalayas "The Trans-Himalayan regions," it was incumbent -on me not to reject this name for the mountain system which can be -nothing else but the Trans-Himalaya _par excellence_. - -To give a quotation from the other side, I will here reproduce an -expression of opinion from Lord Curzon, formerly Viceroy of India, whose -knowledge of Asia is unsurpassed. In the _Geographical Journal_, April -1909, he says: - - Alongside of this great discovery (Bongba and Chokchu) I would place - the tracing for hundreds of miles and the assurance of a definite - orographical existence to the mighty mountain palisade or series of - palisades to which he has, in my opinion very appropriately, given the - title of the Trans-Himalaya. This range has been surmised to exist in - its entire length for many years; it has been crossed at its - extremities by Littledale and by native surveyors. But it was reserved - for Dr. Hedin to trace it on the spot and to place it upon the map in - its long, unbroken, and massive significance.... It is no mean - addition to human knowledge that we should realize the assured - existence of one of the greatest mountain masses in the world. As - regards the name which Dr. Hedin has given to it, I will only say that - the desiderata for the title of a new and momentous geographical - discovery appear to be these: (1) that the name should if possible be - given by the principal discoverer; (2) that it should not be - unpronounceable, unwriteable, over-recondite, or obscure; (3) that it - should if possible possess some descriptive value; and (4) should not - violate any acknowledged canons of geographical nomenclature. The name - Trans-Himalaya combines all these advantages, and it has a direct - Central Asian analogy in the Trans-Alai, which is a range of mountains - standing in the same relation to the Alai that Trans-Himalaya will do - to Himalaya. I am not in the least impressed by the fact that the name - was once given to another range, where its unsuitability secured its - early extinction. Any attempts to substitute another title on the - present occasion will, in my opinion, be foredoomed to failure. - -My long journey backwards and forwards over the Trans-Himalaya cannot be -regarded as more than a cursory and defective reconnaissance of a -country hitherto unknown. It is easier to go to Lhasa with a force armed -to the teeth, and shoot down the Tibetans like pheasants if they stand -in the way, than to cross Tibet in all directions for two long years -with four Governments and all the authorities of the land as opponents, -twelve poor Ladakis as companions, and not a single man as escort. It is -no merit of mine that I was long able to maintain a position which from -the first seemed untenable. The same lucky star looked down, as often -before, on my lonely course through vast Asia, and it is twenty-four -years since I first took up my pilgrim staff. I have been able to follow -and lay down only the chief geographical lines; between my routes many -blank spaces are still left, and there is sufficient detailed work for -generations of explorers and travellers more thoroughly prepared and -better equipped than myself. - -Go, then, out into the world, thou ringing and sonorous name for one of -the world's mightiest mountain systems, and find thy way into -geographical text-books, and remind children in the schools of the -snow-crowned summits on the Roof of the World, among which the monsoon -storms have sung their deafening chorus since the beginning. As long as -I live, my proudest memories, like royal eagles, will soar round the -cold desolate crags of the Trans-Himalaya. - - - - -CHAPTER LXXIV - -SIMLA - - -Like a troop of beggars and knights of the road my twelve servants and I -left Tokchen on July 24. We had stayed there nine days with nothing to -do but watch the monsoon rain, which I had incautiously promised the -natives, pelting down on the hills. The authorities of the place -insisted this time that, as we were not furnished with a passport from -Lhasa, we had no right to make use of the great high-road to Ladak, but -must turn back to the interior of Tibet whence we had come. If I had not -already had enough of the great blank, I would have agreed to their -demand with pleasure, but I was now weary and longed for home, and as -they refused the assistance and the transport facilities we required, we -set out on foot with the baggage on our last ten horses and mules. I had -still the white horse from Kamba Tsenam's tent at my disposal. We had no -escort, for the authorities wished to be quite clear of blame in case -they were called to account. By the holy lake, where we followed the -northern shore by known ways, we at length found a tramp who offered to -show us the way to the Totling monastery. - -In Langbo-nan I visited hastily the young abbot, as sympathetic and -good-natured as the year before, and at Chiu-gompa we met our old friend -Tundup Lama, fretful, melancholy, and weary of his lonely cloister life. -Large streams now emptied their water into both lakes, and with a -feeling of regret I left again the scene of so many precious memories. - -Before we came to the monastery of Tirtapuri we had to cross several of -the rivers which bring their tribute from the Trans-Himalaya to the -Sutlej. Three of them were enormously swollen after the continuous -rains, and rolled their volumes of greyish-brown foaming water over -treacherous blocks. It boiled and seethed between the cliffs, and it -carried along and overturned the slippery boulders. How I trembled in -mortal anxiety lest the harvest so laboriously gathered in the last long -winter should all be lost by a single false step. - -We came to the temple of Tirtapuri in pouring rain. Lobsang, Gulam, -Kutus, Tubges, Suen, and Kunchuk were to accompany me hence to Simla, -but Abdul Kerim and the other five received their pay and gratuities, -and took their way home to Leh through Gartok. I did not know the road -to Simla, but on the map it seemed to be nearer than to Ladak, and -therefore I expected that my party would arrive first at its -destination. But this road is very wild and romantic, and the land is -deeply excavated by the affluents of the Sutlej, and one might imagine -that one had suddenly been transported to the canons of the Colorado. -One day we marched rapidly up an ascent of 3000 feet, and the next we -went down as far, so that the distance was at least double as great as -it appeared on the map, and Abdul Kerim reached Leh long before I was -near Simla. Therefore the first news of us came from him, and not from -myself, and in some quarters the worst fears were entertained for my -safety. It seemed strange that my servants reached their home safe and -sound while I myself was still missing. - -[Illustration: 385. MY PUPPY.] - -[Illustration: 386. TAKKAR IN HIS NEW HOME WITH THE MISSIONARIES IN -POO.] - -We parted with floods of tears on August 1, and my party travelled past -the three monasteries, Dongbo, Dava, and Mangnang (Illust. 382), and -came to Totling-gompa on the 13th, near which Father Andrade, three -hundred years ago, lodged in the now decayed town of Tsaparang. Here I -met the Hindu doctor Mohanlal, who gave me the first news of the outer -world. Through him I heard, with deep regret, of the death of King -Oscar, which had occurred more than eight months before. Mohanlal also -informed me of the growing unrest in India and of the anxiety my friends -felt on my account. Thakur Jai Chand had been instructed by the -Indian Government to spare no efforts to find out whether I was still -living or not. He had sent out some Tibetan freebooters in various -directions, and promised 50 rupees to any one who could furnish any -certain information of my fate--this is the price he valued me at. Abdul -Kerim had reached Gartok in the best of health, and was summoned to the -Garpun, who exclaimed: "Your Sahib is a dreadful man; he will not be -satisfied until I lose my head!" Old Hajji Nazer Shah, who had so -conscientiously equipped my last caravan, had died the preceding winter. - -When we left Tokchen on July 24 we were delighted at the thought that we -should at every step be nearer to lower country and a denser and warmer -atmosphere. A month later we were at a greater height than at Tokchen, -and saw the country covered with snow, and heard the hail patter on our -dilapidated tents. But at Shipki we again set them up in a garden -dressed in the rich beauty of summer, and heard the wind murmur in the -spreading crowns of the apricot trees. Shipki is the last village in -Tibet. From this garden oasis begins the steep ascent to the Shipki-la, -which is reached after attaining a height of six Eiffel Towers one upon -another. Here we stood on the frontier between Tibet and India. I turned -and let my eyes roam once more over these awfully desolate and barren -mountains where my dreams had been realized, and my lucky star had shed -a clearer and more friendly light than ever before. Farewell, home of -wild asses and antelopes, holy land of the Tashi Lama, of Tso-mavang and -the Tsangpo, into whose mysterious valleys the stranger has found his -way only by enduring two Arctic winters and by driving a flock of -refractory sheep! I seemed to take farewell of the best of my youth and -the finest chapter in the story of my life. - -On August 28 we encamped in the village of Poo (Illusts. 383, 384), and -I spent two memorable days in the hospitable house of the Moravian -missionaries. Messrs. Marx and Schnabel and their amiable families -overwhelmed me with kindness, and now I was deluged with news from the -outer world--it was like listening to the breakers on the coast of the -ocean. I had not seen a European for more than two years, and I looked -myself like a Tibetan footpad. But the missionaries rigged me out at -once in European summer clothes and set an Indian helmet on my head. - -A few days later we came to Kanam-gompa, where Alexander Csoma Koeroesi -eighty years ago studied Lamaist learning as a monk, and more than any -one else communicated to the scholars of the West the occult mysteries -of this religion. How silent and quiet our life had been up on the -expanse of Chang-tang! Now the dizzy depths of the valley are filled -with the roar of the falling stream, and the thunder of the water is -re-echoed from the precipitous cliffs. How bare and scanty was the soil -of Tibet, and now we listen daily to the whisper of mild breezes in the -deep dark coniferous forests that clothe the slopes of the Himalayas. - -Still lower runs the road, still warmer is the air. My trusty friend, -big shaggy Takkar, looks at me with questioning eyes. He loves not the -summer's perfumed garlands nor the variegated zone of meadows. He -remembers the free life on the open plains, he misses the fights with -the wolves of the wilderness, and he dreams of the land of everlasting -snowstorms. One day we saw him drink of a spring which poured its water -across the path, and then lie down in the cool shade of the forest. He -had done so many times before, but we should never see him repeat it. He -turned and galloped up towards lonely Tibet. He parted with sorrow in -his heart from his old master, I knew; but he thought he would ask the -missionaries in Poo to send me a greeting. One morning he was found -lying outside the gate to the court of the Mission-house, and, true to -his old habit, he would let no one go in or out. He was hospitably -received, and started a new life with a chain round his neck. I still -receive from time to time, through Mr. Marx, greetings from old Takkar, -who so faithfully defended my tent when I travelled in disguise through -his own country (Illust. 386). - -[Illustration: 387. SIMLA.] - -In the Club des Asiatiques in Paris I once dined with Madame Massieu, -who has accomplished so many wonderful journeys in Asia. Roland -Bonaparte and Henry of Orleans were present, as I vividly remembered -when on September 7 I met the far-travelled Parisian lady in the -station-house of Taranda. We had much to talk about when we contributed -to the cost of a common dinner. Untouched by years, youthful and -enthusiastic, Madame Massieu afterwards undertook a bold journey to -Khatmandu. - -With growing uneasiness I approached the hour when, after nearly a -year's complete silence, I was again to receive letters from home, and I -wondered whether I should break them open and read them without any -cause for sorrow. The post met me at Gaura on September 9. I read all -the evening, all night, and all the following day, and I was able to -take the last days' journey to Simla in comfort, for I was spared any -untoward news and knew that all was well at home. Now the wind whispered -more gently than ever in the Himalayan cedars, and the roar of the -Sutlej sounded like the roll of drums in a triumphal march. - -In Kotgar I was present at evensong in the missionaries' church. How -strange to hear again the soft soothing tones of the organ, and as an -unworthy Christian pilgrim in a Christian temple remember the solitude -of the past years. - -The following day I marched along the road in the company of my men for -the last time, for near Narkanda a rickshaw met me, sent by Colonel -Dunlop Smith. I left them, to hurry on without delay, while they were to -follow in the usual order of march. How pleasant to lean against the -back of the little two-wheeled vehicle and roll away at a rapid pace -under the shady canopy of the deodars! - -September 15 was a great day for me. I stayed at the bungalow of Fagu, -and this camp, where I was quite alone, was No. 499. Simla, therefore, -would be 500. It felt very strange to stand on the boundary between the -wilderness and the most refined civilization. At the breastwork of the -excellent carriage-road sat a gentleman in his rickshaw; it was my -friend Mr. Edward Buck, Reuter's correspondent. This is the beginning, I -thought; and on I went on this last day's journey. The fine imposing -town appears in the distance on the slopes of its hills and the white -houses peep out from among the trees (Illust. 387). A young maiden takes -a snap of us with her camera, but it is early in the morning, and -without further adventures we take refuge at a gentleman's outfitters, -for in spite of the clothes from Poo I must undergo a complete -renovation before I can present myself before the doors of the Viceregal -Lodge. - -What a total contrast to the lonely life I had led for two long years! -On September 16 a State ball took place, and I heard again the crunching -sound on the sand of the court as innumerable rickshaws bore guests to -the ball. Rustling silk, glittering jewels, brilliant uniforms--in an -unbroken line the _elite_ of Simla pass between satellites with their -tall turbans and shining lances. God save the King! Followed by their -staff Their Excellencies enter, and open the dance to the notes of a -waltz of Strauss. It was just as in May 1906, and the twenty-eight -months that had intervened seemed to me like a strange fantastic dream. - -The first days I stayed in the house of my noble old friend Colonel -Dunlop Smith, and had now an opportunity of thanking him and his amiable -ladies for the trouble they had taken in connection with the consignment -to Gartok the year before. Then I moved over to the Viceregal Lodge, and -again enjoyed the same boundless hospitality of Lord and Lady Minto. -From my window I saw again, sharp and clear, the crests of the -Himalayas, and beyond the mountains and valleys of Tibet stretched out -in a boundless sea. What wealth and luxury! I lived like a prince, -walked on soft rugs and meditated, lay and read Swedish journals in a -deep soft bed, by electric light, and bathed in a porcelain bath, -attended by Hindus in the viceregal livery--I who had lately gone in -rags and tended sheep. - -[Illustration: 388. THE LAST MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION AT THE ENTRANCE -OF THE VICEREGAL LODGE IN SIMLA.] - -On September 24 a hundred and fifty ladies and gentlemen in full dress -were assembled in the State room in the Viceregal Lodge. The occasion -was a lecture, and on the dais hung with gold-embroidered brocade, where -the thrones usually stand, was set up a large map of Tibet. The front -seats were occupied by the Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, Lord -Kitchener of Khartum, the Governor of the Panjab, the Maharajas of Alwar -and Gwalior; and among the guests might be seen generals and superior -officers, State secretaries, men of science, and members of the -diplomatic corps then present in Simla. The Military Secretary, Colonel -Victor Brooke, came forward and announced the arrival of the Viceroy and -Lady Minto. I was trembling with stage fright, but before I knew -anything about it, my opening words, "Your Excellencies, Ladies and -Gentlemen," sounded through the brilliant saloon, and then followed an -account of my last journey. It was one o'clock in the morning before I -concluded, and after a most flattering speech from Lord Minto the guests -withdrew to the late supper. - -My six Ladakis and our seven remaining animals stayed in a _serai_ below -the palace. I often went and talked to them, and played a while with my -old travelling companion Little Puppy. But the time passed quickly, and -soon the last day came. I embraced and squeezed Little Puppy, stroked -his head, and found it hard to tear myself away. He was put out by his -master's elegant costume, and had a melancholy questioning expression, -as though he suspected that the bond between us was loosed, and that we -should never see each other again. We had shared everything in common -from the time he was born below the snowy Karakorum pass, and to part -from dogs is the hardest trial of all; to bid men farewell is not so -distressing. - -At our arrival in Simla I had given them 60 rupees each for new -clothing, and in the bazaar they had found some old cast-off uniforms -with bright metal buttons, which they thought grand and becoming. On the -neck lappets were the words "Guard, London S.W. Railway," and how they -found their way to India I do not know. But in these uniforms and in red -fezzes my men assembled in the palace court on the last day of -September (Illust. 388). They were allowed to keep our seven horses and -mules, saddles, tents, skin coats, bed furniture, and everything. My -white horse they were to sell in Leh and divide the price. Gulam took -charge of Little Puppy, and undertook to see that he did not suffer want -in the future--it was like breaking up an old home. Besides his pay, -every man received a present of 100 rupees, and their expenses to Leh -four times over. Lord and Lady Minto were present at the last farewell, -and the Viceroy made them a short, cheery speech. It was a sad parting, -and even the calm Lobsang, who was amazed at the wealth and splendour of -Simla, wept like a child as with heavy step he followed his comrades -down to their waiting animals. "What faithfulness! what devotion!" -exclaimed Lady Minto with feeling; "their tears are more expressive than -words." - -At the beginning of October the Viceroy and Lady Minto set out on an -excursion into the mountains, and after a hearty farewell and warm -thanks for all the kindness they had showered on me, I remained lonely -and forlorn in the great palace. My steamer would not leave Bombay for a -week, and I was delighted to be the guest of Lord Kitchener in his -residence, Snowdon, during the five days I was yet to stay in Simla. I -shall never forget these days. My room was decorated with flowers, and -on a table stood fourteen books on Tibet, chosen from the General's -library to supply me with entertaining reading. With the aides-de-camp -Captains Wyllie and Basset, merry fellows and good comrades, we lived -like four bachelors, took breakfast, lunch, and dinner together, and -spent the evening in the billiard-room, on the mantelpiece of which was -the appropriate motto, "Strike, and fear not." - -In the afternoon the General took me out along the road leading to -Tibet. We then talked of the future of Europe in Asia and Africa, and I -gained a greater insight than I had ever done before into Lord -Kitchener's life and work in Egypt. - -But the days at Snowdon also came to an end, and on October 11, when the -people were flocking to church, I was driven by the victor of Africa to -the station, where I took a last farewell of the man for whose exploits -I have always felt a boundless admiration. At Summerhill station, below -the Viceregal Lodge, I exchanged a last shake of the hand with my dear -friend Dunlop Smith, and then the white houses of Simla vanished in the -distance, and the train rolled down to the heat of India and the great -lonely sea. - - -[Illustration: THE SOURCES OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA, SUTLEJ, AND INDUS - - By Dr. Sven Hedin.] - -[Illustration: A MAP OF TRANS-HIMALAYA - - By Dr. SVEN HEDIN] - -[Illustration: A MAP OF TIBET SHOWING DR. SVEN HEDIN'S ROUTES 1906-1908.] - - - - -INDEX - - - Abbot, a twelve-year-old, ii. 163 - - Abdul Kerim, my caravan leader, ii. 226; - error of, as to forage, 241; - assumes role of master of caravan, 291, 344; - ideas as to the time of day, 302; - despatched in charge of second division of caravan to the Tarok-tso, - 371; - anxiety as to whereabouts of, 396; - arrives at our camp at Ratse, 399; - bid farewell to, with other five of my followers, 416 - - Absi, peak of the Kubi-gangri, ii. 102 - - Abuk-la pass, ii. 396 - - Adam, Colonel, military secretary to the Viceroy, i. 16 - - Age, average, of caravan, i. 53 - - "Aid," Mohammedan festival celebrated in camp, i. 191 - - Aksai-chin, lake, unannexed region of, i. 93, 95, 98; ii. 258 - - Alchi, dangerous bridge at, i. 44 - - Alexander the Great, i. 3; ii. 213 - - Amban Lien Yue, of Lhasa, i. 393, 400 - - Amchen-la pass, ii. 396 - - Amchi-lama (monk-doctor), tent-temple of, ii. 296 - - Amchok-tang, plain, ii. 36 - - Amchok-tso, lake, ii. 36; - camp at, 37; - shallowness of, 38; - soundings on, 39 - - Amchok-yung, village of, ii. 36 - - Amchung country, interesting information acquired in, ii. 325 - - Amitabha, the Tashi Lama the incarnation of, i. 326 - - Amusements, Tibetan, i. 341 - - Anchar, lake, i. 32 - - Angden-la pass, cairn with prayer-streamers on, ii. 34; - panoramic view from, 35; - not situated on same range as the Samye-la, 330 - - Angsi-chu, river, ii. 104 - - "Antelope Plain," name given by Captain Deasy, i. 142 - - Antelopes, i. 92, 114, 175, 186; ii. 36, 262, 282; - method of snaring, i. 119; ii. 274 - - Aong-tsangpo, river, ii. 399 - - Archery and shooting competitions on horseback, i. 343 - - Argok-tso, lake, ii. 400 - - Arnold, _The Light of Asia_, quotation from, ii. 206 - - Arport-tso, lake, crossing of ice of, ii. 263 - - Arung-kampa, deserted village of, i. 280 - - Asses, wild, upright position of frozen, ii. 95; - great herds met with, 285 - - Atkinson, Mr. E. T., work by, cited, ii. 402 - - - Bailey, Lieutenant, Acting Resident at Gyangtse, i. 255 - - Balls, State, in Simla, i. 17; ii. 420 - - Baltal, i. 38 - - Bando, camp at, ii. 83 - - Barley, roasted, a delicacy, ii. 14 - - Barong-la pass, ii. 30 - - Basang valley, camp in, ii. 46 - - Basgho-gompa, monastery, i. 44 - - Bed, method of making my, i. 150 - - Ben-la pass, storm on, ii. 34 - - Besant, Mrs. Annie, i. 30 - - Bibles, the Tibetan, in library of Tashi-lunpo, i. 333; - in Tashi-gembe, 412 - - Biographical details of caravan, i. 151-153 - - Birch bark, dream suggested by, ii. 95 - - Boat, our portable, i. 28; - successful trip of, 107; - description of Tibetan, 288 - - Bogtsang-tsangpo, the, camp at, i. 205; - interview with chief of district, 205; - geographical information obtained, 206; - erratic course of, 207 - - Bokar valley, ii. 212 - - _Bombo_, or district chief, i. 262 - - Bongba, province of, ii. 304; - tension of journey through the, 312; - names of the twelve districts of, 388 - - Bongba-changma, district of, ii. 304 - - Bongba-chushar, district of, ii. 379 - - Bongba-kebyang, district of, ii. 388 - - Bongba-kemar, district of, ii. 324, 389 - - Bongba-kyangrang, high-road to Lapchung through, ii. 387 - - Brahmaputra, the, valley of, i. 281; - welcome news received at, 282; - monasteries of, 282; - confluence of the Chaktak-tsangpo with, ii. 48; - measurements and ratios, 49; - junction of the Tsa-chu-tsangpo - with, and measurements, 74; - possible diversion of, 78; - varying volume of, 88; - Nain Sing on its sources, 89; - Webber's confusing statement as to the origin of, 89; - Ryder's map of valley of upper, 90; - source-streams of, 90-95; - author's determination of its source in Kubi-gangri, 96, 101; - we bid farewell to, 105 - - British Government, change of, i. 4; - refuse permission to enter Tibet from India, 7, 388; - cautious policy of, 10, 395 - - Buck, Mr. Edward, ii. 219, 419 - - Buddha, stone figures of, at Dras, i. 39; - posture of, in statues and pictures, ii. 10 - - Buddhism, introduced into Tibet, i. 312; - preservation of life a fundamental principle of, 312 - - Buka-magna, mountain system, i. 164 - - Bumnak-chu, river, ii. 22 - - Bup-chu-tsangpo, river, sources of, i. 276 - - Buptsang-tsangpo, river, ii. 325; - scenery of, 326; - its headwaters, 327; - camp by the, 389 - - Bupyung-ring valley, beauty of, ii. 327 - - Burrard, Colonel S. G., on drainage area of the Sutlej, ii. 187; - book by Hayden and, mentioned, 404; - disapproves of author's use of the name Trans-Himalaya, 412 - - Burroughs & Wellcome, London, medicine-chest presented by, i. 29, 172; - my offering to the Tashi Lama, 316; ii. 40 - - Buser-tsangpo, river, ii. 261 - - - "Call of the wilderness," the, i. 1 - - Calvert, Mr., crosses Jukti-la pass, ii. 215, 403 - - Camp, our first, i. 33 - - Camp life, routine of our, i. 150; - Tibetan, ii. 387 - - Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry, i. 4; - telegrams sent by author to, 8, 390 - - Candles, Christmas-tree of, i. 219 - - Caravan, our, equipment of, i. 28, 53; - troublesome members, 38; - biographical details, 151-153; - rearrangement of, 166; - home-sickness in, ii. 62, 67; - three members dismissed, 69; - their reinstatement, 73; - reduction at Tokchen, 107; - reorganization of, 110; - preparation of new, for fresh expedition, 211, 226, 228; - heavy baggage sent back to Leh, 229; - parting with Robert and Rub Das, 229; - Mohammedan festival, 260; - losses and sickness, 265; - superfluous baggage sacrificed, 269, 279, 282; - directions to, 274; - my hiding-place in, 345; - festivities in honour of Governor of Saka, 368; - divided into two parties, 371; - combined again, 400; - parting with my caravan leader and companions, 416; - farewell to remainder of followers in Simla, 422 - - Cassels, Mr., present of tea from, ii. 179 - - Chabuk-tso, lake, ii. 322 - - Chak-chom-la pass, i. 191 - - Chakko, holy spring, miraculous powers attributed to, ii. 106 - - Chaklam-la pass, ii. 308 - - Chaktak-tsangpo, river, ii. 45; - preparations for excursion to, 47; - confluence with the Brahmaputra, 48; - measurements and ratios, 49, 65; - journey northwards along, 65; - camp again on, 335; - eastward march along north bank of, 337; - return to, 374 - - Chamo-lung-chen valley, ii. 193 - - _Chang_, or native beer, i. 68 - - Changa, village of, i. 63 - - Chang-chenmo valley, bivouac at, i. 79; ii. 233 - - Chang-la pass, i. 64; altar with prayer-streamers on summit of, 66 - - Chang-la-Pod-la pass, meaning of the term, ii. 19; - camp on, 20 - - Chang-lung-barma valley, i. 81 - - Chang-lung-yogma valley, i. 81, 84; - difficulties in, 82; - camp and rest in, 82; - sunshine and snow, 83; - magnificent landscape of, 85 - - Changpas, Tibetan nomads, i. 119; - friendliness of, 182, 188; - habits and tastes, 184; - skill in hunting, 185; - hard life of, 186; - disposal of their dead, 187 - - Chang-shung, a headwater of the Raga-tsangpo, ii. 41 - - Chang-tang, the, desperate situation in, i. 163; - our successful crossing of, 210 - - Chang Yin Tang, Chinese Commissioner in Tibet, correspondence with, i. - 393, 397; ii. 42, 70 - - Chapka-la pass, i. 259 - - Charvak, camp at, ii. 234 - - Chega-gompa temple, i. 280 - - Chema-yundung, river, ii. 90, 103; - measurement of discharge, 91 - - Chema-yundung-pu, heights of, ii. 92 - - Chenmo, _kotidar_ of Tankse, i. 73, 87 - - Chergip-gompa monastery, its single monk, ii. 165 - - Cherok, district of, ii. 88 - - Chesang-la pass, intense cold on, i. 274 - - _Chhorten_, or stone monument, i. 42 - - Chi Chao Nan, translation of passage from his work on source of the - Sutlej, ii. 183; - accuracy of his statements, 183 - - Chikum, view from camp at, ii. 83 - - Chimre monastery, i. 64 - - Chinese Government, messages from, i. 389, 391; - importance of supremacy in Tibet to the, 396; - specimen of diplomatic - correspondence, 397; - courtesy of officials to author, 400 - - Chinese passport, efficacy of my, i. 299 - - Chini-chikang, nuns' temporary quarters, Tashi-lunpo, i. 357 - - Chiptu-la pass, pilgrim route over, ii. 388 - - Chiu-gompa monastery, visits to, ii. 159, 415 - - Chockar-shung-chu valley, ii. 75 - - Chokchu, caravan bound for, met with, i. 270; - the Governor of, ii. 399 - - Choma-taka, cave of, ii. 18 - - Chomo-sumdo valley, camp in, ii. 16 - - Chomo-uchong, "High Nun," ridge of, ii. 41, 333, 344, 362 - - Chong-yangal, camp at, ii. 232 - - Christmas, our celebration of, i. 219; - Ladaki hymn and dances at, 220; - translation of hymn sung at, 221; - comparison of different years, ii. 248 - - Chugge-lung valley, i. 271 - - Chungsang, a tributary of the Tsangpo, ii. 45 - - Chunit-tso, lake, ii. 322, 387; - warm sulphur spring at, 323 - - Church festivals, Lamaist, i. 301 - - Churu pool, camp at, ii. 67 - - Chuta district, sulphurous springs in, i. 82 - - Chykying, the Gova of, ii. 314, 316 - - Cleanliness, Ladakis' contempt for, i. 150 - - Cockburn's Agency, assistance in furnishing and transport, i. 28 - - Consul of Nepal, the, i. 304, 375 - - Correspondence, arrangements for forwarding, i. 72, 83, 87, 103; - welcome arrival of, at the Ngangtse-tso, 254; - and at Shigatse, 377 - - _Corvee_, system of, exacted on Tibetan high-roads, ii. 328 - - "Cripple," our faithful canine follower, i. 263 - - Crosby, expedition of, referred to, i. 98 - - Curzon, Lord, encouraging letter from, i. 3; - leaves India, 4; - on author's use of name Trans-Himalaya, ii. 413 - - - Dagtse-tso, i. 217 - - Dahlgren, Dr. E. W., statement by, as to wall-maps in Venice, ii. 406 - - Dalai Lama (Gyalpo Rinpoche), cowardly flight of, i. 244, 306; - his sphere compared with that of the Tashi Lama, 323; - disastrous policy of, 323 - - Dal-dervaseh, canal journey from, i. 32 - - Dalgleish, Mr., monument to, in Leh, i. 59 - - Dambak-rong, valley junction, ii. 70; - letter from the Tang Darin received at, 70 - - Dam-chu, river, ii. 181 - - Damm valley, ii. 79 - - _Dandy_, or average man's load, i. 166 - - Dane, Sir Louis, interview with, i. 7, 11 - - Dangbe-chu, river, i. 276 - - Dangbe-la pass, i. 277 - - Dangra-yum-tso, lake, permission to visit, refused, i. 247, 251; - reputed salinity of, ii. 29; - shape and extent of, 29; - pilgrim routes round, 29; - Nain Sing's nomenclature of district, 30; - proposed dash for, 382 - - D'Anville, maps by, referred to, ii. 185, 186, 337, 401 - - Dapsang, on the heights of, ii. 248; - Christmas box for the animals at, 251 - - Daya Kishen Kaul, private secretary to Maharaja of Kashmir, assistance - rendered by, i. 24, 28 - - Dead, barbarous disposal of the, i. 370 - - Deane, Sir Harold, i. 15 - - Deasy, Captain, "Fever Camp" of, i. 120; - baggage and provisions left by, at Yeshil-kul, 128 - - "Deasy Group," mountain mass, i. 131, 138 - - Dena-lhakang temple, Tashi-lunpo, i. 364 - - Dentistry, drastic form of, ii. 324 - - Devashung. _See_ Tibetan Government - - Devotional exercises of pilgrims, Tashi-lunpo, i. 357 - - Dicha-la pass, importance of watershed, ii. 375 - - _Dikpa-karnak_, or test-stone for sinners, ii. 195 - - Ding-la, the highest pass crossed in our journey, ii. 400 - - Dinner, State, at Simla, i. 12 - - Diri-pu monastery, my tent pitched on roof of, ii. 193 - - Disguise, assumed by author, ii. 277 - - Dogs: puppies taken with party, i. 34; - frolics of, 37, 62, 69, 74, 143, 154; ii. 34, 41; - from Pobrang added to caravan, i. 74; - deserted by one of our, 78; - a splendid feast, 108; - loss of two, 259; - two new followers, 263; - an interesting event, 399; - illness and deaths of, ii. 65, 67, 73, 251; - another happy event, 238; - loss of Brown Puppy, 293, 301; - purchase of Takkar, 305; - Little Puppy's first experience of running water, 314; - Takkar's avowal of affection, 319; - a sorrowful parting, 419 - - Dojas-chimbo, court in Tashi-lunpo, i. 308 - - Dokang valley, camp in, i. 279; - Tibetan politeness in, 280 - - Dok-chu (Raga-tsangpo), river, voyage through rapids of, i. 418; - its confluence with the Brahmaputra, 419; - rock-drawings in valley of, 422; - junction with the My-chu, 422; - head sources of, ii. 41 - - Doelchu-gompa monastery, mentioned, ii. 182, 187 - - Doele-gompa nunnery, i. 429 - - Dolma-la pass, pilgrim offerings on, ii. 200 - - Dongchen-la pass, wild sheep on the, ii. 380 - - Dongdong, glaciers of the, ii. 92; - peaks of the, 103 - - Dongmo-chu, river, ii. 39 - - Dopserma, island of the Langak-tso, ii. 178 - - Dorab-la pass, ii. 75 - - _Dorche_, or emblem of thunderbolt, i. 318 - - Dorche Tsuen, Governor of Saka-dzong, discussion of my return route - with, ii. 355-359, 364; - camp festivities in honour of, 368; - bid farewell to, 370 - - Do-tsengkan, mountain, ii. 33 - - Dras, river, i. 39; - stone figures of Buddha near, i. 39; - junction with the Wakkha, 40 - - Drugub, i. 67; - our new caravan at, ii. 226; - salt-caravan at, 228 - - Dsabo, title of official in Chagha, i. 416 - - Dsalung-la pass, importance of, ii. 388 - - Duan Suen, Chinese official in Shigatse, i. 298, 388 - - Duff, General Sir Beauchamp, i. 16 - - Dufour, map by, ii. 406 - - Dumbok-tso, lake, i. 219 - - Dunglung valley, ii. 193 - - Dunglung-do, valley junction, ii. 193 - - Dungtsa-tso, lake, our camp visited by Tibetans at, i. 192 - - Dung-yeilak, oasis of, ii. 233 - - Dunka-la pass, view of the Shuru-tso from, ii. 34 - - Dunlop Smith, Colonel J. R., private secretary to Viceroy, i. 11; - arranges as to my correspondence, 103; - letter to, from Tokchen, ii. 107; - consignment from, reaches Gartok, 223; - hospitality in Simla, 420; - good-bye to, 423 - - _Dupkang_, or hermitage, ii. 2 - - Dutreuil de Rhins, French explorer, i. 46, 47, 199 - - _Dzong_, or town with resident governor, i. 245 - - Dzundi village, medicinal springs at, i. 283 - - - Eagles, i. 209 - - Earthquake at Selipuk, ii. 399 - - Eclipse of the sun, incidents of the, i. 252 - - Electricity, generation of, by driftsand, ii. 300 - - Elephant, a unique, i. 336 - - Emir Sing, brother of Maharaja of Kashmir, i. 26 - - Equipment of caravan, i. 28, 53; ii. 211 - - Escort, our Pathan and Rajput, i. 28; - our Tibetan, 404, 424; - inspection of, ii. 16; - fresh, from Kyangdam, 21; - route discussed with, 21; - the Governor of Saka-dzong supplies military, 365 - - Espionage, system of, i. 379 - - Europeans, Tibetan distrust of, i. 201; - iron statues of, in Tashi-gembe monastery, 413; - increased stringency of regulations regarding, ii. 356 - - - Fagu, bungalow of, ii. 419 - - Family ties, looseness of Tibetan, i. 373 - - Field-mice, treacherous holes of, i. 92, 96, 147, 215, 223; ii. 332, - 397 - - Fireworks, display of, at Srinagar, i. 27 - - Food supplies, calculations and estimates of, i. 73 - - Fox, surprise of a, i. 148 - - Francke, Pastor A. H., i. 54 - - _Frithiof's Saga_, quotation from, ii. 11 - - Froeding, quotation from, ii. 6 - - Frost-bite, heartless desertion of victim of, ii. 240 - - Funeral customs, gruesome, i. 369 - - - Game, abundance of, i. 177, 205; ii. 50 - - Gandaen-choeding, nunnery of, i. 410 - - Gandarbal, first camp at, i. 33; - departure of caravan from, 35 - - Gang-lung, mountain, ii. 109, 129 - - Gang-lung-chu, river, ii. 105, 129 - - Ganglung-gangri range, direction of, ii. 395 - - Ganjevan, i. 36 - - Ganju-gompa monastery, ii. 86 - - Ganju-la pass, ii. 86 - - _Gao_, or small case with figure of Buddha, i. 247 - - Gara-la pass, ii. 366 - - Gar-gunsa, arrival at, ii. 219; - misleading reports intentionally spread at, 219; - plans formed at, 222; - arrival of consignment from India, 233; - leave for Tankse, 224 - - Gartok, men and baggage sent to, from Tokchen, ii. 107; - main caravan sent to, from Khaleb, 208; - letters received at, 215; - visit to the Garpuns of, 215; - friendly letter from Lien Darin at, 216; - consultation with Gulam Razul at, 217; - plans considered, and return to Ladak resolved on, 218; - leave for Gar-gunsa, 219 - - Gaura, letters from home received at, ii. 419 - - Gave-ting, massive of Kubi-gangri, ii. 101, 103 - - Gaw Daloi, Chinese Agent at Gyangtse, i. 388; - correspondence with, 390, 392 - - Gazelles, Goa, i. 240 - - Gebuk-chu, confluence of, with the Chak-tak-tsangpo, ii. 337 - - Gebuk-la pass, ii. 341 - - Gebuk-yung, district of, ii. 339 - - Geese, wild, flock of, i. 166; - habits of, 167, 168; - migrations of, ii. 321; - Tibetan reverence for, 362 - - _Gelong_, order of priesthood, i. 351 - - "Gelugpa," monastic sect founded by Tsong Kapa, i. 335 - - Gertse, nomads from, i. 179, 184, 192; ii. 285; - their distrust of each other, i. 193; - house of chief of, ii. 296 - - Getsa-rung, gold placer of, ii. 276 - - _Getsul_, order of priesthood, i. 351 - - Ghe, bivouac at, and escort changed, i. 424 - - Goa-la pass, ii. 387 - - Goa-lung valley, ii. 387 - - Goang-shung, guides obtained at, ii. 392 - - Goang-tso, lake, i. 217 - - Goats, taken with caravan for milk, i. 74 - - Gobrang, ridge of, i. 206 - - Gogra, camp at, i. 81 - - Gold, traces of search for, i. 174, 188; - placers, ii. 276, 284 - - Gomo-selung country, i. 179 - - Gompa-sarpa, cemetery of Shigatse, i. 369 - - Gossul-gompa monastery, ii. 122, 135; - novices in, 145; - _lhakang_ of, 146; - Somchung, apartment in, 146; - view from roof, 148 - - _Gova_, or district chief, i. 205 - - Governors, dual, Tibetan system of, ii. 354 - - Govo, village of, ii. 14 - - Govo-tsangpo, river, ii. 13 - - Gruenwedel, work on Buddhistic mythology by, i. 329 _n._ - - Gubuk-gompa monastery, ii. 80 - - Guffaru, old, i. 52, 72, 81, 215; ii. 40; - appointed caravan leader on Muhamed Isa's death, 59; - returns home with thirteen members of caravan, 107; - safe arrival at Gartok, 144 - - Guide, vagaries of our, i. 428 - - Gulam Kadir, son of Nazer Shah, assistance rendered in Shigatse by, i. - 377, 384 - - Gulam Razul, son of Nazer Shah, valuable services of, i. 56; ii. - 217-221; - honours conferred on, i. 56; ii. 221 - - Gunda-tammo, nunnery of, i. 423 - - Gunsang Ngurbu, a centenarian hermit, ii. 18 - - Gunt, camp at, i. 37 - - Gurkang-pu valley, ii. 80 - - Gurla Mandatta, mountain group, ii. 104, 106, 111, 112; - varying aspects of, 114 ff.; - denudation cones, 157 - - Gyalpo Rinpoche, "the Precious King." _See_ Dalai Lama - - Gyang-chu, river, ii. 88 - - Gyangtse, letters despatched to, i. 260; - message from Chinese Agent at, 388; - Muhamed Isa's mission to, 391, 396 - - Gyebuk-la pass, important trade route, ii. 47; - view from, 48 - - Gyegong valley, camp in, ii. 371 - - Gyegong-la pass, ii. 372 - - Gye-la pass, ii. 361 - - Gyenor-tsangpo, river, ii. 392 - - Gyuma-chu, river, ii. 162 - - - Hajji Baba, name assumed by author, ii. 275 - - Hamdung, wandering lamas' quarters in Tashi-lunpo, i. 357 - - Hastings, Warren, embassies to the Tashi Lama from, i. 321, 334 - - Hawkes, General, i. 16 - - Hemis, temple of, near Changa, i. 63 - - Hermit, cell of, near Linga-gompa, ii. 2; - his heroic vow, 3; - his prayers for the sick, 4; - ceremony of seclusion, 5; - quotation from Froeding, 6; - living death of, 7, 10; - caves of, at Nyang-toe-ki-pu, 8; - Waddell on practice of seclusion for life, 9; - last offices, 10; - a centenarian, 18 - - Himalayas, the, view of, from the Ta-la, i. 278; - from the Angden-la, ii. 35; - from the Serchung-la, 69 - - Hiraman, an old friend, i. 67, 73, 75 - - Hlabsen Dorche Barva, god of Tso-mavang, ii. 131 - - Hlaje Tsering. _See_ Naktsang, Governor of - - Hle-lungpa valley, ii. 193 - - Hlindug-ling, i. 289 - - Hodgson, map by, ii. 401 - - Home-sickness in caravan, ii. 62, 67 - - "Horse years," periods in Tibetan cycle of time, ii. 190 - - Horses, purchase and numbering of, i. 49; - qualities of different breeds, 49; - auxiliary caravan of, hired from Tankse, 50, 67; - trouble with, on leaving Leh, 61; - first loss of, 75; - field-mice holes dangerous for, 92, 96; ii. 397; - Ladaki consideration for dying, i. 93; - stampede of, 99, 139, 178; ii. 30; - mortality among, i. 101-103, 135, 138, 149, 162, 181; ii. 265; - diet of Tibetan, i. 190; - mules compared with, 198; - death of my dapple-grey, 218; - splendid condition of our Tibetan, 265; - survivors at Shigatse, 297; - our veterans, ii. 220, 229; - my white Ladaki, 229, 265, 273; - enormous wastage of, 240; - Christmas box for our, 251; - death of brown Shigatse, 264; - and of my faithful white Ladaki, 279 - - Ho Tsao Hsing, secretary to the Tang Darin, ii. 70 - - House, description of Tibetan stone, ii. 14; - domestic utensils and possessions, 15 - - House-boats near Gandarbal, i. 33 - - Huc, Abbe, book on Tibet by, ii. 402 - - Hymn, Tibetan, translation of, i. 221; - wonderful chanting of, in Tashi-lunpo, 308 - - - Ice, nomads' distrust of the, i. 224, 227; - singular formations of, on the Ngangtse-tso, 227 - - Idar, the Maharaja of, i. 15 - - Illness of author, i. 172 - - Images, manufacture of, in Tashi-lunpo, i. 368 - - Immurement, voluntary, of monks, i. 363; ii. 2, 8. _See_ Hermit - - Impressions in stone, i. 337, 406 - - India, the Tashi Lama's visit to, i. 321 - - Indian Government, the, sympathy of, i. 9; - instructions of, as to author's passport, 25, 26 - - Indus, the, previous search for rise of, i. 3; - crossed beyond Lamayuru, 43; - start for the source, ii. 208; - guide and sheep hired, 210; - discovery of source of, 212, 213; - mental picture of its course, 213; - justifiable feelings, 214 - - Instruments, scientific, taken on expedition, i. 29 - - - Jackdaws, flock of, at the Shemen-tso, ii. 272 - - Janglung, district of, ii. 313 - - Japanese Embassy, representations on my behalf at Pekin by, i. 391 - - Jera, camp at, i. 44 - - Jukti-la pass, ii. 215 - - - Kabbalo, camp at, i. 279 - - _Kachen_, order of priesthood, i. 351 - - _Kadakh_, long narrow piece of white silk, i. 310 - - Kadsung valley, i. 80 - - Kailas, "the holy mountain," views of, ii. 106, 111, 112, 181 ff.; - set out on pilgrimage round, 189; - Nyandi-gompa, 190; - pilgrims on the way, 192, 197; - Diri-pu monastery, 193; - test-stone for sinners, 195; - universal Tibetan reverence for, 196; - the most famous mountain in the world, 198; - prostration pilgrimage described, 199; - pilgrims' performance at Dung-chapje, 200; - offerings on the Dolma-la, 201; - Tsumtul-pu monastery, 202 - - Ka-la pass, view of, ii. 396 - - Kali-Gandak, river, ii. 78 - - _Kalun_, or high official, i. 201 - - Kamba-sumdo, ii. 41 - - Kamba Tsenam, tent-encampment belonging to, ii. 339; - offer of guide declined, 341; - nocturnal visit to my tent, 366; - boastful talk of, 367; - "father of the robbers," 367; - enormous tent of, 367; - good-bye to, 372 - - Kamchung-chu, name of upper Chaktak-tsangpo, ii. 337 - - Kam-la pass, i. 213 - - _Kampo Lama_, or abbot, i. 351 - - Kanchung-gangri range, ii. 372, 374, 375 - - Kando-sanglam valley, view of Kailas through, ii. 202 - - Kangan, tents pitched at, i. 36 - - Kanglung-bupchu, river, ii. 46 - - Kanglung-la pass, tiresome ascent to, ii. 45 - - Kang-rinpoche. _See_ Kailas - - Kangsham-tsangpo, river, unpleasant crossing of, ii. 306 - - Kanjur-lhakang, library of Tashi-lunpo, i. 333; - lectures in, 366 - - Kapchor, camp at, i. 261 - - Kaptar-khane, camp at, ii. 233 - - Karakash Darya, river, ii. 252 - - Karakorum range, appearance of, from Chang-lung-yogma, i. 86; - caravan enveloped by storm from, 91 - - Karbu, an old follower recognized at, i. 40 - - Karbu-la pass, ii. 107 - - Kargan-la pass, ii. 103 - - Kargil, trial and dismissal of Kashmiris and Pathans from caravan at, - i. 41 - - Karma Puntso, Governor of Bongba, ii. 304, 321 - - Karma Tamding, of Tang-yung, guide and yaks supplied by, i. 213 - - Karong-tso, lake, ii. 387 - - Karpun, an old acquaintance, i. 253 - - Karu monastery, i. 63 - - Karu, camp at, i. 404 - - Kashmir, Maharaja of (Sir Pratab Sing), reception of author by, i. 26; - fete given by, in honour of Emperor of India's birthday, 27 - - Kashmiris, dismissal of, i. 41 - - Kayi-pangbuk, camp at, i. 262 - - Kayi-rung valley, i. 262 - - Kebechungu country, configuration of the, i. 196; - dust-storm in, 196 - - Kelung-tsangpo, river, i. 264 - - Kesar-tsangpo, river, i. 262 - - Keva, mountain peak, i. 216 - - Khaleb, river, ii. 181; - camp on moor, 181, 189, 203 - - Kichung-la pass, ii. 45 - - Kien Lung, Emperor of China, visited by third Tashi Lama, i. 334 - - Kilung-la pass, view from, ii. 69 - - Kinchen-la pass, ii. 344; - armed search-party visit our camp below the, 345 - - Kitchen of Tashi-lunpo, gigantic tea-cauldrons in the, i. 361 - - Kitchener, Lord, assistance promised by, i. 8; - at Viceroy's State dinner, Simla, 12; - trophies and curios in house at Simla, 18; - photograph of, in Tashi-lunpo, 321; - hospitality to author, ii. 422; - bid good-bye to, 423 - - Kograng-sanspo, river, i. 79, 81; - difficulties in crossing, 80 - - Kokbo valley, camp in, ii. 22-24; - begging lama at, 24; - impending difficulties at, 25 - - Koeppen, book on Lamaism by, i. 329 _n._ - - Kore-la pass, ii. 73, 82; - view from, 78 - - Koeteklik, ii. 237 - - Kotgar, attend mission service in, ii. 419 - - Krishna, the Pundit, i. 272; ii. 404 - - Kubi-gangri, excursion to the, ii. 88, 99; - source of the Brahmaputra located in, 96; - huge moraines of, 99; - glaciers of, 100; - description and names of peaks, 102 - - Kubi-tsangpo, river, ii. 90; - measurement of discharge of, 91; - journey up the, 91 - - Kuen-lun mountain system, i. 131, 142 - - _Kulans_ or _kiangs_, wild asses, i. 74, 97, 154, 177; ii. 95, 161, 285 - - Kule-la pass, ii. 354 - - Kum-bum monastery, visited by third Tashi Lama, i. 334; - miraculous tree in, 335 - - Kungchak-kong valley, ii. 79 - - Kung Gushuk, Duke, brother of the Tashi Lama, i. 255, 282, 309; - his house in Shigatse, 385; - portrait drawn of his wife, 386 - - Kung-lung valley, false alarm at, i. 215; - a prolonged storm, 216 - - Kung-muga, camp at, ii. 82 - - Kung-sherya country, dangers of discovery in, ii. 315-319 - - Kung-tsangpo, river, i. 262 - - Kuru-chok, double lake of, ii. 104 - - Kyam-chu, valley of, ii. 36; - junction of river with the Amchok-tso, 39; - delta of, 39 - - Kyangdam plain, camp on the, ii. 20 - - Kyangdam-tsangpo, river, ii. 34 - - Kyerkye valley, ii. 48 - - - Labrang, the, palace of the Tashi Lama, i. 317, 330 - - "Lac Ammoniac," Dutreuil de Rhins', i. 199 - - Lache-to island, Langak-tso, wild-geese eggs on, ii 175 - - La-chu, river, ii. 181 - - Ladaki pony, my white, i. 83, 170, 297; ii. 229, 265, 273, 279 - - Ladakis of caravan, their cheerfulness, i. 76, 230; - statements regarding the weather, 79; - attention to dying horses, 93; - prayers for successful journey, 139; - festivities in camp, 146; ii. 368; - want of cleanliness, i. 150; - marvellous memory of, 151; - biographical details of, 151; - Lamaists among, receive blessing of the Tashi Lama, 356; - home-sickness among, ii. 62, 67; - costume of, assumed by author as disguise, 277 - - Ladung-la pass, view from summit of, ii. 313 - - Laen-la pass, i. 223 - - _Lagbas_ (corpse-carriers), hereditary caste of, i. 370; - gruesome occupation of, 371 - - La-ghyanyak pass, i. 208 - - Lakes, frozen, Tibetan distrust of, i. 227 - - "Lama Rinpoche," meaning of title, ii. 2 - - Lama temple at Shargul, i. 42 - - Lamaism, a corrupt form of Buddhism, i. 312; - founder of, 312; ii. 29; - books recommended for study of, i. 329 _n._ - - Lamaist Church, festivals of the, i. 301 - - Lamas, mendicant, i. 217, 383; - various orders of, 351; - devotional pilgrimage of wandering, 357 - - Lamayuru, village and monastery of, i. 42, 43 - - Lamblung valley, camp in, i. 259 - - Lamlung-la pass, view from, ii. 362 - - Lamlung-la pass, Teri-nam-tso, ii. 384 - - Lanak-la pass, closed to author, i. 79 - - Landslip, a huge, ii. 238 - - Langak-tso, lake, ii. 122, 157; - levels taken of isthmus between Manasarowar and, 167; - earlier explorers' visits, 167; - channel from Manasarowar to, 168, 180, 186; - legend as to origin of channel, 169; - outline of, 169; - sandspouts at, 170; - prolonged storm at, 172; - goose-island of, 174, 180; - freezing of, 180 - - Langbo-nan monastery, twelve-year-old abbot of, ii. 163, 415 - - Langchen-kabab, spring of, ii. 182 - - Langchen-kamba, valley and spring of, ii. 105 - - Langchen-kamba (Elephant river), Tibetan name for the Sutlej, ii. 182 - - Langmar village, camp at, ii. 12 - - Langmar-tsangpo, river (upper My-chu), ii. 13 - - Langta-chen massive, Kubi-gangri, ii. 102 - - Lap, severe climate of, ii. 376 - - Lapchung-tso, lake, ii. 375 - - Lapsen-Tari, view of Targo-gangri from, ii. 20 - - Largep, chief of, friction with, ii. 28; - presents from, 34 - - La-rock pass, i. 280 - - Lashman Das, Pundit, i. 41 - - La-shung country, i. 174 - - La-shung-tso, lake, i. 174 - - Lavar-gangri, mountain region, ii. 397 - - Lavar-tsangpo, river, ii. 399 - - Ldata valley, i. 74 - - Leh, arrival at, and quarters in, i. 45; - our final preparations in, 48, 53; - advance caravan despatched from, 51; - Hajji Nazer Shah, a wealthy merchant of, 55; - assistance of Gulam Razul, his son, 56; - description of town, 57; - old palace of, 58; - graves of Europeans in, 58; - incidents of our send-off from, 60 - - Lehlung-gompa, visit to monastery of, i. 425; - stuffed yaks in, 426 - - Lemchung-tso, lake, camp at the, ii. 282; - beginning of a thirty-days' storm at, 283 - - Lenjo, valley of, i. 429 - - Lesdain, Count de, i. 272; - book on Tibet by, ii. 400 - - Letters, welcome arrival of, i. 256, 377; - arrangements for forwarding, 72, 83, 87, 103; - despatch of, from Tokchen, ii. 107 - - Lhasa, visit of officials from, i. 375, 395; - Tundup Sonam and Tashi despatched with letters to, ii. 42; - instructions to Tibetans from, as to my journey, 44 - - Lhayak, camp in, ii. 93 - - Lien Darin, Amban of Lhasa, correspondence with, i. 393, 400; ii. 42, - 216 - - Lighten, Lake, camp and rest at, i. 101; - personnel of caravan reduced at, 102; - second camp at, 107; - soundings and measurements of, 107-110; - storm on, 111; - a miserable night at, 115; - varied memories of, 116; - rescue party reach us, 118; - sudden change of scenery on leaving, 119 - - Liktse-gompa monastery, ii. 74; - skulls as drinking-vessels in, 75 - - Linga-gompa monastery, i. 430; - disposal of deceased monk's property, 431; - view from, 432, 434; - rhythmical chanting in, 432; - Pesu temple in, 434; - an optical illusion, 435 - - Linga-kok village, camp at, i. 430 - - Lingoe village, rock-drawings near, i. 422 - - Loang-gonga, river, ii. 104 - - Lobsang, my Tibetan follower, ii. 227 - - Lobsang Shunten, secretary to Governor of Naktsang, i. 249 - - Lobsang Tsering, secretary to the Tashi Lama, visit of, in Shigatse, - i. 298 - - Lobsang Tsering, Tibetan nomad, i. 192, 193 - - Lo Gapu, Nepalese frontier chief, ii. 75, 80 - - Log, by Lyth of Stockholm, i. 108; ii. 114 - - Long, camp at, ii. 239 - - Lopchak Mission, the, a lucrative monopoly, i. 55 - - Lopoen Rinpoche. _See_ Padma Sambhava - - Losar, the (New Year Festival of Lama Church). _See_ New Year Festival - - Lo-shung, the, headwater of the Raga-tsangpo, ii. 41 - - Lukkong, village of, i. 70 - - Luma-shar country, ii. 306 - - Lumbo-gangri, holy mountain, view of, from the Kilung-la, ii. 69 - - Lumbur-ringmo-tso, lake, ii. 286; - suspicions of nomads at, 287; - purchase of sheep at, 289 - - Lundup Tsering, leader of Naktsang party, ii. 26 - - Lungdep-chu, the, tributary of the Indus, ii. 211 - - Lungdep-ningri, head of wild sheep secured on, ii. 211 - - Lung-ganden-gompa monastery, i. 424; - hermit of the, ii. 3 - - Lungnak valley, i. 78 - - Lungnak-bupchu, stream, ii. 323 - - Lungring pass, ii. 40 - - Lung-yung, river, ii. 92 - - Lunkar, camp at, i. 74; - arrangement of caravan on leaving, 75 - - Lunkar-gompa monastery, ii. 391 - - Lunkar-la pass, ii. 392 - - Lunpo-gangri, peaks of, varying views, ii. 325 ff. - - Lying, successful, Tibetan admiration of, ii. 350 - - - Mabie-tangsam-angmo, camp at, ii. 389 - - Ma Chi Fu, Chinese official from Lhasa, i. 400, 402 - - Machung village, symbolic designs at, i. 421 - - M'Swiney, Colonel, i. 16 - - Ma Daloi, Chinese commander in Shigatse, i. 296, 315; - celebration of Chinese New Year, 345; - orders me to leave Shigatse, 391 - - Madoe Gemo, the fish-god of Tso-mavang, ii. 130 - - Ma-lung, river, i. 277 - - Mamer, village of, i. 36 - - Manasarowar, "the holy lake," ii. 106; - Hindu veneration for, 110; - surpassing beauty of the lake and its surroundings, 111; - Tibetan superstitions as to, 112, 114; - former levels, 113; - our first sail on, 114; - soundings and temperatures of, 115 ff.; - lightning effects on, 115; - wonderful natural phenomena, 116, 117; - long voyage on, 121; - pilgrims at, 121, 133; - the lamas of Gossul-gompa astonished, 122; - outlets of, 122; - storm on, 123; - peculiar wave undulations, 127; - map of shore-line drawn, 128; - origin of lake determined, 128; - Tugu-gompa and Yanggo-gompa, 130, 132; - Hindu homage to the, 133; - terrific storm on, 136-140; - succour from Gossul-gompa, 141, 142; - monks' contradictory statements as to, 147; - its sanctity, 151; - springs of, 156, 158; - underground connection with Langak-tso, 157, 168; - outline of, 158; - Chiu-gompa, 159; - our last days on, 160; - Pundi-gompa and Langbo-nan monasteries, 162, 163; - amount of surface water flowing into, 163; - channel between Langak-tso and, 168, 180, 186; - Chergip-gompa, 165; - freezing of, 180; - journey along northern shore, 415 - - _Mani ringmos_, or stone cists covered with slabs i. 61 - - Mankogh-la pass, i. 80 - - Manlung valley, i. 78 - - Manuel, cook to author, i. 21; - his broken English, 99; - sent home from Lake Lighten, 102, 106 - - Maps referred to: - of Nain Sing, i. 250, 258; ii, 21, 29, 41, 302, 380, 403; - Ryder and Wood, 41, 85, 90, 405; - Webber, 89; - D'Anville, 185, 186, 327, 401; - Hodgson, 401; - Dufour, 401; - Saunders, 402; - Atkinson, 402; - Krishna, 404 - - March, length of a day's, i. 73 - - Marchar-tso, lake, i. 258 - - Marium-chu, river, ii. 90 - - Marium-la pass, crossed by Nain Sing, ii. 89 - - Markham, Sir Clements, book by, mentioned, ii. 402 - - Markham, Lake, discovered and named by Captain Rawling, i. 148 - - Marku-tso, lake, i. 224 - - Marnyak-la pass, ii. 104 - - Marsimik-la pass, slow progress of caravan over, i. 76; - disagreeable descent of, 77 - - Martsang-tsangpo, river, ii. 90 - - Marx, Dr. Karl, i. 54 - - Marx, Rev. Mr., missionary at Poo, ii. 417 - - Massieu, Madame, meeting with, at Taranda, ii. 419 - - Matayun, camp at, i. 39; - disturbance in caravan at, 39 - - Mausoleums of five Tashi Lamas in Tashi-lunpo, i. 330-338 - - Medicine-chest, a popular, i. 29, 172; - presented to the Tashi Lama, 316 - - Memo-chutsen, warm spring of, ii. 373 - - Memory, examples of marvellous, i. 151 - - Men-chu, river, ii. 68 - - Men-chu valley, camp in, ii. 69 - - Mendicants, Tibetan, i. 217 - - Mendong-gompa monastery, tent-villages - of, ii. 380 - - Menu, a tempting, i. 184 - - Merke-sang, view from, ii. 388 - - Meteorological observations, i. 142 - - Minto, Countess of, i. 13, 14, 19; ii. 422 - - Minto, Earl of, Viceroy of India, efforts on behalf of author, i. 9; - State dinner and levee by, 12; - receives author as his guest, 13; - his popularity in India, and State service, 13; - family life of, 14; - author's farewell to, and family, 19; - hospitality of, ii. 420; - speech to my followers, 421; - good-bye to, 422 - - Mirage, perplexing effects of, i. 94; ii. 273 - - Mittag-Leffler, Professor, Stockholm University, ii. 406 - - Mogbo-dimrop country, i. 199; - gloomy news in, 200 - - Mohanlal, merchant of Leh, i. 45, 53 - - Mohanlal, Hindu doctor, ii. 416 - - Mollah Shah, a former follower, met with, ii. 234 - - Monks in Tashi-lunpo, religious ceremonies by, i. 348 ff.; - grades and number of, 351, 352; - daily life of, 358, 366; - great consumption of tea among, 359, 361; - voluntary immurement of certain, 363; - strict rule enforced, 364; - manufacture of images by, 367; - funeral customs, 369 - - Monlam-gongma, ii. 325 - - Monsoon rains, importance of, ii. 68 - - Montgomerie, Colonel T. G., ii. 89, 403 - - Moravian missionaries in Leh, kindness of, i. 54; - admirable work among the Ladakis, 54, 55 - - Morley, Lord, Secretary of State for India, i. 8, 9, 11; - explains refusal of permission to enter Tibet, 10 - - Muglib, muster of camp and inspection of animals at, i. 69 - - Muhamed Isa, my caravan leader, i. 30; - experience and qualifications, 46, 47; - his preparations for equipment of caravan, 48; - watchful care exercised by, 76; - his opinion of the Rajput escort, 78; - way-marks erected by, 83, 149; - sets out for Gyangtse, 391, 396; - arranges festivities in Basang camp, ii. 47; - leaves with main caravan for Saka, 47; - illness and sufferings of, 52, 53; - his death, 54; - funeral of, 56; - appreciations of, 57, 58; - inscription on tombstone, 58; - Guffaru appointed his successor, 59; - Mohammedans hold memorial feast, 60; - depressing effects of his death, 62 - - Muhamed Rehim, merchant from Khotan, ii. 234 - - Mukchung-simo massive, Kubi-gangri, ii. 100, 102 - - Mukden, Christmas 1908 spent in, ii. 248 - - Mules, comparison of Poonch and Tibetan, i. 28, 198; - heavy losses of, 149, 162, 163, 197; - our new animals at Gar-gunsa, ii. 220; - tonic effects of whisky on, 260, 264; - death of our last veteran, 261 - - Mundang, Nepal, caravan from, ii. 75 - - Munjam valley, ii. 212 - - Mun-tso, twin lakes, position of, ii. 380 - - My-chu-tsangpo, river, i. 269, 272; - complicated system of, 276; - confluence of Dok-chu with, 422; - journey up valley of, 423 ff.; - scenery of, 428; - an eccentric guide, 428; - commercial importance of valley route, 429 - - - Nadsum, camp at, i. 217 - - Nagma-tsangpo (Chuma), river, ii. 28 - - Nagor, the Gova of, ii. 84 - - Nagrong valley, monk-doctor's tent in, ii. 296; - animals and stores purchased in, 297 - - Nain Sing, his discovery of great lakes of central Tibet, i. 3; - nomenclature of Bogtsang-tsangpo district, 206; - outline of the Ngangtse-tso, 230; - maps of, referred to, 250, 258; ii. 21, 29, 41, 302, 380, 403; - on source of Brahmaputra, 89 - - Nakbo-gongrong-gangri, mountain, ii. 376 - - Nakbo-kongdo-la pass, ii. 376 - - Nakchu, pilgrims from, i. 200; - purchases from, 202 - - Naktsang, Governor of, refuses to allow caravan to proceed, i. 236, - 243, 247; - previous trouble with, 238; - meetings with, 242, 247; - his treatment by the Devashung, 243, 251, 376; - my proposals to, 244; - unexpected change of front by, 249; - eclipse of sun explained to, 254; - cordial leave-taking, 257 - - Naktsang, horsemen from, our progress stopped by, ii. 26; - palaver and agreement with, 27; - costumes and equipment of, 31 - - Namachang district, camp in, i. 261 - - Namarding valley, camp in, ii. 107 - - Nama-shu, camp at, ii. 80 - - Namchen valley, joint camp in the, ii. 362; - stores laid in at, 364; - renewed discussion of my return route at meeting in, 364 - - Namgyal-lhakang temple, Tashi-lunpo, service in, i. 362 - - Namla, village of, ii. 85 - - Namla-gompa monastery, ii. 85 - - Namreldi, valley and stream, ii. 156 - - Nangsang-la pass, ii. 92 - - Naong-rung valley, i. 263 - - Naong-tsangpo, river, i. 262 - - Nayala, mountain, i. 415 - - Nazer Shah, Hajji, a wealthy patriarch of Leh, i. 55; - lucrative monopoly in family of, 56; - services rendered to author by his sons, 56, 377, 384; ii. 217-221; - commercial interests in Shigatse, i. 385 - - Nebuk, village of, ii. 80 - - Neka district, camp in, i. 214; - sickness in caravan at, 214 - - Nema-tok, camp at, ii. 310 - - Nepal, the Consul of, at Tashi-lunpo, i. 304, 374; - a stolen visit into, ii. 79; - temptation to extend journey southwards, 81 - - Nerung-tsangpo, river, ii. 84 - - Neve, Dr. Arthur, Srinagar, i. 23 - - Neve, Dr. Ernest, i. 23 - - New Year, Chinese, celebration of, i. 345 - - New Year Festival, Tashi-lunpo: - its popularity, i. 301; - our dress for, and journey to, 303; - a picturesque assemblage, 304; - dresses at, 305; - reasons for increase of interest in, 306; - an enthralling hymn-chant, 308; - arrival of the Tashi Lama and his court, 309; - religious dances and masques, 311; - effect on the spectators, 313; - a symbolic fire, 314; - combined dance of lamas, 315; - general purpose and significance of the ceremonies, 315 - - Ngangga, or Ganga, channel between Manasarowar and the Langak-tso, ii. - 180, 186 - - Nganglaring-tso, lake, irregular outline of, ii. 398 - - Ngangtse-tso, lake, rest at, i. 223; - thickness of ice of, 224; - hermit's cave at, 225; - soundings on, 226 ff.; - sledge constructed, 226; - singular ice-effects, 227-239; - New Year's Day 1907 on, 230; - Nain Sing's outline of, 230; - crustaceae in, 231; - trying weather on, 232; - letter with bad news from Robert, 236; - meetings with Governor of Naktsang at, 242, 247; - arrival of mail-bag, 254; - reasons for remembering the, 257 - - Ngartang, bivouac in, i. 277 - - Ngavang, joint Governor of Saka-dzong, ii. 353, 368 - - Ngomo-dingding, glaciers of, ii. 92, 96, 101 - - Ngurbu Tondup, our mail-carrier to Gyangtse, i. 260, 274; - brings us good news, 282 - - Ngurkung-la pass, ii. 76 - - Nien-chen-tang-la range, geographical importance of, i. 267, 272; ii. - 19, 330; - questions as to its direction and extent, 217, 324 - - Nima-lung-la pass, ii. 324 - - Nima-pendi valley, ii. 129 - - Nima Tashi, chief of escort, ii. 366 - - No Man's Land, i. 94 - - Nomads, first meeting with, i. 179, 181; - from Naktsang, 199; - from Senkor, ii. 290 - - Nubra, i. 64 - - Nuns, in Tashi-lunpo, i. 353, 356; - in Mendong-gompa, ii. 386 - - Nurla station-house, i. 43 - - Nyandi-gompa monastery, ii. 190; - periodic increase of pilgrims to, 191; - halls of, 191 - - Nyang-chu, river, i. 294 - - Nyang-toe-ki-pu, hermits' caves at, ii. 8 - - Nyanyo, village in Nepal, ii. 80 - - Nyapchu-tsangpo, river, ii. 393 - - Nyuku, friendliness of Gova of, ii. 60, 67; - arrival and camp at, 67 - - - Oang Gye, son of Governor of Saka-dzong, ii. 353, 368; - his grief at shooting of wild-goose, 362 - - O'Connor, Major W. F., British Trade Agent at Gyangtse, i. 244, 389; - interpreter to the Tashi Lama in India, 322; - welcome surprise from, 377; - correspondence with, 389; - Muhamed Isa despatched to, 391, 396; - gift of books from, ii. 43, 224 - - Ogawa, Professor, Kioto University, translation by, ii. 183 - - Ogorung-tsangpo, river, ii. 13 - - "Om mani padme hum," Tibetan sacred formula, i. 44; ii. 9, 48; - Waddell's remarks on, 204; - universality of, 204-206; - Koeppen and Gruenwedel's translation of, 204 - - Ombo, nomads from, i. 208 - - _Ombo_, shrub used for fuel, ii. 296 - - - Pabla, mountain range, i. 260; - solution of important geographical problem of the, 267, 272 - - Pachen valley, ii. 112, 126, 161 - - Pachung valley, ii. 112, 126, 161 - - Padma Sambhava, founder of Lamaism, i. 312; ii. 29 - - _Pama_, species of juniper, ii. 13 - - Pama valley, ii. 79 - - Pamzal, i. 78, 80 - - Panchen Rinpoche, "the Great Precious Teacher." _See_ Tashi Lama - - Panchor, brother of Kamba Tsenam, ii. 342; - acts as our guide, 366; - doubtful character of, 372, 376, 378 - - Panggong pass, i. 70 - - Panggong-tso, lake, i. 70; - previous visit to, 70 - - Pangsetak, camp at, ii. 45 - - Pankur country, ii. 290 - - Parka, baggage sent to, ii. 166; - camp at, 179 - - Parka Tasam, threats by, ii. 178 - - Partridges, shooting of, causes suspicion, ii. 304 - - Parva valley, camp above the, ii. 33 - - Pasa-guk, village of, ii. 65; - unreliable data in, 66 - - Passes of the Trans-Himalaya, principal, ii. 408; - unknown, crossed by author, 409; - average height of, 410 - - Passport, Chinese, ultimate value of, i. 299; - cancelling of, 395; - terms of my new, 398; ii. 21, 27 - - Pathans of escort, i. 28; - difficulties with, 38; - dismissed from caravan, 41 - - Pati-bo, district of, i. 207 - - Patterson, Captain, Joint-Commissioner of Ladak, kindness of, i. 46, 47; - addresses caravan before starting, 51 - - Pears, Colonel, Resident at Srinagar, letter from, i. 25 - - Pedang-tsangpo, valley of the, ii. 394, 396 - - _Peling_, or European, i. 200 - - Pemba Tsering, of Saka, ii. 60, 63, 348, 354 - - Pensa, Gova, ii. 390 - - Pere-pala, Nepalese merchants' serai in Shigatse, i. 374 - - Permanakbo-tang valley, camp in, i. 279 - - Peter, Rev. Mr., Leh, i. 51, 54 - - Pike-la pass, i. 213 - - Pilgrimage of prostration, description of, ii. 199 - - Pilgrims, meeting with, and purchases from, i. 200, 202; - on the Tsangpo, 292; - in Tashi-lunpo, 353, 356; - devotional exercises, 357; - my experiences of Mecca, ii. 69; - Hindu, at Manasarowar, 133, 153; - on journey round Kailas, 192, 197; - mental sketch of great routes of, 203 - - Pinzoling, bridge at, i. 416 - - Pobrang village, meeting with English sportsmen at, i. 71; - rest for man and beast at, 72; - arrangements made for letters, 72; - our last point of contact with outer world, 72, 74 - - Political complications: - Tibetan Government officials' visit in Shigatse, i. 375; - orders from Tibetan and Chinese Governments, 388, 391; - advice from Gaw Daloi, 392; - letters to Chinese and Tibetan State officials, 393; - Chinese supremacy, 395; - letter from Chang Yin Tang, 397 - - Pongchen-la pass, i. 260 - - Poo, Moravian missionaries' hospitality at, ii. 417; - Takkar's return to, 418 - - Poonch, mules from, compared with Tibetan, i. 28; - trouble with men from, 39 - - Porung valley, sulphurous springs in, i. 269 - - Poru-tso, lake, view of, ii. 392 - - Potu-la pass, i. 42 - - Prayer formula, Tibetan, i. 301, 357, 404, 408 - - Prayer-mills, in Tashi-lunpo, i. 360; - in Tashi-gembe, 413; - ubiquity of, ii. 205 - - Priesthood, orders of, i. 351; - domination of the, in Tibet, 384 - - Prostration pilgrimage, description of, ii. 199 - - Pu-chu, valley of, ii. 40 - - Pul-tso, lake, camp at, i. 131; - sudden storms at, 133, 136; - soundings and - measurements, 133-135; - crustaceae in, 134; - mysterious camp-fire, 135 - - Pundi, double peaks of, ii. 112, 126, 171 - - Pundi-gompa monastery, ii. 162 - - Pung-chu, river, ii. 85 - - Punjab, Lieutenant-Governor of the, i. 12 - - Puntsuk, Tibetan nomad, i. 189, 191 - - Pupchung-tsangpo, river, i. 264 - - Purang, epidemic of smallpox at, ii. 92 - - _Pustin_, Yarkand fur coat, i. 74 - - Pusum village, camp at, i. 415 - - - Quadt, Count, German Consul-General, dinner given at Simla by, i. 16 - - Quetta, i. 5 - - - Rabsang, biographical details of, i. 151 - - Races, mixture of, in caravan, i. 31 - - Radak valley, ii. 353 - - Raga-tasam, camp at, ii. 41; - route of Rawling's expedition touched at, 41; - messengers despatched to Shigatse from, 42; - camp life at, 43; - Tibetan Government's instructions regarding author, 44; - visit of the Gova of, 63 - - Raga-tsangpo, river. _See_ Dok-chu - - Ragok valley, i. 206 - - Rains, importance of monsoon, ii. 68; - our first, since leaving Ladak, 74 - - Rajputs of escort, i. 28; - Muhamed Isa's opinion of, 78, 103; - sent home at Lake Lighten, 102, 106 - - Rakas-tal. _See_ Langak-tso - - Rambirpur, village of, i. 63 - - Rartse plain, arrival of missing followers at camp in the, ii. 399 - - Ravak-la pass, ii. 45 - - Ravens, pertinacity of, i. 143, 148, 155, 164 - - Rawalpindi, i. 21 - - Rawling, Captain C. G., i. 16, 51; - discovers Captain Deasy's stores at the Yeshil-kul, 129; - maps out Yeshil-kul district, 130, 137; - Lake Markham discovered and named by, 148; - expedition to Gartok under, ii. 90 - - Rehim Ali, lessons in rowing to, i. 108; - terror of, in storm on Lake Lighten, 113; - attacked by wild yak, 176; - sacrifice offered up by, 194 - - Religions, various, in caravan, i. 31, 53 - - Ribbach, Mr. and Mrs., Leh, i. 55 - - Richen-chu, river, ii. 132 - - Richung-chu, river, ii. 129 - - Rickshaws, reason for their abundance in Simla, i. 17 - - Rigi-hloma, Gova of, interesting information by the, ii. 393 - - _Rikchen_, order of priesthood, i. 351 - - Rinakchutsen, lake, camp at, i. 198 - - _Ringding_, order of priesthood, i. 351 - - Riochung country, camp in the, ii. 276 - - Robbers, in the Chaktak-tsangpo country, ii. 335; - Tibetan punishment of, 336 - - Robert, my faithful servant and meteorological assistant, i. 29, 39, - 142, 150; - medical skill of, 171; - home-sickness of, ii. 62; - bad news received by, 219; - my parting with, 229 - - Rock valley, ii. 67 - - Rock-drawings in Dok-chu valley, i. 422 - - Ronggak-chu, river, ii. 104 - - Ruins, encouraging effect of discovery of, i. 169 - - Rukyok-tsangpo, river, and valley, ii. 69, 334 - - Rung valley, bivouac in, i. 277 - - Rung-chu, river, i. 280 - - Rungma, village of, i. 285, 403 - - Ryder and Wood, maps by, referred to, ii. 41, 85, 90, 405 - - - Sachu-tsangpo, river, ii. 327; - camp at the, 361 - - Sadung, camp at, i. 403 - - Saka, permission for excursion granted by Governor of, ii. 47; - arrival at, 51; - difficulties with officials of, 60; - longing to get away from, 61; - village life, 62; - search-party from, visit our camp, 345; - my return route discussed with the Governor of, 355-359, 364 - - Sakti, village of, i. 64 - - Saka-gompa monastery, ii. 62 - - Salt-caravans, ii. 64, 323, 329 - - Salt lakes, gradual shrinking of Tibetan, i. 91; - importance of their product, 193 - - Salutation, Tibetan form of, i. 182, 240, 280, 429 - - Samde-puk convent, ii. 1; - hermit's cell near, 2 - - _Samkang_, or hermit's cave, i. 224 - - Samo-tsangpo, river, fish of, ii. 107 - - Samye-la pass, hydrographical and geographical importance of, ii. 329; - unbroken continuance of the Trans-Himalaya proved at, 330; - not on the same chain as the Angden-la, 330 - - Sanchen-la pass, ii. 310 - - Sandhills, shifting, on the Brahmaputra, ii. 86 - - Sand-spout, near Amchok-yung, ii. 36 - - Sangchen-chu, river, camp at the, ii. 308 - - Sangge-ngamo-buk, visit from chief of, ii. 383 - - Sangmo-bertik valley, ii. 375 - - Sangmo-bertik-la pass, ii. 377 - - Sangra, mountain, i. 264 - - Sangra-palhe valley, i. 265 - - Saspul, i. 44 - - Satsot-la pass, ii. 322 - - Saunders, map by, ii. 202 - - Schnabel, Rev. Mr., missionary at Poo, ii. 417 - - Search-party from Saka, ii. 345; - their instructions regarding us, 346, 349; - my recognition of Pemba Tsering and interview with, 348-350; - agree to accompany them to Semoku, 350 - - Sekya monastery, i. 281 - - Sela-la pass, i. 267, 272; - triumphant reflections at, 268 - - Sele-nang valley, i. 266, 268 - - Selin-do, camp at, i. 268 - - Selipuk-gompa monastery, abbot of, ii. 399; - earthquake at, 399 - - Selung-urdu valley and glacier, ii. 156 - - Semoku, journey to, ii. 353; - meeting with Governor of Saka-dzong in, 355-359; - mutual courtesies at, 360 - - Senes-yung-ringmo, ii. 285 - - Sen-kamba-la pass, ii. 103 - - Senkor, nomads from, ii. 290 - - Seoyinna, mountain, i. 189 - - Serchung-la pass, view from, ii. 69 - - Sereding, hill, i. 266 - - Serme-lartsa, ii. 40 - - Serolung valley, camp at, ii. 113 - - Serolung-gompa monastery, ii. 112 - - Serpo-tsunge, mountain, i. 266 - - Serpun-lam, the, great high-road of, ii. 321, 394 - - Sershik-gompa monastery, ii. 29 - - Sertsang-chu, river, visit of Tibetans at, i. 217 - - Sha-kangsham, mountain, ii. 302, 306, 310, 322, 381 - - Shak-chu, river, ii. 20 - - Sha-la pass, ii. 36 - - Shalung-la pass, ii. 371 - - Sham valley, camp in, i. 275 - - Shamsang, camp at, ii. 88 - - Shangbuk-la pass, ii. 25, 32 - - Shang-chu, river, i. 272 - - Shapka, camp at, ii. 95 - - Shapku-chu stream, ii. 97 - - Shargul, lama temple at, i. 42 - - Shar-tso, lake, ii. 306 - - Shawe, Dr., Leh, i. 54 - - Sheep, return of our missing, i. 165; - wild, 174; ii. 252, 310, 380; - used as pack-animals, 289, 334 - - Sheep-driving, author's inaptitude for, ii. 299 - - Shemen-tso, lake, camp at, ii. 270; - journey along, 272 - - Sherring, Mr. C. A., ii. 128; - kindness of, and Mrs., 144 - - Sheryak, camp in, ii. 92 - - Shey monastery, i. 61 - - Shialung valley, camp near, ii. 236 - - Shib-la-yilung valley, i. 271 - - Shigatse, arrival at, i. 295; - interview with commander of Chinese garrison, 296; - remains of caravan at, 297; - visited by Tibetan officials at, 298; - impression made by my Chinese passport, 299; - permission to attend New Year Festival in Tashi-lunpo, 299; - description of Festival, 301-315; - return Ma Daloi's visit, 315; - arrangements for visit to the Tashi Lama, 316; - architecture of, 340; - Dzong of, 340, 377; - sports-meeting at, 341-345; - Chinese New Year celebration, 345; - gruesome funeral customs, 370; - Lhasa Government officials' visit to me, 375; - arrival of correspondence, 377; - assistance rendered by Gulam Kadir, 377; - market-place of, 378; - system of espionage in, 379; - sketches of women in, 380; - variety of types and costumes, 382; - visit to Kung Gushuk, 385; - Chinese intrigues in, 390; - review of my position, 394; - sudden cordiality of authorities in, 398; - formal council held, and my return route specified, 398; - a canine interlude in, 399; - preparations for departure from, 400; - messengers despatched from Raga-tasam to, ii. 42 - - Shipki, village of, ii. 417 - - Shipki-la pass, farewell to Tibet from, ii. 417 - - Shooting competitions, Tibetan, i. 343 - - Shovo-tso, lake, camp on shore of, ii. 396 - - Shukkur Ali, uniform cheerfulness of, i. 52 - - Shuru-tso, lake, i. 216; ii. 25; - terraces of, 33; - unusual direction of, 33; - storm on, 34; - shape of, 34 - - Shyok valley, wretched journey through the, ii. 230-232; - farewell festival in village, 232; - caravan derelicts in, 237; - canine happy event, 238; - enormous wastage of horses in, 240, 245; - scarcity of provender, 241; - our complicated situation, 242; - miserable camping-places, 242, 246; - Mohammedan hymn in, 246 - - Simla, scenery of railway journey to, i. 5; - arrival at, and welcome by Sir Francis Younghusband, 6; - anxious moments in, 7; - State functions in Viceregal Lodge, 12, 17; ii. 420; - rickshaws in, i. 17; - Lord Kitchener's house in, 18; ii. 422; - departure from, i. 20; - return to, ii. 420; - residence in Viceregal Lodge, i. 13; ii. 420; - hospitality of Colonel Dunlop Smith and Lord Kitchener, 420, 422; - lecture before the Viceregal Court, 421; - good-bye to my Ladakis and Little Puppy in, 422 - - Sind, valley of the, i. 35 - - Singi-buk, camp at, ii. 210 - - Singi-chava, ii. 212 - - Singi-kabab, source of the Indus, ii. 210, 212 - - Singi-tsangpo, or Indus, ii. 210 - - Singi-yuera, ii. 212 - - Singrul, camp at, i. 65 - - Sirchung, village of, i. 425 - - Skulls as drinking-vessels, Liktse-gompa, ii. 75 - - Sledges, on the Ngangtse-tso, i. 226 - - Smallpox epidemic at Purang, ii. 92 - - "Snoring Kunchuk," ii. 299, 333; - new title for, 379 - - Snowstorm, a terrific, ii. 269 - - Sogbarong Tsering Tundup, Tibetan nomad, ii. 288 - - Soma-tsangpo, river, camp at, ii. 380; - journey along the, 386 - - Sonam Ngurbu, Governor of Chokchu, ii. 399 - - Sonamarg, bivouac at, i. 37 - - Sonam Tsering, leader of advance caravan, i. 51; - in charge of the mules, 72; - points out Deasy's depot, 129 - - So valley, i. 284 - - Source of the Brahmaputra, ii. 96, 101; - of the Sutlej, 129, 153, 180; - of the Indus, 212 - - Spanglung valley, camp near, i. 78 - - Spittol monastery, i. 45 - - Sports, Tibetan, i. 341-345 - - Srinagar, scenery of journey to, i. 22; - arrival at, 23; - dinner-table talk about author, 24; - interview with the Maharaja of Kashmir's private secretary, 24; - fete at, 27; - equipment of caravan, 28; - departure from, 30; - puppies taken from, 34; - plates and rock specimens sent to, 103 - - Srong Tsan Ganpo, wives of, i. 333 - - Stagna-gompa monastery, i. 63 - - Stockholm, departure from, i. 4 - - Stok, the Raja of, letter of recommendation from, i. 57, 298 - - Stokpa, village of, i. 57 - - Stoliczka, Dr., monument in Leh, i. 59 - - Stone, impressions in, i. 337, 406 - - Storm, a thirty-days', ii. 283 ff. - - Sulphur springs, Chuta district, i. 82; - in Porung valley, 269; - at the Chunit-tso, ii. 323 - - Sultak, i. 67 - - Sumdang-tsangpo, river, ii. 398 - - Sun, eclipse of the, i. 252 - - Sung-chu, river, ii. 181 - - Surnge-la pass, ii. 400 - - Sur-la pass, ii. 393 - - Sutlej, the, source of, ii. 129, 153, 180, 188; - old bed of, 181; - Tibetan name of, and assertions regarding its origin, 182; - translation of Chinese extract as to its source, 183; - its source and that of the Tage-tsangpo the same, 184, 188; - accuracy of Chi Chao Nan's statements regarding, 185; - Colonel Burrard on drainage area of, 187 - - - Tabie-tsaka, lake, salt-caravans from, ii. 64, 323; - location of the, 322; - view of, 392 - - Tagar, village of, i. 64 - - Tage-bup valley, ii. 105 - - Tage-tsangpo river, ii. 105, 107; - measurements of, 129; - its source that of the Sutlej, 184, 188 - - Tagla Tsering, chief of Sangge-ngamo-buk, visit from, ii. 383 - - Tagrak-tsangpo, river, i. 261, 264 - - Tagramoche district, bivouac in, ii. 105 - - Takbur district, high-handed behaviour of chief of, ii. 49, 50; - abundance of game in, 50 - - Takbur-la pass, ii. 50 - - Takkar, our Tibetan dog, ii. 305, 307, 319; - his antipathy to Tibetans, 322, 377; - devours wolf-cub, 399; - returns to Poo, 418 - - Takyung Lama, abbot of Mendong-gompa, ii. 315, 318 - - Ta-la, or "Horse Pass," view from, i. 278 - - _Talkan_, or roasted meal, i. 53 - - Tambak valley, ii. 84 - - Tamchok-kamba (Brahmaputra), river, i. 403, 417 - - Tamlung-la pass, important watershed of, ii. 104, 129 - - Tamlung-tso, lake, ii. 104 - - Tanak (Black Horse) valley, camp in, i. 286, 403 - - Tanak-puchu valley, i. 286 - - Tang Darin. _See_ Chang Yin Tang - - Tangna, village of, i. 417 - - Tang-yung province, Tibetan visitors from, i. 212, 214 - - Tang-yung-tsaka, lake, i. 208 - - Tanjur, one of the two Tibetan Bibles, i. 412 - - _Tanka_, or pictorial banner, i. 318 - - Tankse, auxiliary horses hired from, i. 50, 67; - camp and rest at, 67; - festivities in caravan at, 68; - men from, petition to be allowed to return home, 102; - parting with my Ladakis at, ii. 225 - - Tankse, river, i. 67 - - Tarbung-la pass, ii. 25 - - Tarchen-labrang, ii. 190, 198, 202 - - Targo-gangri, view of the, ii. 20, 22, 381; - glaciers of, 25, 32 - - Targo-tsangpo, river, ii. 21; - valley of, 22; - our progress stopped at the, 26; - terraces of, 26, 30 - - Targot-la pass, ii. 30 - - Targyaling-gompa monastery, camp below, ii. 64; - intolerant behaviour of lamas of, 65; - plundered by robbers, 315 - - Tarmatse-tso, lake, i. 214 - - Tarok-tso, lake, position of, ii. 325; - described, 391 - - _Tarpoche_, or votive pole, i. 280 - - Tarting-choro, village of, i. 404 - - Tarting-gompa monastery, i. 283, 405; - sepulchres of high priests of, 406; - preparations for deceased lama's funeral - pyre at, 407; - reflections on monastic life, 408 - - _Tasam_, or high-road, ii. 41 - - Tasang-la pass, ii. 84 - - Tashi, despatched to Shigatse, ii. 42; - his return and adventures, 71 - - Tashi-gembe monastery, i. 218, 411; - the two Tibetan Bibles in, 412; - temples of, 412; - incongruous European figures in, 413; - prayer-cylinders in, 413; - brilliant colouring of, 414 - - Tashi Lama, the, increased prestige of, i. 307, 323; - kindness to us at New Year Festival, 310; - my visit to, 317; - dress and general appearance of, 319; - his kindly reception of author, 319; - intelligence and shrewd questions of, 320, 354; - his pleasant recollections of visit to India, 321; - widespread power of, 322; - previous visits of Europeans to, 322; - attributes and functions of the Dalai Lama and, 323; - favours granted to author by, 324; - medicine-chest presented to, 325; - ineffaceable impressions left by, 325, 355; - ceremonies observed on the approaching death of a, 327; - method of choosing his successor, 327; - mausoleums of previous Tashi Lamas, 330; - record length of service of first, 331; - visit of third Tashi Lama to Pekin, 334; - footprint of, 337; - photograph taken of, 354; - presents gifts to author, 355; - rigidly prescribed life of, 356; - his anxious questioning of author, 392; - farewell greetings from, 402 - - Tashi-lunpo, New Year Festival in, i. 301-316; - a cloister town, 330; - the Labrang, 330; - aerial street system in, 330; - mausoleums of earlier Tashi Lamas, 330-338; - date of foundation, 331; - library of, 333; - temple of Tsong Kapa, 335; - a sacred staircase, 337; - clerical tailors in, 348; - religious ceremonies witnessed, 348 ff.; - grades and numbers of monks, 351, 352; - bells of, 351; - nuns and pilgrims in, 353, 356; - author's interview with the Tashi Lama, 354; - pilgrims' devotional exercises in, 357; - sources of income, 358; - monks' life in, 358, 366; - prayer-mills of, 360; - tea a favourite beverage in, 359, 361; - kitchen of, 361; - the walling-up of certain monks, 363; - the Dena-lhakang temple, 365; - manufacture of images, 367; - funeral customs, 369; - last visit to, 393 - - Tayep-parva-la pass, ii. 397 - - Tea, Tibetan, i. 247; - monks' fondness for, in Tashi-lunpo, 359; - enormous infusions of, 361 - - Tea-pots, costly, i. 350 - - Teheran, Christmas 1905 spent in, ii. 248 - - Tela-mata-la pass, ii. 397 - - Telegrams to British Prime Minister, i. 8, 390 - - Temperature, sudden change of, i. 75; - records of low, 155, 173, 199, 207, 258, 274; - lowest recorded by author in Asia, ii. 259 - - Temple, lama, i. 42 - - _Tenga_, Tibetan coin, i. 56 - - Teri-nam-tso, "the heavenly lake," ii. 381; - its salinity, 384; - journey along southern shore, 384; - different pronunciations, and meaning of the name, 384; - extent of, and height above sea-level, 384 - - Terkung-rung valley, Lhasa caravan in, i. 270; - importance of road through, 270 - - Teta-la pass, view from, ii. 380 - - Thakur Jai Chand, Gartok, ii. 107, 215, 417; - provisions and letters from, 144 - - Thirteen, the number, prominence of, in author's journey, i. 20, 249; - ii. 236 - - Thirty-days' storm, a, ii. 283 ff. - - Tibetan Government, the, vindictive treatment of the Governor of - Naktsang by, i. 243, 251, 376; - proclamation on retiral of British expedition, 245; - author visited by two officials from, 375, 376; - system of spies, 379; - orders to author to leave the country, 388; - increased stringency of, regarding Europeans, ii. 356 - - Tibetan language, author's lessons in, ii. 277 - - Tigu-tang, dangerous roadway of, i. 430 - - Tikze, monastery and village of, i. 61; - camp at, 62 - - Ting-la pass, view from, ii. 22 - - Tirtapuri monastery, parting with followers at, ii. 416 - - Titles, high-sounding, applied to author, ii. 393 - - Toa-nadsum, bivouac at, i. 262 - - Tokchen, the Gova of, ii. 107, 110; - caravan reduced at, 107; - valley of, 110; - return to, 400; - departure from, 415 - - Tok-jonsung, bivouac at, ii. 91 - - Tokpas, Tibetan gold-diggers, i. 189 - - Tombs of the Tashi Lamas, i. 330-338 - - Tong, the Gova of, i. 424 - - Tong-tso, bivouac on shore of the, ii. 302 - - Tongue, protrusion of the, Tibetan salutation, i. 240, 280, 429 - - Tooth, Mr. Lucas, the last European seen by author for two years, i. 71 - - Topelius, Christmas song of the poet, quoted, i. 219 - - Tormakaru, mountain, i. 264 - - Torno-shapko, unfriendliness of nomads at, i. 217 - - Totling-gompa monastery, news from the outer world at, ii. 416 - - Tova-tova, district of, i. 262 - - Tradum, the Gova of, ii. 60, 69, 70, 73, 83; - camp at village of, 72; - excursion from, 73 - - Tradum-gompa monastery, ii. 73; - hermit's dwelling at, 73 - - Trans-Himalaya, the, author's first crossing of, i. 268; - geographical and climatic importance of, 273; ii. 20, 35; - approach to main crest of, 13; - second crossing of, 19; - third crossing, 35; - fourth and fifth crossings of, 209, 215; - sixth crossing, 239; - its unbroken continuance proved, 330; - seventh and eighth crossings, 377, 400; - previous attempts to map out, and books treating of, 401-405; - Ryder and Wood's bearings of, 405; - statement regarding wall-maps in Venice, 406; - principal passes of, 408; - previously unknown passes crossed by author, 409; - length and breadth of, and average height of passes, 410; - general comparison of, with the Himalayan system, 410; - author's reason for use of name, 412; - opinions for and against the title, 412, 413 - - Treaty, new, between Great Britain and Russia, ii. 221 - - Tree, miraculous, in Kum-bum monastery, i. 335 - - Tsa-chu-tsangpo, river, junction with upper Brahmaputra, ii. 74 - - Tsaktserkan, author's official attendant in Shigatse, i. 302, 353 - - Tsalam-nakta-la pass, ii. 376 - - _Tsamba_, or parched meal, i. 215 - - Tsangpo (upper Brahmaputra), river, i. 284; - formation and fertility of valley, 284, 285; - varying nomenclature of, 287; - description of boats on, 288; - varied scenery of, 290, 293; - day-dreams on, 291; - pilgrim parties on, 292, 293; - dust-storms, 402, 403 - - Tsasa-la pass, ii. 75 - - Tsechung-tso, lake, ii. 95 - - Tsepagmed, seated figure of Buddha, i. 355 - - Tsering, cook to author, i. 152; - loquacity of, 157, 161; - vocal powers of, ii. 13 - - Tsering Dava, Tibetan nomad, i. 189, 191 - - Tseti-la pass, ii. 208 - - Tseti-lachen-la pass, ii. 209 - - Tso, district of, ii. 80 - - Tso-kharki-tsangpo, river, ii. 80 - - Tso-mavang. _See_ Manasarowar - - Tsong Kapa, temple of, in Tashi-lunpo, i. 335, 362; - reforms Lamaism and introduces monastic celibacy, 335 - - Tsongpun Tashi, merchant from Lhasa, ii. 308, 311; - purchases from, 315; - visits our camp, 316; - his suspicions, 317 - - Tso-niti, pools of, ii. 93 - - Tso-niti-kargang pass, ii. 92 - - Tso-nyak, lake, ii. 106 - - Tso-ri, or "Lake Mountain," the, i. 219 - - Tsotot-karpo, lake, ii. 83 - - Tsukchung-chang pass, i. 417 - - Tsumtul-pu monastery, bivouac on roof of, ii. 202 - - Tubges, huntsman to caravan, ii. 323 - - Tugden-gompa monastery, i. 409; - statues in, 410 - - Tugri-la pass, ii. 103 - - Tugu-gompa monastery, ii. 130; - wool-market at, 130; - interesting picture in, 131; - shrine of lake-god in, 131; - monks' offering to their god on author's behalf, 145; - translation of inscription in, 154 - - Tugu-lhamo, height, i. 206 - - Tuksum, the Gova of, ii. 86; - grants permission to author to travel on south side of river, 87 - - Tumsang valley, i. 268 - - Tundup Sonam, huntsman to caravan, i. 131, 139, 144, 150, 154, 164, 191; - despatched to Shigatse, ii. 42; - his return and adventures, 71 - - Turkestan, Eastern, ostensible object of expedition, i. 23, 25; - passport for, requested from Swedish Minister in London, 25 - - Tuta, camp at, ii. 389 - - Tuto-pukpa, mountain, ii. 72 - - Tynchung valley, camp in, ii. 104 - - - Ugyu, Tibetan youth, his wonderful recovery from bullet-wound, ii. 46 - - Ujam-tso, lake, ii. 85 - - Umbo district, camp in the, ii. 91 - - Ushy, village of, ii. 361 - - Ushy-la pass, ii. 361 - - Utensils, Tibetan domestic, ii. 15 - - Vezir Vezarat, the, i. 41; - author's headquarters in house of, at Leh, 45 - - Viceregal Lodge, Simla, State functions in, i. 12, 17; ii. 420; - author's quarters in, i. 13; ii. 420; - description of, i. 14 - - Vultures, abandonment of Tibetan dead to the, i. 371; ii. 11 - - - Waddell, work on Buddhism by, cited, i. 329 _n._; - opinion on monastic seclusion, ii. 9; - on Tibetan sacred formula, 204 - - Wakkha, river, i. 41 - - Walker, Dr. Gilbert, Simla, presents from, ii. 223 - - Wallenberg, Herr G. O., Swedish Ambassador in Pekin, i. 391 - - Wall-paintings in Tugu-gompa, ii. 130 - - Weather, Tibetan, i. 74, 88, 90, 160 - - Webber, Thomas, on sources of the Brahmaputra, ii. 89 - - Whisky, a tonic for mules, ii. 260, 264 - - "Wilderness, the call of the," i. 1 - - Wolves, persistency of, i. 143, 168, 178, 198 - - Women, descriptions of Shigatse, i. 380; - uniform dirtiness of, 353, 380 - - Wool-market in Tugu-gompa, ii. 130 - - Wrangel, Count, Swedish Minister in London, passport requested from, i. - 25, 299 - - - Yaks, as beasts of burden, i. 75, 183, 198; ii. 64, 323, 329; - abundance of wild, i. 173; - Rehim Ali's adventure with a, 176 - - Yalloa-champa, holy apartment in Tashi-lunpo, i. 332 - - Yamba, lieutenant to chief of Tarok-shung, ii. 390 - - Yamchuk, village of, ii. 80 - - Yamchuk-pu valley, ii. 80 - - Yanggo-gompa monastery, ii. 129, 132 - - _Yapkak_, plant used as forage and fuel, i. 83, 91 - - Yere-tsangpo, river, i. 281 - - Yeshil-kul, lake, view of, i. 119; - antelope-traps at, 119; - intense saltness of, 120; - soundings on, 120; - choice between shipwreck and wolves, 122; - storm on, 124; - a freezing night, 125; - Deasy's depot discovered by Rawling, 129; - previous travellers' visits, 130 - - Ye-shung valley, camp in, i. 281, 409; - monasteries in, 411 - - Yildan, hunters from, ii. 275 - - Yimba Tashi, abbot of Linga-gompa, i. 431 - - Younghusband, Sir Francis, welcomes author to Simla, i. 6; - expedition to Lhasa referred to, 11; - parting with, 20; - letter as to passport from, 26; - recommends Muhamed Isa to author, 30, 46 - - Yulgunluk, ii. 235 - - Yumba-matsen, ii. 215 - - _Yungchen_, order of priesthood, i. 351 - - - Zambul, _numberdar_ of Pobrang, i. 73, 87 - - Zoji-la pass, difficulties of caravan in the, i. 38 - - Zugmayer, Austrian naturalist, i. 130 - - -THE END - - -_Printed by_ R. & R. 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