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diff --git a/43693-0.txt b/43693-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6c6688 --- /dev/null +++ b/43693-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,24404 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43693 *** + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 43693-h.htm or 43693-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43693/43693-h/43693-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43693/43693-h.zip) + + + +Transcriber's note: + +Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have +been preserved. + +Obvious typographical and errors have been corrected. + + + +DISCOVERY OF THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. + + +SUMMARY NARRATIVE OF AN EXPLORATORY EXPEDITION +TO THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER, IN 1820: + +Resumed and Completed, by the Discovery of Its Origin +in Itasca Lake, in 1832. + +By Authority of the United States. + +With Appendixes, + +Comprising the Original Report on the Copper Mines of Lake +Superior, and Observations on the Geology of the Lake Basins, +and the Summit of the Mississippi; + +Together with +All the Official Reports and Scientific Papers of Both Expeditions. + +by + +HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + + + + + + +Philadelphia: +Lippincott, Grambo, and Co. +1855. + +Entered according to the Act of Congress in the year 1854, by +Lippincott, Grambo, and Co., +in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the United +States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. + + + + +[ORIGINAL DEDICATION.] + + +TO THE HON. JOHN C. CALHOUN, SECRETARY OF WAR. + +SIR: Allow me to inscribe to you the following Journals, as an +illustration of my several reports on the mineral geography of the +regions visited by the recent Expedition under Governor Cass. + +I beg you will consider it, not only as a proof of my anxiety to be +serviceable in the station occupied, but also as a tribute of individual +respect for those exertions which have been made, during your +administration of the War Department, to develop the physical character +and resources of all parts of our Western country; for the patronage it +has extended to the cause of geographical science; for the protection it +has afforded to a very extensive line of frontier settlements by +stretching a cordon of military posts around them; and for the notice it +has bestowed on one of the humblest cultivators of natural science. + + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + ALBANY, 1821. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The following pages embrace the substance of the narratives of two +distinct expeditions for the discovery of the sources of the Mississippi +River, under the authority of the United States. By connecting the +incidents of discovery, and of the facts brought to light during a +period of twelve years, unity is preserved in the prosecution of an +object of considerable importance in the progress of our geography and +natural history, at least, from the new impulse which they received +after the treaty of Ghent. + +Geographers deem that branch of a river as its true source which +originates at the remotest distance from its mouth, and, agreeably to +this definition, the combined narratives, to which attention is now +called, show this celebrated stream to arise in Itasca Lake, the source +of the Itasca River. + +Owing to the time which has intervened since these expeditions were +undertaken, a mere revision of the prior narrations, in the _journal +form_, was deemed inexpedient. A concise summary has, therefore, been +made, preserving whatever information it was thought important to be +known or remembered, and omitting all matters not partaking of permanent +interest. + +To this summary, something has been added from the original manuscript +journals in his possession. The domestic organization and social habits +of the parties may thus be more perfectly understood. The sympathies +which bind men together in isolated or trying scenes are sources of +interest long after the link is severed, and the progress of science or +discovery has passed beyond the particular points at which they then +stood. Events pass with so much rapidity at present, in the diffusion of +our population over regions where, but lately, the Indian was the only +tenant, that we are in danger of having but a confused record of them, +if not of losing it altogether. It is some abatement of this fear to +know that there is always a portion of the community who take a pleasure +in remembering individuals; who have either ventured their lives, or +exerted their energies, to promote knowledge or advance discovery. It is +in this manner that, however intent an age may be in the plans which +engross it, the sober progress and attainments of the period are counted +up. An important fact discovered in the physical geography or natural +history of the country, if it be placed on record, remains a fact added +to the permanent stores of information. A new plant, a crystal, an +insect, or the humblest invertebrate object of the zoological chain, is +as incontestable an addition to scientific knowledge, as the finding of +remains to establish a new species of mastodon. They only differ in +interest and importance. + +It is not the province of every age to produce a Linnæus, a Buffon, or a +Cuvier; but, such are the almost endless forms of vegetable and animal +life and organization--from the infusoria upward--that not a year +elapses which may not enlarge the boundaries of science. The record of +discovery is perpetually accumulating, and filling the list of +discoverers with humbler, yet worthy names. Whoever reads with care the +scientific desiderata here offered will find matter of description or +comment which has employed the pens of a Torrey, a Mitchell, a Cooper, a +Lea, a Barnes, a Houghton, and a Nicollet. + +It is from considerations of this nature, that the author has appended +to this narrative the original observations, reports, and descriptions +made by his companions or himself, while engaged in these exploratory +journeys, together with the determinations made on such scientific +objects as were referred to other competent hands. These investigations +of the physical geography of the West, and the phenomena or resources of +the country, constitute, indeed, by far the most important permanent +acquisitions of the scrutiny devoted to them. They form the elements of +classes of facts which will retain their value, to men of research, when +the incidents of the explorations are forgotten, and its actors +themselves have passed to their final account. + +It would have been desirable that what has here been done should have +been done at an earlier period; but it may be sufficient to say that +other objects engrossed the attention of the author for no small part of +the intervening period, and that he could not earlier control the +circumstances which the publication demanded. After his permanent return +from the West--where so many years of his life passed--it was his first +wish to accomplish a long-cherished desire of visiting England and the +Continent, in which America, and its manners and institutions, might be +contemplated at a distance, and compared by ocular proofs. And, when he +determined on the task of preparing this volume, and began to look +around for the companions of his travels, to avail himself of their +notes, he found most of them had descended to the tomb. For the +narrative parts, indeed, the manuscript journals, kept with great +fulness, were still preserved; but the materials for the other division +of the work were widely scattered. Some of them remained in the archives +of the public offices to which they were originally communicated. Other +papers had been given to the pages of scientific journals, and their +reprint was inexpedient. The rich body of topographical data, and the +elaborately drawn map of this portion of the United States, prepared by +Captain Douglass, U. S. A., which would have been received with avidity +at the time, had been in a great measure superseded by subsequent +discoveries.[1] The only part of this officer's observations employed in +this work, are his determinations of the geographical positions. The +latter have been extended and perfected by the subsequent observations +of Mr. Nicollet. At every point, there have been difficulties to +overcome. He has been strenuous to award justice to his deceased +companions, to whose memory he is attached by the ties of sympathy and +former association. If more time has elapsed in preparing the work than +was anticipated, it is owing to the nature of it; and he can only say +that still more time and attention would be required to do justice to +it. + + [1] This remark is limited to the country south of about 46°. North + of that point, there are no explorations known to me, except those of + Lieutenant James Allen, who accompanied me above Cass Lake, in 1832, + and those of J. N. Nicollet, in 1836, which were reported by him to + the Topographical Bureau, and by the latter transmitted to + Congress.--Vide _Senate Doc._ No. 237, 1843. These observations + relate to the line of the Mississippi. Maj. Long's journey, in 1823, + was _west_ and _north_ of that river. + +A word may be added respecting the period of these explorations. The +year 1820 marked a time of much activity in geographical discovery in +the United States. The treaty of Ghent, a few years before, had relieved +the frontiers from a most sanguinary Indian war. This event enlarged the +region for settlement, and created an intense desire for information +respecting the new countries. Government had, indeed, at an earlier +period, shown a disposition to aid and encourage discoveries. The +feeling on this subject cannot be well understood, without allusion to +the name of John Ledyard. This intrepid traveller had accompanied +Captain Cook on his last voyage round the world. In 1786, he presented +himself to Mr. Jefferson, the American minister at Paris, with a plan of +extensive explorations. He proposed to set out from St. Petersburg, and, +passing through Russia and Tartary to Behring's Straits, to traverse the +north Pacific to Oregon, and thence cross the Rocky Mountains to the +Missouri Valley.[2] Mr. Jefferson communicated the matter to the Russian +plenipotentiary at Paris--and to the Baron Grimm, the confidential agent +of the Empress Catherine--through whose influence he received the +required passports. He proceeded on this adventure, and had reached +within two hundred miles of Kamschatka, where he was arrested, and taken +back, in a close carriage, to Moscow, and thence conducted to the +frontiers of Poland. On reaching London, the African Association +selected him to make explorations in the direction of the Niger. +Reaching Egypt, he proceeded up the Nile to Cairo, where, having +completed his preparations for entering the interior of Africa, he +sickened and died, in the month of November, 1788.--_Life of Ledyard_, +Sparks's _Amer. Biog._ vol. xvi. + +The suggestion of Ledyard to explore Oregon became the germ of the +voyages of Lewis and Clark. It appears that, in 1792, Mr. Jefferson +proposed the subject to the American Philosophical Society at +Philadelphia.[2] It is not known that its action resulted in anything +practical. After Mr. Jefferson himself, however, came to the presidency, +in 1801, he called the attention of Congress to the matter. Louisiana +had been acquired, under his auspices, in 1803, which furnished a strong +public reason for its exploration. To conduct it, he selected his +private secretary and relative, Merriweather Lewis, of Virginia; +Captain William Clark was named as his assistant. Both these gentlemen +were commissioned in the army, and the expense thus placed on a public +basis. Captain Lewis left the city of Washington, on this enterprise, on +the 5th of July, 1803, and was joined by Captain Clark west of the +Alleghanies. Having organized the expedition at St. Louis, they began +the ascent of the Missouri River on the 14th of May, 1804. They wintered +the first year at Fort Mandan, about 1,800 miles up the Missouri, in the +country of the Mandans. Crossing the Rocky Mountains the next year, and +descending the Columbia to the open shore of the Pacific, they retraced +their general course to the waters of the Missouri, in 1806, and +returned to St. Louis on the 23d of September of that year. (_Lewis and +Clark_, vol. ii. p. 433.) + + [2] Lewis and Clark. + +To explore the Missouri to its source, and leave the remote summits of +the Mississippi untouched, would seem to have ill-accorded with Mr. +Jefferson's conceptions. It does not appear, however, from published +data, that he selected the person to perform the latter service, leaving +it to the military commandant of the district. (_Life of Pike_, Sparks's +_Amer. Biog._ vol. xv. pp. 220, 281.) General Wilkinson, who had been +directed to occupy Louisiana, appears to have made the selection. He +designated Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike. This officer left +Bellefontaine, Missouri, on the 9th of August, 1805, with a total force +of twenty men, at least four months too late in the season to reach even +the central part of his destination, without an aid in the command, +without a scientific observer of any description, and without even an +interpreter to communicate with the Indians. That he should have +accomplished what he did, is altogether owing to his activity, +vigilance, and enterprise, his knowledge of hunting and forest life, and +his well-established habits of mental and military discipline. Winter +overtook him, on the 16th of October, in his ascent, when he was about +one hundred and twenty miles (as now ascertained) above the Falls of St. +Anthony.[3] Severe cold, snow, and ice, rendered it impossible to push +his boats further. Devoting twelve days in erecting a blockhouse, and +leaving his heavy stores and disabled men in charge of a non +commissioned officer, he proceeded onwards, on snow shoes, with small +hand-sledges, and, by great energy and perseverance, reached, at +successive periods, Sandy Lake, Leach Lake, and Upper Red Cedar Lake, on +the third great plateau at the sources of the Mississippi. On the +opening of the river, he began his descent, and returned to his +starting-point, at Bellefontaine, on the 30th of April, 1806, having +been absent a little less than nine months. On his visiting the country +above the point where the climate arrested his advance, the whole region +was found to be clothed in a mantle of snow. On his journey, the deer, +elk, buffalo, and wolf, were found on the prairies--the waters were +inhabited by wild fowl; as he acted the part of hunter, and, to some +extent, guide, these furnished abundant employ for his efficient +sportsman-like propensities. Of its distinctive zoology, minerals, +plants, and other physical desiderata, it was not in his power, had he +been ever so well prepared, to make observations. Even for the +topography, above the latitude of about 46°, he was dependent, +essentially, on the information furnished by the factors of the +Northwest British Fur Company, who, at that period, occupied the +country.[4] This information was readily given, and enabled him, with +general accuracy, to present the maps and descriptions which accompany +his account of the region. He was, however, misled in placing the source +of the river in Turtle Lake, and in the topography of the region south +and west of that point. + + [3] Estimated by him at 233 miles. + + [4] The surrender of the lake country by Great Britain, in 1796, at + the close of what is known as General Wayne's war, extended to + Michilimackinac, the remotest British garrison. The region northwest + of this post was occupied by numerous tribes of Indians, who + continued to be supplied with goods by British traders till after the + close of the war of 1812. In 1816, Congress passed an act confining + the trade to American citizens. Under this state of affairs, the + Northwest Company of Montreal sold out their trading-posts and + fixtures, northwest of Michilimackinac, to Mr. John Jacob Astor, of + New York, who, from an account of one of his active factors, invested + about $300,000 per annum in merchandise adapted to the Indian habits. + +Pike's account of his expedition did not issue from the press till 1810. +The narrative of the expedition of Lewis and Clark was still longer +delayed--owing to the melancholy death of Lewis--and was not given till +1814; a period of political commotion by no means favorable to literary +matters. It was, however, at once hailed as a valuable and standard +accession to geographical science. Public opinion had for years been +called to this daring enterprise. + +Such was the state of geographical discovery in the United States in +1816. The war with Great Britain had had an exhausting effect upon the +resources and fiscal condition of the country. But, owing to the +information gained by the operation of armies in the ample area west of +the Alleghanies, it opened a new world for enterprise in that quarter. +The treaty of 1814 with Great Britain, which affirmed the original +boundaries of 1783, by terminating, at the same time, the war and the +fallacious hopes of sovereignty set up for the Indian tribes, truly +opened the Mississippi Valley to settlement. + +All eyes were turned to the general climate of the West, and its +capacities of growth and expansion. The universal ardor which then arose +and was spread, of its fertility, extent, and resources, has, from that +era, filled the public mind, and fixed the liveliest hopes of the +extension of the Union. + +The accession of Mr. Monroe to the presidency, 4th March, 1817, formed +the opening of this new epoch of industrial empire and progress in the +West. This period brought into the administration a man of great grasp +of intellect and energy of character in Mr. Calhoun. By placing the army +in a series of self-sustaining posts on the frontiers, in advance of the +settlements, he gave them efficient protection against the still +feverish tribes, who hovered--feeble and dejected from the results of +the war, but in broken, discordant, and hostile masses--around the long +and still dangerous line of the frontiers, from Florida to Detroit and +the Falls of St. Anthony. He encouraged every means of acquiring true +information of its geography and resources. In 1819, the military line +was extended to Council Bluffs, on the Missouri, and to the Falls of St. +Anthony, on the Mississippi. Major S. H. Long, of the Topographical +Engineers, was directed to ascend the Missouri, for the purpose of +exploring the region west to the Rocky Mountains. During the same year, +he approved a plan for exploring the sources of the Mississippi, +submitted by General Cass, who occupied the northwestern frontiers. + +The author having then returned from the exploration of the Ozark +Highlands, and the mine country of Missouri and Arkansas,[5] received +from Mr. Calhoun the appointment of geologist and mineralogist on this +expedition; and having, at a subsequent period, been selected, as the +leader of the expedition of 1832, to resume and complete the discoveries +under the same authority, commenced in 1820, it is to the journals and +notes kept on these separate occasions, that he is indebted for the data +of the narratives and for the body of information now submitted. + + [5] _Vide_ Scenes and Adventures in the Semi-Alpine Region of the + Ozark Mountains of Missouri and Arkansas, with a View of the + Lead-Mines of Missouri. New York, 1819. Philadelphia: Lippincott, + Grambo, and Co. 1 vol. 8vo. pp. 256. 1853. + + WASHINGTON, D. C., October 24, 1854. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +EXPEDITION OF 1820. + +INTRODUCTION 17 + +PRELIMINARY DOCUMENTS 25 + +NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION 37 + +CHAPTER I. + + Departure--Considerations on visiting the northern summits early in + the season--Cross the Highlands of the Hudson--Incidents of the + journey from Albany to Buffalo--Visit Niagara Falls--Their + grandeur the effect of magnitude--Embark on board the steamer + Walk-in-the-Water--Passage up Lake Erie--Reach Detroit 39 + +CHAPTER II. + + Preparations for the expedition--Constitution of the party--Mode of + travel in canoes--Embarkation, and incidents of the journey across + the Lake, and up the River St. Clair--Head winds encountered on + Lake Huron--Point aux Barques--Cross Saganaw Bay--Delays in + ascending the Huron coast--Its geology and natural history--Reach + Michilimackinac 47 + +CHAPTER III. + + Description of Michilimackinac--Prominent scenery--Geology--Arched + Rock--Sugarloaf Rock--History--Statistics--Mineralogy--Skull + Cave--Manners--Its fish, agriculture, moral wants--Ingenious + manufactures of the Indians--Fur trade--Etymology of the + word--Antique bones disclosed in the interior of the island 59 + +CHAPTER IV. + + Proceed down the north shore of Lake Huron to the entrance of the + Straits of St. Mary's--Character of the shores, and + incidents--Ascend the river to Sault Ste. Marie--Hostilities + encountered there--Intrepidity of General Cass 72 + +CHAPTER V. + + Embark at the head of the portage at St. Mary's--Entrance into Lake + Superior--Journey and incidents along its coasts--Great Sand + Dunes--Pictured Rocks--Grand Island--Keweena peninsula and + portage--Incidents thence to Ontonagon River 83 + +CHAPTER VI. + + Chippewa village at the mouth of the Ontonagon--Organize an expedition + to explore its mineralogy--Incidents of the trip--Rough nature of + the country--Reach the Copper Rock--Misadventure--Kill a + bear--Discoveries of copper--General remarks on the mineral + affluence of the basin of Lake Superior 94 + +CHAPTER VII. + + Proceed along the southern coast of Lake Superior from the Ontonagon, + to Fond du Lac--Porcupine range of mountains--Streams that run + from it, at parallel distances, into the lake--La Pointe--Group of + the Federation Islands--River St. Louis--Physical geography of + Lake Superior 102 + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Proceed up the St. Louis River, and around its falls and rapids to + Sandy Lake in the valley of the Upper Mississippi--Grand + Portage--Portage aux Coteaux--A main exploring party--Cross the + great morass of Akeek Scepi to Sandy Lake--Indian mode of + pictographic writing--Site of an Indian jonglery--Post of Sandy + Lake 110 + +CHAPTER IX. + + Reunion of the expedition on the Savanna Portage--Elevation of this + summit--Descent to Sandy Lake--Council with the Chippewa + tribe--Who are they?--Traits of their history, language, + and customs--Enter the Mississippi, with the main exploring + party, and proceed in search of its source--Physical + characteristics of the stream at this place--Character of + the Canadian voyageur 118 + +CHAPTER X. + + Proceed up the Mississippi River--Its velocity and character--Swan + River--Trout River, and Mushcoda or Prairie River--Rapids + ascended--Reach, and make a portage around Pakagama Falls--Enter + a vast lacustrine region--Its character and productions, vegetable + and animal--Tortuous channel--Vermilion and Deer Rivers--Leech + Lake branch--Lake Winnipek--Ascent of the river to Upper Red + Cedar, or Cass Lake--Physical character of the Mississippi + River 126 + +CHAPTER XI. + + Physical traits of the Mississippi--The elevation of its + sources--Its velocity and mean descent--Etymology of the name + Mississippi--Descent of the river to Sandy Lake, and thence + to the Falls of St. Anthony--Recross the great Bitobi + Savanna--Pakagama formation--Description of the voyage + from Sandy Lake to Pine River--Brief notices of the natural + history 137 + +CHAPTER XII. + + Description of the descent from Pine River--Pine tracts--Confluence + of the Crow-wing River--Enter a sylvan region--prairies and + groves, occupied by deer, elk, and buffalo--Sport of buffalo + hunting--Reach elevations of sienitic and metamorphic + rocks--Discover a pictographic inscription of the Sioux, by + which they denote a desire for peace--Pass the Osaukes, St. + Francis's, Corneille, and Rum Rivers--St. Anthony's + Falls--Etymology of the name--Geographical considerations 145 + +CHAPTER XIII. + + Position of the military post established at the mouth of + the St. Peter's--Beauty, salubrity, and fertility of the + country--Pictographic letter--Indian treaty--The appearance + of the offer of frankincense in the burning of + tobacco--Opwagonite--native pigments--Salt; native copper--The + pouched or prairie rat--Minnesota squirrel--Etymology of + the Indian name of St. Peter's River--Antiquities--Sketch + of the Dacota--Descent of the Mississippi to Little Crow's + village--Feast of green corn 153 + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Descent of the river from the site of Little Crow's Village to + Prairie du Chien--Incidents of the voyage, and notices of + the scenery and natural history 162 + +CHAPTER XV. + + Mr. Schoolcraft makes a visit to the lead mines of + Dubuque--Incidents of the trip--Description of the + mines--The title of occupancy, and the mode of the mines + being worked by the Fox tribe of Indians--Who are the Foxes? 169 + +CHAPTER XVI. + + The expedition proceeds from Prairie du Chien up the Wisconsin + Valley--Incidents of the ascent--Etymology of the name--The low + state of its waters favorable to the observation of its + fresh-water conchology--Cross the Wisconsin summit, and descend + the Fox River to Winnebago Lake 178 + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Descent of the Fox River from Winnebago Lake to Green + Bay--Incidents--Etymology, conchology, mineralogy--Falls of the + Konomic and Kakala--Population and antiquity of the settlement + of Green Bay--Appearances of a tide, not sustained 186 + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + The expedition traces the west shores of Lake Michigan southerly + to Chicago--Outline of the journey along this coast--Sites of + Manitoowoc, Sheboigan, Milwaukie, Racine, and Chicago, being the + present chief towns and cities of Wisconsin and Illinois on the + west shores of that Lake--Final reorganization of the party and + departure from Chicago 193 + +CHAPTER XIX. + + South and Eastern borders of Lake Michigan--Their Flora and + Fauna--Incidents of the journey--Topography--Geology, Botany, + and Mineralogy--Indian Tribes--Burial-place of Marquette--Ruins + of the post of old Mackinac--Reach Michilimackinac after a + canoe journey north of four hundred miles 200 + +CHAPTER XX. + + Topographical survey of the northern shores of Green Bay and of the + entire basin of Lake Michigan--Geological and Mineralogical + indicia of the coast line--Era of sailing vessels and of the + steamboat on the lakes--Route along the Huron coast, and return of + the expedition to Detroit 210 + + + + +EXPEDITION OF 1832. + +DISCOVERY OF THE SOURCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN ITASCA LAKE 221 + +CHAPTER XXI. + + The search for the veritable source of the Mississippi is + resumed.--Ascent to Cass Lake, the prior point of + discovery--Pursue the river westerly, through the Andrúsian + Lakes and up the Metoswa Rapids, forty-five miles--Queen + Anne's Lake 223 + +CHAPTER XXII. + + Ascent of the Mississippi above Queen Anne's Lake--Reach the + primary forks of the river--Ascend the left-hand, or minor + branch--Lake Irving--Lake Marquette--Lake La Salle--Lake + Plantagenet--Encamp at the Naiwa rapids at the base of the + Height of Land, or Itasca Summit 231 + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + The Expedition having reached the source of the east fork in + Assawa Lake, crosses the highlands of the Hauteurs de Terre + to the source of the main or west fork in Itasca Lake 239 + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + Descent of the west, or Itascan branch--Kakabikoñs Falls--Junction + of the Chemaun, Peniddiwin, or De Soto, and Allenoga + Rivers--Return to Cass Lake 246 + +CHAPTER XXV. + + The expedition proceeds to strike the source of the great + Crow-Wing River, by the Indian trail and line of interior + portages, by way of Leech Lake, the seat of the warlike tribe + of the Pillagers, or Mukundwa 251 + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + Geographical account of Leech Lake--History of its Indians, the + Mukundwas--The expedition proceeds to the source of the + Crow-Wing River, and descends that stream, in its whole length, + to the Mississippi 258 + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + Complete the exploration of the Crow-Wing River of + Minnesota--Indian council--Reach St. Anthony's Falls--Council + with the Sioux--Ascent and exploration of the River St. Croix + and Misakoda, or Broulé, of Lake Superior--Return of the party + to St. Mary's Falls, Michigan 265 + + +APPENDIX NO. 1. + + Departmental Reports 279 + General Cass's Official Report 280 + " " Memoir suggesting further Explorations 285 + " " Personal Testimonial 287 + " " Communication on Indian Hieroglyphics, &c. 430 + " " Queries respecting Indian History, &c. 438 + Indian History and Languages 430 + Topography and Astronomy 288 + Mineralogy and Geology 292 + Mr. Schoolcraft's Report on Copper Mines 292 + " " on Geology and Mineralogy 303 + " " on the Value of the Mineral Lands on Lake Superior 362 + " Memoir on the Geology of Western New York 381 + " on the Elementary Sounds of the Chippewa Language 442 + Botany 408 + Zoology 408 + Meteorology 418 + + +APPENDIX NO. 2. + + Indian Language 453 + Mr. Schoolcraft's Essay on the Indian Substantive 453 + " " on the Noun-Adjective 489 + " " on the Principles of the Pronoun 502 + Natural History 515 + Conchology 515 + Botany 519 + Mineralogy and Geology 526 + Mr. Schoolcraft's Remarks on the Occurrence of Silver 531 + " General List of Mineral Localities 534 + " Geological Outline of Taquimenon Valley 537 + " Suggestions respecting the Epoch of the St. Mary's Sandstone 539 + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +Charlevoix informs us that the discovery of the Mississippi River is due +to father Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, who manifested the most +unwearied enterprise in exploring the north-western regions of New +France; and after laying the foundation of Michilimackinac, proceeded, +in company with Sieur Joliet, up the Fox River of Green Bay, and, +crossing the portage into the Wisconsin, first entered the Mississippi +in 1673. + +Robert de la Salle, to whom the merit of this discovery is generally +attributed, embarked at Rochelle, on his first voyage of discovery, July +14, 1678; reached Quebec in September following, and, proceeding up the +St. Lawrence, laid the foundation of Fort Niagara, in the country of the +Iroquois, late in the fall of that year. In the following year, he +passes up the Niagara River; estimates the height of the falls at six +hundred feet; and proceeding through Lakes Erie, St. Clair, and Huron, +reaches Michilimackinac in August. He then visits the Sault de St. +Marie, and returning to Michilimackinac, continues his voyage to the +south, with a view of striking the Mississippi River; passes into the +lake of the Illinois; touches at Green Bay; and enters the River St. +Joseph's, of Lake Michigan, where he builds a fort, in the country of +the Miamies. + +In December of the same year, he crosses the portage between the St. +Joseph's and the Illinois; descends the latter to the lake, and builds a +fort in the midst of the tribes of the Illinois, which he calls +Crevecoeur. Here he makes a stand; sends persons out to explore the +Mississippi, traffics with the Indians, among all of whom he finds +abundance of Indian corn; and returns to Fort Frontenac, on Lake +Ontario, in 1680. He revisits Fort Crevecoeur late in the autumn of the +following year, and finally descends the Illinois, to its junction with +the Mississippi, and thence to the embouchure of the latter in the Gulf +of Mexico, where he arrives on the 7th of April, 1683, and calculates +the latitude between 23° and 24° north. + +The Spaniards had previously sought in vain for the mouth of this +stream, and bestowed upon it, in anticipation, the name of Del Rio +Ascondido. La Salle now returns to Quebec, by way of the Lakes, and from +thence to France, where he is well received by the king, who grants him +an outfit of four ships, and two hundred men, to enable him to continue +his discoveries, and found a colony in the newly discovered territories. +He leaves Rochelle in July, 1684, reaches the Bay of St. Louis, which is +fifty leagues south of the Mississippi, in the Gulf of Mexico, in +February following, where he builds a fort, founds a settlement, and is +finally assassinated by one of his own party. The exertions of this +enterprising individual, and the account which was published of his +discoveries by the Chevalier Tonti, who had accompanied him in all his +perilous expeditions, had a greater effect, in the French capital, in +producing a correct estimate of the extent, productions, and importance +of the Canadas, than all that had been done by preceding tourists; and +this may be considered as the true era, when the eyes of politicians and +divines, merchants and speculators, were first strongly turned towards +the boundless forests, the sublime rivers and lakes, the populous Indian +tribes, and the profitable commerce of New France. + +Father Louis Hennepin was a missionary of the Franciscan order of +Catholics, who accompanied La Salle on his first voyage from France; and +after the building of Fort Crevecoeur, on the Illinois, was dispatched +in company with three French voyageurs to explore the Mississippi River. + +They departed from Fort Crevecoeur on the 29th of February, 1680, and +dropping down the Illinois to its junction with the Mississippi, +followed the latter an indeterminate distance towards the Gulf, not +believed to be great, where they left some memorial of their visit, and +immediately commenced their return. When they had proceeded up the +Mississippi a hundred and fifty leagues above the confluence of the +Illinois, they were taken prisoners by some Indian tribes, and carried +towards its sources nineteen days' journey into the territories of the +Naudowessies and Issati, where they were detained in captivity three or +four months, and then suffered to return. The account which Hennepin +published of his travels and discoveries, served to throw some new light +upon the topography, and the Indian tribes of the Canadas; and modern +geography is indebted to him for the names which he bestowed upon the +Falls of St. Anthony and the River St. Francis. + +In 1703, the Baron La Hontan, an unfrocked monk, published, in London, +his voyages to North America, the result of a residence of six years in +the Canadas. La Hontan served as an officer in the French army, and +first went out to Quebec in 1683. During the succeeding four years he +was chiefly stationed at Chambly, Fort Frontenac, Niagara, St. Joseph, +at the foot of Lake Huron, and the Sault de St. Marie. + +He arrives at Michilimackinac in 1688, and there first hears of the +assassination of La Salle. In 1689 he visits Green Bay, and passes +through the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers into the Mississippi. So far, his +work appears to be the result of actual observation, and is entitled to +respect; but what he relates of Long River appears wholly incredible, +and can only be regarded as some flight of the imagination, intended to +gratify the public taste for travels, during an age when it had been +highly excited by the extravagant accounts which had been published +respecting the wealth, population, and advantages of Peru, Mexico, the +English and Dutch colonies, New France, the Illinois, and various other +parts of the New World. + +To convey some idea of this part of the Baron's work, it will be +sufficient to observe that after travelling ten days above the mouth of +the Wisconsin, he arrives at the mouth of a large stream, which he calls +Long River, and which he ascends eighty-four days successively, during +which he meets with numerous tribes of savages, as the Eskoros, +Essenapes, Pinnokas, Mozemleeks, &c. He is attended a part of the way by +five or six hundred, as an escort; sees at one time two thousand savages +upon the shore; and states the population of the Essenapes at 20,000 +souls; but this tribe is still inferior to the Mozemleeks in numbers, in +arts, and in every other prerequisite for a great people. "The Mozemleek +nation," he observes, "is numerous and puissant. The four slaves of +that country informed me that, at the distance of 150 leagues from the +place where I then was, their principal river empties itself into a salt +lake of three hundred leagues in circumference, the mouth of which is +about two leagues broad; that the lower part of that river is adorned +with six noble cities, surrounded with stone, cemented with fat earth; +that the houses of these cities have no roofs, but are open above like a +platform; that, besides the above-mentioned cities, there are an hundred +towns, great and small, round that sort of sea; that the people of that +country make stuffs, copper axes, and several other manufactures, &c." + +In 1721, P. De Charlevoix, the historian of New France, was commissioned +by the French Government to make a tour of observation through the +Canadas, and in addition to his topographical and historical account of +New France, published a journal of his voyage through the Lakes. He was +one of the most learned divines of his age, and although strongly +tinctured with the doctrines of fatality, and disposed to view +everything relative to the Indian tribes with the over-zealous eye of a +Catholic missionary, yet his works bear the impress of a strong and +well-cultivated mind, and abound in philosophical reflections, enlarged +views, and accurate deductions; and, notwithstanding the lapse of a +century, he must still be regarded as the most polished and illustrious +traveller of the region. He first landed at Quebec in the spring of +1721, and immediately proceeded up the St. Lawrence to Fort Frontenac +and Niagara, where he corrects the error into which those who preceded +him had fallen, with respect to the height of the cataract. He proceeds +through Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan, descends the Illinois and +Mississippi to New Orleans, then recently settled, and embarks for +France. The period of his visit was that, when the Mississippi Scheme +was in the height of experiment, and excited the liveliest interest in +the French metropolis; people were then engaged, in Louisiana, in +exploring every part of the country, under the delusive hope of finding +rich mines of gold and silver; and the remarks he makes upon the +probability of a failure, were shortly justified by the event. + +In 1760, Alexander Henry, Esq. visited the upper lakes, in the character +of a trader, and devoted sixteen years to travelling over different +parts of the north-western region of the Canadas and the United States. +The result of his observations upon the topography, Indian tribes, and +natural history of the country, was first published in 1809, and, as a +volume of travels and adventures, is a valuable acquisition to our means +of information. This work abounds in just and sensible reflections upon +scenes, situations, and objects of the most interesting kind, and is +written in a style of the most charming perspicuity and simplicity. He +was the first English traveller of the region. + +The date of Carver's travels over those regions is 1766. Carver, whose +travels have been treated with too indiscriminate censure, was descended +from an ancient and respectable English family in Connecticut, and had +served as a captain in the provincial army, which was disbanded after +the treaty of peace of Versailles, of 1763, and united to great personal +courage a persevering and observing mind. By his bravery and admirable +conduct among the powerful tribes of Sioux and Chippewas, he obtained a +high standing among them; and, after being constituted a chief by the +former, received from them a large grant of land, which was not, +however, ratified by the British government. The fate of this +enterprising traveller cannot but excite regret. After having escaped +the massacre of Fort William Henry, on the banks of Lake George, in +1757, and the perils of a long journey through the American wilderness, +he was spared to endure miseries in the heart of the British metropolis, +which he had never encountered in the huts of the American savages, and +perished of want in the city of London, the seat of literature and +opulence! + +Between the years 1769 and 1772, Samuel Hearne performed a journey from +Prince of Wales's Fort, in Hudson's Bay, to the Coppermine River of the +Arctic Ocean. McKenkie's voyages to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans were +performed in 1789 and 1793. Pike ascended the Mississippi in 1805 and +1806. + +Such is a brief outline of the progress of discovery in the +north-western regions of the United States, by which our sources of +information have been from time to time augmented, and additional light +cast upon the interesting history of our Indian tribes--their numbers +and condition, and other particulars connected with the regions they +inhabit. Still, it cannot be denied that, amidst much sound and useful +information, there has been mingled no inconsiderable proportion that is +deceptive, hypothetical, or false; and, upon the whole, that the +progress of information has not kept pace with the increased importance +which that section of the Union has latterly assumed--with the great +improvements of society--and with the spirit and the enterprise of the +times. A new era has dawned in the moral history of our country, and, no +longer satisfied with mere geographical outlines and boundaries, its +physical productions, its antiquities, and the numerous other traits +which it presents for scientific research, already attract the attention +of a great proportion of the reading community; and it is eagerly +inquired of various sections of it--whose trade, whose agriculture, and +whose population have been long known--what are its indigenous plants, +its zoology, its geology, its mineralogy, &c. Of no part of it, however, +has the paucity of information upon these, and upon other and more +familiar subjects, been so great, as of the extreme north-western +regions of the Union, of the great chain of lakes, and of the sources of +the Mississippi River, which have continued to be the subject of dispute +between geographical writers. + +Impressed with the importance of these facts, Governor Cass, of +Michigan, projected, in the fall of 1819, an expedition for exploring +the regions in question, and presented a memorial to the Secretary of +War upon the subject, in which he proposed leaving Detroit the ensuing +spring, in Indian canoes, as being best adapted to the navigation of the +shallow waters of the upper country, and to the numerous portages which +it is necessary to make from stream to stream. + +The specific objects of this journey were to obtain a more correct +knowledge of the names, numbers, customs, history, condition, mode of +subsistence, and dispositions of the Indian tribes; to survey the +topography of the country, and collect the materials for an accurate +map; to locate the site and purchase the ground for a garrison at the +foot of Lake Superior; to investigate the subject of the north-western +copper mines, lead mines, and gypsum quarries, and to purchase from the +Indian tribes such tracts as might be necessary to secure to the United +States the ultimate advantages to be derived from them. To accomplish +these objects, it was proposed to attach to the expedition a +topographical engineer, an astronomer, a physician, and a mineralogist +and geologist, and some other scientific observers. + +Mr. Calhoun not only approved of the proposed plan, but determined to +enable the governor to carry it into complete effect, by ordering an +escort of soldiers, and enjoining it upon the commandants of the +frontier garrisons, to furnish every aid that the exigencies of the +party might require, either in men, boats, or supplies. + +It is only necessary to add, that I was honored with the appointment of +mineralogist and geologist to the expedition, in which capacity I kept +the following journal. In presenting it to the public, it will not be +deemed improper if I acknowledge the obligations which I have incurred +in transcribing it, by availing myself of a free access to the valuable +library of His Excellency De Witt Clinton, and of the taste and skill of +Mr. Henry Inman, in drawing a number of the views which embellish the +work. + + HENRY B. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +ALBANY, May 14, 1821. + + + + +PRELIMINARY DOCUMENTS. + + + I. ORIGINAL MEMOIR SUGGESTIVE OF THE EXPEDITION. + + II. MR. CALHOUN'S LETTER OF SANCTION OF IT. + + III. EMPLOYMENT OF A MINERALOGIST AND GEOLOGIST. + + IV. POLICY OF GRANTING PERMITS TO TAKE AWAY MINERALS FROM THE INDIAN + COUNTRY. + + V. A TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEER AND ASTRONOMER ORDERED FROM THE MILITARY + ACADEMY AT WEST POINT. + + VI. VII. MILITARY ORDERS OF GENERALS BROWN AND MACOMB. + + + + +PRELIMINARY DOCUMENTS. + + +I. + + DETROIT, November 18, 1819. + +SIR: The country upon the southern shore of Lake Superior, and upon the +water communication between that Lake and the Mississippi, has been but +little explored, and its natural features are imperfectly known. We have +no correct topographical delineation of it, and the little information +we possess relating to it has been derived from the reports of the +Indian traders. + +It has occurred to me that a tour through that country, with a view to +examine the productions of its animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, +to explore its facilities for water communication, to delineate its +natural objects, and to ascertain its present and future probable value, +would not be uninteresting in itself, nor useless to the Government. +Such an expedition would not be wholly unimportant in the public +opinion, and would well accord with that zeal for inquiries of this +nature which has recently marked the administration of the War +Department. + +But, however interesting such a tour might be in itself, or however +important in its result, either in a political or geographical point of +view, I should not have ventured to suggest the subject, nor to solicit +your permission to carry it into effect, were it not, in other respects, +intimately connected with the discharge of my official duties. + +Mr. Woodbridge, the delegate from this Territory, at my request, takes +charge of this letter, and he is so intimately acquainted with the +subject, and every way so competent to enter into any explanations you +may require, that I shall not be compelled to go as much into detail as, +under other circumstances, might be necessary. + +The route which I propose to take, is from here to Michilimackinac, and +from thence, by the Straits of St. Mary's, to the river which contains +the body of copper ore (specimens of which have been transmitted to the +Government), and to the extremity of Lake Superior. + +From that point, up the river which forms the water communication +between that lake and the Mississippi, to the latter river, and, by the +way of Prairie du Chien and Green Bay, to Lake Michigan. + +The political objects which require attention upon this route are:-- + +1. A personal examination of the different Indian tribes who occupy the +country; of their moral and social condition; of their feelings towards +the United States; of their numerical strength; and of the various +objects connected with them, of which humanity and sound policy require +that the Government should possess an intimate knowledge. We are very +little acquainted with these Indians, and I indulge the expectation that +such a visit would be productive of beneficial effects. + +The extract from the letter of Colonel Leavenworth, herewith inclosed, +and the speech of the Winnebago Indians, transmitted to the War +Department by Mr. Graham, from Rock Island, February 24, 1819, will show +how much we have yet to learn respecting these tribes, which are +comparatively near to us. + +2. Another important object is, to procure the extinction of Indian +titles to the land in the vicinity of the Straits of St. Mary's, Prairie +du Chien, Green Bay, and upon the communication between the two latter +places. + +I will not trouble you with any observations respecting the necessity of +procuring these cessions. They are the prominent points of the +country--the avenues of communication by which alone it can be +approached. + +Two of them--Prairie du Chien and Green Bay--are occupied by a +considerable population, and the Straits of St. Mary's by a few +families. The undefined nature of their rights and duties, and the +uncertain tenure by which they hold their lands, render it important +that some step should be taken by the Government to relieve them. I +think, too, that a cession of territory, with a view to immediate sale +and settlement, would be highly important in the event of any +difficulties with the Indians. + +My experience at Indian treaties convinces me that reasonable cessions, +upon proper terms, may at any time be procured. At the treaty recently +concluded at Saginaw, the Indians were willing to cede the country in +the vicinity of Michilimackinac, but I did not feel authorized to treat +with them for it. + +Upon this subject, I transmit extracts from the letters of Mr. Boyd and +Colonel Bowyer, by which it will be seen that these gentlemen anticipate +no difficulty in procuring these cessions. + +3. Another important object is the examination of the body of copper in +the vicinity of Lake Superior. As early as the year 1800, Mr. Tracy, +then a senator from Connecticut, was dispatched to make a similar +examination. He, however, proceeded no farther than Michilimackinac. +Since then, several attempts have been made, which have proved abortive. +The specimens of virgin copper which have been sent to the seat of +Government have been procured by the Indians, or by the half-breeds, +from a large mass, represented to weigh many tons, which has fallen from +the brow of a hill. + +I anticipate no difficulty in reaching the spot, and it may be highly +important to the Government to divide this mass, and to transport it to +the seaboard for naval purposes. + +It is also important to examine the neighboring country, which is said +to be rich in its mineral productions. + +I should propose that the land in the vicinity of this river be +purchased of the Indians. It could doubtless be done upon reasonable +terms, and the United States could then cause a complete examination of +it to be made. + +Such a cession is not unimportant in another point of view. Some persons +have already begun to indulge in speculations upon this subject. The +place is remote, and the means of communicating with it are few. By +timely presents to the Indians, illegal possessions might be gained, and +much injury might be done, much time might elapse, and much difficulty +be experienced, before such trespassers could be removed. + +4. To ascertain the views of the Indians in the vicinity of Chicago, +respecting the removal of the Six Nations to that district of country, +an extract from the letter of Mr. Kenzie, sub-agent at Chicago, upon +this subject, will show the situation in which this business stands. + +5. To explain to the Indians the views of the Government respecting +their intercourse with the British authorities at Malden, and distinctly +to announce to them that their visits must be discontinued. + +It is probable that the annunciation of the new system which you have +directed to be pursued upon this subject, and the explanations connected +with it, can be made with more effect by me than by ordinary messengers. + +6. To ascertain the state of the British fur trade within that part of +our jurisdiction. Our information upon this subject is very limited, +while its importance requires that it should be fully known. + +In addition to these objects, I think it very important to carry the +flag of the United States into those remote regions, where it has never +been borne by any person in a public station. + +The means by which I propose to accomplish this tour are simple and +economical. All that will be required is an ordinary birch canoe, and +permission to employ a competent number of Canadian boatmen. The whole +expense will be confined within narrow limits, and no appropriation will +be necessary to defray it. I only request permission to assign to this +object a small part of the sum apportioned for Indian expenditures at +this place, say from 1,000 to 1,500 dollars. + +If, however, the Government should think that a small display of force +might be proper, an additional canoe, to be manned with active soldiers, +and commanded by an intelligent officer, would not increase the expense, +and would give greater effect to any representations which might be made +to the Indians. + +An intelligent officer of engineers, to make a correct chart for the +information of the Government, would add to the value of the expedition. + +I am not competent to speculate upon the natural history of the country +through which we may pass. Should this object be deemed important, I +request that some person acquainted with zoology, botany, and mineralogy +may be sent to join me. + +It is almost useless to add that I do not expect any compensation for my +own services, except the ordinary allowance for negotiating Indian +treaties, should you think proper to direct any to be held, and intrust +the charge of them to me. + +I request that you will communicate to me, as early as convenient, your +determination upon this subject, as it will be necessary to prepare a +canoe during the winter, to be ready to enter upon the tour as soon as +the navigation of the Lakes is open, should you think proper to approve +the plan. + + Very respectfully, &c. + LEWIS CASS. + +Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + +II. + +DEPARTMENT OF WAR, January 14, 1820. + +SIR: I have received your letters of the 18th and 21st November last. +The exploring tour you propose has the sanction of the Government, +provided the expenditure can be made out of the sum allotted your +superintendency for Indian affairs, adding thereto one thousand dollars +for that special purpose. + +The objects of this expedition are comprised under the five heads stated +in your letter of the 18th of November, and which you will +consider--with the exception of that part which relates to holding +Indian treaties, upon which you will be fully instructed hereafter--as +forming part of the instructions which may be given you by this +Department. + +Should your reconnoissance extend to the western extremity of Lake +Superior, you will ascertain the practicability of a communication +between the Bad, or Burntwood River, which empties into the Lake, and +the Copper, or St. Croix, which empties into the Mississippi, and the +facility they present for a communication with our posts on the St. +Peter's. + +The Montreal rivers will also claim your attention, with a view of +establishing, through them, a communication between Green Bay and the +west end of Lake Superior. + +To aid you in the accomplishment of these important objects, some +officers of Topographical Engineers will be ordered to join you. Perhaps +Major Long, now here, will be directed to take that route to join the +expedition which he commands up the Missouri. In that event, a person +acquainted with zoology and botany will be selected to accompany him. +Feeling, as I do, great interest in obtaining a correct topographical, +geographical, and military survey of our country, every encouragement, +consistent with the means in my power, will be given by the Department. +To this end, General Macomb will be ordered to afford you every facility +you may require. + + I have, &c., + J. C. CALHOUN. + +His Excellency, LEWIS CASS, Detroit, M. T. + + +III. + +DEPARTMENT OF WAR, February 25, 1820. + +SIR: Mr. Schoolcraft, a gentleman of science and observation, and +particularly skilled in mineralogy, has applied to me to be permitted to +accompany you on your exploring tour upon Lake Superior. I have directed +him to report to you, for that duty, under the belief that he will be +highly useful to you, as well as serviceable to the Government and the +promotion of science. + +You will furnish him with the necessary supplies and accommodation while +employed, and every facility necessary to enable him to obtain a +knowledge of the mineralogy of the country as far as practicable. + + I have, &c., + J. C. CALHOUN. + +His Excellency, LEWIS CASS, Detroit. + + +IV. + +DETROIT, March 10, 1820. + +SIR: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the +17th ult., inclosing a copy of a letter from Giles Sanford & Co. + +Their statement with respect to the discovery of plaster of Paris upon +one or more of the islands in the vicinity of Michilimackinac, to which +the Indian title has not been extinguished, is correct. Specimens of +this plaster have been brought here, and it is reported, by competent +judges, to be of the best and purest kind. The quantity is stated to be +inexhaustible, and, as vessels generally return empty, or nearly so, +from the upper lakes, it could be transported to any part of Lake Erie +at a trifling expense. + +I have great doubts, however, whether it would be proper for the +Government to grant any permission to remove this plaster until the +Indian title to the land is extinguished. The power of granting +permission for that purpose is not given in the "act to regulate trade +and intercourse with the Indian tribes, and to preserve peace on the +frontiers," and appears, in fact, to be inconsistent with its general +spirit and objects. To authorize these gentlemen to negotiate with the +Indians for such a permission, is contrary to the settled policy which +has always been pursued by the United States. I know of no case in which +individuals have been or should be permitted to hold any councils with +the Indians, except to procure the extinction of their title to lands, +claimed under grants from one of the States. The application here must +be to the tribe, because in all their land there is a community of +interest, which cannot be severed or conveyed by the acts of +individuals. + +But, independent of precedent, there are strong objections to this +course in principle. If private persons are authorized to open such +negotiations for any object, the Government will find it very difficult +to procure from the Indians any cession of land upon reasonable terms. + +Were these islands the property of the United States, I think it would +be very proper to permit the plaster upon them to be removed by every +person making application for that purpose. The supply being +inexhaustible, the agricultural interest would be greatly promoted by +such a measure, and the dependence upon a foreign country for this +important article would be removed. + +I therefore take the liberty of recommending that a cession of these +islands be procured by the United States from the Indians. I presume +that this may be done without the payment of any annuity to them, and +without any expense, except, perhaps, a few trifling presents. The +plaster would then be at the disposal of Government, and its free +distribution, under such regulations as might be adopted to prevent +disputes between the adventurers, or a monopoly by any of them, would be +equally proper and beneficial. + + Very respectfully, sir, + I have the honor to be + Your most obedient servant, + LEWIS CASS. + +Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + +V. + +Extract of a letter from the Secretary of War to Governor Lewis Cass, +dated + +April 5, 1820. + +Sir: I have received your letters of the 10th, 11th, and 17th ultimo. In +relation to procuring cessions of land from the Indians, the Government +has decided that it would be inexpedient to obtain any farther +extinguishment of Indian title, except at the Sault de St. Marie, where +it is the wish of the Department, that an inconsiderable cession, not +exceeding ten miles square (unless strong reasons for a greater cession +should present themselves from an actual inspection of the country), +should be acquired upon the most reasonable terms, so as to comprehend +the proposed military position there. + +Herewith you will receive a plate of the country about the Sault de St. +Marie, on which is indicated the military site intended to be occupied +for defence. You will also procure the cession of the islands containing +plaster, provided these islands are clearly within the boundary of the +United States, and can be obtained without any considerable expense. + +A commission, authorizing you to hold these treaties, will be forwarded +to you in a few days. + +As it is desirable to know by what title the people at Green Bay and +Prairie du Chien hold their lands, and whether or not the Indian titles +to those lands were extinguished by the French, at any period subsequent +to their possession of the country (which is the impression of this +Department), you will communicate such information as you possess, or +may obtain, during your tour, on this subject. + +In addition to Mr. Schoolcraft, Captain Douglass, of the engineer corps, +has been ordered to join you, and Mr. Whitney (in whose behalf +application has been made for that purpose) may accompany you, if you +can accommodate him. Should he accompany you, he will be allowed the +same compensation made to Mr. Schoolcraft, who will be allowed one +dollar and fifty cents a day for the time actually employed. + + +VI. + + NORTHERN DIVISION. + ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S OFFICE, 10th February, 1819. + +(DIVISION ORDER.) + +Major-General Macomb, commandant of the 5th military department, will, +without delay, concentrate at Detroit the 5th regiment of Infantry, +excepting the recruits otherwise directed by the general order herewith +transmitted. As soon as the navigation of the Lakes will admit, he will +cause the regiment to be transported to Fort Howard; from thence, by the +way of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers, to Prairie du Chien, and, after +detaching a sufficient number of companies to garrison Forts Crawford +and Armstrong, the remainder will proceed to the mouth of the River St. +Peter's, where they will establish a post, at which the head-quarters of +the regiment will be located. The regiment, previous to its departure, +will receive the necessary supplies of clothing, provisions, arms, and +ammunition. Immediate application will be made to Brigadier-General +Jesup, Quartermaster-General, for funds necessary to execute the +movements required by this order. + +By order of Major-General Brown. + + (Signed) JOHN E. WOOL, + _Inspector-General_. + + +VII. + +ASSISTANT ADJUTANT-GENERAL'S OFFICE. +DETROIT, April 13, 1819. + +(DEPARTMENT ORDER.) + +The season having now arrived when the lakes may be navigated with +safety, a detachment of the 5th regiment, to consist of Major Marston's +and Captain Fowle's companies, under the command of Major Muhlenburg, +will proceed to Green Bay. Surgeon's mate R. M. Byrne, of the 5th +regiment, will accompany the detachment. The assistant deputy +quartermaster-general will furnish the necessary transport, and will +send by the same opportunity two hundred barrels of provisions, which he +will draw from the contractor at this post. The provisions must be +examined and inspected, and properly put up for transportation. Colonel +Leavenworth will, without delay, prepare his regiment to move to the +posts on the Mississippi, agreeably to the Division order of the 10th of +February. The assistant deputy quartermaster-general will furnish the +necessary transportation, to be ready by the first of May next. The +Colonel will make requisition for such stores, ammunition, tools, and +implements as may be required, and he be able to take with him on the +expedition. Particular instructions will be given to the Colonel, +explaining the objects of his expedition. + +Mr. Melvin Dorr is appointed Inspector of Provisions, and he will +inspect all provisions intended for the use of the army, before they are +received and issued. Lieutenant Brooks, of the 3d regiment will forward, +by the first detachment, such recruits as he has for the companies of +the 3d regiment at Mackinac. + +By order of MAJOR-GENERAL MACOMB. + +(Signed) CHESTER ROOT, _A. D. company, and Actg. Assist. Adjt.-General_. + + + + +NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION. + + + + +NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + Departure--Considerations on visiting the northern summits early in + the season--Cross the Highlands of the Hudson--Incidents of the + journey from Albany to Buffalo--Visit Niagara Falls--Their + grandeur the effect of magnitude--Embark on board the steamer + Walk-in-the-Water--Passage up Lake Erie--Reach Detroit. + + +The determination to penetrate to the source of the Mississippi, during +the summer months, made an early departure important. I had, while at +Potosi, in Missouri, during the prior month of February, written to Hon. +J. B. Thomas, U. S. S., Washington, to endeavor to secure an appointment +to explore the mineralogy and natural features of the upper Mississippi +River; and as soon as I had published my treatise on the mines and +minerals of Missouri, I proceeded to Washington, and submitted to the +proper officers of the Government, my account of the mineralogical +wealth of the western domains, with a plan for the management of the +public mines. Mr. Calhoun decidedly favored these views; but, foreseeing +the necessity of congressional action on the subject, and the necessary +delays of departmental references, said to me, that he had just received +a memoir from Governor Cass, of Michigan, proposing an expedition to the +source of the Mississippi, to leave Detroit early in the spring, and +offered me the position of mineralogist and geologist on that service. +This agreeing, as it did, with my prior views of exploring the public +domains, I gladly accepted, and immediately returned to the city of New +York to prepare for the journey. + +The year 1820 had commenced with severe weather, the Hudson being frozen +hard, as high as West Point, on the 1st of January; and there was a +fall of snow between the 10th and 11th of February, which laid four feet +deep in the streets of New York. March opened with mildness, and every +appearance denoted an early spring, which led me to hasten my movement +north. I left New York on the 5th of March, in the citizens' post-coach, +on sleighs, for Albany, taking the route through Westchester, and over +the Highlands of Putnam and Dutchess; sleeping at Fishkill and +Kinderhook, the first and second nights, and reaching Albany on the +morning of the 7th, a distance of one hundred and sixty miles. This +distance we made in forty hours actual travelling, averaging four miles +per hour, incidental stops included, which is about the rate of +travelling by the trekschuits of Holland,[6] and by sledges over the +frozen grounds of Russia.[7] In crossing the Highlands, some one, in the +change of the stage-sleighs, pilfered a small box of choice minerals +which I set store by; the thief thinking, probably, from the weight and +looks of the box, which had been a banker's, that it was still filled +with coin. We crossed the Hudson from Greenbush, in a boat drawn through +a channel cut in the ice. Snow still laid in the streets of Albany, and +a cold north wind presaged a change of temperature. Next day there was a +hail-storm from the northwest, with rain and sleet, and on the morning +of the 9th, the hail lay six inches deep in the streets. In the evening, +proceeded by stage to the city of Schenectady, a distance of sixteen +miles, across the arenaceous tract of the Pine Plains, by a turnpike, +which forms the shorter line of a triangle, made by the junction of the +Mohawk with the Hudson River. This tract is bounded southerly by the +blue summits of the Helderberg, a prominent spur of the Catskill +Mountain. At Schenectady, we experienced a night of severe cold, and the +next day, at an early hour, I took a seat in the stage-sleigh for Utica, +which we reached at seven in the evening. The distance is ninety-six +miles, which we passed in seventeen hours, going an average rate of five +miles per hour. The road lies up the valley of the Mohawk, a name which +recalls the history of one of the most celebrated members of the +Iroquois, a confederacy of bold and indomitable tribes, who, at an early +day, either pushed their conquests or carried the terror of their arms +from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi. + + [6] Professor F. Hall. + + [7] Clarke's Travels. + +The winter was still unbroken, and the weather had assumed so +unpropitious an aspect, since leaving New York, that there was no +probability of the navigation of the lakes being open so as to embark at +Buffalo before May. I proceeded seventeen miles west to my father's +residence, in the village of Vernon, to await the development of milder +weather. On the 10th of April, I resumed my journey, taking the western +stage, which had left Utica at two o'clock in the morning. We lodged the +first night at Skeneateles, at the foot of the beautiful and sylvan lake +of the same name, and reached Geneva the next day, at one o'clock in the +afternoon. The roads were now dry and dusty; indeed, the last traces of +snow had been seen in sheltered positions, in passing through Oneida +County, and every appearance in the Ontario country indicated a season +ten days more advanced than the valley of the Mohawk. The field poplar +put forth leaves on the 18th, and apricots were in bloom on the 22d. + +At Geneva I remained until the 28th of April, when I again took my seat +in the mail-stage, passing, in the course of the day, the lower margin +of Canandaigua Lake, and through the attractive and tastefully laid-out +village of the same name, and, after continuing the route through a most +fertile country, with a constantly expanding vegetation, reached Avon, +on the banks of the Genesee River. Here we slept. The next morning (the +29th), we crossed this noble stream, and, after a long and fatiguing +day's staging, reached Buffalo in the evening. I was now at an estimated +distance of two hundred and ten miles west of Utica, and three hundred +and twenty-two from Albany. We had found the peach and apple-tree in +blossom, and the vegetation generally in an advanced state, until +reaching within eight or ten miles of Lake Erie, where the force of the +winds, and the bodies of floating ice, evidently had the effect to +retard vegetation. No vessel had yet ventured from the harbor, and +although the steamer Walk-in-the-Water was advertised for the 1st of +May, it was determined to delay her sailing until the 6th. This gave me +time to visit Niagara[8] Falls, and some other places of historical +interest in the neighborhood. This object I executed immediately, taking +a horse and buggy, and keeping down the American shore. The distance is +twenty-two miles, in which the Tonewanda River is crossed by a bridge. +The day was clear and warm, with a light breeze blowing down the river. +I stopped several times to listen for the sound of the Falls, but at the +distance of fifteen, ten, eight, and even five miles, could not +distinguish any; the course of the wind being, indeed, adverse to the +transmission of sound, in that direction, until reaching within some two +or three miles. There is nothing in the character of the country, in the +approach from Buffalo, to apprise the visitor of the difference in its +level and geological stratification, and thus prepare the mind to expect +a cataract. It is different, I afterwards learned, in the approach from +Lewiston, in which quite a mountain must first be ascended, when views +are often had of the most striking parts of the gulf, which has been +excavated by the passage of the Niagara River. It was not easy for me to +erect standards of comparison for the eye to estimate heights. The ear +is at first stunned by the incessant roar, and the eye bewildered by the +general view. I spent two days at the place, and thus became +familiarized with individual traits of the landscape. I found the abyss +at the foot of the Falls to be the best spot for accomplishing that +object. By far the greatest disproportion in the Falls exists between +the height and great width of the falling sheet. The water is most thick +and massy at the Horseshoe Fall, which gives one the most striking and +vivid idea of creative power. In fitting positions in the gulf, with +good incidences of light, the Falls look like a mighty torrent pouring +down from the clouds. At the time of my visit, the wind drove immense +fields of ice out of Lake Erie, with floating trees and other driftwood, +but I never saw any vestiges of these below the Falls. In front of the +column of water falling on the American side, there stood an enormous +pyramid of snow, or congealed spray. + + [8] This is an Iroquois word, said to signify the thunder of waters. + The word, as pronounced by the Senecas, is Oniágarah. For additional + information on this subject, see _Notes on the Iroquois_, p. 453. The + etymology of the word has not, however, been fully examined. It is + clear the pronunciation of the word in Goldsmith's day was Niagára. + +What has been said by Goldsmith, and repeated by others, respecting the +destructive influence of the Rapids above to ducks and water-fowl is +imaginary--at least, as to the American sheet. So far from it, I saw the +wild ducks swim down the Rapid, as if in pursuit of some article of +food, and then rise and fly out at the brink, and repeat the descent, +as if delighted with the gift of wings, which enabled them to sport over +such frightful precipices without danger. I found among the debris in +the abyss, pieces of hornstone, and crystals of calcareous spar, +radiated quartz, sulphuret of zinc, and sulphate of lime. Its geology is +best explained by observing that the river, in falling over the +precipice of the Niagara ridge into the basin of Lake Ontario, leaps +over horizontal strata of limestone, slate, and red sandstone. In this +respect, nothing can be more simple and plain. It is magnitude alone +that makes the cataract sublime. + +On returning to Buffalo, I found the lake rapidly discharging its ice, +which had been recently broken up by a storm of wind; and, while +awaiting the motion of the steamer, I was joined by Captain D. B. +Douglass, Professor of Engineering at West Point, who had been appointed +topographer and astronomer of the expedition. We embarked on the 6th of +May, at nine o'clock in the morning, in the steamer Walk-in-the-Water, +an elegant and conveniently-planned vessel, with a low-pressure Fulton +engine. This boat had been put upon the lake two years before, when it +made a trip to Michilimackinac, and was, indeed, the initial boat in the +history of steam navigation on the Lakes. We embarked at Black Rock, and +it was necessary to use a tow-line, drawn by oxen on the shore, to +enable the boat to ascend the Rapids. This Captain Rodgers, a +gentlemanly man, facetiously termed his hornbreeze. The oxen were +dismissed a short distance before reaching the mouth of Buffalo Creek, +where we reached the level of Lake Erie, five hundred and sixty feet +above the tide-waters of the Hudson River.[9] We were favored with clear +weather, and, a part of the time, with a fair wind. The boat touched at +Erie, at the mouth of Grand River, at Cleveland, and at Portland, in +Sandusky Bay, on coming out of which we passed Cunningham Island, and +the Put-in-Bay Islands, from a harbor in which Perry issued to achieve +his memorable naval victory on the 10th of September, 1813. Passing +through another group of islands, called the Three Sisters, we entered +the mouth of the Detroit River late on the afternoon of the 8th, just as +the light became dim and shadowy. The scale of these waters is +magnificent. + + [9] Report of the New York Canal Commissioners. + +We had a glimpse of the town and fort of Malden, or Amherstburg, and of +Boisblanc, and Gross Isle, which were the last objects distinctly seen +in our ascent. The boat pushed on her way, under the guidance of good +pilots, although the night was dark, and we reached our destination, and +came to, at the city of Detroit, at twelve o'clock P. M., thus +completing the passage in sixty-two hours. + +The next morning, an official from the Executive of the Michigan +Territory came on board with inquiries respecting Captain Douglass and +myself, and we soon found ourselves in a circle where we were received +with marked respect and attention. It was pleasing to behold that this +respect arose, in a great degree, from the high interest which was +manifested, in all classes, for the objects of the expedition, and the +influence which its exploratory labors were expected to have on the +development of the resources and prosperity of the country at large. + +General Cass, who was to lead the expedition, received us cordially, and +let us know that we were in season, as some days would still elapse +before the preparations could be completed, and that the canoes in which +we were to travel had not yet reached Detroit. We were also cordially +welcomed by General Macomb, commanding the military district, Major John +Biddle, commanding officer of the fort, and by the citizens generally. I +was now, by the computations, about seven hundred and fifty miles from +my starting-point at New York. We took up our lodgings at the old stone +house occupied by Major Whipple, which, from its prominent position on +the banks of the river, had sustained a random cannonade during the late +war. We were here introduced to Dr. Alexander Wolcot, who filled the +post of physician to the expedition, and to Lieutenant Eneas Mackey, +United States artillery, commanding the escort, Major Robert A. Forsyth, +private secretary of the Executive, and commissary of the expedition, +and superintendent of embarkation; and to James D. Doty and Charles C. +Trowbridge, Esqs., who occupied, respectively, the situations of +official secretary and assistant topographer. + +Detroit, the point to which I have now been conducted, is eligibly +situated on the south bank of the straits of the same name, and enjoys +the advantage of a regular plan and spacious streets, which have been +introduced since the burning of the old French town in 1805, not a +building of which, within the walls, was saved. Its main street, +Jefferson Avenue, is elevated about forty feet above the river. The town +consists of about two hundred and fifty houses of all descriptions, +public and private, and has a population of fourteen hundred and +fifty,[10] exclusive of the garrison. + + [10] The census of Detroit in 1850 gives it 21,019. + +To the historian it is a point of great interest. It was the site of an +Indian village called Teuchsagondie in 1620, the date of the landing of +the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Quebec was founded in 1608; Albany in 1614. +But no regular settlement or occupancy took place here, till the close +of the seventeenth century. In June, 1687, the French took formal +possession of the straits by erecting the arms of France. On the 24th of +July, 1701, M. Cadillac established the first military post. Charlevoix, +who landed here in 1721, found it the site of Fort Pontchartrain. + +In 1763 the garrison, being then under British colors, sustained a +notable siege from the confederate Indians under Pontiac. It remained +under English rule till the close of the American Revolution, and was +not finally surrendered to the United States until 1790, the year +following Wayne's treaty at Greenville. Surrendered by Hull in 1812, it +was reoccupied by General Harrison in October, 1813. It received a city +charter 24th October, 1815. Indeed, the prominent civil and military +events of which Detroit has been the theatre, confer on it a just +celebrity, and it is gratifying to behold that to these events it adds +the charm of a beautiful local site and fertile surrounding country. A +cursory view of the map of the United States, will indicate its +importance as a central military and commercial position. Situated on +the great chain of lakes, connecting with the waters of the Ohio, +Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Hudson, and Red River of the North, and +communicating with the Atlantic at so many points, and with a harbor +free of entrance at all times, its business capacities and means of +expansion are very great. And when the natural channels of communication +of the great lake chain shall be improved, it will afford a choice of +markets between the most distant points of the Atlantic seaboard. It is +thus destined to be to the regions of the northwest, what St. Louis is +rapidly becoming to the southwest, the seat of its commerce, the +repository of its wealth, and the grand focus of its moral, political, +and physical energies.[11] + + [11] MICHIGAN. This Territory contained, at this period, a population + of 8,896 inhabitants, principally Frenchmen, who were the descendants + of the original settlers of the time of Louis XIV. In 1835, the + population had so increased, chiefly by emigration from the older + States, that the inhabitants applied for admission into the Union. + The act of Congress admitting it was passed in 1836. In 1846, it had + 212,267 souls. By the seventh national census, in 1850, it is shown + to have a population of 397,654, entitling it to four representatives + in Congress, with a large fraction. Its resources, its healthful + climate, fertile soil, and very advantageous position on the great + chain of navigable waters of the Upper Lakes, must insure a rapid + development of its means and resources, and place the State, in a few + years, in a high rank among the circle of American States. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + Preparations for the expedition--Constitution of the party--Mode of + travel in canoes--Embarkation, and incidents of the journey across + the Lake, and up the River St. Clair--Head winds encountered on + Lake Huron--Point aux barques--Cross Saganaw Bay--Delays in + ascending the Huron coast--Its geology and natural history--Reach + Michilimackinac. + + +From the moment of our arrival at Detroit, we devoted ourselves, with +intensity, to the preparation necessary for entering the wilderness. We +were to travel, from this point, by a new mode of conveyance, namely, +the Indian bark canoe, called a chimaun, a vehicle not less novel than +curious. Constructed of large and thick sheets of the rind of the betula +papyracea, or northern birch, which are cut in garment-like folds, and +sewed together with the thin fibrous roots of the spruce, on a thin +framework of cedar ribs, and having gunwales, with a sheathing of the +same material, interposed between the bark and ribs. The seams are +carefully gummed with the pitch of the pine. The largest of these canoes +are thirty-six feet in length, and seven feet wide in the centre, +tapering to a point each way. They carry a mast and sail, and are +steered and propelled with light cedar paddles. They are at once light, +so as to be readily carried over the portages, and so strong as to bear +very considerable burdens. Those intended for us, were ordered from the +Chippewas of Lake Huron, near Saganaw Bay. It was necessary to have +mosquito-bars, portfolios, knapsacks, and various contrivances, and to +make baggage of every sort assume the least possible bulk and space. The +public armorer had orders to furnish me suitable hammers and other +minerological apparatus for preparing and packing specimens. The +expedition was quite an event in a remote town, and everybody seemed to +take an interest in the preparation. A fortnight passed away in these +preparations, and in awaiting the arrival of the canoes, respecting +which there was some delay. It was the 24th of May before we were ready +to embark. Besides the gentlemen mentioned as constituting the +travelling party, ten Canadian _voyageurs_ were taken to manage the +canoes, ten United States soldiers to serve as an escort, and ten +Ottowa, Chippewa, and Shawnee Indians to act as hunters, under the +directions of James Riley, an Anglo-American, and Joseph Parks, a +Shawnee captive (at present, head chief of the Shawnee nation), as +interpreters. This canoe contained a chief called Kewaygooshkum, a +sedate and respectable man, who, a year afterwards, played an important +part at the treaty of Chicago. + +The grand point of departure and leave-taking, was at Grose Point, at +the foot of Lake St. Clair, a spot nine miles distant. For this point, +horses and carriages, with the numerous friends of Gov. Cass, pushed +forward at an early hour; and there was as much enthusiasm manifested, +by all classes, as if a new world was about to be discovered. I had a +strong wish to witness the mode of canoe travelling, and, declining an +opportunity to join the cavalcade by land, took my seat beside Major +Forsyth in the Governor's canoe. The Canadians immediately struck up one +of their animating canoe songs, the military escort at the same moment +displayed its flag and left the shore, and the auxiliary Indians, fired +with the animation of the scene, handled their paddles briskly, and shot +their canoe rapidly by us. A boat-race was the consequence. The Indians +at first kept their advantage, but the firmer and more enduring nerves +of the Canadians soon began to tell on our speed, and as we finally +passed them, the Indians gracefully yielded the contest. We were two +hours in going to Grose Point, with the wind slightly ahead. + +The banks of the River Detroit present continuous settlements, in which +the appearance of large old orchards and windmills, among farm-houses +and smooth cultivated fields, reminds the visitor that the country has +been long settled. And he will not be long in observing, by the +peculiarity of architecture, dress, manners, and language, that the +basis of the population is French. We found our land party had preceded +us, and as the winds were adverse, we encamped in linen tents along the +open shore. The next day the wind increased, blowing quite a gale down +the Lake. I busied myself by making some meteorological and geological +observations. The shores of Lake St. Clair are formed of a fertile +alluvium, resting on drift. There are some heavy boulders of primitive +rock resting on this, which denote a vast field of former drift action +around the shores of these lakes. + +The wind abated about eleven o'clock on the morning of the 26th, when +the men commenced loading the canoes. It was twelve before we embarked. +The mode of their embarkation is peculiar. The canoes, when laden, are +hauled out in deep water; the men then catch up the sitters on their +backs, and deposit them in their respective seats; when this was done, +they struck up one of their animated songs, and we glided over the +smooth surface of the lake with rapidity, holding our course parallel +with its shores, generally, until reaching a prominent point of land +near Huron River.[12] + + [12] Now called Clinton River, a change made by Act of Legislature, + the frequent repetition of this name by the French having been found + inconvenient in the lake geography. 1853. + +From Point Huron we crossed the lake, to reach the central mouth of the +St. Clair River, thereby saving a tedious circuit; by the time we had +half accomplished the transit, we encountered a head wind, which put the +strength of the men severely to the test, and retarded our reaching the +mouth of the river till dark. The River St. Clair has several mouths, +which branch off above through a broad delta, creating large islands. +These channels discharge a vast amount of argillaceous drift and mud, +which has so far filled up the lake itself, that there is anchorage, I +believe, in every part of it; and the principal ship channel is scooped, +by the force of the current, out of a very compact blue clay--the +geological residuum of ancient formations of clay-slates in the upper +country. + +The shores are often but a few inches _above_, and often a few inches +_below_ the surface, where they give origin to a growth of reeds, flags, +and other aquatic plants, which remind the traveller of similar +productions at the Balize of the Mississippi. In this nilotic region, +myriads of water-fowls find a favorite resort. To us, however, these +jets of alluvial formation, bearing high grass and rushes were as so +many friendly arms stretched out to shelter us from the wind; but they +were found to be so low and wet, that we were compelled to urge our way +through them, in search of a dry encampment, till within two hours of +midnight. This brought us to the upper end of Lawson's Island, where we +arrived, wet, weary, and cold. We had advanced about twenty-five miles, +having been ten hours, in a cramped posture, in our canoes. This initial +day's journey was calculated to take away the poetry of travel from the +amateurs of our party, and to let us all know, that there were toils in +our way that required to be conquered. + +We slept little this night, and waited for daylight and sunrise, as if +the blessed luminary would have an animating effect upon our actual +condition. We again embarked at seven o'clock in the morning. We now +stowed away things with more handiness than at the first embarkation, +and we began, ourselves, to feel a little more at home in this species +of voyaging. + +We had three canoes in our little squadron provided with masts and +sails, and a small United States pennant to each, so that the brigade, +when in motion, and led, as it usually was, by the chanting canoemen, +had a formidable and animated appearance. + +The River St. Clair is a broad and noble stream, and impressed us as +justifying the highest encomiums bestowed on it by Charlevoix, La +Hontan, and other early French travellers. We ascended it thirty miles, +which brought us to Fort Gratiot, at the foot of the rapid which marks +the outlet of Lake Huron. In this distance, we passed, at separate +places, nine vessels at anchor, being detained by head winds, and +encountered several Chippewa and Ottowa canoes, each of which were +generally occupied by a single family, with their females, blankets, +guns, fishing apparatus, and dogs. They evinced the most friendly +disposition. + +In landing at Oak Point,[13] I observed a green snake (coluber æstivus) +in the act of swallowing a frog, which he had succeeded in taking down, +except the extremity of its hind legs. A blow was sufficient to relieve +the frog, which still had sufficient animation to hop towards the river. +The snake I made to pay the forfeit of his life. + + [13] Now the site of Algonac. + +At Fort Gratiot, we were received by Major Cummins, U. S. A., who +occupied the post with sixty men. The expedition was received with a +salute, which is due to the Governor of a Territory. + +Two soldiers who were sickly, were here returned, and five able-bodied +men received to supply their places, thus increasing the aggregate of +the party to forty persons.[14] + + [14] To cover any arrangements of this kind, general orders had been + issued by Gen. Macomb, to the commandants of the western posts. + +The banks of the River St. Clair are wholly alluvial or diluvial. There +is not a particle of rock in place. One idea presses itself prominently +to notice, in reflecting on the formation of the country. It is the vast +quantum of clay, mixed drift, and boulders, which have evidently been +propelled, by ancient forces, down these straits, and afterwards +arranged themselves according to affinities, or gravitation. At the +precipitous banks between the inlet of Black River and Fort Gratiot, +this action has been so clearly within the erratic block period of De la +Buck, that it has imbedded prostrate forest-trees, and even freshwater +shells, beneath the heavy stratum of sand, resting immediately upon the +fundamental clay beds, upon which the city of Detroit, and indeed the +alluvions of the entire straits rest.[15] We again encountered at this +place, blocks of the primitive or crystalline boulders, which were first +seen at Grosse Point. There are some traces of iron sand along the shore +of this river, the only mineral body, indeed, which has thus rewarded my +examinations. + + [15] In the artesian borings for water, undertaken by Mr. Lucius Lyon, + at Detroit, in 1833, these clay beds were found to be one hundred and + fifteen feet deep.--Vide _Historical and Scientific Sketches of + Michigan_, p. 177. + +We left our encampment, at Fort Gratiot, at eight o'clock next morning. +A strong and deep rapid is immediately encountered, up which, however, +vessels having a good wind find no difficulty in making their way. On +surmounting this, we found ourselves on the level of Lake Huron. The +lake here bursts upon the view in one of those magnificent landscapes +which are peculiar to this region. Nature has everywhere operated on the +grandest scale. Wide ocean expanses and long lines of shore spread +before the eye, which gazes admiringly on the broad and often brilliant +horizon, and then turns, for something to rest on, along the shore. Long +ridges of gravel, sand, and boulders, meet it here. Beyond and above +this storm-battered beach, are fringes of woods, or banks of clay. The +monotony of travelling by unvaried scenes is relieved by an occasional +song of the boatmen, or an occasional landing--by changes of +forest-trees--of the wind, or flights of the gull, duck, plover, and +other birds; but the traveller, is apt, before evening comes, to fancy +himself very much in the position of a piece of merchandise which is +transported from place to place. Glad were we when night approached, and +the order to encamp was heard. It was estimated we had advanced +thirty-five miles. + +On passing along the Huron coast about fifteen miles, a bank of dark +clay is encountered, which has an elevation of thirty or forty feet, and +extends six or eight miles. We soon after came to the White Rock--an +enormous detached mass, or boulder of transition,[16] or +semi-crystalline limestone. It is a noted landmark for _voyageurs_ and +travellers, and an equally celebrated place of offerings by the Indians. +I requested to be landed on it, and detached some specimens. +Geologically, it is a member of the erratic block group, and we must +look for its parent bed at a more westerly point. There is no formation +of limestone, in this quarter, to which it can be referred. It bears +marks of attrition, which shows that it has been rubbed against other +hard bodies; and if transported down the lake on ice, it is necessary to +consider these marks as pre-existing at the era of its removal. + + [16] This term has disappeared from the geological vocabulary under + the researches of Sir Roderick J. Murchison, Mr. Lyell, and other + distinguished generalizers. + +On embarking in the morning, the wind was slightly ahead, which +continued during the forenoon, changing in the after-part of the day, so +that we were able to hoist sail. About four o'clock the weather became +cloudy and hazy, the wind increasing, at the same time attended with +thunder and lightning. A storm was rapidly gathering, and the lake +became so much agitated that we immediately effected a landing, which +was not done without some difficulty, on a shallow and dangerous shore, +thickly strewn with boulders. We pitched our tents on a small peninsula, +or narrow neck of land, covered with beautiful forest-trees, which was +nearly separated from the main shore. Shortly after our arrival a vessel +hove in sight, and anchored on the same dangerous lee shore. We were in +momently expectation of her being driven from her moorings, but were +happily relieved, the next morning, to observe that she had rode out the +storm. + +The lake was still too rough on the following day, and the wind too +high, to permit our embarking. We made an excursion inland. The country +proved low, undulatory, and swampy. The forest consisted of hemlock, +birch, ash, oak, and maple, with several species of mosses, which gave +it a cold, bleak character. The margin of the forest was skirted with +the bulrush, briza canadensis, and other aquatic plants. The whole day +passed, a night, and another day, with nothing but the loud sounding +lake roar in our ears. A heavy bed of the erratic block formation +commences at this point, and continues to Point aux Barques, the eastern +cape of Saganaw Bay. + +In one of these displaced masses--a boulder of mica slate, I discovered +well-defined crystals of staurotide. This formed my second mineralogical +acquisition.[17] There were, also, some striking water-worn masses of +granitical and hornblende porphyry. + + [17] In passing along this coast in 1824, an Indian picked up, in + shallow water, a small boulder imbedding a mass of native silver. + Breaking off the most prominent mass, he still observed the metal + forming veins in the rock, and brought both specimens to an officer of + the British Indian department at Amherst (Lieut. Lewis S. Johnson), + who presented them to me. This discovery is described in the _Annals + of the New York Lyceum of Natural History_, vol. i. part 8, page 247. + +It was the 1st of June before we could leave the spot where we had been +confined. We embarked at six o'clock, the lake being sufficiently +pacific, though not yet settled. But after proceeding about a league, it +again became agitated, and drove us ashore, where we lay without +encamping. Kewaygushkum was requested to send some of his young men in +quest of game. The soldiers and engagees also formed fishing parties, at +a contiguous river; but about three o'clock in the afternoon all the +parties returned completely unsuccessful. There was neither fish nor +game to be had. At the same time the agitation of the lake ceased, the +wind springing up from an opposite quarter, which enabled us to hoist +sail. This put every one in a pleasant humor, and we proceeded along the +coast till evening, and encamped on a small sandy bay, which puts into +the land, immediately beyond the promontory of Point aux Barques--an +estimated distance of twenty-five miles from our starting-point in the +morning. + +At the distance of a league before reaching this point, the first +stratum of rock, _in situ_, presents itself. It is a gray friable +sandstone, elevated from ten to twenty feet above the water, but +attaining a greater height in the approach to this noted cape. This +stratum of sandstone rock, which is of a perishable character, is +exposed to receive the shock of the waves of Lake Huron for several +hundred miles from the north and west. It exhibits the force and fury of +the lake action by the numerous cavities which have been worn into it, +at the water's edge, and by the sub-bays which have, in some localities, +been formed in the line of dark opposing cliffs. It was in one of these +sub-bays that we encamped, on a smooth sandy beach, which appears to +have been a favorite encamping ground of the natives. But although we +had met several canoes of Chippewas, on the route between Fort Gratiot +and this point, none were found at the place of our encampment. Such of +them as we approached, on the lake, were invariably in want of food, and +received it with evident marks of gratification. + +On going inland, back from our encampment, we found a succession of arid +ridges of sand, which had been evidently produced by the prostrated +sandstone of the coast, which, after comminution by the waves, had been +carried to this position by the winds. These ancient dunes and ridges +were covered sparsely with pitch pines and aspen, and having their +surfaces covered with the uva ursi, pyrola, and smaller shrub-growth +common to arenaceous soils. + +On the day following, we ascended along the eastern shores of Saganaw +Bay, a distance of eighteen miles, which brought us to Point aux Chenes. +At this place the guides pointed to a group of islands about midway of +the bay, for which we steered. The calmness of the weather favored the +traverse. We reached and landed on the largest of the group, called +Shawangunk, by the Indians, probably from its southernmost position. I +found it to consist of a dark, compact limestone, imbedding masses of +chalcedony and calcareous spar. I also picked up a detached mass of +argillaceous oxide of iron, and some fragments of striped hornstone. +Anxious to improve the favorable time for effecting the passage, we +pushed on for the opposite western shore, which was safely reached. We +then steered down the bay, skirting a low sandy shore some twenty miles +or more, till entering the open lake, and reaching the River aux Sables. +On entering this river, and after having pitched our camp, we were +visited by a band of Chippewa Indians, with friendly salutations. It +appeared that the arrival of the expedition had been anticipated by +them, they having themselves constructed and furnished the canoes for +it, and being well acquainted with the official position, at Detroit, of +the leader of our party. The principal Chief, the Black Eagle, addressed +a speech to Governor Cass, in which he appropriately recognized these +relations, welcomed him to his village, and recommended the condition of +his people to his notice. The calumet was then smoked in the usual style +of Indian ceremony, the pipe-bearer beginning with persons of first +rank, and handing it in the supposed order of grade, to the lowest +member of the official family. The ceremony was ended by shaking of +hands. All this was done with the ease and dignity of an oriental +sheikh. We had anticipated savages, and savage manners, and armed +ourselves to the teeth, pushing a point with an army official at +Detroit, until we were each provided with a short rifle. But this first +formal council with the sons of the forest, began to open our eyes to +the true character of the Indian manners and diplomacy, in their +intercourse with government officials. + +The chiefs, after their departure, sent to our encampment a present of +fresh sturgeon, a species which is caught abundantly in the aux Sables +at this time, for which returns were made of such articles as were most +acceptable to them. Being out of the Bay, we employed the following day +making advances along the Huron coast, an estimated distance of +forty-eight miles. In this distance, we passed Thunder Bay. Encamped on +a low, calcareous shore, bearing cedar and spruce, which the Indians +call Sho-she-ko-naw-be-ko-king, or Flat Rock Point. A few miles after +leaving River aux Sables, the Highlands of Sables present themselves at +a short distance back from the shore. This ridge, which is a landmark +for mariners, runs from southeast to northwest, and is visible as far as +Thunder Bay. The limestone, which is dark and of an earthy fracture, is +very much broken up on the shore, and contains various species of +organic remains. On crossing the Bay, we landed on an island covered +with debris, where we observed one of those imitative, water-worn, +primitive boulders, resembling altars, which are frequently set up by +the Indians as the places of depositing some offering, or out of mere +respect for some local god. + +At six o'clock the next morning we were again in our canoes, assiduously +moving along the Huron coast; but, after proceeding about a league, a +storm of wind and rain suddenly arose, driving us from the lake. A few +hours served to restore its calmness, but we had not gone over a couple +of leagues when we were again compelled by the rising wind to take to +the shore, where we were detained the rest of the day, listening to the +capricious murmurs of the lake. This position was directly opposite +Middle Island, a noted anchorage about six miles distant. All night the +waves of the lake were heard. The morning broke without change. Lake +Huron still evinced an angry aspect, threatening to renew the struggle +of yesterday. It was concluded to send the canoes forward, relieved of +our weight, and proceed ourselves on foot along the beach. Walking on +this became difficult on those parts of it where the fossiliferous and +shelly limestone had been broken up and heaped in small fragments. Among +these, we recognized specimens of the cornu-ammonis, and the maderpore, +with some other species. The cedars and brushy growth generally stood so +thick, and grew so closely to this line of debris, that it was +impracticable to take the woods. The toil, however, rewarded us with +some specimens of the organic forms imbedded in the rock, while it +enabled the topographers to secure the data for a very perfect map of +the coast. At ten o'clock in the morning we reached the east cape of +Presque Isle Bay, where the canoes came to take us across to the +peninsula of that name. After completing this, the men landed the canoes +and baggage on the peninsula side, and carried them across the narrow +sandy neck of land; but, on reaching the open lake beyond it, the wind +was found too strongly adverse to permit embarkation. The Canadians have +the not inappropriate term of _degrade_ for this species of detention; +we were here foiled, indeed, in our high hopes of pushing ahead, and +compelled to wait on the naked sands for many weary hours. While thus +detained, the Indians brought in a brown rabbit,[18] a species of lake +tortoise, and some pigeons, being their only fruits of success in +hunting, except a single grouse, or partridge, which had crowned their +efforts since leaving Detroit. It must be borne in mind, however, that +there has been very little opportunity for hunting, that we have had +abundant supplies, and that our mode of travelling is such as to alarm +all game within sound of our track. They have, indeed, brought reports +at several points of seeing the footprints of the deer and black bear, +but they have not had the leisure to pursue them. + + [18] This is presumed to be a variety of the American Hare, and may + be distinguished by the following characters: Body eighteen inches + long; color of the hair grayish-brown on the back, grayish-white + beneath. Neck and body rusty and cenerous. Legs pale rust color. Tail + short, brown above, white beneath. Hind legs longest, and callous a + short distance from the paws up. Ears tipped with black. Covering of + the body rusty fur, beneath long coarse hair. Probable weight six + pounds. + +At five o'clock, the wind abated so much as to permit embarkation, and +our canoemen hastened forward with the intention of travelling all +night, but at eleven o'clock it freshened to such a degree, and at the +same time became so intensely dark, that we were compelled to land and +encamp. Neither the topography, mineralogy, or any branch of the +physical geography of a country can be ascertained without minute +examination; and this constitutes, indeed, the object of the +investigations, which have been, thus far, so toilsomely pursued against +adverse winds since the commencement of the expedition; but they have +disclosed facts which reveal the true structure and physical history of +this bleak, ungenial coast; this hope serves, every day, to give new +impetus to the voyage. + +Another day along the Huron coast. It was now the 6th of June. The +_voyageurs_ began now to manifest great anxiety to reach +Michilimackinac, and had their canoes in the water at a very early hour. +We all participated in this feeling, and saw with pleasure the long +lines of sandy shores, strewed with boulders and pebbles, that were +swiftly passed. We had traced about forty miles of the coast when we +reached the foot of Bois Blanc Island, and pushed over the intervening +arm of the lake to get its south or lee shore. This was a labor of +hazard, as the wind was directly ahead, and drove the waves into the +canoes. When accomplished, we had the shelter of this island for twelve +miles, till reaching its southwest part. We then passed, due north, +between it and Isle Ronde, which brought the wind again ahead. But the +men had not kept this course long, when Michilimackinac, with its +picturesque and imposing features, burst upon our view. + +Nothing can present a more refreshing and inspiring landscape. From +that moment the _voyageurs_ appeared to disregard the wind. Striking +into the water with bolder paddles, and opening one of their animating +boat-songs, all thought of past toils was forgotten, and, urged forward +with a new impetus, we entered the handsome little crescent-shaped +harbor at four o'clock. The expedition was received with a salute from +the fort, in command of Capt. B. K. Pierce, U. S. A.,[19] in compliment +to the Governor of the Territory, and we landed amid the congratulations +of the citizens, who pressed forward to welcome us. + + [19] Of this officer, who was a brother of Franklin Pierce, President + of the United States, Gardner's _Army Dictionary_ gives the following + notice: Benjamin K. Pierce (N. H.), First Lieutenant Third Artillery, + March, 1812; Adjutant, 1813; Captain, October, 1813; retained May 15, + in artillery; in Fourth Artillery, May 21; Major ten years fa. + service, Oct. 1, 1823; Major First Artillery, June 11, 1836 + (Lieutenant-Colonel Eighth Infantry, July 7, 1838, declined); Brevet + Lieutenant-Colonel "for distinguished service in affair at Fort + Drane," Aug. 21, 1836 (Oct. 1836), in which he commanded: Colonel + Regular Creek Mounted Volunteers, in Florida War, Oct. 1836; + Lieutenant-Colonel First Artillery, March 19, 1842. Died April 1, + 1850, at New York. + +Thus terminated the first part of our journey, after a tedious voyage of +fourteen days, in which we had encountered a series of almost continued +head-winds and foul weather. The distance by ship is usually estimated +at three hundred miles; by following the indentations of the coast, and +entering Saganaw Bay, we found it three hundred and sixty.[20] We found +the Huron coast, to the line of which our observations were limited, +bearing, in its vegetation, indubitable marks of its exposure to the +northern winds. As a section of the lake geology, it is simple and +instructive, exhibiting strata of sandstone and non-crystalline and +fossiliferous limestone in horizontal positions, without the slightest +disturbance in their dip or inclinations. Its mineralogy is scanty, +being nearly confined, so far as observed, to some common silicious +minerals, and traces of argillaceous and magnetic oxides of iron. The +erratic block-stratum or drift, is remarkable, and prepares the mind for +the still heavier accumulations of this kind which are perceived to be +spread over the northern latitudes.[21] + + [20] Among the erratic block or drift stratum, I observed on the + south Huron coast singularly striking, round fragments of white + quartz, imbedding red fragments of coarse jasper; a rock, which I + afterwards found in places on the south end of Sugar Island, in St. + Mary's Straits, which lies directly north of the general position, + and may serve as a proof of the course of the drift. + + [21] _Vide_ Geo. Report, Appendix. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + Description of Michilimackinac--Prominent scenery--Geology--Arched + Rock--Sugarloaf Rock--History--Statistics--Mineralogy--Skull + Cave--Manners--Its fish, agriculture, moral wants--Ingenious + manufactures of the Indians--Fur trade--Etymology of the + word--Antique bones disclosed in the interior of the island. + + +Nothing can exceed the beauty of this island. It is a mass of calcareous +rock, rising from the bed of Lake Huron, and reaching an elevation of +more than three hundred feet above the water. The waters around are +purity itself. Some of its cliffs shoot up perpendicularly, and tower in +pinnacles like ruinous Gothic steeples. It is cavernous in some places; +and in these caverns, the ancient Indians, like those of India, have +placed their dead. Portions of the beach are level, and adapted to +landing from boats and canoes. The harbor, at its south end, is a little +gem. Vessels anchor in it, and find good holding. The little +old-fashioned French town nestles around it in a very primitive style. +The fort frowns above it, like another Alhambra, its white walls +gleaming in the sun. The whole area of the island is one labyrinth of +curious little glens and valleys. Old green fields appear, in some +spots, which have been formerly cultivated by the Indians. In some of +these there are circles of gathered-up stones, as if the Druids +themselves had dwelt here. The soil, though rough, is fertile, being the +comminuted materials of broken-down limestones. The island was formerly +covered with a dense growth of rock-maples, oaks, ironwood, and other +hard-wood species, and there are still parts of this ancient forest +left, but all the southern limits of it exhibit a young growth. There +are walks and winding paths among its little hills, and precipices of +the most romantic character. And whenever the visitor gets on eminences +overlooking the lake, he is transported with sublime views of a most +illimitable and magnificent water prospect. If the poetic muses are ever +to have a new Parnassus in America, they should inevitably fix on +Michilimackinac. Hygeia, too, should place her temple here, for it has +one of the purest, driest, clearest, and most healthful atmospheres. + +We remained encamped upon this lovely island six days, while awaiting +the arrival of supplies and provisions for the journey, or their being +prepared for transportation by hand over the northern portages. Meats, +bread, Indian corn, and flour, had to be put in kegs, or stout linen +bags. + +The traders and old citizens said so much about the difficulties and +toils of these northern portages that we did not know but what we, +ourselves, were to be put in bags; but we escaped that process. This +delay gave us the opportunity of more closely examining the island. It +is about three and a half miles long, two in its greatest width, and +nine in circumference. The site of Fort Holmes, the apex, is three +hundred and twelve feet above the lake. The eastern margin consists of +precipitous cliffs, which, in many places, overhang the water, and +furnish a picturesque rocky-fringe, as it were, to the elevated plain. +The whole rock formation is calcareous. It exhibits the effects of a +powerful diluvial action at early periods, as well as the continued +influence of elemental action, still at work. Large portions of the +cliffs have been precipitated upon the beach, where the process of +degradation has been carried on by the waves. A most striking instance +of such precipitations is to be witnessed at the eastern cliff, called +Robinson's Folly, which fell, by its own gravitation, within the period +of tradition. The formation, at this point, formerly overhung the beach, +commanding a fine view of the lake and islands in all directions, in +consequence of which it was occupied with a summer-house, by the +officers of the British garrison, after the abandonment of the old +peninsular fort, about 1780. + +The mineralogical features of the island are not without interest. I +examined the large fragments of debris, which are still prominent, and +which exhibit comparatively fresh fractures. The rock contains a portion +of sparry matter, which is arranged in reticulæ, filled with white +carbonate of lime, in such a state of loose disintegration that the +weather soon converts it to the condition of agaric mineral. These +reticulæ are commonly in the slate of calcspar, crystallized in minute +crystals. The stratum on which this loose formation rests is compact and +firm, and agrees in structure with the encrinal limestone of Drummond +Island and the Manitouline chain. But the vesicular stratum, which may +be one hundred and ten or twenty feet thick, has been deposited in such +a condition that it has not had, in some localities, firmness enough +permanently to sustain itself. The consequence is, that the table-land +has caved in, and exhibits singular depressions, or grass-covered, +cup-shaped cavities, which have no visible outlet for the rain-water +that falls in them, unless it percolates through the shelly strata. +Portions of it, subject to this structure, have been pressed off during +changing seasons, by frosts, and carried away by rains, creating that +castellated appearance of pinnacles, which gives so much peculiarity to +the rocky outlines of the island. + +The ARCHED ROCK is an isolated mass of self-sustaining rock, on the +eastern facade of cliffs; it offers one of those coincidences of +geological degradation in which the firmer texture of the silicious and +calcareous portions of it have, thus far, resisted decomposition. Its +explanation, is, however, simple: The apex of this geological monument +is on a level, or nearly so, with the Fort Holmes summit. While the +diluvial action, of which the whole island gives striking proofs, +carried away the rest of the reticulated or magnesian limestone, this +singular point, having a firmer texture, resisted its power, and remains +to tell the visitor who gazes at it, that waters have once held dominion +over the highest part of the island. + +Before dismissing the subject of the geological phenomena of this +island, it may be observed that it is covered with the erratic block or +drift stratum. Primitive or crystalline pebbles and boulders are found, +but not plentifully, on the surface. They are observed, however, on the +highest summit, and upon the lower plain; one of the best localities of +these boulders, exists on the depressed ground, leading north, in the +approach to Dousman's Farm, where there is a remarkable accumulation of +blocks of granite and hornblende drift boulders. The principal drift of +the island consists of smooth, small, calcareous pebbles, and, at deeper +positions, angular fragments of limestone. Sandstone boulders are not +rare. Over the plain leading from the fort north by way of the Skull +Rock, are spread extensive beds of finely comminuted calcareous gravel, +the particles of which often not exceeding the size of a buck-shot, +which makes one of the most solid and compact natural macadamized roads +of which it is possible to conceive. Carriage wheels on it run as +smoothly, but far more solid, than they could over a plank floor. This +formation appears to be the diluvial residuum or ultimate wash, which +arranged itself agreeably to the laws of its own gravitation, on the +recession of the watery element, to which its comminution is clearly +due. It would be worth transportation, in boxes, for gravelling +ornamental garden-walks. The soil of the island is highly charged with +the calcareous element, and, however barren in appearance, is favorable +to vegetation. Potatoes have been known to be raised in pure beds of +small limestone pebbles, where the seed potatoes had been merely covered +in a slight way, to shield them from the sun, until they had taken root. + +The historical reminiscences connected with this island are of an +interesting character. It appears from concurrent testimony, that the +old town on the peninsula was settled about 1671,[22] which was seven +years before the building of Fort Niagara. In that year, Father +Marquette, a French missionary, prevailed on a party of Hurons to locate +themselves at that spot, and it was therefore the first point of +settlement made northwest of Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario. It was +probably first garrisoned by La Salle, in 1678, and continued to be the +seat of the fur trade, and in many respects, the metropolis of the +extreme northwest, during the whole period of French domination in the +Canadas. After the fall of Quebec, in 1759, it passed by treaty to the +British government, but much against the wishes of the Indian tribes, +who retained a strong partiality for their early friends, the French. +Pontiac arose at this time, to dispute the English authority in the +northwest, and with confederates projected a series of bold attacks upon +the forts extending from the Ohio to this post. Most of these were +successful, but he was defeated at Detroit, where he commanded in +person, after a series of extraordinary movements. While he was +pressing the siege of the garrison, he enjoined neutrality upon the +French inhabitants, who were nevertheless called on to furnish cattle +and corn for the subsistence of his warriors. It is remarked on good +authority that, for these supplies, he issued evidences of debt. When +General Bradstreet marched to the relief of the fort, with an army of +three thousand men, the spirit and laconic temper of the warrior were at +the same time evinced. He sent a deputation of chiefs to meet the herald +of the British general, at Maumee, with the laconic and symbolic +message: "I stand in the path." + + [22] Neither Fort Niagara nor Fort Ponchartrain (at the present site + of Detroit) were then in existence. The foundation of the former was + laid by La Salle, in 1678; the latter had not been erected when La + Hontan passed through the country, in 1688.--_Herriot's Travels + through Canada_, p. 196. + +The execution of the plan of attack on Old Fort Mackinac appears to have +been intrusted to Minnawanna, a Chippewa chief, who, in addition to his +own people, was aided by the Sacs. The Ottowas afterwards expressed +displeasure in not having been admitted to a participation in the +attack. The plan was ingeniously laid. The king's birthday, the 4th of +June (1763), having arrived, the Chippewas and Sacs turned out to play, +for a high wager, at ball. Many of the garrison, and the commanding +officer himself, came out to witness the sport; and there was such a +feeling of security that the gates of the fort were left open. To put +the troops more off their guard, the ball had been thrown over the +picket, and when once there, it was natural that it should be followed +by the opposite parties, heated with the contest and eager for victory. +But this artifice was the accomplishment of the plan. The war-whoop was +immediately sounded, and an indiscriminate slaughter commenced. A few +moments of intense anxiety ensued. They were passed by the officers +eagerly listening for the roll of the drum. But they were passed in +disappointment. There was no call of this kind to concentrate +resistance. Panic and slaughter raged in their most fearful forms. None +were spared who were deemed friendly to the English interest but such as +were effectually secreted. Some of the soldiers who escaped the first +onset, were incarcerated in a room, where they were sacrificed to glut +the vengeance of a chief, who did not arrive till the principal work of +slaughter had been accomplished. + +This event sealed the fate of the old fort and the town on the +peninsula. The British afterwards took possession of the island, which +had served to give name to the peninsular fort. The town was gradually +removed, by pulling down the buildings, and transporting the timber to +the island, till there was not a building or fixture left; and the site +is now as silent and deserted as if it had never been the scene of an +active resident population. + +The Island of Michilimackinac appears to have been occupied first as a +military position by the British, about 1780, say some seven years after +the massacre of the garrison of the old peninsular fort of the same +name. + +Wherever Michilimackinac is mentioned in the missionary letters or +history of this period, it is the ancient fort, on the apex of the +Michigan peninsula, that is alluded to. + +The present town is pleasantly situated around a little bay that affords +good clay anchorage and a protection from west and north winds. It has a +very antique and foreign look, and most of the inhabitants are, indeed, +of the Canadian type of the French. The French language is chiefly +spoken. It consists of about one hundred and fifty houses and some four +hundred and fifty permanent inhabitants. + +It is the seat of justice for the most northerly county of Michigan. +According to the observation of Lieut. Evelith, the island lies in north +latitude 45° 54´, which is only twenty-three minutes north of Montreal, +as stated by Prof. Silliman.[23] It is in west longitude 7° 10´ from +Washington. + + [23] Tour from Hartford to Quebec, p. 341. + +Col. Croghan's attempt to take the island, during the late war, was most +unfortunate. He failed from a double spirit of dissension in his own +forces, being at odds with the commanding officer of the fleet, and at +sword's points with his second in command, Major Holmes. After entering +the St. Mary's, and taking and burning the old post of St. Joseph's, +where nobody resisted, instead of sailing direct to Mackinac, a +marauding expedition was sent up this river to St. Mary's, and when the +fleet and troops finally reached Mackinac, instead of landing at the +town, under the panic of the inhabitants, it sailed about for several +days. In the mean time the island filled with Indians from the +surrounding shores. + +Fort "Mackina" is eligibly situated on a cliff overlooking the town and +harbor, and is garrisoned by a company of artillery. The ruin of Fort +Holmes, formerly Fort George, occupies the apex of the island, and has +been dismantled since the British evacuated it in 1815.[24] + + [24] Tour from Hartford to Quebec, p. 341. + +It happened that the British authorities on the island of St. Joseph, +got intelligence of the declaration of war, in 1812, through Canada, +before the American commander at Mackinac heard of it. Mustering their +forces with such volunteers, militia, and Indians as could be hastily +got together, they proceeded in boats to the back of the island, where +they secretly landed at night with some artillery, and by daylight the +next morning got the latter in place on the summit of Fort Holmes, which +completely commanded the lower fort, when they sent a summons of +surrender, which Captain Hanks, the American commanding officer, had no +option but to obey. + +Colonel Croghan, the hero of Sandusky, attempted to regain possession of +it, in 1814, with a competent force, and after several demonstrations of +his fleet about the island, by which time was lost and panic in the +enemy allayed, he landed on the northern part of it, which is depressed, +and his army marched through thick woods, most favorable for the +operations of the Indians, to the open grounds of Dousman's Farm, where +the army was met by Colonel McDouall, who was eligibly posted on an +eminence with but few regular troops, but a heavy force of Indian +auxiliaries and the village militia. Major Holmes, who gallantly led the +attack, swinging his sword, was killed at a critical moment, and the +troops retreated before Colonel Croghan could reach the field with a +reinforcement. Thus ended this affair. + +My attention was directed to the plaster stated to exist on the St. +Martin Islands. These islands compose a small group lying about nine or +ten miles north-northeast of Michilimackinac. Captain Knapp, of the +revenue service, had been requested to take me to the spot with the +revenue cutter under his command. I was accompanied by Captain Douglass, +of the expedition, and by Lieutenant John Pierce, U. S. A., stationed at +the fort. + +The gypsum exists in a moist soil, not greatly elevated, during certain +winds above the lake. Pits had been dug by persons visiting the locality +for commercial purposes. It occurs in granular lumps of a gray color, as +also in foliated and fibrous masses, white, gray, chestnut color, or +sometimes red. No difficulty was encountered in procuring as many +specimens as were required. This group of islands is noticeable, also, +for the large boulder masses of hornblende and granite rock, which are +found imbedded in, or lying on the surface, along with fragments of +breccia, quartz, &c. This drift is more abundant, on all the islands I +have seen, as we approach the north shores of Lake Huron. Having +completed the examination of these islands, we returned to the harbor +after an agreeable excursion. + +To observe the structure and character of the Island of Michilimackinac, +I determined to walk entirely around it, following the beach at the foot +of the cliffs. This, although a difficult task, from brush and debris, +became a practicable one, except on the north and northwest borders, +where there was, for limited spaces, no margin of debris, at which +points it became necessary to wade in the water at the base of low +precipitous rocks. In addition to the reticulated masses of limestone +covered with calcspar from the fallen cliffs, the search disclosed small +tabular pieces of minutely crystallized quartz and angular masses of a +kind of striped hornstone, gray and lead colored, which had been +liberated from similar positions in the cliffs. On passing the west +margin of the island, I observed a bed of a species of light-blue clay, +which is stated to part with its coloring matter in baking it, becoming +white. + +While the British possessed the island, they attempted to procure water +by digging two wells at the site of Fort George (now Holmes), but were +induced to relinquish the work without success, at the depth of about +one hundred feet. Among the fragments of rock thrown out, are +impressions of bivalve and univalve shells, with an impression +resembling the head of a trilobite. These are generally in the condition +of chalcedony, covered with very minute crystals of quartz. I also +discovered a drift specimen of brown oxide of iron, on the north +quarter. This sketch embraces all that is important in its mineralogical +character. + +This island appears to have been occupied by the Indians, from an early +period. Human bones have been discovered at more than one point, in the +cavernous structure of the island; but no place has been so much +celebrated for disclosures of this kind, as the SKULL CAVE. This cave +has a prominent entrance, shaded by a few trees, and appears to have +been once devoted to the offices of a charnel-house by the Indians. It +is not mentioned at all, however, by writers, till 1763, in the month of +June of which year the fort of old Mackinac on the peninsula, was +trea-cherously taken by the Sac and Chippewa Indians. An extensive and +threatening confederation of the western Indians had then been matured, +and a large body of armed warriors was then encamped around the walls of +Detroit, under the leadership of Pontiac, who held the garrison in close +siege day and night. The surrender of Canada to Great Britain, which had +followed the victory of General Wolfe at Quebec, was distasteful to +these Indians, and they attempted the mad project of driving back beyond +the Alleghanies the English race; making a simultaneous assault upon all +the military posts west of that great line of demarcation, and preaching +and dealing out vengeance to all who had English blood in their veins. +Alexander Henry, a native of Albany,[25] was one of those enterprising +men who had pushed his fortunes West, with an adventure of merchandise, +on the first exchange of posts, and he was singled out for destruction, +as soon as the fort was taken. He had taken refuge in the house of a +Frenchman named Longlade, where he was concealed in a garret by a Pawnee +slave, and where he hid himself under a heap of birch-bark buckets, such +as are employed in the Indian country, in the spring season, in carrying +the sap of the sugar-maple. But this temporary reprieve from the Indian +knife seemed only the prelude to a series of hairbreadth escapes, which +impressed him as the direct interposition of Providence. At length, when +the scenes of blood and intoxication began to abate a little, an old +Indian friend of his, called Wawetum, who had once pledged his +friendship, but who had been absent during the massacre, sought him out, +and having reclaimed him by presents, in a formal council, took him into +his canoe and conducted the spared witness of these atrocities three +leagues across the waters of Lake Huron in safety to this island. + + [25] _Vide_ Henry's Travels, New York, 1809, 1 vol. 8vo. + +To this place they were accompanied by the actors in this tragedy to the +number of three hundred and fifty fighting men,[26] and he would now, +under the protection of Wawetum, have been safe from immediate peril, +but that in a few days a prize of two canoes of merchandise in the hands +of English traders was made, amongst which was a large quantity of +liquor. Hereupon, Wawetum, foreseeing another carousal, and always +fearful of his friend, requested him to go up with him to the mountain +part of the island. Having ascended it, he led him to this cave, and +recommended him to abide here in concealment until the debauch was over, +when he promised to visit him. + + [26] Henry, p. 109. + +Breaking some branches at its mouth for a bed, he then sought its +recesses, and spreading his blanket around, laid down and slept till +morning. Daylight revealed to him the fact that he had been reposing on +dry human bones, and that the cave had anciently been devoted by the +Indians as a sepulchre. On announcing this fact to his deliverer, two +days afterward, when he came to seek him, Wawetum expressed his +ignorance of it, and a party of the Indians, who came to examine it in +consequence of the announcement, also concurred in declaring that they +had no tradition on the subject. They conjectured that the bones were +either due to the period when the sea covered the earth--which is a +common belief with them--or to the period of the Huron occupancy of this +island, after that tribe were defeated by the Iroquois, in the St. +Lawrence valley. + +So much for tradition. + +This island has been long known as a prominent point in the fur trade. +But of this I am not prepared to speak. It was selected by Mr. J. J. +Astor, in 1816, as the central point of outfit for his clerks and agents +in this region; and the warehouses erected for their accommodation +constitute prominent features in its modern architecture. The capital +annually invested in this business is understood to be about three +hundred thousand dollars. This trade was deemed an object of the highest +consequence from the first settlement of Canada, but it was not till +1766, agreeably to Sir Alexander Mackenzie, that it commenced from +Michilimackinac.[27] The number of furred animals taken in a single +year, the same author states to be one hundred and eighty-two thousand +two hundred; of which number, the astonishing proportion of one hundred +and six thousand were beavers.[28] Estimating each skin at but one +pound, and the foreign market price at four dollars per pound, which are +both much below the average at this era, this item of beaver alone would +exceed by more than one-third the whole capital employed, taking the +data before mentioned, and leave the seventy-six thousand smaller furred +animals to be put on the profit side. No wonder that acts of perfidy +arose between rivals, such as the shooting of Mr. Waden at his own +dinner-table, where he was entertaining an opponent or copartner in the +trade; or the foul assassination of Owen Keveny on the Rainy Lakes.[29] +Indeed, the fur trade has for a long period been more productive, if we +are to rely on statements, than the richest silver mines of Mexico or +Peru. + + [27] Mackenzie's Voyages, Hist. Fur Trade, vii. + + [28] Mackenzie, xxiv. + + [29] Report of the Trials of De Reinhard, &c. Montreal, 1818. + +Society at Michilimackinac consists of so many diverse elements, which +impart their hue to it, that it is not easy for a passing traveller to +form any just estimate of it. The Indian, with his plumes, and gay and +easy costume, always imparts an oriental air to it. To this, the +Canadian, gay, thoughtless, ever bent on the present, and caring nothing +for to-morrow, adds another phase. The trader, or interior clerk, who +takes his outfit of goods to the Indians, and spends eleven months of +the year in toil, and want, and petty traffic, appears to dissipate his +means with a sailor-like improvidence in a few weeks, and then returns +to his forest wanderings; and boiled corn, pork, and wild rice again +supply his wants. There is in these periodical resorts to the central +quarters of the Fur Company, much to remind one of the old feudal +manners, in which there is proud hospitality and a show of lordliness on +the one side, and gay obsequiousness and cringing dependence on the +other, at least till the annual bargains for the trade are closed. + +We were informed that there is neither school, preaching, a physician +(other than at the garrison), nor an attorney, in the place. There are, +however, courts of law, a post-office, and a jail, and one or more +justices of the peace. + +There is a fish market every morning, where may be had the trout--two +species--and the white fish, the former of which are caught with hooks +in deep water, and the latter in gill nets. Occasionally, other species +appear, but the trout and white fish, which is highly esteemed, are +staples, and may be relied on in the shore market daily; whole +canoe-loads of them are brought in. + +The name of this island is said to signify a great turtle, to which it +has a fancied resemblance, when viewed from a distance. Mikenok, and +not Mackenok, is, however, the name for a tortoise. The term, as +pronounced by the Indians, is Michinemockinokong, signifying place of +the Great Michinamockinocks, or rock-spirits. Of this word, _Mich_ is +from _Michau_ (adjective-animate), great. The term _mackinok_, in the +Algonquin mythology, denotes in the singular, a species of spirits, +called turtle spirits, or large fairies, who are thought to frequent its +mysterious cliffs and glens. The plural of this word, which is an +animate plural, is _ong_, which is the ordinary form of all nouns ending +in the vowel _o_. When the French came to write this, they cast away the +Indian local in _ong_, changed the sound of _n_ to _l_, and gave the +force _mack_ and _nack_, to _mök_ and _nök_. The vowel _e_, after the +first syllable, is merely a connective in the Indian, and which is +represented in the French orthography in this word by _i_. The ordinary +interpretation of great turtle is, therefore, not widely amiss; but in +its true meaning, the term enters more deeply into the Indian mythology +than is conjectured. The island was deemed, in a peculiar sense, the +residence of spirits during all its earlier ages. Its cliffs, and dense +and dark groves of maples, beech, and ironwood, cast fearful shadows; +and it was landed on by them in fearfulness, and regarded far and near +as the _Sacred Island_. Its apex is, indeed, the true Indian Olympus of +the tribes, whose superstitions and mythology peopled it by gods, or +monitos. + +Since our arrival here, there has been a great number of Indians of the +Chippewa and Ottowa tribes encamped near the town. The beach of the lake +has been constantly lined with Indian wigwams and bark canoes. These +tribes are generally well dressed in their own costume, which is light +and artistic, and exhibit physiognomies with more regularity of features +and mildness of expression than it is common to find among them. This is +probably attributable to a greater intermixture of blood in this +vicinity. They resort to the island, at this season, for the purpose of +exchanging their furs, maple-sugar, mats, and small manufactures. Among +the latter are various articles of ornament, made by the females, from +the fine white deer skin, or yellow birch bark, embroidered with colored +porcupine quills. The floor mats, made from rushes, are generally more +or less figured. Mockasins, miniature sugarboxes, called mo-cocks, +shot-pouches, and a kind of pin and needleholders, or housewives, are +elaborately beaded. But nothing exceeds in value the largest +merchantable mockocks of sugar, which are brought in for sale. They +receive for this article six cents per pound, in merchandise, and the +amount made in a season, by a single family, is sometimes fifteen +hundred pounds. The Ottowas of L'Arbre Croche are estimated at one +thousand souls, which, divided by five, would give two hundred families; +and by admitting each family to manufacture but two hundred pounds per +annum, would give a total of forty thousand pounds; and there are +probably as many Chippewas within the basins of Lakes Huron and +Michigan. This item alone shows the importance of the Indian trade, +distinct from the question of furs. + +During the time we remained on this island, the atmosphere denoted a +mean temperature of 55° Fahrenheit. The changes are often sudden and +great. The island is subject to be enveloped in fogs, which frequently +rise rapidly. These fogs are sometimes so dense, as to obscure +completely objects at but a short distance. I visited Round Island one +day with Lieut. Mackay,[30] and we were both engaged in taking views of +the fort and town of Michilimackinac,[31] when one of these dense fogs +came on, and spread itself with such rapidity, that we were compelled to +relinquish our designs unfinished, and it was not without difficulty +that we could make our way across the narrow channel, and return to the +island. This fact enabled me to realize what the old travellers of the +region have affirmed on this topic. + + [30] Lieut. Eneas Mackay. This officer, after the return from this + expedition, went through the regular grades of promotion in the army, + and had at the period of his death, which took place in 1850, at St. + Louis, Missouri, reached the brevet rank of colonel. + + [31] For the view from this point, see Information respecting the + History, Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United + States, vol. iv. Plate 42. + +We were received during our visit here in the most hospitable manner, as +well as with official courtesy, by Capt. B. K. Pierce, the commanding +officer, Major Puthuff, the Indian agent, and by the active and +intelligent agents of Mr. John Jacob Astor, the great fiscal head of the +Fur Trade in this quarter. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Proceed down the north shore of Lake Huron to the entrance of the + Straits of St. Mary's--Character of the shores, and + incidents--Ascend the river to Sault de Ste. Marie--Hostilities + encountered there--Intrepidity of General Cass. + + +Having spent six days on the island, rambling about it, and making +ourselves as well acquainted with its features and inhabitants as +possible, we felt quite recruited and cheered up, after the tedious +delays along the southern shores of Lake Huron. And we all felt the +better prepared for plunging deeper into the northwestern forest. Before +venturing into the stronghold of the Chippewas, whose territories extend +around Lake Superior, it was deemed prudent to take along an additional +military force as far as Sault de Ste. Marie. But five or six years had +then passed since this large tribe had been arrayed in hostilities +against the United States (in the war of 1814), and they were yet +smarting under the wounds and losses which they had received at +Brownstown and the River Thames, where they had lost some prominent men. +Generals Brown and Macomb,[32] when making a reconnoissance, with their +respective staffs, a couple of years before, had been fired on in +visiting Gros Cape, at the foot of Lake Superior, and although no one +was killed on that occasion, the circumstance was sufficient to indicate +their feeling. + + [32] The following are the official data of this distinguished + officer:-- + + Alexander Macomb, Jr., born April 3, 1782, Detroit, N. Y.; Cornet + Cavalry, January 10, 1799; Second Lieutenant, February, 1801; + retained, April, 1802, in Second Infantry; First Lieutenant of + Engineers, October, 1802; Captain, June, 1805; Major of Engineers, + February 23, 1808; Lieutenant-Colonel, July 23, 1810; Acting + Adjutant-General of the Army, April 28, 1812; Colonel Third + Artillery, July 6, 1812; Brigadier-General, January 24, 1814; Brevet + Major-General, "for distinguished and gallant conduct in defeating + the enemy at Plattsburg, September 11, 1814" (October 1, 1814); + received the "thanks of Congress" of November 3, 1814, "for his + gallantry and good conduct in defeating the enemy at Plattsburg, on + the 11th of September, repelling with 1,500 men, aided by a body of + militia and volunteers from New York and Vermont, a British veteran + army, greatly superior in numbers," with the presentation of a + _gold medal_, "emblematical of this triumph;" retained, April 8, + 1815; retained, May 21, as Colonel and Principal Engineer, with + Brevets Major-General and General-in-Chief of the Army, May 24, + 1828; commanded the army of Florida 1836; died June 25, 1841, at + his head-quarters, Washington City.--_Gardner's Army Dictionary._ + +This additional force was placed under the command of Lieutenant John S. +Pierce, U. S. A., a brother of the commanding officer,[33] and of +Franklin Pierce, President of the United States. It consisted of +twenty-two men, with a twelve-oared barge. The whole expedition, now +numbering sixty-four persons, embarked at ten o'clock on the 15th, with +a fair wind, for our first destination, at Detour, being the west cape +of the Straits of St. Mary's. The distance is estimated at forty miles, +along a very intricate, masked shore of islands, called Chenos. The +breeze carried us at the rate of five miles per hour. The first traverse +is an arm of the Lake, three leagues across, over which we passed +swimmingly. This traverse is broken near its eastern terminus by Goose +Island, the Nekuhmenis (literally Brant Island) of the Chippewas--a +noted place of encampment for traders. We did not, however, touch at it. +A couple of miles beyond this brought us to Outard Point, where the men +rested a few moments on their oars and paddles. This point forms the +commencement of those intricate channels which constitute the Chenos +group. Our steersman gave them, however, a wide berth, and did not +approach near the shore till it began to be time to look out for the +mouth of the St. Mary's. After passing Point St. Vitel, a distance of +about thirty miles, the guides led into a sandy bay, under the +impression that we had reached the west cape of the St. Mary's; but in +this we were deceived. While landing here a few moments, in a deep bay, +the animal called Kaug by the Chippewas (a porcupine), was discovered +and killed by one of the men, called Baptiste, by a blow from a hatchet. +Buffon gives two engravings of this animal, as found in Canada, under +separate names; but it is apprehended that he has been misled by the +same animal seen in its summer and winter dress. To the Indian, this +animal is valuable for its quills, which are dyed of bright colors, to +ornament their dresses, moccasons, shot-pouches, and other choice +fabrics of deer skin, or birch bark. This animal has four claws on the +fore paw, and five on the hinder ones. It has small ears hid in the +hair, and a bushy tail, with coarse black and white hair. The specimen +killed would weigh eight pounds. + + [33] John Sullivan Pierce (N. H., brother to Colonel Benjamin K. + Pierce), Third Lieutenant Third Artillery, April 5, and Second + Lieutenant, May, 1814; retained, May, 1815, in Artillery; First + Lieutenant, April 1818; resigned February 1, 1823.--_Gardner's Army + Dictionary._ + +Soon after coming out from this indentation of the lake, we came in +sight of Point Detour, on turning which, from E. to N., we found no +longer use for sails. Mackenzie places this point in north latitude 45° +54´. + +The geology of this coast appears manifest. Secondary compact limestone +appears in place, in low situations, on the reef of Outard Island and +Point, and in the approach to Point Detour. A ridge of calcareous +highlands appears on the mainland east of Michilimackinac, stretching +off towards Sault de Ste. Marie, in a northeast direction. This ridge +appears to belong to a low mountain chain, of which the Island of +Michilimackinac may be deemed as one of the geological links. Just +before turning, we passed a very heavy angular block of limestone, much +covered with moss, which could not have been far removed, in the drift +era, from its parent bed. The largest angle of this stone, which I have +since examined, must be eight or ten feet. This block is of the +ortho-cerite stratum of Drummond Island. The shores are heavily charged +with various members of the boulder drift, with a fringe beyond them of +spruce and firs, giving one the idea of a cold, exposed, and most +unfavorable coast. Turning the Point of Detour, we ascended the strait a +few miles, and encamped on its west shore, off Frying-pan Island, at a +point directly opposite the British post of Drummond Island, which we +could not perceive, but the direction of which was clearly denoted by +the sound of the evening bugles. + +The entrance into this strait forms a magnificent scene of waters and +islands, of which a map conveys but a faint conception. The straits here +appeared to be illimitable, we seemed to be in a world of waters. It is +stated to be thirty miles across to Point Thessalon. The large group of +the Manatouline Islands, stretching transversely through Lake Huron, +terminates with the isle Drummond--a name bestowed in compliment to the +bold leader, Col. Drummond, who led the night storming party, and was +blown up on the bastion of Fort Erie, in 1813. This station was first +occupied on the withdrawal of the British troops from Mackinac, in 1815. +This day's trip gave us a favorable idea of canoe travelling. It also +gave us an exalted idea of the gigantic system of these lake waters, and +their connecting straits. We had never done gazing at the prospect +before us, after turning the Detour, and did not retire from our camp +fires early. The next morning we embarked at five o'clock, a light +dreamy mist hanging over the waters. When this cleared away, we descried +the ruined chimneys and buildings of St. Joseph, the abandoned British +post burned by Col. Croghan, in 1814.[34] The day turned out a fine one, +and we proceeded up the straits with pleasurable feelings, excited by +the noble and novel views of scenery continually before us. Keeping the +west side of a high limestone island called Isle a la Crosse, we then +entered a sheet of water called Lac Vaseau, or Muddy Lake. We had +proceeded northwardly perhaps twenty miles, when we encountered another +of those large islands for which these straits are remarkable, called +Nebeesh,[35] or Sailor's Encampment Island. Our guides held up on its +western side, which soon brought us to the first rapids, and the +commencement of St. Mary's River. A formation of sandstone is here +observed in the bed of the stream. The waters are swift and shallow, and +the men encountered quite a struggle in the ascent, and so much injured +one of our canoes that it became necessary to unlade and mend it. In the +mean time, the atmosphere put on a threatening aspect, with heavy peals +of thunder, but no rain followed till we again re-embarked and proceeded +five or six miles, when a shower fell. It did not, however, compel us to +land, and by six o'clock in the afternoon, the sky again became clear. +We had now ascended the strait and river so far, that it became certain +we could reach our destination before night, and the men worked with the +greater alacrity. At eight o'clock we had surmounted the second rapid, +called the Little Rapid, Nebeetung of the Indians, where we encountered +a swift current. We were now within two miles of our destination. The +whole river is here embodied before the eye, and is a mile or +three-fourths of a mile wide, and the two separate villages on the +British and American shores began to reveal themselves to view, with the +cataract of the Sault de Ste. Marie in the distance; and a beautiful +forest of elms, oaks, and maples on either hand. We ascended with our +flags flying, our little squadron being spread out in order, and the +Canadian boatmen raising one of their enlivening songs. Long before +reaching the place, a large throng of Indians had collected on the +beach, who, as we put in towards the shore, fired a salute, and stood +ready to greet us with their customary _bosho_.[36] We landed in front +of the old Nolan house,[37] the ancient headquarters of the Northwest +Company; and immediately formed our encampment on the wide green, +extending along the river. Daylight in this latitude is protracted, and +although we had ascended a computed distance of forty-five miles, and +had had the mishap to break a canoe in the Nebeesh, there was abundant +light to fix our encampment properly. Lieut. Pierce encamped his men on +our extreme right. Leaving an interval, Lieut. Mackay's escort came +next, and our tents formed the northern line of his encampment, nearest +to the Indians. The latter occupied a high plateau, in plain view, +several hundred yards west, with an intervening gulley, and a plain, +well-beat footpath. We had, in case of difficulty, thirty-four muskets, +Pierce's command included, in addition to which, each of the savans, or +Governor's mess, were armed with a short rifle. Our line may have looked +offensively demonstrative to the Chippewas, who regarded it, from their +ancient eminence, with unfriendly feelings. These particulars are given +from the perilous position we were brought into next day. + + [34] This fort was first erected by the British in 1795, the year + before Michilimackinac was evacuated under Wayne's treaty with the + Indians. + + [35] From Nebee, water; hence Nebeesh, rapid water, or strong water, + the name of the rapids which connect the straits with the River St. + Mary's. This word is the _derogative_ form of the Chippewa noun. + + [36] From the French _bon jour_. + + [37] The present site of Fort Brady. + +Meantime, we passed a quiet night in our tents, where the deep sound of +the Falls fell on the wakeful ear, interspersed with the distant +monotonous thump of the Indian täwäegon. It required but little +observation, in the morning, to explore the village of St. Mary's. It +consisted of some fifteen or twenty buildings of all sorts, occupied by +descendants of the original French settlers, all of whom drew their +living from the fur trade. The principal buildings and outhouses were +those of Mr. John Johnston, and the group formerly occupied by the +Northwest Company. Most of the French habitations stood in the midst of +picketed lots. There were about forty or fifty lodges, or two hundred +Chippewas, fifty or sixty of whom were warriors. But, although this +place was originally occupied as a missionary centre, by the Roman +Catholic missionaries of New France, about the middle of the seventeenth +century, no trace of the ancient church could be seen, unless it was in +an old consecrated graveyard, which has continued to be used for +interments. Mr. Johnston, the principal inhabitant, is a native of the +County of Antrim, Ireland, where his connections are persons of rank. He +is a polite, intelligent, and well-bred man, from a manifestly refined +circle; who, soon after the close of the American Revolution, settled +here, and married the daughter of a distinguished Indian chief.[38] +Although now absent on a visit to Europe, his family received us with +marked urbanity and hospitality, and invited the gentlemen composing the +travelling family of Governor Cass to take all our meals with them. +Everything at this mansion was done with ceremonious attention to the +highest rules of English social life; Miss Jane, the eldest daughter, +who had received her education in Ireland, presiding. + + [38] INTER-EUROPEAN AMALGAMATION.--John Johnston was a native of the + north of Ireland, where his family possessed an estate called + "Craige," near the celebrated Giant's Causeway. He came to this + country during the first Presidential term of Washington, and settled + at St. Mary's, about 1793. He was a gentleman of taste, reading, + refined feeling, and cultivated manners, which enabled him to direct + the education of his children, an object to which he assiduously + devoted himself; and his residence was long known as the seat of + hospitality and refinement to all who visited the region. In 1814, + his premises were visited, during his absence, by a part of the force + who entered the St. Mary's, under Colonel Croghan, and his private + property subjected to pillage, from a misapprehension, created by + some evil-minded persons, that he was an agent of the Northwest + Company. Genial, social, kind, and benevolent, his society was much + sought, and he was sometimes imposed on by those who had been + received into his employments and trusts (as in the reports which + carried the Americans to his domicil in 1814). He died at St. Mary's, + in 1828, leaving behind, among his papers, evidence that his leisure + hours were sometimes lightened by literary employments. Mr. Johnston, + by marrying the daughter of the ruling chief of this region, placed + himself in the position of another Rolfe. Espousing, in Christian + marriage, the daughter of Wabjeeg, he became the son-in-law of + another Powhatan; thus establishing such a connection between the + Hibernian and Chippewa races, as the former had done between the + English and Powhetanic stocks. + +The Sault (from the Latin _Saltus_, through the French) or Falls of St. +Mary, is the head of navigation for vessels on the lakes, and has been, +from early days, a thoroughfare for the Indian trade. It is equally +renowned for its white fish, which are taken in the rapids with a +scoop-net. The abundance and excellence of these fish has been the +praise of all travellers from the earliest date, and it constitutes a +ready means of subsistence for the Indians who congregate here. + +The place was chiefly memorable in our tour, however, as the seat of the +Chippewa power. To adjust the relations of the tribe with the United +States, a council was convened with the chiefs on the day following our +arrival. This council was assembled at the Governor's _marquée_, which +was graced by the national ensign, and prepared for the interview with +the usual presents. The chiefs, clothed in their best habiliments, and +arrayed in feathers and British medals, seated themselves, with their +usual dignity, in great order, and the business was opened with the +usual ceremony of smoking the peace pipe. When this had been finished, +and the interpreter[39] taken his position, he was directed to explain +the views of the Government, in visiting the country, to remind them +that their ancestors had formerly conceded the occupancy of the place to +the French, to whose national rights and prerogatives the Americans had +succeeded, and, by a few direct and well-timed historical and practical +remarks, to secure their assent to its reoccupancy. The utmost attention +was bestowed while this address was being made, and it was evident, from +the glances of the hearers, that it was received with unfriendly +feelings, and several chiefs spoke in reply. They were averse to the +proposition, and first endeavored to evade it by pretending to know +nothing of such former grants. This point being restated by the American +commissioner, and pressed home strongly, was eventually dropped by them. +Still, they continued to speak in an evasive and desultory manner, which +had the effect of a negative. It was evident that there was a want of +agreement, and some animated discussion arose among themselves. Two +classes of persons appeared among the chiefs. Some appeared in favor of +settling a boundary to the ancient precinct of French occupancy, +provided it was not intended to be occupied by a garrison, saying, in +the symbolic language of Indians, that they were afraid, in that case, +their young men might kill the cattle of the garrison. Gov. Cass, +understanding this, replied that, as to the establishment of a garrison, +they need not give themselves any uneasiness--it was a settled point, +and so sure as the sun that was then rising would set, so sure would +there be an American garrison sent to that point, whether they renewed +the grant or not. This decisive language had a sensible effect. High +words followed between the chiefs. The head chief of the band, +Shingabawossin, a tall, stately man, of prudent views, evidently sided +with the moderates, and was evasive in his speech. A chief called +Shingwauk, or the Little Pine, who had conducted the last war party from +the village in 1814, was inclined to side with the hostiles. There was a +chief present called Sassaba, a tall, martial-looking man, of the +reigning family of chiefs of the Crane Totem, who had lost a brother in +the battle of the Thames. He wore a scarlet uniform, with epaulets, and +nourished a deep resentment against the United States. He stuck his war +lance furiously in the ground before him, at the beginning of his +harangue, and, assuming a savage wildness of air, appeared to produce a +corresponding effect upon the other Indian speakers, and employed the +strongest gesticulation. His address brought the deliberations to a +close, after they had continued some hours, by a defiant tone; and, as +he left the _marquée_, he kicked away the presents laid before the +council. Great agitation ensued. The council was then summarily +dissolved, the Indians went to their hill, and we to our tents. + + [39] James Riley, a son of the late J. V. S. Riley, Esq., of + Schenectady, N. Y., by a Saganaw woman; a man well versed in the + language, customs, and local traditions of the Chippewas. + +It has been stated that the encampment of the Indians was situated on an +eminence a few hundred yards west from our position on the shore, and +separated from us by a small ravine. We had scarcely reached our tents, +when it was announced that the Indians had raised the British flag in +their camp. They felt their superiority in number, and did not disguise +their insolence. Affairs had reached a crisis. A conflict seemed +inevitable. Governor Cass instantly ordered the expedition under arms. +He then called the interpreter, and proceeded with him, naked-handed +and alone, to Sassaba's lodge at the hostile camp. Being armed with +short rifles, we requested to be allowed to accompany him as a +body-guard, but he decidedly refused this. On reaching the lodge of the +hostile chief, before whose door the flag had been raised, he pulled it +down with his own hands. He then entered the lodge, and addressing the +chief calmly but firmly, told him that it was an indignity which they +could not be permitted to offer; that the flag was the distinguishing +symbol of nationality; that two flags of diverse kind could not wave in +peace upon the same territory; that they were forbid the use of any but +our own, and should they again attempt it, the United States would set a +strong foot upon their rock and crush them. He then brought the captured +flag with him to his tent. + +In a few moments after his return from the Indian camp, that camp was +cleared by the Indians of their women and children, who fled with +precipitation in their canoes across the river. Thus prepared for +battle, we momently expected to hear the war-whoop. I had myself +examined and filled my shot-pouch, and stood ready, rifle in hand, with +my companions, awaiting their attack. But we waited in vain. It was an +hour of indecision among the Indians. They deliberated, doubtingly, and +it soon became evident that the crisis had passed. Finding no hostile +demonstration from the hill, Lieuts. Pierce and Mackay directed their +respective commands to retire to their tents. + +The intrepid act of Governor Cass had struck the Indians with amazement, +while it betokened a knowledge of Indian character of which we never +dreamed. This people possess a singular respect for bravery. The march +of our force, on that occasion, would have been responded to, instantly, +by eighty or a hundred Indian guns; but to behold an unarmed man walk +boldly into their camp and seize the symbol of their power, betokened a +cast of character which brought them to reflection. On one person in +particular the act had a controlling effect. When it was told to the +daughter of Wäbojeeg (Mrs. Johnston), she told the chief that their +meditated scheme of resistance to the Americans was madness; the day for +such resistance was passed; and this man, Cass, had the air of a great +man, and could carry his flag through the country. The party were also +under the hospitality of her roof. She counselled peace. To these words +Shingabowassin responded; he was seconded by Shingwäkonce, or the Little +Pine. Of this effort we knew nothing at the moment, but the facts were +afterwards learned. It was evident, before the day had passed, that a +better state of feeling existed among the Indians. The chief +Shingabowassin, under the friendly influences referred to, renewed the +negotiations. Towards evening a council of the chiefs was convened in +one of the buildings of this Pocahontean counsellor, and the treaty of +the 16th June, 1820 (_vide_ Ind. Treaties United States) signed. In this +treaty every leading man united, except Sassaba. The Little Pine signed +it, under one of his synonymous names, Lavoine Bart. By this treaty the +Chippewas cede four miles square, reserving the right of a place to fish +at the rapids, perpetually. The consideration for this cession, or +acknowledgment of title, was promptly paid in merchandise. + +The way being thus prepared for our entry into Lake Superior, it was +decided to proceed the next day. Before leaving this point, it may be +observed that the falls are produced by a stratum of red sandstone rock, +which crosses the bed of the St. Mary's at this place. The last +calcareous formation, seen in ascending the straits, is at Isle a la +Crosse. As we proceed north, the erratic block stratum becomes heavier, +and abraded masses of the granite, trap, sandstone, and hornblende +series are confusedly piled together on the lake shores, and are +abundant at the foot of these falls. In the central or middle channel, +the waters leap from a moderate height, from stratum to stratum, at two +or three points, producing the appearance, when seen from below, of a +mass of tumbling waves. The French word _Sault_ (pronounced _so_) +accurately expresses this kind of pitching rapids or falls. The Indians +call it Bawateeg, or Pawateeg, when speaking of the phenomenon, and +Bawating or Pawating, when referring to the place. Paugwa is an +expression denoting shallow water on rocks. The inflection _eeg_ is an +animate plural. _Ing_ is the local terminal form of nouns. In the south +or American channel, there is no positive leap of the water, but an +intensely swift current, which is parted by violent jets, between rocks, +still permitting canoes, skilfully guided, to descend, and empty boats +to be drawn up. But these falls are a complete check to ship navigation. +The descent of water has been stated by Colonel Gratiot, of the United +States Engineers, at twenty-two feet ten inches.[40] They resemble a +bank of rolling foam, and with their drapery of trees on either shore, +and the mountains of Lake Superior in the distance, and the moving +canoes of fishing Indians in the foreground, present a most animated and +picturesque view. + + [40] ST. MARY'S CANAL.--Thirty-three years have produced an + astonishing progress. A ship-canal is now (1853) in the process of + being constructed at these falls, by the State of Michigan, under a + grant of public land for that purpose, from Congress. It is to + consist of two locks of equal lift, dividing the aggregate fall. This + canal will add the basin of Lake Superior to the line of lake + navigation. It will enable ships and steamers to enter the St. Louis + River of Fond du Lac, and to reach a point in latitude corresponding + to Independence, on the Missouri. No other point of the lake chain + reaches so far by some hundreds of miles towards the Rocky Mountains; + and this canal will eventually be the outlet to the Atlantic cities + of the copper and other mines of Lake Superior, and of the + agricultural and mineral products of all the higher States of the + Upper Mississippi and of the Missouri, and a part of Oregon and + Washington on the Pacific. + +To the Chippewas, who regard this spot as their ancient capital, it is +doubtless fraught with many associations, and they regard with jealousy +the advance of the Americans to this quarter. This tribe, in the absence +of any older traditions, are regarded as the aboriginal inhabitants of +the place. They are, by their language, Algonquins, and speak a pure +dialect of it. They call themselves Ojibwas. _Bwa_, in this language, +denotes voice, Ojibwamong signifies Chippewa language, or voice. It is +not manifest what the prefixed syllable denotes. They are a numerous +people, and spread over many degrees of latitude and longitude. We have +had them constantly around us, in some form, since leaving Detroit, and +they extend to the Great Winnipeg Lake of Hudson's Bay. They appear, at +the French era of discovery, to have been confined almost exclusively to +the north bank of the St. Lawrence, below the influx of the Ottowa +River, extending to Lake Nepising, and the geographical position seems +to have been the origin of the name Algonquin. + +Whilst encamped here, we witnessed the descent down the rapids of eleven +barges and canoes laden with furs from the north. This trade forms the +engrossing topic, at this point, with all classes. Hazardous as it is, +the pursuit does not fail to attract adventurers, who appear to be +fascinated with the wild freedom of life in the wilderness. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + Embark at the head of the portage at St. Mary's--Entrance into Lake + Superior--Journey and incidents along its coasts--Great Sand + Dunes--Pictured Rocks--Grand Island--Keweena peninsula and + portage--Incidents thence to Ontonagon River. + + +Having accomplished the object of our visit, at this place, no time was +lost in pushing our way into the basin of Lake Superior. The distance to +it is computed to be fifteen miles above the Sault. It was nine o'clock +of the morning following the day of the treaty, when the men began to +take the canoes up the rapids, and transport the provisions and baggage. +This occupied nearly the whole of the day. Taking leave of Lieutenant +Pierce, who returned with his command, from this point and our +hospitable hostess, we proceeded to the head of the portage, long before +the canoes and stores all arrived. To while away the time, while the men +were thus employed, we tried our skill at rifle shooting. It was six +o'clock in the evening before the work of transportation was finished, +and the canoes loaded, when we embarked. The view from the head of the +portage is imposing. The river spreads out like an arm of the sea. In +the distance appear the mountains of Lake Superior. + +We proceeded two leagues, and encamped at Point aux Pins, on the +Canadian shore. At six o'clock the next morning we were again in our +canoes, and crossed the strait, which is here several leagues wide, to +the west, or Point Iroquois Cape. In this traverse we first beheld the +entrance into Lake Superior. The scene is magnificent, and I could fully +subscribe to the remark made by Carver, "that the entrance into Lake +Superior affords one of the most pleasing prospects in the world." The +morning was clear and pleasant, with a favoring breeze, but a tempest of +wind and rain arose, with severe thunder, soon after we had +accomplished the passage, which compelled us hastily to land on the +Point Iroquois shore. This storm detained us five or six hours before +the waters were sufficiently calm to embark. Among the boulders, I +picked up a fine specimen of graphic granite, most perfectly +characterized. About two o'clock, we entered this great inland sea. How +feeble and inadequate are all geographical attempts to describe this +vast body of water, with its imposing headlands, shores, and islands. +The St. Mary's River passes out between two prominent capes, called Gros +Cape and Point Iroquois. The former rises up in elevated barren peaks of +sienite and hornblende rock; the latter consists of nearly equally +elevated masses of horizontal red sandstone, covered with a dense +forest. The line of separation is, perhaps, three leagues, forming a +geological gap, through which, at ancient periods, the drift and boulder +strata has been forced, with an amazing power. For we find these +boulders, of the disrupted sienites, hornblende, trap, and sandstone +rocks of these northern latitudes heaped in profusion along the entire +shores of the river, and cast out, far and wide, into the basin of Lake +Huron. + +There is a little island, called Isle des Iroquois, just off the foot of +the American cape, which is a noted stopping-place for boat and canoe +voyagers. On passing this spot, the lake spreads out like a sea. Towards +the north, can be seen on the horizon the blue peaks of distant +mountains. Southerly, the Point Iroquois formation of sandstone appears +skirting the shore, at several miles distance. At the computed distance +of fifteen miles, we passed the mouth of the Taquimenon River. It was +already evening when we came here, but we were far out from shore, and +the guides thought best to keep on their course a league farther, which +brought us, at 11 o'clock at night, into the mouth of the Onzig, or +Shelldrake River. At this spot, we found an encampment of Chippewa +Indians, who were friendly, and quite profuse in their salutation of +_bosho_. At the moment we were ready to embark, the next morning, a +brigade of traders' boats, on the route to Michilimackinac, was +descried, coming in to the same point. This interview detained us till 8 +o'clock. Within a league, we met eighteen or twenty Chippewa canoes on +their journey towards the same point; and at the computed distance of +three leagues from the Onzig, we reached, and turned the bleak shores of +White-Fish Point, called Namikong[41] by the Indians. Thus far, we had +been imbayed in an arm of the lake which embraces Parisian Island, +another link of the sandstone formation; but here the lake, stretching +westwardly, displays itself in all its magnificence. On the left, +spreads a long line of sandy coast; on the right, an illimitable expanse +of water, which was bounded only by the horizon. Beyond these features, +there is not a prominent object to catch the eye. The magnificence which +first pleases, at last tires. The change of course brought the wind +ahead, and we were soon compelled to land on these bleak sandy wastes. +While thus detained, an express canoe from St. Mary's reached us with +letters. A couple of hours were employed in dispatching this canoe on +its return; meantime the wind lulled, and we went on ten miles and +encamped on the sands. + + [41] From _na_, excellent; _amik_, beaver; and _ong_, a place. + +The next morning, we were again in motion at five o'clock. Twelve miles +coasting along this unvaried shore, brought us to the mouth of a stream +called Neezhoda, Seepe,[42] or Twin River, which is imprecisely called +Two-Hearted River by the traders. The peculiarity of this stream +consists in the union of two separate rivers, near the point of its +outlet. Seven leagues beyond this spot brought us to the inlet called +Grande Marais. Immediately west of this begins an elevated naked coast +of sand-dunes, called Gitche Nägow,[43] or La Grande Sables. To +comprehend the geology of this coast, it is necessary to state that it +consists of several heavy strata of the drift era, reaching a height of +two or three hundred feet, with a precipitous front on the lake. The +sands driven up by the lake are blown over these heights, forming a +heavy deposit. It is this sandy deposit, falling down the face of the +precipice, that appears to convert the whole formation into dunes, +whereon the sandy coating rests, like a veil, over the pebble and +clay-drift. Their desert and Sahara-like appearance is quite impressive +to the travellers who visit these coasts in boats or canoes. The number +of rapacious birds which are observed about these heights, adds to the +interest of the prospect. Dr. Wolcott, and some other members of the +party who ascended the formation, reported a small lake on this +elevation. The sands were observed, in some places, to be deposited over +its vegetation so as to arrest its growth. The largest trees were often +half buried and destroyed. Not less than nine miles of the coast, +agreeably to _voyageur_ estimates, are thus characterized by dunes. + + [42] From _oda_, a heart; _neezh_, two; and _seebe_, a river. + + [43] From _nägow_, sand; and _gitche_, great. + +I found the sandstone formation of Cape Iroquois to reappear at the +western termination of these heights on the open shores of the lake, +where I noticed imbedded nodules of granular gypsum. At this point, +known to our men as La Pointe des Grandes Sables, we pitched our tents, +at nightfall, under a very threatening state of the atmosphere. The +winds soon blew furiously, followed by a heavy rain-storm--and sharp +thunder and lightning ensued. Our line of tents stood on a gently rising +beach, within fifty yards of the margin of the lake, where they were +prostrated during the night by the violence of the waves. The rain still +continued at early daylight, the waves dashing in long swells upon the +shore. At sunrise the tempest abated, and by eight o'clock the +atmosphere assumed a calm and delightful aspect. It was eleven o'clock, +however, before the waves sufficiently subsided to permit embarkation. +Indeed, a perfect calm now ensued. This calm proved very favorable--as +we discovered on proceeding three leagues--to our passing the elevated +coast of precipitous rock, called Ishpäbecä,[44] and Pictured Rocks. +This coast, which extends twelve miles, consists of a gray sandstone, +forming a series of perpendicular façades, which have been fretted, by +the action of the waves, into the rude architecture of pillared masses, +and open, cavernous arches. These caverns present their dark mouths to +observation as the voyager passes. At one spot a small stream throws +itself from the cliffs into the lake at one leap. In some instances the +cliffs assume a castellated appearance. At the spot called the Doric +Rock, near the commencement of these picturesque precipices, a vast +entablature rests on two immense rude pillars of the water-worn mass. At +a point called Le Portail, the vast wall of rock had been so completely +excavated and undermined by the lake, that a series of heavy strata of +rock rested solely on a single pillar standing in the lake. The day was +fine as we passed these geological ruins, and we sat silently gazing on +the changing panorama. At one or two points there are small streams +which break the line of rock into quadrangles. A species of dark red +clay overlies this formation, which has been carried by the rains over +the face of the cliffs, where, uniting with the atmospheric sand and +dust, it gives the whole line a pictorial appearance. We almost held our +breath in passing the coast; and when, at night, we compared our +observations around the camp-fire, there was no one who could recall +such a scene of simple novelty and grandeur in any other part of the +world; and all agreed that, if a storm should have arisen while we were +passing, inevitable destruction must have been our lot. We came to Grand +Island at a seasonable hour in the evening, and encamped on the margin +of its deep and land-locked harbor. Our camp was soon filled with +Chippewas from a neighboring village. They honored us in the evening by +a dance. Among these dancers, we were impressed with the bearing of a +young and graceful warrior, who was the survivor of a self-devoted +war-party of thirteen men, who, having marched against their ancient +enemies the Sioux, found themselves surrounded in the plain by superior +numbers, and determined to sell their lives at the dearest rate. To this +end, they dug holes in the earth, each of which thus becoming a +fortification for its inmate, who dared their adversaries till +overpowered by numbers. One person was selected to return with the news +of this heroic sacrifice; this person had but recently returned, and it +was from his lips that we heard the tragic story. + + [44] From _iupa_, high; _aubik_, a rock; and the substantive + termination, _a_. + +My mineralogical searches along the shores this day rewarded me with +several water-worn fragments of agate, carnelian, zeolite, and prase, +which gave me the first intimation of our approach to the trap and +amygdaloidal strata, known to be so abundant in their mineral affluence +in this quarter. + +We left Grand Island the next morning at six o'clock, and passing +through a group of sandstone islands, some of which had had their +horizontality disturbed, we came to the mouth of Laughing-fish River, +where a curious flux and reflux of water is maintained. From this place, +a line of sandstone coast was passed, northwardly, till reaching its +terminus on the bay of Chocolate River. This is a large and deep bay, +which it would have required a day's travel to circumnavigate. To avoid +this, the men held their way directly across it, steering N. 70° W., +which, at the end of three leagues, brought us to Granite Point. Here +we first struck the old crystalline rocks or primitive formation. This +formation stretches from the north shores of the Gitche Sebeeng,[45] or +Chocolate River, to Huron Bay, and gives the traveller a view of rough +conical peaks. These characterize the coast for a couple of days' +travel. They are noted for immense bodies of iron ore, which is chiefly +in the condition of iron glance.[46] At Presque Isle, it assumes the +form of a chromate of iron in connection with serpentine rock. We +encamped on level ground on a sandstone formation, in the rear of +Granite Point, and had an opportunity of observing the remarkable manner +in which the horizontal sandstone rests upon and against the granitical, +or, more truly, sienitic eminences. These sandstone strata lap on the +shoulders of the primitive or crystalline rocks, preserving their +horizontal aspect, and forming distinct cliffs along parts of the coast. +This sandstone appears, from its texture and position, to be the "old +red sandstone" of geologists. + + [45] From _gitche_, great; _sebee_, a river; and the local terminal + _ng_, signifying place. + + [46] The extensive iron works of Carp River, which are now yielding + such fine blooms, are seated on the verge of these mountains. + +The next morning (23d) we quitted our encampment at an early hour, in a +haze, and urged our way, with some fluctuations of weather, an estimated +distance of eleven leagues. This brought us, at four o'clock in the +afternoon, to Huron River. Sitting in the canoe, in a confined position, +makes one glad at every opportunity to stretch his limbs, and we +embraced the occasion to bathe in the Huron. The shore consists of a +sandy plain, where my attention was called to the Kinnikenik, a plant +much used by the Indians for smoking. It is the _uva ursi_. I had seen +it once before, on the expedition, at Point aux Barques. + +We inspected here, with much attention, an Indian grave, as well from +the care with which it was made, as the hieroglyphics cut on the +head-posts. The grave was neatly covered with bark, bent over poles, and +made roof-shaped. A pine stake was placed at the head. Between this and +the head of the grave, there was placed a smooth tablet of cedar wood, +with hieroglyphics. Mr. Riley, our interpreter, explained these. The +figure of a bear denoted the chief or clan. This is the device called a +Totem. Seven red strokes denoted his scalp honors in Indian heraldry, or +that he had been seven times in battle. Other marks were not understood +or interpreted. A paling of saplings inclosed the space. + +On the following morning, our camp was astir at the customary early +hour, when we proceeded to Point aux Beignes, a distance of six miles. +Attaining this point, we entered Keweena Bay, coasting up its shores for +an estimated distance of three leagues. We were then opposite the mouth +of Portage River, but separated from it a distance of twelve miles. I +was seated in Lieutenant Mackay's canoe. The whole squadron of five +canoes unhesitatingly put out. The wind was adverse; before much +progress had been made in crossing, three of our flotilla, after +struggling against the billows, put back; but we followed the headmost +one, which bore the Governor's flag, and, seizing hold of the paddles to +relieve the men, we succeeded in gaining the river. The other canoes +came up the next morning, at seven o'clock, when we all proceeded to +cross the Portage Lake, and up an inlet, which soon exhibited a rank +growth of aquatic plants, and terminated, after following a very narrow +channel, in a quagmire. We had, in fact, reached the commencement of the +Keweena Portage. + +Before quitting this spot, it may be well to say, that the geology of +the country had again changed. Portage Lake lies, in fact, in the +direction of the great copper-bearing trap dyke. This dyke, estimating +from the end of the peninsula, extends nearly southwest and northeast, +probably seventy miles, with a breadth of ten miles. It is overlaid by +rubblestone and amygdaloid, which latter, by disintegration, yields the +agates, carnelians, and other silicious, and some sparry crystalline +minerals, for which the central shores of Lake Superior are remarkable. +Nearly every part of this broad and extensive dyke which has been +examined, yields veins, and masses of native copper, or copper ores. + +The word was, when we had pushed our canoes into the quagmire, that each +of the gentlemen of the party was to carry his own personal baggage +across the portage. This was an awkward business for most of us. The +distance was but two thousand yards, but little over a mile, across +elevated open grounds. I strapped my trunk to my shoulders, and walked +myself out of breath in getting clear of the brushy part of the way, +till reaching the end of the first _pause_, or resting-place. Here I met +the Governor (Cass), who facetiously said: "You see I am carrying _two_ +pieces," alluding to his canoe slippers, which he held in his hands. "A +_piece_," in the trade, is the back load of the _engagee_. + +On reaching the termination of the second "pause," or rest, we found +ourselves on a very elevated part of the shore of Lake Superior. The +view was limitless, the horizon only bounding the prospect. The waves +rolled in long and furious swells from the west. To embark was +impossible, if we had had our baggage all brought up, which was not the +case. The day was quite spent before the transportation was completed. +This delay gave us an opportunity to ramble about, and examine the +shore. In a boulder of serpentine rock, I found an imbedded mass of +native copper, of two pounds' weight. On breaking the stone, it proved +to be bound together by thin filaments of this metal. Small water-worn +fragments of chalcedony, agate, carnelian, and other species of the +quartz family were found strewn along the beach, together with fragments +of zeolite. Masses of the two former minerals were also found imbedded +in amygdaloid and trap-rock, thus denoting the parent beds of rock. In +the zeal which these little discoveries excited on the subject of +mineralogy, the Chippewa, Ottowa, and Shawnee Indians attached to the +expedition participated, and as soon as they were made acquainted with +the objects sought, they became successful explorers. They had noticed +my devotion to the topic, from the time of our passing the Islands of +Shawangunk, Michilimackinac, and Flat-rock Point, in the basin of Lake +Huron, where organic forms were chiselled from the rock; and bestowed on +me the name of Paguäbëkiegä.[47] + + [47] The equivalent of geologist or mineralogist, from _pagua_, a + tabular surface; _aubik_, a rock; and _ëga_, the active voice of the + verb to strike. + +It turned out the next morning, that the whole of the baggage and +provisions had not been brought up, nor any of the canoes. This work was +early commenced by the men. About half the day was employed in the +necessary toil. When it was concluded, the wind on the lake had become +too high, blowing in an adverse direction, to permit embarkation. +Nothing remained but to submit to the increased delay, during which we +made ourselves as familiar with the neighboring parts of the lake shore +as possible. During the time the expedition remained encamped at the +portage, I made a short excursion up the peninsula northeastwardly, +accompanied by Captain Douglass, Mr. Trowbridge, and some other persons. +The results of this trip are sufficiently comprehended in what has +already been stated respecting the geology and mineralogy of this +prominent peninsula. + +On the following morning (27th) the wind proved fair, and the day was +one of the finest we had yet encountered on this fretful inland sea. We +embarked at half-past four A. M., every heart feeling rejoiced to speed +on our course. The prominent headlands, west of this point, are capped, +as those on its south-eastern border, with red sandstone. The wind +proved full and adequate to bear us on, without endangering our safety, +which enabled the steersmen to hold out boldly, from point to point. We +had not proceeded far beyond the cliffs west of the portage, when the +dim blue outlines of the Okaug or Porcupine Mountains[48] burst on our +view.[49] Their prominent outline seemed to stretch on the line of the +horizon directly across our track. The atmosphere was quite transparent, +and they must have been seen at the distance of sixty miles. Captain +Douglass thought, from the curve of the earth, that they could not be +less than eighteen hundred feet in height. We successively passed the +entrance of Little Salmon-Trout, Graverod, Misery, and Firesteel Rivers, +at the latter of which a landing was made; when we again resumed our +course, and entered the Ontonagon River, at half-past three in the +afternoon. A large body of water enters the lake at the spot, but its +mouth is filled up very much by sands. One of those curious refluxes is +seen here, of which a prior instance has been noticed, in which its +waters, having been impeded and dammed up by gales of wind, react, at +their cessation, with unusual force. The name of the River Ontonagon[50] +is, indeed, due to these refluxes, the prized dish of an Indian female +having, agreeably to tradition, been carried out of the river into the +lake. + + [48] From _kaug_, a porcupine. + + [49] For the view of this scene, see Information on the History, + Condition, and Prospects of the Indian Tribes, vol. iv. Title iv. + + [50] From the expression _nontonagon_, my dish; and _neen_, the + pronoun _my_. + +Captain Douglass made observations for the latitude of the place, and +determined it to be in north latitude 46° 52´ 2´´. The stationary +distances of the route are given in the subjoined list, in which it may +be observed that they are probably exaggerated about one-third by the +voyagers and northwest traders, who always pride themselves on going +great distances; but they denote very well, in all cases, the _relative_ +distances. + +_Stationary Distances between Michilimackinac and the River Ontonagon._ + + Total + Miles. Miles. + + From Michilimackinac to Detour 40 + Thence to Sault de St. Marie 45 85 + Point aux Pins 6 91 + Point Iroquois, at the entrance into Lake + Superior 9 100 + Taquamenon River 15 115 + Shelldrake River 9 124 + White-Fish Point 9 133 + Two-Hearted River 24 157 + Grande Marrais, and commencement of + Grande Sables 21 178 + La Point la Grande Sables 9 187 + Pictured Rocks (La Portaille) 12 199 + Doric Rock, and Miner's River 6 205 + Grande Island 12 217 + River aux Trains 9 226 + Isle aux Trains 3 229 + Laughing-Fish River 6 235 + Chocolate River 15 250 + Dead River (in Presque Isle Bay) 6 256 + Granite Point 6 262 + Garlic River 9 271 + St. John's River, or Yellow Dog Run 15 286 + Salmon-Trout, or Burnt River 12 298 + Pine River 6 304 + Huron River (Huron Islands lie off this + River) 9 313 + Point aux Beignes (east Cape of Keweena Bay) 6 319 + Mouth of Portage River 21 340 + Head of Portage River (through Keweena + Lake) 24 364 + Lake Superior, at the head of the Portage 1 365 + Little Salmon-Trout River 9 374 + Graverod's River (small, with flat rocks at + its mouth) 6 380 + Rivière au Misère 12 392 + Firesteel River 18 410 + Ontonagon, or Coppermine River 6 416 + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Chippewa village at the mouth of the Ontonagon--Organize an expedition + to explore its mineralogy--Incidents of the trip--Rough nature of + the country--Reach the copper rock--Misadventure--Kill a + bear--Discoveries of copper--General remarks on the mineral + affluence of the basin of Lake Superior. + + +A small Chippewa village, under the chieftainship of +Tshwee-tshweesh-ke-wa, or the Plover, and Kundekund, the Net Buoy, was +found on the west bank of the river, near its mouth, the chiefs and +warriors of which received us in the most friendly manner. If not +originally a people of a serene and placid temperament, they have been +so long in habits of intercourse with the white race that they are quite +familiar with their manners and customs, and mode of doing business. +They appeared to regard the Canadian-Frenchmen of our party as if they +were of their own mode of thinking, and, indeed, almost identical with +themselves. + +The Ontonagon River had, from the outset, formed an object of +examination, from the early and continued reports of copper on its +borders. It was determined to lose no time in examining it. Guides were +furnished to conduct a party up the river to the locality of the large +mass of this metal, known from early days. This being one of the +peculiar duties of my appointment, I felt the deepest interest in its +success, and took with me the apparatus I had brought for cutting the +rock and securing proper specimens. + +The party consisted of Governor Cass, Dr. Wolcott, Captain Douglass, +Lieutenant Mackay, J. D. Doty, Esq., and myself. We embarked in two +canoes, with their complement of men and guides. It was six o'clock, +when, leaving the balance of the expedition encamped at the mouth of the +river, east shore, we took our departure, in high spirits, for the +copper regions. A broad river with a deep and gentle current, with a +serpentine channel, and heavily wooded banks with their dark-green +foliage overhanging the water, rendered the first few miles of the +trip delightful. At the distance of four miles, we reached a +sturgeon-fishery, formed by extending a weir across the river. This weir +consists of upright and horizontal stakes and poles, along the latter of +which the Indians move and balance themselves, having in their hands an +iron hook on a pole, with which the fish are caught. We stopped a few +moments to look at the process, received some of the fish drawn up +during our stay, which are evidently the _Acipenser oxyrinchus_, and +went on a couple of miles higher, where we encamped on a sandbar. Here +we were welcomed, during the sombre hours off the night, with a +pertinacity we could have well dispensed with, by the mosquitos. + +We resumed the ascent at four o'clock in the morning. The river is still +characterized for some miles by rich alluvial banks, bearing a dense +forest of elm, maple, and walnut, with a luxuriant growth of underbrush. +But it was soon perceived that the highlands close in upon it and narrow +its channel, which murmurs over dangerous beds of rocks and stones. +Almost imperceptibly, we found ourselves in an alpine region of a very +rugged character. The first rapid water encountered had been at the +Indian weir, on the 27th. These rapids, though presenting slight +obstacles, became more frequent at higher points. We had been in our +canoes about three hours, the river having become narrower and more +rapid, when the guides informed the party that we had ascended as far +into the mountainous district as was practicable; that there was a +series of bad rapids above; and that, by landing at this spot, the party +could proceed, with guides, to the locality of the copper rock. +Accordingly, arrangements were made to divide the party; Governor Cass +placed at my service the number of men necessary to explore the country +on foot, and carry the implements. Dr. Wolcott and Captain Douglass +joined me. I took my departure with eight persons, including two Indian +guides, in quest of the mineral region, over the highlands on the west +bank of the river; while the Governor, Major Forsyth, and the other +guides, remained with the canoes, which were lightened of half their +burden, in hopes of their being able to ascend the stream quite to the +Rock. Starting with my party with alacrity, this trip was found to be +one of no ordinary toil. + +Not only was the country exceedingly rough, carrying us up and down +steep depressions, but the heat of the sun, together with the exercise, +was oppressive, nor did our guides seem to move with a precision which +betokened much familiarity with the region, if they did not feel, +indeed, some compunction on leading whites to view their long +superstitiously concealed mineral treasures. At one o'clock we came to +an Indian path, leading directly to the place. The guides here sat down +to await the party under Governor Cass, who were expected to join us at +this spot. The thermometer at this hour stood at 90° in the shade of the +forest. We had not been long seated when the other party made their +appearance; but the Governor had been so much exhausted by clambering up +the river hills, that he determined to return to his point of landing in +the river. In this attempt he was guided by one of the Ontonagon +Indians, named Wabiskipenais,[51] who missed his way, and wandered about +he knew not whither. We leave him to thread his way back into the +valley, with the Executive of the Territory, wearied and perplexed, at +his heels, while the results of my excursion in search of the copper +rock are detailed. After the reunion at the path, my mineralogical party +proceeded some five or six miles, by estimation, farther, through a more +favorable region, towards the object of search. On approaching the +river, they passed some antique excavations in the forest, overgrown +with saplings, which had the appearance of age, but not of a remote age. +Coming to the brink of the river, we beheld the stream brawling over a +rapid stony bed, at the depth of, perhaps, eighty or a hundred feet +below. Towards this, its diluvial banks, charged with boulders and +pebbles, sloped at a steep angle. At the foot, laid the large mass we +were in search of, partly immersed in the water. Its position may be +inferred from the following sketch:-- + + [51] From _wabiska_, white (transitive animate), and _penasee_, a + bird. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +The rock consists of a mass of native copper in a tabular boulder of +serpentine. Its face is almost purely metallic, and more splendent than +appears to consist with its being purely metallic copper. There is no +appearance of oxidation. Its size, roughly measured, is three feet four +inches, by three feet eight inches, and about twelve or fourteen inches +thick in the thickest part. The weight of copper, exclusive of the rock, +is not readily estimated; it may be a ton, or a ton and a half. Old +authors report it at more than double this weight. The quantity has +been, however, much diminished by visitors, who have cut freely from it. +I obtained adequate specimens, but found my chisels too highly tempered, +and my hammer not heavy enough to separate large masses. Having made the +necessary examinations, we took our way back up the elevated banks of +the river, and across the forest about six miles, to the final place of +debarkation of Gov. Cass and his party. But our fears were at once +excited on learning that the Governor, with his guide, Wabishkepenais, +had not reached the camp. It was already beginning to be dark, and the +gloom of night, which is impressive in these solitudes, was fast closing +around us. Guns were fired, to denote our position, and a light canoe +was immediately manned, placed in charge of one of the gentlemen, and +sent up the river in search. This canoe had not proceeded a mile, when +the object of search was descried, with his companions, sitting on the +banks of the river, with a real jaded air, with his Indian guide +standing at no great distance. Wabishkepenais had been bewildered in his +tracks, and finally struck the river by the merest chance. The +Governor, on reaching camp, looked as if he had been carried over steeps +and through gloomy defiles, which had completely exhausted his strength, +and he was not long in retiring to his tent, willing to leave such rough +explorations for the present, at least, to other persons, or, if he ever +resumed them, to do it with better guides. Poor Wabishkepenais looked +chagrined and as woebegone himself as if he had encountered the bad +influences of half the spirits of his Indian mythology; for the fellow +had really been lost in his own woods, and with a charge by whom he had +felt honored, and employed his best skill to conduct. The camp-fires +already threw their red glare among the trees as night spread her sable +pall over us. The tents were pitched; the canoes turned up on the shore +to serve as a canopy for the men to sleep under. Indians and Canadians +were soon engaged at their favorite pipes, and mingled their tones and +hilarious conversation; and we finally all slept the sounder for our +eventful day's toils and misadventures. But deeply printed on our +memory, and long to remain there, are the thrilling scenes of that day +and that night. + +At five o'clock the next morning, the entire camp was roused and in +motion, when we began to descend the stream. We had descended about ten +miles, when the Ontonagon Indians stopped the canoes to examine a +bear-fall, on the east bank. It was a fine open forest, elevated some +six or eight feet above the water. It was soon announced that a bear was +entrapped. We all ascended the bank, and visited the locality. The +structure had been so planned that the animal must needs creep lowly +under a crib of logs to get at the bait, which he no sooner disturbed +than a weight of logs fell on his prostrated legs. The animal sat up +partially on his fore paws, when we advanced, the hinder being pressed +heavily to the earth. One of the Indians soon fired a ball through his +head, but it did not kill him, he still kept his upright position. Dr. +Wolcott then requested permission to fire a shot, which was aimed at the +heart, and took effect about that part, but did not kill him. One of the +Indians then dispatched him with an axe. He was no sooner dead than one +of the Indians, stepping up, addressed him by the name _Muk-wah_, shook +him by the paw, with a smiling countenance, saying, in the Indian +language, that he was sorry they had been under the necessity of +killing him, and hoped the offence would be forgiven, as one of the +shots fired had been from an American.[52] + + [52] Chemoquiman, from _gitchee_, great, and _moquiman_, knife. + +This act of the Indian addressing the bear, will be better understood, +when it is stated that their mythology tells them, that the spirit of +the animal must be encountered in a future state, when the enchantment +to which it is condemned in this life, will be taken off. + +On passing down the river, an Indian had promised to disclose another +mass of native copper, near the river, and we stopped at a spot +indicated, to enable him to bring it. Whether he repented of his too +free offer, agreeably to Indian superstition, or feared some calamity to +follow the disclosure, or really encountered some difficulty in finding +it, I know not, but it is certain that, after some time spent in the +search, or affected search, he came back to the river without producing +it. + +Soon after this incident, we reached the mouth of the river, and found +the party left encamped at that point, in charge of Mr. Trowbridge and +Mr. Doty, well, nothing having occurred in our absence. The wind was, +however, adverse to our embarkation, had it been immediately desired. + +A council of the Ontonagon Indians was summoned, which met in the after +part of the day; speeches were delivered, and replied to, and presents +distributed. A silver medal was presented to Wabishkepenais. + +Head winds continuing, we were farther detained at this spot the +following day. While thus detained, an Ontonagon Indian brought in a +mass of native copper, from the banks of this river, weighing eight or +nine pounds. This mass was of a flattened, orbicular shape, and its +surface coated with a green oxide. At a subsequent part of my +acquaintance with this river, another mass of native copper (still +deposited in my cabinet) was brought to me, from the east fork of the +river, which weighed from forty to fifty pounds. This mass, of a +columnar shape, originally embraced a piece of stone which the Indian +finding it had detached. It was also coated with a dark green oxide of +copper. Both of these masses appeared to have been volcanic. Neither of +them had the slightest traces of gangue, or vein-matter, nor of +attrition in being removed from the parent beds. The following sketches +depict the shapes of these masses. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +With respect to the general question of the mineral character of this +part of the country, and the probable value of its mineral and metallic +deposits to the public domain, the entire class of facts, from which a +judgment must be formed, are favorable.[53] Salts and oxides of copper +are not only seen in various places in its stratification, but these +indications of mineral wealth in this article are confirmed, by the +subsequent discovery of masses of native copper, along the shore, and +imbedded in its traps and amygdaloids. In addition to the opportunities +of observation furnished by this expedition, subsequent public duties +led me to perform seven separate trips along its shores, and each of +these but served to accumulate the evidences of its extraordinary +mineral wealth. Indications of the sulphurets, arseniates, and other +ores of this metal are found in the older class of horizontal rocks; but +it is to the trap-rocks alone that we must look for the veins of native +metal. Some of these masses contain silver, in a state of combination. +Traces of this metal, chiefly in the boulder form, are found in the +metalliferous horizontal strata. Nor is there wanting evidence, that +there are localities of virgin copper, which do not promise a +considerable percentage of the metal. A mass of steatite, imbedding a +heavy mass of pure native silver, which had been probably carried from +the northwest, with the drift stratum, was found cast out quite into the +Huron basin; and this rock, in its intimate associations with the +serpentine formation of Lake Superior, should be closely scrutinized. +There is also a formation of slate and quartz in the primitive district, +which is entitled to particular attention. + + [53] _Vide_ Reports in the Appendix: 1. Report on the Copper Mines of + Lake Superior, November 6, 1820. 2. Report on the Value of the + Existing Evidences of Mineral Wealth in the Basin of Lake Superior to + the Public Domain, October 1, 1822. + +Inorganic masses are developed, throughout the globe, without regard to +climate. Russia yields the precious metals in great profusion, and there +are no laws governing the distribution of these metals, which forbid the +expectation that they should be abundantly disclosed by the +stratification of the basin of Lake Superior. With respect to the useful +metals, particularly copper and iron, it is undeniably the richest and +most extensive locality of these metals on the globe.[54] + + [54] Geological Report, _vide_ Appendix. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Proceed along the southern coast of Lake Superior from the Ontonagon, + to Fond du Lac--Porcupine range of mountains--Streams that run + from it, at parallel distances, into the lake--La Pointe--Group of + the Federation Islands--River St. Louis--Physical geography of + Lake Superior. + + +Head winds detained the expedition at the mouth of the Ontonagon, during +the day and the day following that of our arrival from the copper rock. +It was the first of July, at half-past four o'clock, A. M., when the +state of the lake permitted us to embark. Steering west, we now had the +prominent object of the Porcupine Mountains constantly in view. At the +distance of fifteen miles, we passed the Pewabik Seebe, or Iron River. +This stream, after ascending it a couple of miles, is a mere torrent, +pouring from the Porcupine Mountains, over a very rough bed of +grauwakke, which forbids all navigation. At the computed distance of +five leagues beyond this stream, we passed the river called Pusábika, or +Dented River, so called from standing rocks, which resemble broken human +teeth. The Canadians, who, as previously remarked, appear to have had +but a limited geographical vocabulary, called this Carp River, +neglectful of the fact that they had already bestowed the name on a +small river which flows into the bay south of Granite Point.[55] We were +now at the foot of the Kaug range, which is one vast upheaval of +trap-rock, and has lifted the chocolate-colored sandstone, at its base, +into a vertical position. The Pusábika River originates in this high +trap range, from which it is precipitated, at successive leaps, to the +level of the lake, the nearest of which, a cascade of forty feet, is +within three miles of the river's mouth. + + [55] Now the seat of the Marquette Iron Works. + +Six miles further brought us to the Presque Isle River of the Canadians, +for which I heard no Indian name. It also originates on this lofty trap +range, and has worn its bed through frightful chasms in the grauwackke, +through which it enters the lake. Within half a mile of its entrance, +the river, hastening from its elevations, drops into a vast cauldron +scooped in the grauwackke rock, whence it glides into the lake. Here are +some picturesque and sublime views, worthy the pencil. + +Two leagues beyond this river we reached and passed the entrance of +Black River, another of the streams from the Kaug range. It is stated to +be rapid, and to have its source south of the mountains, in a district +sheltered from the lake winds, and suited to agriculture. Its borders +bear at the same time indications of mineral wealth. Eight miles beyond +this river, we encamped on the open shores of the lake, after travelling +fifty miles. Having been doubled up in the canoe for all this distance, +landing on terra firma, and being able to stretch one's legs, seemed +quite a relief. "I will break a lance with you," quoth A to B, +addressing Mr. Trowbridge, offering him at the same time a dried stalk, +which had been cast up by the waves. We were, in fact, as much pleased +to get ashore, after the day's confinement, as so many boys let loose +from confinement in school. In strolling along the shore, I recognized +the erismatolite, in the dark upheaved sandstone at this locality. + +We here observed a phenomenon, which is alluded to by Charlevoix as +peculiar to this lake. Although it was calm, and had been so all day, +save a light breeze for a couple of hours after leaving the Ontonagon, +the waters near shore were in a perfect rage, heaving and lashing upon +the rocks, in a manner which rendered it difficult to land. At the same +time, scarce a breath of air was stirring, and the atmosphere was +beautifully serene. + +On passing thirteen miles, the next morning, we reached the mouth of the +Montreal River, which is the last of the mountain streams of the Kaug +range. It throws itself from a high precipice of the vertical sand-rock, +within sight of the lake, creating quite a picturesque view.[56] (Vide +_Information respecting the History, Customs, and Prospects of Indian +Tribes_, vol. iv. plate 26.) + + [56] This river has subsequently been fixed on as the northwestern + boundary of the state of Michigan, separating it from Wisconsin. + +On landing here a few moments, at an early hour, the air being hazy, we +knocked down some pigeons, which flew very low.[57] This bird seems to +be precisely the common pigeon of the Atlantic borders. The Indians had +constructed a fish-weir between the lake and Montreal falls, where the +lake sturgeon are caught. + + [57] BIRDS OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--Of the species that frequent the + vicinity of this lake, the magpie is found to approach as far north + as Lac du Flambeau, on the head of the Montreal and Chippewa Rivers. + This bird is called by the Chippewas Wabish Kagagee, a name derived + from _Wabishkau_, white animate, and _Kaw-gaw-gee_, a crow. The + three-toed woodpecker visits its forests. The T. polyglottis has been + seen as far north as the Island of Michilimackinac. In the spring of + 1823, a species of grosbeak visited St. Mary's, of which I + transmitted a specimen to the New York Lyceum of Natural History, + where it received the name of Evening Grosbeak. + +After passing about a league beyond the Montreal, the voyager reaches a +curve in the lake shore, at which it bends to the north and northwest. +This curve is observed to extend to the De Tour of the great bay of Fond +du Lac, a computed distance of the _voyageurs_ of thirty-six miles, +which, as before indicated, is about one-third overrated. The immediate +shore is a level plain of sand, which continues to Point Chegoimegon, +say eighteen miles. About two-thirds of this distance, the Muskeego[58] +River enters through the sandy plain from the west. This is a large +stream, consisting of two primary forks, one of which connects it with +Chippewa River, and the other with the River St. Croix of the +Mississippi. The difficulties attending its ascent, from rapids and +portages, have led the French to call it Mauvaise, or Bad River.[59] + + [58] From _Muskeeg_, a swamp or bog, and o, the sign of the genitive. + + [59] MUSKEEGO, or MAUVAIS RIVER.--In 1831, the United States + government placed under my charge an expedition into the Indian + country which ascended this river, with a view to penetrate through + the intervening region to the Mississippi. Indian canoes were + employed, as being best adapted to its rapids and portages, which + were managed by _voyageurs_. A detachment of infantry, under Lieut. + R. Clary, was added. The tribes in this secluded region were then + meditating the outbreak which eventuated the next year in the Black + Hawk War. This expedition ascended the river through a most + embarrassing series of rapids and rafts, which often choked up its + channel for miles, into a long lake, on its summit, called + Kagenogumaug. From the northwest end of this, it passed, from lake to + lake, to the Namakagun fork of the River St. Croix of the Mississippi, + descended that stream to Yellow River, then retraced the Namakagun to + a portage to Ottowa Lake, a source of Chippewa River, then to a + portage into Lac Chetac, the source of the Red Cedar, or Follavoine + River, and pursued the latter to the main channel of the Chippewa, + and by the latter into the Mississippi, which it enters at the foot + of Lake Pepin; thence down the Mississippi to Prairie du Chien, and + through the present area of the State of Wisconsin, by the Wisconsin + and Fox Rivers, to Green Bay; thence through Lakes Michigan and Huron + to Sault de Ste Marie. + +Passing this river, we continued along the sandy formation to its +extreme termination, which separates the Bay of St. Charles by a strait +from that remarkable group of islands, called the Twelve Apostles by +Carwer. It is this sandy point, which is called La Pointe +Chagoimegon[60] by the old French authors, a term now shortened to La +Pointe. Instead of "twelve," there are, however, nearer thirty islands, +agreeably to the subjoined sketch, by which it is seen that each State +in the Union may stand sponsor for one of them, and they might be more +appropriately called the _Federation Group_. Touching at the inner or +largest of the group, we found it occupied by a Chippewa village, under +a chief called Bezhike. There was a tenement occupied by a Mr. M. +Cadotte, who has allied himself to the Chippewas. Hence we proceeded +about eleven miles to the main shore, where we encamped at a rather late +hour. I here found a recurrence of the granitic, sienitic, and +hornblende rocks, in high orbicular hills, and improved the brief time +of daylight to explore the vicinity. The evening proved lowering and +dark, and this eventuated in rain, which continued all night, and until +six o'clock the next morning. Embarking at this hour, we proceeded +northwest about eight miles, to Raspberry River, and southwest to Sandy +River. Here we were driven ashore by a threatening tempest, and before +we had unladen the canoes, there fell one of the most copious and heavy +showers of rain. The water seemed fairly to pour from the clouds. We had +not pitched a tent, nor could the slightest shelter be found. There +seemed but one option at our command, namely, that between sitting and +standing. We chose the latter, and looked at each other, it may be, +foolishly, while this rain tempest poured. When it was over, we were as +completely wetted as if it had been our doom to lay at the bottom of the +lake. When the rain ceased, the wind rose directly ahead, which confined +us to that spot the rest of the day. The next day was the Fourth of +July--a day consecrated in our remembrance, but which we could do no +more than remember. The wind continued to blow adversely till about two +o'clock, when we embarked, not without feeling the lake still laboring +under the agitation into which it had been thrown. On travelling three +miles, we turned the prominent point, called De Tour of Fond du Lac. At +this point our course changed from northwest to south-southwest. + + [60] From _Shaugwamegun_, low lands, and _ing_, a place. + +The sandstone formation here showed itself for the last time. The shore +soon assumes a diluvial character, bordered with long lines of yellow +sand and pebbles. In some places, heavy beds of pure iron sand were +observed. The agitation which marked the lake soon subsided, under the +change of wind, and our men seemed determined, by the diligence with +which they worked, to make amends for our delay at Sandy River. + +At eight o'clock in the evening we came to Cranberry River and encamped, +having, by their estimation, come twenty-three miles. The evening was +perfectly clear and calm, with a striking twilight, which was remarked +all night. These lengthened twilights form a very observable feature as +we proceed north. Mackenzie says that, in lat. 67° 47´, on the 11th of +July, 1789, he saw the sun above the horizon at twelve o'clock P.M. + +The calmness and beauty of the night, and our chief's anxiety to press +forward, made this a short night. Gen. Cass aroused the camp at a very +early hour, so that at three o'clock we were again upon the lake, urging +our way up the Fond du Lac Bay. The sun rose above the horizon at ten +minutes before four o'clock. The morning was clear and brilliant. Not a +cloud obscured the sky, and the waves of the lake spread out with the +brightness of a mirror. At the distance of five leagues, we passed the +mouth of the Wisakoda, or Broule River,[61] a stream which forms the +connecting link with the Mississippi River, through the St. Croix. Three +miles beyond this point we landed a short time, on the shore, where we +observed a stratum of iron sand, pure and black, a foot in thickness. + + [61] WISACODA, or BROULE RIVER.--On returning down the Mississippi + River, from the exploration of its sources, in 1832, I ascended the + River St. Croix quite to its source in St. Croix Lake. A short + portage, across a sandy summit, terminated at the head springs of the + Wisacoda, which, from a very narrow and tortuous channel, is soon + increased in volume by tributaries, and becomes a copious stream. + Thus swelled in volume, it is dashed down an inclined plane, for + nearly seventy miles, over which it roars and foams with the + impetuosity of a torrent. It is not till within a few miles of Lake + Superior that it becomes still and deep. The entire length of the + river may be estimated at one hundred miles. It has two hundred and + forty distinct rapids, at some of which the river sinks its level + from eight to ten feet. It cannot fall, in this distance, less than + 500. That it should ever have been used in the fur trade, is to be + explained by the fact that it has much water. + +At eleven o'clock, a northeast wind arose, which enabled the expedition +to hoist sail. Land on the north shore had for some time been in sight, +across the bay, and the line of coast soon closed in front, denoting +that we had reached the head of the lake. At twelve o'clock, we entered +the month of the River St. Louis, having been eighteen days in passing +this lake, including the trip to the Ontonagon. + +Before quitting Lake Superior, whose entire length we have now +traversed, one or two generic remarks may be made; and the first +respects its aboriginal name. The Algonquins, who, in the Chippewa +tribe, were found in possession of it, on the arrival of the French, +early in the seventeenth century, applied the same radical word to it +which they bestow on the sea, namely, Gum-ee (Collected water), or, as +it is sometimes pronounced, Gom-ee, or Go-ma; with this difference, that +the adjective big (gitchè) prefixed to this term for Lake Superior, is +repeated when it is applied to the sea. The superlative is formed when +it is meant to be very emphatic, in this language, by the repetition of +the adjective; a principle, indeed, quite common to the Indian grammars +generally. The word did not commend itself to French or English ears, so +much as to lead to its adoption. By taking the syllable Al from +Algonquin, as a prefix, instead of gitchè, we have the more poetic +combination of Algoma. + +Geographers have estimated the depth of this lake at nine hundred feet. +By the surveys of the engineers of the New York and Erie Canal, the +surface of Lake Erie is shown to be five hundred and sixty feet above +tide-water, which, agreeably to estimates kept on the present journey, +lies fifty-two feet below the level of Lake Superior. These data would +carry the bottom of the lake two hundred and eighty-eight feet below +tide water. What is more certain is this, that it has been the theatre +of ancient volcanic action, which has thrown its trap-rocks into high +precipices around its northern shores and some of its islands, and +lifted up vast ranges of sandstone rocks into a vertical position, as is +seen at the base of the Porcupine Mountains. Its latest action appears +to have been in its western portion, as is proved by the upheaval of the +horizontal strata; and it may be inferred that its bed is very rough and +unequal. + +The western termination of the lake, in the great bay of Fond du Lac, +denotes a double or masked shore, which appears to have been formed of +pebbles and sands, driven up by the tempests, at the distance of a mile +or two, outside of the original shore. The result is shown by an +elongated piece of water, resembling a lake, which receives at the +north, the River St. Louis, and the _Agoche_, or Lefthand River, at its +south extremity. + +About three miles above the mouth of the river, we landed at a Chippewa +village. While exchanging the usual salutations with them, we noticed +the children of an African, who had intermarried with this tribe. These +children were the third in descent from Bongo, a freed man of a former +British commanding officer at the Island of Michilimackinac. They +possessed as black skins as the father, a fact which may be accounted +for by observing, what I afterwards learned, that the marriages were, in +the case of the grandfather and father, with the pure Indian, and not +with Africano-Algonquin blood; so that there had been no direct advance +in the genealogical line. + +The St. Louis River discharges a large volume of water, and is destined +hereafter to be a port of entry for the lake shipping, but at present it +has shoals of sand at its mouth which would bar the entrance of large +vessels. Proceeding up the river, we found it very serpentine, and +abounding in aquatic plants, portions of it yielding the wild rice. At +the computed distance of twenty-four miles, we reached the establishment +of the American Fur Company. It was seven o'clock when we came to the +place, where we encamped. + +Lake Superior is called by the Chippewas a sea. + +The superficial area of the lake has been computed by Mr. Darby at a +little under nine hundred billions of feet, and its depth at nine +hundred feet. By the latest surveys and estimate, the altitude of Lake +Superior above tide water, is about six hundred and forty feet.[62] +Allowing Mr. Darby's computation to be correct, this would sink its bed +far below the surface of the Atlantic. + + [62] _Vide_ Appendix. + +This lake has been the theatre of very extensive volcanic action. Vast +dykes of trap traverse its northern shores. One of the principal of +these has apparently extended across its bed, from northeast to +southwest, to the long peninsula of Keweena, producing at the same time, +the elevated range of the Okaug Mountains. One of the most remarkable +features of these dykes is the numerous and extensive veins of native +copper which characterize them. Subsequent convulsions, and the +demolition of these ancient dykes, by storms and tempests, have +scattered along its shores abundant evidence of the metal and its ores +and veinstones, which have attracted notice from the earliest time. The +geology of its southern coasts may be glanced at, and inferred, from the +subjoined outlines. + +[Illustration: Geological outline of Lake Superior.] + +The teachings of topography, applied to commerce, are wonderful. A +longitudinal line, dropped south, from this point, would cross the +Mississippi at the foot of Lake Pepin, and pass through Jefferson city +on the Missouri. When, therefore, a ship canal shall be made at St. +Mary's Falls, vessels of large tonnage may sail from Oswego (by the +Welland canal) and Buffalo, through a line of inter-oceanic seas, nearer +to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, by several hundred miles, than by +any other possible route. A railroad line from Fond du Lac west to the +Columbia valley, would also form the shortest and most direct transit +route from the Pacific to New York. Such a road would have the advantage +of passing through a region favorable to agriculture, which cannot but +develop abundant resources. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Proceed up the St. Louis River, and around its falls and rapids to + Sandy Lake in the valley of the Upper Mississippi--Grand + Portage--Portage aux Coteaux--A sub-exploring party--Cross the + great morass of Akeek Scepi to Sandy Lake--Indian mode of + pictographic writing--Site of an Indian jonglery--Post of Sandy + Lake. + + +We had now reached above nine hundred and fifty miles from our +starting-point at Detroit, and had been more than forty days in +traversing the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. July had already +commenced, and no time was to be lost in reaching our extreme point of +destination. Every exertion was therefore made to push ahead. By ten +o'clock of the morning after our arrival at the Fond du Lac post, we +embarked, and after going two miles reached the foot of the first rapids +of the St. Louis. This spot is called the commencement of the Grand +Portage--over this path all the goods, provisions, and canoes are to be +carried by hand nine miles. During this distance, the St. Louis River, a +stream of prime magnitude, bursts through the high trap range of what +Bouchette calls the Cabotian Mountains, being a continuation of the +upheavals of the north shore of Lake Superior, the river leaping and +foaming, from crag to crag, in a manner which creates some of the most +grand and picturesque views. We sometimes stood gazing at their +precipices and falls, with admiration, and often heard their roar on our +path, when we were miles away from them. Capt. Douglass estimated the +river to fall one hundred and eight feet during the first nine miles; +and from estimates furnished me by Dr. Wolcott, the aggregate fall from +the mouth of the Savannè, to that point, is two hundred and twelve feet. +We found the first part of the ascent of its banks very precipitous and +difficult, particularly for the men who bore burdens, and what rendered +the labor almost insupportable was the heat, which stood at 82°, in the +shade, at noon. We made but five _pauses_ the first day; and were three +days on the portage. It rained the second day, which added much to the +difficulty of our progress. We now found ourselves, at every step, +advancing into a wild and rugged region. Everything around us wore the +aspect of remoteness. Dark forests, swampy grounds, rocky precipices, +and the distant roaring of the river, as it leapt from rock to rock, +would have sufficiently impressed the mind with the presence of the +wilderness, without heavy rains, miry paths, and the train of wild and +picturesque Indians, who constituted a part of our carriers. + +The rocks, at the foot of the portage, consisted of horizontal red +sandstone. On reaching the head of it, we found argillite in a vertical +position. I found the latter, in some places, pervaded by thin veins of +quartz, and in one instance by grauwackke. At one spot there was a small +vein of coarse graphite in the argillite. Large blocks of black +crystallized hornblende rock lie along the shores, where we again +reached the river, and are often seen on its bed, amid the swift-running +water, but I did not observe this rock in place. Among the loose stones +at the foot of the portage, I picked up a specimen of micaceous oxide of +iron. Such are the gleams of its geology and mineralogy. The growth of +the forest is pines, hemlock, spruce, birch, oak, and maple. In +favorable situations, I observed the common red raspberry, ripe. + +On embarking above the portage, the expedition occupied seven canoes, of +a size most suitable for this species of navigation. Our Indian +auxiliaries from Fond du Lac were here rewarded, and dismissed. On +ascending six miles, we reached the Portage aux Coteaux, so called from +the carrying path lying over a surface of vertical argillite. This rock, +standing up in the bed, or on the banks of the stream, with a scanty +overhanging foliage of cedar, gives a peculiarly wild and abrupt aspect +to the scene; which is by no means lessened by the loud roaring of the +waters. There is a fall and rapid at this portage, where the river, it +may be estimated, sinks its level about fourteen feet. + +We encamped at the head of this portage, where the water again permits +the canoes to be put in. Thus far, we had found this stream a broad, +flowing torrent, but owing to its rapids and rocks, anything but +favorable to its navigation by boats, or canoes of heavy burden. His +excellency Gov. Cass, therefore, determined to relieve the river party, +by detaching a sub-expedition across the country to Sandy Lake. It was +thought proper that I should accompany this party. It consisted, +besides, of Lieut. Mackay, with eight soldiers, and of Mr. Doty, Mr. +Trowbridge, and Mr. Chase. We were provided with an interpreter and two +Chippewa guides, being sixteen persons in all. + +Thus organized, we left the camp at the head of the portage, the +following morning, at six o'clock. Each one carried provisions for five +days, a knife, a musquito bar, and a blanket or cloak. There were a few +guns taken, but generally this was thought to be an incumbrance, as we +expected to see little game and to encounter a toilsome tramp. The +guides, taking their course by the sun, struck west into a close forest +of pine, hemlock, and underbrush, which required energy to push through. +On travelling a couple of miles, we fell into an Indian path leading in +the required direction; but this path, after passing through two ponds, +and some marshes, eventually lost itself in swamps. These marshes, after +following through them, about four miles, were succeeded by an elevated +dry sandy barren, with occasional clumps of pitch pine, and with a +surface of shrubbery. Walking over this dry tract was quite a relief. We +then entered a thick forest of young spruce and hemlock. Two miles of +this brought us to the banks of a small lake, with clear water, and a +pebbly shore. Having no canoe to cross it, our guides led us around its +southern shores. The fallen timber and brush rendered this a very +difficult march. To avoid these obstructions, as they approached the +head of the lake, we eventually took its margin, occasionally leading +into the water. While passing these shores, I picked up some specimens +of the water-worn agates, for which the diluvians in this quarter are +remarkable. We now fell into an old Indian path, which led to two small +lakes, similar in size, to the former one, but with marshy borders, and +reddish water. These small lakes were filled with pond lilies, rushes, +and wild rice. At the margin of the second lake, the path ceased, and +the guides could not afterwards find it. The path terminated abruptly at +the second lake. While searching about this, Chamees,[63] one of the +Indian guides, found a large green tortoise, which he and his companion +killed in a very ingenious and effectual way, by a blow from a hatchet +on the neck, at the point where the shell or buckler terminates. After +leaving this water, they appeared to be in doubt about the way; almost +imperceptibly, we found ourselves in a great tamarak swamp. The bogs and +moss served to cover up, almost completely, the fallen trees, and formed +so elastic a carpet as to sink deep at every tread. Occasionally they +broke through, letting the foot into the mire. This proved a very +fatiguing tramp. To add to its toils, it rained at intervals all day. We +were eleven hours in passing this swamp, and estimated, and probably +over-estimated ourselves to have past twenty miles. We encamped at five +o'clock near the shores of a third small lake, each one picking out for +himself the most elevated spot possible, and the person who got a +position most completely out of the water was the best man. It is +fatigue, however, that makes sleep a welcome guest, and we awoke without +any cause of complaint on that score. + + [63] The pouncing hawk. + +The next morning, as we were about to depart, we observed near the +camp-fire of our guides a pole leaning in the direction we were to go, +with a birch-bark inscription inserted in a slit in the top of the pole. +This was too curious an object not to excite marked attention, and we +took it down to examine the hieroglyphics, or symbols, which had been +inscribed with charcoal on the birch scroll. We found the party minutely +depicted by symbols. The figures of eight muskets denoted that there +were eight soldiers in the party. The usual figure for a man, namely, a +closed cross with a head, thus:-- + +[Illustration] + +and one hand holding a sword, told the tale that they were commanded by +an officer. Mr. Doty was drawn with a book, they having understood that +he was a lawyer. I was depicted with a hammer, to denote a mineralogist. +Mr. Trowbridge and Mr. Chase, and the interpreter, were also depicted. +Chamees and his companion were drawn by a camp-fire apart, and the +figure of the tortoise and a prairie-hen denoted the day's hunt. There +were three hacks on the pole, which leaned to the N. W., denoting our +course of travel. Having examined this unique memorial, it was carefully +replaced in its former position, when we again set forward. It appeared +we had rested in a sort of oasis in the swamp, for we soon entered into +a section of a decidedly worse character than that we had passed the day +before. The windfalls and decaying timber were more frequent--the bogs, +if possible, more elastic--the spots dry enough to halt on, more +infrequent, and the water more highly colored with infusions of decaying +vegetable matter. We urged our way across this tract of morass for nine +hours, during which we estimated our progress at fourteen miles, and +encamped about four o'clock P. M., in a complete state of exhaustion. +Even our Indian guides demanded a halt; and what had, indeed, added to +our discouragements, was the uncertainty of their way, which they had +manifested. + +Our second night's repose in this swampy tract, was on ground just +elevated above the water; the mosquitos were so pertinacious at this +spot as to leave us but little rest. From information given by our +guides, this wide tract of morass constitutes the sources of the Akeek +Seebi, or Kettle River, which is one of the remotest sources of the +Mille Lac, and, through that body of water, of Rum River. It is visited +only by the Indians, at the proper season for trapping the beaver, +marten, and muskrat. During our transit through it, we came to open +spaces where the cranberry was abundant. In the same locality, we found +the ripe fruit, green berries, and blossoms of this fruit. + +It was five o'clock A. M. when we resumed our march through this +toilsome tract, and we passed out of it, after pressing forward with our +best might, during twelve hours. We had been observant of the perplexity +of our guides, who had unwittingly, we thought, plunged us into this +dreary and seemingly endless morass, and were rejoiced, on a sudden, to +hear them raise loud shouts. They had reached a part of the country +known to them, and took this mode to express their joy, and we soon +found ourselves on the banks of a small clear stream, called by them +Bezhiki Seebi, or Buffalo Creek, a tributary to Sandy Lake. We had, at +length, reached waters flowing into the Mississippi. On this stream we +prepared to encamp, in high spirits, feeling, as those are apt to who +have long labored at an object, a pleasure in some measure proportioned +to the exertions made. + +Any other people but the Indians would feel ill at ease in dreary +regions like these. But these sons of the forest appear to carry all +their socialities with them, even in the most forbidding solitudes. They +are so familiarized with the notions of demons and spirits, that the +wildest solitude is replete with objects of hope and fear. We had +evidence of this, just before we encamped on the banks of the Bezhiki, +when we came to a cleared spot, which had been occupied by what the +Canadians, with much force, call a _jonglery_, or place of necromantic +ceremonies of their priests or jossakeeds. There were left standing of +this structure six or eight smooth posts of equal length, standing +perpendicularly. These had been carefully peeled, and painted with a +species of ochrey clay. The curtains of bark, extending between them, +and isolating the powow, or operator, had been removed; but the +precincts had the appearance of having been carefully cleared of brush, +and the ground levelled, for the purposes of these sacred orgies, which +exercise so much influence on Indian society. + +We were awaked in our encampment, between four and five o'clock, the +next morning, by a shower of rain. Jumping up, and taking our customary +meal of jerked beef and biscuit, we now followed our guides, with +alacrity, over a dry and uneven surface, towards Sandy Lake. We had now +been three days in accomplishing the traverse over this broad and +elevated, yet sphagnous summit, separating the valley of the St. Louis +of Lake Superior from that of the Upper Mississippi. As we approached +the basin of Sandy Lake, we passed over several sandy ridges, bearing +the white and yellow pine; the surface and its depressions bearing the +wild cherry, poplar, hazel, ledum latifolia, and other usual growth and +shrubs of the latitude. On the dry sandy tracts the uva ursi, or +kinnikinnik of the Indians, was noticed. In the mineral constitution of +the ridges themselves, the geologist recognizes that wide-spreading +drift-stratum, with boulders and pebbles of sienitic and hornblende, +quartz, and sandstone rock, which is so prevalent in the region. As we +approached the lake we ascended one of those sandy ridges which surround +it, and dashing our way through the dense underbrush, were gratified on +gaining its apex to behold the sylvan shores and islands of the lake, +with the trading-post and flag, seen dimly in the distance. The view is +preserved in the following outlines, taken on the spot. + +[Illustration: Sandy Lake, from an eminence north of the mouth of the +West Creek of the Portage of Savannah. 15th July, 1820.] + +I asked Chamees the Indian name of this lake. He replied, +Ka-metong-aug-e-maug. This is one of those compound terms, in their +languages, of which the particle _ka_ is affirmative. Metongaug, is the +plural form of sandy lake. Maug is the plural form of water, +corresponding, by the usual grammatical duality of meaning, to the +plural form of the noun. The word might, perhaps, be adopted in the form +of Kametonga. + +Having heard, on our passage through Lake Superior, that a gun fired in +the basin of Sandy Lake, could be heard at the fort, that experiment was +tried, while we sat down or sauntered about to await the result. Having +waited in vain, the shots were repeated. After the lapse of a long time, +a boat, with two men, was descried in the distance approaching. It +proved to be occupied by two young clerks of the trading establishment, +named Ashmun and Fairbanks. They managed to embark the elite of our +party, in their small vessel, and, as we crossed the lake, amused us +with an account of the excitement our shots had caused. Some Indian +women affirmed to them that they had heard warwhoops, and to make sure +that a Sioux war party were not upon them, they drove off their cattle +to a place of safety. In the actual position of affairs, the hunt being +over for the year, and the avails being sent to Michilimackinac (for +this was the head-quarters of the factor whom we had met at Shelldrake +River), the probabilities of its being a hunting party were less. We +informed them that we were an advance party of an expedition sent out to +explore the sources of the Mississippi River, under the personal order +of his Excellency Governor Cass, who was urging his way up the St. Louis +to the Savanna Portage, through which he intended to descend into Sandy +Lake. + +It was near sunset before we landed at the establishment. We found the +trading fort a stockade of squared pine timber, thirteen feet high, and +facing an area a hundred feet square, with bastions pierced for musketry +at the southeast and northwest angles. There were three or four acres +outside of one of the angles, picketed in, and devoted to the culture of +potatoes. The stockade inclosed two ranges of buildings. This is the +post visited by Lieut. Z. Pike, U. S. A., on snow-shoes, and with +dog-trains, in the winter of 1806, when it was occupied by the British +northwest trading company. As a deep mantle of snow covered the country, +it did not permit minute observations on the topography or natural +history; and there have been no explorations since. Pike's chief error +was in placing the source of the Mississippi in Turtle Lake--a mistake +which is due entirely, it is believed, to the imperfect or false maps +furnished him by the chief traders of the time. + +We were received with all the hospitality possible, in the actual state +of things, and with every kindness; and for the first time, since +leaving Detroit, we slept in a house. We were informed that we were now +within two miles of the Mississippi River, into which the outlet of +Sandy Lake emptied itself, and that we were five hundred miles above the +Falls of St. Anthony. We had accomplished the transference of position +from the head of the basin of Lake Superior, that is, from the foot of +the falls of the St. Louis River, in seven days, by a route, too, +certainly one of the worst imaginable, and there can be no temerity in +supposing that it might be effected in light canoes in half that time. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Reunion of the expedition on the Savanna Portage--Elevation of this + summit--Descent to Sandy Lake--Council with the Chippewa + tribe--Who are they?--Traits of their history, language, and + customs--Enter the Mississippi, with a sub-exploring party, and + proceed in search of its source--Physical characteristics of the + stream at this place--Character of the Canadian voyageur! + + +On rising on the next morning (14th July), our minds were firmly set, at +the earliest moment, to rejoin the main expedition, which had been +toiling its way up the St. Louis River to the Savanna Portage. And as +soon as we had dispatched our breakfast at the Post, we set out, +accompanied by one of the trading clerks, for that noted carrying place +between the waters of the St. Louis and Sandy Lake. We reached its +northwestern terminus at about twelve o'clock, and were surprised to +find Gov. Cass, with some of his party, and a part of the baggage, +already there; and by five o'clock in the afternoon the last of the +latter, together with the canoes, arrived. And it was then, in the +exhausted state of the men, and at so late an hour, concluded to encamp, +and await the morning to commence the descent of the west Savannè to the +lake. + +The expedition had, after we left them at the Portage aux Coteaux on the +10th, and being thus relieved of our weight, urged its way up the river, +with labor, about fifty-six miles, to the inlet of the east Savannè, +having surmounted, in this distance, rapids of the aggregate estimated +height of two hundred and twelve feet, which occupied two days. They +then ascended the Savannè twenty-four miles, rising eighteen feet. The +portage, from water to water, is six miles. It commences in a tamarak +swamp, from which the bog, in a dry season, has been burnt off, leaving +the path a mass of mire. Trees and sticks have, from time to time, been +laid in this to walk on, which it requires the skill of a balancing +master to keep. For the distance of three _pozes_ [pauses] this is the +condition of the path; afterwards, the footing becomes dry, and there +are ascending sand ridges, which are easily crossed. + +Dr. Wolcott, to whom I had handed my geological note-book, made the +following observations. "We left the vertical strata of slate, about two +miles above the Portage aux Coteaux. They were succeeded by rocks of +hornblende, which continued the whole distance to the head of the Grand +Rapid. These rocks were only to be observed in the bed of the river, and +appeared to be much water-worn, and manifestly out of place. Soon after +we left the Portage aux Coteaux, the hills receded from the river, and +its banks for the rest of the way were generally low, often alluvial, +and always covered with a thick growth of birch, elm, sugar-tree (acer +saccharinum), and the whole tribe of pines, with an almost impenetrable +thicket of underbrush. + +"The appearances of this day (11th) have been similar to those of +yesterday, except that the country bordering the river became entirely +alluvial, and the poplar became the predominating growth, while the +evergreen almost entirely disappeared. The rocks were seldom visible, +except upon the rapids, and then only in the bed of the river, and were +entirely composed of hornblende, all out of place, and exhibiting no +signs of stratification, but evidently thrown confusedly together by the +force of the current. + +"The Savannè River is about twenty yards broad at its junction with the +St. Louis, but soon narrows to about half the breadth, which it retains +until it forks at the distance of about twelve miles from its mouth. Its +whole course runs through a low marshy meadow, the timbered land +occasionally reaching to the banks of the river, but generally keeping a +distance of about twenty rods on either side. The meadow is, for the +most part, covered with tufts of willow and other shrubs, common to +marshes. The woods, which skirt it, are of the same kinds observed on +the preceding days, except that a species of small oak frequently +appears among it. The river becomes so narrow towards its head, that it +is with great difficulty canoes can make their way through its windings; +and the portage commences a mile or two from its source, which is in a +tamarak swamp." + +The height of land between the east and west Savannè, Dr. Wolcott +estimates at about thirty feet. Adding to this elevation the estimates +of Capt. Douglass, before mentioned, the entire elevation between the +foot of the falls of the St. Louis and the apex of this summit is three +hundred and sixty-eight feet.[64] + + [64] For heights and distances, _vide_ Appendix. + +Having exchanged congratulations, and recited to each other the little +personal incidents which had marked our respective tracks of entry into +the country, we passed the night on the sources of this little stream; +and the next morning, at five o'clock, began its descent. It is a mere +brook, only deep enough, at this spot, to embark the canoes, and two men +to manage them. At the distances of four, and of twelve miles, there are +rapids, where half the loads are carried over portages. At the foot of +the latter rapid, there is a tributary called Ox Creek, and from this +point to the lake, a distance of six miles, the navigation is +practicable with full loads. We entered the lake with pleasurable +feelings, at the accomplishment of our transit over this summit, and +after a passage of three miles over the calm and sylvan surface of the +lake, the expedition reached and landed at the company's fort. It was +now four o'clock in the afternoon of a most serene day, and the Indians, +who were gathered on the shores, received us with a salute _a la mode de +savage_, that is, with balls fired over our heads. Quarters were +provided in the fort for such as did not prefer to lodge in tents. +Understanding that there was to be a day's rest at this post, to +reorganize the party, and hold intercourse with the Indians, each one +prepared to make such use of his time as best subserved his purposes. +Finding my baggage had been wetted and damaged on the portages in the +ascent of the St. Louis, I separated the moulded and ruined from things +still worth saving, and drying the latter in the sun, prepared them for +further use. + +On the day after our arrival (16th) a council of the Indians--the +Chippewas--was convened. The principal chiefs were Kadewabedas,[65] or +Broken Teeth, and Babisekundeba,[66] or the Curly Head. This tribe, it +appears, are conquerors in the country, having at an early, or +ante-historical age, advanced from Lake Superior, driving back the +Sioux. The war between these two tribes is known to have existed since +the first entry of the French into the country--then a part of New +France--early in the seventeenth century. Gov. Cass proposed to them to +enter into a firm peace with the Sioux, and to send a delegation with +him to St. Peter's, on his return from the sources of the Mississippi. +To this they assented. Speeches were made by the Indians, which it is +not my purpose to record, as they embraced nothing beyond the ordinary, +every-day style of the native speakers. + + [65] From _ka_, an affirmative particle; _webeed_, teeth; and _eda_, + a transitive objective inflection. + + [66] _Ba_, a repeating particle; _besaw_, fine, curly; and _kundib_, + the human head. + +It was determined to encamp the heavy part of the expedition at this +place, and to organize a sub-expedition of two light canoes, well +manned, to explore the sources of the Mississippi River. While these +arrangements are in progress, it may be proper to state something more +respecting the condition and history of the Chippewa nation. And first, +they are Algonquins, having migrated, at ante-Cartierian[67] periods, +from the vicinity of Lake Nippesing, on the Outawis summit. Anterior to +this, their own traditions place them further eastward, and their +language bears evidence that the stock from which they are sprung, +occupied the Atlantic from the Chesapeake, extending through New +England. The name Chippewa is derived from the term Ojibwa. The latter +has been variously, but not satisfactorily derived. The particle _bwa_, +in the language, signifies voice. They are a well-formed, active race of +men, and have the reputation of being good hunters and warriors. They +possess the ordinary black shining eyes, black straight hair, and +general physiological traits of the Indian race; and do not differ, +essentially, from the northern tribes in their manners and customs. +Pike, who was the first American officer to visit them, in this region, +estimates the whole number seated on the Upper Mississippi, and +northwest of Lake Superior, in the year 1806, at eleven thousand one +hundred and seventy-seven. This estimate includes the entire population, +extending south to the St. Croix and Chippewa valleys, below St. +Anthony's Falls. It is believed to be much too high, for which it can be +plead in extenuation, that it was the rough estimate of foreign traders, +who were interested in exalting their importance to the United States. +Certain it is, there are not more than half the numbers, in this region, +at present. The number which he assigns to the Sandy Lake band is three +hundred and forty-five. + + [67] Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence in 1534. + +The Chippewas of the Upper Mississippi are, in fact, the advanced band +of the widespread Algonquin family, who, after spreading along the +Atlantic from Virginia, as far as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, have +followed up the great chain of lakes, to this region, leaving tribes of +more or less variation of language on the way. There may have been a +thousand years, or more, expended on this ethnological track, and the +names by which they were, at various ages and places, known, are only +important as being derivatives from a generic stock of languages whose +radicals are readily recognized. Furthest removed, in the line of +migration, appear the Mohicans, Lenno Lenawpees, Susquehannocks, and +Powatans, and their congeners. The tribes of this continent appear, +indeed, to have been impelled in circles, resembling the whirlwinds +which have swept over its surface; and, so far as relates to the mental +power which set them in motion, the comparison also holds good, for the +effects of their migrations appear, everywhere, to have been war and +destruction. One age appears to produce no wiser men than another. +Having no mode of recording knowledge, experience dies with the +generation who felt it, all except the doubtful and imprecise data of +tradition; and this is little to be trusted, after a century or two. For +the matter of exact history, they might as well trace themselves to the +moon, as some of their mythological stories do, as to any other planet, +or part of a planet. Of their language, the only certainly reliable +thing in their history, a vocabulary is given in the Appendix. To the +ear, it appears flowing and agreeable, and not of difficult utterance; +and there is abundant reason, on beholding how readily they express +themselves, for the plaudits which the early French writers bestowed on +the Algonquin language. + +We observed the custom of these Indians of placing their dead on +scaffolds. The corpse is carefully wrapped in bark, and then elevated on +a platform made by placing transverse pieces in forks of trees, or on +posts, firmly set in the ground. This custom is said to have been +borrowed by the Chippewas, of this quarter, from the Dacotahs or Sioux. +When they bury in the ground, which is the general custom, a roof of +bark is put over the deceased. This inclosure has an aperture cut in it +at the head, through which a dish of food is set for the dead. Oblations +of liquor are also sometimes made. This ancient custom of offering food +and oblations to the dead, reminds the reader of similar customs among +some of the barbarous tribes of the oriental world. We noticed also +symbolic devices similar to those seen at Huron River or Lake Superior, +inscribed on posts set at the head of Indian graves. It seems to be the +prime object of these inscriptions to reveal the family name, or +_totem_, as it is called, of the deceased, together with devices +denoting the number of times he has been in battle, and the number of +scalps he has taken. As this test of bravery is the prime object of an +Indian's life, the greatest efforts are made to attain it. + +A word may be said as to the climate and soil of this region, and their +adaptation to the purposes of agriculture. By the tables of temperature +annexed (_vide_ Appendix), the mean solar heat, in the shade, during the +time of our being in the country, is shown to be 67°. It is evident that +it is the idle habits of the Indians, and no adverse circumstances of +climate or soil, that prevent their raising crops for their subsistence. + +Arrangements for a light party to ascend the Mississippi, and seek for +its sources, having been made, we left Sandy Lake, in two canoes, at +nine o'clock in the morning on the 17th. This party, in addition to his +Excellency Gov. Cass, consisted of Dr. Alex. Wolcott, Capt. Douglass, +Lieut. Mackay, Maj. Forsyth, and myself, with nineteen voyageurs and +Indians, provisioned for twelve days. A voyage of about a mile across +the western prolongation of the lake, brought us to its outlet--a wide +winding stream, with a very perceptible current, and rich alluvial +banks, bearing a forest. After pursuing it some mile and a half, we +descended a small rapid, where the average descent of water in a short +distance may be perhaps three feet; it appeared, however, to give the +men no concern, for they urged their way down it, with full strength of +paddle and song, and we soon found ourselves in the Mississippi. The +first sight of this stream reminded me of one of its striking +characteristics, at far lower points, namely, its rapidity. Its waters +are slightly turbid, with a reddish tint. Its width, at this point, as +denoted by admeasurements subsequently made,[68] is three hundred and +thirty-one feet. Its banks are alluvial and of a fertile aspect, bearing +a forest of oaks, maples, elms, ash, and pines, with a dense undergrowth +of shrubbery. I observed a species of polyganum in the water's edge, and +wherever we attempted to land it was miry and the borders wet and damp. +We were now, from our notes, a hundred and forty-seven miles due west of +the head of Lake Superior, by the curved lines of travelling, and +probably one hundred in an air line; and had struck the channel of the +Mississippi, not less, by the estimates, than two thousand five hundred +miles above its mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. It could not, from the very +vague accounts we could obtain from the traders, originate, at the +utmost, more than three hundred miles higher, and our Canadian voyageurs +turned up the stream, with that Troubadour air, or _gaite de cour_, +keeping time with song and paddle, with which New France had at first +been traversed by its Champlains, Marquettes, and Frontenacs. To conquer +distance and labor, at the same time, with a song, has occurred to no +other people, and if these men are not happy, in these voyages, they, at +least, have the semblance of it, and are merry. To keep up this flow of +spirits, and bravery of capacity in demolishing distances, they always +overrate the per diem travel, which, as I have before observed, is put +about one-third too high--that is to say, their league is about two +miles. On we went, at this rapid rate, stopping every half hour to rest +five minutes. During this brief rest, their big kettle of boiled corn +and pork was occasionally brought forward, and dipped in, with great +fervency of spoon; but, whether eating or working, they were always gay, +and most completely relieved from any care of what might happen +to-morrow. For the mess kettle was ever most amply supplied, and not +according to the scanty pattern which these couriers de bois often +encounter in the Indian trade on these summits, when they are sometimes +reduced to dine on tripe de Roche and sup on buton de rose; but they +bore in mind that their employer, namely, Uncle Sam, was a full-handed +man, and they kept up a most commendable mental balance, by at once +eating strong and working strong. + + [68] Expedition to Hasca Lake in 1832. + +During the first twenty-seven miles, above the inlet of Sandy Lake, we +passed six small rapids, at distances of three, four, three, one, five, +and eleven miles, where the river sinks its level twenty-nine feet, in +the estimated aggregate distance of seven hundred yards.[69] Above the +latter, extending twenty miles, to the point of our encampment, there is +no perceptible rapid. It was eight o'clock when we encamped, having been +eleven hours in our canoes, without stretching our legs, and we had +ascended forty-six miles. + + [69] _Vide_ Appendix--Elevations. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + Proceed up the Mississippi River--Its velocity and character--Swan + River--Trout River, and Mushkoda or Prairie River--Rapids + ascended--Reach, and make a portage around Pakagama Falls--Enter a + vast lacustrine region--Its character and productions, vegetable + and animal--Tortuous channel--Vermilion and Deer Rivers--Leech + Lake branch--Lake Winnipek--Ascent of the river to Upper Red + Cedar, or Cass Lake--Physical character of the Mississippi River. + + +Our encampment was near the mouth of Swan River, a considerable stream, +originating in Swan Lake, near the head of the St. Louis River of Lake +Superior. + +We had been pushing our way, daily, up to our arrival at Sandy Lake; but +the word, from leaving that point, was, emphatically, push--and we can +hardly be said to have taken proper time to eat or sleep. There was a +shower of rain, during the night; it ceased at four o'clock, and we +again embarked at five, in a cloudy and misty morning, and it continued +cloudy all day. The current of the Mississippi continues to be strong; +its velocity, during the ascent of this day, was computed by Capt. +Douglass at two and a half miles per hour. We passed a rapid about six +miles below Trout River, where there is a computed descent of three feet +in a hundred and fifty yards. A few miles before reaching Trout River, +we passed through a forest of dead pines, occupying ridges of sand, +through which the river has cut its way. Four miles above the entrance +of Trout River, we passed the mouth of a considerable stream, called by +the Chippewas Mushkoda, or Prairie River, and encamped about five +hundred yards above its mouth on a high sandy elevation. It was now +eight o'clock P.M. We had ascended the river fifty-one miles, having +been fifteen hours in our canoes, and we here first took our breakfast. +This severity of fasting was, I think, quite unintentional, the +mess-basket being in the other canoe, which kept ahead of us the entire +day. We had this day observed specimens of the Unio and some other +species of fresh-water shells along the shore. And of birds, besides the +duck, plover, and loon, which frequent the water, we noticed the thrush, +robin, blackbird, and crow. The comparative coolness of the day rendered +the annoyance from mosquitos less severe than we had found them the +preceding day. The night on this sandy and bleak elevation proved cool, +with a heavy dew, which resulted in a dense fog in the morning. We found +ice on the bottoms of the canoes, which are turned up at night, of the +thickness of a knife-blade. + +Our third day's ascent witnessed no diminution of the strength and +alacrity with which our canoemen urged our way up the stream. We were +off betimes, in a lowering and dense atmosphere, which obscured objects. +After advancing some six miles, there are a series of small rapids, +which are, taken together, called Ka-ka-bi-ka,[70] where I estimated the +river to sink its level sixteen feet, in a short distance; at none of +these is the navigation, however, impeded. The rock stratification +appears too compact for sand-rock, and is obscured by contiguous +boulders, which are indicative of the strong drift-formation, which has +spread from the north and east over this region. Four miles after +ascending the last of the Kakabika Rapids, we landed at the foot of the +Pakagama Falls. Here the lading was immediately put ashore, the canoes +landed, and the whole carried over an Indian portage path of two hundred +and seventy-five yards. This delay afforded an opportunity to view the +falls. The Mississippi, at this point, forces its way through a +formation of quartzy rock, during which it sinks its level, as +estimated, twenty feet, in a distance of about three hundred yards. +There is no perceptible cascade or abrupt fall, but the river rushes +with the utmost velocity down a highly inclined rocky bed towards the +northeast. It forms a complete interruption to navigation, and must, +hereafter, be the terminus of the navigation of that class of small +steamboats which may be introduced above the Falls of St. Anthony. The +general elevation of the geological stratum at the top of this fall must +be but little under fourteen hundred feet above the Gulf of Mexico.[71] +This summit bears a growth of the yellow pine. I observed, amongst the +shrubs, the vaccinium dumosum. Immediately above the falls is a small +rocky island, bearing a growth of spruce and cedars, being the first +island noticed above Sandy Lake. This island parts the channel into two, +at the precise point of its precipitation. On coming to the head of +these falls, we appear to have reached a vast geological plateau, +consisting of horizontal deposits of clay and drift on the nucleus of +granitical and metamorphic rocks, which underlie the sources of the +Mississippi River. The vast and irregular bodies of water called Leech +Lake, Winnipek, and Cass Lakes, together with a thousand lesser lakes of +a mile or two in circumference, lie on this great diluvial summit. These +lakes spread east and west over a surface of not less than two hundred +miles; most of them are connected with channels of communication forming +a tortuous and intricate system of waters, only well known to the +Indians; and there seems the less wonder that the absolute and most +remote source of the Mississippi has so long remained a matter of doubt. + + [70] From _ka_, a particle affirmative of an adverse quality, + _aubik_, rock, and _ons_, a diminutive inflection. + + [71] Mr. Nicollet places the summit of the falls at 1,340 feet above + the Gulf. + +By the time we had well seen the falls, and made some sketches and +notes, the indefatigable canoemen announced our baggage all carried over +the portage, and the canoes put into the water. Embarking, at this +point, we found the river had lost its velocity; it was often difficult +to determine that it had any current at all. We wound about, by a most +tortuous channel, through savannas where coarse species of grass, flags, +reeds, and wild rice struggled for the mastery. The whole country +appeared to be one flat surface, where the sameness of the objects, the +heat of the weather, and the excessively serpentine channel of the +river, conspired to render the way tedious. The banks of the river were +but just elevated above these illimitable fields of grass and aquatic +plants. In these banks the gulls had their nests, and as they were +disturbed they uttered deafening screams. Water-fowl were intruded upon +at every turn, the blackbird and rail chattered over their clusters of +reeds and cat-tails; the falcon screamed on high, as he quietly sailed +above our heads, and the whole feathered creation appeared to be +decidedly intruded on by our unwonted advance into the great watery +plateau, to say nothing of the small and unimportant class of reptiles +who inhabit the region. + +Forty miles above the falls, the River Vermilion flows in through these +savannas on the left hand; and three miles higher the Deer River is +tributary on the right hand. We ascended six miles above the latter, and +encamped in a dry prairie, on the same side, at a late hour. The men +reported themselves to have travelled sixteen leagues, notwithstanding +their detention on the Pakagama Portage. How far we had advanced, in a +direct line, is very questionable. At one spot, we estimated ourselves +to have passed, by the river's involutions, nine miles, but to have +advanced directly but one mile. I noticed, on the meadow at this spot, a +small and very delicious species of raspberry, the plant not rising +higher than three or four inches. This species, of which I preserved +both the roots and fruit, I referred to Dr. J. Torrey, of New York, who +pronounced it the Rebus Nutkanus of Moçino--a species found by this +observer in the Oregon regions. It is now known to occur eastwardly, to +upper Michigan. As night approached on these elevated prairies, we +observed for the first time the fire-fly. + +The next morning (20th) we were again in motion at half-past five +o'clock. It had rained during the night, and the morning was cloudy, +with a dense fog. At the distance of ten miles, we passed the Leech Lake +River. This is a very considerable river, bringing in, apparently, +one-third as much water as the main branch. It is, however, but fifty +miles in length, and is merely the outlet of the large lake bearing that +name. It was thought the current of the Mississippi denoted greater +velocity above this point, while the water exhibited greater clearness. +We had still the same savanna regions, with a serpentine channel to +encounter. Through this the men urged their way for a distance of +thirty-five miles, when Winnipek Lake displayed itself before us. The +waters of this lake have a whitish, slightly turbid aspect, after the +prevalence of storms, which appears to reveal its shallowness, with a +probably whitish clay bottom. The Chippewa name of Winnebeegogish[72] +is, indeed, derivative from this circumstance. This lake is stated to be +ten miles in its greatest length. We crossed it transversely in order to +strike the inlet of the Mississippi, and encamped on the other side. In +this transit we met a couple of Indian women in a canoe, who, being +interrogated by the interpreter, stated that they came to observe +whether the wild rice, which is quite an item of the Indian subsistence +in this quarter, was matured enough to be tied into clusters for beating +out. We estimated our advance this day, by the time denoted by the +chronometer, at fifty-one miles. + + [72] From _weenud_, dirty, _beegog_, waters, and _ish_, a derogative + inflection of nouns. + +We were again in our canoes the next morning at half-past four o'clock. +In coasting along the north shores of Winnipek Lake, an object of limy +whiteness attracted our attention, which turned out to be a small island +composed of granitical and other boulders, which had served as the +resting-place of birds, for which the region above the Pakagama Falls is +so remarkable. On landing, a dead pelican was stretched on the surface. +We had not before observed this species on the river, and named the +island Shayta, from its Chippewa name. The buzzard, cormorant, brant, +eagle, and raven had hitherto constituted the largest species. Along the +shores of the river, the king-fisher and heron had been frequent +objects. With respect to the cormorant, it was observed that the Indians +classify it with the species of duck, their name for it, ka-ga-ge-sheeb, +signifying, literally, crow-duck. + +On again reaching the inlet of the Mississippi, its size and appearance +corresponded so exactly to its character below the Winnipek, that it had +evidently experienced but little or no change by passing through this +lake. The same width and volume were observed which it had below this +point; the same moderate velocity; the same borders of grassy savanna, +and the same tendency to redouble its length, by its contortions, +appeared. In some places, however, it approaches those extensive ridges +of sandy formation, bearing pines, which traverse, or rather bound, +these wide savannas. Through these channels the canoemen urged their +course with their usual alacrity--now stopping a few moments to breathe, +and then, striking their paddles again in the water with renewed vigor, +and often starting off with one of their animated canoe-songs. From +about eight o'clock in the morning till two in the afternoon we +proceeded up the winding thread of this channel, when the appearance of +a large body of water in the distance before us attracted attention. It +was the first glimpse we had of the upper Red Cedar Lake. The +Mississippi River here deploys itself in one of those large sheets of +pellucid water which are so characteristic of its sources. On reaching +the estuary at its entrance, a short halt was made. A large body of the +most transparent water spread out before us. Its outlines, towards the +south, were only bounded by the line of the horizon. In the distance +appeared the traces of wooded islands. If Sandy Lake had, on emerging +from the wilderness, impressed us with its rural beauty, this far +transcended it in the variety and extent of outlines, and that oceanic +amplitude of freshness, which so often inspires admiration in beholding +the interior American lakes. It was determined to cross a part of the +lake towards the north-east, in order to strike the site of an ancient +Indian village at the mouth of Turtle River; and under the influences of +a serene day, and one of their liveliest chants, the men pushed for that +point, which was reached at three o'clock in the afternoon of the 21st +July. The spot at which we landed was the verge of a green lawn, rising +in a short distance to a handsome eminence, crowned with oaks and +maples. One or two small log tenements stood on this slope occupied by +two Canadians in the service of the American Fur Company. Several +wigwams of bark and poles lifted their fragile conical forms on either +side. + +In one of these tenements, consisting of a small cabin of poles, +sheathed with bark, we found an object of human misery which excited our +sympathies. It was in the person of one of the Canadians, to whom +reference has been made, of the name of Montruille. He had, in the often +severe peregrinations of the fur trade in this quarter, been caught in a +snow-storm during the last winter, and frozen both his feet in so severe +a manner that they eventually sloughed off, and he could no longer stand +upright or walk. He lay on the ground in a most pitiable state of +dejection, with the stumps of his legs bound up with deer skins, with a +gray, long-neglected beard, and an aspect of extreme despair. English he +could not speak; and the French he uttered was but an abuse of the noble +gift of language to call down denunciations on those who had deserted +him, or left him thus to his fate. A rush mat lay under him. He had no +covering. He was emaciated to the last degree, every bone in his body +seemed visible through the skin. His cheeks were fallen in, and his eyes +sunk in their sockets, but darting a look of despair. His Indian wife +had deserted him. Food, of an inadequate quality, was occasionally +thrown in to him. Such were the accounts we received. Governor Cass +directed groceries, ammunition, and presents of clothing to be made to +him, to the latter of which, every member of the party added. He also +engaged a person to convey him to Sandy Lake. + +We examined the environs of the place with interest; the village +occupies the north banks of Turtle River Valley. Turtle River, which +cuts its way through this slope and plain, constitutes the direct line +of intercourse for the Indian trade, through Turtle and Red Lakes, to +the Red River Valley of Hudson's Bay. On inquiry, we learned that this +river had constituted the ancient Indian line of communication by canoes +and portages, from time immemorial, with that valley, the distance to +the extreme plateau, or summit, being about sixty miles. On this summit, +within a couple of miles of each other, lie Turtle and Red Lakes, the +one having its discharge into the Gulf of Mexico and the other into +Hudson's Bay. When Canada was settled by the French, this aboriginal +route was adopted. The fur companies of Great Britain, on coming into +possession of the country, after the fall of Quebec, 1759, followed the +same route. The factors of these companies told Lieutenant Pike, in +1806, at Sandy Lake and Leech Lake, that the Turtle portage was the only +practicable route of communication to the Red River, and that it was the +true source of the Mississippi; and they furnished him manuscript maps +of the country conformable to these views. The region has actually been +in possession of the Americans only since 1806, adopting the era of +Pike's visit. + +By inquiry from the Chippewa Indians at this village, sanctioned by the +Canadian authorities, we are informed that the Mississippi falls into +the south end of Cass Lake, at the distance of eight or ten miles; that +it reaches that point from the west, by a series of sharp rapids +stretching over an extent of about forty miles from a large lake;[73] +and that this celebrated stream originates in Lac la Biche, about six +days' journey from our present position, and has many small lakes, +rapids, and falls. It is further asserted by the Indians, that the water +in these remote streams, and upon these rapids, is at all times +shallow, but it is particularly so this season; and that it is not +practicable to reach these remote sources of the river with boats, or +large canoes of the size we have. + + [73] Called Andrúsia. Expedition to Starca Lake in 1837. + +On submitting these facts to the gentlemen composing his party, Governor +Cass asked each one to give his views, beginning with the youngest, and +to express his opinion on the feasibility of further explorations. They +concurred in opinion that, in the present low state of the water on +these summits, considering the impossibility of ascending them with our +present craft, and in the actual state of our provisions, such an +attempt was impracticable. Thereon, he announced his decision to rejoin +our party at Sandy Lake, and to pursue the exploration of the river down +its channel to the Falls of St. Anthony, to the inlet of the Wisconsin +and Fox Rivers, and to return into the great lake basins, and complete +their circumnavigation. + +Having reached the ultimate geographical point visited by the +expedition, I thought it due to the energy and enlightened zeal of the +gentleman who had led us, to mark the event by naming this body of water +in my journal Cassina, or Cass Lake. There was the more reason for this +in the nomenclature of the geography of the upper Mississippi, by +observing that it embraces another Red Cedar Lake. The latitude of upper +Red Cedar, or Cass Lake, is placed by Pike at 47° 42´40´´.[74] Its +distance above Sandy Lake, by the involutions of the river, is two +hundred and seventy miles, and from Fond du Lac, at the head of Lake +Superior, by the travelled route, four hundred and thirty miles. It is +situated seventeen degrees north of the Gulf of Mexico, from which it is +computed to be distant two thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight +geographical miles. Estimating the distance to the actual origin of the +river, as determined at a subsequent period, at one hundred and +eighty-two miles above Cass Lake, the length of the Mississippi River is +shown to be three thousand one hundred and sixty miles,[75] making a +direct line over the earth's surface of more than half the distance from +the arctic circle to the equator. It may also be observed of the +Mississippi, that its sources lie in a region of snows and +long-continued winter, while it enters the ocean under the latitude of +perpetual verdure; and at last, as if disdaining to terminate its career +at the ordinary point of embouchure of other large rivers, has protruded +its banks into the Gulf of Mexico, more than a hundred miles beyond any +other part of the main. To have visited both the source and the mouth of +the stream has fallen to the lot of but few, and I believe there is no +person living beside myself of whom the remark can be made. On the tenth +of July, 1819, I passed out of the mouth of the Mississippi in a brig +bound for New York, after descending it in a steamboat from St. Louis, +but little thinking I should soon visit its waters, yet, on the +twenty-first of July of the following year, I reached its sources in +this lake. + + [74] Nicollet, in the report of his exploration of 1836, places it in + 47° 25´ 23´´. + + [75] _Vide_ Expedition to Stasca Lake in 1832. + +In deciding upon the physical character of the Mississippi River, it may +be advantageously considered under four natural divisions, as indicated +by permanent differences in its geological and physical character--its +vegetable productions, and its velocity and general hydrographical +character. Originating in a region of lakes upon the table-lands which +throw their waters north into Hudson's Bay, south into the Gulf of +Mexico, and east into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it pursues its course +south to the Falls of Pakagama, a distance of two hundred and thirty +miles, through natural meadows or savannas covered with wild rice, +rushes, reeds and coarse grasses, and aquatic plants. During the +distance, it is extremely devious in its course and width, often +expanding into lakes which connect themselves through a vast system of +reticulated channels. Leech Lake, Cass Lake, and Lake Andrúsia would +themselves be regarded as small interior seas, were they on any other +part of the continent but that which develops Superior, Michigan, Huron, +Erie, and Ontario. Its velocity through the upper plateau is but little, +and it affords every facility for the breeding of water fowl and the +small furred quadrupeds, the favorite reliance of a nomadic population. + +At the Falls of Pakagama, the first rock stratum and the first wooded +island is seen. Here the river has an aggregate fall of twenty feet, and +from this point to St. Anthony's Falls, a distance of six hundred miles, +it exhibits its second characteristic division. The granitical and +metamorphic rocks, which support the vast plateaux and beds of draft of +its sources, are only apparent above this point, in boulders. The +permanent strata are but barely concealed at several rapids below the +Pakagama, but appear plainly below the influx of the De Corbeau, at Elk +River, Little Falls, and near Sac River. And this system of rock is +succeeded, before reaching the Falls of St. Anthony, by the horizonal +white sand rock and its superior limestone series of the carboniferous +formation. + +Vegetation is developed as the river descends towards the south. A +forest of maples, elm, oak, ash, and birch, is interspersed with spruce, +birch, poplar, and pine above the Pakagama, and continues, in favorable +positions, throughout this division. The black walnut is first seen +below Sandy Lake, and the sycamore below the River De Corbeau. The river +in this division has numerous well-wooded islands; its velocity is a +striking feature; it abounds with rapids, none of which, however, oppose +serious obstacles to its navigation. Agreeably to memoranda kept,[76] it +has fifty-six distinct rapids, including the Little and Big Falls, in +all of which the river has an aggregate estimated descent of two hundred +and twenty-four feet, within a distance of fourteen thousand six hundred +and forty yards, or about eight miles. The mean fall of the current, +exclusive of these rapids, may be computed at nearly six inches per +mile. + + [76] _Vide_ Appendix. + +The course of the river, below the Falls of Pakagama, is still +serpentine, but strikingly less so than above, and its bends are not so +short and abrupt. The general course of this river, till it reaches the +rock formation of Pakagama, is from the west. Thence, to Sandy Lake +inlet, it flows generally southeast; from this point to the inlet of the +De Corbeau or Crow Wing, it is deflected to the southwest; thence almost +due south, to the mouth of the Watab River; and thence again southeast +to the Falls of St. Anthony. A geographical line dropped from the inlet +of Sandy Lake, where the channel is first deflected to the southwest, to +St. Anthony's Falls, or the mouth of the St. Peter's,[77] forms a vast +bow-shaped area of prairie and forest lands of high agricultural +capabilities, whose future products must be carried to a market through +the Fond du Lac of Lake Superior. These prairies and grove lands, which +cannot square less than two by four hundred miles, constitute the +ancient area of the Issati,[78] and are now the resort of great herds of +the buffalo, elk, and deer; and it is a region known as the predatory +border, or battle-ground of the Chippewas and Dacotas. + + [77] Now called Minnesota River. + + [78] _Vide_ Hennepin. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + Physical traits of the Mississippi--The elevation of its sources--Its + velocity and mean descent--Etymology of the name + Mississippi--Descent of the river to Sandy Lake, and thence to the + Falls of St. Anthony--Recross the great Bitobi Savanna--Pakagama + formation--Description of the voyage from Sandy Lake to Pine + River--Brief notices of the natural history. + + +The third geographical division in which it is proposed to consider the +Mississippi, begins at the Falls of St. Anthony. Within half a day's +march, before reaching this point from its sources, the primitive and +crystallized, and the altered and basaltic rocks are succeeded by the +great limestone and sandstone horizontal series of the carboniferous, +magnesian, and metalliferous rocks, which constitute by themselves so +extraordinary a body of geological phenomena. Entering on the level of +the white sandstone stratum, which is fundamental in this column, about +the inlet of Rum River, the Mississippi urges its way over a gently +inclining bed of this rock, to the brink of this cataract, where it +drops perpendicularly about sixteen feet; but the whole descent of its +level from the head to the foot of the portage path, cannot be less than +double that height. + +The river, at this point, enters a valley which is defined by rocky +cliffs, which attain various elevations from one to three hundred feet, +presenting a succession of picturesque or sublime views. In some places +these cliffs present a precipitous and abrupt façade, washed by the +current. In far the greatest number of cases, the eminence has lost its +sharp angles through the effects of frosts, rains, and elemental action, +leaving a slope of debris at the foot. As the river descends, it +increases in volume and in the extent of its alluvions. These form, in +an especial manner, its characteristic features from St. Anthony's Falls +to the junction of the Missouri, a distance of not less than eight +hundred miles. The principal tributaries which it receives in this +distance, are, on the right, the St. Peter's, Upper and Lower Iowa, +Turkey River, Desmoines, and Salt Rivers; and, on the left, the St. +Croix, Chippewa, Wisconsin, Rock River, and the Illinois. One hundred +miles below St. Anthony, it expands for a distance of twenty-four miles +into the sylvan sheet of Lake Pepin, at the foot of which it receives +the large volume of the Chippewa River, which originates on the sandy +tracts at the sources of the Wisconsin, Montreal, and Ontonagon; and it +is from this point that its continually widening channel exhibits those +innumerable and changing sand-bars, which so embarrass the navigation. +But in all this distance, it is only at the Desmoines and Rock River +rapids that any permanent serious impediment is found in its navigation, +with the larger craft. + +The fourth change in the physical aspect of this river, is at the +junction of the Missouri, and this is an almost total and complete one; +for this river brings down such a vast and turbid flood of commingled +earths and floating matter, that it characterizes this stream to its +entrance into the Gulf of Mexico. If its length of channel, velocity, +and other leading phenomena had been accurately known at an early day, +it should also have carried its name from this point to the ocean. Down +to this point, the Mississippi, at its summer phases, carries the +character of a comparatively clear stream. But the Missouri, which, from +its great length and remote latitude, has a summer freshet, flows in +with a flood so turbid and opaque, that it immediately communicates its +qualities and hue to the milder Mississippi. At certain seasons, the +struggle between the clear and turbid waters of the two streams can be +seen, at opposite sides of the river, at the distance of twenty or +thirty miles. Entire trees, sometimes ninety feet long, with their giant +arms, are swept down the current; and it is not unusual, at its highest +flood, to observe large, spongy masses of a species of pseudo pumice +carried into its channel, from some of its higher western tributaries. + +To such a moving, overpowering liquid mass, there are still, below the +Missouri, rocky banks, and occasionally isolated cliffs, to stand up and +resist its sweep; but its alluvions become wider and deeper opposite to +these rocky barriers. Its bends stretch over greater distances, and its +channel grows deeper at every accession of a tributary. The chief of +these, after passing the Missouri, are from the Rocky Mountains and +Ozark slopes, the St. Francis, White, Arkansas, and Red Rivers; and from +the other bank the Kaskaskia, the Ohio, Wolf, and Yazoo. It is estimated +to flow twelve hundred miles below the Missouri. Its width is about one +mile opposite St. Louis. It is narrower but more than twice the depth at +New Orleans, and yet narrower, because more divided, at its embouchure +at the Balize, where a bar prevents ships drawing over eighteen feet of +water from entering. + +No attempt has heretofore been made to determine the elevation of that +part of the American continent which gives rise to the Mississippi +River. From the observations made on the expedition, the elevation is +confessedly less than would _à priori_ be supposed. If it is not, like +the Nile, cradled among mountains, whose very altitude and position are +unknown, there is enough of the unknown about its origin to wish for +more information. Originating on a vast continental plateau, or +watershed, the superabundance of its waters are drained off by the three +greatest rivers of North America, namely, the St. Lawrence, the Nelson's +rivers of Hudson's Bay, and the Mississippi. Yet the apex of this height +of land is moderate, although its distance from the sea at either point +is immense. From the best data at command, I have endeavored to come at +the probable altitude of this plateau, availing myself at the same time +of the judgment of the several members of the expedition. Taking the +elevation of Lake Erie above tide-water, as instrumentally determined, +in the New York surveys, as a basis, we find Lake Superior lying at an +altitude of six hundred and forty-one feet above the Atlantic. From +thence, through the valley of the St. Louis, and across the Savanna +summit, to the Mississippi, at the confluence of the Sandy Lake River, +estimates noted on the route, indicate an aggregate rise of four hundred +and ninety feet. The ascent of the river, from this point to Cass Lake, +is estimated to be one hundred and sixty-two feet; giving this lake an +aggregate elevation of thirteen hundred and ninety-three feet above the +Atlantic. Barometrical admeasurements made in 1836, by Mr. Nicollet, in +the service of the United States Topographical Bureau, place the +elevation of this lake at fourteen hundred and two feet above the Gulf +of Mexico,[79] being just twelve feet above these early estimates. The +same authority estimates its length from the Balize, at twenty-seven +hundred and fifty miles. Its velocity below Cass Lake may be estimated +to result from a mean descent of a fraction over five inches per mile. + + [79] Senate Document No. 237, 26 Con. 2d Session, A. D. 1843. + +The name of the Mississippi River is derived from the Algonquin +language, through the medium of the French. The term appears first in +the early missionary letters from the west end of Lake Superior about +1660. Sippi, agreeably to the early French annotation of the word, +signifies a river. The prefixed word Missi is an adjective denoting all, +and, when applied to various waters, means the collected or assembled +mass of them. The compound term is then, properly speaking, an adverb. +Thus, Missi-gago, means all things; Missi-gago-gidjetod, He who has made +all things--the Creator. It is a superlative expression, of which great +river simply would be a most lean, impracticable, and inadequate +expression. It is only symbolically that it can be called the father of +American rivers, unless such sense occurs in the other Indian tongues. + +Finding it impracticable to proceed higher in the search of the remote +sources of the river at this time, a return from this point was +determined on. The vicinity had been carefully scanned for its drift +specimens, and fresh-water conchology. Wishing to carry along some +further memorial of the visit, members of the party cut walking-canes in +the adjoining thickets, and tied them carefully together; and at five +o'clock in the afternoon (21st July) we embarked on our descent. An +hour's voyage over the surface of this wide lake, with its refreshing +views of northern scenery, brought us to the point where the Mississippi +issues from it. Never did men ply their paddles with greater animation; +and having the descent now in their favor, they proceeded eighteen miles +before they sought for a spot to encamp. Twilight still served, with +almost the clearness of daylight, while we spread our tents on a +handsome eminence on the right-hand shore. Daylight had not yet dawned +the next morning, when we resumed the descent. It was eight o'clock A. +M. when we reached the border of Lake Winnipek. This name, by the way, +is derived from a term heretofore given, which, having the Chippewa +inflection of nouns in _ish_, graphically describes that peculiarity of +its waters created by the disturbance of a clay bottom. + +The winds were high and adverse, which caused the canoemen to toil two +hours in crossing. After reaching the river again, we passed its sedgy +borders, to, and through Rush Lake, or the Little Winnipek; then by the +inlet of Leech Lake River, and through the contortions of its channel, +to within a few miles of the spot of our encampment at Deer River, on +the 20th. + +The great savannas, through which the Mississippi winds itself above the +Pakagama, are called collectively, the Gatchi Betobeeg, Great Morasses, +or bog meadows. + +While descending the river, we encountered nine canoes filled with +Chippewa Indians and their families. They were freighted with heavy +rolls of birch-bark, such as their canoes are made from; together with +bundles of rushes designed for mats. The annoyance suffered from +mosquitos on this great plateau, was almost past endurance. We embarked +again at a quarter past four, and reached the Falls of Pakagama at five +o'clock. Just forty minutes were spent in making the portage. The rock +at this spot is quartzite. The day was cloudy, with some rain. As night +approached an animal, judged to be the wolverine, was seen swimming +across the stream. The efforts of the men to overtake it were +unavailing; it nimbly eluded pursuit, and dashed away into the thickets. +In some queries sent to me by the New York Lyceum, this animal is +alluded to as a species of the glutton. The Indians said there was no +animal in their country deserving this name; the only animal they knew +deserving of it, was the horse; which was eating all the time. We +encamped on an abrupt sandy bank, where, however, sleep was impossible. +Between the humidity of the atmosphere and the denseness of the foliage +around us, the insect world seemed to have been wakened into unusual +activity. Besides, we encamped so late, and were so jaded by a long +day's travel, that the mosquito-nets were neglected. To get up and stand +before a camp-fire at midnight and switch off the mosquitos, requires as +much philosophy as to write a book; and at any rate, ours completely +failed. We were again in our canoes (24th), at an early hour. Daylight +apprised us of the clearing up of the atmosphere, and brought us one of +the most delightful days. Animated by these circumstances, we descended +the stream with rapidity. Soon after midday, we entered and ascended +the short channel of the Sandy Lake River, and, by two o'clock in the +afternoon, we rejoined our camp at the Fur Company's Fort, having been +three days in descending a distance which had consumed four and a half +in the ascent. + +We were received with joy and acclamation by the Sandy Lake party, and +felicitated ourselves on the accomplishment of what had all along +appeared as the most arduous part of our route. Nor had we indeed, +overrated its difficulties; the incessant motion of travelling depriving +us of mature opportunities of observation, and also rest at night, the +stings of the mosquitos whenever we attempted to land, and the cravings +of an often unsatisfied appetite, had made this visit one of peculiar +privation and fatigue. Without such an effort, however, it is doubtful +whether the principal objects of the expedition could have been +accomplished. Nothing untoward had happened at the camp, no difficulty +had occurred with the Indians, and all the party were in good health. +Having left my thermometer with Mr. Doty, during my absence, the +observations made by him are denoted in the appendix. + +The following day was fixed on for our departure for the Falls of St. +Anthony. The distance to these falls is generally put by the traders at +from five to six hundred miles. These estimates denote, however, rather +the difficulties and time employed by days' journeys in the trade than +any other measurements.[80] Pike states the latitude some thirteen +minutes too far north. It is found to be 46° 47´ 10´´. It appears from +Lieut. Pike (_Expt._ p. 60), that the stockade at this place was erected +in 1794. Its elevation above the Gulf of Mexico is 1,253 feet. The soil +of the environs yields excellent potatoes, and such culinary vegetables +as have been tried. The mean temperature of July is denoted to be 73°. +The post is one of importance in the fur trade. It yields the deer, +moose, bear, beaver, otter, martin, muskrat, and some other species, +whose skins or pelts are valuable. + + [80] Nicollet, in his report to the Top. Bureau, in 1836, states the + direct distance from St. Peter's to Sandy Lake, at but 334 miles. + +It was twelve o'clock on the morning of the 25th, before we were ready +to embark. Our flotilla now consisted of three canoes, of the kind +called _Canoe-allege_ in the trade, and a barge occupied by the +military. To this array, the chief Babesakundiba, or the Curly Head, +added a canoe filled with Chippewa delegates, who accompanied him on a +mission of peace to the Sioux. This chief is the same individual who met +Lieut. Pike in this quarter, in 1806, and he appears to be a man of much +energy and decision of character. His reputation also gives him the +character of great skill, policy, and bravery in conducting the war +against the Sioux. Indian wars are not conducted as with us, by opposing +armies. It is altogether a guerilla affair. War parties are raised, +marched, fight, and disperse in a few days. The war is carried on +altogether by stealth and stratagem. Each one furnishes himself with +food and weapons. In such a warfare, there is great scope for individual +exploits and daring. In these wars the Curly Head had greatly +distinguished himself, and he was, therefore, an ambassador of no mean +power. In every view, the mission assumed an interesting character; and +we kept an eye on the chief's movements, on our journey down the river, +chiefly that we might notice the caution which is observed by the +Indians in entering an enemy's country. + +After entering the Mississippi, below Sandy Lake, the stream presents +very much the character it has above. It was below this point that we +first observed the juglans nigra in the forest. Its banks are diluvial +or alluvial formations, elevated from six to ten feet. The elm, maple, +and pine are common. There are some small grassy islands, with tufts of +willows, and driftwood lodged. No rock strata appear. The river winds +its way through vast diluvial beds, exhibiting at its rapids granitical, +quartz, and trappose boulders. It appears to glide wholly over the +primitive or crystalline rocks, which rise in some places through the +soil, or show themselves at rapids. The expedition descended the stream +twenty-eight miles, and encamped on a sandy elevation on the west shore, +near Alder River, which seemed to promise an exemption from the +annoyance of insects; but in this we were mistaken. In the hurry of a +late encampment, it had been omitted to pitch the tents. The first ill +effect of this was felt on being awakened at night by rain. A humid +atmosphere is ever the signal for awakening hordes of insects, and the +mosquitos became so troublesome that it was impossible to sleep at all +after the shower. We got up and whiled away the time as best we could +around the camp-fire. + +We embarked a few minutes before 5 A. M., the morning being lowering and +overcast, which eventuated in rain within an hour. The atmosphere +resumed its serenity, and the sun shone out at noon. The river, as on +the preceding day, has its course between alluvial and diluvial banks, +sweeping its way over the smooth orbicular beds of the granitical age. +The influx of rivers, the occurrence of islands, which bear witness of +their entire submersion during the freshets, and the succession of +bends, points, and rapids--these changes, with notices of the wild fowl, +forest birds, and sometimes a quadruped, or a mass of boulders, absorbed +my notices, which it seems unimportant, at this time, to refer to. No +fixed stratification of rocks was encountered this day. + +We encamped at about eight o'clock, on the east bank, on an open +eminence, just below the rapids which mark the confluence of Pine River, +having been in our canoes, with very brief and infrequent landings, +fifteen hours. At the points of landing, I observed the rosa parviflora, +and ipomea nil. As night approached, we heard the monotonous notes of +the caprimulgus virginianus. We had also observed during the day, the +bald eagle, king-fisher, turdus polyglottis, teal, plover, robin, and +pigeon. The nimble sciuris vulgaris was also observed on shore. Boulders +of sienite, hornblende rock, silicious slate, sandstone, and quartz, +served as so many monuments to testify that heavy oceanic currents had +heretofore disrupted the northern stratification, and poured down over +these long and gradual geological slopes. + +High and open as our position was on this eminence, our old friends the +mosquitos did not forget us. Even the Indians could not endure their +continued attacks. A fine fellow of our original auxiliaries, called +Iaba Waddik, or the Buck, took this occasion to give us a specimen of +his English, exclaiming, as he came to the camp-fire, "Tia![81] no +sneep!" putting the usual interchangeable _n_ of the tribe for the _l_ +in the noun. + + [81] An exclamation. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Description of the descent from Pine River--Pine tracts--Confluence of + the Crow-wing River--Enter a sylvan region--prairies and groves, + occupied by deer, elk, and buffalo--Sport of buffalo + hunting--Reach elevations of sienitic and metamorphic + rocks--Discover a pictographic inscription of the Sioux, by which + they denote a desire for peace--Pass the Osaukes, St. Francis's, + Corneille, and Rum Rivers--St. Anthony's Falls--Etymology of the + name--Geographical considerations. + + +The night dew was heavy on this elevation, and a dense fog prevailed at +the hour of our embarkation (5 o'clock A. M., on the 27th). The pine +lands come in with the valley of Pine River, a large and important +stream tributary from the west, which has a connection with Leech Lake. +These lands characterize both banks of the Mississippi to the entrance +of the River De Corbeau. We were seven hours, with a strong current, in +passing through this tract. It is to be observed that ancient fires have +been permitted to run through these forests, destroying immense +quantities of the timber. It was twelve o'clock, A. M., when we came +opposite to the entrance of the great Crow-wing River.[82] This stream, +which has a large island in its mouth, is a prime tributary with a +large, full-flowing current, and must bring in one-third of the entire +volume of water to this point.[83] Such is the effect of this current on +the opposite shore, that, at the distance of a couple of leagues below, +at a spot called _Prairie Perciê_ by the French, it appears to have +forced its way headlong, till, meeting obstructions from the primary +rocks, it was again deflected south. At this point, the whole face of +the country has an exceedingly sylvan aspect. It is made up of +far-stretching plains, covered with grass and wild flowers, interspersed +with groves of oak, maple, and other species. The elevation of these +beautiful plains, above the river, is not less than twenty to thirty +feet, placing them above the reach of high waters. We were now passing +below the latitude of 46°. Everything indicated a climate favorable to +the vegetable kingdom. While passing in the valley, through the fine +bends which the river makes, through these plains, we came to a +hunting-camp of probably one hundred and fifty Indians. They were +Chippewas, who, on landing at their camp, saluted us in the Indian +fashion, and were happy to exchange some dried buffalo meat and +pemmican, for corn and flour. Some miles below we observed several +buffalo, on the eastern shore, on the sub-plains below the open bluffs. +Alarmed by our approach, these animals set out, with a clumsy, shambling +trot, for the upper plains. Clumsy as their gait seemed, they got over +the ground with speed. Our whole force was immediately landed, a little +below, and we eagerly climbed the banks, to engage in the sport of +hunting them. Quite a large drove of this animal was seen on the +prairie. Our best marksmen, and the Indians, immediately divided +themselves, to approach on different sides the herd. Cautiously +approaching, they fired; the effect was to alarm and divide them. Most +of the herd pushed directly to the spot on the banks of the river, where +the non-combatants of the party stood; and there arose a general firing, +and _mêlée_ of men and buffaloes, which made it quite doubtful, for +awhile, who stood in greatest danger of being hit by the bullets, the +men or animals. I am certain the bullets whizzed about the position I +occupied on the top of the alluvial cliffs. None of the herd were, +however, slain at that time; but at our encampment, a short distance +below, the flesh of both the buffalo and elk was profusely brought in by +the Indians. It is stated that this animal lifts both the feet on one +side, at the same time; but this remark, I presume, arises from a mode +of throwing its feet forward, which is decidedly different from other +quadrupeds. + + [82] CROW-WING RIVER.--In returning from Itasca Lake, in 1832, I + passed from Leech Lake by a series of old Indian portages into Lake + Ka-ge-no-ge-maug, or Long Water Lake, which is its source; and from + thence descended it to its entrance into the Mississippi.--Vide _Exp. + to Itasca Lake_. N. Y., Harpers, 1834: vol. i. 8vo. with maps. + + [83] The Indian name of this river is Kagiwegwon, or Raven's-wing, or + Quill, which is accurately translated by the term _Aile de Corbeau_, + but it is improperly called Crow-Wing. The Chippewa term for crow is + _andaig_, and the French, _corneille_--terms which are appropriately + applied to another stream, nearer St. Anthony's Falls. + +On descending the river two miles, the next morning, we found ourselves +opposite the mouth of Elk River, a stream coming in from the west. This +point has been determined to be but four minutes north of latitude 46° +[_Sen. Doc._ 237]. A short distance below the river, we passed, on the +west shore, the Painted Rock, an isolated or boulder mass, having Indian +devices, which we had no opportunity of examining. We were now passing +down a channel of manifestly increased velocity, and at the distance of +a couple of miles more, found ourselves hurried through the west channel +of the Little Falls. At this point the primitive or basis stratification +over which we had been so long gliding, crosses the river, rising up and +dividing it, by an abrupt rocky island, into two channels. The breadth +of the stream is much compressed, and the velocity of its current +increased. By what propriety of language it is called "falls" did not, +however, appear; perhaps there are seasons when the descent assumes a +greater degree of disturbance and velocity. To us, it appeared to be +about ten feet in a hundred and fifty yards. Here, then, in N. lat. 46°, +the Mississippi is first visibly crossed by the primary series of rocks. + +Being now in the region of buffalo, it was decided to land in the course +of the day, for the purpose of entering into the chase. An occasion for +this was presented soon after passing the Little Falls, by observing one +of these animals on shore. On landing, and reaching the elevation of the +prairies, two herds of them were discovered at a distance. An attack on +them was immediately planned, for which the tall grass and gentle +inequalities of surface, appeared favorable. The fire proved +unsuccessful, but served to distract the herds, giving scope for +individual marksmanship and hunter activity, during which, innumerable +shots were fired, and three animals killed. While this scene was +passing, I had a good stand for witnessing the sport, some of the herd +passing by very near, as with the blindness of fury. The bison is +certainly an animal as clumsy as the ox, or domestic cow; but, unlike +these, it is of a uniform dun color, and ever without being spotted, or +mottled. Its horns are nearly straight, short, very black, and set wide +apart. The male is formidable in look, and ferocious when wounded. Its +ordinary weight is eight hundred to a thousand pounds. + +It may be said, in reference to this animal being found in this region, +that it is a kind of neutral ground, between the Chippewas and Sioux, +neither of which tribes permanently occupy the country between the mouth +of the Raven's-wing and Rum Rivers.[84] + + [84] The Chippewas affirm that this was the last time the buffalo + crossed the Mississippi eastwardly. It did not appear, in the same + region, in 1821. + +Having spent several hours in the chase, we again embarked, and +proceeded down the river until three o'clock in the afternoon. On the +left bank of the river two prominent elevations of the granitical +series, rising through the prairie soil, attracted my attention. +Immediately below this locality, a high and level prairie stretches on +the west shore, which had a striking appearance from its being crowned +with the poles and fixtures of a large, recently abandoned Sioux +encampment. At this spot the expedition landed and encamped. The quick +glances of Babasikundiba and his party of delegates immediately +discovered a pole, at the site of the chief's lodge, bearing a birch +bark scroll, or letter, inscribed with Indian hieroglyphics, or devices. +It turned out that this spot was the northern terminus of a Sioux peace +embassage, dispatched from St. Peter's shortly previous, under the +direction of Col. H. Leavenworth, U. S. A., the newly-arrived commanding +officer at that post. The message was eagerly received and read by the +Chippewa delegates. By it they were informed that the Sioux also desired +a termination of hostilities. The scroll was executed by tracing lines, +with the point of a knife, or some sharp instrument. The pictographic +devices thus drawn denoted the exact number of the party, their chiefs, +and the authority under which these crude negotiations were commenced. + +Of this mode of communicating ideas among the Algonquin tribes, we have +before given details in crossing the boggy plateau of Akik Sepi, between +the St. Louis River and Sandy Lake. The present instance of it is +commented on in an interesting communication of the era, in the +appendix, from the pen of Gov. Cass. It was now no longer doubtful that +the Chippewa mission would be successful, and the satisfaction it +produced was evident in the countenances and expressions of +Babasikundiba and his colleagues. + +I took a canoe and crossed the Mississippi, to inspect the geology of +the opposite shore. On reaching the summit of the rock formations +rising through the prairies, which had attracted my notice from the +river, I found them to consist of sienite, which was almost exclusively +made up of a trinary compound of white quartz, hornblende, and +feldspar--the two former species predominating. The feldspar exhibited +its splendent black crystals in fine relief in the massy quartz. This +formation extended a mile or more. What excited marked attention, in +surveying these rocks, was their smoothly rubbed surfaces, which seemed +as if they must have been produced by equally hard and heavy masses of +rock, driven over them from the north. I registered this locality, in my +Geological Journal, as the Peace Rock, in allusion to the purport of the +Indian mission, evidences of which were found at the opposite +encampment.[85] + + [85] In the treaty of Indian boundaries of Prairie du Chien, of 1825, + this mission of the Sioux became a point of reference by the Sioux + chiefs Wabishaw, Petite Corbeau, and Wanita, as denoting the limit of + their excursions north. The Chippewas, on the contrary, by the mouths + of Babasikundiba, Kadawabeda, and the Broken Arm of Sandy Lake, + contended for Sac River as the line. I discussed this subject, having + Indian maps, at length, with the chiefs and Mr. Taliaferro, the Sioux + agent, of St. Peter's. An intermediate stream, the Watab River, was + eventually fixed on, as the separating boundary between these two + warlike tribes.--_Indian Treaties_; Washington, D. C. 1837. Vol. i. + 8vo. p. 370. + +During our night's encampment at this spot we heard the howling of a +pack of wolves, on the opposite bank--a sure indication, hunters say, +that there are deer, or objects of prey in the vicinity. There are two +species of wolves on the plains of the Mississippi--the canis lupus, and +the animal called coyote by the Spanish. The latter is smaller, of a +dingy yellow color, and bears the generic name of prairie wolf. I have +also seen a black wolf on the prairies of Missouri and Arkansas, three +feet nine inches long, with coarse, bristly, bear-like hair. As daylight +approached, our ears were saluted with the hollow cry of the strix +nictea, a species which is asserted to be found, sometimes, as far south +as the Falls of St. Anthony. + +On embarking, at an early hour, we found the humidity of the night +atmosphere to be such, that articles left exposed to it were completely +saturated. Yet, the temperature stood at 50° at half-past four o'clock, +the moment of our embarkation. On descending six miles we passed the +mouth of the Osakis, or Sac River, a considerable tributary from the +west, which opens a line of communication with the Red River valley. + +About ten o'clock we encountered a series of rapids extending some eight +hundred or a thousand yards, in the course of which the river has a +probable aggregate fall of sixteen feet. These rapids bear the +malappropriate title of the Big Falls. Following these, were a series +called Prairie Rapids. At half-past four we passed the entrance of the +River St. Francis, a considerable stream on the left bank. At this spot, +Hennepin terminated his voyage in 1681, and Carver in 1766. There is an +island at the point of confluence. At six o'clock we passed the entrance +on the west shore of the stream called _Corneille_, by the French, which +is the true interpretation of the Sioux name _Karishon_, and the +Chippewa term _Andaig_, which mean the crow, and not the raven. We +encamped five miles below, on the east bank, having been thirteen hours +in our canoes, with a generally strong current. My mineralogical +gleanings, during the day, had given some specimens of the interesting +varieties of the quartz family, for which the geological drift is noted, +and a single piece of agatized wood. The geological floor on which the +river runs, has been indicated. + +At five o'clock the following morning (30th) we resumed the descent, and +at the distance of two leagues reached the entrance of the +Missisagiegon, or Rum River. It is Carver, I believe, who first gives us +this name, for a stream which the Indians describe as a river flowing +from a lake of lakes--a term, by the way, which the French, with their +usual adherence to Indian etymology, have called _Mille Lacs_. The term +_missi_, in this word, does not signify great, but a collected mass, or +all kinds, and sometimes everywhere--the allusion being to water. +_Sa-gi-e-gon_ is a lake, and when the prefixed term _missi_, is put to +it, nothing could more graphically describe the large body of water, +interspersed with islands, which give a confused aspect, from which the +river issues. The Dacotas call this lake _Mini Wakan_, meaning +Spirit-water, which is probably the origin of the name of Rum River. + +About thirteen miles below Rum River, and when within half a mile of the +Falls,[86] I observed calcareous rocks in horizontal beds, on the left +bank of the river. It was now evident we had passed out of the primitive +range of deposits, and had entered that of the great sedimentary +horizontal and semi-crystalline or silurian system of the Mississippi +Valley; and descending with a strong current, we came, rather suddenly, +it appeared, to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the river drops, by a +cascade, into a rock-bordered valley. Surprise and admiration were the +first emotions on getting out of our canoes and gazing on this +superlative scene; and we were not a little struck with the idea that +the Sioux had named the Falls from manifestly similar impressions, +calling it Rara, from the Dacota verb _irara_, to laugh. By another +authority, the word is written _Ha Ha_, or _Dhaha_, the letters _h_ in +the word representing a strong guttural sound resembling the old Arabic +r.[87] (S. R. Riggs's _Dakota Dict. and Gram._) Nothing can exceed the +sylvan beauty of the country which is here thrown before the eye; and we +should not feel surprised that the Aboriginal mind has fallen on very +nearly identical sounds with the English, to express its impressions. A +not very dissimilar principle has been observed by the Chippewas, who +have a uniform termination of their names in _ish_, which signifies the +very same quality which we express by ish in whitish, blackish, +saltish--meaning a lesser, or defective quality of the noun. + + [86] It is recently asserted that this change in the stratification + occurs about a mile above the Falls. [_Sen. Doc._ p. 237.] By the + same authority it is shown that the aggregate fall of the Mississippi + from the mouth of Sandy Lake River to the Falls of St. Anthony is 397 + feet. + + [87] Both words are derived from the verb _to laugh_. + +The popular name of these Falls, it is known, is due to Father Louis +Hennepin, a missionary who accompanied La Salle to the Illinois, in +1679, and was carried captive into the country of the Issati, a Dacota +tribe, in 1680. Lt. Pike states the portage to be two hundred and sixty +poles. By the time we had taken a good view of the position, and made a +few sketches, the men had completed carrying over our baggage and +canoes. It was now one o'clock, when we embarked to proceed to the +newly-established military encampment, a few miles below. It was a +noticeable feature, in our descent of the river above the Falls, that +Babasikundiba had always kept behind the flotilla of canoes; but the +moment we advanced below the Falls, he shot ahead with his delegates, +each one being dressed out in his best manner. His canoe had its little +flag displayed--the Indian drum was soon heard sending its measured +thumps and murmurs of vocal accompaniment over the water, and ever and +anon guns were fired. All this was done that the enemy might be apprised +of the approach of the delegation in the boldest and most open manner. +It was eight or nine miles to the post, near the influx of the St. +Peter's, and long before we reached Col. Leavenworth's camp, which +occupied a high bluff, the attention of the Sioux was arrested by their +advance, and it was inferable from the friendly answering shouts which +they gave, that the mission was received with joy. Although we had known +nothing of the movement which produced the pictographic letter found on +a pole at the Petite Roche, above Sac River, it was, in fact, regarded +by the Dacotas as an answer to that letter. And the Chippewa chief, and +his followers, were received with a salute by the Sioux, by whom they +were taken by the hand, individually, as they landed. + +Col. Leavenworth, the commanding officer, received the expedition in the +most cordial manner, and assigned quarters for the members. Gov. Cass +was received with a salute due to his rank. We learn that the post was +established last fall. Orders for this purpose were issued, as will be +seen by reference to the _Preliminary Documents_, p. 35, early in the +spring. The troops destined for this purpose, were placed under the +orders of Col. Leavenworth, who had distinguished himself as the +commander of the ninth and twenty-second regiments, in the war of 1812. +They left Detroit in the spring (1819), and proceeding by the way of +Green Bay and Prairie du Chien, where garrisons were left, they ascended +to the mouth of the St. Peter's, in season to erect cantonments before +winter. The site chosen, being on the alluvial grounds, proved +unhealthy, in consequence of which the cantonment was removed, in the +spring of 1820, to an eminence and spring on the west bank of the +Mississippi, about a mile from the former position. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + Position of the military post established at the mouth of + the St. Peter's--Beauty, salubrity, and fertility of + the country--Pictographic letter--Indian treaty--The + appearance of the offer of frankincense in the burning of + tobacco--Opwagonite--native pigments--Salt; native copper--The + pouched or prairie rat--Minnesota squirrel--Etymology of the + Indian name of St. Peter's River--Antiquities--Sketch of the + Dacota--Descent of the Mississippi to Little Crow's village--Feast + of green corn. + + +In favor of the soil and climate, and of the salubrity of the position, +the officers speak in terms of the highest admiration. The garrison has +directed its attention to both horticulture and agriculture. About +ninety acres of the choicest bottom land along the St. Peter's Valley, +and the adjacent prairies, have been planted with Indian corn and +potatoes, cereal grains, and esculents, inclusive of a hospital, a +regimental, and private gardens. At the mess-table of Col. Leavenworth, +and in our camp, we were presented with green corn in the ear, peas, +beans, cucumbers, beets, radishes, and lettuce. The earliest garden peas +were eaten here on the 15th of June, and the first green corn on the +20th July. Much of the corn is already too hard for the table, and some +of the ears can be selected which are ripe enough for seed corn. Wheat, +on the prairie lands, is found to be entirely ripe, and melons in the +military gardens nearly so. These are the best practical commentaries on +the soil and climate.[88] + + [88] This is now (1854) the central area of Minnesota Territory--a + territory in a rapid process of the development of the population and + resources of a State. + +The distance of the St. Peter's from the Gulf of Mexico is estimated to +be about two thousand two hundred miles. Its position above St. Louis is +estimated at nine hundred miles. Its elevation above the Gulf is but 744 +feet. The precise latitude of this point is 44° 52´ 46´´.[89] The +atmosphere is represented as serene and transparent during the summer +and spring seasons, and free from the humidity which is so objectionable +a trait of our eastern latitudes. The mean temperature is 45°.[90] Its +geology and mineralogy will be noticed in my official reports. It will +be sufficient here to say that the stratification, at and below St. +Anthony's Falls, consists wholly of formations of sandstones and +limestones, horizontally deposited, whose relative positions and ages +are chiefly inferable from the evidences of organic life, in the shape +of petrifactions, which they embrace. The lowest of this series of rocks +is a white sandstone, consisting of transparent, loosely cohering +grains, special allusion to which is made by Carver, in his travels in +1766, and which may be received as testimony, were there no other, that +this too much discredited author had actually visited this region. + + [89] Ex. Doc., No. 237. + + [90] Army Register. + +I have mentioned the interest excited by our Chippewas finding the bark +letter, or pictographic memorial at the deserted Sioux encampment above +Sac River. It turned out, as we were informed, that this Aboriginal +missive was a reply to a similar proposition transmitted from Sandy +Lake, by the Chippewas. The very person, indeed, who inscribed the +Chippewa bark message, was one of the ten persons who had accompanied us +from that lake. Gov. Cass, on learning this fact, requested him to draw +a duplicate of it on a roll of bark. He executed this task immediately. +We thus had before us the proposition in this symbolic character, which +is called _ke ke win_ by the Chippewas, and its answer. By this mode of +communication two nations of the most diverse language found no +difficulty in understanding each other.[91] + + [91] _Vide_ Appendix, for a letter from Gen. Cass to the Secretary of + War on this curious topic. + +On the second day after our arrival, the Indians consummated their +intentions, as signified by the bark letter, and the Sandy-Lake +delegation assembled with the Sioux at the old quarters of the military, +now occupied as an Indian agency, and smoked the pipe of peace. There +were present at this pacification, besides the chiefs Shacopee and +Babasikundiba, and minor chieftains, His Excellency Gov. Cass, Col. +Leavenworth, and sundry officers of the garrison and the expedition. +The ceremonies were conducted under the auspices of the U. S. Indian +Agent, Mr. Taliaferro. Every attention was given to make these +ceremonies impressive, by a compliance with the Aboriginal customs on +these occasions, and it is hoped not without leaving permanent effects +on their minds. + +The pipe employed by the native diplomatists, in these negotiations, is +invested with a symbolic and sacred character, as if the fumes of the +weed were offered, in the nature of frankincense, to the Deity. The +genuflections with which it is presented, more than the words expressed, +countenance this idea. The bowl of the pipe used on this occasion +consisted of the well-known red pipe-stone, called opwagonite,[92] so +long known in Indian history as being brought from the _Coteau des +Prairies_. It is furnished with a wooden stem two or three feet long, +and two and a half inches broad, shaved down thin so as to resemble a +spatula. It is then painted with certain blue or green clays, and +ornamented with braids of richly dyed porcupine quills, or the holcus +fragrans, and the tuft feathers of the male duck or red-headed +woodpecker. These state pipes are usually presented by the speakers as +memorials of the speeches, and laid aside by the officials having charge +of Indian affairs. Col. Leavenworth presented us with some of these +carefully ornamented diplomatic testimonials. + + [92] Schoolcraft's View of the Lead Mines of Missouri. Scenes and + Adventures in the Ozark Mountains, the Catlinite of Dr. Jackson. + +I obtained from the Sioux some very carefully moulded pyramidal-shaped +pieces of the blue and green clays from the valley of the St. Peter's, +which they employ in painting their pipe-stems and persons. The coloring +matter of these appears to be carbonate of copper. It is brought from +the Blue Earth River. I also obtained from the Indians very small and +carefully tied leathern bags of the red oxide of iron, which they obtain +in the state of a dry, powdery mass, on the prairies near the Big Stone. +The Indians brought me, from the same region, crystals of salt, scraped +up from the margin of certain waters on the prairies, of a dark cast, +mixed with impurities. The tendency of these crystals to assume a cubic +form was quite distinct. The most interesting development, in the +mineralogical way, consisted of small lumps of native copper, which I +obtained on an eminence on the banks of the Mississippi, directly +opposite the influx of the St. Peter's. They occupy, geologically, a +diluvial position, being at the bottom of the prairie-drift stratum, and +immediately above the superior limestone. + +In the luxurious kitchen gardens of Camp Leavenworth, great depredations +have been made by a small quadruped of a burrowing character, called +gopher. By patient watching, gun in hand, one of these was killed, and +its skin preserved and prepared. The animal is ten inches long to the +termination of the tail, with a body very much the size and color of a +large wharf-rat. It has five prominent claws, and two broad cutting +teeth, but its most striking peculiarity is a duplicature of the cheek, +which permits it to carry earth to the mouth of its burrow. It has been +called the pouched rat. Sir Francis Drake found a similar animal in his +visit to the Gulf of California, in 1587. The distribution of this +species, of which this seems to be the northern limit, is very wide +through Atlantic America, and it is known to be destructive to +vegetation throughout Alabama, Georgia, and the Carolinas. I had, two +years ago, been led to notice its ravages in Missouri and Arkansas. But +the animal called gopher, in the southern country, is a burrowing +tortoise, and the name is improperly applied to this species, which is +the _Pseudostoma pinetorum_. + +A peculiar species of squirrel was observed in this vicinity, which is +also found to be a destructive visitor to the military gardens. In +appearance, this species resembles the common striped squirrel, but it +has a more elongated body, and shorter legs. The body has six black +stripes, with the same number of intervening lines of spots, on a +reddish-brown skin. This Minnesota squirrel has, since the return of the +Expedition, been named, by the late Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell, _sciurus +tredeceum_. + +The River St. Peter's is called, by the Dacotas, _Watepa Minnesota_. The +prefixed term _watepa_, is their word for river; _minni_ is the name for +water. The term _sota_ has been variously explained. The Canadian +French, who have proved themselves most apt translators of Indian +phrases, render it by the word _brouille_, or _blear_; or, if we regard +this as derivative from the verb _brouiller_, _mixed_, or _mottled_--a +condition of the waters of this river, whenever the Mississippi is in +flood, and consequently at a higher elevation when it rushes into the +mouth of the St. Peter's, producing that addled aspect of the water, to +which the Dacotas, it is believed, apply the term _sota_. + +The scenery around St. Peter's is of the most sylvan and delightful +character. About six miles west of the cantonment there are several +beautiful lakes, in the prairies. The largest of these is about four +miles in circumference, and is called Calhoun Lake, in compliment to the +Secretary of War. Its waters are stored with bass and other varieties of +fish. There are several pure springs of sparkling water, issuing from +the picturesque cliffs which face the Mississippi at this place. I +visited one about a mile from the cantonment, which deposits a yellow +sulphurous flocculent mass along its course. On the prairies is found +the _holcus fragrans_, which is braided by the Indian females, and +employed in some instances to decorate their deer-skin clothing. This +aromatic grass retains its scent in the dried state. Along the waters of +the St. Peter's is found the _acer negundo_, the inner bark of which, +mixed with the common nettle, is employed by the natives in the state of +a strong decoction, as a cure for the _lues venerea_. + +Mr. Carver having described certain antiquities near the foot of Lake +Pepin, in 1766, inquiries were made after objects of this kind in the +vicinity. I was informed that traces of such remains existed in the +valley of the St. Peter's, but can say nothing concerning them from +actual inspection.[93] + + [93] The last known platform mound in the spread of the + mound-builders north, is at Prairie du Chien. The monuments, supposed + to be mounds, in the St. Peter's region, are found by Mr. Owen to be + geological elevations. The remains on Blue Earth River are attributed + to a fort or inclosure built by Le Seur, in his search for copper on + that stream, in 1700. Other remains, in the St. Peter's valley, + appear to be old trading-houses, fallen in. + +Of the Dacotas, or Sioux, for which St. Peter's forms the central point, +some anecdotes have been related which denote that they are, on certain +occasions, actuated by exalted motives. It is related that the chief +Little Crow, going out to the confines of the Chippewa Territory, to +examine his beaver-traps, discovered an individual of that tribe in the +act of taking a beaver from the trap. As he was himself unperceived, the +tribes being at war, and the offence an extreme one, a summary +punishment would have been justified by Indian law. But the Sioux chief +decided differently: "Take no alarm," said he, approaching the offender: +"I come to present you the trap, of which I see you stand in need. Take +my gun, also, as I see you have none of your own, and return to the +land of your countrymen; and linger not here, lest some of my young men +should discover your footsteps." + +A still more striking and characteristic incident is related of a chief +called the Red Thunder. Col. Wm. Dixon, a Scotchman of family, who made +his influence felt in the late war of 1812 as a leader of the Sioux and +a merchant among them, married the sister of this notable chief. So +daring were the acts of Red Thunder, that he had put the Chippewa nation +in awe of him. At length, however, after a long series of the bravest +acts, he was taken prisoner, with a favorite dog, and condemned to +expiate his offences at the stake. It was a time of want by his captors. +One day he said to them: "Why do you not feed my dog?" They replied, +"feed him yourself." "Then," he said, "give me a knife." This being +thrown to him, he cut a piece of flesh from one of his large and fleshy +thighs, and threw it to the dog. Admiration of this act ran through the +Indian camp. They immediately released him, and bestowed on him the +highest attentions and honors. + +The Dacota or Sioux nation constitute one of the families of America who +speak a peculiar language. Lieut. Pike, who visited them in 1806, +estimated their numerical strength at twenty-one thousand six hundred +and seventy-five; of which number he computed three thousand eight +hundred to be warriors. They consist of six or seven independent tribes, +or sub-tribes, bearing different names, who occupy most of the country +between the Mississippi and Missouri, between N. latitude 43° and 46°. +The Mendawekantoñs are located on the Mississippi, below the Falls of +St. Anthony and the mouth of the St. Peter's. The Sessitoñs and Yanktoñs +occupy the upper waters of the St. Peter's. The Titoñs only extend west +of the Missouri. The several tribes regard themselves as a confederacy, +which is the signification of the term Dacota. They do not acknowledge +the name of Sioux as an Indian word. We first hear of them from the +early French missionaries, who visited the head of Lake Superior about +the middle of the 17th century, under the name of _Nadowasie_.[94] They +speak a language which prevails over an immense area, which is now +occupied by the prairie tribes towards the west and southwest, from +whence, it is inferred, they came. They appear, at a former time, to +have reached and dwelt at the sources of the Mississippi, and to have +approached, if not reached, the west end of Lake Superior; for it is +from these positions that the oldest traditions represent them to have +been driven by the Chippewas. Lieut. Pike thinks they are, undeniably, +descendants of Tartars. If so, I feel inclined to think that they must +have made the circuit of the Mexican provinces before reaching the +Mississippi Valley, for the track of their migration is traced towards +the south certainly as far as the country of the Kansas and Osages; +while they preserve some striking traits and characteristics which +appear to be referable to those intertropical regions. + + [94] This is an Algonquin expression, signifying enemy. It is derived + from _Nodowa_, an Iroquois, or a Dacota; the word was originally + applied to a serpent. The termination in _sie_ is from _awasie_, an + animal or creature. This term is the root, it is apprehended, of the + French sobriquet _Sioux_. + +Having passed the better part of three days in the vicinity of St. +Peter's, adding to our collections and portfolios, we left it on the +second of August, and proceeded down the river to the village of La +Petite Corbeau, or the Little Raven, situated on the east bank not far +above the mouth of the St. Croix. The river, in this distance flows +between lofty cliffs of the white sandstone and neutral-colored +limestones, which are first conspicuously displayed at the Falls of St. +Anthony. Springs of water, not infrequently, issue from these cliffs. We +landed at one of these, flowing in through a gorge at the distance of +four miles below St. Peter's, on the east bank, for the purpose of +visiting a remarkable cave, from the mouth of which a small stream +issues. The cave is seated wholly within the beautiful white crumbling +sandstone rock. It is, in fact, the loose character of the rock which +permits the superincumbent waters of the plains above to permeate +through it, that has originated the cave. The stream consisted of the +purest filtrated water, which is daily carrying away the loosened grains +of sand into the Mississippi, and thus enlarging the boundaries of the +cavern.[95] We had been erroneously informed that this was Carver's +Cave, and looked in vain for this traveller's name on its walls.[96] The +atmosphere in this cave was found to be seven degrees higher than the +water. We noticed nothing in the form of bones or antiquities. + + [95] St. Paul's, the present capital of Minnesota (1854), is situated + on the high grounds, a few miles below this cave. + + [96] Carver's Cave is four miles lower down, on the same side of the + river, agreeably to subsequent observation. It is now obstructed by + fallen rock and debris. + +The village of Petite Corbeau consists of twelve large lodges, which are +said to give shelter to two hundred souls. They plant corn, and +cultivate vines and pumpkins. They sallied from their lodges on seeing +us approach, and, gathering along the margin of the river, fired a _feu +de joie_ on our landing. The chief was among the first to greet us. He +is a man below the common size, but brawny and well proportioned, and, +although above fifty years of age, retains the look and vigor of forty. +He invited us to his lodge--a spacious building about sixty feet by +thirty, substantially constructed of logs and bark. Being seated, he +addressed himself to His Excellency Gov. Cass. He said that he was glad +to see him in his village. That, in his extensive journey, he must have +suffered many hardships. He must also have noticed much of the Indian +mode of life, and of the face of the country, which would enable him to +see things in their proper light. He was glad that he had not, like +others who had lately visited the country, passed by his village without +calling. He referred, particularly, to the military force sent to +establish a garrison at St. Peter's, the year before, who had passed up +on the other side of the river. He acquiesced in the treaty that had +been recently concluded with the Chippewas. He referred to a recent +attack of a party of Fox Indians on their people, on the head waters of +the St. Peter's. He said it was dastardly, and that, if that _little_ +tribe should continue their attacks, they would at length drive him into +anger, and compel him to do a thing he did not wish. + +While this speech was being interpreted, the Indian women were employed +in bringing basketsful of ears of Indian corn from the fields, which +they emptied in a pile. This pile, when it had reached a formidable +height, was offered as a present to the Expedition. It was, indeed, the +beginning of the season of green corn, with them, and we were soon +apprised, by the sound of music from another lodge, that the festival of +the green-corn dance was going forward. Being admitted to see the +ceremonies, the first thing which attracted notice was two large iron +kettles suspended over a fire, filled with green-corn cut from the cob. +The Indians, both men and women, were seated in a large circle around +them; they were engaged in singing a measured chant in the Indian +manner, accompanied by the Sioux cancega or drum and rattles; the utmost +solemnity was depicted on every countenance. When the music paused, +there were certain gesticulations made, as if a mysterious power were +invoked. In the course of these ceremonies, a young man and his sister, +joining hands, came forward to be received into the green corn society, +of whom questions were asked by the presiding official. At the +conclusion of these, the voice of each member was taken as to their +admission, which was unanimous. At the termination of the ceremonies, an +elderly man came forward and ladled out the contents of the kettles into +separate wooden dishes for each head of a family present. As these +dishes were received, the persons retired from the lodge by a backward +movement, still keeping their faces directed to the kettles, till they +had passed out. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Descent of the river from the site of Little Crow's Village to Prairie + du Chien--Incidents of the voyage, and notices of the scenery and + natural history. + + +The next morning we embarked at 5 o'clock. On descending the river six +miles, we passed the mouth of the St. Croix.[97] This stream heads on +high lands, which form a rim of hills around the southern and western +shores of Lake Superior, where it is connected with the River Misacoda, +or Broulè of Fond du Lac. The Namakagon, its southern branch of it, is +connected with the Maskigo,[98] or Mauvais River of La Pointe, Lake +Superior. Immediately above its point of entrance into the Mississippi +the St. Croix expands into a beautiful lake, which is some twelve miles +long, and about two in width. The borders of the Mississippi about this +point assume an increased height, and more imposing aspect. In many +places, as the voyager descends from this spot to Lake Pepin, he +observes the calcareous cliffs to terminate in pyramids; the crest of +the hills frequently resemble the crumbling ruins of antique towers. At +12 o'clock we came to the vicinity of an isolated calcareous cliff, +called La Grange, which may be regarded as one of those monuments +resulting from geological denudation, which constitute a striking +feature in the St. Peter's region. The top of this cliff affords a fine +view of the scenery of the Mississippi for a long distance above and +below it. It has been found to be three hundred and twenty-two feet +above the river.[99] + + [97] This river was explored by me in 1832. Vide _Schoolcraft's + Expedition to Itasca Lake_. 1 vol. 8vo. p. 307--1834: N. Y., Harp. + + [98] In 1831, this river was ascended by me with a public expedition, + dispatched into the Indian country to quell the disturbances which + eventuated the next year in the Sauk war. Vide _Schoolcraft's Thirty + Years in the Indian Country_. Lippincott, Grambo, & Co., Philad.: 1 + vol. p. 703, 1851. + + [99] Doc. 237. + +This spot is noted as being near the site of Tarangamani, or the Red +Wing's Village. This chief is one of the notable men of his tribe. He +has been long celebrated as a man skilled as a native magician. The +village consists of four large, elongated, and of several small lodges. +Tarangamani is now considered the first chief of his nation. He is noted +for his wisdom and sagacity. He bears the marks of being sixty years of +age. His grand-daughter married Col. Crawford, a man of commercial +activity about Prairie du Chien and Michilimackinac, during the late war +of 1812, who has left descendants in the lake country. We observed, at +this village, several buffalo skins undergoing the Indian process of +dressing. The hair having been removed, they were stretched on the +ground, where they were subjected to a process analogous to tanning by +being covered with a decoction of oak bark. + +In ascending the hill of La Grange, we first encountered the +rattlesnake, two of which we killed. This is the highest northern point +at which we have observed this species on the Mississippi. I observed on +this elevation small detached masses of radiated quartz, +cinnamon-colored and white, together with an ore of iron crystallized in +cubes. Having cursorily examined the environs, the expedition again +embarked. It was 1 o'clock when we entered Lake Pepin. This admired lake +is a mere expansion of the Mississippi, having a length of twenty-four +miles by a varying width of from two to four miles. During this distance +there is not the least current during calm weather. The prospects, in +passing through this expanse of water, are of the most picturesque kind. +Its immediate shores are circumscribed with a broad beach of gravel, in +which may be found rolled pieces of the chalcedonies, agates, and other +species of the quartz family, which are characteristic of the +drift-stratum of the upper borders of the Mississippi. On the eastern +shore, at a short distance from the margin, there is a lofty range of +limestone cliffs. On the west, the eye rests on an elevated formation of +prairie, nearly destitute of trees. From this plain several conical +hills ascend, which have the appearance, but only the appearance, of +artificial construction. The lake is quite transparent, and yields +several species of fish. The most remarkable of these is the _acipenser +spatularia_, of which we obtained a specimen. It is also remarkable for +its numerous varieties, and the large size of its fresh-water shells. I +procured several species of _unio_, which, from their size and +character, attracted my attention, particularly to the subject of this +branch of American conchology. Several of these, from the duplicates of +my cabinet, have attracted the attention of conchologists.[100] Lake +Pepin receives a river from the west called the Ocano, or more properly +_Au Canot_; its mouth having been, in former times, a noted place for +concealing canoes during the winter season.[101] At a point, on the east +shore, about half way down the lake, where a small stream enters, we +were informed there existed the remains of an old French fort, or +factory; but we did not land to examine them. + + [100] Silliman's Journal of Science, 1823; also, Trans. Am. Phil. + Soc. + + [101] Travellers who are disposed to regard La Hontan's fiction of + his purported discoveries on _Rivier la Longue_, as entitled to + notice, have suggested _this_ river as the locality intended. + Nicollet, otherwise reliable, has gone so far as to call it La Hontan + River. + +In passing through this lake the interpreters pointed to a high +precipice in the cliffs on the east shore, which Indian tradition +assigns as the locality of a tragical love tale, of which a Dacota girl +was the heroine. To avoid the dilemma of being compelled to accept a +husband of repulsive character, and to sacrifice her affections for +another person, she precipitated herself down this precipice. The tale +has been so differently told to travellers visiting the region, that +nothing but the simple tradition appears worth recording. Olaita and +Winona, have been mentioned as the name of the Dacota Sappho. + +At 6 o'clock in the evening we encamped on a gravelly beach on the east +shore of the lake, the weather threatening a storm. Rain commenced at 8 +o'clock, and continued at intervals, with severe thunder and most vivid +flashes of lightning during the night. At 5 o'clock the next morning +(4th), the expedition was again in motion. The rain had ceased, but the +morning remained cloudy. The scenery on the borders of the lake +continued to be impressive. The precipices on the east shore shot up +into spiral points; yet the orbicular elevations are covered with grass +and shrubbery. These high grass-crowned elevations, without forest, +terminate near the influx of the Chippewa River in a remarkable isolated +elevation, called _Mont La Garde_, from the fact that it is, and long +has been, a noted look-out station for Chippewa war parties, who descend +this stream, against the Sioux. It commands an extensive view of Lake +Pepin. This lake was thought to be two miles wide opposite our last +night's encampment; it narrows to probably less than half a mile at its +mouth. The west shore along this portion of the lake consists of +singularly striking, picturesque, level, and elevated prairie lands. + +Carver, in 1768, places his remains of ancient circumvallations in this +vicinity, but "some miles below Lake Pepin."[102] This was a period when +no attention had been directed to the subject of antiquities in the +United States, and his mind appears to have been impressed strongly by +what he saw. As opportunities did not allow me to land, nor was the +precise spot, indeed, known to any of our guides or men, reference can +only be made to the observations of a man who is known to have been the +first American traveller that has called attention to our western +antiquities. Mr. H. V. Hart, long a resident of this region, verbally +assures me that he has visited these works.[103] + + [102] Carver's Travels, p. 30. + + [103] Mr. G. W. Featherstonehaugh, in his _Geological Reconnoissance_, + in 1834, landed at the location of these antiquarian remains, and is + disposed to recognize their authenticity. + +Chippewa River, just referred to, comes into the Mississippi on its left +bank, within half a mile of the foot of Lake Pepin. It is a tributary of +prime volume, draining the Chippewa territories lying around the south +and west shores of Lake Superior. Originating on the sandy tracts +extending over the elevated central plains of the Wisconsin, it brings a +large deposit of sand into the Mississippi, the navigation of which is +visibly more embarrassed below this point with sand-bars, willow, and +cotton-wood islands. + +At four o'clock in the afternoon we reached and landed at Wabashaw's +village. It is eligibly seated on the west shore, and consists of four +of the large elongated Sioux lodges before mentioned, containing a +population of about sixty souls. The usual intercourse and speeches of +congratulation by the Indians, and acknowledgment of the American +authorities were made, and we again embarked, after a detention of forty +minutes. A few miles below Wabashaw's village, we came to a high rocky +or mountain island, called _La montaigne qui trompe dans l'eau_, a term +which is shortened by western phraseology into TROMPLEDO mountain. This +is a very remarkable feature in the geography of the Upper Mississippi. +The rock is calcareous; it is, in fact, the only fast or rocky island we +have encountered below the little islet at the head of the Packagama +Falls. It is not only striking from its lofty elevation, but is several +miles in circumference; standing in the bed of the river and parting its +channel into two, it appears to be the first bold geological monument +which has effectually resisted its course. + +We had passed this island but a short distance, and the approaches of +evening began to be manifest, when a large gray wolf sprang into the +river to cross it. The greatest animation at once arose in our flotilla; +the canoemen bending themselves to their paddles, the auxiliary Indians +of our party shouting, and the whole party assuming an unwonted +excitement. A shot was soon fired from one of our rifles, but either the +distance was too great, or the aim incorrect. The wolf was fully +apprised of his peril, put forth all his strength, outstripped his +pursuers, reached the shore, and nimbly leaped into the woods. + +We encamped on the west shore, a few miles below the island at seven +o'clock, having been twelve hours in our canoes. The confinement of the +position nobody can appreciate who has not tried it, and I hastened to +stretch my legs, by ascending the river cliffs in our rear, to have a +glimpse of its geology and scenery. The view westwardly was one of +groves and prairies of most inviting agricultural promise. In front, the +island mountain rises to an elevation which appears to have been the +original geological level of the stratification before the Mississippi +cut its way through it. + +At the rapids of Black River, which enters opposite our encampment, a +saw-mill, we were informed, had been erected by an inhabitant of Prairie +du Chien. Thus the empire of the arts has begun to make its way into +these regions, and proclaims the advance of a heavy civilization into a +valley which has heretofore only resounded to the savage war-whoop. Or, +if a higher grade of society and arts has ever before existed in it, as +some of our tumuli and antiquities would lead us to infer, the light of +history has failed to reach us on the subject.[104] + + [104] _American Antiquities._ As the tumuli and earthworks of the + Mississippi Valley are more closely scrutinized, they do not appear + to denote a higher degree of civilization than may be assigned to the + ancestors of the present races of Indians, prior to the epoch of the + introduction of European arts into America. Certainly there is + nothing in our earthworks and mounds, to compare with the Toltec and + Aztec type of arts at the opening of the 16th century; while the + possession by our tribes of the zea maize, a tropical plant, and + other facts indicative of a southern migration, appear to denote a + residence in warmer latitudes. The distribution of the Mexican + teocalli and pyramid is also plainly traceable from the south. + Neither the platform nor the solid conical mound has been traced + higher north than Prairie du Chien; nor have the earthworks (adopting + Carver's notices) reached higher than Lake Pepin. There are no mounds + or earthworks at the sources of the Mississippi nor in all British + America to the shores of the Arctic Seas. We cannot bring arts or + civilization from that quarter. + +At the spot of our encampment, as soon as the shades of night closed in, +we were visited by hordes of ephemera. The candles lighted in our tents +became the points of attraction for these evanescent creations. They +soon, however, began to feel the influence of the sinking of the +thermometer, and the air was imperceptibly cleared of them in an hour or +two. By the hour of three o'clock the next morning (5th) the expedition +was again in motion descending the river. It halted for breakfast at +Painted Rock, on the west shore. While this matter was being +accomplished, I found an abundant locality of unios in a curve of the +shore which produced an eddy. Fine specimens of U. purpureus, elongatus, +and orbiculatus were obtained. With the increased spirit and animation +which the whole party felt on the prospect of our arrival at Prairie du +Chien, we proceeded unremittingly on our descent, and reached that place +at six o'clock in the evening. + +Prairie du Chien does not derive its name from the dog, but from a noted +family of Fox Indians bearing this name, who anciently dwelt here. The +old town is said to have been about a mile below the present settlement, +which was commenced by Mr. Dubuque and his associates, in 1783. The +prairie is most eligibly situated along the margin of the stream, above +whose floods it is elevated. It consists of a heavy stratum of diluvial +pebbles and boulders, which is picturesquely bounded by lofty cliffs of +the silurian[105] limestones, and their accompanying column of +stratification. The village has the old and shabby look of all the +antique French towns on the Mississippi, and in the great lake basins; +the dwellings being constructed of logs and barks, and the courtyards +picketed in, as if they were intended for defence. It is called +Kipisagee by the Chippewas and Algonquin tribes generally, meaning the +place of the jet or outflow of the (Wisconsin) River. It is, in popular +parlance, estimated to be 300 miles below St. Peter's, and 600 above St. +Louis.[106] Its latitude is 43° 3´ 6´´. It is the seat of justice for +Crawford County, having been so named in, honor of W. H. Crawford, +Secretary of the Treasury of the U. S. It is, together with all the +region west of Lake Michigan, attached to the territory of Michigan. +There is a large and fertile island in the Mississippi, opposite the +place. + + [105] This term, unknown to geology at the period, has been + subsequently introduced by Sir Roderic Murchison. + + [106] These distances are reduced by _Ex. Doc._ 237, respectively to + 260 and 542 miles. + +We found the garrison to consist of a single company of infantry, under +the command of Capt. J. Fowle, Jun.,[107] who received us courteously, +and offered the salute due to the rank of His Excellency, Gov. Cass. The +fort is a square stockade, with bastions at two angles. There was found +on this part of the prairie, when it came to be occupied with a garrison +by the Americans, in 1819, an ancient platform-mound, in an exactly +square form, the shape and outlines of which were preserved with +exactitude by the prairie sod. This earthwork, the probable evidence of +a condition of ancient society, arts, and events of a race who are now +reduced so low, was, with good taste, preserved by the military, when +they erected this stockade. One of the officers built a dwelling-house +upon it, thus converting it, to the use, and probably the only use, to +which it was originally devoted. No measurements have been preserved of +its original condition; but judging from present appearances, it must +have squared seventy-five feet, and have had an elevation of eight feet. + + [107] This officer entered the army in 1812, serving with reputation. + He rose, through various grades of the service, to the rank of Lieut. + Col. of the 6th infantry. He lost his life on the 25th April, 1838, + by the explosion of the steamer Moselle, on the Ohio River. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + Mr. Schoolcraft makes a visit to the lead mines of Dubuque--Incidents + of the trip--Description of the mines--The title of occupancy, and + the mode of the mines being worked by the Fox tribe of + Indians--Who are the Foxes? + + +I solicited permission of Gov. Cass to visit the lead mines of Dubuque, +which are situated on the west bank of the Mississippi, at the computed +distance of twenty-five leagues below Prairie du Chien. Furnished with a +light canoe, manned by eight voyageurs, including a guide, I left the +prairie at half past eleven A. M. (6th). Passed the entrance of the +Wisconsin, on the left bank, at the distance of a league.[108] Opposite +this point is the high elevation which Pike, in 1806, recommended to be +occupied with a military work. The suggestion has not, however, been +adopted; military men, probably, thinking that, however eligible the +site might be for a work where civilized nations were likely to come +into contact, a simpler style of defensive works would serve the purpose +of keeping the Indian tribes in check. I proceeded nine leagues below, +and encamped at the site of a Fox village,[109] located on the east +bank, a mile below the entrance of Turkey River from the west. The +village, consisting of twelve lodges, was now temporarily deserted, the +Indians being probably absent on a hunt; but, if so, it was remarkable +that not a soul or living thing was left behind, not even a dog. My +guide, indeed, informed me that the cause of the desertion was the fears +entertained of an attack from the Sioux, in retaliation for the massacre +lately perpetrated by them on the heads of the St. Peter's, which was +alluded to in the speech of the Little Crow, while we were at his +village (_ante_, p. 160). + + [108] It was at this spot, one hundred and thirty-seven years ago, + that Marquette and M. Joliet, coming from the lakes, discovered the + Mississippi. + + [109] Now the site of Cassville, Grant County, Wisconsin. It is a + post town, pleasantly situated, with a population of 200. + +It was seven o'clock P. M. when I landed here, and having some hours of +daylight, I walked back from the river to look at the village, and its +fields, and to examine the geological structure of the adjacent cliffs. +In their gardens I observed squashes, beans, and pumpkins, but the +fields of corn, the principal article of cultivation, had been nearly +all destroyed, probably by wild animals. I found an extensive field of +water and musk melons, situated in an opening in a grove, detached from +the other fields and gardens. None of the fruit was perfectly ripe, +although it had been found so at Prairie du Chien; some of it had been +bitten by wild animals.[110] The cliffs consisted of the same horizontal +strata of sandstones and neutral colored limestone, prevailing at higher +positions in this valley. Returning to the river beach, I perceived the +same pebble drift which characterizes higher latitudes. This seems the +only difference in its structure or form, namely, that the pieces of +quartz pebble, limestone, and other fragments brought down, become +smaller and smaller, as they are carried down. + + [110] Fondness for melons, and annual vine fruits of the garden, is a + striking trait of the Indians. Some curious facts on this head are + published in the statistics.--_Indian Information_, vol. iii. p. 624, + 1853, Philadelphia, Lippincott & Co. + +There were frequent thunders, and a rain-storm, during the night, which, +with a slight intermission, characterized the morning until noon. I +embarked at half past three A. M. (7th), and landed at the Fox village +of the Kettle chief, at the site of Dubuque's house,[111] at ten +o'clock; a moderate rain having continued all the way. It ceased an hour +after my arrival. + + [111] This is now (1854) the site of the city of Dubuque, State of + Iowa, which is reputed to be the oldest settlement in that State. + This city is eligibly situated on a broad plateau, between limestone + cliffs. The soil rests on a rock foundation, which renders it + incapable of being undermined by the Mississippi. Its streets are + broad and laid out at right angles. It has several Protestant + churches, a Catholic cathedral, a public land office, two banks, four + printing offices, and by the last census contains a population of + 7,500, the county of which it is the seat of justice, has 10,840. Two + railroads have their terminal points at this place. At the time of my + visit, in 1820, the house which had been built by Mr. Dubuque, had + been burnt down; and there was not a dwelling superior to the Indian + wigwam within the present limits of Iowa. The State of Iowa was + admitted into the Union in 1837. By the 7th U. S. census, the + population of this State, in 1850, is shown to be 192,214. The number + of square miles is 50,914. No Western State is believed to contain a + less proportionate quantity of land unsuited to the plough, and its + population and resources must have a rapid development. + +The Kettle chief's village is situated fifteen miles below the entrance +of the Little Makokety River, consisting of nineteen lodges, built in +two rows, pretty compact, and having a population of two hundred and +fifty souls. There is a large island in the Mississippi, directly +opposite this village, which is occupied by traders. I first landed +there to get an interpreter of the Fox language, and obtain some +necessary information respecting the location of the mines, and the best +means of accomplishing my object. Meantime the rain had ceased. I then +proceeded across the Mississippi to the Kettle chief's lodge, to solicit +his permission to visit the mines, and obtain Indian guides. I succeeded +in getting Mr. Gates, as interpreter; and was accompanied by Dr. S. +Muir, a trader, who politely offered to go with me. On entering the +lodge of Aquoqua, the chief, I found him suffering under a severe attack +of bilious fever. As I approached him, he sat upon his pallet, being +unable to stand, and bid me welcome; but soon became exhausted by the +labor of conversation, and was obliged to resume his former position. He +appeared to be a man of eighty years of age, had a venerable look, but +was reduced to the last stage of physical debility. Yet he retained his +faculties of sight and hearing unimpaired, together with his mental +powers. He spoke to me of his death with calm resignation, as a thing to +be desired. On stating the object of my visit, some objections were made +by the chiefs who surrounded him, and they required further time to +consider the proposition. In the mean time, I learned from another +source, that since the death of Dubuque, to whom the Indians had +formerly granted the privilege of working the mines, they had manifested +great jealousy of the whites, were afraid they would encroach on their +rights, denied all former grants, and did not make it a practice even to +allow strangers to view their diggings. Apprehending some difficulties +of this kind, I had provided myself with some presents, and concluding +this to be the time, because of the reluctance manifested, directed one +of my voyageurs to bring in a present of tobacco and whiskey; and in a +few moments I received their assent, and two guides were furnished. One +of these was a minor chief, called Scabass, or the Yelling Wolf; the +other, Wa-ba-say-ah, or the White Foxskin. They led me up the cliff, +where I understood the Indian woman, Peosta, first found lead ore; after +reaching the level of the river bluffs, we pursued a path over +undulating hills, exhibiting a half prairie, and quite picturesque rural +aspect. On reaching the diggings, the most striking part of them, but +not all of them, exhibited excavations such as the Indians only do not +seem persevering enough in labor to have made. + +The district of country called Dubuque's Mines, embraces an area of +about twenty-one square leagues, commencing at the mouth of the Little +Maquaquity River, sixty miles below Prairie du Chien, and extending +along the west bank of the Mississippi River, seven leagues in front by +three in depth. The principal mines are situated on a tract of one +square league, beginning immediately at the Fox village of Aquoqua, or +the Kettle chief, and extending westwardly. This is the seat of the +mining operations carried on by Dubuque, as well as of what are called +the Indian Diggings. + +Geologically it is the same formation that characterizes the mines of +Missouri; but there are some peculiarities. The ore found is the common +sulphuret of lead, with a broad foliated, or lamellated structure, and +high metallic lustre. It occurs massive and disseminated, in a red loam, +resting on a horizontal limestone rock. Sometimes small veins of the ore +are seen in the rock, but it has been generally explored in the soil. It +generally occurs in narrow beds, which have a fixed direction; these +beds extend three or four hundred feet, when they cease, or are traced +into crevices in the rock. At this stage, the pursuit of ore, at most of +the diggings, has been abandoned, frequently with small veins of the +metal in view. No matrix, so far as I observed, is found with the ore +which is dug out of the soil, unless we may consider such an ochery +oxide of iron, with which it is slightly incrusted. Occasionally, pieces +of calcareous spar are thrown out with the earth in digging after ore. I +picked up from one of these heaps of earth a specimen of transparent +crystallized sulphate of barytes; but this mineral appears to be rare. +There appears to be none of the radiated quartz, or white opaque heavy +spar, which are so abundantly found at the Missouri mines.[112] + + [112] _Vide_ my View of the Lead Mines of Missouri, &c., New York, + 1819. + +The ore at these mines is now exclusively dug by the Indian women. Old +and superannuated men also partake in the mining labor, but the warriors +and men hold themselves above it. In this labor, the persons who engage +in it employ the hoe, shovel, pick-axe, and crow-bar. These implements +are supplied by the traders at the island, who are the purchasers of the +crude ore. With these implements they dig trenches, till they are +arrested by the solid rock. There are no shafts, even of the simplest +kind, and the windlass and bucket are unknown to them--far more so the +use of gunpowder in the mining operations. Their mode of going down into +the deepest pits, and coming up from them, is by digging an inclined +way, which permits the women to keep an erect position in walking.[113] +I descended into one of these inclined excavations, which had probably +been carried down forty feet, at the perpendicular angle. + + [113] This is believed to be an oriental mode of excavation, which + appears to have been practised in digging wells. + +When a quantity of ore has been got out, it is carried in baskets to the +banks of the Mississippi, by the females, who are ferried over to the +island. They receive at the rate of two dollars for a hundred and twenty +pounds, payable in goods. At the profit at which these are usually sold, +it may be presumed to cost the traders at the rate of seventy-five cents +or a dollar, cash value, per hundred weight. The traders smelt the ore +on the island, in furnaces of the same construction which I have +described, and given plates of, in my treatise on the mines.[114] They +observe that it yields the same per centum of metallic lead. Formerly, +the Indians were in the habit of smelting the ore themselves on log +heaps, by which an unusual proportion of it was converted into +lead-ashes and lost. They are now induced to search about the sites of +these old fires to collect these lead-ashes, which consist, for the most +part, of desulphuretted ore, for which they receive a dollar per bushel. + + [114] New York, 1819. + +There are three mines in addition to those above mentioned, situated +upon the Upper Mississippi, which are worked by the Indians. They are +located at Sinsinaway, at Rivière au Fevre, and at the Little Makokety. +1. Sinsinaway mines. They are situated fifteen miles below Aquoqua's +Village, on the east shore of the Mississippi, at the junction of the +Sinsinaway River. 2. Mine au Fevre. Situated on the River au Fevre, +which enters the Mississippi on its east banks, twenty-one miles below +Dubuque's mines. The lead ore is found ten miles from its mouth. At this +locality, the ore is accompanied by the sulphate of barytes, and is +sometimes crystallized in cubes or octohedrons.[115] 3. Mine of the +Makokety, or Maquoqueti. This small river enters the Mississippi fifteen +miles above Dubuque's mines. The mineral character and value of the +country has been but little explored. + + [115] The city of Galena has subsequently been built on this river, + at the distance of six miles from the Mississippi. The river is, + indeed, thus far, an arm of the Mississippi, which permits steamboats + freely to enter, converting the place into a commercial depot for a + vast surrounding country. Not less than 40,000,000 pounds of lead + were shipped from this place in 1852, valued at one million six + hundred thousand dollars. It is the terminus of the Chicago and + Galena Railroad, connecting it by a line of 180 miles with the lakes. + It contains a bank, three newspaper offices, and several churches of + various denominations, and has, by the census of 1850, a population + of 6,004. + +The history of the mines of Dubuque is brief and simple. In 1780, a +discovery of lead ore was made by the wife of Peosta, a Fox Indian of +Aquoqua's Village. This gave the hint for explorations, which resulted +in extensive discoveries. The lands were formally granted by the Indians +to Julien Dubuque, at a council held at Prairie du Chien in 1788, by +virtue of which he permanently settled on them, erected buildings and +furnaces, and continued to work them until 1810. In 1796, he received a +confirmation of his grant from Carondelet, the governor of Louisiana, in +which they are called "the mines of Spain." By a stone monument which +stands on a hill near the mines, Dubuque died on the 24th March, 1810, +aged forty-five years and six months. After his death, the Indians burnt +down his house and fences--he leaving, I believe, no family[116]--and +erased every vestige of civilized life; and they have since revoked, or +at least denied the grant, and appear to set a very high value on the +mines. Dubuque's claim was assigned to his creditors, by whom it was +presented to the commissioners for deciding on land titles, in 1806. By +a majority of the board it was determined to be valid, in which +condition it was reported to Washington for final action. At this stage +of the investigation, Mr. Gallatin, who was then Secretary of the +Treasury, made a report on the subject, clearly stating the facts, and +coming to the conclusion that it was not a perfect title, stating that +no patent had ever been issued for it, at New Orleans, the seat of the +Spanish authority, from which transcripts of the records of all grants +had been transmitted to the Treasury.[117] + + [116] There is believed to be no instance, in America, where the + Indians have disannulled grants or privileges to persons settling + among them, and leaving families founded on the Indian element. + + [117] For the facts in this case, see _Collection of Land Laws of the + United States_, printed at Washington, 1817. + +On the arrival of Lieut. Pike at Mr. Dubuque's on the 1st of September, +1805, he endeavored to obtain information necessary to judge of the +value and extent and the nature of the grant of the mines; but he was +not able to visit them. To the inquiries which he addressed to Mr. +Dubuque on the subject, the latter replied in writing that a copy of the +grant was filed at the proper office in St. Louis, which would show its +date, together with the date of its confirmation by the Spanish +authority, and the extent of the grant to him. He states the mine to be +twenty-seven or twenty-eight leagues long, and from one to three leagues +broad. He represents the per centum of metal to be yielded from the ore +to be seventy-five, and the quantity smelted per annum at from 20,000 to +40,000 pounds. He stated that the whole product was cast into pig lead, +and that there were no other metals at the mines but copper, of the +value of which he could not judge. + +Having examined the mines with as much minuteness as the time allowed me +would permit, and obtained specimens of its ores and minerals, I +returned to the banks of the Mississippi, before the daylight departed, +and, immediately embarking, went up the river two leagues and encamped +on an island. + +It may be proper to add to this narrative of my mineralogical visit to +these mines, a few words respecting the Fox Indians, by whom the country +is owned. The first we hear of these people is from early missionaries +of New France, who call them, in a list drawn up for the government in +1736, "Gens du Sang," and Miskaukis. The latter I found to be the name +they apply to themselves. We get nothing, however, by it. It means +Red-earths, being a compound from _misk-wau_, red, and _auki_, earth. +They are a branch of the great Algonquin family. The French, who formed +a bad opinion of them, as their history opened, bestowed on them the +name of Renouard, from which we derive their long-standing popular name. +Their traditions attribute their origin to eastern portions of America. +Mr. Gates, who acted as my interpreter, and is well acquainted with +their language and customs, informs me that their traditions refer to +their residence on the north banks of the St. Lawrence, near the ancient +Cataraqui. They appear to have been a very erratic, spirited, warlike, +and treacherous tribe; dwelling but a short time at a spot, and pushing +westward, as their affairs led them, till they finally reached the +Mississippi, which they must have crossed after 1766, for Carver found +them living in villages on the Wisconsin. At Saginaw, they appear to +have formed a fast alliance with the Saucs, a tribe to whom they are +closely allied by language and history. They figure in the history of +Indian events about old Michilimackinac, where they played pranks under +the not very definite title of Muscodainsug, but are first conspicuously +noted while they dwelt on the river bearing their name, which falls into +Green Bay, Wisconsin.[118] The Chippewas, with whom they have strong +affinity of language, call them Otagami, and ever deemed them a +sanguinary and unreliable tribe. The French defeated them in a +sanguinary battle at Butte de Mort, and by this defeat drove them from +Fox River. + + [118] This name was first applied to a territory in 1836. + +Their present numbers cannot be accurately given. I was informed that +the village I visited contained two hundred and fifty souls. They have a +large village at Rock Island, where the Foxes and Saucs live together, +which consists of sixty lodges, and numbers three hundred souls. +One-half of these may be Saucs. They have another village at the mouth +of Turkey River; altogether, they may muster from 460 to 500 souls. Yet, +they are at war with most of the tribes around them, except the Iowas, +Saucs, and Kickapoos. They are engaged in a deadly, and apparently +successful war against the Sioux tribes. They recently killed nine men +of that nation, on the Terre Blue River; and a party of twenty men are +now absent, in the same direction, under a half-breed named Morgan. They +are on bad terms with the Osages and Pawnees of the Missouri, and not on +the best terms with their neighbors the Winnebagoes. + +I again embarked at four o'clock A. M. (8th). My men were stout fellows, +and worked with hearty will, and it was thought possible to reach the +Prairie during the day, by hard and late pushing. We passed Turkey River +at two o'clock, and they boldly plied their paddles, sometimes animating +their labors with a song; but the Mississippi proved too stout for us; +and some time after nightfall we put ashore on an island, before +reaching the Wisconsin. In ascending the river this day, observed the +pelican, which exhibited itself in a flock, standing on a low sandy spot +of an island. This bird has a clumsy and unwieldy look, from the +duplicate membrane attached to its lower mandible, which is constructed +so as when inflated to give it a bag-like appearance. A short sleep +served to restore the men, and we were again in our canoes the next +morning (9th) before I could certainly tell the time by my watch. +Daylight had not yet broke when we passed the influx of the Wisconsin, +and we reached the Prairie under a full chorus, and landed at six +o'clock. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + The expedition proceeds from Prairie du Chein up the Wisconsin + Valley--Incidents of the ascent--Etymology of the name--The low + state of its waters favorable to the observation of its + fresh-water conchology--Cross the Wisconsin summit, and descend + the Fox River to Winnebago Lake. + + +We were now at the foot of the Wisconsin Valley--at the point, in fact, +where Marquette and Joliet, coming from the forests and lakes of New +France, had discovered the great River of the West, in 1673. Marquette, +led by his rubrics, named it the River "Conception," but, in his +journal, he freely employs the aboriginal term of Mississippi, which was +in use by the whole body of the Algonquin tribes. While awaiting, at +Prairie du Chein, the preparations for ascending the Wisconsin, the +locality was found a very remarkable one for its large unios, and some +other species of fresh-water shells. Some specimens of the unio crassus, +found on the shores of the island in the Mississippi, opposite the +village, were of thrice the size of any noticed in America or Europe, +and put conchologists in doubt whether the species should not be named +_giganteus_.[119] I had, in coming down the Mississippi, procured some +fine and large specimens of the unio purpureus of Mr. Say, at the +Painted Rock, with some other species; and the discovery of such large +species of the crassus served to direct new attention to the subject. + + [119] American Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 119. + +Our sympathies were excited, at this place, by observing an object of +human deformity in the person of an Indian, who, to remedy the want of +the power of locomotion, had adjusted his legs in a large wooden bowl. +By rocking this on the ground, he supplied, in a manner, the lost +locomotive power. This man of the bowl possessed his faculties of mind +unimpaired, spoke several Indian languages, besides the Canadian +French, and appeared cheerful and intelligent. An excursion into the +adjacent country, to view some caves, and a reported mineral locality +made by Mr. Trowbridge, during my descent to the mines of Dubuque, +brought me some concretions of carbonate of lime, but the Indian guides +either faltered to make the promised discoveries, through their +superstitions, or really failed in the effort to find the object. By +tracing the shores of the Mississippi, I found the rolled and hard +agates and other quartz species, which characterize the pebble-drift of +its sources, still present in the down-flowing shore-drift. + +The aboriginal name of this place is Kipesági, an Algonquin word, which +is applied to the mouth or outflow of the Wisconsin River. It appears to +be based on the verb _kipa_, to be thick or turbid, and _sauge_, +outflow--the river at its floods, being but little else than a moving +mass of sand and water. + +It was the 9th (Aug.) at half-past ten in the morning before the +expedition left the Prairie to ascend the Wisconsin, the mouth of which +we reached after descending the Mississippi three miles. This is an +impressive scene--the bold cliffs of the west bank of the Mississippi, +with Pike's-hill rising in front on the west, while those of the +Wisconsin Valley stand at but little less elevation on the north and +south. At this season of the year the water is clear and placid, and +mingles itself in its mighty recipient without disturbance. But it is +easy to conceive, what the Indians affirm, that in its floods it is a +strong and turbid mass of moving waters, against which nothing can +stand. This character of the stream is believed, indeed, to be the +origin of the Indian name of Wisconsin. Miskawägumi, means a strong or +mixed water, or liquid. By adding to this word _totoshabo_ (milk), the +meaning is coagulated or turning milk; it is often used to mean brandy, +which is then called strong water; by adding _iscodawabo_, the meaning +is fire-water. Marquette, in 1673, spells the name of the river +indifferently Meshkousing, and Mishkousing. Of this term, the inflection +_ing_, is simply a local form, the letter _s_ being thrown in for +euphony. This word appears to be a derivation from the term _mushkowa_, +strong water. By admitting the transmutation of _m_ to _w_, the initial +syllable _mis_ is changed to _wis_, and the interpretation is then river +(or place) of strong waters. The term of _kipesagi_, applied to its +mouth, is but another characteristic feature of it--the one laying +stress on its _turbidity in flood_, and the other on its _strength of +current_. These are certainly the two leading traits of the Wisconsin, +which rushes with a great average velocity over an inclined plane, +without falls, for a great distance. It originates in a remarkable +summit of sandy plains, which send out to the west the Chippewa River of +Lake Pepin, to the north the Montreal and Ontonagon of Lake Superior, +and to the east the Menomonee of Green Bay, while the Wisconsin becomes +its southern off-drain, till it finally turns west at the Portage, and +flows into the Mississippi. + +We ascended, the first day, eighteen miles; the next, thirty-six; the +third day, thirty-four miles; the fourth, forty; the fifth, +thirty-eight, and the sixth, sixteen, which brought us to the Fox and +Wisconsin Portage, a spot renowned from the earliest French days of +western discovery. For here, on the waters separating the Mississippi +from the great lakes, there had, at successive intervals, been pitched +the tents of Marquette, La Hontan, Carver, and other explorers, who +have, in their published journals, left traces of their footsteps. La +Salle, who excelled them all in energy of character, proceeded to the +Mississippi from Lake Michigan, down the Illinois. + +Our estimates made the distance from the Mississippi to this point one +hundred and eighty-two miles. It is a wide, and (at this season) shallow +stream, with transparent waters, running over a bed of yellow sand, +checkered with numerous small islands, and long spits of sand-bars. +There is not a fall in this distance, and it must be navigable with +large craft during the periodical freshets. It receives the Blue, Pine, +and other tributaries in this distance. Its valley presents a geological +section, on a large scale, of the series of lead-bearing rocks extending +in regular succession from the fundamental sandstone to the topmost +limestones. The water being shallow and warm, we often waded from bar to +bar, and found the scene a fruitful one for its fresh-water conchology. +The Indians frequently amused me by accounts of the lead mines and +mineral productions of its borders; but I followed them in this search +only to be convinced that they were without sincerity in these +representations, and had no higher objects on this head, than, by +assuming a conciliatory manner, to secure temporary advantages while the +expedition was passing through their country. The valley belongs to the +Winnebagoes, whom we frequently met, and received a friendly reception +from. We also encountered Menomonies, who occupy the lower part of the +adjacent Fox River Valley, but rove widely west and north over the +countries of the tribes they are at peace with. + +The Wisconsin Valley was formerly inhabited by the Sacs and Foxes, who +raised large quantities of corn and beans on its fertile shores. They +were driven by the French, in alliance with the Chippewas and +Menomonies. It is now possessed exclusively by the Winnebagoes, a savage +and bloodthirsty tribe, who came, according to tradition, many years ago +from the south, and are thought to be related to some of the Mexican +tribes. Their language is cognate with the great Sioux or Dakota stock +west of the Mississippi, who likewise date their origin south. To those +accustomed to hear the softer tones of the Chippewa and Algonquin, it +sounds harsh and guttural. Their name for themselves is Hochungara; the +French call them _Puants_. + +In passing up this valley, an almost never-failing object of interest +was furnished by the univalve shells found along its banks, and by the +variety in size, shape, and color which they exhibited. Of these, the +late Mr. Barnes has described, from my duplicates, the U. plicatus, U. +verrucosus, U. ventricosus, U. planus, U. obliqua, and U. gracilis.[120] +We frequently observed the scolipax minor, the plover, the A. alcyon, a +small yellow bird, and C. vociferus, along its sandy shores; and, in +other positions, the brant, the grouse, the A. sponsa, and the summer +duck, and F. melodia. A range of hills extends from the Mississippi, on +each shore, to within twenty miles of the Portage, where it ceases, on +the south side, but continues on the north--receding, however, a +considerable distance. This section is called the Highlands of the +Wisconsin. The stratification is exclusively sandstone and limestone, in +the usual order of the metalliferous series of the West, and lying in +horizontal positions. + + [120] American Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 120, &c. + +There are two kinds of rattlesnake in the Valley of the Wisconsin. The +larger, or barred crotalis, is confined to the hills, and attains a +large size. I killed one of this species at the mouth of a small cave +on the summit of a cliff to which I ascended, which measured four feet +in length, and had nine rattles. Its great thickness attracted notice. +Attaching a twig to its neck, I drew it down into the valley as a +present to our Indians, knowing that they regard the reptile in a +peculiar manner. They found it a female, having eleven young, who had +taken shelter in their maternal abdominal-covering. The Ottowas +carefully took off the skin, and brought it with them. The second kind +of this reptile is called prairie rattlesnake, is confined to the +plains, and does not exceed fifteen or twenty inches in length. + +The Indians had reported localities of lead, copper, and silver at +various places, but always failed, as we ascended, to reveal anything of +more value than detached pieces of sulphuret of iron, or brown +iron-stone. When we reached the portage, a Winnebago, who had been the +chief person in making these reports, came with great ceremony to +present a specimen of his reported silver. On taking off the envelop it +turned out to be a small mass of light-colored glistening folia of mica. +We had found the horizontal rocks along the stream thus far, but the +primitive shows itself, within a mile north of the portage, in orbicular +masses in situ, coming through the prairies. + +Having reached the summit, we proceeded across it to the banks of Fox +River, where we encamped. It consists of a level plain. The distance is +a mile and a half. It required, however, some time to have our baggage +and canoes transported, which was done by a Frenchman residing at this +summit. Such is the slight difference in the level of the two rivers, +that Indian canoes are pushed through the marshy ridges when the rivers +are swelled by freshets. It was half-past three o'clock of the 15th, the +day following our arrival, before the transportation and loading of our +canoes was completed. It was then necessary to push our canoes through +fields of rushes and other aquatic plants, through which the river +winds. This was a slow mode of progress, and we spent the remainder of +the day in passing fifteen miles, which brought us to the FORKS, so +called, where the northern unites with the southern branch of the river. +At this spot we encamped. Next day we estimated our descent at +sixty-three miles, having found the navigation less intricate and +obstructed from the aquatic growth. In this distance we passed, at +thirty miles below the fork, a piece of clear water of nine miles +extent, called Buffalo Lake; and at the distance of twelve miles lower, +another lake of some twelve miles in extent, called Puckaway Lake. Down +to this point, the Fox River has scarcely a perceptible current. We +found we had not only, in parting from the Wisconsin to the Fox, +exchanged an open, swift, and strong flowing current, for a very quiet +and still one, winding through areas of wild rice and the whole family +of water plants; but had intruded into a region of water-fowl and birds +of every plumage, who, as they rioted upon their cherished zizania +aquatica, made the air resound with their screams. The blackbird +appeared to be lord of these fields. We had also intruded upon a +favorite region of the water-snake, who, coiled up on his bed of plants +at every bend of the stream, slid off with spiteful glance into the +stream. In passing these places of habitation, which the Chippewas call +_wauzh_, we perceptibly smelt an unpleasant odor arising from it. + +The next day we descended the river seventy miles. There is a +perceptible current below Puckaway Lake. The river increases in width +and depth, and offers no impediment whatever to its navigation. Fox +River runs, indeed, from the portage to Winnebago Lake on a summit, over +which it winds among sylvan hills, covered with grass and +prairie-flowers, interspersed with groves of oak, elm, ash, and hickory, +and dotted at intervals with lakes of refreshing transparent water. The +height of this summit, above the Mississippi and the lakes, must be +several hundred feet (stated at 234), which permits the stream to flow +with liveliness, insuring, when it comes to be settled,[121] the +erection of hydraulic works; and it would be difficult to point to a +region possessing in its soil, climate, and natural resources, a more +favorable character for an agricultural population. It has a diversified +surface, without mountains; a fine dry atmosphere; an admirable +drainage east, west, north, and south, and a ready access to the great +oceanic marts through the Great Lake and the Mississippi. + + [121] WISCONSIN. This region was separated from Michigan, and formed + into a separate territory in 1836; and admitted as a State in 1848. + By the census of 1850, it has a population of 305,391, divided into + 33,517 families, occupying 32,962 dwellings, and cultivating + 1,045,499 acres of land. There are 43 organized counties, and 334 + churches of all denominations, giving one church to every 1,250 + inhabitants. It has three representatives in the popular branch of + Congress. It was 16 years after my visit, before it had a distinct + legal existence--it increased to become a State in twelve years; and, + according to our ordinary rate of increase, will contain one million + of inhabitants in 1890. + +We passed, this day, several encampments and villages of Winnebagoes and +Menomonies--tribes, who, with the erratic habits of the Tartars, or +Bedouins, once spread their tents in the Fox and Wisconsin valleys, but +have now (1853) relinquished them to the European race; and it does not, +at this distance of time, seem important to denote the particular spots +where they once boiled their kettles of corn, or thumped their magic +drums. God have mercy on them in their wild wanderings! We also passed +the entrance of Wolf River, a fine bold stream on the left; and soon +below it the handsome elevation of La Butte de Morts, or the Hillock of +the Dead. This eminence was covered by the frail lodges of the +Winnebagoes. The spot is memorable in Indian history, for a signal +defeat of the Foxes, by the French and their Indian allies in the +seventeenth century, after which, this tribe was finally expelled from +the Fox valley. Our night's encampment (17th) was below this spot. The +night air was remarkably cold, and put an end to our further annoyance +from mosquitos. We embarked at five o'clock the next morning during a +dense fog, which was in due time dissipated by the rising sun. We had +been five hours in our canoes, under the full force of paddles, when we +entered Winnebago Lake. This is a most beautiful and sylvan expanse of +water some twenty-four miles long by ten in width, surrounded by +picturesque prairie and sloping plains. It has a stream at Fond du Lac, +its southern extremity,[122] which is connected by a short portage with +the principal source of Rock River of the Mississippi. + + [122] This spot is now the site of the flourishing town of Fond du + Lac, which was laid out in 1845. It had a population of 2,014 in + 1850, including two newspaper offices, two banking houses, one iron + foundry, a car factory, twelve drygoods stores, and sixty other + stores. It is situated 72 miles N. N. W. from Milwaukie, and 90 N. E. + from Madison, the capital of the State of Wisconsin. It is the shire + town of a county containing a population of 14,510, with 17 churches, + and 2,844 pupils attending public schools, and 85 attending + academies. It has a plank road to Lake Michigan, and will soon be + connected by a railroad with Chicago. It is by such means that the + American wilderness is conquered. + +The Fox River, after having displayed itself in the lake, leaves it, at +its northern extremity, flowing by a succession of rapids and falls over +horizontal limestones to the head of Green Bay. There is a Winnebago +village, under Hoo Tshoop, or Four Legs, at the point of outlet, where +we landed, and as the first rapid begins at that point, creating a +delay, I took the occasion to examine its geology more closely, by +procuring fresh fractures of the masses of rock in the vicinity. This +process, it appeared, was narrowly watched by the Indians, who wondered +what such a scrutiny should mean. The French, said the chief to one of +our interpreters, formerly held possession of this country; and, +afterwards, came the British. They contented themselves with common +things, and never disturbed these rocks, which have been laying here +forever. But the moment the Americans get possession of the country, +they must come and knock off pieces of the rock, and look at them. It is +marvellous! + +A brilliant mass of native copper, weighing ten or twelve pounds, was +found by an Indian, some years ago, on the shores of this lake. The +moment he espied it, his imagination was fired, and he fancied he beheld +the form of a beautiful female, standing in the water. Glittering in +radiancy, she held out in her hand a lump of gold. He paddled his canoe +towards her, furtively and slow, but, as he advanced, a transformation +gradually ensued. Her eyes lost their brilliancy, her face the glow of +life and health, her arms disappeared; and when he reached the spot, the +object had changed into a stone monument of the human form, with the +tail of a fish. Amazed, he sat awhile in silence; then, lighting his +pipe, he offered it the incense of tobacco, and addressed it, as the +guardian angel of his country. Lifting the miraculous image gently into +his canoe, he took his seat, with his face in an opposite direction, and +paddled towards shore, on reaching which, and turning round to the +object of his regard, he discovered, in its place, nothing but a lump of +shining virgin copper. + +Such are the imaginative efforts of this race, who look to the eyes of +civilization as if they had themselves faces of stone, and hearts of +adamant. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Descent of the Fox River from Winnebago Lake to Green + Bay--Incidents--Etymology, conchology, mineralogy--Falls of the + Konomic and Kakala--Population and antiquity of the settlement of + Green Bay--Appearances of a tide, not sustained. + + +A rapid commences at the precise point where Fox River issues from +Winnebago Lake. This rapid, down which canoes descend with half loads, +extends a mile and a half, when the river assumes its usual navigable +form, presenting a noble volume. Nine miles below this, a ledge of the +semi-crystalline limestone rock crosses the entire channel, lifting +itself five feet above the bed of the stream. Over this the Fox River +throws itself by an abrupt cascade. Down this shelf of rock, the canoes, +previously lightened of their burden, are lifted by the men. It was +sometime after dark when we reached and encamped on the north shore, at +the foot of this cascade, which bears the name of Konamik. The syllable +_kon_, in this word, appears to me to be the same as _con_ in Wisconsin, +and is, apparently, a derivative from a term for strong water, which +has, in this case, the meaning of cascade or fall. The word _amik_, its +terminal, means a beaver. We thus have the probable original meaning in +beaver-water, or, by implication, beaver cascade. There is a rapid below +this fall. I judged the water must sink its level, in this vicinity, +about fifteen feet. On examining the character of the limestone, I +discovered crystals of calcareous spar occupying small cavities. At +other localities, at lower points, there were found crystals of black +sulphuret of zinc, and yellow sulphuret of iron. The rock appears to be +of the same age as the lead-bearing limestone of the West; it is also +overlaid by the red marly clay, and I should judge it to contain +deposits of sulphuret of lead. + +The next morning, we resumed our descent of the Fox River with +difficulty. It was now the 19th of August, and the waters had reached +their lowest summer stage. The entire distance of twelve miles from the +Konamik to the Kákala fall may be deemed to be, at this season, a +continuous rapid. Our barge was abandoned on the rapids. While the men +toiled in these rapids to get down their canoes, it was found rather a +privilege to walk, for it gave a more ample opportunity to examine the +mineral structure and productions of the country. + +It was high noon when we reached the rapids of the Kákala. This is a +formidable rapid, at which the river rushes with furious velocity down a +rocky bed, which it seems impossible boats or canoes should ever safely +descend. It demands a portage to be made, under all circumstances, the +water sweeping round a curve or bow, of which the portage path is the +string. This is the apparent meaning of the term, in the Indian tongue; +but it is disguised by early orthography, in which the letter _l_ has +taken the place of _n_, and the syllable _in_ of _au_. The term _kakina_ +is the ancient French form of the Indian transitive-adjective _all_, +inclusive, entirely. There is another root for the term in _kakiwa_, +which is the ordinary term for a portage, or walk across a point of +land, which is rendered local by the usual inflection, _o-nong_. + +We found the portage path to be a well-beaten wagon road across a level +fertile plain, which appeared to have been in cultivation from the +earliest Indian period. Probably it had been a locality for the tribes, +where they raised their favorite maize, long before the French first +reached the waters of Green Bay. Evidence of such antiquity in the plain +of Kákala appeared in an ancient cemetery of a circular shape, situated +on one side of the road, on a comparatively large surface, which had +reached the height of some eight or ten feet, by the mere accumulation +of graves. This has all the appearance of a sepulchral mound, in the +slow process of construction; for, on viewing it, I found a recent +grave. We passed, on this plain, a Winnebago village of ten or twelve +lodges, embracing two hundred souls. The portage is continued just one +mile. Embarking again, at this point, we proceeded down the river, and +encamped eight miles below this point, having, with every exertion, made +but twenty miles this day. + +The interest which had been excited by the conchology of the +Mississippi and Wisconsin valleys, was renewed in the descent of the Fox +River, particularly in the section of it below Winnebago Lake. Shrunk to +its lowest summer level, its shores disclosed almost innumerable species +of unios, many of which had been manifestly dragged to the shores and +opened by the muskrat, thus serving to give hints for finding the living +species. Among these, the U. obliqua, U. cornutus, U. ellipticus, U. +carinatus, U. Alatus, U. prælongus, and U. parvus, were conspicuous; the +latter of which, it is remarked by Mr. Barnes, is the smallest and most +beautiful of all the genus yet discovered in America.[123] In the +duplicates, from this part of the Fox River, transmitted to Mr. Isaac +Lea, of Philadelphia, he found a species with green-rayed beaks, on a +yellow surface and iridescent nacre, having a peculiar structure, which +he did me the honor to name after me.[124] The description of Mr. Lea is +as follows: "Unio Schoolcraftensis. Shell subrotund, somewhat angular at +posterior dorsal margin, nearly equilateral, compressed, slightly +tuberculate posteriorly to umbonical slope. Substance of the shell +rather thick; beaks elevated; ligament short; epidermis smooth yellow, +with several broad green rays; teeth elevated, and cleft in the left +valve, single, and rising from a pit in the right; lateral teeth +elevated, straight, and lamellar; anterior cicatrices distinct, +posterior cicatrices confluent; dorsal cicatrices within the cavity of +the shell on the base of the cardinal tooth; cavity of the beaks angular +and deep; nacre pearly white and iridescent. Diameter ·7, length 1·1, +breadth 1·3 inches." + + [123] Amer. Journ. Science, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259, &c. + + [124] Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. v. p. + 37; plate 3, fig. 9. + +The next morning (20th), a heavy fog in the Fox Valley detained us in +our encampment till 7 o'clock. Six miles brought us to another rapid, +called the Little Kakala, which, however, opposes no obstacle to the +descent of canoes. At this spot, which is the apparent western terminus +of the Bay settlement, we found a party of U. S. soldiers, from Fort +Howard, engaged in digging the foundations for a saw-mill. Our +appearance must have been somewhat rusty at this time, from our +deficiences in the tonsorial and sempstrescal way, for these sons of +Mars did not recognize their superior officers in Capt. Douglass and Lt. +Mackay; glibly saying, in a jolly way, as they handed them a drink of +water: "After me, sir, is manners;" and drinking off the first cup. At +this rapid I got out of my canoe, wishing to see the geological +formation more fully, and walked quite to the Rapide du Pere, where Fox +River finds its level in the broad, elongated, and lake-like tongue of +water, extending up from the head of Green Bay. On reaching this point, +the scene of the settlement first burst on our view, with its +farm-houses and cultivated fields stretching, for five miles, along both +banks of the river; disclosing the flagstaff of the distant fort, and +the bannered masts of vessels, all of which brought vividly to mind our +approach to the civilized world. If the Canadian boat-song was ever +exhilarating and appropriate, it was peculiarly so on the present +occasion; and when our _voyageurs_ burst out, in full chorus, with the +ancient ditty, beginning, + + "_La fille du Roi son vout chassau, + Avec son grande fusee d'largent_," + +they waked up a responsive feeling, not alone in the breasts of the +French _habitans_, lining the shores of the river, but in our own +breasts. On reaching the fort, the salute due to the governor of a +territory was paid, in honor of our leader, Governor Cass; and in +exchanging congratulations with the officers and citizens, we began +first to feel, in reality, that, after passing among many savage tribes, +our scalps were still safely on our heads. I found, at the fort, letters +from my friends, and was thus reminded that warm sympathies had been +alive for our fate. Weary regions had now been past, and privations +endured, of which we thought little, at the time; the flag of the Union +had been carried among barbarous tribes, who hardly knew there was such +a power as the United States, or, if they knew, despised it; and some +information had been gathered, which it was hoped would enlarge the +boundaries of science, and would at the same time send a thrill of +satisfaction, and impart a feeling of security, along the whole line of +the advanced and extended western settlements. If Berkeley, in the dark +days of the Commonwealth of England, could turn to the West, with +exultation, as the hope of the nation, it must be admitted that it is by +some out-door means, like this, that the way for the car of "empire" +must be prepared. + +We found the fort, which bears the name of Howard, in charge of Capt. +W. Wistler, during the absence of Col. Joseph L. Smith. Its strength +consists of three hundred men, together with about the same number of +infantry at Camp Smith, at Rock or Dupere Rapid, a few miles above, who +are engaged in quarrying stone for a permanent fortification at that +point. On visiting this quarry, I found it to consist of a bluish-gray +limestone, semi-crystalline in its structure, containing small +disseminated masses of sulphuret of zinc, calcspar, and iron pyrites, +and corresponding, in every respect, with the beds of this rock observed +along the upper parts of the Fox and Wisconsin valleys. + +Fort Howard is seated on a handsome fertile plain, on the north banks of +the Fox, near its mouth. It consists of a stockade of timber, thirty +feet high, inclosing barracks, which face three sides of a quadrangle. +This forms a fine parade. There are blockhouses, mounting guns, at the +angles, and quarters for the surgeon and quartermaster, separately +constructed. The whole is whitewashed, and presents a neat military +appearance. The gardens of the military denote the most fruitful soil +and genial climate. Data observed by the surgeon, indicate the site to +be unexcelled for its salubrity, such a disease as fever, of any kind, +never having visited it, in either an endemic or epidemic form. + +The name of Green Bay is associated with our earliest ideas of French +history in America. When La Salle visited the country in the 17th +century, it had been many years known to the French, and was esteemed +one of the prime posts for trading with the Indians. The chief tribes +who were located here, and in the vicinity, making this their central +point of trade, were the _Puants_, i. e. Winnebagoes, Malomonies, or +Folle Avoins, known to us as Menomonies, Sacs, and Foxes, called also +Sakis, Outagami, and Renouards, and it was also the seat of trade for +the equivocal tribe of the Mascoutins. The present inhabitants are, with +few exceptions, descendants of the original French, who intermarried +with Indian women, and who still speak the French and Indian languages. +They are indolent, gay, and illiterate. I was told there were five +hundred inhabitants, and about sixty principal dwellings, beside +temporary structures. There are seventy inhabitants enrolled as +militia-men, and the settlement has civil courts, being the seat of +justice from Brown County, Michigan, so called in honor of Major-General +Jacob Brown, U. S. A. The place is surrounded by the woodlands and +forests, and seems destined to be an important lake-port.[125] The +Algonquin name for this place is Boatchweekwaid, a term which describes +an eccentric or abrupt bay, or inlet. Nothing could more truly depict +its singular position; it is, in fact, a kind of cul-de-sac--a +duplicature of Lake Michigan, with the coast-shore of which it lies +parallel for about ninety miles. + + [125] GREEN BAY. This town has just (1854) been incorporated as a + city, the anticipations respecting it having been slow in being + realized. It has now an estimated population of 3,000, with several + churches in a healthy and flourishing state, two printing presses, a + post-office, collectorship, and thriving agricultural and commercial + advantages, which will be fully realized when the internal + improvements in process of construction through the Fox and Wisconsin + valleys are finished. Its extreme salubrity has, it seems, been + disregarded by emigrants. + +The singular configuration of this bay appears to be the chief cause of +the appearances of a tide at the point where it is entered by Fox River. +This phenomenon was early noticed by the French. La Hontan mentions it +in 1689. Charlevoix remarks on it in 1721, and suggests its probable +cause, which is, in his opinion, explained by the fact that Lakes +Michigan and Huron, alternately empty themselves into each other through +the Straits of Michilimackinac. The effects of such a flux and reflux, +under the power of the winds, would appear to place Green Bay in the +position of a siphon, on the west of Lake Michigan, and go far to +account for the singular fluctuations of the current at the mouth of the +Fox River. On reaching this spot of the rising and falling of the lake +waters, Governor Cass caused observations to be made, which he greatly +extended at a subsequent period.[126] These give no countenance to the +theory of regular tides, but denote the changes in the level of the +waters to be eccentrically irregular, and dependent, so far as the +observations extend, altogether on the condition of the winds and +currents of the lakes. + + [126] American Journal of Science, vol. xvii. + +Something analogous to this is perceived in the Baltic, which has no +regular tides, and therefore experiences no difference of height, except +when the wind blows violently. "At such times," says Pennant,[127] +"there is a current in and out of the Baltic, according to the points +they blow from, which forces the water through the sound, with the +velocity of two or three Danish miles in the hour. When the wind blows +violently from the German Sea, the water rises in several Baltic +harbors, and gives those in the western tract a temporary saltness; +otherwise, the Baltic loses that other property of a sea, by reason of +the want of tide, and the quantity of vast rivers it receives, which +sweeten it so much as to render it, in many places, fit for domestic +use." + + [127] Arctic Geology. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + The expedition traces the west shores of Lake Michigan southerly to + Chicago--Outline of the journey along this coast--Sites of + Manitoowoc, Sheboigan, Milwaukie, Racine, and Chicago, being the + present chief towns and cities of Wisconsin and Illinois on the + west shores of that Lake--Final reorganization of the party and + departure from Chicago. + + +Two days spent in preparations to reorganize the expedition, enabled it +to continue its explorations. For the purpose of tracing the western and +northern shores of Green Bay, and the northern shores of Lake Michigan, +a sub-expedition was fitted out, under Mr. Trowbridge, our +sub-topographer, who was accompanied by Mr. J. D. Doty, Mr. Alex. R. +Chase, and James Riley, the Chippewa interpreter. The auxiliary Indians, +who had, thus far, attended us in a separate canoe, were rewarded for +their services, furnished with provisions to reach their homes, and +dismissed. The escort of soldiers under Lieut. Mackay, U. S. A., were +returned to their respective companies at Fort Howard and Camp Smith. +The Chippewa chief, _Iaba Wawashkash_, or the Buck, who belonged +to Michilimackinac, went with Mr. Trowbridge, together with Jo +Parks, the intelligent Shawnee captive, and assimilated Shawnee of +Waughpekennota,[128] Ohio. The Ottowa chief, Kewaygooshkum, of +Grand-River, took the rest of the party in a separate canoe to their +destination. Our collections in natural history were shipped in the +schooner Decatur, Capt. Burnham (Perry's boatswain in the memorable +naval battle of Lake Erie, Sept. 11, 1813), to Michilimackinac, together +with the extra baggage. + + [128] WAUGHPEKENNOTA. This place was _then_ the residence of the + Shawnee tribe, under the Prophet Elksattawa, of war memory, the + celebrated brother of Tecumseh, who, seeing the intrusive tread of + the Americans, headed, in 1827, the first exploring party of the + tribe to the west of the Mississippi, where they finally settled. + After living twenty-seven years at this spot, they found themselves + within the newly-erected territory of Kansas, and sold their surplus + lands to the U. States by a treaty concluded at Washington in May, + 1854, the said Parks being at this time first chief of the Shawnee + tribe. + +Thus relieved in numbers and canoe-hamper, we were reduced to two +canoes; the travelling family of Gov. Cass now consisted of Capt. +Douglass, Dr. Wolcott, Maj. Forsyth, Lieut. Mackay, and myself. Leaving +Fort Howard at two o'clock P. M., we parted with Mr. Trowbridge and his +party at the mouth of Fox River, at half past two, and taking the other, +or east side of the bay, proceeded along its shores about twenty-five +miles, and encamped on the coast called Red Banks. This is a term +translated from the Winnebago name, which is renowned in their +traditions as the earliest spot which they can recollect. They dwelt +here when the French first reached Green Bay in their discoveries in the +seventeenth century. Here, then, is a test of the value and continuity +of Indian tradition, so far as this tribe is concerned, for admitting, +what is doubtful, that the French reached this point so early as 1650, +the period of recognized Winnebago history, as proved by geography, +reaches but 170 years prior to the above date. + +In a short time after entering the bay, we were overtaken by +Kewaygooshkum and his party, who travelled and encamped with us. In the +course of the evening he pointed out a rocky island, at three or four +miles distance, containing a large cavern, which has been used by the +Indians from early times as a repository for the dead. The chief, as he +pointed to it, as if absorbed in a spirit of ancestral reverence, seemed +to say:-- + + "It hath a charm the stranger knoweth not, + It is the [sepulchre] of mine ancestry; + There is an inspiration in its shade, + The echoes of its walls are eloquent, + The words they speak are of the glorious dead; + Its tenants are not human--they are more! + The stones have voices, and the walls do live; + It is the home of memories dearly honored + By many a trace of long departed glory." + +The appearance of ancient cultivation of this coast is such as to give +semblance to the Winnebago tradition of its having been their former +residence. The lands are fertile, alluvion, bearing a secondary growth +of trees, mingled with older species of the acer saccharinum, elm, and +oak. + +The next day, after traversing this coast twenty miles further, we +reached and passed up Sturgeon Bay, to a portage path leading to Lake +Michigan. This path begins in low grounds, where several of the swamp +species of plants occur. On reaching the open shores of Lake Michigan, +the wind was found strongly ahead, and we were compelled to encamp. At +this spot we found several species of madreperes, and some other organic +forms, among the shore debris. The next day the wind abated, and, +agreeably to the estimate of Capt. Douglass, we advanced along the +shore, southwardly, forty-six miles. The day following, we made forty +miles, and reached the River Manitowakie,[129] and encamped on the lake +shore, five miles south of it. + + [129] From _Manito_, a spirit, _auk_, a standing or hollow tree that + is under a mysterious influence, and the generic inflection _ie_, + which is applied to vital or animate nouns. A town, at present, + exists at the spot called Manitoowoc. It is the shire town of a + county of the same name in Wisconsin; it has a good harbor, and by + the census of 1850 contains four churches, twelve stores, two steam + mills, two ship-yards, a newspaper, post-office, and 2,500 + inhabitants. We found the site inhabited by a village Monomonees of + six lodges. + +In passing along the lake shore this day (25th), we observed it to be +strewed abundantly with the carcasses of dead pigeons. This bird, we +were told, is often overcome by the fatigue of long flights, or storms, +in crossing the lake, and entire flocks drowned. This causes the shores +to be visited by great numbers of hawks, eagles, and other birds of +prey. The Indians only make use of those carcasses of pigeons, as food, +when they are first cast on shore. + +The next day the expedition passed the mouth of the Sheboigan River, a +stream originating not remotely from the banks of Winnebago Lake, with +which, as the name indicates, there is a portage or passage +through.[130] Pushing forward with every force during the day, we +reached the mouth of the Milwaukie River, and encamped on the beach some +time after dark. This is a large and important river, and is connected +by an Indian portage with the Rock River of the Mississippi. The next +morning adverse winds confined us to this spot, where we remained a +considerable part of the day, which enabled us to explore the locality. +We found it to be the site of a Pottawattomie village. There were two +American families located at that place, engaged in the Indian trade. + + [130] _Shebiau_, is to look critically; _shebiabunjegun_, a spy-glass + or instrument to look through. Sheboigan appears to have its + termination from the word _gan_, a lake, and the combination denotes + a river, or water pass from lake to lake. This place is now (1854) a + town and county site of Wisconsin. The county was organized in 1839, + and by the last census has seven churches, two newspapers, 624 pupils + at schools, and a population of 8,379. The town of this name contains + 2,000 inhabitants. It is 62 miles N. from Milwaukie, and 110 N. E. + from Madison, the State capital. It has a plank road of 40 miles to + Fond du Lac, and is noted for its lumber trade. + +The name of Milwaukie,[131] exhibits an instance of which there are many +others, in which the French have substituted the sound of the letter _l_ +in place of _n_, in Indian words. _Min_, in the Algonquin languages +signifies _good_. _Waukie_, is a derivative from _auki_, earth or land, +the fertility of the soil, along the banks of that stream, being the +characteristic trait which is described in the Indian compound. + + [131] Milwaukie is the principal city of the State of Wisconsin. It + lies in latitude 43° 3´ 45´´ North. It is ninety miles north of + Chicago and seventy-five east from Madison. It contains thirty + churches, five public high schools, two academies, five orphan + asylums, and other benevolent institutions, seven daily and seven + weekly newspapers, four banks, and, by the census of 1850, 20,161 + inhabitants. + +When the wind lulled so as to permit embarkation, we proceeded on our +course. At the computed distance of five miles, we observed a bed of +light-colored tertiary clay, possessing a compactness, tenacity, and +feel, which denote its utility in the arts. This bed, after a break of +many miles in the shores, reappears in thicker and more massive layers, +at eight or ten miles distance. The waves dashing against this elevated +bank of clay,[132] have liberated balls and crystallized-masses of +sulphuret of iron. + + [132] An admired kind of cream-colored bricks are manufactured from + portions of the clay found near Milwaukie. + +Some of the more recently exposed masses of this mineral are of a bright +brass color. The tendency of their crystallization is to restore +octahedral and cubical forms. We advanced along this shore about +thirty-five miles, encamping on an eligible part of the beach before +dark. I found, in examining the mineralogy of the coast, masses of +detached limestone, containing fissures filled with asphaltum. On +breaking these masses, and laying open the fissures, the substance +assumed the form of naphtha. We observed among the plants along this +portion of coast, the tradescantia virginica, and T. liatris, and +squarrosa scariosa.[133] By scrutinizing the wave-moved pebble-drift +along shore, it is evident that inferior positions, in the geological +basin of Lake Michigan, contain slaty, or bituminous coal, masses of +which were developed. + + [133] Dr. J. Torrey, _Am. Journ. Science_, vol. 4, p. 56. + +The next day's journey, 28th, carried us forty miles, in which distance, +the most noticeable fact in the topography of the coast, was the +entrance of the Racine, or Root River;[134] its eligible shores being +occupied by some Pottawattomie lodges. Having reached within ten or +twelve miles of Chicago, and being anxious to make that point, we were +in motion at a very early hour on the morning of the 29th, and reached +the village at five o'clock A. M. We found four or five families living +here, the principal of which were those of Mr. John Kinzie, Dr. A. +Wolcott, J. B. Bobian, and Mr. J. Crafts, the latter living a short +distance up the river. The Pottawattomies, to whom this site is the +capital of their trade, appeared to be lords of the soil, and truly are +entitled to the epithet, if laziness, and an utter inappreciation of the +value of time, be a test of lordliness. Dr. Wolcott, being the U. S. +Agent for this tribe, found himself at home here, and constitutes no +further, a member of the expedition. Gov. Cass determined to return to +Detroit from this point, on horseback, across the peninsula of Michigan, +accompanied by Lt. Mackay, U. S. A., Maj. Forsyth, his private +secretary, and the necessary number of men and pack horses to prepare +their night encampments. This left Capt. Douglass and myself to continue +the survey of the Lakes, and after reaching Michilimackinac and +rejoining the party of Mr. Trowbridge, to return to Detroit from that +point. + + [134] RACINE.--This is now the second city in size in the State of + Wisconsin. By the census of 1850, its population is 5,110. It has a + harbor which admits vessels drawing twelve feet water; it has + fourteen churches, a high school, college, bank, several newspapers, + three ship-yards, and exhibits more than two millions of imports and + exports. The settlement was commenced in 1835. + +The preparation for these ends occupied a couple of days, which gave us +an opportunity to scan the vicinity. We found the post (Fort Dearborn) +under the command of Capt. Bradley, with a force of one hundred and +sixty men. The river is ample and deep for a few miles, but is utterly +choked up by the lake sands, through which, behind a masked margin, it +oozes its way for a mile or two, till it percolates through the sands +into the lake. Its banks consist of a black arenaceous fertile soil, +which is stated to produce abundantly, in its season, the wild species +of cepa, or leek. This circumstance has led the natives to name it the +place of the wild leek. Such is the origin of the term Chicago,[135] +which is a derivative, by elision and French annotation, from the word +_Chi-kaug-ong_. _Kaug_, is the Algonquin name for the hystrix, or +porcupine. It takes the prefix _Chi_, when applied to the mustela +putorius. The particle _Chi_, is the common prefix of nouns to denote +greatness in any natural object, but it is also employed, as here, to +mean increase, or excess, as acridness, or pungency, in quality. The +penultimate _ong_, denotes locality. The putorius is so named from this +plant, and not, as has been thought, the plant from it. I took the +sketch, which is reproduced in the fourth vol. of my _Ethnological +Researches_, Plate xxvii., from a standpoint on the flat of sand which +stretched in front of the place. This view embraces every house in the +village, with the fort; and if the reproduction of the artist in vol. +iv. may be subjected to any criticism, it is, perhaps, that the stockade +bears too great a proportion to the scene, while the precipice observed +in the shore line of sand, is wholly wanting in the original. + + [135] CHICAGO is the largest city of the State of Illinois, excelling + all others in its commercial and business capacities, and public and + moral influences. Standing on the borders of the great western + prairies, it is the great city of the plains, and its growth cannot + be limited, or can scarcely be estimated. It began to be built about + 1831, eleven years after this visit. It was incorporated as a city in + 1836, with 4,853 inhabitants. In 1850, it had 29,963, and it is now + estimated to exceed 60,000. This city lies in lat. 41° 52´ 20´´. It + is connected by lakes, canals, and railroads, with the most distant + regions. Its imports and exports the last year, were twenty millions. + Like all the cities and towns of America, its political and moral + influence, are seen to keep an exact pace with its sound religious + influences; the number of churches and newspapers, having a certain + fixed relation. More than any other city of the West, its position + destines it to be another Nineveh. + +The country around Chicago is the most fertile and beautiful that can be +imagined. It consists of an intermixture of woods and prairies, +diversified with gentle slopes, sometimes attaining the elevation of +hills, and it is irrigated with a number of clear streams and rivers, +which throw their waters partly into Lake Michigan, and partly into the +Mississippi River. As a farming country, it presents the greatest +facilities for raising stock and grains, and it is one of the most +favored parts of the Mississippi Valley; the climate has a delightful +serenity, and it must, as soon as the Indian title is extinguished,[136] +become one of the most attractive fields for the emigrant. To the +ordinary advantages of an agricultural market town, it must add that of +being a depot for the commerce between the northern and southern +sections of the Union, and a great thoroughfare for strangers, +merchants, and travellers. + + [136] This was done in 1821; having been, myself, secretary to the + Commissioners, Gov. Cass and Hon. Sol. Sibley, who were appointed to + treat with the Indians. Vide _Indian Treaties_, p. 297. + +The Milwaukie clays to which I have adverted, do not extend thus far, +although the argillaceous deposits found, appear to be destitute of the +oxide of iron, for the bricks produced from them burn white. There is a +locality of bituminous coal on Fox River, about forty miles south. Near, +the junction of the Desplaines River with the Kankakee, there exists in +the semi-crystalline or sedimentary limestone, a remarkable +fossil-tree.[137] + + [137] FOSSIL FLORA OF THE WEST.--Of this gigantic specimen of the + geological flora of the newer rocks of the Mississippi Valley, I + published a memoir in 1822, founded on a personal examination of the + phenomena. Albany, E. and E. Hosford, 24 pp. 8vo. This paper (_Vide_ + Appendix) was prepared for the American Geological Society, at New + Haven. See _American Journ. Science_, vol. 4, p. 285; See also, vol. + 5, p. 23, for appreciating testimony of the value of geological + science (then coming into notice), from Ex-Presidents John Adams, + Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison, to whom copies of it were + transmitted. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + South and Eastern borders of Lake Michigan--Their Flora and + Fauna--Incidents of the journey--Topography--Geology, Botany, and + Mineralogy--Indian Tribes--Burial-place of Marquette--Ruins of the + post of old Mackinac--Reach Michilimackinac after a canoe journey + north of four hundred miles. + + +It was now the last day of August. Having partaken of the hospitalities +of Mr. Kinzie, and of Captains Bradley and Green, of Fort Dearborn, +during our stay at Chicago, and completed the reorganization of our +parties, we separated on the last day of the month, at two o'clock P. +M.; Gov. Cass and his party, on horseback, taking the old Indian trail +to Detroit, and Capt. Douglass and myself being left, with two canoes, +to complete the circumnavigation of the lakes. We did not delay our +departure over thirty minutes, but bidding adieu to Dr. Wolcott, whose +manners, judgment, and intelligence had commanded our respect during the +journey, embarked with two canoes; our steersmen immediately hoisted +their square sails, and, favored by a good breeze, we proceeded twenty +miles along the southern curve, at the head of Lake Michigan, and +encamped. + +Within two miles of Chicago, we passed, on the open shores of the lake, +the scene of the massacre of Chicago, of the 15th of August, 1812, being +the day after the surrender of Detroit by Gen. Hull. Gloom hung, at that +eventful period, over every part of our western borders. Michilimackinac +had already been carried by surprise; and the ill-advised order to +evacuate Chicago, was deemed by the Indians an admission that the +Americans were to be driven from the country. The Pottawattomies +determined to show the power of their hostility on this occasion. Capt. +Heald, the commanding officer, having received Gen. Hull's order to +abandon the post, and having an escort of thirty friendly Miamis, from +Fort Wayne, under Captain Wells, had quitted the fort at nine o'clock +in the morning, with fifty-four regulars, a subaltern, physician, twelve +militia, and the necessary baggage wagons for the provisions and +ammunition, which contained eighteen soldiers, women and children. They +had not proceeded more than a mile and a half along the shore of the +lake, when an ambuscade of Indians was discovered behind the sand-hills +which encompass the flat sandy shore. The horrid yell, which rose on the +discovery being made, was accompanied by a general and deadly fire from +them. Several men fell at the first fire, but Capt. Heald formed his +men, and effected a charge up the bank, which dispersed his assailants. +It was only, however, to find the enemy return by a flank movement, in +which their numbers gave them the victory. In a few moments, out of his +effective force of sixty-six men, but sixteen survived. With these, he +succeeded in drawing off to a position in the prairie, where he was not +followed by the Indians. On a negotiation, opened by a chief called +Mukudapenais, he surrendered, under promise of security for their lives. +This promise was afterwards violated, with the exception of himself and +three or four men. Among the slain was Ensign Ronan, Dr. Voorhis, and +Capt. Wells. The latter had his heart cut out, and his body received +other shocking indignities. The saddest part of the tragedy was the +attack on the women and children who occupied the baggage wagons, and +were all slain. Several of the women fought with swords. During the +action, a sergeant of infantry ran his bayonet through the heart of an +Indian who had lifted his tomahawk to strike him; not being able to +withdraw the instrument, it served to hold up the Indian, who actually +tomahawked him in this position, and both fell dead together.[138] The +Miamis remained neuter in this massacre. Mr. Kinzie, of Chicago, of +whose hospitalities we had partaken, was a witness of this transaction, +and furnished the principal facts of this narrative. + + [138] Gouverneur Morris recites a similar incident at the battle of + Oriskany, in 1777.--_Coll. New York Hist. Soc._ + +The morning (Sept. 1) opened with a perfect gale, and we were _degradè_, +to use a Canadian term, all day; the waves dashed against the shore with +a violence that made it impossible to take the lake with canoes, and +would have rendered it perilous even to a large vessel. This violence +continued, with no perceptible diminution, during the day. As a mode of +relief from the tedium of delay, a short excursion was made into the +prairie. I found a few species of the unio, in a partially choked up +branch of the Konamek. Capt. Douglass improved the time by taking +observations for the latitude, and we footed around ten miles of the +extreme southern head of the lake. It is edged with sand-hills, bearing +pines. A few dead valves of the fresh-water muscle were found on the +shore. + +On the following day the wind lulled, when we proceeded fifty-four +miles, passing in the distance the remains of the schooner Hercules, +which went ashore in a gale, in November, 1816, and all on board +perished; her mast, pump, spars, and the graves of the passengers, among +which, was that of Lieut. W. S. Eveleth, U. S. A., were pointed out to +us. We landed a few moments at the entrance of the River du Chemin,[139] +where the trail to Detroit leaves the lake shore. The distance to that +city is estimated at three hundred miles. Ten miles beyond this spot we +passed the little River Galien, where, at this time, the town and harbor +of New Buffalo, of Michigan, is situated, and we encamped on the shore +twelve miles beyond it. + + [139] Michigan City, of the State of Indiana, is located near this + spot. This city has its harbor communicating with Lake Michigan + through this creek. It has a newspaper, branch bank, railroad, and + (in 1853) 2,353 inhabitants. + +We had been travelling on a slightly curved line from Chicago to the +spot, in the latitude of 41° 52´ 20´´, and had now reached a point where +the course tends more directly to the northeast and north. By the best +accounts, the length of Lake Michigan, lying directly from south to +north, is four hundred miles. There is no other lake in America, north +or south, which traverses so many degrees of latitude, and we had reason +to expect its flora and fauna to denote some striking changes. We had +passed down its west, or Wisconsin shore, from Sturgeon Bay, finding it +to present a clear margin of forest, with many good harbors, and a +fertile, gently undulating surface. But we were now to encounter another +cast of scenery. It is manifest, from a survey of the eastern shore of +this lake, that the prevalent winds are from the west and northwest, for +they have cast up vast sand dunes along the coast, which give it an arid +appearance. These dunes are, however, but a hem on the fertile prairie +lands, not extending more than half a mile or more, and thus masking the +fertile lands. Water, in the shape of lagoons, is often accumulated +behind these sand-banks, and the force of the winds is such as to choke +and sometimes entirely shut up the mouth of its rivers. We had found +this hem of sand-hills extending around the southern shore of the lake +from the vicinity of Chicago, and soon found that it gave an appearance +of sterility to the country that it by no means merited. On reaching the +mouth of St. Joseph's River (3d), a full exemplification of this +striking effect of the lake action was exhibited. This is one of the +largest rivers of the peninsula, running for more than a hundred and +twenty miles through a succession of rich plains and prairies; yet its +mouth, which carries a large volume of water into the lake, is rendered +difficult of entrance to vessels, and its lake-borders are loaded with +drifts of shifting sand. + +The next day's journey carried us fifty miles; and, on proceeding ten +miles further on the 4th, we reached the mouth of the Kalamazoo.[140] +Before reaching this river, I discovered on the beach a body of detached +orbicular masses of the calcareous marl called septaria--the ludus +helmontii of the old mineralogists. On breaking some of these masses, +they disclosed small crystalline seams of sulphuret of zinc. The +Kalamazoo irrigates a fine tract of the most fertile and beautiful +prairies of Michigan, which, at the date of the revision of this +journal, is studded with flourishing towns and villages. + + [140] KALAMAZOO. This word is the contraction of an Indian phrase + descriptive of the stones seen through the water in its bed, which, + from a refractive power in the current, resembles an otter swimming + under water. Hence the original term, Negikanamazoo. This term has + its root forms in _negik_, an otter, the verb _kana_, to hide, and + _ozoo_, a quadruped's tail. The letter _l_ is the mere transposition + of _l_ in native words passing from the Indian to the Indo-French + language. + +Fifteen miles further progress towards the north, brought us to the +mouth of Grand River--the Washtenong of the Indians--which is, I believe +the largest and longest stream of the Michigan peninsula. It is the +boundary between the hunting-grounds of the Pottowattomies (who have +thus far claimed jurisdiction from Chicago) and the Ottowas. The latter +live in large numbers at its rapids and on its various tributaries.[141] +The next stream of note we encountered was the Maskigon, twelve miles +north of Grand River, where we encamped, having travelled, during the +day, fifty-four miles. The view of this scene was impressive from its +bleakness, the dunes of sand being more at the mercy of the winds. I +found here a large, branching specimen of the club-fungus, attached to a +dead specimen of the populus tremuloides, which had been completely +penetrated by these drifting sands, so as to present quite the +appearance, and no little part of the hardness and consistency, of a +fossil. The following figure of this transformation from a fungus to a +semi-stony body, presents a perfect outline of it as sketched in its +original position. + + [141] OTTOWAS. So late as 1841, the number of the tribe, reported to + the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Michigan, was 1,391, which + was divided into 13 villages, scattered over its whole + valley.--_Schoolcraft's Report on Indian Affairs_, Detroit, A. S. + Bagg, 1840. + +[Illustration] + +On the day of our departure from the Maskigon, we enjoyed fine weather +and favorable winds, and proceeded, from the data of Captain Douglass, +seventy miles, and encamped a few miles beyond the Sandy River. In this +line of coast, we passed, successively, the White, Pentwater, and +Marquette. Of these, the latter, both from its size and its historical +associations, is by far the most important; for it was at this spot, +after having spent years of devotion in the cause of missions in New +France--in the course of which he discovered the Mississippi River--that +this zealous servant of God laid down in his tent, after a hard day's +travel, and surrendered up his life. The event occurred on the 8th of +May, 1675, but two years after his grand discovery. Marquette was a +native of Laon, in Picardy, where his family was of distinguished rank. +The precise moment of his death was not witnessed, his men having +retired to leave him to his devotions, but returning, in a short time, +found him lifeless. They carried his body to the mission of old +Michilimackinac, of which he was the founder, where it was +interred.[142] + + [142] PLACE OF INTERMENT OF MARQUETTE. It is known that the mission + of Michilimackinac fell on the downfall of the Jesuits. When the post + of Michilimackinac was removed from the peninsula to the island, + about 1780, the bones of the missionary were transferred to the old + Catholic burial-ground, in the village on the island. There they + remained till a land or property question arose to agitate the + church, and, when the crisis happened, the whole graveyard was + disturbed, and his bones, with others, were transferred to the Indian + village of La Crosse, which is in the vicinity of L'Arbre Croche, + Michigan. + +It rained the next morning (6th), by which we lost two hours, and we had +some unfavorable winds, but, by dint of hard pushing, we made forty-five +miles, and slept at Gravelly Point. In this line we passed successively, +at distances of seventeen and thirty miles, the rivers Manistic and +_Becsie_, which is the Canadian phrase for the anas canadensis. Clouds +and murky weather still hovered around us on the next morning, but we +left our encampment at an early hour. Thirteen miles brought us to the +Omicomico, or Plate River, nine miles beyond which found us in front of +a remarkable and very elevated sand June, called the Sleeping Bear--a +fanciful term, derived from the Indian, through the French _l'ours qui +dormis_. Opposite this feature in the coast geology, lie the two large +wooded islands called the Minitos--well-known objects to all mariners +who venture into the vast unsheltered basin of the southern body of Lake +Michigan. Thirty miles beyond this sandy elevation, brought us to the +southern cape of Grand Traverse Bay, where we encamped, having advanced +fifty-two miles. This was the first place where we had noticed rocks in +situ, since passing the little Konamic River, near Chicago. It proved to +be limestone, of the same apparent era of the calcareous rock which we +had observed at Sturgeon Bay and the contiguous west shore of Lake +Michigan. The line of lake coast included in this remark is three +hundred and twenty miles; during all which distance the coast seems, but +only seems, to be the sport of the fierce gales and storms, for there is +reason to believe that the formations of drift clay, sand, and gravel +rest, at various depths, on a stratification of solid, permanent rock. +To us, however, it proved a barren field for the collection of both +geological and mineralogical specimens. There were gleaned some rolled +specimens of organic remains, of no further use than to denote the +occurrence of these in some part of a vast basin. There was a specimen +of gypsum from Grand River. The few patches of iron sand I had noticed, +were hardly worthy of record after the heavy beds of this mineral which +we had passed in Lake Superior. The same remark may be made of the few +rolled fragments of calcedonies, and other varieties of the quartz +family, gleaned up along its shores, for neither of these constitute a +reliable locality. + +[Illustration: Petrified leaf of the _Fagus Ferruginea_.] + +Of the floræ and fauna we had been observant, but the sandy character of +the mere coast line greatly narrowed the former, in which Captain +Douglass found but little to preserve, beyond the parnassia caroliniana +and seottia cerna.[143] The fury of the waves renders it a region wholly +unfitted to the whole tribe of fresh-water shells. A petrifaction of the +fagus ferruginia, brought from a spring on the banks of the St. Joseph's +River by Gov. Cass, on his home route, on horseback, presented the +petrifying process in one of its most perfect forms (_vide_ p. 206). +Surfeited with a species of scenery in which the naked sand dunes were +often painful to the eye, from their ophthalmic influence, and of +geological prostrations which seemed to lay the coast in ruins, we were +glad to reach the solid rock formations, supporting, as they did, a soil +favorable to green forests. + + [143] Dr. John Torrey, _Am. Journ. Science_, vol. iv. + +A partial eclipse of the sun had been calculated for the 5th of +September (1820), to commence at seven o'clock, twenty minutes; but, +though we were on the lake, and anxious to note it, the weather proved +to be too much overcast, and no effects of it were observed. This +eclipse was observed, according to the predictions, at Philadelphia. + +The morning of the 8th proved calm, which permitted us to cross the +mouth of Grand Traverse Bay. This piece of water is nine miles across, +with an unexplored depth, and has some 300 Chippewas living on its +borders. Six miles north of this point, we reached and crossed Little +Traverse Bay, which is occupied by Ottawas. These two tribes are close +confederates, speak dialects of the same language which is readily +understood by both, and live on the most friendly terms. The Ottowas on +the head of Little Traverse Bay, and on the adjoining coast of Lake +Michigan--which, from its principal village, bears the names of Village +of the Cross, and of Waganukizzie,[144] or L'Arbre Croche--are, to a +great extent, cultivators of the soil, and have adopted the use of hats, +and the French _capot_, having laid aside paints and feathers. They +raise large quantities of Indian corn for the Mackinac market, and +manufacture, in the season, from the sap of the acer saccharinum, +considerable quantities of maple sugar, which is put up, in somewhat +elongated bark boxes, called muckucks, in which it is carried to the +same market. We found them, wherever they were encountered, a people of +friendly manners and comity. + + [144] From _Waganuk_, a crooked or croched tree, and _izzie_, an + animate termination, denoting existence or being, carrying the idea + of its being charmed or enchanted. + +We were now drawing toward the foot of Lake Michigan, at the point where +this inland sea is connected, through the Straits of Michilimackinac, +with Lake Huron. A cluster of islands, called the Beaver Islands, had +been in sight on our left hand, since passing the coast of the Sleeping +Bear, which are noted as affording good anchorage ground to vessels +navigating the lake. It is twenty-five miles from the site of the old +French mission, near L'Arbre Croche, to the end of point +Wagoshance,[145] which is the southeast cape of the Straits of +Michilimackinac, and nine miles from thence to the Island. Along the +bleak coast of this storm-beaten, horizontal limestone rock, with a thin +covering of drift, we diligently passed. Night overtook us as we came +through the straits, hugging their eastern shore, and we encamped on a +little circular open bay, long after it became pitchy dark. We had +traversed a coast line of fifty-seven miles, and were glad, after a +refreshing cup of tea and our usual meal, to retire to our pallets. + + [145] Little Fox Point. This word comes from _Wagoush_, a fox, and + the denominative inflection a _ainc_ or _aiñs_. + +The next morning revealed our position. We were at the ancient site of +old Michilimackinac--a spot celebrated in the early missionary annals +and history of New France. This was, indeed, one of the first points +settled by the French after Cadaracqui, being a missionary and trading +station before the foundation of Fort Niagara, in 1678; for La Salle, +after determining on the latter, proceeded, the same fall, up the lakes +to this point, which he installed with a military element. The mission +of St. Ignace had before been attempted on the north shore of the +straits, but it was finally removed here by the advice of Marquette. On +gazing at the straits, they were found to be agitated by a perfect gale. +This gave time for examining the vicinity. It was found a deserted +plain, overspread with sand, in many parts, with the ruins of former +occupancy piercing through these sandy drifts, which gave it an air of +perfect desolation. By far the most conspicuous among these ruins, was +the stone foundation of the ancient fort, and the excavations of the +exterior buildings, which had evidently composed a part of the military +or missionary plan. Not a house, not a cultivated field, not a fence was +to be seen. The remains of broken pottery, and pieces of black bottles, +irridescent from age, served impressively to show that men had once +eaten and drank here. It was in 1763, in the outbreak of the Pontiac +war, that this fort, then recently surrendered to the English, was +captured, by a _coup-de-main_, by the Indians. The English, probably +doubting its safety, during the American Revolution, removed the +garrison to the island, which had, indeed, furnished the name of +Michilimackinac before; for the Indians had, _ab initio_, called the old +post Peekwutinong, or Headland-place, applying the other name +exclusively, as at this day, to the Gibraltar-like island which rises +up, with its picturesque cliffs, from the very depths of Lake Huron. The +sketch of this scene of desolation, with the Island in view, is given in +the second volume of my _Ethnological Researches_, Plate LIII. + +After pacing the plain of this ancient point of French settlement in +every point, we returned to our tent about eleven o'clock A. M., and +deemed it practicable to attempt the crossing to the island in a light +canoe, for, although the gale was little if any abated, the wind blew +fair. I concurred in the opinion of Captain Douglass that this might be +done, and very readily assented to try it, leaving the men in the +baggage canoe to effect the passage when the wind fell. It cannot be +asserted that this passage was without hazard; for my own part, I had +too much trust in my nature to fear it, and, if we were ever wafted on +"the wings of the wind," it was on this occasion; our boatmen, +volunteers for the occasion, reefing the sails to two feet, and we owed +our success mainly to their good management. On rounding the Ottowa +point, which is the south cape of the little harbor of 'Mackinac, our +friends who had parted from us at Green Bay were among the first to +greet us. By the union of these two parties, the circumnavigation of +Lake Michigan had been completely made. The rate of travel along the +line traversed by them was computed at forty-five miles per day. They +had been eight days on the route. The coast line traversed by Captain +Douglass and myself, since quitting Chicago, is four hundred and +thirty-nine miles, giving a mean of forty-three miles per diem, of which +one entire day was lost by head winds. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + Topographical survey of the northern shores of Green Bay and of the + entire basin of Lake Michigan--Geological and Mineralogical + indicia of the coast line--Era of sailing vessels and of the + steamboat on the lakes--Route along the Huron coast, and return of + the expedition to Detroit. + + +The coast line traversed by the party detached from Green Bay on the 22d +of August, under Mr. Trowbridge, extended from the north shore of Fox +River to the entrance of the Monominee River, and thence around the +Little and Great Bay de Nocquet, to the northwestern cape of the +entrance of Green Bay. From the latter point, the northern shore of Lake +Michigan was traced by the Manistic, and the other smaller rivers of +that coast, to the northern cape of the Straits of Michilimackinac, and +through these to Point St. Ignace and the Island of Michilimackinac. The +line of survey, agreeably to their reckoning, embraced two hundred and +eighty miles, thus closing the topographical survey of the entire coast +line of the basin of Lake Michigan, and placing in the hands of Captain +Douglass the notes and materials for a perfect map of the lake.[146] + + [146] It is to be regretted that Capt. Douglass, who, immediately on + the conclusion of this expedition, was appointed to an important and + arduous professorship in the U. S. Military Academy of West Point, + could not command the leisure to complete and publish his map and + topographical memoir of this part of the U. S. So long as there was a + hope of this, my report of its geology, &c., and other data intended + for the joint PUBLIC WORK, were withheld. But in revising this + narrative, at this time, they are submitted in the Appendix. Prof. + Douglass, of whose useful and meritorious life, I regret that I have + no account to offer, died as one of the Faculty of Geneva College, + October 21, 1849. + +Mr. Trowbridge, whom I had requested to note the features of its geology +and mineralogy, presented me with labelled specimens of the succession +of strata which he had collected on the route. These denoted the +continuance of the calcareous, horizontal series of formations of the +Fox Valley, and of the islands of Green Bay, quite around those northern +waters to the closing up of the surveys at Point St. Ignace and +Michilimackinac. Nor do the primitive rocks disclose themselves on any +part of that line of coast. Of this collection, Mr. Trowbridge well +observes, in his report to me, the most interesting will probably be the +organic remains. These were procured on the northeast side of Little +Nocquet Bay, where areas of limestone appear. They consist of duplicates +of the pectinite. Three layers of this, the magnesian limestone, show +themselves at this place, of which the intermediate bed is of a dull +blue color and compact structure, and is composed in a great measure of +the remains of this species. It is comparatively soft when first taken +up, but hardens by exposure. About ten miles north of this point, the +upper calcareous, or surface rock, embraces nodules of hornstone. +Specimens of a semi-crystalline limestone, labelled "marble," were also +brought from a cliff, composed of this rock, on the lake shore, about +thirty to forty miles southwest from Michilimackinac. Mr. Doty also +brought some specimens of sulphate of lime, cal. spar, and some of the +common rolled members of the quartz-drift stratum. + +Michilimackinac is a name associated with our earliest ideas of history +in the upper lakes. How so formidable a polysyllabic term came to be +adopted by usage, it may be difficult to tell, till we are informed that +the inhabitants, in speaking the word, clip off the first three +syllables, leaving the last three to carry the whole meaning. The full +term is, however, perpetuated by legal enactment, this part of Michigan +having been organized into a separate county some time, I believe, +during the administration of Gen. Hull. The military gentlemen call the +fort on the cliff, "Mackin[=a]," the townspeople pronounce it Mackinaw; +but if a man be hauled up on a magistrate's writ, it is in name of the +sovereignty of Michilimackinac. Thus law and etymology grow strong +together. + +Commerce, we observe, is beginning to show itself here, but by the few +vessels we have met, while traversing these broad and stormy seas, and +their little tonnage, it seems as if they were stealthily making their +way into regions of doubtful profit at least. The fur trade employs most +of these, either in bringing up supplies, or carrying away its avails. +La Salle, when, in 1679, he built the first vessel on the lakes, and +sent it up to traffic in furs, was greatly in advance of his age; but he +could hardly have anticipated that his countrymen should have adhered so +long to the tedious and dangerous mode of making these long voyages in +the bark canoe. It is memorable in the history of the region, that last +year (1819) witnessed the first arrival of a steamer at Michilimackinac. +It bore the characteristic name of Walk-in-the-water,[147] the name of a +Wyandot chief of some local celebrity in Detroit, during the last war. + + [147] So called from the water insect, called _Miera_ by the + Wyandots, one of the invertebrata which slips over the surface of + water without apparently wetting its feet.--Vide _Ethnological + Researches_, vol. ii. p. 226. + +The astonishment produced upon the Indian mind by the arrival of this +steamer has been described to us as very great; but, from a fuller +acquaintance with the Indian character, we do not think him prone to +this emotion. He gazes on new objects with imperturbability, and soon +explains what he does not understand by what he does. Perceiving heat to +be the primary cause of the motion, without knowing how that motion is +generated, he calls the steamboat Ishcoda Nabequon, _i. e._ fire-vessel, +and remains profoundly ignorant of the motive power of steam. The story +of the vessel's being drawn by great fishes from the sea, is simply one +of those fictions which white loungers about the Indian posts fabricate +to supply the wants of travellers in search of the picturesque. + +The winds seem to be unloosed from their mythologic bags, on the upper +lakes, with the autumnal equinox; and we found them ready for their +labors early in September; but it was not till the 13th of that month, +after a detention of two days, that we found it practicable for canoes +to leave the island. Mustering now a flotilla of three canoes, we +embarked at three o'clock P.M., with a wind from the east, being +moderately adverse, but soon got under the shelter of the island of +Boisblanc; we passed along its inner shore about ten miles, till +reaching Point aux Pins--so named from the prevalence here of the pinus +resinosa. At this point, the wind, stretching openly through this +passage from the east, compelled us to land and encamp. The next day, we +were confined to the spot by adverse winds. While thus detained, Captain +Douglass, under shelter of the island, returned to Mackinac, in a light +canoe, doubly manned, for something he had left. When he returned, the +wind had so far abated that we embarked, and crossed the separating +channel, of about four miles, to the peninsula, and encamped near the +River Cheboigan.[148] This was a tedious beginning of our voyage to +Detroit; the first day had carried us only _ten_ miles, the second but +_four_. + + [148] CHEBOIGAN. This is a noted river of the extreme of the + peninsula of Michigan, which has just been made the centre of a new + land district by Congress. It affords a harbor for shipping, and + communicates with Little Travers Bay on Lake Michigan. A canal + across a short route, of easy excavation, would avoid the whole + dangerous route through the Straits of Michilimackinac, converting + the end of the peninsula into an island, and save ninety miles of + dangerous travel. + +We were now to retraverse the shores of the Huron, along which we had +encountered such delays in our outward passage, and the men applied +themselves to the task with that impulse which all partake of when +returning from a long journey. Winds we could not control, but every +moment of calm was improved. Paddle and song were plied by them late and +early. A violent rain-storm happened during the night, but it ceased at +daybreak, when we embarked and traversed a coast line of forty-four +miles, encamping at Presque Isle. Rain fell copiously during the night, +and the unsettled and changing state of the atmosphere kept us in +perpetual agitation during the day. Notwithstanding these changes, we +embarked at five o'clock in the morning (16th), and, by dint of +perseverance, made thirty miles. We slept on the west cape of Thunder +Bay. Next morning, we landed a few moments on the Idol Island, in +Thunder Bay, and, continuing along the sandy shore of the _au sauble_, +or Iosco coast, entered Saganaw Bay, and encamped, on its west shore, at +Sandy Point. Indians of the Chippewa language were encountered at this +spot, whose manners and habits appeared to be quite modified by long +contact with the white race. + +The morning of the 18th (Sept.) proved fair, which enabled us to cross +the bay, taking the island of Shawangunk in our course, where we stopped +an hour, and re-examined its calcedonies and other minerals. We then +proceeded across to Oak Point, on its eastern shore, and, coasting down +to, and around, the precipitous cliffs of Point aux Barques, encamped in +one of its deeply-indented coves, having made, during the day, forty-two +miles. + +The formation of this noted promontory consists of an ash-colored, not +very closely-compacted sandstone, through original crevices in which the +waves have scooped out entrances like vast corridors. In one of these, +which has a sandy beach at its terminus, we encamped. He who has +travelled along the shores of the lakes, and encamped on their borders, +having his ears, while on his couch, close to the formation of sand, is +early and very exactly apprised of the varying state of the wind. The +deep-sounding roar of the waves, like the deep diapason of a hundred +organs, plays over a gamut, whose rising or falling scale tells him, +immediately, whether he can put his frail canoe before the wind, or must +remain prisoner on the sand, in the sheltering nook where night +overtakes him. These notes, sounded between two long lines of cavernous +rocks, told us, long before daybreak, of a strong head wind that fixed +us to the spot for the day. I amused myself by gathering some small +species of the unio and the anadonta. Captain Douglass busied himself +with astronomical observations. We all sallied out, during the day, over +the sandy ridges of modern drift, in which the pinus resinosa had firmly +imbedded its roots, and into sphagnous depressions beyond, where we had, +in the June previous, found the sarracenia purpurea, which is the cococo +mukazin, or oral's moccasin of the Indians. Here we found, as at more +westerly points on the lake, the humble juniperus prostrata, and, in +more favorable spots, the ribes lacustre.[149] + + [149] Am. Journ. Science, vol. iv. 1822. + +It was stated to us at Michilimackinac, that Lake Huron had fallen one +foot during the last year. It was also added that the decrease in the +lake waters had been noticed for many years, and that there were, in +fact, periodical depressions and refluxes at periods of seven and +fourteen years. A little reflection will, however, render it manifest +that, in a region of country so extensive and thinly populated, +observations must be vaguely made, and that many circumstances may +operate to produce deception with respect to the permanent diminution or +rise of water, as the prevalence of winds, the quantity of rain and snow +which influences these basins, and the periodical distribution of solar +heat. It has already been remarked, while at the mouth of Fox River, +that a fluctuation, resembling a tide, has been improperly thought to +exist there, and, indeed, similar phenomena appear to influence the +Baltic. Philosophers have not been wanting, who have attributed similar +appearances to the ocean itself. "It has been asserted," observed +Cuvier, "that the sea is subject to a continual diminution of its level, +and proofs of this are said to have been observed in some parts of the +shores of the Baltic. Whatever may have been the cause of these +appearances, we certainly know that nothing of the kind has been +observed upon our coast, and, consequently, that there has been no +general lowering of the waters of the ocean. The most ancient seaports +still have their quays and other erections, at the same height above the +level of the sea, as at their first construction. Certain general +movements have been supposed in the sea, from east to west, or in other +directions; but nowhere has any person been able to ascertain their +effects with the least degree of precision."[150] + + [150] Theory of the Earth. Modern geologists attribute these changes + to the rising or sinking of the earth from volcanic forces. + +On the next day (20th) the wind abated, so as to permit us, at six +o'clock A.M., to issue from our place of detention; but we soon found +the equilibrium of the atmosphere had been too much disturbed to rely on +it. At seven o'clock, and again at nine o'clock, we were driven ashore; +but as soon as it slackened we were again upon the lake; it finally +settled to a light head wind, against which we urged our way diligently, +until eight o'clock in the evening. The point where we encamped was upon +that long line of deposit of the erratic block, or boulder stratum, of +which the White Rock is one of the largest known pieces. At four o'clock +the next morning, we were again in motion, dancing up and down on the +blue waves; but after proceeding six miles the wind drove us from the +lake, and we again encamped on the boulder stratum, where we passed the +entire day. Nothing is more characteristic of the upper lake geology, +than the frequency and abundance of these boulders. The causes which +have removed them, at old periods, from their parent bed, were doubtless +oceanic; for the area embraced is too extensive to admit of merely local +action; but we know of no concentration of oceanic currents, of +sufficient force, to bear up these heavy masses, over such extensive +surfaces, without the supporting media of ice-floes. The boulders and +pebbles are often driven as the moraines before glacial bodies, and +there are not wanting portions of rock surface, in the west, which are +deeply grooved or scratched by the pressing boulders. The crystallized +peaks of the Little Rocks, above St. Anthony's Falls, have been +completely polished by them.--_Vide_ p. 149. + +The next morning (22d) we were released from our position on this bleak +drift-coast, although the wind was still moderately ahead, and after +toiling twelve hours adown the closing shores of the lake, we reached +its foot, and entered the River St. Clair. Halting a few moments at Fort +Gratiot, we found it under the command of Lieut. James Watson Webb, who +was, however, absent at the moment. Two miles below, at the mouth of +Black River, we met this officer, who had just returned from an +excursion up the Black River, where he had laid in a supply of fine +watermelons, with which he liberally supplied us. From this spot, we +descended the river seven miles, to Elk Island, on which we encamped at +twilight, having made fifty-seven miles during the day. Glad to find +ourselves out of the reach of the lake winds, and of Eolus, and all his +hosts, against which we may be said to have fought our way from +Michilimackinac, and animated with the prospect of soon terminating our +voyage, we surrounded our evening board with unwonted spirits and glee. +Supper being dispatched, with many a joke, and terminated with a song in +full chorus, and the men having carefully repaired our canoes, it was +determined to employ the night in descending the placid river, and at +nine o'clock P.M. all was ready and we again embarked. Never did men +more fully appreciate the melody of the Irish bard:-- + + "Sweetly as tolls the evening chime, + Our voices keep tune and our oars keep time." + +At half past three the next morning, we found ourselves at the entrance +to Lake St. Clair, thirty miles from our evening repast. Owing to the +dense fog and darkness, it was now necessary to await daylight, before +attempting to cross. Daylight, which had been impatiently waited for, +brought with it our old lake enemy, head winds, which made the most +experienced men deem the passage impracticable. Counselled, however, +rather by impatience than anything else, it was resolved on. Rain soon +commenced, which appeared the signal for increased turbulence; but by +dint of hard pushing in the men, with some help from our own hands, we +succeeded in weathering Point Huron, the first point of shelter. The +right hand shore then became a continued covert, and we successively saw +point after point lessen in the distance. It was noon when we reached +Grosse Point, the original place of our general embarkation on +commencing the expedition; the rest of the voyage ran like a dream "when +one awaketh," and we landed at the City of Detroit at half past three +o'clock P. M. + +Gov. Cass, and his equestrian party from Chicago, had preceded us +thirteen days, as will be perceived from the following article from the +weekly press of that city, of September 15, 1820, which embraces a +comprehensive notice of the expedition; its route, the objects it +accomplished, and the effects it may be expected to have on the leading +interests and interior policy of the country, as well as the drawing +forth of its resources. + + +EXPLORING EXPEDITION. + +FROM THE DETROIT GAZETTE. + +Last Friday evening, Governor Cass arrived here from Chicago, +accompanied by Lieutenant M'Kay and Mr. R. A. Forsyth,[151] both of whom +belonged to the expedition--all in good health. + + [151] Major Robert A. Forsyth was a native of the Detroit Country, of + Canadian descent, and born a few years after its transfer to the + United States. At the time of the expedition, he was the Secretary of + Governor Cass, and was admirably qualified to take a part in it, by + his energy and perseverance, his indomitable courage, and his + physical power and activity. Some of these traits of character were + developed at an early age. He was but yet a lad at the time of the + surrender of Detroit, and was so much excited by that untoward event, + that he insulted the British officers in the fort by his reproaches, + and so irritated them that one of them threatened to pin him to the + floor with a bayonet. During the war upon the frontier, he was + actively employed, and on more than one occasion distinguished + himself by his conduct and courage. He was with Major Holmes at the + battle near the Long Woods, and behaved with great gallantry. In + 1814, he was sent with Chandruai, a half-breed Pottowatamie, and with + a small party of Indians, to invite the various Indian tribes to come + to Greenville, at the treaties about to be held by Generals Harrison + and Cass, with a view to detach the North-Western Indians from + British influence. On the route, they met a superior party of + Indians, led by an officer of the British Indian Department, who + attempted to take them prisoners. They resisted, and, by their prompt + and almost desperate courage, drove off the British party. Forsyth + distinguished himself in the contest, in which the British leader of + the party was killed. Soon after the war, he was appointed Private + Secretary to Governor Cass, and continued in that capacity for + fifteen years, till the latter was transferred to the War Department. + He accompanied the General in all his expeditions into the Indian + country, and rendered himself invariably useful, having a peculiar + talent to control the rough men who took part in these dangerous + excursions. He was ultimately appointed a paymaster in the army, in + which capacity he served in Mexico, where he acquired the seeds of + the disorder which proved fatal to him in 1849. He will be long + recollected and regretted by those who knew him, for the shining + qualities of head and heart which endeared him to all his + acquaintances. + +We understand that the objects of the expedition have been successfully +accomplished. The party has traversed 4,000 miles of this frontier since +the last of May. Their route was from this place to Michilimackinac, and +to the Sault of St. Mary's, where a treaty was concluded with the +Chippewas for the cession of a tract of land, with a view to the +establishment of a military post. They thence coasted the southern shore +of Lake Superior to the Fond du Lac; ascended the St. Louis River to one +of its sources, and descended a small tributary stream of Sandy Lake to +the Mississippi. They then ascended this latter river to the Upper Red +Cedar Lake, which may be considered as the principal source of the +Mississippi, and which is the reservoir where the small streams forming +that river unite. From this lake they descended between thirteen and +fourteen hundred miles to Prairie du Chien, passing by the post of St. +Peter's on the route. They then navigated the Ouisconsin to the portage, +entered the Fox River, and descended it to Green Bay. Then the party +separated, in order to obtain a topographical sketch of Lake Michigan. +Some of them coasted the northern shore to Michilimackinac, and the +others took the route by Chicago. From this point they will traverse the +eastern shore of the lake to Michilimackinac, and may be expected here +in the course of a week. Governor Cass returned from Chicago by land. A +correct topographical delineation of this extensive frontier may now be +expected from the accurate observations of Captain Douglass, who is +fully competent to perform the task. We have heretofore remained in +ignorance upon this subject, and very little has been added to the stock +of geographical knowledge since the French possessed the country. We +understand that all the existing maps are found to be very erroneous. +The character, numbers, situation, and feelings of the Indians in those +remote regions have been fully explored, and we trust that much valuable +information upon these subjects will be communicated to the Government +and to the public. We learn that the Indians are peaceable, but that the +effect of the immense distribution of presents to them by the British +authorities, at Malden and at Drummond's Island, has been evident upon +their wishes and feelings through the whole route. Upon the +establishment of our posts, and the judicious distribution of our small +military force, must we rely, and not upon the disposition of the +Indians. The important points of the country are now almost all occupied +by our troops, and these points have been selected with great judgment. +It is thought by the party, that the erection of a military work at the +Saut is essential to our security in that quarter. It is the key of Lake +Superior, and the Indians in its vicinity are more disaffected than any +others upon the route. Their daily intercourse with Drummond's Island, +leaves us no reason to doubt what are the means by which their feelings +are excited and continued. The importance of this site, in a military +point of view, has not escaped the observation of Mr. Calhoun, and it +was for this purpose that a treaty was directed to be held. The report +which he made to the House of Representatives, in January last, contains +his views upon the subject. + +We cannot but hope that no reduction will be made in the ranks of the +army. It is by physical force alone, and by a proper display of it, that +we must expect to keep within reasonable bounds, the ardent, restless, +and discontented savages, by whom this whole country is filled and +surrounded. Few persons living at a distance are aware of the means +which are used, and too successfully used, by the British agents, to +imbitter the minds of the Indians, and preserve such an influence over +them as will insure their co-operation in the event of any future +difficulties. A post at the Fond du Lac will, before long, be necessary, +and it is now proper that one should be established at the portage +between the Fox and Ouisconsin Rivers. + +Mr. Schoolcraft has examined the geological structure of the country, +and has explored, as far as practicable, its mineralogical treasures. We +are happy to learn that this department could not have been confided to +one more able or zealous to effect the objects connected with it. +Extensive collections, illustrating the natural history of the country, +have been made, and will add to the common stock of American science. + +We understand that copper, iron, and lead are very abundant through the +whole country, and that the great mass of copper upon the Outanagon +River has been fully examined. Upon this, as well as upon other +subjects, we hope we shall, in a few days, be able to communicate more +detailed information. + + + + + DISCOVERY + + OF THE + + ACTUAL SOURCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER + + IN + + ITASCA LAKE, + + BY AN EXPEDITION, AUTHORIZED BY THE WAR DEPARTMENT OF + THE UNITED STATES, IN 1832. + + + BY HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, + UNITED STATES SUPERINTENDENT OF INDIAN AFFAIRS FOR MICHIGAN, ETC. + + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + The search for the veritable source of the Mississippi is + resumed.--Ascent to Cass Lake, the prior point of + discovery--Pursue the river westerly, through the Andrúsian Lakes + and up the Metoswa Rapids, forty-five miles--Queen Anne's Lake. + + +Twelve years elapse between the closing of the prior, and the opening of +the present narrative. In the month of August, 1830, instructions were +received by Mr. Schoolcraft to proceed into the Upper Mississippi +valley, to endeavor to terminate the renewed hostilities existing +between the Chippewa and Sioux tribes. These directions did not come to +hand at the remote post of Sault de Ste. Marie, at the outlet of Lake +Superior, in season to permit the object to be executed that year. On +reporting the fact that the tribes would be dispersed to their +hunting-grounds before the scene could be reached, and that severe +weather would close the streams with ice before the expedition could +possibly return, the plan was deferred till the next year. Renewed +instructions were issued in the month of April, 1831, and an expedition +organized at St. Mary's to carry them into immediate effect. + +These instructions did not require the broad table-lands on which the +river originates to be visited, though the journey connected itself with +preliminary questions; nor was it found practicable to extend the +geographical examinations, in the Mississippi Valley, beyond about +latitude 44°. + +The force designed for this expedition consisted of twenty-seven men, +including a botanist and geologist, and a small military party under +Lieut. Robert E. Clary, U. S. A. Entering Lake Superior, in the month of +June, with a bright pure atmosphere and serene weather, the party +enjoyed a succession of those clear transporting vistas of rock and +water scenery, which render this picturesque basin by far the most +magnificent, varied, and affluent in its prospect in America. It is in +this basin only, of all the series of North American lakes which +stretch west from the St. Lawrence, that peaks and high mural walls of +volcanic formation, pierce through, or lift up, the horizontal series of +the silurian system; and that, in the lake region, the latter is found +in singular juxtaposition, by means of these upheavals, with the +senites, sienitic granites, and metamorphic rocks composing the globe's +nucleus, or primary out-pushed stony coats of these latitudes. + +I had passed through this varied and wonder-creating scene of coast +views and long-stretching vistas in 1820, when geology, in America, at +least, was in its infancy, as a member of the organic government +expedition into this quarter of the Union, as detailed in the preceding +pages. I had, in 1826, revisited the whole coast from Point Iroquois to +Fond du Lac, in the exercise of official duties, connected with the +Indian tribes; besides making sectional expeditions into the regions of +the Gargontwa and Mishepecotin, and of the Takwymenon sand-rock, +interior, and coast lines. But the beauty of the prospects presented in +1831, the serenity of the weather, and the opportunity which it gave of +revisiting scenes which had before flitted by, as the fragments of a +gorgeous dream, gave to this visit a charm which no length of time can +obliterate. And these attractions were enhanced by association with the +agreeable men who accompanied me; of whom it may be said that they +represented the place of strings in a melodious harp, whose concurrence +was at all times necessary to produce harmony. The sainted and +scene-loving Woolsey[152]--the self-poised and amiable Houghton, just +broke loose from the initial struggles of life to luxuriate on the +geological smiles of the face of nature in this scene--ah! where are +they? Death has laid his cold hand on them, to open their eyes on other, +and to us inscrutable scenes. + + [152] _Vide_ Letters on Lake Superior, in _Southern Literary + Messenger_, 1836. + +Passing through this lake, the expedition met the brigade of boats of +the late Mr. Wm. Aitken, from the Upper Mississippi waters, with the +annual returns of furs from that region. He represented the urgent +necessity of an official visit to that section of the country, where the +Indians were in turmoil; but stated, at the same time, that the waters +were too low in the streams at the sources of the Mississippi to render +explorations practicable. He also represented it impracticable, this +season, to enter the Mississippi by the way of the _Broulé_, or Misakoda +River. This information was confirmed on reaching Chegoimegon, at the +remarkable group of the Confederation Islands (_ante_, p. 105). +Returning eight miles on my track, I entered the Muskigo, or Mauvais +River, and ascended this stream by all its bad rafts, rapids, and +portages, to the upper waters of the River St. Croix of the Mississippi. +Crossing the intermediate table-lands, with their intricate system of +lakes and portages to _Lac Courteroille_, or Ottawa Lake, I entered one +of the main sources of Chippewa River, and descended this prime +tributary stream to its entrance into the Mississippi, at the foot of +Lake Pepin. From the latter point I descended to Prairie du Chien, and +to Galena in Illinois. Dispatching the men and canoes from this place +back to ascend the Wisconsin River, and meet me at the portage of Fort +Winnebago, I crossed the lead-mine country by land, by the way of the +Pekatolica, Blue Mound, and Four Lakes, to the source of the Fox River, +and rejoining my canoes here, descended this stream to Green Bay, and +returned to my starting-point by the way of Michilimackinac and the +Straits of St. Mary. Two months and twelve days were employed on the +journey, during which a line of forests and Indian trails had been +passed, of two thousand three hundred miles. + +The Indians had been met, and counselled with at various points, at +which presents and provisions were distributed, and the peace policy of +the Government enforced. A Chippewa war party, under Ninaba, had been +arrested on its march against the Sioux in descending the Red Cedar fork +of the Chippewa River. Information was obtained that nine tribes or +bands had united in their sympathies for the restless Sauks and Foxes, +who broke out in hostility to the United States the following spring. +Messages, with pipes and belts, and in one case notice, with a tomahawk +smeared with vermilion, to symbolize war, had passed between these +tribes.[153] + + [153] An outline of the expedition of 1831 is found in Schoolcraft's + "Thirty Years on the American Frontiers." Lippincott & Co. Phila. + 1850. + +The information was communicated to the Government, with a suggestion +that an expedition should be organized for visiting remoter regions the +next year, and forwarding, at the same time, detailed estimates of the +expenditures essential to its efficiency. These suggestions were +approved by the Secretary of War on the 3d of May, 1832, and +instructions forwarded to me for organizing an expedition to carry the +reconnoissance and scrutiny to the tribes on the sources of the +Mississippi. A small escort of U. S. infantry was ordered to accompany +me, under Lieut. James Allen, U. S. A., who, being a graduate of the +West Point Military Academy, undertook the departments of topography and +trigonometry. I secured the services of Dr. Houghton, as physician and +surgeon, and acting botanist and geologist--positions which he had +occupied on the prior expedition of 1831. The American Board of +Commissioners for Foreign Missions were invited to send an agent to +observe the wants and condition of the Indian tribes in these remote +latitudes; who directed the Rev. Wm. T. Boutwell to join me at St. +Mary's. I charged myself especially with inquiring into the Indian +history and languages, statistics, and general ethnography. + +The expedition left the Sault de Ste. Marie on the 7th of June, taking +the route through Lake Superior to Fond du Lac and the St. Louis River, +and the Savanna Summit to Sandy Lake, which lies 500 miles above St. +Anthony's Falls of the Upper Mississippi. The width of the Mississippi +at the outlet of Sandy Lake, by a line stretched across, was found to be +331 feet. At my camp here, a general council was summoned of the lower +tribes, who were notified to assemble at the mouth of the River Des +Corbeau on the 20th of July; and a boat with presents and supplies was +sent down the Mississippi to await the return of the expedition through +that river. Lightened thus of baggage, and having fixed a point of time +within which to finish the explorations above, I proceeded up the main +channel of the river to, and across the Pakagama Falls, and its wide +plateau of savannas, and through the Little and Great Winnipek Lakes, to +the Upper Red Cedar, or Cass Lake, which we entered on the 10th of July. +This is a fine lake of transparent water, about eighteen miles in +length, with several large bays and islands as denoted in the +accompanying sketch, which give it an irregular shape. The largest +island, called _Grande Isle_ by the French, which is the _Gitchiminis_ +of the Indians, and the _Colcaspi_[154] of my initial narrative of 1832. +This lake was the terminus of the respective explorations of Lieutenant +Zebulon Pike, U. S. A., in 1806, and Governor Lewis Cass in 1820. The +points at which they approached it were not, however, the same. Pike +visited it in a dog train, on the snow, in the month of January, across +the land, from the Northwest Company's trading post at Leech Lake. He +visited an out-station of that company on Grand Island. Cass landed in +July, after tracing its channel from Sandy Lake to the entrance of +Turtle River, the line of communication to Turtle Lake, which was long +the reputed source of the river. This has been called by a modern +traveller in the region Lake Julia, that he might call it the _Julian_ +source of the Mississippi.[155] + + [154] This is an anagram composed of the names of Schoolcraft, Cass, + and Pike, the geographical discoverers, in reversed order, of the + region. + + [155] Beltrami. + +I found the Mississippi, at the point where it flows from the lake, to +be 172 feet wide, not having lost half the width it had at Sandy Lake, +although in this distance it is diminished by the volume of its Leech +Lake tributary, which the northwest agents informed Lieutenant Pike, in +1806, to be its largest tributary. I had reached it ten days earlier in +the season than Governor Cass, having been exactly one day less in +traversing the long line of intervening country from Sault de Ste. +Marie. I proceeded directly to Grand Isle, the residence of a Chippewa +band numbering 157 persons. This island was found to have a fertile +soil, where they had always raised the zea maize. Its latitude is 47° +25´ 23´´. Not only had I reached this point ten days earlier in the +month than the expedition of 1820, but it was found that the state of +the water on these summits was very favorable to their ascent. +Ozawindib,[156] the Chippewa chief, said that his hunting-grounds +embraced the source of the Mississippi, but that canoes of the size and +burden which I had could not ascend higher than the _Pemidjegumaug_, or +Queen Anne's Lake. I determined to encamp my extra men permanently on +this island, with the heavy canoes, provisions, and baggage, leaving +the camp in charge of Louis Default, a trusty man, of the _metif_ class, +well acquainted with the Indian language, who had been a guide in 1820, +and to make explorations, in the lightest class of Indian canoes, +provisioned for an _élite_ movement. Lieutenant Allen also determined to +encamp the United States soldiers of the party, leaving them under a +sergeant. To give each gentleman of the party an opportunity of joining +in this movement, it was necessary to procure five hunting canoes, which +were of no greater capacity than to bear one _sitter_[157] and two +paddlers. + + [156] This name is derived from _ozawau_, yellow; _winisis_, hair, + and _kundiba_, bone of the forehead or head. + + [157] The term "sitter," which is a northwest phrase in common use, + is equivalent to the Canadian word _bourgoise_. + +Ozawindib and his companions produced these canoes at an early hour on +the following morning, and having, at my request, drawn a map of the +route, embarked himself as the guide to the party. We left the island +before it was yet daylight. The party now consisted of sixteen persons, +including three Chippewas and eight _engagees_. The Mississippi enters +this lake through a savanna, on its extreme western borders, after +performing one of those evolutions through meadow lands so common to its +lower latitudes; after reaching to within fifty yards of the lake, it +winds about, through a natural meadow, for many miles before its +debouchure. The chief, who was familiar with this feature, carried me to +a fifty yards portage, by which we saved some miles of paddling. We +reached the Mississippi at a place where it expands into an elongated +lake, for which I heard no name, and which I called Lake Andrúsia.[158] +After passing through this, the river appeared very much in size and +volume as it had on the outlet below Cass Lake. It winds its way through +the same species of natural meadows, during which there is but little +current. On ascending this channel but a short distance, the river is +found to display itself in a second lake--which the natives call +Pamitascodiac[159]--which, in general appearance and character, may be +deemed the twin of Lake Andrúsia. On its upper margin, a tract of +prairie land appears, of a sandy character, bearing scattered pines. +This appears to be the particular feature alluded to by the Indian name. +About four miles above this lake, and say fifteen from Cass Lake, the +rapids commence. It was eight o'clock A. M. when we reached this point, +and we had then been four hours in our canoes from the Andrúsia portage. +These rapids soon proved themselves to be formidable. Boulders of the +geological drift period are frequently encountered in ascending them, +and the river spreads itself over so considerable a surface that it +became necessary for the bowsmen and steersmen to get out into the +shallows and lead up the canoes. These canoes were but of two fathoms +length, drew but a few inches water, and would not bear more than three +persons. It was ten o'clock when we landed, on a dry opening on the +right shore, to boil our kettle, and prepare breakfast. So dry, indeed, +was the vegetation here, that the camp-fire spread in the grass and +leaves, and it required some activity in the men to prevent its burning +the baggage. There were ten of these rapids encountered before we +reached the summit, or plateau, of Lake Pemidjegumaug, which is the _Lac +Traverse_ of the French. These were called the Metóswa rapids, from the +Indian numeral for ten. + + [158] From Andrew Jackson, at that time President of the United + States. + + [159] This word appears to be a derivation from _pemidj_, across, + _muscoda_, a prairie, and _ackee_, land. + +The term _Lac Traverse_ has been repeated several times by the Canadian +French, in our northwestern geography; being prominently known in the +Upper Mississippi for a handsome sheet of water, connecting the St. +Peter's, or Minnesota River, with Red River of Hudson's Bay; and as the +Indian name, though very graphic, is not euphonious, I named it Queen +Anne's Lake.[160] It is a clear and beautiful sheet of water, twelve +miles in length, from east to west, and six or seven broad, with an open +forest of hard wood. It is distant forty-five miles from Cass Lake, and +lies at an elevation of fifty-four feet above that lake, and of 1,456 +feet above the Gulf of Mexico. The latitude is 47° 28´ 46´´. The +peculiarity recognized by the Indian name of Pemidjegumaug, or +Crosswater, is found to consist in the entrance of the Mississippi into +its extreme south end, and its passage through or across part of it, at +a short distance from the point of entrance. Another feature of its +topography consists of its connection, by a lively channel of less than +a mile's length, with another transverse lake of pure waters, to which I +applied the name of Washington Irving. These features are shown by the +subjoined sketch. + + [160] In allusion to an interesting period of British history, in its + influences on America. + +[Illustration: 1. Queen Anne's Lake. 2. Washington Irving's Lake. 3. +Mississippi River.] + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + Ascent of the Mississippi above Queen Anne's Lake--Reach the primary + forks of the river--Ascend the left-hand, or minor branch--Lake + Irving--Lake Marquette--Lake La Salle--Lake Plantagenet--Encamp at + the Naiwa rapids at the base of the Height of Land, or Itasca + Summit. + + +A short halt was made on entering Queen Anne's Lake, to examine an +object of Indian superstition on its east shore. This consisted of one +of those water-worn boulders which assume the shape of a rude image, and +to which the Chippewas apply the name _Shingabawassin_, or image-stone. +Nothing artificial appeared about it, except a ring of paint, of some +ochreous matter, around the fancied neck of the image.[161] We were an +hour in crossing the lake southwardly from this point, which would give +a mean rate of five miles. At the point of landing, stood a small, +deserted, long building, which Ozawindib informed me had been used as a +minor winter trading station. I observed on the beach at this spot some +small species of unios, and, at higher points on the shore, helices. We +here noticed the passenger pigeon. The forest exhibited the elm, soft +maple, and white ash. Proceeding directly south from this spot a short +distance, we entered the Mississippi, which was found to flow in with a +broad channel and rapid current. This channel Lieutenant Allen estimated +to be but one hundred yards long, at which distance we entered into a +beautiful little lake of pellucid water and a picturesque margin, +spreading transversely to our track, to which I gave the name of Irving. +Ozawindib held his way directly south through this body of water, +striking the river again on its opposite shore. We had proceeded but +half a mile above this lake, when it was announced that we had reached +the primary forks of the Mississippi. We were now in latitude 47° 28´ +46´´. Up to this point, the river had carried its characteristics in a +remarkable manner. Of the two primary streams before us, the one flowing +from the west, or the Itascan fork, contributes by far the largest +volume of water, possessing the greatest velocity and breadth of +current. The two streams enter each other at an acute angle, which +varies but little from due south, as denoted in the diagram. + + [161] An object of analogous kind was noticed, during the prior + expedition of 1820, at an island in Thunder Bay of Lake Huron. _Vide_ + p. 55. + +[Illustration: Primary forks of the Mississippi River, in lat. 47° 28´ +46´´.] + +Ozawindib hesitated not a moment which branch to ascend, but shooting +his canoe out of the stronger current of the Itascan fork, entered the +other. His wisdom in this movement was soon apparent. He had not only +entered the shallower and stiller branch, but one that led more directly +to the base of the ultimate summit of Itasca. This stream soon narrowed +to twenty feet. We could distinctly descry the moving sands at its +bottom; but its diminished velocity was apparent from the intrusion of +aquatic plants along its shores. It was manifest also from the forest +vegetation, that we were advancing into regions of a more alpine flora. +The branches of the larches, spruce, and gray pines, were clothed with +lichens and floating moss to their very tops, denoting an atmosphere of +more than the ordinary humidity. Clumps of gray willows skirted the +margin of the stream. + +It was found that the river had made its utmost northing in Queen Anne's +Lake. From the exit from that point, the course was nearly due south, +and from this moment to our arrival at the ultimate forks, which cannot +exceed a mile and a half or two miles, it was evident why the actual +source of this celebrated river had so long eluded scrutiny. We were +ascending at every curve so far _south_, as to carry the observer out of +every old line of travel or commerce in the fur trade (the sole interest +here), and into a remote elevated region, which is never visited indeed, +except by Indian hunters, and is never crossed, even by them, to visit +the waters of the Red River--the region in immediate juxtaposition +north. This semi Alpine plateau, or height of land for which we were now +pushing directly, is called in the parlance of the fur trade _Hauteurs +de Terre_. It was evident that we were ascending to this continental +plateau by steps, denoted by a series of rapids, presenting step by +step, in regular succession, widespread areas of flat surface spotted +with almost innumerable lakes, small and large, and rice-ponds and +lagoons. Thus, after surmounting the step of the Packagama Falls, we +enter on a wide and far stretching plateau which embraces the great area +of Leech Lake, and its numerous lacustrine beds. This step or plateau +may, in the descending order of the Mississippi, be called the fifth +plateau, and is, by barometrical observation, 1,356 feet above the Gulf +of Mexico. The next, or fourth step, is that of the plateau of Cass +Lake, caused chiefly by the lively waters of the Leech Lake, the Upper +Red Cedar, and the Winnepek outlets. The Cass Lake level extends west of +this lake to the foot of the Metoswa rapids. This is forty-six feet +above the Leech Lake level. The third plateau, on which the Mississippi +spreads itself, is that of the Queen Anne summit, which is elevated by +the Metoswa rapids sixty-four feet above the former. We had now entered +on this third plateau, on which we found the river flowing with a just +perceptible current, and frequently expanding itself in small lakes. On +the first of these, after ascending the left hand, or minor fork, I +bestowed the name of Marquette; and on the second, that of La Salle. We +proceeded beyond these to a third lake of larger dimension, which the +Chippewas call Kubba-Kunna, or the Rest in the Path, being the site of +crossing of one of their noted land-trails; I named it Lake Plantagenet. +Lt. Allen deemed this lake ten miles long and five wide. At a point a +short distance above the head of this lake, we encamped at a late hour. +It was now seven o'clock P. M., and we had been in our canoes sixteen +hours, and travelled fifty-five miles. It was not easy to find ground +dry enough to encamp on, and while we were searching for it, rain +commenced. We had pushed through the ample borders of the Scirpus +lacustris and other aquatic plants, to a point of willows, alders, and +spruce and tamarack, with pinus banksiana in the distance. The ground +was low and wet, the foot sinking into a carpet of green moss at every +tread. The lower branches of the trees were dry and dead, exhibiting +masses of flowing gray moss. Dampness, frigidity, and gloom marked the +dreary spot, and when a camp fire had been kindled it threw its red +glare around on strange masses of thickets and darkness, which might +have well employed the pencil of a Michael Angelo. Tired and overwearied +men are not, however, much given to the poetic on these occasions, and +they addressed themselves at once to the pacification of that uneasy +organ, the stomach. Travelling with men who strangely mix up two foreign +languages, one falls insensibly into the same jargon habits, of which I +convicted myself of a notable instance this evening. I had on landing +and pushing into the forest, laid a green morocco portfolio on the +branches of a little spruce, and could not find it. _Kewau bemuasee_, I +said to one of the men, _en petite chose ver, mittig onsing_? Have you +not seen a small green roll in a sapling? not recollecting that the +middle clause of the sentence, though in regimen with the Ojibwa, could +have only been construed by one familiar both with the Canadian French +and the Algonquin. Such, however, proved to be the case, and he soon +handed me the missing portfolio. + +I observed, as the crews of the several canoes threw down their day's +game before the cook, there was a species of duck, the anas canadensis, +I think, which had a small unio attached to one of its mandibles, having +been engaged in opening the shell at the moment it was shot. With every +aid, however, from the tent and the tea-kettle, and our cook's art in +spitting ducks, the night here, in a gloomy and damp thicket, just +elevated above the line of the river flags, and quite in the range of +the frogs and lizards, proved to be one of the most dreary and forlorn. +It was felt that we were no longer on the open Mississippi, but were +winding up a close and very serpentine tributary, nowhere over thirty +feet wide, which unfolded itself in a savanna, or bog, bordered closely +with lagoons and rice ponds. Indian sagacity, it was clear, had led +Ozawindib up this tributary as the best, shortest, and easiest possible +way of reaching to, and surmounting the Itasca plateau, but it required +a perpetual use of hand, foot, paddle, and pole; nor was there a gleam +of satisfaction to be found in anything but the most intense onward +exertion. Besides, I had agreed to meet the Indians at the mouth of the +Crow-Wing River on the 24th of July, and that engagement must be +fulfilled. + +At five o'clock the next morning (12th) we were on our feet, and resumed +the ascent. The day was rainy and disagreeable. There was little +strength of current, but quite a sufficient depth of water; the stream +was excessively tortuous. Owing to the sudden bends, we often frightened +up the same flocks of brant, ducks, and teals again and again, who did +not appear to have been in times past much subjected to these +intrusions. The flora of this valley appeared unfavorable. Dr. Houghton +has reported a new species of malva and some five or six other species +or varieties from the general region, but these have not, I think, been +elaborately described. The localities of the known species of fauna +might be marked by the occurrence, on this fork, of the cervus +virginianus, which had not been seen after leaving the Sandy Lake summit +till after getting above the primary forks, which flow from the south +and west. + +We toiled all day without intermission from daybreak till dark. The +banks of the river are fringed with a species of coarse marshland grass. +Clumps of willows fringe the stream. Rush and reed occupy spots +favorable to their growth. The forest exhibits the larch, pine, and +tamarack. Moss attaches itself to everything. Water-fowls seem alone to +exult in their seclusion. After we had proceeded for an hour above Lake +Plantagenet, an Indian in the advance canoe fired at and killed a deer. +Although fairly shot, the animal ran several hundred yards. It then fell +dead. The man who had killed it brought the carcass to the banks of the +river. The dexterity with which he skinned and cut it up, excited +admiration. He gave the _moze_, which I understood to mean the hide and +feet, to my guide, Ozawindib. Signs of this animal were frequent along +the stream. But we were impelled forward by higher objects than hunting. +It was, indeed, geographical and scientific facts that we were hunting +for. To trace to its source an important river, and to fix the actual +point of its origin, furnished the mental stimulus which led us to care +but little where we slept or what we ate. + +When the usual hour for breakfast arrived, the banks of the river proved +too marshy to land, and we continued on till a quarter past twelve P. +M., before a convenient landing could be made. After this recruit to +stomach and spirits, the men again pushed forward, threading the stream +as it wound about in a savanna, seldom halting more than a few minutes +at a time. Frequently, a shot was fired at the numerous water-fowl, so +abundant on these waters. Sometimes a small unio or anadonta was picked +up from the shores; occasionally a plant pulled up, for the botanical +press. Nowhere was the water found too shallow for our canoes, which +were only embarrassed at some points by the density of vegetable tissue. +Rain showers were encountered during the whole of the day, the +equilibrium of the atmosphere being disturbed by rolling, cumulous +clouds, which often poured down their contents with little warning, and +without, indeed, driving us from our canoes. For, on these occasions, +where a fixed point is to be made, and the showers are not anticipated +to be long or heavy, it is better to travel in the rain and submit to +the wetting, than to attempt landing. Neither can the meal of dinner be +stopped for. At length, at half past five o'clock in the evening, we +came to the base of the highlands of the Itasca or Hauteurs de Terre +summit. The flanks of this elevation revealed themselves in a high, +naked precipice of the drift and boulder stratum, on the immediate +margin of the stream which washed against it. Our pilot, Ozawindib, was +at the moment in the rear; halting a few moments for him to come up, he +said that we were within a few hundred yards of the Naiwa rapids, and +that the portage around them commenced at this escarpment. We had seen +no rock of any species, in place, thus far. + +A general landing was immediately made at the foot of the hill, and as +the five canoes came up the baggage was prepared in bundles and packages +for being carried, the canoe-paddles and poles securely tied in bundles, +and the canoes lifted from the water and dried in the sun to make the +transportation of them as light as possible, and mended and pitched +wherever they leaked. It was found that the whole baggage, canoes and +all, could be arranged for eleven back-loads, this being the precise +number of our carriers, white and red; and being ready, Ozawindib led +the way, having a single canoe for his share, and he was soon followed +by the whole line, each one of our sitters falling in this line, charged +with the particular instrument of his observation, or record of it. The +hill was steep, and the footing soft and yielding in the crumbling +diluvion, and the scene, as the party struggled up the ascent, presented +quite a study for the picturesque. Lieutenant Allen carried his +canoe-compass, which I had had mounted by an artisan of Detroit; Dr. +Houghton grasped his hortus siccus under his arms; Mr. Johnston, our +interpreter, had his pipe and fowling-piece, and Mr. Boutwell had +wellnigh lost his pocket-bible and notes, while staying himself against +the treacherous influence of a steep sand cliff. While the party thus +took their way over the hill to cross a peninsula of a mile or two, and +strike the river above the junction of the Naiwa River, I went to +observe the rapids. The river, at this point, is forced through a narrow +gorge, where the water descends with loud murmuring over a series of +rapids, which form a complete check to navigation. The portage is two +miles. I judged the entire descent of the channel, from the beginning to +the terminus of the portage, to be forty-eight feet. Boulders of the +peculiar northern sienite, highly charged with hornblende, and of +trap-rock, or greenstone, quartz, and sandstone, were scattered over +this elevation, and mixed with the more finely comminuted portions of +the same rocks, and of amygdaloids and schistose fragments. Among these, +I observed some specimens of the zoned agate, which identifies the +stratum with the extensive drift formation of the upper Mississippi. It +would seem that extensive amygdaloidal strata formerly extended over +these heights, which have been broken down by the fierce and general +rush of the oceanic currents of the north, which once manifestly swept +over these elevations. + +Darkness fell as we reached an elevation overlooking the river above the +Naiwa Rapids, and after some deliberation as to the spot where we should +suffer less annoyance from mosquitos, I proceeded to the lower part of +the valley near the river, and set up my tent there for the night. On +questioning Ozawindib of the Naiwa River, he informed me that it was a +stream of considerable size, and that it originated in a lake on a +distant part of the plateau, which was infested with the copper-head +snake; hence the name. Mr. Allen's estimate of this day's journey was +fifty-two miles. We had reached the second, or Assawa plateau of the +Mississippi, which is, barometrically, seventy-six feet above the Queen +Anne summit, and now had but one more to surmount. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + The Expedition having reached the source of the east fork in Assawa + Lake, crosses the highlands of the Hauteurs de Terre to the source + of the main or west fork in Itasca Lake. + + +The next morning (13th) a dense fog prevailed. We had found the +atmosphere warm, but charged with water and vapors, which frequently +condensed into showers. The evenings and nights were, however, cool, at +the precise time of the earth hiding the sun's disk. It was five o'clock +before we could discern objects with sufficient distinctness to venture +to embark. We found the channel of the river strikingly diminished on +getting above the Naiwa. Its width is that of a mere brook, running in a +valley half a mile wide. The water is still and pond-like, the margin +being encroached on by aquatic plants. It presents some areas of the +zizania palustris, and appeared to be the favorite resort for several +species of duck, who were continually disturbed by our progress. After +diligently ascending an hour and a half, or about eight miles, the +stream almost imperceptibly began to open into a lake, which the Indians +called Assawa, or Perch Lake. Its borders are fringed with the _monomin_ +of the Chippewas, or wild rice, and several of the liliaceous water +plants. The water is transparent when dipped up and viewed by the light, +but from the falling of leaves and other carbonaceous fibre to the +bottom, it reflects a sombre hue. We were just twenty minutes in passing +through it, denoting a length of perhaps two miles, and a width of half +a mile. Our course through it was directly south. Ozawindib, who took +the advance, entered an inlet, but had not ascended it far, when he +rested on his paddles, and exclaimed _o-omah mekunnah_, here is the +path, or portage. We had, in fact, traced this branch of the river into +its utmost sources. It was seven o'clock in the morning. We were +surrounded by what the natives term _azhiskee_, or mire, broad-leaved +plants extending over the surface of the water, in which I recognized a +diminutive species of yellow pond-lily. There was no mode of reaching +dry land but by stepping into this yielding azhiskee. The water was +rather tepid. After wading about fifty yards the footing became more +firm, and we soon began to ascend a slight elevation. Some traces of an +Indian trail appeared here, which led to an opening in the thicket, +where vestiges of the bones of birds, and old camp-poles, indicated the +prior encampment of Indians. + +I had now traced this branch of the Mississippi to its source, and was +at the south base of the inter-continental highlands, which give origin +to the longest and principal branch of the Mississippi. To reach its +source it was necessary to ascend and cross these. Of their height, and +the difficulty of their ascent, we knew nothing. This only was sure, +from the representation of the natives, that it could be readily done, +carrying the small bark canoes we had thus far employed. The chief said +it was thirteen _opugidjiwenun_, or putting-down-places, which are +otherwise called _onwaybees_, or rests. From the roughness of the path, +not more than half a mile can be estimated to each _onwaybee_. Assawa +Lake is shown, by barometric measurement, to be 1,532 feet above the +Gulf. Having followed out this branch to its source, its very existence +in our geography becomes a new fact. + +While the baggage and canoes were being carried to the spot of our +encampment, a camp-fire was kindled and the cook busied himself in +preparing breakfast. The canoes were then carefully examined and +repaired, and the baggage parted into loads, so as to permit the whole +outfit and apparatus to be transported at one trip. These things having +been arranged, and the breakfast dispatched, we set forward to mount the +highlands. Ozawindib having thrown one of the canoes over his shoulders, +led the way, complaisantly, being followed by the entire party. + +The prevailing growth at this place is thick bramble, spruce, white +cedar, and tamarak. The path plunges at once into a marshy and matted +thicket, which it requires all one's strength to press through--then +rises to a little elevation covered with white cedar, and again plunges +into a morass strewed with fallen and decayed logs, covered with moss. +From this the trail emerges on dry ground. Relieved from the +entanglement about our feet, we soon found ourselves ascending an +elevation of the drift stratum, consisting of oceanic sand, with +boulders. On the side of this eminence we enjoyed our first _onwaybee_. +The day had developed itself clear and warm, and glad indeed were we to +find the chief had put down his canoe, and by the time we reached had +lit his pipe. The second onwaybee brought us to the summit of this +elevation; the third to the side of a ridge beyond it; the fourth to +another summit; in fine, we found ourselves crossing a succession of +ridges and depressions, which seemed to have owed their original +outlines to the tumultuous waves of some mighty ocean, which had once +had the mastery over the highlands. Trail there was often none. The day +being clear, the chief, however, held his course truly, and when he was +turned out of it by some defile, or thicket, or bog, he again found his +line at the earliest possible point. In one of the depressions, we +crossed a little lake in the canoes; in another, we followed the guide +on foot, through and along the border of a shallow lake, to avoid the +density of the thickets. + +Ripe strawberries were brought to me at one of our onwaybees. I observed +the diminutive rebus nutkanus on low grounds. The common falco was +noticed, and the Indians remarked tracks of the deer, not, however, of +very recent date. The forest growth is small, by far the most common +species being the scrubby pinus banksianus, exhibiting its parasitic +moss. The elevated parts of the route were sufficiently open, with often +steep ascents. Over these sienite and granite, quartz and sandstone +boulders were scattered. Every step we made in crossing these sandy and +diluvial elevations, seemed to inspire renewed ardor in completing the +traverse. The guide had called the distance, as we computed it, about +six, or six and a half miles. We had been four hours upon it, now +clambering up steeps, and now brushing through thickets, when he told us +we were ascending the last elevation, and I kept close to his heels, +soon outwent him on the trail, and got the first glimpse of the +glittering nymph we had been pursuing. On reaching the summit this wish +was gratified. At a depression of perhaps a hundred feet below, cradled +among the hills, the lake spread out its elongated volume, presenting a +scene of no common picturesqueness and rural beauty. In a short time I +stood on its border, the whole cortege of canoes and pedestrians +following; and as each one came he deposited his burden on a little open +plat, which constituted the terminus of the Indian trail. In a few +moments a little fire threw up its blaze, and the pan of _pigieu_, or +pine pitch, was heated to mend the seams of the bark canoes. When this +was done, they were instantly put into the lake, with their appropriate +baggage; and the little flotilla of five canoes was soon in motion, +passing down one of the most tranquil and pure sheets of water of which +it is possible to conceive. There was not a breath of wind. We often +rested to behold the scene. It is not a lake overhung by rocks. Not a +precipice is in sight, or a stone, save the pebbles and boulders of the +drift era, which are scattered on the beach. The water-fowl, whom we +disturbed in their seclusion, seemed rather loath to fly up. At one +point we observed a deer, standing in the water, and stooping down, +apparently to eat moss. + +The diluvial hills inclosing the basin, at distances of one or two +miles, are covered with pines. From these elevations the lands slope +gently down to the water's edge, which is fringed with a mixed foliage +of deciduous and evergreen species. After passing some few miles down +its longest arm, we landed at an island, which appeared to be the only +one in the lake. I immediately had my tent pitched, and while the cook +exerted his skill to prepare a meal, scrutinized its shores for +crustacea, while Dr. Houghton sought to identify its plants. While here, +the latter recognized the mycrostylis ophioglossoides, physalis +lanceolata, silene antirrhina, and viola pedata. We found the elm, lynn, +soft maple, and wild cherry, mingled with the fir species. + +An arm of the lake stretches immediately south from this island, which +receives a small brook. Lieutenant Allen, who estimates the greatest +length of the lake at seven miles, drew the following sketch of its +configuration. (See p. 243.) + +The latitude of this lake is 47° 13´ 35´´.[162] The highest grounds +passed over by us, in our transit from the Assowa Lake, lie at an +elevation of 1,695 feet. The view given of the scene in the first +volume of my _Ethnological Researches_, p. 146, is taken from a point +north of the island, looking into the vista of the south arm of the +lake. I inquired of Ozawindib the Indian name of this lake; he replied +_Omushkös_, which is the Chippewa name of the Elk.[163] Having +previously got an inkling of some of their mythological and necromantic +notions of the origin and mutations of the country, which permitted the +use of a female name for it, I denominated it ITASCA.[164] + + [162] By the report of Governor Stevens (June, 1854), the selected + pass for the contemplated railroad through the St. Mary to the + Columbia valley is in 47° 30´, where there is but little snow at any + time, and rich pasturage for cattle. The phenomena of the climates of + our northern latitudes are but little understood. + + [163] A The Canadian French call this animal _la Biche_, from + _Biche_, a hind. + + [164] This myth is further alluded to, in the following stanzas from + the _Literary World_, No. 337:-- + + STANZAS. + + ON REACHING THE SOURCE OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IN 1832.[165] + + I. + + Ha! truant of western waters! Thou who hast + So long concealed thy very sources--flitting shy, + Now here, now there--through spreading mazes vast + Thou art, at length, discovered to the eye + In crystal springs, that run, like silver thread, + From out their sandy heights, and glittering lie + Within a beauteous basin, fair outspread + Hesperian woodlands of the western sky, + As if, in Indian myths, a truth there could be read, + And these were tears, indeed, by fair Itasca shed. + + II. + + To bear the sword, on prancing steed arrayed; + To lift the voice admiring Senates own; + To tune the lyre, enraptured muses played; + Or pierce the starry heavens--the blue unknown-- + These were the aims of many sons of fame, + Who shook the world with glory's golden song. + I sought a moral meed of less acclaim, + In treading lands remote, and mazes long; + And while around aerial voices ring, + I quaff the limpid cup at Mississippi's spring. + + H. R. S. + + [165] Narrative of an Expedition to Itasca Lake. Harpers. 1834. 1 + vol. 8vo. p. 307. + +[Illustration: Itasca Lake, the source of the Mississippi River, 3,160 +miles from the Balize. + +A. Mississippi River. B. Route of expedition to the Lake. C. +Schoolcraft's Island.] + +The line of discovery of the Mississippi, explored above Cass Lake, +taking the east fork from the primary junction, as shown by Mr. Allen's +topographical notes, is one hundred and twenty-three miles.[166] This is +the shortest and most direct branch. The line by the Itascan or main +branch of it is, probably, some twenty or twenty-five miles longer. It +is evident, as before intimated, that the river descends from its summit +in plateaux. From the pseudo-alpine level of the parent lake, there is a +principal and minor rapids, for the former of which the Indians have the +appropriate name of _Kakabikons_, which is a descriptive term for a +cascade over rocks or stones. Then the river again deploys itself in a +lake and a series of minor lakes on the same level, and this process is +repeated, until it finally plunges over the horizontal rocks at St. +Anthony's Falls, and displays itself, for the last time, in Lake Pepin. +Commencing with the latter lake, it may be observed for the purposes of +generalization, and to give definite notions rather of its hydrography +than geology, that there are nine plateaux, of which Governor Cass, in +1820, explored six. The other three, beginning at his terminal point, +have now been indicated. The heights of these are given, barometrically. +The distances travelled are given from time. The annexed diagram of +these plateaux, extending to the Pakagama summit, will impress these +deductions on the eye. + + [166] Mr. Nicollet, who ascended the same fork in 1836, makes the + distance twelve miles more. _Vide_ Ex., Doc. No. 237. + +The length of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico, pursuing its +involutions, may be stated to be three thousand miles. By estimates from +the best sources made, respectively, during the expeditions of 1820 and +1832, it is shown to have a winding thread of three thousand one hundred +and sixty miles. Taking the barometrical height of Itasca Lake at +fifteen hundred and seventy-five feet, it has a mean descent of a +fraction over six inches per mile. As one of the most striking epochs in +American geography, we have known this river, computing from the era of +Marquette's discovery to the present day (July 13, 1832), but one +hundred and fifty-nine years--a short period, indeed! How rich a portion +of the geology of the globe lies buried in the flora and fauna of the +tertiary, the middle or secondary, and the palæozoic eras of its valley, +we have hardly begun to inquire. It will, _doubtless_, and, so far as we +know, _does_, contribute evidences to the antiquity and mutations of the +earth's surface, conformably to the progress of discoveries in other +parts of the globe. The immense basins of coal, found in the middle and +lower parts of its valley, prove the same gigantic epoch of its flora +which has been established for the coal measures of Europe,[167] and +sweep to the winds the jejune theory that the continent arose from a +chaotic state, at a period a whit less remote than the other quarters of +the globe. While the large bones of its later eras, found imbedded in +its unconsolidated strata, prove how large a portion of its fauna were +involved in the gigantic and monster-period. + + [167] Entire trees are often found imbedded in its rocks of the + middle era, as is evidenced by an individual of the juglans nigra, of + at least fifty feet long, in the River De Plaine, valley of the + Illinois. _Vide_ Appendix. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + Descent of the west, or Itascan branch--Kakabikoñs Falls--Junction of + the Chemaun, Peniddiwin, or De Soto, and Allenoga Rivers--Return + to Cass Lake. + + +Itasca Lake lies in latitude twenty-five seconds only south of Leech +Lake, and five minutes and eleven seconds west of the ultimate northerly +point of the Mississippi, on the Queen Anne summit; it is a fraction +over twelve minutes southwest of Cass Lake. The distance from the latter +point, at which discovery rested in 1820, is, agreeably to the +observations of Lieutenant Allen, one hundred and sixty-four miles. + +On scrutinizing the shores of the island, on which I had encamped, +innumerable helices, and other small univalves, were found; among these +I observed a new species, which Mr. Cooper has described as planorbis +companulatus.[168] There were bones of certain species of fish, as well +as the bucklers of one or two kinds of tortoise, scattered around the +sites of old Indian camp fires, denoting so many points of its natural +history. Amidst the forest-trees before named, the betula papyraceæ and +spruce were observed. Directing one of the latter to be cut down, and +prepared as a flagstaff, I caused the United States flag to be hoisted +on it. This symbol was left flying at our departure. Ozawindib, who at +once comprehended the meaning of this ceremony, with his companions +fired a salute as it reached its elevation. + + [168] Appendix. + +Having made the necessary examinations, I directed my tent to be struck, +and the canoes put into the water, and immediately embarked. The outlet +lies north of the island. Before reaching it, we had lost sight of the +flagstaff, owing to the curvature of the shore. Unexpectedly, the outlet +proved quite a brisk brook, with a mean width of ten feet, and one foot +in depth. The water is as clear as crystal, and we at once found +ourselves gliding along, over a sandy and pebbly bottom, strewed with +the scattered valves of shells, at a brisk rate. Its banks are overhung +with limbs and foliage, which sometimes reach across. The bends are +short, and have accumulations of flood-wood, so that, from both causes, +the use of the axe is often necessary to clear a passage. There was also +danger of running against boulders of black rock, lying in the margin, +or piled up in the channel. As the rapid waters increased, we were +hurled, as it were, along through the narrow passages, and should have +descended at a prodigiously rapid rate, had it not been for these +embarrassments to the navigation. Its course was northwest. After +descending about ten miles, the river enters a narrow savanna, where the +channel is wider and deeper, but equally circuitous. This reaches some +seven or eight miles. It then breaks its way through a pine ridge, where +the channel is again very much confined and rapid, the velocity of the +stream threatening every moment to dash the canoe into a thousand +pieces. The men were sometimes in the water, to guide the canoe, or +stood ever ready, with poles, to fend off. After descending some +twenty-five miles, we encamped on a high sandy bluff on the left hand. + +The next morning (14th), we were again in our canoes before five +o'clock. The severe rapids continued, and were rendered more dangerous +by limbs of trees which stretched over the stream, threatening to sweep +off everything that was movable. We had been one hour passing down a +perfect defile of rapids, when we approached the Kakabikoñs Falls. +_Kakábik_,[169] in the Chippewa, means a cascade, or shoot of water over +rocks. _Oñs_ is merely the diminutive, to which all the nouns of this +language are subject. How formidable this little cataract might be, we +could not tell. It appeared to be a swift rush of water, bolting through +a narrow gorge, without a perpendicular drop, and Ozawindib said it +required a portage. Halting at its head, for Lieut. Allen to come up, +his bowsman caught hold of my canoe, to check his velocity. It had that +effect. But, being checked suddenly, the stern of his canoe swung +across the stream, which permitted the steersman to catch hold of a +branch. Thus stretched tensely across the rapid stream, in an instant +the water swept over its gunwale, and its contents were plunged into the +swift current. The water was about four feet deep. Allen and his men +found footing, with much ado, but his canoe-compass, apparatus, and +everything, was lost and swept over the falls. He grasped his manuscript +notes, and, by feeling with his feet, fetched up his fowling-piece; the +men clutched about, and managed to save the canoe. Fortunately, I had a +fine instrument to replace the lost compass, though wanting the nautical +rig of the other. + + [169] Kakábik. _Abik_ is a rock. The prefixed syllable, _Kak_, may be + derived from _Kukidjewum_, a rapid stream. _Ka_ is often a prefix of + negation in compound words, which has the force of a derogative. + +We made a short portage. Two of the canoes, with Indian pilots, went +down the rapids, but injured their canoes so much as to cause a longer +delay than if they had carried them by land. Below this fall, the river +receives a tributary on the right hand, called the _Chemaun_, or Ocano. +It contributes to double its volume, very nearly, and hence its savanna +borders are enlarged. Conspicuous among the shrubbery on its shores are +the wilding rose and clumps of the salix. The channel winds through +these savanna borders capriciously. At a point where we landed for +breakfast, on an open pine bank on the left shore, we observed several +copious and clear springs pouring into the river. Indeed, the extensive +sand ranges which traverse the woodlands of the Itasca plateau are +perfectly charged with the moisture which is condensed on these +elevations, which flows in through a thousand little rills. On these +sandy heights the conifera predominate. + +The physical character of the stream made this part of our route a most +rapid one. Willing or unwilling, we were hurried on; but, indeed, we had +every desire to hasten the descent. At four o'clock P. M., we came to +the junction of the Piniddiwin,[170] or Carnage River, a considerable +tributary on the left. On this river, which originates in a lake, on the +northeastern summit of the Hauteur des Terres, I bestowed the name of De +Soto. It has also a lake, called Lac la Folle, at the point of its +junction with the Mississippi, whose borders are noted for the abundant +and vigorous growth of wild rice, reeds, and rushes. It is called +Monomina,[171] by the Chippewas. By this accession, the width and depth +of the river are strikingly increased. The Indian reed first appears at +this spot. + + [170] From the term _Iah-pinuniddewin_, an emphatic expression for a + place of carnage, so called from a secret attack made at this place, + in time past, by a party of Sioux, who killed every member of a lodge + of Chippewas, and then shockingly mangled their bodies. + + [171] From _Monominakauning_, place of wild rice. + +While passing through this part of the river, I observed a singular +trait in the habits of the onzig duck, which, on being suddenly +surprised by the traveller, affects for the moment to be disabled; +flapping its wings on the water, as if it could not rise, in order to +allow its brood, who are now (July) unfledged, to escape, when the +mother instantly rises from the water, and wings her flight vigorously. +We observed, sailing above the marshy areas of this fork, the falco +furcatus, the feathers of which are much esteemed by the Indians, for +this is considered a brave species, as its habit is to seize serpents by +the neck, who twist themselves around its elongated body, while it flies +off to some convenient perch to devour them. The deer is also noticed +along the Itascan fork. Ozawindib landed a little below the junction of +the Chemaun, to fire at one of them, which he discovered grazing at some +distance; but, although he carefully landed and crept up crouchingly, he +failed in his shot, either from the distance or some other cause. +Immediately, he put a fresh charge of powder in his gun, and threw in a +bullet, unwadded, and fired again before the animal had made many leaps, +but it held its way. + +We descended about eighteen miles below the Piniddiwin, and landed to +encamp. The day's descent had been an arduous one. Lieut. Allen +estimated it at seventy-five miles. We had now fairly followed the +Mississippi out of what may be denoted its Alpine passes. All its +dangerous rapids had been overcome. It was now a flowing stream of sixty +feet wide. Immediately on landing, one of the Indians captured an animal +of the saurian type, called _ocaut-e-kinabic_,[172] eight inches in +length, striped blue, black, and white, with four legs of equal length. +The colors were very vivid. + + [172] From _ocaut_, a leg, and _kinabic_, a snake. + +Having reached a part of the stream which could be safely navigated, I +resolved to re-embark after supper, and continue the descent by night. +We were now about fifteen miles above the primary forks. Lieut. Allen +determined to remain till daylight, in order to trace the river down to +the point at which it had been left in the ascent. Nothing of an +untoward nature occurred. A river of some size enters, on the left hand, +about six miles below the saurian encampment, which originates in a +lake. This stream, for which I heard no name, I designated _Allenoga_, +putting the Iroquois local terminal in _oga_ to the name of the worthy +officer who traced out the first true map of the actual sources of the +Mississippi.[173] We passed the influx of the east fork, about half-past +one A. M. on the 15th, traversed the Lake of Queen Anne, and descended +the whole series of the Metoswa rapids, to Lake Andrúsia, by the hour of +daybreak, and reached the island of my primary encampment, in Cass Lake, +at nine o'clock in the morning. We had been eleven hours and a half in +our canoes, from the time of re-embarkation at the camp above Allenoga. +Lieut. Allen did not rejoin us till six o'clock in the afternoon. He +estimated the entire distance, _out_ and _in_, at 290 miles, it being +125 miles to Itasca Lake, and, as before intimated, 165 miles from +thence to Cass Lake. He estimates the length of the Mississippi, above +the Falls of St. Anthony, at 1,029 miles. Taking the distance from the +Gulf of Mexico to the Falls at 2,200 miles,[174] this would give to this +stream a development of 3,229 miles, which exceeds my prior estimates +more than fifty miles. + + [173] Lieut.-Col. James Allen, U. S. A. This officer graduated at + West Point in 1825. After passing through various grades, he was + promoted to a captaincy of infantry in 1837. He was lieutenant-colonel + and commandant of the battalion of Mormon volunteers in the Mexican + war, which was raised by his exertions, and died at Fort Leavenworth, + on the Missouri, on the 23d of August, 1846. + + [174] Doc. No. 237. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + The expedition proceeds to strike the source of the great Crow-Wing + River, by the Indian trail and line of interior portages, by way + of Leech Lake, the seat of the warlike tribe of the Pillagers, or + Mukundwa. + + +Having, while at Sandy Lake, summoned the Indians to meet me in council +at the mouth of the _L'aile de Corbeau_, or Crow-Wing River, on the 20th +of July, no time was to be lost in proceeding to that place. The 15th, +being the Sabbath, was spent at the island, where the Rev. Mr. Boutwell +addressed the Indians. The next day, I met the Cass Lake band in +council, and, having finished that business, rewarded the Indians for +their services and canoes on the trip to Itasca Lake, distributed the +presents designed for them, replied to a message from Nezhopenais of Red +Lake, and invested Ozawindib with the President's largest silver medal +and a flag, and was ready by 10 o'clock A. M. to embark. Dr. Houghton +employed the time to complete his vaccinations. I rewarded Mr. Default +for taking charge of my camp during the journey to Itasca Lake. As well +to shorten the line of travel as to visit an entirely unexplored section +of the country, I resolved to pursue the Indian trail and line of +interior portages from Cass to Leech Lake, and from the latter to the +source of the great Crow-Wing fork. + +Passing southwardly across the lake, between Red Cedar and Garden +Islands, we have a prolonged bay running deep into the land, toward the +south. This bay is in the direct line to Leech Lake; and as it had been +crossed on the ice in January, 1806, by Lieutenant Pike, in his +adventurous and meritorious journey of exploration, I called it Pike's +Bay. It was twelve o'clock, meridian, when we debarked at its head. The +portage commenced on the edge of an open pine forest, interspersed with +scrub oak. The path is deeply worn, in the sand-plain, and looks as if +it had been trod by the Indians for centuries. I observed, as we passed +along, the alum root, hyacinthus, and sweet fern, with the ledum +latifolium, vaccinium dumosum, and more common species of pine plains. +The pinus resinosa assumes here a larger size, and the Indians pointed +out to me markings and pictographs drawn with charcoal, and covered with +the resin of the tree, which were made by the Indian tribe who preceded +them in the occupancy of the sources of the Mississippi. This must have +been, if I rightly apprehend their history, prior to A. D. 1600. That +such markings should be preserved by the pitch, which sheds the rain, +is, however, probable. They were of the totemic character, _i.e._ +relating to the exploits or achievements of groups of families, in which +the individual actor sinks his specific in the generic family or clan +name. Antiquities of this character are certainly a new feature in +Indian history. Letters have perfectly preserved the landing of Cartier +at the mouth of the St. Lawrence in 1534. Pictography here records, that +certain clans had killed bears and taken human scalps before that time. +And the fact is deeply important in shedding light on Indian history and +character; for the killing of deers and bears, and the taking of human +scalps, is precisely what these tribes are doing at the present time. In +the three hundred years' interval, they have made no mental progress. +The Chippewa is just as fierce to-day, in hunting a Dacota scalp, as the +Dacota is in hunting a Chippewa scalp. The conquering tribe has, +however, pushed the Dacotas nearly one thousand miles down the +Mississippi. + + "Talk of your Hannibals, Napoleons, and Alps, + My glory," quoth the feathered hunter, "is in scalps." + +After following the deeply indented path nine hundred and fifty yards, +we reached a small lake which disclosed, as we passed it, patches of a +dark, coarse, mossy-like substance at its bottom. On reaching down with +their paddles, the men brought up a singular species of aquatic plant +with coral-shaped branches. After crossing this lake, the pine plain +resumed its former character. There was then a shallow bog of fifty or +sixty yards. The rest of the path consists of an arid sand plain, which +is sometimes brushy, but generally presents dry, easy travelling. We had +walked four thousand one hundred yards, or about two and a half miles, +when we reached an elongated body of clear living water, having its +outflow into Leech Lake. Embarking on this, we crossed it, and entered a +narrow stream, winding about in a shaking savanna, where it was found +difficult to veer the large five-fathom canoes in which we now +travelled. This tortuous stream was joined by a tributary from the +right, and at no remote distance, entered an elongated duplicate body of +water, named by the Indians _Kapuka Sagatawag_, or the Abrupt +Discharges.[175] Below the junction of these lakes, which appear to be +outbursts from the Hauteur de Terre range, the stream is a wide-flowing +river. Its shores abound in sedge, reeds, and wild rice. The last +glimpses of daylight left us as this broad river entered into Leech +Lake. Moonlight still served us, as we began the traverse of this +spreading sea, but it soon became overcast, and it was intensely dark +before we reached the recurved point of land of the principal chief's +village. It was now ten o'clock at night, and it was eleven before the +military canoes, under Lieutenant Allen, came up. In the morning a +salute was fired by the Indians, who welcomed us. Aishkebuggekozh,[176] +or the Flat-mouth, the reigning chief, invited me to breakfast. As this +chief exercises a kind of imperial sway over the adjacent country, it +was important to respect him. Having sent a dish of hard bread before +me, I took my interpreter and went to his residence. I found him living +in a tenement built of logs, with two rooms, well floored and roofed, +with two small glass windows. At one end of the breakfast-room were +extended his flags, medals, and warlike paraphernalia. In the centre of +the floor, a large mat of rushes, or Indian-woven _apukwa_ was spread, +and upon this the breakfast and breakfast things were arranged in an +orderly manner. There were teacups, teaspoons, plates, knives and forks, +all of plain English manufacture. A salt-cellar contained salt and +pepper mixed in unequal proportions. There were just as many plates as +expected guests. A large white fish, boiled, and cut up in good taste, +occupied a dish in the centre. There was a dish of sugar made from the +acer saccharinum. There were no stools, or chairs, but small apukwa +mats were spread for each guest. I observed the dish of hard bread, +which came opportunely, as there was no other representative form of +bread. The chief sat down at the head of his breakfast, in the oriental +fashion. Imitating his example, I sat down with a degree of repose and +nonchalance, as if this had been the position I had practised from +childhood. His empress--Equa,[177] sat on one side, near him, to pour +out the tea, but neither ate nor drank anything herself. Her position +was also that of the oriental custom for females; that is, both feet +were thrown to one side, and doubled beside her.[178] The chief helped +us to fish and to tea, taking the cups from his wife. He was dignified, +grave, yet easy, and conversed freely, and the meal passed off agreeably +and without a pause, or the slightest embarrassment. This was, perhaps, +owing in part to my having been acquainted with him before, he having +visited me at my agency at Sault Ste. Marie in 1828, and sat as a guest +at my own table. Nor, in a people so loath to give their confidence as +the Indian, is the fact undeserving of mention, of general affiliation +to the tribe, caused by my marriage with a grand-daughter of the ruling +chief of Lake Superior, a lady of refinement and intelligence, who was +the child of a gentleman of Antrim, Ireland, where she was educated. + + [175] From the word _puka_, abrupt phenomenon, and the verb _saugi_, + outflowing. + + [176] From _Aizhenagozze_, countenance, and _kozh_, a bill of a bird, + or snout of an animal. The word is appropriately translated _guelle_ + by the Canadians. + + [177] _Equa_, a female; it is not, appropriately, the term of wife, + for which the vocabulary has a peculiar term, but is generally + employed in the sense of woman. + + [178] I have observed this to be the universal custom among all the + aboriginal females of America. They never part the feet. + +On rising to leave, I invited him to a council, at my tent, which was +ordered to assemble at the firing of the military. It is not unimportant +to observe, that, in preparing to set out on this expedition into the +Indian country, at a time when the Blackhawk had raised the standard of +revolt on Rock River, and the tribes of the Upper Mississippi were +believed to be extensively in his views, I had caused my canoe, after it +had been finished in most perfect style of art known to this kind of +vessel, to be painted with Chinese vermilion, from stem to stern. Ten +years' residence among the tribes, in an official capacity, had +convinced me that fear is the controlling principle of the Indian mind, +and that the persuasions to a life of peace, are most effectively made +under the symbols of war. To beg, to solicit, to creep and cringe to +this race, whether in public or private, is a delusive, if not a fatal +course; and though I was told by one or two of my neighbors that it was +not well, on this occasion, to put my canoe in the symbolic garb of war, +I did not think so. I carried, indeed, emphatically, messages of peace +from the executive head of the Government, and had the means of insuring +respect for these messages, by displaying the symbol of authority at the +stern of each vessel, by an escort of soldiery, and by presents, and the +services of a physician to arrest one of the most fatal of diseases +which have ever afflicted the Indian race. But I carried them fearlessly +and openly, with the avowed purpose of peace. The canoe, itself, was an +emblem of this authority, and, like the _oriflamme_ of the Mediæval +Ages, cast an auspicious influence on my mission over these bleak and +wide summits, lakes, and forests, inhabited alone by fierce and +predatory tribes, who acknowledged no power but force. Long before I had +reached the sources of the Mississippi, St. Vrain, my fellow agent, had +been most cruelly murdered at his agency, and General Scott, with the +whole disposable army of the United States, had taken the field at +Chicago. + +Lieut. Allen paraded his men that morning with burnished arms. We could +not, jointly, in an emergency, muster over forty men, of whom a part +were not reliable in a melée, but arranged our camp in the best manner +to produce effect. Effect, indeed, it required, when the hour of the +council came. Not less than one thousand souls, men, women, and +children, surrounded my tent, including a special deputation from the +American borders of Rainy Lake. Of these, two hundred were active young +warriors, who strode by with a bold and lofty air, and glistening eyes, +often lifting the wings of my tent, to scan the preparations going +forward. Aishkebuggekozh entered the council area, having in his train +Majegabowi, the man who had led the revolt in the Red River settlement +of Lord Selkirk, and who had tomahawked Gov. Semple, after he fell +wounded from his horse. This association did not smack of peaceful +designs. The chief, Aishkebuggekozh, himself, has the countenance of a +very ogre. He is over six feet high, very brawny, and stout. That +feature of his countenance from which he is named Flat-mouth, consisting +of a broad expansion and protrusion of the front jaws, between the long +incision of the mouth, reminds one much of a bull-dog's jaw. He held in +his hand, suspended by ribbons, five silver medals, smeared with +vermilion, to symbolize blood. + +A person not familiar with Indian symbols, might deem such signs +alarming. I knew him to be very fond of using these symbols, and, +indeed, a man who never made a speech without them; and I had the +fullest confidence that, while he aimed to produce the fullest effect +upon his listening, but less shrewd tribe of folks, and upon all, +indeed, he never dreamed of an act which should bring him into conflict +with the United States. Like Blackhawk, who was now exciting and leading +the tribes at lower points to war, he had, from his youth, been in the +British interests. He displayed a British flag at his breakfast, and +three of his medals were of British coinage, but he was a man of far +more comprehensive mind and understanding than Blackhawk. + +Having been, as a government agent, the medium of the agreement of the +Chippewas and Sioux in fixing on a boundary line for their respective +territories at the treaty of Prairie-du-Chien, in 1825, I made that +agreement, on the present occasion, the basis of my remarks, for their +preserving in good faith the stipulations of that treaty, and of +renewing the principles of it in the points where they had since been +broken and violated. I concluded by assuring them of the friendship of +the United States, of which my visit to this remote region must be +deemed proof, and of the sincerity with which I had communicated the +words of the President. The presents were then delivered and +distributed. + +Aishkebuggekozh, or the Guelle Plat, replied, with much of the skill and +force of Indian oratory. He began by calling the attention of the +warriors to his words; he then turned to me, thanking me for the +presents. He said that he had been present when Pike visited this lake +in 1806. He pointed with his fingers across the lake, to the Ottertail +Point, where the old trading-house of the British Northwest Company had +stood. "You have come," he continued, "to remind us that the American +flag is now flying over the country, and to offer us counsels of peace. +I thank you. I have heard that voice before, but it was like a rushing +wind. It was strong, but soon went. It did not remain long enough to +choke up the path. At the treaty of Prairie-du-Chien, it had been +promised that whoever crossed the lines, the long arms of the President +should pull them back; but, that very year, the Sioux attacked us, and +they have killed my people almost every year since. I was myself present +when they fired on a peaceful delegation, and killed four Chippewas +under the walls of Fort Snelling. My own son--my _only_ son--has been +killed. He was basely killed, without an opportunity to defend himself." +A subordinate here handed him, at his request, a bundle of small sticks. +"This," handing them to me, "is the number of Leech Lake Chippewas +killed by the Sioux since the treaty of Prairie-du-Chien." There were +forty-three sticks. + +He then lifted up a string of silver medals, smeared with vermilion. +"Take notice, they are bloody. I wish you to wipe the blood off. I +cannot do it. I find myself in a war with this people, and I believe it +has been intended by the Creator that we should be at war with them. My +warriors are brave [looking significantly at them]; it is to them that I +owe success. But I have looked for help where I did not find it."[179] + + [179] It is hoped, hereafter, to give further sketches of this + interview, and of this chief's life and character. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + + Geographical account of Leech Lake--History of its Indians, the + Mukundwas--The expedition proceeds to the source of the Crow-Wing + River, and descends that stream, in its whole length, to the + Mississippi. + + +Leech Lake is a large, deep, and very irregularly-shaped body of water. +It cannot be less than twenty miles across its extreme points. I +requested the chief to draw its outlines, furnishing a sheet of +foolscap. He began by tracing a large ellipsis, and then projecting +large points and bays, inwardly and outwardly, with seven or eight +islands, and that peculiar feature, the Kapuka Sagotawa, which I +apprehend to originate in gigantic springs. The following eccentric +figure of the lake is the result. + +This lake has been the seat of the Mukundwa, or Pillagers, from early +days. The date of their occupancy is unknown. The French found them here +early in the seventeenth century, when they began to push the fur trade +from Montreal. They were the advance of the Algonquin group, who, when +they had reached the head of Lake Superior, proceeded still towards the +west and northwest. Two separate bodies assumed the advance in this +migratory movement, one of which went from the north shore, at the old +Grand Portage, north-northwest, by the way of the Rainy Lakes, and the +other went northwest from Fond du Lac. The former soon earned for +themselves the title of Killers, or Kenistenos,[180] and speak a +distinct dialect; the other, whose language continued to be, with little +variations, good Odjibwa, acquired in a short time the name of Takers, +or Mukundwa. The Kenistenos advanced, through the Great Lake Winnepeck, +and up its inflowing waters, to the Portage du Trait, of the great +Churchill or Missi-nepi (much water) River, where they sent up a +skinned frog, in derision of the feebler Athapasca race, whom they here +encountered. _Mackenzie's Voyages_, p. lxxiii. _Hist. Fur_ _Trade_. The +Odjibwas were led from Chegoimegon, in Lake Superior, by two noted +chiefs, called Nokay and Bainswah, under whom they drove the Sioux from +the region of Sandy Lake and the source of the Mississippi. +(_Ethnological Researches_, vol. ii. p. 135.) + + [180] Called by the French _Crees_. + +[Illustration: Leech Lake.--_a_, Rush Bay; _b_, Leech Lake River; _c_, +Three Points; _d_, Boy's River; _e_, Bear Island; _f_, Pelican Island; +_g_, Two Points; _h_, Ottertail Point; _i_, Chippewa Village; _j_, Sugar +Point; _k_, Carp River; _l_, Old N. W. House; _m_, Goose Island; _n_, +Encampment, July 16; _o_, Trading House Am. P. Co.; _p_, Flatmouth's +House; _q_, Chippewa Village; _r_, Encampment, July 17; _s_, _s_, Route +to Crow-Wing River; _t_, Sandy Point; _u_, Big Point; _v_, Sandy Bay +River.] + +Another party of this Algonquin force, which conquered the country lying +round the sources of the Mississippi, proceeded through the Turtle River +to Red Lake, and thence descended into the valley of the Red River of +Hudson's Bay, where their descendants still reside. Large portions of +these mingled with the Canadian stock, forming that remarkable people +called Boisbrules. These advanced parties pressed into the buffalo +plains, along the Rivers Assinabwoin and Saskatchawine, which is the +ultimate western area of the spread of the Algonquin language. And to +this migration the Blackfeet are believed to be indebted for the +intermixture of this language which exists, and which Mr. Gallatin has +erroneously supposed to arise from original elements, in the Blackfeet +tongue. + +This lake yields in abundance the corregonus albus, a fish which is +unknown to the Mississippi, and which delights only, it appears, in very +limpid and cold waters. + +I found the population living at this lake to be eight hundred and +thirty-two souls, under three chiefs, the Guelle Plat, Nesia, or the +Elder Brother, and Chianoquet, or the Big Cloud, the latter of whom is +exclusively a war chief. Having dined these chiefs at my tent, and +finished my business, and the vaccinations and very numerous cases of +odontalgia being got through with, I directed my canoes to be put in the +water, with the view of going a few miles down the shore, in order to +get a quiet night's encampment, and be ready for an early start on the +morrow. It was near the hour of sunset before we could embark. +Aiskebuggekozh came down to the boat to take leave of me. He was +dressed, on this occasion (having been in Indian costume all the +morning), in a blue military frock coat, with scarlet collar and cuffs, +white underclothes, a ruffled shirt, shoes and stockings, and a +citizen's hat. He was accompanied by Nesia and other followers, and it +appeared to me if there ever was a person who had popular and +undisputable claims to imperial sway, notwithstanding this poor taste in +costume, it was he. + +We went about five miles in the general direction towards the source of +the L'ail de Corbeau, and encamped. Dr. Houghton, who had been left +behind with Lieut. Allen, to complete the vaccinations, rejoined me +about seven o'clock. Guelle Plat had promised to send me guides, to +cross the country to the Crow-Wing River, early the next morning (18th), +but, as they did not arrive, I proceeded across the arm of the lake for +the main shore without them. After reaching it, some time was spent in +searching for the commencement of the portage path. It was found to lie +across a dry pine plain. The Canadians, who are quick on finding the +trail of a portage, wanted nothing more, but pushed on, canoes and +baggage, without any further trouble about the Indian guides. A portage +of 1,078 yards brought us to the banks of a small, clear, shallow lake, +called Warpool, which had a very narrow, tortuous outlet, through which +the men, with great difficulty, and by cutting away acute turns of the +bank with their paddles, made way to force the canoes into Little Long +Lake, which we were twenty-four minutes in crossing. The outlet from +this lake expanded, at successive intervals, into three pond-like lakes, +redolent with the nymphæ valerata; the series terminating in a fourth +lake, lying at the foot of elevated lands, which was called the Lake of +the Mountain. At the head of the latter, we debarked on a shaking bog. +At this spot commences the portage _Plé_, which lies over a woodless and +bleak hill. It is short and abrupt, and terminates on the banks of a +deep bowl-shaped lake, where we took breakfast at twelve o'clock. We +were now at the foot of elevated lands. Here began the mountain portage, +so called. Its extent is, first, nine hundred and ten yards, terminating +on the shores of a little lake, without outlet, called the Lake of the +Isle. There is then a portage of 1,960 yards to another mountain lake, +without outlet. We were now near the apex of the summit between Leech +Lake and the source of De Corbeau. Another portage of one onwaybee or +about a thousand yards, partly through a morass, carried us quite across +this summit, and brought us out on elevated and highly beautiful grounds +overlooking the Kaginogumaug, or Longwater Lake, which is the source of +the Crow-Wing River. Here we encamped (18th). + +There is no rock stratum seen in place, on the De Corbeau summit. Its +surface is purely composed of geological drift and boulders. The journey +had been a very hard and fatiguing one for the men, who were on the +push and trot all day, embarking and debarking continually on lakes, or +scrambling, with their burdens and canoes, over elevations or through +morasses. It was particularly severe on the soldiers, who are +ill-prepared for this kind of toil. + +The chief Guelle Plat, with some companions of the Mukandwa band, had +overtaken us, at the Lake of the Isle, and came and encamped beside us. +I invited him to sup with us, and the evening was passed in conversing +with him on various topics. I found him a man of understanding and +comprehensive views, who was well acquainted with the history of his +people. It was twelve o'clock before these conversations ended, when he +got up to go to his camp fire. With him there sat Majegabowee,[181] a +tall, gaunt, and savage-looking man of Red River, who scarcely uttered a +word, but sat a silent listener to the superior powers of conversation +and reflection of his chief. But I could not look at this person without +a sense of horror, when I reflected that in him I beheld the murderer of +Gov. Semple, of the Hudson's Bay Territory, a circumstance which I have +previously adverted to, while at Leech Lake.[182] + + [181] The Fore-standing man. From the verb _maja_, to go, _ninabow_, + I stand, and _izzee_, a person or man. + + [182] For an account of this transaction, _vide_ Reports of the + Disputes between the Earl of Selkirk and the Northwest Company, at + the assizes held at York, Upper Canada, Oct. 1818. 1 vol. 8vo. pp. + 664. Montreal, Casie & Mower, 1819. + +Bidding adieu to the Leech Lake chief the next morning at sunrise (4 h. +45 m.), after giving him a lancet, with directions to vaccinate any of +his people who had been overlooked, I embarked on the Kaginogamaug. This +is a beautiful lake, with sylvan shores and crystal water, some four or +five miles long. We were just forty minutes, with full paddles, in +passing it. The outlet is narrow, and overhung with alders. The width is +not over six feet, with good depth, but the turns are so sudden, and the +stream so thickly overhung with foliage, that the use of the axe and the +paddle as an excavator were often necessary. It then expands into a +lake, called Little Vermilion, which is fringed with a growth of birch +and aspen, with pines in the distance. Its outlet is fully doubled in +width, and we had henceforth no more embarrassment in descending. This +outlet is pursued about eight miles. I noticed the tamarack on its +banks, and the nymphæ odorata, scirpus lacustris, and Indian reed on the +margin. It expands into Birch Lake, a clear sheet, about one mile long, +with pebbly bottom, interspersed with boulders. A short outlet, in which +we passed a broken fish-dam, connects it with Lac Plè. This lake is +about three and a half miles long, exhibiting a portion of prairie on +its shores, interspersed with small pines. From it, there is a portage +to Ottertail Lake, the eastern source of Red River. This is the common +war road of the Mukundwa against the Sioux. + +On coming out of Lac Plè, freshwater shells began to show themselves, +chiefly species of naiades, a feature in the natural history of this +stream which is afterwards common; but I observed none of much size, and +they are often greatly decorticated. Four or five miles lower, we +entered Assowa Lake, and about a mile and a half further, Lac Vieux +Desert, or Old Gardon Lake, so called from the remains of a trading +station, where we halted for breakfast. On resuming the descent, just +twenty minutes were required, with vigorous strokes of the paddle, to +pass it. It has an outlet about two miles long, when the stream again +expands into a lake of considerable size, which we called Summit Lake. +Thus far, we had been passing on a geological plateau of the diluvial +character, extending southwest. But from this point the course of the +river veers, at first towards the east and northeast, and, after a wide +circuit, to the southeast, and eventually again to the southwest. From +this point, rapids begin to mark its channel. The river, consequently, +assumes a velocity which, while it hurries the traveller on, increases +his danger of running his frail bark against rocks or shoals. We had +been driven down this accelerated channel two hours and fifteen minutes, +when it expanded into a sheet called Long Rice Lake. This is some three +miles in length, and, at a very short distance below it, the river again +expands into a considerable lake, which, from the circumstance of Lieut. +Allen having circumnavigated it, I called Allen's Lake. He found it the +recipient of a small river from the north. It is, apparently, the +largest of this series of river lakes below the Kaginogumaug. While +crossing it, we experienced a very severe and sudden tempest of wind and +rain, accompanied by most severe and appalling peals of thunder and +vivid lightning. Broad ribbons of fire, in acute angles, appeared to +rend the skies. Before the shore could be reached, the tempest had +subsided, so sudden was its development. A short distance below this, +the river makes its tenth evolution, in the shape of a lake, on which, +as my Indian maps gave no name, I bestowed the name of _Illigan_.[183] + + [183] From _ininéeg_, men, and _sugiegan_, lake, signs of a war party + having been discovered at this place. In this derivative, the usual + transition of _n_ to _l_ of the old Algonquin is made. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + + Complete the exploration of the Crow-Wing River of Minnesota--Indian + council--Reach St. Anthony's Falls--Council with the Sioux--Ascent + and exploration of the River St. Croix and Misakoda, or Broulé, of + Lake Superior--Return of the party to St. Mary's Falls, Michigan. + + +At Illigan Lake, large oaks and elms appear in the forest; its banks are +handsomely elevated, and the whole country puts on the appearance of +being well adapted to cultivation. We landed to obtain a shot at some +deer, which stood temptingly in sight, and were impressed with the +sylvan aspect of the country. While in the act of passing out of the +lake in our canoes, a small fire was observed on shore, with the usual +signs of its having been abandoned in haste by Indians, who had been +lying in ambush. Every appearance seemed to justify such a conclusion, +and it was evident a party of Sioux had been concealed waiting the +descent of Chippewas, but, on observing our flag, and the public +character of the party, they hastily withdrew. Our men, knowing the +perfidious and cruel character of this tribe, were evidently a good deal +alarmed at these signs. We had been one hour in our canoes, descending +the river with the double force of current and paddles, when the river +was found again expanded, and for the eleventh and last time, in a lake, +which the natives call _Kaitchebo Sagatowa_, meaning the lake through +one end of which the river passes. As this is not a term, however +graphic, which will pass into popular use, I named it Lake Douglas, in +allusion to a former companion in explorations in the northwest.[184] +Ten miles below this lake, the river receives its first considerable +tributary in Shell River, the Aisisepi of the Chippewas, which flows in +from the right, from the slope of the Hauteurs des Terres, near the +Ottertail Lake. Below this tributary, the Crow-Wing is nearly doubled in +width, and there is no further fear of shallow water. We held on our +way for a distance of fourteen miles below the point of junction, and +encamped on the right hand bank at eight o'clock P.M. It had rained +copiously during the afternoon, and everything in the shape of kindling +stuff had become so completely saturated with moisture, that it was +quite an enterprise in the men to light a camp-fire. Lieut. Allen did +not reach our encampment this night, having been misled in Allen's Lake, +and, being driven ashore by the tempest, he encamped in that quarter. +Presuming him to be in advance, I had pushed on, to a late hour, and +encamped under this impression. + + [184] Professor D. B. Douglas. + +The next morning (20th), we set off from our camp betimes, and, having +now a full flowing river, made good speed. The river passes for a dozen +or more miles through a willowy low tract, on issuing from which there +begins a series of strong rapids. Twenty-four of these rapids were +counted, which were called the Metunna Rapids. Lieut. Allen estimates +that they occupy thirty miles of the channel of the river. Below these +rapids, the river extends to a mean width of three hundred feet. At this +locality we were overtaken by Mr. Allen, at about two o'clock in the +afternoon, and were thus first apprised of the fact that he had been all +the while in our rear instead of in front. + +Twenty miles below the Metunna Rapids, Leaf River flows in from the +right, by a mouth of forty yards wide. This stream originates in Leaf +Lake, and is navigable sixty miles in the largest craft used by the +traders.[185] The volume of the Crow-Wing River is constantly increased +in width and velocity by these accessions, which enabled us fearlessly +to make a large day's journey. We encamped together after sunset, on an +elevated pine bank, having descended ninety miles. + + [185] The angle of country above Leaf River, on the Crow-Wing, has + been proposed as a refuge for the Menomonee tribe, of Wisconsin, for + whom temporary arrangements, at least, are now made, on the head of + Fox River, of that State. + +The 21st, we were early in motion, the river presenting a broad rushing +mass of waters, every way resembling the Mississippi itself. On reaching +within twenty miles of its mouth, we passed, on the right bank, the +mouth of the Long Prairie River,[186] a prime tributary flowing from the +great Ottertail slope, which has been, time out of mind, the war road +between the Chippewas and Sioux; and between this point and the +confluence coming in we passed, on the left bank, the confluence of the +Kioshk, or Gull River, through which there is a communication, by a +series of portages, with Leech Lake.[187] + + [186] This river has been assigned as the residence of the Winnebago + Indians. It is the present seat of the United States agency, and of + the farming and mechanical establishment for that tribe. + + [187] Mr. J. J. Nicolet pursued this route in 1836, on his visit to + the sources of the Mississippi. _Vide_ Senate Doc. No. 237. + Washington, D. C., 1843. + +From head to foot, we had now passed through the valley of the De +Corbeau River, without finding in it the permanent location of a single +Indian. We had not, in fact, seen even a temporary wigwam upon its +banks. The whole river lies, in fact, on the war road between the two +large rival tribes of the Chippewas and Sioux. It is entered by war +parties from either side, decked out in war-paints and feathers, who +descend either of its tributaries, the Leaf and Long Prairie Rivers. The +Mukundwa descends the main channel from the Kaginogumaug Lake in canoes. +On reaching the field of ambush, these canoes are abandoned, and the +parties, after an encounter, haste home on foot. + +From this deserted and uninhabited state of the valley we were the more +surprised, as noon drew on, to descry an Indian canoe ascending the +river. It proved to be spies on the look-out, from the body of Chippewas +encamped at the mouth of the river, agreeably to my invitation at Sandy +Lake. After mutual recognitions, and learning that we were near the +mouth of the river, we resumed our descent with renewed spirit, and soon +reached its outflow into the Mississippi, and crossed it to the point at +which the Indians had established their camp. We were received with +yells of welcome. It occupied an eminence on the east bank of the +Mississippi, directly opposite to the mouth of the De Corbeau.[188] The +site was marked by a flag hoisted on a tall staff. The Indians fired a +salute as we landed, and pressed down to the shore, with their chiefs, +to greet us. They informed me that by their count of sticks, of the time +appointed by me at Sandy Lake, to meet them at this spot, would be out +this day, and I had the satisfaction of being told, within a short time +of my arrival, that the canoe, with goods and supplies, from Sandy Lake, +was in sight. The Indians were found encamped a short distance above the +entrance of the Nokasippi[189] River, which is in the line of +communication with the Mille Lac and Rum River Indians. I found the +latter, together with the whole Sandy Lake Band, encamped here, awaiting +my arrival. They numbered 280 souls, of whom 60 were warriors. + + [188] CROW-WING RIVER.--This stream is the largest tributary of the + Mississippi above the falls of St. Anthony. It enters the Mississippi + in lat. 46° 15´ 50´´, 180 miles above the latter, and 145 miles below + Sandy Lake. Government first explored it, in 1832, from its source in + Lake Kaginogumaug to its mouth, and an accurate map of its channel, + and its eleven lakes, was made by Lieut. Allen, U. S. A., who + accompanied the party as topographer. It is 210 miles in length, to + its source in Long Lake. The island, in its mouth, is about three + miles long, and covered with hard-wood timber. The whole region is + noted for its pine timber; the lands lie in gentle ridges, with much + open country; a large part of it is adapted to agriculture, and there + is much hydraulic power It is navigable at the lowest stages of + water, about 80 miles, and by small boats to its very source. + + [189] From _Noka_, a man's name, and _seebi_, a river. + +A council was immediately summoned, to meet in front of my tent, at the +appointed signal of the firing of the military; the business of my +mission was at once explained, the presents distributed, and the +vaccinations commenced. Replies were made at length, by the eldest +chief, Gros Guelle, or Big Snout; by Soangekumig, or the Strong Echoing +Ground; by Wabogeeg, or the White Fisher; and by Nitumegaubowee, or the +First Standing Man. The business having been satisfactorily concluded, +the vaccination finished, and having still a couple of hours of +daylight, I embarked and went down the Mississippi some ten or fifteen +miles, to a Mr. Baker's trading-house at Prairie Piercie. + +At this place, I remained encamped, it being the Sabbath day, and rested +on the 22d, which had a good effect on the whole party, engaged as it +had been, night and day, in pushing its way to accomplish certain +results, and it prepared them to spring to their paddles the more +cheerfully on Monday morning. Indeed, it had been part of my plan of +travel, from the outset, to give the men this rest and opportunity to +recruit every seventh day, and I always found that they did more work in +the long run, from it. I had also engaged them, originally, not to drink +any ardent spirits, promising them, however, that their board and pot +should be well supplied at all times. And, indeed, although I had +frequently travelled with Canadian canoemen, I never knew a crew who +worked so cheerfully, and travelled so far, per diem, on the mean of the +week, as these six days' working canoemen. + +At Mr. Baker's, 170 miles above St. Anthony's Falls, I found a stray +number of a small newspaper, and first learned the state of the Sauc and +Fox war. The chief, Blackhawk, had crossed the Mississippi, to enter the +Rock River valley; had murdered Mr. St. Vrain, the United States agent, +sustained a conflict with the Illinois militia, under Major Stillman, +fled to Lake Gushkenong, on the head of Rock River, and drawn upon his +movement the United States army, leaving, at last accounts, Generals +Atkinson and Dodge in pursuit of him. + +Having struck the Mississippi at the point where the prior narrative +describes it (_vide_ Chap XII.), it becomes unnecessary to give details +of my descent to St. Anthony's Falls. Leaving Prairie Piercie on the +23d, two days were employed in the descent to Fort Snelling. I found +Captain Wm. R. Jouett in command, who received me with courtesy and +kindness, and offered every facility, in the absence of Mr. Talliaferro, +the United States Indian Agent, for laying the object of my mission +before the Sioux. He had received no very recent intelligence of the +progress of the Sauc war, in addition to that which I had learned at the +mouth of the De Corbeau; although he was in the habit of sending a mail +boat or canoe twice a month to Prairie du Chien.[190] + + [190] It was not till some time after my return to St. Mary's that I + learned of the overthrow of the chief and his army, and his being + taken prisoner at the battle of the Badaxe, on the 14th of August, + 1832. + +On the 25th, being the day after my arrival, I met the assembled, Sioux, +in council, at the Agency House, the commanding officer being present, +and having finished that business, and finding the Sioux wholly +unconnected with, and disapproving the proceedings of Blackhawk and his +adherents, I embarked early the next morning on my return to Lake +Superior. I reached the mouth of the River St. Croix, at three o'clock +P. M. on the 26th, and having entered the sylvan sheet of Lake St. +Croix, ascended it to within a few miles of its head, and encamped. +Lieut. Allen did not reach my camp, but halted for the night some seven +or eight miles short.[191] This lake is one of the most beautiful and +picturesque sheets of water in the West, being from two to three miles +wide, and some four-and-twenty or thirty in length.[192] The next +morning I reached the head of the lake after a couple of hours of +travel, and, by a diligent and hard day's work, during which we passed +between perpendicular walls of sonorous trap-rock, reached and encamped +at the falls of St. Croix, at eight o'clock in the evening.[193] We were +now about fifty miles from the line of the Mississippi River. For the +last few miles, there had been either a very strong current or severe +eddies of water, around angular masses of trap-rock; and we were +encamped at the precise foot of the falls, where the river, narrowed to +some fifty feet, breaks its way through trap-rock, falling some fifty +feet in the course of six hundred yards. We had been carried, at a +tangent, from the great Mississippi series of the silurian period, +beginning at St. Anthony's Falls, to the vitric formations of trap and +greenstone of the Lake Superior system, and were now to ascend a +valley, in which a heavy diluvial drift and boulder stratum rested on +this broken and angular basis.[194] On reaching the summit of the St. +Croix, there are found vast plateaux of sand, supporting pine forests; +and on descending the Misakoda, or Brulé of Fond du Lac, the sandstone +strata of that basin are again encountered. This ascent was rendered +arduous, from the low state of the water. I reached Snake River on the +30th, had an interview with the Buffalo chief (Pezhikee) and his +subordinates; finding the population 300, with thirty-eight half breeds. +The men, while here, cut their feet, treading on the trap-rock debris, +in the mouth of the river. The distance thence to Yellow River is about +thirty-five miles, which we accomplished on the 31st, by eight o'clock +in the morning, having found our greatest obstacle at the Kettle Rapids, +which discloses sharp masses of the trap-rock. The river, in this +distance, receives on its right, in the ascent, the Aisippi, or Shell +River, which originates in a lake of that name, noted for its large +unios and anadontas. + + [191] United States soldiers are not adapted to travelling in Indian + canoes. Comparatively clumsy, formal, and used to the comforts of + good quarters and shelter, they flinch under the activities and + fatigue of forest life, and particularly of that kind of life and + toil, which consists in the management of canoes, and the carrying + forward canoes and baggage over bad portages, and conducting these + frail vessels over dangerous rapids and around falls. No amount of + energy is sufficient on the part of the officers to make them keep + up, on these trips, with the gay, light, and athletic _voyageur_, who + unites the activity and expertness of the Indian with the power of + endurance of the white man. Lieut. Allen deserves great credit, as an + army officer, for urging his men forward as well as he did on this + arduous journey, for they were a perpetual cause of delay and anxiety + to me and to him. They were relieved and aided by my men at every + practicable point; but, having the responsibility of performing a + definite duty, on a fixed sum of money, with many men to feed in the + wilderness, it was imperative in me to push on with energy, day in + and day out, and to set a manful example of diligence, at every + point; and, instead of carping at my rapidity of movement, as he does + in his official report of the ascent of the St. Croix, he having + every supply within himself, and being, moreover, in a friendly + tribe, where there was no danger from Indian hostilities, he should + not have evinced a desire to control my encampments, but rather given + his men to understand that he could not countenance their + dilatoriness. + + [192] It is, at this time, a part of the boundary between the State + of Wisconsin and the Territory of Minnesota, and is the site of + several flourishing towns and villages. On its western head is the + town of Stillwater, the seat of justice for Washington County, + Minnesota. This town has a population of 1,500 inhabitants, + containing a court house, several churches, schools, printing + offices, a public land office, and territorial penitentiary, with + stores, mills, &c. Hudson is a town seated on its east bank, at + Willow River, being the seat of justice for St. Croix County, + Wisconsin. It contains a United States land-office, two churches, + and 94 dwellings, besides stores and mills. Steamboats freely + navigate its waters from the Mississippi. + + [193] FALLS OF ST. CROIX.--A thriving post town is now seated on the + Wisconsin side of these falls in Polk County, Wisconsin, which + contains several mills, at which it is estimated, four millions of + feet of pine lumber are sawed annually. It is at the head of + steamboat navigation of St. Croix River. + + [194] _Vide_ Owen's Geological Report, for the first attempt to + delineate the order of the various local and general formations. + Philada., Lippincott & Co., 1852. + +At Yellow River, I halted to confer with the Indians in front of a +remarkable eminence called Pokunogun, or the Moose's Hip. This eminence +is not, however, of artificial construction. This river, with its +dependencies of Lac Vaseux, Rice Lake, and Yellow Lake, contains a +Chippewa population of three hundred and eighty-two souls. We observed +here the unio purpureus, which the Indians use for spoons, after rubbing +off the alatæ and rounding the margin. We also examined the skin of the +sciurus tredacem striatus of Mitchill. + +We reached the forks of the St. Croix about two o'clock P. M. The +distance from Yellow River is about thirteen miles; it required five and +a half hours to accomplish this. The water was, indeed, so low, that the +men had often to wade; and, on reaching this point, we were to lose half +its volume, or more, for the Namakagun[195] fork, which enters here, +carries in more than half the quantity of water. + + [195] From _nama_, a sturgeon, and _kagun_, a yoke or wier. I + explored this stream in 1831, having reached it after ascending the + Mauvais or Maskigo of Lake Superior. _Vide_ Personal Memoirs: + Lippincott, Grambo, & Co., 1851. + +I found the chief Kabamappa and his followers encamped at the forks, +awaiting my arrival, who received me with a salute. He disclaimed all +connection with the movement of the Blackhawk. He stated facts, however, +which showed him to be well acquainted with the means which that chief +had used to bring the Indians into an extensive league against the +United States. He readily assented to the measures proposed to the upper +bands, for bringing the Sioux and Chippewas into more intimate and +permanent relations of peace and friendship. + +With respect to the ascent of the St. Croix, in the direction of the +Brulé, his exclamation was _iskutta-iskutta_, meaning it is dried up, or +there is no water. Dry the channel, indeed, looked, but by leading the +canoes around the shoals, all the men walking in the water, and picking +out channels, we advanced about seven miles before the time of +encampment. The next morning (Aug. 1) a heavy fog detained us in our +encampment, till five o'clock, when we recommenced the ascent of a +similar series of embarrassments from very low water, rapid succeeding +to rapid, till two o'clock P. M., when we reached the summit of a +plateau, and found still water and comparatively good navigation. Five +hours canoeing on this summit brought us to Kabamappa's village at the +Namakowágon, or sturgeon's dam, where we encamped. The chief gave us his +population at 88 souls, of whom 28 were men, including the minor chief, +Mukudapenas,[196] and his men. We had now got above all the strong +rapids, and proceeded from our encampment at four o'clock, A. M., on the +2d. The river receives two tributaries, from the right hand, on this +summit, namely, the Buffalo and Clearwater, and, at the distance of +about ten miles above the Namakowágon, is found to be expanded in a +handsome lake of about six miles in extent, called Lake St. Croix. This +is the source of the river. We were favored with a fair wind in passing +over it, and having reached its head debarked on a marshy margin, and +immediately commenced the portage to the Brulé, or Misakoda River.[197] + + [196] From _mukuda_, black, and _penaisee_, a bird, the name of the + rail. + + [197] From _misk_, red or colored, _muscoda_, a plain, and _auk_, a + dead standing tree, as a tree burned by fire or lightning. From the + French translation of the word, by the phrase _Brulé_; the Indian + meaning is clearly shown to be burnt, scorched, or parched--a term + which is applied to metifs of the mixed race. + +I had now reached the summit between the St. Croix and Lake Superior. +The elevation of this summit has not been scientifically determined; but +from the great fall of the Brulé, cannot be less than 600 feet. The +length of the Brulé is about 100 miles, in which there are 240 distinct +rapids. Some of these are from eight to ten feet each. Four of them +require portages, at which all the canoes are discharged. The river +itself, on looking down it, appears to be a perfect torrent, foaming and +roaring; and it could never be used by the traders at all, were it not +that it had abundance of water, being the off-drain for an extensive +plateau of lakes and springs. To give an adequate idea of this foaming +torrent, it is necessary to conceive of a river flowing down a pair of +stairs, a hundred miles long. + +The portage from the St. Croix to it begins on marsh, ascending in a +hundred yards or so, to an elevated sandy plain, which has been covered, +at former times, with a heavy forest of the pinus resinosa; that having +been consumed, there is left here and there a dry trunk, or _auk_, as +the Indians call it. The length of the portage path is 3,350 yards, or +about two miles. At this distance, we reach a small, sandy-bottomed +brook, of four feet wide and a foot deep, of most clear crystalline cold +water, winding its way, in a most serpentine manner, through a boggy +tract, and overhung with dense alder bushes. It is a good place to slake +one's thirst, but appears like anything else than a stream to embark on, +with canoes and baggage. Nobody but an Indian would seem to have ever +dreamed of it. Yet on this brook we embarked. It was now six o'clock in +the evening. By going a distance below, and damming up the stream, a +sufficient depth of water was got to float the canoes. The axe was used +to cut away the alders. The men walked, guiding the canoes, and carrying +some of the baggage. In this way we moved slowly, about one mile, when +it became quite dark, and threatened rain. The voyageurs then searched +about for a place on the bog dry enough to sleep on, and came, with joy, +and told me that they had found a kind of bog, with bunches of grassy +tufts, which are called by them _tete de femme_. The very poetry of the +idea was something, and I was really happy, amid the intense gloom, to +rest my head, for the night, on these fair tufts. The next morning we +were astir as soon as there was light enough to direct our steps. After +a few miles of these intricacies, we found a brisk and full tributary, +below which, the descent is at once free, and on crossing the first +narrow geologic plateau, the rapids begin; the stream being constantly +and often suddenly enlarged, by springs and tributaries from the right +and left. To describe the descent of this stream, in detail, would +require graphic powers to which I do not aspire, and time which I cannot +command. We were two days and a part of a night in making the descent, +with every appliance of voyageur craft. It was after darkness had cast +her pall over us, on the evening of the 4th of August, before we reached +still water. The river is then a deep and broad mass of water, into +which coasting vessels from the Lake might enter. Some four miles from +the foot of the last rapids, it enters the Fond du Lac of Lake Superior. +Some time before reaching this point, we had been apprised of our +contiguity to it, from hearing the monotonous thump of the Indian drum; +and we were glad, on our arrival, to find the chief, Mongazid,[198] of +Fond du Lac, with the military barge of Lieut. Allen, left at that place +on our outward trip, which he had promised to bring down to this point. + + [198] From _mong_, a loon, and _ozid_, his foot. The name is in + allusion to the track of the bird on the sand. + +Having thus accomplished the objects committed to my trust, and rejoined +the track described in my prior narrative, I rested here on the next day +(5th), being the Sabbath; and then proceeded through Lake Superior, to +my starting-point at Sault de Ste Marie.[199] + + [199] On passing through Lake Superior, I learned from an Indian the + first breaking out of Asiatic cholera in the country, in 1832, and + the wide alarm it had produced. + + + + + APPENDIX. + + No. 1. + + THE EXPEDITION TO THE SOURCES OF THE + MISSISSIPPI IN 1820. + + + + +I. OFFICIAL REPORTS OF THE EXPEDITION OF 1820. + + +1. DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS. + + I. Announcement of the Return of the Expedition. By Hon. LEWIS + CASS. + + II. General Report to the Department of War. By Hon. LEWIS CASS. + + III. Further Explorations of Western Geography recommended. By Hon. + LEWIS CASS. + + IV. Personal Testimonial on the close of the Expedition. By Hon. + LEWIS CASS. + + +2. TOPOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY. + + V. Results of Observations for Latitudes and Longitudes during the + Expedition of 1820. By DAVID B. DOUGLASS, Capt. Engineers, U. S. + A. + + +3. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. + + VI. Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior. By HENRY R. + SCHOOLCRAFT. + + VII. Observations on the Mineralogy and Geology of the country + embracing the sources of the Mississippi River and the Great + Lake Basins. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + VIII. Report in reply to a Resolution of the U. S. Senate on the Value + and Extent of the Mineral Lands on Lake Superior. By HENRY R. + SCHOOLCRAFT. + + IX. Rapid Glances at the Geology of Western New York, beyond the + Rome summit, in 1820. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + X. A Memoir on the Geological Position of a Fossil Tree in the + secondary rocks of the Illinois. Albany: E. & E. Hosford, + pp. 18, 1822. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +4. BOTANY. + + XI. List of Plants collected by Capt. D. B. Douglass at the sources + of the Mississippi River. This paper has been published in the + 4th vol. p. 56 of Silliman's Journal of Science. By Dr. JOHN + TORREY. + + +5. ZOOLOGY. + + XII. A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest, + addressed to Dr. Mitchell on the return of the Expedition. By + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +(1.) FRESH-WATER CONCHOLOGY. + + XIII. Species of Bivalves collected by Mr. Schoolcraft and Capt. + Douglass in the Northwest. Published in the 6th vol. Amer. + Journ. of Science, pp. 120, 259. By D. H. BARNES. + + XIV. Fresh-water Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft in the valleys + of the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. American Philosophical + Transactions, vol. 5. By Mr. ISAAC LEA. + + +(2.) FAUNA: ICHTHYOLOGY: REPTILIA. + + XV. Summary Remarks respecting the Zoological Species noticed in the + Expedition. By Dr. SAMUEL L. MITCHELL. + + XVI. Mus Busarius. Medical Repository, vol. 21, p. 248. By Dr. SAMUEL + L. MITCHELL. + + XVII. Sciurus Tredecem Striatus. Med. Rep. vol. 21. By Dr. SAMUEL L. + MITCHELL. + + XVIII. Proteus of the Lakes. Am. Journ. Science, vol. 4. By Dr. SAMUEL + L. MITCHELL. + + +6. METEOROLOGY. + + XIX. Memoranda on Climatic Phenomena, and the distribution of Solar + Heat, in 1820. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +7. INDIAN LANGUAGES AND HISTORY. + + XX. A Pictographic mode of communicating ideas by the Northwestern + Indians. By Hon. LEWIS CASS. + + XXI. Inquiries respecting the History, &c. of the Indians of the + United States. Detroit, 1822. By Hon. LEWIS CASS. + + XXII. A Letter on the Origin of the Indian Tribes of America, and the + Principles of their Mode of uttering Ideas. By Dr. J. M'DONNELL, + Belfast, Ireland. + + XXIII. Difficulties of studying the Indian Tongues of the United + States. Schoolcraft's Travels in the Central Portions of the + Mississippi Valley, p. 381. By Dr. ALEXANDER WOLCOTT, Jr. + + XXIV. Examinations of the Elementary Structure of the + Odjibwa-Algonquin Language. First paper. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + XXV. A Vocabulary of the Odjibwa-Algonquin. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +1. DEPARTMENTAL REPORTS. + + +I. + + DETROIT, September 14, 1820. + +SIR: I am happy to be enabled to state to you that I reached this place +four days since, with some of the gentlemen who accompanied me on my +late tour, after a very fortunate journey of four thousand miles, and an +accomplishment, without any adverse accident, of every object intrusted +to me. The party divided at Green Bay, with a view to circumnavigate +Lake Michigan, and I trust they may all arrive here in the course of a +week. + +As soon as possible, I shall transmit to you a detailed report upon the +subject. + +Since my arrival, I have learned that Mr. Ellicott, professor of +mathematics, at the military academy, is dead. I cannot but hope that +the office will not be filled until the return of Captain Douglass. I do +not know whether such an appointment would suit him; but from my +knowledge of his views, feelings, and pursuits, I presume it would. And +an intimate acquaintance with him during my tour enables me to say that +in every requisite qualification, as far as I can judge, I have never +found a man who is his superior. His zeal, talents, and acquirements are +of the first order, and I am much deceived if he do not soon take a +distinguished rank among the most scientific men in our country. His +situation as an assistant professor to Colonel Mansfield, and his +connection with the family of Mr. Ellicott, furnish additional reasons +why he should receive this appointment. + + Very respectfully, sir, + I have the honor to be + Your obedient servant, + LEWIS CASS. + + Hon. J. C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + +II. + + DETROIT, October 21, 1820. + +SIR: I had the honor to inform you some time since that I had reached +this place by land from Chicago, and that the residue of the party were +daily expected. They arrived soon after, without accident, and this long +and arduous journey has been accomplished without the occurrence of any +unfavorable incident. + +I shall submit to you, as soon as it can be prepared, a memoir +respecting the Indians who occupy the country through which we passed; +their numbers, disposition, wants, &c. It will be enough at present to +say, that the whole frontier is in a state of profound peace, and that +the remote Indians, more particularly, exhibit the most friendly +feelings towards the United States. As we approach the points of contact +between them and the British, the strength of this attachment evidently +decreases, and about those points few traces of it remain. During our +whole progress but two incidents occurred which evinced in the slightest +degree, an unfriendly spirit. One of these was at St. Mary's, within +forty-five miles of Drummond's Island, and the other within thirty miles +of Malden. They passed off, however, without producing any serious +result. + +It is due to Colonel Leavenworth to say, that his measures upon the +subject of the outrage committed by the Winnebago Indians, in the +spring, were prompt, wise, and decisive. As you have long since learned, +the murderers were soon surrendered; and so impressive has been the +lesson upon the minds of the Indians, that the transaction has left us +nothing to regret, but the untimely fall of the soldiers. + +In my passage through the Winnebago country, I saw their principal +chiefs, and stated to them the necessity of restraining their young men +from the commission of acts similar in their character to those +respecting which a report was made by Colonel Smith. I have reason to +believe that similar complaints will not again be made, and I am certain +that nothing but the intemperate passions of individuals will lead to +the same conduct. Should it occur, the act will be disavowed by the +chiefs, and the offenders surrendered with as much promptitude as the +relapsed state of the government will permit. + +The general route which we pursued was from this place to +Michilimackinac by the southern shore of Lake Huron. From thence to +Drummond's Island and by the River St. Mary's to the Sault. We there +entered Lake Superior, coasted its southern shore to Point Kewena, +ascended the small stream, which forms the water communication across +the base of the point, and, after a portage of a mile and a half, struck +the lake on the opposite side. Fifty miles from this place is the mouth +of the Ontonagan, upon which have been found large specimens of copper. + +We ascended that stream about thirty miles, to the great mass of that +metal, whose existence has long been known. Common report has greatly +magnified the quantity, although enough remains, even after a rigid +examination, to render it a mineralogical curiosity. Instead of being a +mass of pure copper, it is rather copper imbedded in a hard rock, and +the weight does not probably exceed five tons, of which the rock is the +much larger part. It was impossible to procure any specimens, for such +was its hardness that our chisels broke like glass. I intend to send +some Indians in the spring to procure the necessary specimens. As we +understand the nature of the substance, we can now furnish them with +such tools as will effect the object. I shall, on their return, send you +such pieces as you may wish to retain for the Government, or to +distribute as cabinet specimens to the various literary institutions of +our country. Mr. Schoolcraft will make to you a detailed report upon +this subject, in particular, and generally upon the various +mineralogical and geological objects to which his inquiries were +directed. Should he carry into effect the intention, which he now +meditates, of publishing his journal of the tour, enriched with the +history of the facts which have been collected, and with those +scientific and practical reflections and observations, which few men are +more competent to make, his work will rank among the most important +accessions which have ever been made to our national literature. + +From the Ontonagon we proceeded to the Fond du Lac, passing the mouths +of the Montreal, Mauvais, and Brulé Rivers, and entered the mouth of the +St. Louis, or Fond du Lac River, which forms the most considerable water +communication between Lake Superior and the Mississippi. + +The southern coast of the lake is sterile, cold, and unpromising. The +timber is birch, pine, and trees of that description which characterize +the nature of the country. The first part of the shore is moderately +elevated, the next, hilly, and even mountainous, and the last a low, +flat, sandy beach. Two of the most sublime natural objects in the United +States, the Grand Sable and the pictured rocks, are to be found upon +this coast. The former is an immense hill of sand, extending for some +miles along the lake, of great elevation and precipitous ascent. The +latter is an unbroken wall of rocks, rising perpendicularly from the +lake to the height of 300 feet, assuming every grotesque and fanciful +appearance, and presenting to the eye of the passenger a spectacle as +tremendous as the imagination can conceive, or as reason itself can well +sustain. + +The emotions excited by these objects are fresh in the recollection of +us all; and they will undoubtedly be described, so that the public can +appreciate their character and appearance. The indications of copper +upon the western part of the coast, are numerous; and there is reason to +suppose that silver, in small quantities, has been found. + +The communication by the Montreal with the Chippewa River, and by the +Mauvais and Brulé Rivers with the St. Croix, is difficult and +precarious. The routes are interrupted by long, numerous, and tedious +portages, across which the boats and all their contents are transported +by the men. It is doubtful whether their communication can ever be much +used, except for the purposes to which they are now applied. In the +present state of the Indian trade, human labor is nothing, because the +number of men employed in transporting the property is necessary to +conduct the trade, after the different parties have reached their +destination, and the intermediate labor does not affect the aggregate +amount of the expense. Under ordinary circumstances, and for those +purposes to which water communication is applied in the common course of +civilized trade, these routes would be abandoned. From the mouth of the +Montreal River alone to its source, there are not less than forty-five +miles of portage. + +The St. Louis River is a considerable stream, and for twenty-five miles +its navigation is uninterrupted. At this distance, near an establishment +of the Southwest Company, commences the Grand Portage about six miles in +length, across spurs of the Porcupine ridge of mountains. One other +portage, one of a mile and a half, and a continued succession of falls, +called the Grand Rapids, extending nine miles, and certainly +unsurmountable except by the skill and perseverance of the Canadian +boatmen, conduct us to a comparatively tranquil part of the river. From +here to the head of the Savannah River, a small branch of the St. Louis, +the navigation is uninterrupted, and after a portage of four miles, the +descent is easy into Lake au Sable, whose outlet is within two miles of +the Mississippi. + +This was until 1816 the principal establishment of the British Northwest +Company upon these waters, and is now applied to the same purpose by the +American Fur Company. + +From Lac au Sable, we ascended the Mississippi to the Upper Red Cedar +Lake, which may be considered as the head of the navigation of that +river. The whole distance, 350 miles, is almost uninhabitable. The first +part of the route the country is generally somewhat elevated and +interspersed with pine woods. The latter part is level wet prairie. + +The sources of this river flow from a region filled with lakes and +swamps, whose geological character indicates a recent formation, and +which, although the highest table-land of this part of the Continent, is +yet a dead level, presenting to the eye a succession of dreary +uninteresting objects. Interminable marshes, numerous ponds, and a few +low, naked, sterile plains, with a small stream, not exceeding sixty +feet in width, meandering in a very crooked channel through them, are +all the objects which are found to reward the traveller for the +privations and difficulties which he must encounter in his ascent to +this forbidding region. + +The view on all sides is dull and monotonous. Scarcely a living being +animates the prospect, and every circumstance recalled forcibly to our +recollection that we were far removed from civilized life. + +From Lac au Sable to the mouth of the St. Peter's, the distance by +computation is six hundred miles. The first two hundred present no +obstacles to navigation. The land along the river is of a better quality +than above; the bottoms are more numerous, and the timber indicates a +stronger and more productive soil. But near this point commence the +great rapids of the Mississippi, which extend more than two hundred +miles. The river flows over a rocky bed, which forms a continuous +succession of rapids, all of which are difficult and some dangerous. The +country, too, begins here to open, and the immense plains in which the +buffaloes range approach the river. These plains continue to the Falls +of St. Anthony. + +They are elevated fifty or sixty feet above the Mississippi, are +destitute of timber, and present to the eye a flat, uniform surface, +bounded at the distance of eight or ten miles by high ground. The title +of this land is in dispute between the Chippewas and Sioux, and their +long hostilities have prevented either party from destroying the game in +a manner as improvident as is customary among the Indians. It is +consequently more abundant than in any other region through which we +travelled. + +From the post, at the mouth of the St. Peter's, to Prairie du Chien, and +from that place to Green Bay, the route is too well-known to render it +necessary that I should trouble you with any observations respecting it. + +The whole distance travelled by the party between the 24th of May and +the 24th of September exceeded 4,200 miles, and the journey was +performed without the occurrence of a single untoward accident +sufficiently important to deserve recollection. + +These notices are so short and imperfect that I am unwilling to obtrude +them upon your patience. But the demands upon your attention are so +imperious, that to swell them into a geographical memoir would require +more time for their examination than any interest which I am capable of +giving the subject would justify. + +I propose hereafter to submit some other observations to you in a +different shape. + + Very respectfully, sir, + I have the honor to be + Your obedient servant, + LEWIS CASS. + + Hon. J. C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + +III. + +Copy of a letter from Gov. Lewis Cass to Hon. John C. Calhoun, Secretary +of War, dated + + DETROIT, September 20, 1820. + +SIR: In examining the state of our topographical knowledge, respecting +that portion of the Northwestern frontier over which we have recently +passed, it occurs to me that there are several points which require +further examination, and which might be explored without any additional +expense to the United States. + +The general result of the observations made by Capt. Douglass, will be +submitted to you as soon as it can be prepared. And I believe he will +also complete a map of the extensive route we have taken, and embracing +the whole of the United States, bounded by the Upper Lakes and by the +waters of the Mississippi, and extending as far south as Rock Island and +the southern extremities of Lakes Michigan and Erie. The materials in +his possession are sufficient for such an outline, and he is every way +competent to complete it. But there are several important streams, +respecting which it is desirable to procure more accurate information +than can be obtained from the vague and contradictory relations of +Indians and Indian traders. The progress of our geographical knowledge +has not kept pace with the extension of our territory, nor with the +enterprise of our traders. But I trust the accurate observations of +Captain Douglass will render a resort to the old French maps for +information respecting our own country entirely unnecessary. + +I beg leave to propose to you, whether it would not be proper to direct +exploring parties to proceed from several of our frontier posts into the +interior of the country, and to make such observations as might lead to +a correct topographical delineation of it. An intelligent officer, with +eight or ten men, in a canoe, would be adequate to this object. He would +require nothing more than a compass to ascertain his course, for it is +not to be expected that correct astronomical observations could be +taken. In ascending or descending streams, he should enter in a journal +every course which he pursues, and the length of time observed by a +watch. He should occasionally ascertain the velocity of his canoe, by +measuring a short distance upon the bank, and should also enter in his +journal his supposed rate of travelling. This, whenever it is possible, +should be checked by the distance as estimated by traders and +travellers. By a comparison of these data, and by a little experience, +he would soon be enabled to ascertain with sufficient precision, the +length of each course, and to furnish materials for combination, which +would eventually exhibit a perfect view of the country. I do not know +any additional expense which it would be necessary to encounter. An +ordinary compass is not worth taking into consideration. A necessary +supply of provisions, a small quantity of powder, lead, and tobacco, to +present occasionally to the Indians, and a little medicine, are all the +articles which would require particular attention. Officers employed +upon such services should be directed to observe the natural appearances +of the country; its soil, timber, and productions; its general face and +character; the height, direction, and composition of its hills; the +number, size, rapidity, &c., of its streams; its geological structure +and mineralogical products; and any facts which may enable the public to +appreciate its importance in the scale of territorial acquisitions, or +which may serve to enlarge the sphere of national science. + +It is not to be expected that officers detached upon the duties can +enter into the detail of such subjects in a manner which their +importance would render desirable. But the most superficial observer may +add something to the general stock; and to point their inquiries to +specific objects, may be the means of eliciting facts, which in other +hands may lead to important results. The most important tributary stream +of the Upper Mississippi is the Saint Peter's. The commanding officer at +the mouth of that river might be directed to form an expedition for +exploring it. + +It is the opinion of Captain Douglass, and it is strongly fortified by +my personal observation, and by the opinion of others, that Lieut. +Talcott, of the Engineers, now at the Council Bluffs, would conduct a +party upon this duty in a very satisfactory manner. He might ascend the +St. Peter's to its source, and from thence cross over to the Red River, +and descend the stream to the 49th parallel of latitude, with directions +to take the necessary observations upon so important a point.[200] +Thence up that branch of the Red River, interlocking with the nearest +water of the Mississippi, and down this river to Leech Lake. From this +lake, there is an easy communication to the River de Corbeau, which he +could descend to the Mississippi, and thence to St. Peter's.[201] + + [200] This is the origin of Major Long's second expedition. + + [201] Explored by the preceding narrative in 1831-1833. + +The St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, entering the Mississippi above and +below the Falls of St. Anthony, might, in like manner, be explored by +parties from the same post.[202] The former interlocks with the Mauvais +and Brulé Rivers, but a descent into Lake Superior would not probably be +considered expedient, so that the party would necessarily ascend and +descend the same stream.[202] + + [202] Explored by the preceding narrative in 1831-1833. + +The Chippewa interlocks with the Montreal and Wisconsin Rivers, and +consequently the same party could ascend the former and descend the +latter stream. + +A party from Green Bay might explore Rocky River from its source to its +mouth. + +A correct examination of Green Bay and of the Menomonie River might be +made from the same post. + +The St. Joseph and Grand River, of this peninsula, could be examined by +parties detached from Chicago. + +It is desirable, also, to explore the Grand Traverse Bay, about sixty +miles south of Michilimackinac, on the east coast of Lake Michigan. + +These are all the points which require particular examination. +Observations made in the manner I have suggested, and connected with +those already taken by Captain Douglass, would furnish ample materials +for a correct chart of the country. + +It is with this view that it might be proper, should you approve the +plan I have submitted to you, to direct, that the reports of the +officers should be transmitted to Captain Douglass, by whom they will be +incorporated with his own observations, and will appear in a form best +calculated to promote the views which you entertain upon the important +subject of the internal geography of our country. + + +IV. + + DETROIT, October 3, 1820. + +SIR: On the eve of separating from my associates in our late tour, I owe +it to them and to myself, that I should state to you my opinion +respecting Captain Douglass and Mr. Schoolcraft. + +I have found them, upon every occasion, zealous in promoting the +objects of the Expedition, indefatigable in their inquiries and +observations, and never withholding their personal exertions. Ardent in +their pursuit after knowledge, with great attainments in the departments +of literature to which they have respectively devoted themselves, and +with powers which will enable them to explore the whole field of +science, I look forward with confidence to the day when they will assume +distinguished stations among our scientific men, and powerfully aid in +establishing the literary fame of their country. + +Should any object of a similar character again require similar talents, +I earnestly recommend their employment. Whoever has the pleasure of +being associated with them, will find how easily profound acquirements +may be united with that urbanity of manners, and those qualities of the +heart, which attach to each other those who have participated in the +fatigues of a long and interesting tour. + + Very respectfully, sir, + I have the honor to be + Your obedient servant, + LEWIS CASS. + + Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + +2. TOPOGRAPHY AND ASTRONOMY. + +Topographical materials were collected by Capt. Douglass, U.S.A., for a +map of the northwestern portions of the United States, embracing the +complete circumnavigation of the great lake basins, and accurate +delineations of the sources of the Mississippi, as low down as the +influx of the River Wisconsin. Being provided with instruments from the +Military Academy of West Point, astronomical observations were made at +every practical point over the vast panorama traversed by the +Expedition. A line of some four thousand miles of previously unexplored +country was visited; his notes and memoranda for a topographical memoir +were full and exact; and they were left, I am informed, in a state of +nearly perfect elaboration, accompanied by illustrations, and many +drawings of scenery. Having written to his family recently, for the +astronomical observations, they were transmitted by his son in a letter, +of which the following is an extract:-- + + GENEVA, JUNE 23, 1854. + +DEAR SIR: I inclose you herewith, on another page, the results of my +father's observations of latitude and longitude, so far as I have been +able to collect them. His calculations indicate great pains and labor to +obtain accurate results. They are too voluminous to copy. I trust, +however, that I have been as particular as was necessary in the inclosed +memoranda. If anything else is wanting, I should like you to inform me. + + I am, sir, with great respect, + Your obedient servant, + MALCOLM DOUGLASS. + + +V. + +_Results of Observations for Latitude and Longitude during the +Expedition of 1820._ By DAVID B. DOUGLASS, Capt. Engineers, U.S.A. + + {By 3 sets of observations at Cunningham's } + { Island, 1819, and reduced by } + { exact measurement on the Boundary } + { Bay } + { } + Mean {By 1 set of observations at Gibraltar } + latitude { Island (Put-in Bay), taken, like the } + of { preceding, in 1819, and reduced as } 42° 19´ 20´´ + Detroit { before } + { } + {By 1 set of observations taken on } + { Sugar Island, and reduced as before } + { } + {By mean results of 2 sets of + observations--May} 17 and 21, 1820 + } + {By mean observation, Sept. 29, 1820 } + + Mean longitude of Detroit, by 6 sets of observations, + May 17 and 19, 1820 82 39 00 + + Latitude of Presque Isle, Lake Huron, June 5, 1820 45 19 45 + + Latitude of Mackinaw, by 4 sets of observations, + June 7 and 11, 1820, by meridian observations, + Sept. 12, 1820 45 50 54 + + Height of Fort Holmes. From the water + to the brow of the hill near Robinson's + Folly, nearly on a level with + Fort Mackinaw 115.8 + + Thence to the top of the block H of Fort + Holmes 260.9 + ----- + Total height, 376.7 feet + + Longitude of Mackinaw, by several sets of observations, + Sept. 12, 1820 84 28 40 + + Mean latitude of Sault de St. Marie, June 16, 1820 46 26 45 + + Latitude of Turtle Camp, on Lake Superior, June + 22--primitive bluff (Granite Point.--S.) 46 41 15 + + Latitude of Keweena Camp 47 02 30 + + Mean latitude of Sandy River, July 4, 1820 46 55 24 + + Mean longitude (by 25 observations for degrees, + and 25 observations for time). In time, 6 h. 3 m. + 48 sec. In degrees 90 57 00 + + Latitude of the gallais[203] on the Grand Portage of + St. Louis, July 6, 1820 46 39 34 + + Latitude of camp at head of Grand Portage, July + 8, 1820 46 41 07 + + Latitude of camp at west end of Savanna Portage 46 51 47[204] + + Mean latitude of Sandy Lake post, from observations, + July 16 and 25 46 45 35 + + Mean longitude of Sandy Lake post, from 4 sets + of observations, July 15 and 16 93 21 30 + + Latitude of Wolverine Camp, July 23, 1 day from + Sandy Lake 47 4 15 + + Latitude of halting-place above forks of Leech + River on the Mississippi, July 20 47 24 00[205] + + Latitude of camp at Lake Winnipec, July 20 47 30 56 + + Latitude of halting-place near first return camp, + July 21 47 27 10 + + Latitude of return camp; near the above, same + day 47 26 40 + + Latitude of camp at Buffalo hunting-ground, above + Pe-can-de-quaw Lake, July 28 and 29 46 00 00 + + Breadth of river at camp on the Buffalo Plain, + 148 yards + + Latitude of halting-place between the Great Falls + and St. Francis River 45 25 43 + + Breadth of river at camp above Falls of St. Anthony, + 200 yards + + Mean latitude of Fort St. Anthony, new site, July + 31, by 5 sets of observations 44 53 20 + + Mean longitude of Fort St. Anthony, new site, July + 31, by 3 sets of observations 92 55 45 + + Latitude of Fort Prairie du Chien, Aug. 6 and 7. 43 03 19[206] + + Latitude of Fox and Ouisconsin Portage, Aug. + 14 and 15, 43° 42´ 36´´; say 43 42 00 + + Latitude of camp near mouth of River De Loup, + Aug. 17 44 6 44 + + Latitude of Fort Howard, Green Bay, Aug. 21 44 31 38 + + Longitude of Fort Howard (some error), probably + between 87° 45´ 30´´ and 87 46 00 + + Latitude of camp at Sturgeon Portage, Lake Michigan, + Aug. 23 44 47 43 + + Latitude of camp 3 miles north of the Manetowag, + Aug. 24 44 12 47 + + Latitude of camp south of the Sheboyegan, Aug. 25 43 41 26 + + Latitude of camp at Milwaukie, Aug. 26 43 01 35 + + Mean latitude of Fort Dearborn, Chicago, by 6 sets + of equal altitudes, Aug. 31, and meridian altitude + 41 54 06 + Mean longitude of Fort Dearborn, 3 sets of + observations. In time, 5 h. 50 m. 8 sec. In + degrees 87 32 30 + + Longitude of Detroit, calculated from above 82 54 53 + + Latitude of camp near head of Lake Michigan, + Aug. 31 and Sept. 1 41 38 48 + + Mean latitude of the extreme south point of Lake + Michigan, 4 sets of observations and meridian + observation 41 37 28 + + Latitude of camp next north of the St. Joseph's, + near Kekalamazo, Sept. 3 42 32 16 + + Latitude of camp at Maskegon River, Sept. 4 43 13 41 + + Latitude of camp near Point aux Salles, Lake + Michigan, Sept. 5 44 5 17 + + Latitude of camp at Grand Traverse Bay, Lake + Michigan, Sept. 7 45 34 24 + + + [203] _Galet_, in the Canadian patois, means a smooth, flat + rock.--H. R. S. + + [204] A little doubtful. + + [205] A little doubtful. + + [206] Or 20´´. + + +3. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. + + +VI. + +_Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + To the Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + VERNON (Oneida County, N. Y.), November 6, 1820. + +SIR: I have now the honor to submit such observations as have occurred +to me, during the recent expedition under GOV. Cass, in relation to the +copper mines on Lake Superior; reserving, as the subject of a future +communication, the facts I have collected on the mineralogy and geology +of the country explored generally. + +The first striking change in the mineral aspect of the country north of +Lake Huron, is presented near the head of the Island of St. Joseph, in +the River St. Mary, where the calcareous strata of secondary rocks are +succeeded by a formation of red sandstone, which extends northward to +the head of that river at Point Iroquois, producing the falls called the +_Sault de Ste. Marie_, fifteen miles below; and thence stretching +northwest, along the whole southern shore of Lake Superior, with the +interruptions noted, to Fond du Lac. + +This extensive stratum is perforated at various points by upheaved +masses of sienitic granite and trap, which appear in elevated points on +the margin of the lake at Dead River, Keweena Point, Presque Isle, and +the Chegoimagon Mountains. It is overlaid, in other parts, by a stratum +of gray or neutral-colored sandstone, of uncommon thickness, which +appears in various promontories along the shore, and, at the distance of +ninety miles from Point Iroquois, constitutes a lofty perpendicular and +caverned wall, upon the water's edge, called the Pictured Rocks. + +So obvious a change in the geological character of the rock strata, in +passing from Lake Huron to Lake Superior, prepares the observer to +expect a corresponding one in the imbedded minerals and other natural +features--an expectation which is realized during the first eighty +leagues, in the discovery of various minerals. The first appearances of +copper are seen at Keweena Point, two hundred and seventy miles beyond +the Sault de Ste. Marie, where the debris and pebbles along the shore of +the lake contain native copper disseminated in particles varying in size +from a grain of sand to a mass of two pounds' weight. Many of the +detached stones of this Point are also colored green by the carbonate of +copper, and the rock strata exhibit traces of the same ore. These +indications continue to the River Ontonagon, which has long been noted +for the large masses of native copper found upon its banks, and about +the contiguous country. + +This river is one of the largest of thirty tributaries, mostly small, +which flow into the lake between Point Iroquois and Fond du Lac. It +originates in a district of mountainous country intermediate between the +Mississippi River and lakes Huron and Superior. After running in a +northern direction for about one hundred and twenty miles, it enters the +latter at the computed distance of fifty miles west of the portage of +Keweena, in north latitude 46° 52´ 2´´, according to the observations of +Capt. Douglass. It is connected, by portages, with the Monomonee River +of Green Bay, and with the Chippewa River of the Mississippi. At its +mouth there is a village of Chippewa Indians of sixteen families, who +subsist chiefly on the fish taken in the river. Their location, +independent of that circumstance, does not appear to unite the ordinary +advantages of an Indian village of the region. + +A strip of alluvial land of a sandy character extends from the lake up +the river three or four leagues, where it is succeeded by hills of a +broken, sterile aspect, covered, chiefly, with a growth of pine, +hemlock, and spruce. Among these hills, which may be considered as +lateral spurs of the Porcupine Mountains, the copper mines, so called, +are situated, at the computed distance of thirty-two miles from the +lake, and in the centre of a region characterized by its wild, rugged, +and forbidding appearance. The large mass of native copper lies on the +west bank of the river, at the water's edge, at the foot of an elevated +bank, part of which appears to have slipped into the river, carrying +with it the mass of copper, together with detached blocks of sienitic +granite, trap-rock, and other species common to the soil at that place. + +The copper, which is in a pure and malleable state, lies in connection +with serpentine rock, one face of which it almost completely overlays. +It is also disseminated in masses and grains throughout the substance of +the rock. The surface of the metal, unlike most oxidable metals which +have been long exposed to the atmosphere, presents a metallic +brilliancy, which is probably attributable to the attrition of the +semi-annual floods of the river. + +The shape of the rock is very irregular; its greatest length is three +feet eight inches; its greatest breadth, three feet four inches, with an +average thickness of twelve inches. It may, altogether, contain eleven +cubic feet.[207] It exceeds, in size, the great mass of native iron +found some years ago on the banks of Red River, in Louisiana. I have +computed the weight of metallic copper in the rock at twenty-two hundred +pounds, which is about one-fifth of the lowest estimate made of it by +former visitors. Henry, who visited it in 1766, estimated its weight at +five tons. The quantity may, however, have been much diminished since +its discovery, and the marks of chisels and axes upon it, with the +discovery of broken tools, prove that portions have been cut off and +carried away. Notwithstanding this reduction, it may still be considered +one of the largest and most remarkable bodies of native copper on the +globe, and is, so far as known, only exceeded in weight by a specimen +found in a valley in Brazil, weighing twenty-six hundred and sixty-six +Portuguese pounds. Viewed as a subject of scientific interest, it +presents illustrative proofs of an important character. Its connection +with a rock which is foreign to the immediate section of country where +it lies,[208] indicates a removal from its original bed; while the +intimate connection of the metal and matrix, and the complete +envelopment of masses of the copper by the rock, point to a common and +contemporaneous origin, whether that be referable to volcanic agency or +water. This conclusion admits of an obvious application to the beds of +serpentine and other magnesian rock found in other parts of the lake. + + [207] This copper rock now (1854) lies in the yard of the War Office + at Washington. + + [208] A locality of serpentine rock has since been discovered at + Presque Isle, on Lake Superior. + +Several other large masses of native copper have been found, either on +this river or within the basin of the lake, at various periods since the +country has been known, and taken into different parts of the United +States and of Europe. A recent analysis of one of these specimens, at +the University of Leyden, proves it to be native copper in a state of +uncommon purity, and uncombined with any notable portion of either gold +or silver. + +A mass of copper, weighing twenty-eight pounds, was discovered on an +island in Lake Superior, eighty miles west of the Ontonagon. It was +taken to Michilimackinac and disposed of. The War Department was +formerly supplied with a specimen from this mass, and the analysis above +alluded to is also understood to have been made from a portion of it. A +piece weighing twelve pounds was found at Winnebago Lake. Other +discoveries of this metal have been made, within the region, at various +times and places. + +The existence of copper in the region of Lake Superior appears to have +been known to the earliest travellers and voyagers. + +As early as 1689, the Baron La Hontan, in concluding a description of +Lake Superior, adds: "That, upon it, we also find copper mines, the +metal of which is so fine and plentiful that there is not a seventh part +lost from the ore."--_New Voyages to North America_, London, 1703. + +In 1721, Charlevoix passed through the lakes on his way to the Gulf of +Mexico, and did not allow the mineralogy of the country to escape him. + +"Large pieces of copper are found in some places on its banks [Lake +Superior], and around some of the islands, which are still the objects +of a superstitious worship among the Indians. They look upon them with +veneration, as if they were the presents of those gods who dwell under +the waters. They collect their smallest fragments, which they carefully +preserve, without, however, making any use of them. They say that +formerly a huge rock of this metal was to be seen elevated a +considerable height above the surface of the water, and, as it has now +disappeared, they pretend that the gods have carried it elsewhere; but +there is great reason to believe that, in process of time, the waves of +the lake have covered it entirely with sand and slime. And it is certain +that in several places pretty large quantities of this metal have been +discovered without being obliged to dig very deep. During the course of +my first voyage to this country, I was acquainted with one of our order +(Jesuits) who had been formerly a goldsmith, and who, while he was at +the mission of Sault de Ste. Marie used to search for this metal, and +made candlesticks, crosses, and censers of it, for this copper is often +to be met with almost entirely pure."--_Journal of a Voyage to North +America._ + +In 1766, Captain Carver procured several pieces of native copper on the +shores of Lake Superior, or on the Chippewa and St. Croix Rivers, which +are noticed in his travels, without much precision, however, as to +locality, &c. He did not visit the southern shores of Lake Superior, +east of the entrance of the Brulé, or Goddard's River, but states that +virgin copper is found on the Ontonagon. Of the north and northeastern +shores, he remarks: "That he observed that many of the small islands +were covered with copper _ore_, which appeared like beds of copperas, of +which many tons lay in a small space."--_Three Years' Travels, &c._ + +In 1771 (four years before the breaking out of the American Revolution), +a considerable body of native copper was dug out of the alluvial earth +on the banks of the Ontonagon River by two adventurers, of the names of +Henry and Bostwick, and, together with a lump of silver ore of eight +pounds' weight, it was transported to Montreal, and from thence shipped +to England, where the silver ore was deposited in the British Museum, +after an analysis had been made of a portion of it, by which it was +determined to contain 60 per cent. of silver. + +These individuals were members of a company which had been formed in +England for the purpose of working the copper mines of Lake Superior. +The Duke of Gloucester, Sir William Johnson, and other gentlemen of rank +were members of this company. They built a vessel at Point aux Pins, six +miles above the Sault Ste. Marie, to facilitate their operations on the +lake. A considerable sum of money was expended in explorations and +digging. Isle Maripeau and the Ontonagon were the principal scenes of +their search. They found silver, in a detached form, at Point Iroquois, +fifteen miles above the present site of Fort Brady. + +"Hence," observes Henry, "we coasted westward, but found nothing till we +reached the Ontonagon, where, besides the detached masses of copper +formerly mentioned, _we saw much of the same metal imbedded in stone_. + +"Proposing to ourselves to make a trial on the hill, till we were better +able to go to work upon the solid rock, we built a house, and sent to +the Sault de Ste. Marie for provisions. At the spot pitched upon for the +commencement of our operations, a green-colored water, which tinges iron +of a copper color, issued from the hill, and this the miners called a +_leader_. In digging, they found frequent masses of copper, some of +which were of three pounds' weight. Having arranged everything for the +accommodation of the miners during the winter, we returned to the Sault. + +"Early in the spring of 1772, we sent a boat-load of provisions, but it +came back on the 20th day of June, bringing with it, to our surprise, +the whole establishment of miners. They reported that, in the course of +the winter, they had penetrated forty feet into the face of the hill, +but, on the arrival of the thaw, the clay, on which, on account of its +stiffness, they had relied, and neglected to secure it by supporters, +had fallen in. That, from the detached masses of metal which, to the +last, had daily presented themselves, they supposed there might be +ultimately reached a body of the same, but could form no conjecture of +its distance, except that it was probably so far off as not to be +pursued without sinking an air shaft. And, lastly, that the work would +require the hands of more men than could be fed in the actual situation +of the country. + +"Here our operations, in this quarter, ended. The metal was probably +within our reach, but, if we had found it, the expense of carrying it to +Montreal must have exceeded its marketable value. It was never for the +exportation of copper that our company was formed, but always with a +view to the silver, which it was hoped the ores, whether of copper or +lead, might in sufficient quantity contain."--_Travels and Adventures of +Alexander Henry._ + +[In the summer of 1832, being detained by head winds at the mouth of +Miner's River, on Lake Superior, I observed the names of several persons +engraved on the sand rock, but much obliterated by the water's dashing +over the rock. Tradition represents that Henry's miners were detained +there, and that they made explorations of the river, which is named from +the circumstance. The stream is a mere brook, coming over the shelving +sand rock, which is a part of the precipitous range of the Pictured +Rocks.] + +Sir A. Mackenzie passed through Lake Superior, on his first voyage of +discovery, in 1789. He remarks: "At the River Tennagon (Ontonagon) is +found a quantity of virgin copper. The Americans, soon after they got +possession of the country, sent an agent thither; and I should not be +surprised to hear of their employing people to work the mine. Indeed, it +might be well worthy the attention of the British subjects to work the +mines on the north coast, though they are not supposed to be so rich as +those on the south."--_Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of +North America._ + +It is difficult to conceive what, however, is apparent, from the +references of Dr. Franklin to the subject, that the supposed mineral +riches of Lake Superior had an important bearing on the discussions for +settling the ultimate northern boundary of the United States. The +British ambassadors had, it seems, from an old map which is before me, +claimed a line through the Straits of Michilimackinac and the Illinois +and Mississippi rivers, to the Gulf of Mexico. + +The attention of the United States Government appears first to have been +turned toward the subject during the administration of President John +Adams, when the sudden augmentation of the navy rendered the employment +of copper in the equipment of ships an object of moment. A mission was +therefore authorized to proceed to Lake Superior, of the success of +which, as it has not been communicated to the public, nothing can, with +certainty, be stated; but from inquiries which have been made during the +recent expedition, it is rendered probable that the actual state of our +Indian relations, at the time, arrested the advance of the officer into +the region where the most valuable beds of copper were supposed to +exist, and that the specimens transmitted to Government were procured +through the instrumentality of some friendly Indians, employed for the +purpose. + +Such are the lights which those who have preceded me in this inquiry +have thrown upon the subject, all of which have operated in producing +public belief in the existence of extensive copper mines on Lake +Superior. Travellers have generally coincided that the southern shore of +the lake is most metalliferous, and that the Ontonagon River may be +considered as the seat of the principal mines. Mr. Gallatin, in his +report on the state of American manufactures in 1810, countenances the +prevalent opinion, while it has been reiterated in some of our literary +journals, and in the numerous ephemeral publications of the times, until +public expectation has been considerably raised in regard to them. + +Under these circumstances, the recent expedition under Gov. Cass entered +the mouth of the Ontonagon River on the 27th of June, having coasted +along the southern shore of the lake from the head of the River St. +Mary. We spent four days upon the banks of that stream, in the +examination of its mineralogy, during which the principal part of our +party was encamped at the mouth of the river. Gov. Cass, accompanied by +such persons as were necessary in the exploration, proceeded, in two +light canoes, to the large mass of copper which has already been +described. We found the river broad, deep, and gentle for a distance, +and serpentine in its course; then becoming narrower, with an increased +velocity of current, and, before reaching the Copper Rock, full of +rapids and difficult of ascent. We left our canoes at a point on the +rapids, and proceeded on foot, across a rugged tract of country, around +which the river formed an extensive semicircle. We came to the river +again at the locality of copper. In the course of this curve the river +is separated into two branches of nearly equal size. The copper lies on +the right-hand fork, and it is subsequently ascertained that this branch +is intercepted by three cataracts, at which the river descends over +precipitous cliffs of sandstone. The aggregate fall of water at these +cataracts has been estimated at seventy feet. + +The channel of the river at the Copper Rock is rapid and shallow, and +filled with detached masses of rock, which project above the water. The +bed of the river is upon sandstone, similar to that under the Palisades +on the Hudson. The waters are reddish, a color which they evidently owe +to beds of ferruginous clay. The Copper Rock lies partly in the water. +Other details in the geological structure and appearance of the country +are interesting; but they do not appear to demand a more particular +consideration in this report. + +During our continuance upon this stream, we procured from an Indian a +separate mass of copper weighing nearly nine pounds; which will be +forwarded to the War Department. This specimen is partially enveloped +with a crust of green carbonate of copper. Small fragments of quartz and +sand adhere to the under side, upon which it would appear to have fallen +in a liquid state. Several smaller pieces of this metal were procured +during our excursion up the Ontonagon, or along the shores of the lake +east of this stream. + +It may be added that discoveries of masses of native copper, like those +of gold and other metals, are generally considered indicative of the +existence of mines in the neighborhood. The practical miner regards them +as signs which point to larger bodies of the same metals, in the earth, +and he is often determined by discoveries of this nature in the choice +of the spot for commencing his labors. The predictions drawn from such +evidence are more sanguine in proportion to the extent of the discovery. +They are not, however, unerring indications, and appear liable to many +exceptions. Metallic masses are sometimes found at great distances from +their original repositories; and the latter, on the contrary, sometimes +occur in the earth, or imbedded in rock strata, where there have been no +great external discoveries. + +From all the facts, which I have been able to collect on Lake Superior, +and after a full deliberation upon them since my return, I have drawn +the following conclusions:-- + +1. That the diluvial soil along the banks of the Ontonagon River, +extending to its source, and embracing the contiguous region, which +gives origin to the Monomonee River of Green Bay, and to the Wisconsin, +Chippewa, and St. Croix Rivers of the Mississippi, contains very +frequent, and several extraordinary masses of native, or metallic +copper. But that no body of this metal, which is sufficiently extensive +to become the object of profitable mining operations, has yet been found +at any particular place. This conclusion is supported by the facts +adduced, and, so far as theoretical aids can be relied upon, by an +application of those facts to the theories of mining. A further extent +of country might have been embraced, along the shores of Lake Superior, +but the same remark appears applicable to it. + +2. That a more intimate knowledge of the mineralogical resources of the +country, may be expected to result in the discovery of valuable ores of +copper, in the working of which occasional masses and veins of the +native metal, may materially enhance the advantages of mining. This +inference is rendered probable by the actual state of discoveries, and +by the geological character of the country. + +These deductions embrace all I have to submit on the mineral geography +of the country, so far as regards the copper mines. Other considerations +arise from the facilities which the country may present for mining--its +adaptation to the purposes of agriculture--the state and disposition of +the Indian tribes, and other topics which a design to commence +metallurgical operations would suggest. But I have not considered it +incumbent upon me to enter into details upon these subjects. It may, in +brief, be remarked that the remote situation of the country does not +favor the pursuit of mining. It would require the employment of a +military force to protect such operations. For, whatever may be their +professions, the Indian tribes of the north possess strong natural +jealousies, and in situations so remote, are only to be restrained from +an indulgence in malignant passions, by the fear of military +chastisement. + +In looking upon the southern shore of Lake Superior, the period appears +distant, when the advantages flowing from a military post upon that +frontier, will be produced by the ordinary progress of our +settlements--for it presents but few enticements for the +agriculturalist. A considerable portion of the shore is rocky, and its +alluvions are, in general, of too sandy and light a character for +profitable husbandry. With an elevation of six hundred and forty-one +feet above the Atlantic, and drawing its waters from territories +situated north of the forty-sixth degree of north latitude, Lake +Superior cannot be represented as enjoying a climate favorable to the +productions of the vegetable kingdom. Its forest trees are chiefly those +of the fir kind, mixed with varieties of the betula, lynn, oak, and +maple. Meteorological observations indicate, however, a warm summer, the +average observed heat of the month of June being 69. But the climate is +subject to a long and severe winter, and to sudden transitions of the +summer temperature. We saw no Indian corn among the natives. + +A country lacking a fertile soil, may still become a rich mining +country, like the county of Cornwall in England, the Hartz Mountains in +Germany, and a portion of Missouri, in our own country. But this +deficiency must be compensated by the advantages of geographical +position, a contiguous or redundant population, partial districts of +good land, or a good market. To these, the mineral districts of Lake +Superior can advance but a feeble claim, while it lies upwards of three +hundred miles beyond the utmost point of our settlements, and in the +occupation of savage tribes whose hostility has been so recently +manifested. + +Concerning the variety, importance, and extent of its latent mineral +resources, I think little doubt can remain. Every fact which has been +noticed tends to strengthen the belief that future observations will +indicate extensive mines upon its shores, and render it an attractive +field of mineralogical discovery. In the event of mining operations, the +facilities of a ready transportation of the crude ores to the Sault de +Ste. Marie, will point out that place as uniting, with a commanding +geographical position, superior advantages for the reduction of the +ores, and the general facilities of commerce. At this place, a fall of +twenty-two feet, in the river, in the distance of half a mile, creates +sufficient power to drive hydraulic works to any extent; while the +surrounding country is such as to admit of an agricultural settlement. + +I accompany this report with a geological sketch of a vertical section +of the left bank of the Mississippi at St. Peter's, embracing a +formation of native copper. This formation was first noticed by the +officers of the garrison, who directed the quarrying of stone at this +spot. The masses of copper found are small, none exceeding a pound in +weight. + + I have the honor to be, sir, + With great respect, + Your ob't servant, + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +VII. + +_Observations on the Geology and Mineralogy of the Region embracing the +Sources of the Mississippi River, and the Great Lake Basins, during the +Expedition of 1820. Illustrated with Geological Profiles, and Numerous +Diagrams and Views of Scenery._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, U. S. Geol. and +Minera. Exp. + + To the Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, _Secretary of War_. + + WASHINGTON, April 2, 1822. + +SIR: I have the honor, herewith, to submit the general report of my +observations on the geology and mineralogy of the region visited by the +recent expedition to the sources of the Mississippi River. I transmitted +to the Department on the 6th of November, 1820, a report on the +existence of Copper Mines in the Basin of Lake Superior, together with +specimens of the native metal, which were politely taken charge of at +Albany by General Stephen Van Rensselaer, M. C. Will it be consistent +with the views of the Department to print these reports? + + I have the honor to be, sir, + Very respectfully, + Your obedient servant, + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +REPLY. + + WAR DEPARTMENT, April 6, 1822. + +SIR: I have received your interesting report on the geology and +mineralogy of that section of the western country embraced by the late +expedition of Gov. Cass; and, although I have not had it in my power, as +yet, to peruse it with attention, I will see you, at any time you +please, on the subject of your letter respecting it. + + I am, sir, + Respectfully, + Your obedient servant, + J. C. CALHOUN. + + Mr. HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + + ALBANY, March, 1822. + +SIR: Agreeably to your appointment as a member of the expedition to +explore the sources of the Mississippi, by the way of the Lakes, I +proceeded to join the party organized for that purpose at Detroit, by +His Excellency Lewis Cass. Diurnal notes were kept of the changes in the +geological features of the regions visited; of the mineralogy of the +country; and of such facts as could be ascertained, with the means at +command, to determine its general physical character and value.[209] + + [209] The two geological profiles of the Mississippi Valley and the + Lake Basins accompanying the original are here omitted; as, also, + most of the illustrative views of scenery which accompanied the + original. + +I have heretofore reported to you the facts and appearances which +indicate the existence of the ores of copper, and of valuable deposits +of copper in its native form, in the basin of Lake Superior--a point +which constituted one of the primary objects to which my attention was +called--and I now proceed to state such particulars in the topics +confided to me as fell within my observation. + +In generalizing the facts, it must be observed that the expedition had +objects of a practical character relative to the number, disposition, +and feelings to be learned respecting the Indian tribes; that the +transit over large portions of the country was necessarily rapid; and +that few opportunities of elaborate or long-continued observations +occurred at any one point. The topography was committed to a gentleman +who is every way qualified for that topic, who was well supplied with +instruments, and who will do ample justice to that department. I make +these remarks to prepare you for a class of observations which are +necessarily technical, and quite imperfect, and to which it is felt that +it will not be an easy task to impart a high degree of interest, +whatever may have been the anticipations. + +To prepare the mind to appreciate the account which I give of changes +and developments in the physical structure of the country, it may be +observed that the American continent has experienced some of the most +striking mutations in its structure _at_ and _north_ of the great chain +of lakes. That chain is itself rather the evidence of disruptions and +upheavals of formations, which give its northern coasts, to some extent, +the character of ancient--very ancient--volcanic areas of action. These +lakes form--except Erie and Ontario--the general boundaries between the +primitive and secondary strata. But, however striking this fact may, at +particular localities, appear--such as at the Straits of St. Mary, of +which the east and west shores are, geologically, of different +construction--yet nothing in the grand phenomena of the whole region +visited is so remarkable as the boulder stratum, which is spread, +generally, from the north to the south. Some of the blocks of rock are +enormous, and would seem to defy any known cause of removal from their +parent beds; others are smaller, and have had their angles removed, and +far the greater number of these transported boulders are quite smooth +and rounded by the force of attrition. This drift stratum has been +tossed and scattered from its northern latitudes over the surface of the +limestones and sandstones of the south. It is mixed with the diluvial +soils, in Michigan and elsewhere; but it is evident that, in its +diffusion south, the heavier pieces have settled first, while +comparatively minute boulders have been carried over or dropped in the +plains and prairies of Ohio, Illinois, and more southerly regions. +Nobody, with an eye to geology, can mistake the heavy boulder deposits +which mark the southern shores of Huron, and become still more abundant +on the St. Mary's, the shores of Lake Superior, and along the channels +of the River St. Louis and the Upper Mississippi. + +Lake Superior has been the central theatre of volcanic upheavals; but +they must have operated at very remote periods, for there is not only no +evidence of existing volcanic fires, but the heavy debris everywhere +bespeaks long intervals of quietude, and slow elementary degradation. +Some of the upheavals were made after the deposition of the sandstone +rocks, which are, as at the foot of the Porcupine Mountains, raised up +to stand nearly vertical; while other districts of the granitic rock, as +at Granite Point, had been elevated before the deposition of the +sandstone rock, which is accurately adjusted to its asperities, and +remains quite horizontal. + +The granitical series of strata, which is apparent in northern New York +in the Kayaderasseras Mountains, and at the Thousand Islands of the St. +Lawrence, reappear on the north shores of Huron and Superior, underlie +the bed of the latter, and rise up in the rough coast between the +Chocolate River and Kewaiwenon, cross the Mississippi at the Petite +Roche, above the Falls of St. Anthony, and put out spurs as low down as +the source of the Fox, the St. Croix, and the head of the St. Peter's +Rivers. + +These glimpses of some of the leading points in the geological structure +of the regions visited, will enable you to follow my details more +understandingly. These details begin at Detroit. From this place the +expedition passed, by water, along the southern shores of Lakes St. +Clair, Huron, and Superior, to the Fond du Lac; thence, up the River St. +Louis, to the Savanne summit. Thence we proceeded across the portage to +Sandy Lake, which has an outlet into the Mississippi, and followed up +the latter, through the lesser Lake Winnipek, to the entrance of the +Turtle River, in Cass, or upper, Red Cedar Lake, which is laid down by +Pike in north latitude 47° 42´ 40´´.[210] The state of the water was +unfavorable to going higher. + + [210] Pike's Expedition. This observation is corrected by Capt. + Douglass to 47° 27´ 10´´; the point of observation being, however, a + few miles south. + +From this point, which formed the terminus of the expedition, we +descended the Mississippi, making portages around the Falls of Pekagama +and St. Anthony, to Prairie du Chien. An excursion was made by me down +the Mississippi to the mineral district of Dubuque. We ascended the +Wisconsin, to the portage into the Fox River, and traced the latter down +to its entrance into Green Bay. At this point, the expedition separated; +a part proceeding north, through the bay, to Michilimackinac, and a part +going south, along the west shores of Lake Michigan, to Chicago, the +latitude of which is placed by Capt. Douglass in 41° 54´ 06´´. At this +place, a further division took place. Dr. Wolcott, having reached his +station, remained. Governor Cass proceeded across the peninsula of +Michigan to Detroit on horseback, leaving Capt. Douglass and myself to +complete the survey of Lake Michigan. We rejoined the northern party +detached at Green Bay, under Mr. Trowbridge and Mr. Doty, at +Michilimackinac; and, after repassing the southern coast of Lakes Huron +and St. Clair, reached Detroit. + +Topographically, a very wide expanse of wilderness country had been +seen. The entire length of route computed to have been traversed, +exceeds four thousand miles, in the course of which we had crossed +nineteen portages, over which all the baggage and canoes were conveyed +on the shoulders of men. We encountered actual resistance from the +Indians at only one point.[211] I kept my journals continually before +me, and had my pencil in hand every morning as soon as it was light +enough to discern objects. I began my geological observations at +Detroit. + + [211] _Vide_ Narrative Journal. + +This ancient city, founded by the French in 1701, stands upon an +argillaceous stratum, which is divided, topographically, into an upper +and lower bank. Wherever this clay has been examined by digging, it +discloses pebbles of various species of rock, denoting it, as far as +these extend at least, to be a part of the great drift stratum. + +In digging a well near the old Council House, in the northeast part of +the city, the top soil appeared to be less than two feet. The workmen +then passed through a stratum of blue clay, of eight or ten feet, when +they struck a vein of coarse sand, six or eight inches in thickness, +through which the water entered profusely. The digging was carried +through another bed of blue clay, twenty or twenty-two feet in depth, +when the men reached a stratum of fine yellow sand, into which they dug +three feet and stopped, having found sufficient water. The whole depth +of the well is thirty-three feet. The water is clear and rapid. No +vegetable or other remains were found, and but few primitive pebbles. + +In another well, situated near the centre of the town, the depth of +which is twelve feet, the top soil was found to be two feet and a half; +then a bed of gravel, seven feet; a vein of blue clay, eight inches, and +the residue a whitish-blue clay, very compact and hard; a copious supply +of water having been found. The water is, however, slightly colored, and +is of a quality called hard. + +In some places, this clay drift yields balls of iron pyrites, which +renders the water unpalatable. At what depth the rock would be struck, +if the excavation were continued, can only be conjectured. A well has +been dug, a short distance below the city, upwards of sixty feet, +chiefly through clay and gravel, without reaching the rock; but abraded +fragments of granite and hornblende rocks were thrown from the greatest +depths. + +The bed of the river opposite the city has been stated to consist of +limestone rock, but without any proof or much probability. From the fact +of its affording a good anchorage to vessels, I am inclined to think +that it is wholly composed of clay and gravel. + +DETROIT FLUVIATILE CLAY.--The argillaceous stratum of Detroit extends +along both banks of the river to its head; passes around the shores of +Lake St. Clair, and up the River St. Clair to Fort Gratiot--a distance +of seventy miles. In this distance there are some moderate elevations +and depressions in the surfaces of the soil, but no very striking +changes in its general character and composition. The boulder stratum is +prominent at Gros Point, at the foot of Lake St. Clair, where the shore +exhibited some heavy blocks of granite, and other foreign rock. + +ST. CLAIR FLATS OF PLASTIC CLAY.--At the mouth of the River St. Clair, +the current is divided into several channels, and spread over a +considerable tract of low ground, which is covered with grasses and +aquatic plants. These channels have worn their way through beds of tough +blue clay, called the flats, over which there is sometimes not over +seven feet eight inches of water in the ship channel. They consequently +form an impediment to commerce. The depth is, however, always increased +in the spring season, when twelve inches more may be generally relied +on. Frequently, during the droughts of summer, a change of wind, and its +steady continuance for some time, will allow ships to pass without +lighters. The permanent removal of this bar is, however, an object of +national importance, which cannot but be felt, as the tonnage of the +lakes increases. + +ANCIENT DUNE; A BURIED FOREST.--The principal spot where the lands, in +the immediate vicinity of the water, assume any considerable or abrupt +elevation, is included between Black River of the St. Clair and Lake +Huron. Here the outlet of the lake, which is rapid, washes the base of a +ridge, or ancient dune, elevated fifty or sixty feet above the water. +Fort Gratiot occupies the upper part of this elevation. The lower part +consists of the blue clay stratum, corresponding in character with that +found in the wells of Detroit. It is overlaid by a deposit of sand, +forming two-thirds of the entire height. This elevation is crowned with +a light forest of oak and other species. At the line of junction +between the sand and clay, a number of trees are seen to be +horizontally imbedded, projecting their roots and trunks in a striking +manner above the water. These trees, on inspection, are merely +preserved, not petrified. They appear to have been exposed to view, in +modern times, by the wearing away of the bank. Certainly, none of the +old travellers mention them. + +The mode of this formation may be clearly seen. Winds, at some ancient +period, have been the agent of blowing the sands, as they were washed up +by the lake, and redepositing them on part of a prostrated forest, +resting directly on the clay stratum. The trees, thus buried in dry +sand, have been preserved. In process of time, the river encroached upon +these antique beds, exposing them to view. There are also antique +fresh-water shells found in similar positions near this spot. No rock +is, thus far, found _in sitû_ in ascending the lakes. The old surface of +the country is wholly of diluvial formation, except where it shows lake +action. + +HURON COAST FROM FORT GRATIOT TO MICHILIMACKINAC.--About two hundred and +thirty miles lie stretched out between these two points. Lake Huron +charms the eye, with the view of its freshness and oceanic expanse. But +the entrance is without rock scenery, and the student of its geology +must be a patient gleaner along its shores. Long coasts of sand and +gravel extend before the eye, and they are surmounted, at a moderate +elevation, with a dense foliage, which limits the view of its structure +to a narrow line. Portions of this coast are heavily loaded with the +primitive debris[212] from the North. These are found, in some places, +in heavy masses, but all are more or less abraded, showing that they +have been transported from their original beds. In one of these, I +observed crystals of staurotide. + + [212] In 1824, an Indian brought me a specimen of native silver found + on this part of the coast. It was imbedded in a boulder of mixed + granite and steatite. + +The first section of this coast reaches from Fort Gratiot to Point aux +Barques, a distance of about seventy-five miles. Nearly midway lies the +White Rock, a very large boulder of whitish-gray semi-crystalline +limestone, lying off the shore about half a mile, in water of about one +and a half fathom's depth. It is the effect of gulls lighting upon this +rock, and not the intensity of the color of the stone, that has +originated the name--which is a translation of the _Roche Blanche_ of +the older _voyageurs_. The Detroit clay-formation still characterizes +the coast. + +FIRST EMERGENCE OF ROCK, IN PLACE, ABOVE THE SURFACE.--We are passing, +in this section, along and near to the outcrop of the secondary strata +of the peninsula, but these strata are covered with a heavy deposit of +diluvial clays, sands, and pebble drift. The first emergence of fixed +rocks, above the line of the drift, occurs after passing Elm Creek in +the advance to Ship Point (_Pointe aux Barques_). It is a species of +coarse gray, loosely compacted sandstone, in horizontal layers. This +rock continues to characterize the coast to and around the Ship Point +promontory into Saganaw Bay. It possesses a few fossil remains of +corallines; but the rock is not of sufficient compactness and durability +for architectural purposes. It is conjectured to be one of the outlying +series of the coal measures, of which this coast exhibits, further on, +other evidences. + +SAGANAW BAY.--The phenomena of this large body of water, which is some +sixty miles long, appear to indicate an original rent in the +stratification, having its centre of action very deep. If the peninsula +of Michigan be likened to a huge fish's head, this bay may be considered +as its open mouth. We crossed the inner bay from Point aux Chenes, where +it is estimated to be twenty miles across.[213] The traverse is broken +by an island, to which the Indians, with us, applied the name of +Sha-wan-gunk.[214] It is composed of a dark-colored limestone, of dull +and earthy fracture and compact structure. It presents broken and +denuded edges at the water level. I observed in it nodular masses of +chalcedony and calc. spar. The margin of the island bears fragments of +the boulder stratum. + + [213] Ships make the traverse where it is sixty miles wide. + + [214] The reason of this name I did not learn. It is apparently the + same name as that bestowed on a mountain range in Orange and Ulster + Counties, New York, lying south of the Catskills, where it is + sometimes called, for short, Shongum. The meaning is, evidently, + something like South-land-place. The local _unk_ may be translated + hill, island, continent, &c. &c. + +HIGHLANDS OF SAUBLE.--On crossing the bay, these highlands present +themselves to view in the distance. They are the north-eastern verge of +the most elevated central strata of the peninsula. Their structure can +only be inferred from the formations along the margin of the lake, +extending by Thunder Bay and Presque Isle, and the Isles of Bois Blanc +and Round Island to Michilimackinac. At Thunder Bay, the compact +limestone of the Saganaw Islands reappears, and is constantly in sight +from this point to Presque Isle. It exists in connection with bituminous +shale, at an island in Thunder Bay. It is of a dark carbonaceous +character on the main opposite Middle Island, at a point which is called +by the Indians _Sho-sho-ná-bi-kó-king_, or Place of the Smooth Rock. I +noticed at this point the cyathophyllum helianthoides in abundance, and +easily detached them from the rock. The more compact portions of this +formation in the approach to Presque Isle, disclosed the ammonite, two +species of the gorgonia, and the fragment of a species of chambered +shell, whose character is indeterminate. + +Much of the coast was footed, as the winds were adverse, and its debris +thus subjected to a careful scrutiny. Wherever the limestone was broken +up or receded from the water, long lines of yellow beach-sand and +lake-gravel, including members of the erratic block stratum, intervened. +In some localities, local beds of iron sand occur. + +MICHILIMACKINAC.[215]--The approach to this island was screened from our +view by the woody shores and forests of Bois Blanc, an island of some +twelve miles in length lying off the main land; and the view of it first +burst upon us in the narrow channel between it and Round Island. It is a +striking geological monument of mutations. Here the calcareous rock, +which had before exhibited itself in low ledges along the shore is piled +up in masses, which reach an extreme altitude of three hundred and +twelve feet. About two hundred feet of this elevation is precipitous on +its south, east, and west edge. A hundred feet or more is piled up on +its centre, part rock and part soil, in a crowning shape. The highest +part of this apex, which is surmounted by the ruins of Fort Holmes, +consists of the drift stratum, among which are boulders of sienite, and +other foreign rocks. A locality of these abraded boulder-rocks, near the +Dousman farm, is worthy of a visit from all who take an interest in the +phenomena of boulders dispersed over the continent. The fishermen +represent the water around this island to be eighty fathoms in depth. +Yet, across these waters, to the utmost altitude of the island, these +blocks of foreign rock have been transported. No force capable of +effecting this is now known. And the argument of their having been +transported on cakes of ice, in the nascent periods of the globe, is +rendered stronger by these appearances than any geological proofs which +I have yet seen. + + [215] The name, as pronounced by the Indians, is Mich-en-i-mack-in-ong, + meaning Place of Turtle Spirits, a notion of their mythology. It was + anciently deemed a sacred spot, or one where Monetoes revealed + themselves. + +DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE MACKINAC LIMESTONE.--Nothing appears so +completely to puzzle the observer as the first glance at this rock. It +is different in appearance from the calcareous rocks, to which my +attention has heretofore been called in Western New York, and in +Missouri and Illinois. The difficulty is to find a point of comparison. +I walked entirely around the island, partly in water, the northern +shores being comparatively low. There appeared to be three layers. The +first, which rises up from the depths of the lake, scarcely, if at all, +reaches the water level. Upon this is superimposed a vesicular rock, of +which the vesicles are filled with carbonate of lime in the state of +agaric mineral. By exposure to the air, this substance readily +decomposes, and assumes an almost limey whiteness, and sometimes a +complete pulverulent state. The reticular, or vesicular lines, by which +the mass is held together, are thus weakened, and large masses of the +craggy parts fall, and assume the condition of debris at the water's +edge. Some conditions of the reticulated filaments are covered with +minute crystals of cal. spar; others of minutely crystallized quartz. +There appear, at other localities, in low positions, layers of quartz in +the condition of a coarse bluish, flinty, striped agate. The entire +stratum appears to be a reproduced mass, which is plainly denoted, if I +mistake not, by some imbedded masses of an elder lime-rock. The whole +stratum is too shelly and fissured to be of value for economical +purposes. It yields neither quicklime nor building stone. + +Fort Mackinac is erected on the summit of this stratum. The two objects +of curiosity, called the Arched Rock, and the point called Robinson's +Folly, are evidences of this tendency of the cliffs to disintegration. +The superior stratum which constitutes the nucleus of the Fort Holmes' +summit, contains more silex, diffused throughout its structure. It is, +however, of a loose, though hard and shelly character; and has, in the +geological mutations of the island been chiefly demolished and washed +away. The monumental mass of this period of demolition, called the Sugar +Loaf, is a proof that it contained, either by its shape, or otherwise, a +superior power of resisting these means of ancient prostration. Striking +as it now appears, this is the simple story which it tells. Its apex is +probably level, or nearly so, with the Fort Holmes's summit. Over the +whole island, after these demolitions, the drift stratum was deposited. + +The German geognosts apply the term _mushelkalk_, to this species of +calcareous rock. It is, apparently, the magnesian limestone of English +writers. + +ANCIENT WATER LINES.--Such marks appear on the most compact parts of the +cliffs, denoting the water to have stood, during the ancient boundaries +of the lake, at higher levels. + +LAKE ACTION.--It is known that strong currents set into the Straits of +Michilimackinac, and out of it, from Lake Michigan, at this point. The +fishermen, who set their nets at four hundred feet in the waters, often +bring up, entangled in their nets, large compact masses of limestone, +which have been fretted into a kind of lacework, by the rotatory motion +of little pebbles and grains of sand, kept in perpetual motion by the +water at the bottom of the lake. + +ORGANIC IMPRESSIONS.--There are cast up among the lake debris of this +island, casts of some species of orthocaratites, ammonites, and +madrepores, which appear to be derived from the calcareous rocks in +place in the basin of Lake Huron. But the rock strata of the island +itself appear to be singularly destitute of these remains. The only +species which I have noticed, is one that was thrown up from a well +attempted to be dug, on the apex of Fort Holmes, by the British troops, +while they held possession of the island in 1813, 1814, and 1815. But +this is uniformly fragmentary. It has the precise appearance of the head +of a trilobite, but never reveals the whole of the lateral lobes, nor +any of the essential connecting parts. It is silicious. + +GYSEUS FORMATION.--Evidences of the extension of this formation to this +vicinity were brought to my notice; in consequence of which I visited +the St. Martin's Islands, which belong to the Mackinac group. Masses of +gypsum were found imbedded in the soil, both of the fibrous and compact +variety. These islands are low diluvial formations. Similar masses are +found on Goose Island; and the mineral has been found at Point St. +Ignace on the main land. + +Taken in connection with the discovery of this mineral, at a subsequent +part of the journey on Grand River, the indications of the series of the +saline group of rocks, so prevalent in the Mississippi Valley, are quite +clear up to this extreme point, which is, however, very near the +northern verge of this group. + +HONEYCOMBED ROCKS.--As evidences of existing lake action, it has already +been mentioned that the fishermen bring up, from great depths in the +straits, pieces of compact limestone, completely fretted and excavated +by small pebbles, which are kept in motion by the strong currents which +prevail at profound depths. The process of their formation by these +currents is such, as in some instances to give the appearance of +cellepores, and analogous forms of organic life. I have seen nothing in +these carious forms which does not reveal the mechanical action of these +waters. + +PSEUDOMORPHIC FORMS.--Amongst the limestone debris, of recent date, +found on these shores, are pieces of rock which have an appearance as if +they had been punctured with a lancet, or blade of a penknife. These +incisions are numerous, and from their regularity, appear to have been +moulded on some crystals which have subsequently decayed. Yet, there are +difficulties in supposing such to have been the origin of these small +angular orifices. + +Whenever these masses are examined by obtaining a fresh fracture, they +are found to consist of the compact gray and semi-granular rock of the +inferior Mackinac group, but in no instance of the vesicular or +silicious varieties. These blocks appear to be identical in character +with the White Rock, before noticed. + +NORTH SHORE OF LAKE HURON.--The next portion of the country examined was +that of the north shores of the lake, extending from Michilimackinac to +Point Detour, the west Cape of the Straits of St. Mary's, a distance +computed to be forty miles. The calcareous rock, such as it appears in +the inferior stratum of Mackinac, extends along this coast. The first +three leagues of it, consist of an open traverse across an arm of the +lake. Goose Island offers a shelter to the voyager, which is generally +embraced. It consists of an accumulation of pebbles and boulders on a +reef, with a light soil, resting on the lower limestone. It does not, +perhaps, at any point, rise to an elevation of more than eight or ten +feet above the water. Outard Point, a short league, or rather three +miles further, exhibits the same underlying formation of rock, which is +found wherever solid points put out into the lake, during the entire +distance. The chain of islands called Chenos, extends about twenty +miles, and affords shelter during storms to boatmen and canoemen, who +are compelled to pass this coast. Large masses of the rock, with its +angles quite entire, lie along parts of the shore, and appear to have +been but recently detached. The intervals between these blocks and +points of coast, are formed of the loose sand and pebbles of the lake, +which are more or less affected by every tempest. The only organic +remains and impressions are drift-specimens, which have been driven +about by the waves, and are abraded. Broken valves of the anadonta, +occasionally found in similar positions, denote that this species exists +in the region, but that the outer localities of the coast are entirely +unfavorable to their growth. + +DRUMMOND ISLAND.--This island, now in the possession of British troops, +who removed from Michilimackinac in 1816, is the western terminus of the +Manatouline chain. We did not visit it, but learn from authentic +sources, that it is a continuation of the nether Mackinac limestone--and +that the locality abounds in loose petrifactions, which appear to have +belonged to an upper stratum of the rock, now disrupted.[216] + + [216] Dr. John Bigsby, in a memoir read before the London Geological + Society, has described and figured several of these. In a memoir by + Charles Stokes, Esq., of London, read before this Society in June, + 1837, some of its most striking fossils are figured and described, + with references to the prior discoveries of Dr. Bigsby, Captain + Bayfield, and Dr. Richardson. Six new species of the Arctinoceras, + and five of the Huronia, Ormoceras, and Orthocerata, are figured and + described in the most splendid manner. This memoir is essential to + all who would understand its fossil history, and that of the North + generally. + +STRAITS OF ST. MARY'S.--These straits, and the river which falls into +their head, connect Lakes Huron and Superior. They appear to occupy the +ancient line of junction between the great calcareous and granitic +series of rocks on the continent. The limestone, which has been noticed +along the north shore of the Huron from Michilimackinac, and which +continues, with interruptions of water only, from Detour to Drummond +Island, and the Manatoulines, is to be noticed up the straits as high as +Isle a la Crosse, where the last locality of a pure carbonate of lime +appears to occur. The island of St. Joseph is chiefly primitive rock, +and its south end is heavily loaded with granitic, porphyritic, and +quartz boulders. The north shores of the river, opposite and above this +island, are entirely of the granitic series, which continues to Gros +Cape of Lake Superior. On reaching the _Nebeesh_,[217] or Sailor's +Encampment Island, sandstone rocks of a red color present themselves, +and are found also on the American side of the river, and continue to +characterize it to the Falls, or Sault de Ste. Marie,[218] and to Point +Iroquois and Isle Parisien in Lake Superior. + + [217] Strong water. + + [218] Reached somewhere about 1641, by the French missionaries. + +The Sault of St. Mary's is _upon_ and _over_ this red sandstone. The +river makes several successive leaps, of a few feet at a time, in its +central channel, falling, altogether, about twenty-two feet in half a +mile. This gives it a foaming appearance, and the volume pours a heavy +murmur on the ear.[219] It is, of course, a complete interruption to the +navigation of vessels, which can, however, come to anchor near its foot, +while barges may be pushed up, empty, on the American shore. The +water-power created by such a change of level, is such as must commend +the spot, at a future period, to manufacturers, lumbermen, and miners. +The foot of these falls is heavily incumbered, both with masses of the +disrupted sand-rock[220] and granitic and conglomerate boulders. + + [219] In 1825, Lieutenant Charles F. Morton, U. S. A., sent to my + office a mass of this red sand rock, of about twelve inches + diameter, perfectly round and ball-shaped, which he had directed + one of the soldiers to pick up, in an excursion among the islands + of the lower St. Mary's. This ball was a monument of that physical + throe which had originally carried this river through the sandstone + pass of St. Mary's, having been manifestly rounded in what geologists + have called "a pocket hole" in the rock at the falls, and afterwards + carried away, with the disrupted rocks, down the valley. + + [220] The Indiana call it _Pauwateeg_ (water leaping on the rocks), + when speaking of the phenomenon, and _Pawating_, when referring to + the place of it. + +RED SANDSTONE OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--That this is the old red sandstone, may +be inferred simply from the fact that, although deposited originally in +horizontal beds, its position has been disturbed in many localities. + +PLASTIC CLAY STRATUM OF THE LAKES.--The northern extremity of Muddy +Lake--a sheet of water some twenty miles in length--is the head of the +straits, and the beginning of the River St. Mary's. This sheet of water +has the property of being rendered slightly whitish, or turbid, by +continuous winds. Its bottom appears to be formed of the same plastic +blue clay which obstructs the passage of vessels of large draft on the +St. Clair flats, and forms an impediment of a similar kind in this river +in Lake George. This stratum seems to be the result of causes not now in +operation. If dredged through, or excavated, there is no reason to +suppose it would again accumulate; for the waters of the lake are clear +and pure, and carry down no deposit of the kind. These clay deposits +remain to attest physical changes which are past. They denote the +demolition of formations of slate in the upper regions, which have been +broken down and washed away when the dominion of the waters was far more +potential than they now are. + +This formation is favorable to the growth of some species of fresh-water +shells. I observed several species of the anadonta and the plenorbis, +and think, from the broken valves, that research would develop others. + +PORPHYRY AND CONGLOMERATE BOULDERS.--A formation of red jasper, in +common white quartz, exists, in the bed of intersection, on the +southeastern foot of Sugar Island. The fragments of jasper are of a +bright vermil red, quite opaque, and have preserved their angles. I had +observed fragments of the formation along the shores of the lower part +of the straits, and even picked up some specimens, entirely abraded, +however, on the south shores of the Huron, between the White Rock and +Michilimackinac--a proof of the course of the drift. + +The granitic conglomerates appear quite conclusive, one would think, of +the results of fusion. The attraction of aggregation would seem +inadequate to hold together such diverse masses. In these curious and +striking masses we see the red feldspathic granite, black and shining +hornblende rock, white fatty quartz, and striped jasper, held together +as firmly, and polished by attrition as completely, as if they +were--what they are not--the results of crystallization in this +aggregate form. + +ERRATIC BLOCK GROUP.--Wherever, in fact, the geologist sets his foot, on +the shores of the upper lakes, he finds himself on the great drift +stratum, and cannot but revert to that era when waters, on a grander +scale, swept over these plains, and the lakes played rampantly over +wider areas.[221] + + [221] During a subsequent residence of eleven years at this point, + the excavations made on both sides of the river, in digging wells, + canals made by the military, &c., fully demonstrated the truth of + this general observation. In these positions, it was evident that + some greatly superior force of watery removal, such as does not now + exist, had heaped together particles of similar matters, according to + laws which govern moving, compacted masses of water, leaving clay to + settle according to the laws of diffused clay, sand of sand, and + pebbles and boulders of pebbles and boulders. In their change and + redeposit, gravity has evidently been the primary cause, modified by + compressed currents, attraction, and probably those secret and still + undeveloped magnetic and electric influences which exist in + connection with astronomical phenomena. That the earth's surface, + "standing out of the water and in the water," has been disrupted and + preyed upon by oceanic power, no one, at this day of geological + illumination, will deny. + +BASIN OF LAKE SUPERIOR.--We entered this island sea as if by a kind of +geological gate, in which the sandstone cliffs of Point Iroquois, on the +one hand, stand opposite to the granitical hills of Gross Cape on the +other. + +In order to conceive of its geology, it may subserve the purposes of +description to compare it to a vast basonic crater. The rim of this +crater has been estimated, by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, at fifteen +hundred miles. The primitive formations of Labrador and Hudson's Bay +coasts come up, so as to form the eastern and northern sides of the rim, +around which they stand in cliffs of sienitic greenstone and hornblendic +rocks, in some places a thousand feet high. On its south and southwest +shores, this formation of the elder class of rocks forms also a +considerable portion of the coast; as in the rough tract of Granite +Point, the Porcupine and Iron River Mountains, and the primitive tract +west of Chegoimegon, or Lapointe. It will serve to denote the broken +character of this rim, if we state that the entire plain of the lake, +running against and fitting to this rim, was originally filled up with +the red, gray, and mottled sandstone, which gave way and fell in at +localities west of the great Keweena Peninsula, converting its bottom +into an anteclinal axis. + +Volcanic action, to which this disturbance in its westerly bearings may +be attributed, appears to have thrown up the trap-rocks of the Pic, of +the Porcupine chain, of the Isle Royal group, and other trap islands, +and the long peninsula of Keweena. This system of forces appears to have +spent itself from the northeast to the southwest. The shocks brought +with them the elements of the copper and other metallic bodies which +characterize the trap-rock. They exhausted their power, on the American +side, west of the granitic tract of Chocolate and Dead Rivers, and the +Totosh and Cradle-Top Mountains. The most violent disturbance took place +at the west of the Keweena Peninsula, and thence it was propagated in +the direction of the higher Ontonagon, the Iron, and the Montreal +rivers. + +This disturbance of the level of the sandstone produced undulations, +which are observable on the St. Mary's, where the variation from a level +is not more than eight or ten degrees. They left portions of it--as +between Isle au Train and the Firesteel River--undisturbed; and they +threw other portions of it--as between Iron and Montreal rivers--almost +completely on their edges. + +The entire north shore from Gargontwa to the old Grand Portage, +inclusive of the Michepicotin and Pic regions, cannot be particularly +alluded to, as that part of the coast was not visited; but the accounts +of observers represent it as consisting of trap-rocks. Without the +application of such forces, it appears impossible to understand the +geology of this lake, or to account for the sectional and disturbed +formations. + +The lake itself, whose depth is great, and which has an extreme length +of about 500 miles, by an extreme width of some 180, is endowed with +powerful means of existing elemental action. This consists almost +entirely of the force of its winds and long, sweeping waves. Its bottom +may, in this light, be looked upon as an immense mortar or triturating +apparatus, in which its sandstones, trap-boulders, and pebbles are +driven about and comminuted. This power has greatly changed its +configuration, and the process of these mutations is daily going on. + +It is only by such a power of geological action that we can account for +the powerful demolitions and inroads which it has made upon some parts +of its southern borders. The coasts of the Pictured Rocks, which have a +prominent development of about 12 to 15 miles, consist in horizontal +strata of coarse gray sandstone, of little cohering power. The effect of +waves beating upon rocks is to communicate a curved line. This has +operated to excavate numerous and extensive caves into the coast. These, +after reaching hundreds of feet, have in some cases united. The effect +is to isolate portions of the coast, and to leave it in fearful +pinnacles, having many of the architectural characters of Gothic or +Doric ruins. + +The portion of coast immediately west of Grand Marrais is scarcely less +unique. It denotes the effect of the prostrating power of the lake in +another way. The sandstone of parts of the coast, ground down into +yellow sand by this vast machinery, is lifted up by the winds as soon as +it reaches the point of dryness, and heaped up into vast dunes. Standing +trees are buried in these tempests of sand, and its effect is, for about +nine miles along the coast, to present, at an elevation of several +hundred feet, a scene of arid desolation, which can only be equalled by +the Arabic deserts. + +A dyke of trap seems once to have extended from the north shore to Point +Keweena; but, if so, it has been prostrated, and its contents--veins and +deposits, silicious and metallic--scattered profusely around the shores +of the lakes. A cause less general is hardly sufficient to account for +the wide distribution of fragments of the copper veins and vein-stones +which have so long been noticed as characters of this lake. The basal +remains of this antique dyke form the peninsula of Keweena. The tempests +beating against this barrier from the northwest, have ripped up terrific +areas from the solid rock, and left its covering, amygdaloid and +rubblestones, in fantastic patches upon the more solid parts, or +constituting islands in front of them. + +STRUCTURE OF ITS SOUTHERN COAST.--The estimated distance from Sault Ste. +Marie to Fond du Lac is a fraction over 500 miles. The sandstone, as it +appears in the Falls of the St. Mary's, does not appear to be entirely +level. It exhibits an undulation of about 8° or 10°, dipping to +west-northwest. Two instances of this waved stratification of the Lake +Superior sandstone deserve notice. The first terminates at the +intersection of red sand rock at la Point des Grande Sables with the +beginning of the horizontal strata of the Pictured Rocks. We again +observe an inclination of the strata of a few degrees at Grand Island, +which is moreingfish River, and appears to dip at Isle aux Trains, +about twenty miles northeast. The scenery is peculiarly soft and +pleasing in passing the Huron Islands, a granitic group, and directing +the view, as in the sketch, to the coast and the rough granitical hills +rising behind Huron Bay. The strata are level, as shown above, around +the Bay of Presque Isle and Granite Point, and continue so, resting on +the roots of the granitical tract of the _Tötosh_, or Schoolcraft, and +Cradletop Mountains, and at Point aux Beignes, and Keweena Bay. This +level position of the rock is preserved to the south cape of the shallow +bay of the Bete Gre, on the north, at which the trap-dykes of the +peninsula first begin; and so continues after passing that rugged coast +of the vitreous series of that remarkable point, to and beyond Eagle +River and Sandy Bay, in the approach to the portage of the Keweena. + +The same horizontality is observed on the headland west of it, and upon +all the points and headlands to Misery and Firesteel Rivers and the +mouth of the Ontonagon. The trap-dyke of Keweena crosses this river +about ten miles, in a direct line, inland. + +At Iron River, we observe a stratum of compact gray grauwacke, over the +hackly bed of which that river forces its way during the spring months, +and stands in tanks and pools during the summer. On reaching the foot of +the Porcupine Mountains, the sandstone, which is here of a dark +chocolate color, with quartz pebbles of the bigness of a pigeon's egg, +and organic remains of paleozoic type, is found to be tilted up into +nearly a vertical position, as shown in the sketch. The grauwacke +reappears, in a most striking manner, at the Falls of Presque Isle +River, where the whole mass of water precipitated from the highlands +drops into a vast pot-hole, a hundred feet wide and perhaps twice that +depth. The whole upper series of rocks, from the Porcupine Cliffs west +to the Montreal River, is a conglomerate. At the Falls of the Montreal, +the river drops over the vertical edges of the red sandstone. Beyond the +Bay of St. Chares, at Lapointe Chegoimigon, masses of sienitic mountains +arise, which have their apex near La Riviere de Fromboise. + +The Islands of the Twelve Apostles, or Federation Group, appear to be +all based on the sienitic or trap, with overlying red sandstone; which +latter again reappears on the point of the entrance into Fond du Lac +Bay, and marks its southern coast, till near the entrance of the Brulé, +or Misakoda River, as seen in the illustration beneath. Shores of sand +then intercept its view to the entrance of the River St. Louis, and up +its channel to its first rapids, about eighteen miles, where the red +sandstone again appears, as the first series of the Cabotian Mountains. + +SERPENTINE ROCK.--At the nearest point north of Rivier du Mort is a +headland of this rock, jutting out from the granitical formation. +Lapping against it, at the mouth of the river, is a curious formation of +magnesian breccia. The serpentine rock appears, in nearly every locality +examined, to be highly charged with particles of chromate of iron. It +may be expected to yield the usual magnesian minerals.[222] Its position +is between the Carp River and Granite Point, in the Bay of Presque Isle, +or rather Chocolate River, for that river pours into this bay by far the +largest quantity of water.[223] + + [222] In 1831, in making some explorations of this rock with + gunpowder, I found the serpentine in a crystalline state, of a + beautiful deep-green color, but appearing as if the crystallization + was pseudomorphous. + + [223] The extensive iron mines of Marquette County, Upper Michigan, + are now worked in this vicinity. + +ANCIENT DRIFT-STRATUM.--In the intervals between the points and +headlands, where the rock formation is exposed by streams or gorges, the +drift, or erratic boulder stratum, is found. Such is its position +beneath the sand-dunes of the Grandes Sables, and in the elder plains +and uplands, stretching with interruptions on the coast from the head of +the Mary's valley to that of the St. Louis. The edge of this formation +is composed of the sand and loose pebbles and boulders of the lake. +Mighty as are the existing causes of action of the lake in beating down +and disrupting strata of every kind, and in reproducing alluvial lands +and dunes, they are weak and local when compared to the causes which +have spread these ponderous boulders, and drift masses over latitudes +and longitudes which appear to be limited only by the leading elevations +of the continent. That oceanic torrents of water, suddenly heaped on the +land, and wedged into compactness and power now unknown to it, is after +all, the most plausible theory of the dispersion of this formation, and +this theory avoids the necessary local one of the glacial dispersion +which presupposes a very low temperature over the whole surface of the +globe. + +KAUGWUDJU.[224]--This imposing mass of the trap-rocks is the highest on +the southern shores of Lake Superior. The following outlines of it are +taken from a point on the approach to the Ontonagon River, about forty +miles distant. + + [224] Porcupine Mountains. From _kaug_, a porcupine, and _wudju_, + mountain. + +They rise to their apex about thirty miles west of that stream, in north +lat. 46° 52´ 2´´, as observed by Captain Douglass. They are distant +three hundred and fifty miles from St. Mary's. In a serene day they +present a lofty outline, and were seen by us from the east, at the +distance of about eighty miles. The Indians represent them to have a +deep tarn, with very imposing perpendicular walls, at one of the highest +points. If Lake Superior be estimated at six hundred and forty feet +above the Atlantic, as my notes indicate, its peaks are higher than any +estimates we have of the source of the Mississippi, and are, at least, +the highest elevations on this part of the continent. The granitical +tract of the St. Francis, Missouri,[225] and of the quartz high lands of +Wachita, Arkansas, the only two known primitive elevations between the +Rocky and Alleghany chains, are far less elevated. + + [225] _Vide_ my view of the lead mines, in the Appendix to "Scenes + and Adventures in the Ozark Mountains." + +I have now taken a rapid glance at the formations along the southern +shore of the lake between St. Mary's and Fond du Lac; but have passed by +some features which may be thought to merit attention. + +EXISTING LAKE DRIFT.--The gleaner among the rock debris of this lake has +a field of labor which is not dissimilar to that of the fossilist. If he +has not, so to say, to put joint to joint, to establish his conclusions, +he has a mineralogical adjustment to make every way as obscure. A +boulder of sienite, or a mass of sandstone, or grauwacke, may be easily +referred to a contiguous rock. But when the observer meets with species +which are apparently foreign to the region, he is placed in a dilemma +between the toil of an impossible scrutiny and the danger of an +unlicensed conjecture. + +Among the more common masses which may be assigned a locality within the +compass of the lake, are granites, sienites, hornblendes, greenstones, +schists, traps, grauwackes, sandstones, porphyries, quartz rocks, +serpentines, breccias, amygdaloids, amphiboles, and a variety of masses +in which epidote and hornblende are essential constituents. With these, +the coast mineralogist must associate, in place or out of place, agates, +chalcedonies, carnelians, zeolite, prehnite, calcareous spar, +crystalline quartz, amethystine quartz, coarse jaspers, noble +serpentine, iron-sand, iron-glance, sulphate of lead, chromate of iron, +native copper, carbonate of copper, and various species of pyrites. +These were, at least, my principal rewards for about eighteen days' +labor, in scrutinizing, at every possible point, its lengthened and +varied coasts. + +CUPREOUS FORMATION.--The whole region, above Grand Island at least, +appears to have been the theatre of trap-dykes, and an extensive action +from beneath, which brought to the surface the elements of the formation +of copper veins. These have not been much explored; but, so far as +observation goes, there are evidences which cannot be resisted, that the +region contains this metal in various shapes and great abundance. I +refer to my report of the 6th of November, 1820, for evidences of a +valuable deposit of this metal in the valley of the Ontonagon River, and +at other points. I found the metal in its native state at various other +localities, and always under physical evidences which denoted its +existence, in the geological column of the lake, in quantity. These +indications were confined almost exclusively to the area intervening +between the peninsula of Keweena, and La Pointe Chegoimegon, a distance +of about one hundred and fifty miles. Of this district, the two +extremities would make the Ontonagon Valley about the centre.[226] A +profile of one of the detached pieces, found in the Ontonagon Valley, +and forwarded to you by Mr. Van Rensselaer, is herewith given. + + [226] I would also refer, for subsequent information, to my report of + the 1st of October, 1822, made in compliance to a resolution of the + Senate, and printed in the Executive Documents of that year, No. 365, + 17th Congress, 2d session. + +VITRIC BOULDERS.--Among the debris of Lake Superior are masses of +trachyte, and also small pieces of the sienitic series, in which the red +feldspar has a calcined appearance, the quartz being, at the same time, +converted into a perfectly vitreous texture. Similar productions, but +not of the same exact character, exist on the sandy summits of the +Grande Sable. These exhibit an exterior of glistening cells or +orifices: it may be possible that they have been produced by fusion; but +I think not. The smooth cells appear like grains of sand hurled by the +winds over these bleak dunes. I have brought from that locality a single +specimen of pitchstone, perfectly resinous, bleak and shining. + +LA POINTE CHEGOIMEGON.--A sketch of these islands, as given in the +Narrative, denotes that their number is greatly underrated, and will +serve to show the configuration of a very marked part of the Superior +coast. It must, hereafter, become one of the principal harbors and +anchoring-ground for vessels of the lake. + +VALLEY OF THE ST. LOUIS RIVER.--The St. Louis River takes its rise on +the southern side of the Hauteur des Terres, being the same formation of +the drift and erratic block stratum which gives origin, at a more +westerly point, to the Mississippi. Its tributaries lie northwest of the +Rainy Lakes. Vermilion Lake, a well-known point of Indian trade, is a +tributary to its volume, which is large, and its outlet rushes with a +great impetus to the lake. At what height its sources lie above Lake +Superior, we can only conjecture. It was estimated to have a fall of two +hundred and nine feet to the head of the Portage aux Coteaux, and may +have a similar rise above. + +By far its most distinguishing feature is its passage at the Grand +Portage through the Cabotian Mountains. We entered it at Fond du Lac and +pursued up its channel through alluvial grounds, in which it winds with +a deep channel about nineteen or twenty miles to the foot of its first +rapids. This point was found one mile above the station of the American +Fur Company's trading-house. Here we encountered the first rock stratum, +in the shape of our old geological acquaintance, the old red sandstone +of Lake Superior. It was succeeded in the first sixteen miles, in the +course of which the river is estimated to fall two hundred feet--most of +it in the first twenty-nine miles--by trap, argillite, and grauwacke. +Through these barriers the water forces its way, producing a series of +rapids and falls which the observer often beholds with amazement. The +river is continually in a foam for nine miles, and the wonder is that +such a furious and heavy volume of water should not have prostrated +everything before it. The sandstone, grauwacke, and the argillite, the +latter of which stands on its edges, have opposed but a feeble barrier; +but the trap species, resisting with the firmness, as it has the color +of cast-iron, stand in masses which threaten the life and safety of +everything which may be hurled against them. I found a loose specimen of +sulphuret of lead and some common quartz in place in the slate rock, a +vein of clorite slate, and a locality of coarse graphite, to reward my +search. + +The Portage aux Coteaux, which is over the basetting edges of the +argillite, will give a lively idea of the effects of this rock upon the +feet of the loaded voyageurs. + +The sandstone is last seen near the Galley on the Nine Mile Portage. +Above the Knife Portage, some eight miles higher, vast black boulders of +hornblendic and basaltic blocks, are more frequent; and these masses are +observed to be more angular in their shapes than the boulders and blocks +of kindred character encountered on the shores of Lakes Superior and +Huron. There is a vast sphagnous formation, which spreads westwardly +from the head of the Coteau Portage, and gives rise to the remote +tributaries of Milles lac and Rum River. Much of this consists of what +the Indians term _muskeeg_, or elastic bog. Hurricanes and tempests have +made fearful inroads upon areas of its timber, and it is seldom crossed, +even by the Indians. This tract lies east of the summit of sand-hills +and drift, which environ Sandy Lake, the _Komtaguma_ of the Chippewas. +The portage of the Savanna River, a tributary of the St. Louis, is the +route pursued by persons with canoes; there is no other species of water +craft adapted to this navigation. But wherever crossed, this swamp-land +tract imposes labor and toil which are of no ordinary cast. It is the +equivalent of the argillite which has been broken down and +disintegrated, forming beds of clay soil which are impervious to the +water, and we way regard this ancient slate formation of the true source +of the St. Lawrence tributaries, as the remote origin of those extensive +beds of an argillaceous kind, which exist at many places in the lower +lakes and plains. + +Immediately west of the Savanna Portage, the Komtaguma summit is +reached. This summit consists wholly of arid pebble and boulder drift of +the elder period. It exhibits evidences of broken-down amygdaloids, +which not only furnish a part of its pebbles, but also of the contents +of this stratum, in numerous agates and other subspecies of the quartz +family which are found scattered over the surface. This is, in fact, the +origin of that extensive diffusion of these species, which is found in +the valley of the Upper Mississippi, as at Lake Pepin, &c., and which +has even been traced, in small pieces, as low as St. Louis and +Herculaneum in Missouri.[227] We may conclude that the ancient +sandstones, slates, and rubblestone, and amygdaloids, of which traces +still remain, were swept from the summit of the Mississippi by those +ancient floods which appear to have diffused the boulder drift from the +North. + + [227] _Vide_ View of the lead mines. + +SANDY LAKE.--The first view of this body of water was obtained from one +of those eminences situated at the influx of the west Savanna River. + +This lake is bounded, on its western borders, by the delta of the +Mississippi; its outlet is about two miles in length. We here first +beheld the object of our search. The soil on its banks is of the richest +alluvial character. From this point, dense forests and a moderately +elevated soil, varying from three or four to fifteen feet, confined the +view, on either side, during more than two days' march. On the third day +after leaving Sandy Lake, at an early hour, we reached the Falls of +Pakágama. Here the rock strata show themselves for the first time on the +Mississippi, in a prominent ledge of quartz rock of a gray color. +Through this formation the Mississippi, here narrowed to less than half +its width, forces a passage. The fall of its level in about fifty rods +may be sixteen or eighteen feet. There is no cascade or leap, properly +so called, but a foaming channel of extraordinary velocity, which it is +alike impossible to ascend or descend with any species of water craft. +It lies in the shape of an elbow. We made the portage on the north side. + +PAKÁGAMA SUMMIT.--The observer, when he has surmounted the summit, +immediately enters on a theatre of savannas, level to the eye, and +elevated but little above the water. Vistas of grass, reeds, and aquatic +plants spread in every direction. On these grassy plains the river winds +about, doubling and redoubling on itself, and increasing its cord of +distance in a ratio which, by the most moderate computation, would seem +extravagant. On those plateaux, and the small rivers and lakes +connected with them, the wild rice reaches the highest state of +perfection. + +Our men toiled with their paddles till the third day, through this +unparalleled maze of water and plants, when we reached the summit of the +Upper Red Cedar or Cass Lake, where we encamped. In this distance no +rock strata appeared, nor any formation other than a jutting ridge of +sand, or an alluvial plain. Plateau on plateau had, indeed, carried us +from one level or basin to another, like a pair of steps, till we had +reached our extreme height. + +CASS LAKE BASIN.--From estimates made, this lake is shown to lie at +thirteen hundred and thirty feet above the Atlantic.[228] This is a +small elevation, when we consider it as lying on the southern flank of +the transverse formation which forms the connecting link with the Rocky +Mountains. A rise or a subsidence of this part of the continent to this +amount, would throw the Hudson's Bay and Arctic waters down the +Mississippi valley. The scenery of its coasts is in part arenaceous +plains, and in part arable land, yielding corn to the Indians. + + [228] Agreeable to barometric observations made in 1836, by Mr. + Nicollet, its true altitude is found to be 1,402 feet above the Gulf + of Mexico. Its latitude, by the same authority, is 47° 25´ 23´´. + +SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI.--In order to understand the geology of this +region, it is necessary to premise, that the St. Lawrence, the Hudson's +Bay, and the Mexican Gulf waters are separated by a ridge or watershed +of diluvial hills, called the Hauteur des Terres, which begins +immediately west of the basin of the Rainy Lakes and Rainy Lake River. +This high ground subtends the utmost sources of the Mississippi, and +reaches to the summit of Ottertail Lake, where it divides the +tributaries of the Red River of Lake Winnepec from those of the Des +Corbeau, or Great Crow-Wing River. + +Within this basin, which circumscribes a sweep of several hundred miles, +there appears to have been deposited, upon the trap and primary rocks +which form its nucleus, a sedimentary argillaceous deposit, capable of +containing water. Upon this, the sand and pebble drift reposes in strata +of unequal thickness, and the sand is often developed in ridges and +plains, bearing species of the pine. The effect has been, that the +immense amount of vapor condensed upon these summits, and falling in +dews, rains, and snows, being arrested by the impervious subsoil of +clay, has concentrated itself in innumerable lakes, of all imaginable +forms, from half a mile to thirty miles long. These are connected by a +network of rivers, which pour their redundancy into the Mississippi, and +keep up a circulation over the whole vast area. The sand plains often +resting around the shores of these lakes create the impression of bodies +of water resting on sand, which is a fallacy. Some of these bodies of +water are choked up, or not well drained, and overflow their borders, +forming sphagnous tracts. Hence the frequent succession of arid sand +plains, impassable muskeegs, and arable areas on the same plateaux. +Every system of the latter, of the same altitude, constitutes a plateau. +The highest of these is the absolute source of the Mississippi waters. +The next descending series forms another plateau, and so on, till the +river finally plunges over St. Anthony's Falls. + +In this descending series of plateaux, the Cass, Leech Lake, and Little +Lake Winnipec form the third and fourth levels. + +In descending the Mississippi below the Pakágama, the first stratum of +rock, which rises through the delta of the river, occurs between the +mouth of the Nokasippi and Elm Rivers, below the influx of the Great De +Corbeau. This rock, which is greenstone trap, rises conspicuously in the +bed of the stream, in a rocky isle seated in the rapid called--I know +not with what propriety--the BIG FALLS, or _Grande Chute_. The +precipitous and angular falls of this striking object decide that the +bed of the stream is at this point on the igneous granitical and +greenstone series. This formation is seen at a few points above the +water, until we pass some bold and striking eminences of shining and +highly crystalline hornblendic sienite, which rises in the elevation +called by us Peace Rock, on the left bank, near the Osaukis Rapids. This +rock lies directly opposite to the principal encampment on the 27th of +July, which was on an elevated prairie on the west bank. To this point a +delegation of Sioux had ascended on an embassy of peace from Fort +Snelling to the Chippewas, having affixed on a pole what the exploring +party called a bark letter, the ideas being represented symbolically by +a species of picture writing, or hieroglyphics. In allusion to this +embassy, this locality was called the Peace Rock. This rock is sienite. +It is highly crystalline, and extends several miles. Its position must +be, from the best accounts, in north latitude about 44° 30´. From this +point to Rum River, a distance of seventy miles, no other point of the +intrusion of this formation above the prairie soil was observed. + +INTRODUCTION OF THE PALÆONTOLOGICAL ROCKS.--After passing some fifty +miles below this locality there are evidences that the river, in its +progress south, has now reached the vicinity of the great carboniferous +and metalliferous formations, which, for so great a length, and in so +striking a manner, characterize both banks of the Mississippi below St. +Anthony's Falls. About nine or ten miles before reaching these Falls, +this change of geological character is developed; and on reaching the +Falls the river is found to be precipitated, at one leap, over strata of +white sandstone, overlaid by the metalliferous limestone. The channel is +divided by an island, and drops in single sheets, about sixteen to +eighteen feet, exclusive of the swift water above the brink, or of the +rapids for several hundred yards below. This sandstone is composed of +grains of pure and nearly limpid quartz, held together by the cohesion +of aggregation. If my observations were well taken it embraces, +sparingly, orbicular masses of hornblende. It is horizontal, and +constitutes, in some places, walls of stratification, which are +remarkable for their whiteness and purity. This sandstone is overlaid by +the cliff limestone, the same in character, which assumes at some points +a silicious, and at others, a magnesian character. It is manifestly the +same great metalliferous rock which accompanies the lead ore of Missouri +and mines of Peosta or Dubuque. There rests upon it the elder drift +stratum of boulders, pebble, and loam, which marks the entire valley. +This latter embraces boulders of quartz and hornblende rock, along with +limestones and sandstones. It is overlaid by about eighteen inches of +black alluvial carbonaceous mould. + +From St. Anthony's Falls the river is perpetually walled on either side +with those high and picturesque cliffs which give it so imposing and +varied an appearance, and its current flows on with a majesty which +seems to the imagination to make it rejoice in its might, confident of a +power which will enable it to reach and carry its name to the ocean in +its unchanged integrity. + +ST. PETER'S RIVER AND VALLEY.--The importance, fertility, and value of +this tributary have particularly impressed every member of the party. +Its position as the central point of the Sioux power, and its border +position to the Chippewas, the representative tribe of the great +Algonquin family, render it now a place of note, which fully justifies +the policy of the department in establishing a military post at the +confluence of the river; and the importance cannot soon pass away, in +the progress of the settlement of the Mississippi Valley.[229] It is the +great route of communication with the valley of the Red River of the +North, and the agricultural and trading settlements of Lord Selkirk in +that fertile valley, and its complete exploration by a public officer is +desirable, if not demanded.[230] + + [229] Thirty years has made it the centre of the new territory of + Minnesota, which has now entered on the career of nations. + + [230] This object was accomplished by an expedition by Major L. Long, + in 1823. + +Of its geological character but little is known, and that connects it +with both the great formations which have been noticed as succeeding +each other at the great Peace Rock. That the granitical formation +reaches it at a high point is probable, from the large reported +boulders. The Indians bring from the blue earth fork of it, one of their +most esteemed green and blue argillaceous pigments, of which the +coloring matter appears to be carbonate of copper. They also bring from +the Coteau des Prairie, probably Carver's "shining mountains," specimens +of that fine and beautiful red pipe stone, which has so long been known +to be used by them for that purpose. This mineral is fissile, and +moderately hard, which renders it fit for their peculiar ripe +sculptures. I found small masses of native copper in the drift stratum +at the mouth of this stream, on the top of the cliffs on the +Mississippi, opposite the mouth of the St. Peter's. + +CRYSTALLINE SAND ROCK.--This stratum reveals the same crystalline +structure which is so remarkable in the sandstone caves, near the Potosi +road, in the county of St. Genevieve, Missouri; and the sand obtained +from it, like that mineral, would probably fuse, with alkali, in a +moderate heat, and constitute an excellent material for the manufacture +of glass. It is also, like the Missouri sandstone, cavernous. In both +situations, these caves appear to be due to water escaping through +fissures of the rock, where its cohesion is feeble, carrying it away +grain by grain. + +In stopping at one of these caves, about twelve miles below St. Peter's, +we found this cause of structure verified by a lively spring and pond of +limpid water flowing out of it. + +VALLEY OF THE ST. CROIX.--This river originates in an elevated range of +the elder sand and pebble drift, which lies on the summit between the +Mississippi system of formations, and the Lake Superior basin. It +communicates with the Brulé, which is "Goddard's River" of Carver, and +with the Mauvaise or Bad River of that basin. Specimens of native copper +have been found on Snake River, one of its tributaries.[231] + + [231] This river was explored by me in 1831 and 1832, in two separate + expeditions in the public service, accounts of which have been + published in 1831 and 1832, of which abstracts are given in the + preceding pages. + +GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS.--In descending the river for the distance of about +one hundred miles below St. Anthony's Falls, my attention was arrested, +on visiting the high grounds, by a species of natural monuments, which +appear as if made by human hands seen at a distance, but appear to be +the results of the degradation and wasting away, on the Huttonian +theory, of all but these, probably harder, portions of the strata. + +LAKE PEPIN.--This sheet commends itself to notice by its extent and +picturesque features. It is an expansion of the river, about twenty-four +miles long, and two or three wide. Both its borders and bed reveal the +drift stratum, and the observer recognizes here, boulders of the +peculiar stratification which has, in ancient periods, characterized the +high plateaux about the sources of the river. Such are its hornblendic, +sienite, quartz, trap, and amygdaloid pebbles, and that variety of the +quartz family which assumes the form of the agate and other kindred +species. Moved as these materials are annually, lower and lower, by the +impetus of the stream, other supplies, it may be inferred, are still +furnished by the shifting sand and gravel bars from above. The mass must +submit to considerable abrasion by this change, and the diminished size +of the drifted masses become a sort of measure of the distance at which +they are found from their parent beds. + +CHIPPEWA RIVER.--This stream is the first to bring in a vast mass of +moving sand. Its volume of water is large, which it gathers from the +high diluvial plains that spread southwest of the Porcupine Mountains, +and about the sources of the Wisconsin, the Montreal, and the St. Croix +Rivers, with which it originates. + +TROMPELDO (_Le Montaine des Tromps d'Eaux_).--This island mountain +stands as if to dispute the passage of the Mississippi, whose channel it +divides into two portions. Distinct from its height, which appears to +correspond with the contiguous cliffs, and in the large amount of fresh +debris at its base, it presents nothing peculiar in its geology. + +PAINTED ROCK.--This vicinity is chiefly noted for its large and fine +specimens of fresh-water shells. + +WISCONSIN.--Like the Chippewa, this stream brings down in its floods, +vast quantities of loose sand, which tend to the formation of bars and +temporary islands. It originates in the same elevated plains, and +bespeaks a considerable area at its sources, which must be arid. It is a +region, however, in which lakes and rice lands abound, and it may, in +this respect, be geologically of the same formation as the higher +plateaux of the Mississippi, above the Sandy Lake summit. Its sides +produce many species to enrich our fresh-water Conchology. + +LEAD MINES OF PEOSTA AND DUBUQUE.--In my researches into the mineral +geography of Missouri, in 1818 and 1819, I had explored a district of +country between the rivers Merrimak and St. Francis, and on the Ozarks, +which revealed many traits which it has in common with the Upper +Mississippi. There, as here, the mineral deposits appear to be, in many +cases, in a red marly clay, whether the clay is overlaid by the +calcareous rock or not. There, as here, also, the limestone and +sandstone strata are perfectly horizontal. The leads of ore appear, in +this section, to be followed with more certainty, agreeable to the +points of the compass; but this may happen, to some extent, because the +practice of mining on individual account, with windlass and buckets, in +the Missouri district, has led common observers to be more indifferent +to exact scientific methods. To say that the digging, at these mines, is +equally, or more productive, is perhaps just. Capital and labor have +been rewarded in both sections of the country, in proportion as they +have been perseveringly and judiciously expended. + +I found much of the ore, which is a sulphuret, at Dubuque's Mines, lying +in east and west leads. These leads were generally pursued in caves, +or, more properly, fissures in the rock. In one of the excavations which +I visited, the digging was continued horizontally under the first +stratum of rock, after an excavation had been made perpendicularly, +through the top soil and calcareous rock, perhaps thirty feet. The ore +is a broad-grained cubical galena, easily reduced, and bids fair very +greatly to enhance the value and resources of this section of the West. + +Similar mines exist at Mississinawa, and the River Au Fevé,[232] both on +the eastern or left bank of the Mississippi. And a system of leasing or +management, such as I have suggested for the Missouri mines, appears +equally desirable. + + [232] GALENA has subsequently been made the capital of these mines. + +QUARTZ GEODES.--The amount of silex in the cliff limestone is such, in +some conditions of it, as to justify the term silico-calcareous. This +condition of the rock at the passage of the Mississippi through the Rock +River and Des Moines Rapids, is such as to produce a very striking +locality of highly crystalline quartz geodes, which accumulates in the +bed of the stream. Many of these geodes are from a foot to twenty-two +inches in diameter, and on breaking them they exhibit resplendent +crystals of limpid quartz. Sometimes these are amethystine; in other +cases they present surfaces of chalcedony or cacholong. The latter +minerals, if obtained from the rock, and before unduly hardening by +exposure, would probably furnish a suitable basis for lapidaries. + +INTERMEDIATE COUNTRY IN THE DIRECTION TO GREEN BAY.--There is a line +which separates, on the north, the granitical and trap region from the +metal-bearing limestone, and its supporting sandstone. This formation of +the elder series of rocks, having been traced to the south shore of Lake +Superior, and having been seen to constitute the supporting bed of the +alluviums and diluviums of the Upper Mississippi, above the Peace Rock, +it may subserve the purpose of inquiry to trace this line of junction by +its probable and observed boundaries. + +The line may be commenced where it crosses the Mississippi, at the Peace +Rock, and extended to the St. Croix, the falls of which are on the +trap-rock, to the sources of the Chippewa at Lac du Flambeau, and the +Wisconsin near Plover Portage. The source of Fox River runs amid +uprising masses of sienite, and this formation appears to pass thence +northeasterly, across the Upper Menominee, to the district of the +Totosh and Cradle-Top Mountains, west of Chocolate River, on the shores +of Lake Superior. + +I observed the crystalline sandstone and its overlying cliff limestone, +along the valley of the Wisconsin, where ancient excavations for lead +ore have been made. There is an entire preservation of its characters, +and no reason occurs why its mineralogical contents should not prove, in +some positions, as valuable as they have been found in Missouri, or in +the Dubuque district west of the Mississippi. + +On reaching the Wisconsin Portage, the limestone is found to have been +swept by diluvial action, from its supporting sand rock. Such is its +position not far north of the highest of the four lakes, and again at +Lake Puckway, in descending the Fox River; consequently, there are no +lead discoveries in this region. On coming to the calcareous rock, which +is developed along the channel of the river, below Winnebago Lake, it +appears rather to belong to the lake system of deposits. Its superior +stratum lies in patches, or limited districts, which appear to have been +left by drift action. Petrefactions are found in these districts, and +the character of the rock is dark, compact, or shelly. The lower series +of deposits, such as they appear at the Kakala Rapids, at Washington +Harbor, in the entrance to Green Bay, and in the cliffs north of +Sturgeon Bay and Portage, are manifestly of the same age and general +character as the inferior stratum of Michilimackinac and the Manatouline +chain. + +BASIN OF LAKE MICHIGAN.--This basin, stretching from the north to the +south nearly four hundred miles, lies deeply in the series of formation +of limestones, sandstone, and schists, to which we apply the term of the +Michilimackinac system. Its north and west shores are skirted from Green +Bay to a point north of the Sheboygan, with the calcareous stratum. At +this point, the ancient drift, the lacustrine clay of Milwaukie and the +prairie diluvium of Chicago, constitute a succession, of which the +surface is a slightly waving line of the most fertile soils. + +Among the pebbles cast ashore at the southern head of this lake I +observed slaty coal. It seems, indeed, the only one of the lakes which +reaches south into the coal basin of Illinois. If the level at which +coal is found on the Illinois were followed through, it would issue in +the basin of the lake below low-water mark. Digging for this mineral on +the Chicago summit, promises indeed not to be unsupported by sound +hypothesis. + +After passing Chicago, of which a sketch is added, the sands which begin +to accumulate at the Konamik, the River du Chemin, and the St. Joseph's +River,[233] appear in still more prominent ridges, skirting the eastern +coasts to and beyond Grand River. These sands, which are the +accumulations of winds, are cast on the arable land, much in the manner +that has been noticed at the Grand Sable on Lake Superior, and reach the +character of striking dunes at the coast denominated the Sleeping Bear. +The winds which periodically set from the western shore, produce +continual abrasions of its softer materials, and are the sole cause of +these intrusive sand-hills. Pent up behind them, the water is a cause of +malaria to local districts of country, and many of the small rivers upon +this side are periodically choked with sand. The sketch transmitted of +this bleak dune-coast (omitted here), as it is seen at the mouth of +Maskigon Lake, will convey a false idea of the value of this coast, even +half a mile from the spot where the surf beats. It is designed to show +the air of aridity which the mere coast line presents. The +stratification regains its ordinary level and appearance before reaching +the Plate or Omicomico River, and the peninsula of the Grand Traverse +Bay, and the settlements of the Ottawa Indians on Little Traverse Bay, +afford tracts of fertile lands. Point Wagonshonce consists of a stratum +of limestone of little elevation, which constitutes the southeast cape +of the strait. Here a lighthouse is needed to direct the mariner. + + [233] The subjoined petrifaction of a leaf, apparently a species of + betula, was obtained on this river. See _ante_, p. 206. + +LAKE HURON.--Notices of this sheet of water have been given in our +outward voyage. It appears rather as the junction of separate lakes +which have had their basins fretted into one another, than as one +original lake. Michigan is connected with it through the Straits of +Michilimackinac. The Georgian Bay, north of the Manatouline chain, seems +quite distinct. The Saganaw Bay is an element of another kind. The +Manitouline chain separates the calcareous and granitic region, and its +numerous trap and basaltic islands towards the north shore, of which +there are many thousands, denote that it has been the scene of +geological disturbance of an extraordinary kind. + +ULTERIOR CONCLUSIONS.--In taking these several views of the geological +structure of the Northwest--of the Lake Superior basin, and of the +valleys of the St. Louis River--the region about the Upper Mississippi, +its striking change at the Falls of St. Anthony--and the valleys of the +Wisconsin and Fox Rivers, and the basins of Lakes Michigan and Huron, I +am aware of the temerity of my task. Allowance must, however, be made +for the rapidity of my transit over regions where the question was often +the safety and personal subsistence of the party. A very large and +diversified area was passed over in a short time. At no place was it +possible to make elaborate observations. A thousand inconveniences were +felt, but they were felt as the pressure of so many small causes +impeding the execution of a great enterprise. A sketch has been made, +which, it is hoped, will reveal something of the physical history and +lineaments of the country. These glimpses at wild scenes, heretofore hid +from the curious eye of man, have been made, at all points, with the +utmost avidity. I have courted every opportunity to accumulate facts, +and I owe much to the distinguished civilian who has led the party so +successfully through scenes of toil and danger, not always unexpected, +but always met in a calm, bold, and proper spirit, which has served to +inspire confidence in all; to him, and to each one of my associates, I +owe much on the score of comity and personal amenity and forbearance; +and I have been made to feel, in the remotest solitudes, how easy it is +to execute a duty when all conspire to facilitate it. + +The views herein expressed are generalized in two geological maps +(hereto prefixed), which, it is believed, will help to fix the facts in +the mind. They exhibit the facts noticed, in connection with the theory +established by them, and by all my observations, of the construction of +this part of the continent. + +The mineralogy of the regions visited is condensed in the following +summary, drawn from my notes, which, it is believed, constitutes an +appropriate conclusion to this report. + +With the exception of one species, namely, the ores of copper, the +region has not proved as attractive in this department as I found the +metalliferous surface of Missouri. There are but few traces of mining, +and those of an exceedingly ancient character, in the copper region of +Lake Superior. The excavations in search of lead ore on the Upper +Mississippi do not date back many years, but the indications are such as +to show that few countries, even Missouri, exceed them in promises of +mineral wealth. + +I have employed the lapse of time between the termination of the +exploration and the present moment, to extend my mineralogical +observations to some parts of the Mississippi Valley which were not +included in the line of the expedition, but which were visited in the +following year, in the service of the Government, namely, the Miami of +the Lakes, and Wabash Valleys, the Cave in Rock Region in Lower +Illinois, and the Valley of the River Illinois. The whole is +concentrated in the following notices:-- + +_Tabular View of Minerals observed in the Northwest._ + + +I. ORES. + + _Genera._ _Species._ _Subspecies._ _Varieties._ + { Copper { Native copper. { Fibrous. + { { Green carbonate of copper { Compact. + { Lead Sulphuret of lead Common. + { Zinc Sulphuret of zinc Blende. + { { { Common. + { { { Radiated. + METALLIC { { Sulphuret of iron { Spheroidal. + MINERALS { { { Cellular. + { { { Hepatic. + { Iron { Magnetic oxide of iron Iron sand. + { { Specular oxide of iron. Micaceous. + { { { Ochrey. + { { Red oxide of iron { Scaly. + { { { Compact. + { { Brown oxide of iron Ochrey. + { Silver. + + +II. EARTHS AND STONES. + + _Genus._ _Species._ _Varieties._ + + { { { Milky. + { { { Radiated. + { { { Tabular. + { { Common { Greasy. + { { quartz { Granular. + { { { Arenaceous. + { { { Pseudomorphous. + { { { Amethystine. + { { Amethyst + { { + { { Ferruginous { + { { quartz { Yellow. + { { { Red. + { Quartz { Prase + { { { Common. + { { { Cacholong. + { { Chalcedony { Carnelian. + { { { Sardonyx. + { { { Agate. + { { Hornstone + { { { Common. + { { Jasper { Striped. + { { { Red. + { { Heliotrope + SILICIOUS { { OPAL COMMON. + MINERALS { + { Silicious { Common. + { slate { Basanite. + { + { Petrosilex + { { Common. + { Mica { Gold yellow. + { + { { Common. + { Schorl { Indicolite. + { + { Feldspar Common. + { Prehnite Radiated. + { + { Hornblende { Common. + { { Actynolite. + { + { Woodstone { Mineralized wood. + { { Agatized wood. + + { { Calcareous { + { { spar { Crystallized. + { { { Lamellar. + { { Granular + { { limestone + { { + { { Compact { Common. + { { limestone { Earthy. + { { + { { Agaric { + { { mineral { Common. + { Carbonate { { Fossil farina. + { of lime { + { { { Oolite. + { { Concreted { + { { carbonate { Calcareous { Stalactite. + { { of lime { sinter { Stalagmite. + { { { + { { { Calcareous tufa. + CALCAREOUS { { Pseudomorphous carbonate + MINERALS { { of lime. + { { Marl Ludus helmontii. + { { Fibrous. + { Sulphate { Granular. + { of lime Gypsum { Granularly foliated. + { { Earthy. + { Fluate of + { lime Fluorspar + + _Genus._ _Varieties._ + { { Argillite. + { Argillaceous slate { Bituminous shale. + { + { Chlorite Chlorite slate. + { Stautoride. + ALUMINOUS MINERALS { { Potters' clay. + { { Pipe clay. + { { Variegated clay. + { Clay { Blue sulphated clay. + { { Green sulphated clay. + { Opwagunite. + + { Serpentine Common serpentine + MAGNESIAN MINERALS { Steatite Steatite. + { Asbestus Com. asbestus. + + BARYTIC MINERALS Sulphate of barytes Lamellar. + STRONTIAN Sulphate of strontian Foliated. + + +III. COMBUSTIBLES. + + { { Petroleum. + { Bitumen { Maltha. + BITUMINOUS MINERALS { { Asphaltum. + { + { Graphite Granular graphite. + { Coal Slate coal. + + +IV. SALTS. + + { { Native salt. + Soda { Muriate of soda ..... { Salt springs. + { + { Alkaline sulphate of Alum. + { alumina + + +a. _Metallic Minerals._ + + +1. COPPER. + +This metal is frequently found, in detached masses, in the diluvial soil +along the southern shore of Lake Superior, and in the high and barren +tract included between Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, and the +Mississippi River, as general boundaries. Thus, it has been found upon +the sources of the Menomonie, Wisconsin, Chippewa, St. Croix, and +Ontonagon Rivers, but most constantly, and in the greatest quantity, +upon the latter. There are many localities known only to the aborigines, +who appear to set some value upon it, and have been in the habit of +employing the most malleable pieces in several ways from the earliest +times. It occurs mostly in detached masses, resting upon, or imbedded +in, diluvial soil. These masses, which vary in size, are sometimes +connected with isolated fragments of rock. Such is the geognostic +position of the great mass of native copper upon the banks of the +Ontonagon, which has been variously estimated to weigh from two to five +tons. This extraordinary mass is situated at the base of a diluvial +precipice composed of reddish loam and mixed boulders and pebbles of +granite, greenstone, quartz, and sandstone and diallage rocks. The +nearest strata, in situ, are red sandstone, grauwacke, and greenstone +trap. A company of miners was formerly employed in searching for copper +mines upon the banks of this river. They dug down about forty feet into +the diluvial soil, at a spot where a green-colored water issued from the +hill. In sinking this pit, several masses of native copper were found, +and they discovered, as their report indicates, the same metal "imbedded +in stone." But the enterprise was abandoned, in consequence of the +falling in of the pit. + +At Keweena Point, on Lake Superior, I found native copper along the +shore of the lake, constituting small masses in pebbles, and, in one +instance, in a mass of several pounds' weight, which was found in the +Ontonagon Valley. I also observed the green carbonate of copper, in +several places, in the detritus. The strata of this point appear to be +charged with this mineral, particularly in its native forms. Hardly a +mass of the loose rock is without some trace of the metal, or its oxides +or salts. It would be difficult, on any known principles, to resist the +testimony which is offered, by every observer, to favor the idea that +extensive and very valuable mines exist. The whole lake shore, from this +peninsula to the Montreal River, is replete with these evidences. + +There are indications that this mineral pervades the rocks and soils, in +a radius of one hundred and fifty miles or more, south and west of this +central point. It has been discovered at the sources of the Menominee, +Chippewa, Montreal, and St. Croix, and even at more distant points. + +At St. Peter's, in digging down for the purpose of quarrying the rock, +about eighteen inches depth of dark alluvium was passed; then a deposit +of diluvial soil, with large fragments of limestone, greenstone, quartz +rock, &c., about six feet; and, lastly, one foot of small pebbles, &c., +constituting the copper diluvium. No large mass was found; nor any veins +in the rock. + + +2. LEAD. + +The only ore of lead known to exist within the limits to which these +remarks are confined, is the sulphuret. In the year 1780, Peosta, a +woman of the Misquakee, or Fox tribe of Indians, discovered a lead mine +upon the west banks of the Mississippi, at the computed distance of +twenty-five leagues below Prairie du Chien, which the Indians, in 1788, +gave Julian Dubuque a right to work. This permission was partially +confirmed by the Baron de Carondelet, Governor of Louisiana, in 1796. No +patent was, however, issued; but Dubuque continued to prosecute the +mining business to the period of his death, which happened in 1810, when +the mines were again claimed by the original proprietors. + +The ore is the common sulphuret of lead, or galena, which Dubuque stated +to have yielded him seventy-five per cent. in smelting in the large way. +He usually made from 20,000 to 40,000 pounds per annum. + +I made a cursory visit to these mines, and found them worked by the Fox +Indians, but in a very imperfect manner. They cover a considerable area, +commencing at the mouth of the Makokketa River, sixty miles below +Prairie du Chien. Traces of the ore are found, also, on the east bank of +the Mississippi at several points. It occurs disseminated in a reddish +loam, resting upon limestone rock, and is sometimes seen in small veins +pervading the rock; but it has been chiefly explored in diluvial soil. +It generally occurs in beds having little width, and runs in a direct +course towards the cardinal points. They are sometimes traced into a +crevice of the rock. At this stage of the pursuit, most of the diggings +have been abandoned. Little spar or crystalline matrix is found in +connection with the ore. It is generally enveloped by a reddish, compact +earth, or marly clay. Occasionally, masses of calcareous spar occur; +less frequently, sulphate of barytes, green iron earth, and ochrey brown +oxide of iron. I did not observe any masses of radiated quartz, which +form so conspicuous a trait in the surface of the metalliferous diluvion +of the mining district of Missouri. + +Sufficient attention does not appear to have been bestowed, by +mineralogists, upon the metalliferous soil of the Mississippi Valley. It +is certainly very remarkable that such vast deposits of lead ore, +accompanied by veins of sulphate of barytes, calc spar, and other +crystallized bodies, should be found in alluvial beds; and it would be +very interesting to ascertain whether any analogous formations exist in +Europe, or in any other part of the earth's surface. It is one of the +most striking features of this deposit, that the ore, spars, &c., do not +appear as the debris of older formations, and have no marks of having +been worn or abraded, like those extraneous masses of rock which are +very common in the alluvial soil of our continent. The lead ore and +accompanying minerals appear to have been crystallized in the situations +where they are now found. We should, perhaps, except from this remark +the species of lead called _gravel ore_ by the miners, which is in +rounded lumps, and is never accompanied by spars. + +Sulphuret of lead is also found near the spot where the small River +Sissinaway enters the Mississippi, and two leagues south of it, upon the +banks of the River Aux Fevre, at both of which places considerable +quantities have been raised, and continue to be raised, for the purposes +of smelting, by the Fox and Sac tribes of Indians. At these places, it +is most frequently connected with a gangue of heavy spar and calcareous +spar, with pyrites of iron. I procured from a trader, at Dubuque, +several masses of galena crystallized in cubes and octahedrons. + +In descending the Upper Mississippi, a specimen of galena was exhibited +to me, by a Sioux Indian, at the village of the Red Wing, six miles +above Lake Pepin, said to have been procured in that vicinity. Galena is +also reported to have been discovered in several places on the south +side of the Wisconsin River, and these localities may be entitled to +future notice, as furnishing important hints. + + +3. ZINC. + +The sulphuret of zinc (black blende) is found disseminated in limestone +rock along the banks of Fox River, between the post of Green Bay and +Winnebago Lake. Although frequently seen in small masses, no body of it +is known to exist. I also found blende, in small, orbicular masses of +calcareous marl, along the east shore of Lake Michigan, between the +Rivers St. Joseph and Kikalemazo. + + +4. IRON. + +This mineral is distributed, in several of its forms, throughout the +region visited, although but little attention has yet been directed to +its exploration. In the basin of Lake Superior it exists, in valuable +masses, in the form of a magnetic oxide, on the coasts of the lake +between Gitchi Sebing (Great River), called by the French Chocolate +River, and Granite Point. Specimens from Dead River (Riviere du Morts) +and Carp River, the Namabin of the Indians, in this district, denote the +latter to be the chief locality. It is the iron glance, and occurs in +mountain masses. + +_Sulphuret of Iron._--This variety is found, in limited quantities, in a +state of crystallization, in clay beds, on the west shore of Lake +Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago. It is frequently in the form of +a cube or an octahedron. Some of the crystals are in lumps of several +pounds' weight, with a metallic lustre. Often the masses, on being +broken, are found radiated, sometimes cellular, and occasionally irised. + +_Iron Sand._--The breaking-up and prostration of the sandstone and other +sedimentary formations, along the shores of lakes Michigan, Huron, and +Superior, liberates this ore in considerable quantities. It arranges +itself, on the principle of its specific gravities, in separate strata +along the sandy shores, where it invariably occupies the lowest position +at and below the water's edge. The shores of Fond du Lac, on Lake +Superior, may be particularly mentioned as an abundant locality. + +_Micaceous Oxide of Iron._--In detached mass, among the debris of the +River St. Louis and of Fond du Lac. It exists in veins in the clay slate +which characterizes the banks of this river. + +_Ochrey Red Oxide of Iron._ (Red ochre)--Is produced near a spot called +the Big Stone, on the head of the River St. Peter's. It is said to occur +in a loose form, in a stratum of several inches thick, lying below the +soil of a level dry prairie or plain. The Sioux Indians, who employ it +as a paint, make this statement. The color of a portion given to me by +them is of a bright red; and a considerable proportion of the mass is in +a state of minute division. Particles of quartz are occasionally mixed +with it. This ore of iron is also represented to be found in the +prairies north of Gros Point, along the west shore of Lake Michigan, +between Milwaukie and Chicago. + +Ochrey red oxide of iron occurs on the shores of Big Stone Lake, at the +source of the St. Peter's River. A large spring rises from a level, dry +plain, a few feet beyond which the mineral occurs. The Indians, who +employ it as a pigment, take it up with their knives. The stratum is +about eight inches thick, but just below the surface it is mixed with +common earth. The spring of water is pure and unadulterated. + + +5. SILVER. + +The belief in the existence of silver ore in the region of the lakes, +and particularly on Lake Superior, seems to have early prevailed. So +much confidence was placed in the reports of its existence, that Henry +tells when a company was formed in England for exploring the copper +mines of Lake Superior (A. D. 1771), they were impelled to the search +more from an expectation of the silver, which it was hoped would be +found in connection with it, than from the copper.[234] + + [234] This metal has subsequently (namely, in 1844) been found to + constitute a percentage in the native copper of the Eagle River mines + of Lake Superior. Traces of it were found in a mass of native copper + found on the shores of Keweena Lake, by Mr. Moliday, in 1826. A mass + of pure silver was discovered in a boulder in the drift of Lake + Huron, west of White Rock, in 1824. These discoveries induce the + belief that this element will be found to be extensively present in + the eventual metallurgic operations of the Lake Superior basin. + + +b. _Silicious Minerals._ + + +1. QUARTZ. + +This interesting species being distributed in its numerous varieties +throughout the region visited, I shall confine my notices to a few +localities. + +Subs. 1.--_Common Quartz._ + +Occurs in the form of large water-worn masses along the shores of Lakes +Huron, Michigan, and Superior. Also, in veins in the granite of Lake +Superior, and in the argillite of St. Louis River. These localities all +consist of the opaque varieties, with a slight degree of translucence +in some places. It exists in mass at Huron Bay, Lake Superior, and in +fragments of red jasper on Sugar Island, St. Mary's River. + +1. _Radiated Quartz._--In detached masses on the Grange, and also at the +rapids of the River Desmoines, on the Upper Mississippi. At the Grange, +the crystals, which are usually minute, sometimes possess a cinnamon +color, or pass into a variety of crystallized ferruginous quartz. + +2. _Tabular Quartz._--In small, flattened masses along the shores of +Lake Pepin. These masses are transparent, or only translucent. Their +color is generally white, but sometimes yellow. They appear to be +closely allied to chalcedony. + +3. _Greasy Quartz._--In detached masses along the shores of Lake +Superior. + +4. _Granular Quartz._--At the Falls of Puckaiguma, on the Upper +Mississippi, in large, compact beds rising through the soil. Also, in +some conditions of the cliffs commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony, +Carrer's Cave, &c. + +5. _Arenaceous Quartz._--This is sometimes the condition of fine, +even-grained, translucent sand rock of the preceding localities. +Valuable as an ingredient of glass. + +6. _Pseudomorphous Quartz._--On the shores of Lake Pepin, occasionally. +These masses appear to have taken their crystalline _impress_ from +rhomboidal crystals of carbonate of lime. + +7. _Amethystine Quartz._--In the trap-rock of Lake Superior. + +Subs. 2.--_Amethyst._ + +This mineral occurs most frequently in the condition of amethystine +quartz, in hexahedral prisms, lining the interior of geodes, in the bed +of the River Desmoines, and on the Rock Rapids, in the channel of the +Mississippi. The crystals which I have examined are generally limpid, +with a high lustre, and of a pale violet color. Sometimes the tinge of +color approaches to a full red, or is only apparent in the summit of the +crystal. These geodes are sometimes eight or ten inches in diameter, +with a rough and dark-colored exterior, often so nearly spherical as to +resemble cannon _balls_. Some of the finest specimens I have observed +from this locality are preserved in the museum of Gov. Clarke, at St. +Louis, Missouri. + +Subs. 3.--_Ferruginous Quartz._ + +In amorphous masses, of a deep-red, brown, or yellowish-red color, along +the southern shore of Lake Superior. Likewise, crystallized, in very +minute hexagonal prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids, of a reddish +color, on the summit and declivities of the Grange de Terre. + +Subs. 4.--_Prase._ + +In the drift of Lake Superior. Its color is a light green and not fully +translucent. It possesses a hardness and a lustre intermediate between +waxy and resinous. + +Subs. 5.--_Chalcedony._ + +1. _Common Chalcedony._--In globular or reniform masses imbedded in +trap-rock, on the Peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior. It is found +sometimes in association with other quartz minerals. Its color is white +or gray, sometimes veined or spotted with red. Also, constituting the +interior lining of geodes at the rapids of Rock Island and the River +Desmoines. These geodes, on breaking, often present a mammillary +surface. In the form of translucent fragments, with a highly conchoidal +fracture, among the debris of the shores of Lake Pepin. These fragments +possess an extremely delicate texture, color, and lustre. + +2. _Cacholong._--Some loose fragments of this mineral exist along the +west shore of Lake Michigan, between Green Bay and Chicago. These +fragments possess small cavities studded over with very minute and +perfect crystals of quartz. + +3. _Carnelian._--This mineral occurs in fragments in the debris of Lake +Superior; also, in the amygdaloid; also, around the shores of the Upper +Mississippi. Its color is various shades of red, or yellowish red, +sometimes spotted or clouded, fully translucent, and occasionally +presenting a considerable richness and beauty. Most commonly, the +fragments are too small to be applied to the purposes of jewelry. +Sometimes it is seen in very regular spheroidal masses, which contain a +nucleus of radiated quartz. Some of the specimens would be considered as +sardonyx. + +4. _Agate._--Is found with the preceding. It is more frequently found +in larger masses, in the rock, which are sometimes spheroidal, reniform, +or globular. These agates are chiefly arranged in concentric layers, +which are white, red, yellow, &c., according to the colors of the +different varieties of chalcedonies, carnelians, &c., of which they are +composed. A close inspection would also separate them into several +varieties--as onyx, agate, dotted agate, &c. + +Subs. 6.--_Hornstone._ + +In nodular or angular masses, imbedded in the secondary limestone of the +west shores of Green Bay; and in the beds of argillaceous white clay +strata of Cape Girardeau, of Missouri. Also, on the hills of White +River, Arkansas. + +Subs. 7.--_Jasper._ + +1. _Common Jasper._--In detached fragments, yellow, in the drift of Lake +Superior. + +2. _Striped Jasper._--With the preceding. Most commonly, these specimens +consist of alternate bands of red and black, or brown. + +3. _Red Jasper._--In quartz rock, Sugar Island, River St. Mary's, +Michigan. Masses of this mineral have been met in situ. + +Subs. 8.--_Heliotrope._ + +A fine specimen of this mineral, now before me, was procured at the +mouth of the Columbia River, Oregon. It is in the form of an Indian +dart. Its color is a deep uniform green, variegated with small spots of +red; those parts which are green being fully translucent, the others +less so, or nearly opaque. This beautiful mineral is represented to have +been in common use by the Indian tribes of the Northwest Coast, for +pointing their arrows, previous to the introduction of iron among them. +It differs chiefly from the dotted jaspers of Lake Michigan, in its +translucence and green color. + +Subs. 9.--_Opal._ + +Common opal occurs as a constituent of agate, along with chalcedony +rarely, in the drift on the south shore of Lake Superior. + + +2. SILICIOUS SLATE. + +1. _Common._--In subordinate beds, in the argillite of the River St. +Louis, northwest of Lake Superior. + +2. _Basanite_ (_Touchstone_).--In detached fragments in the drift on +Lake Superior, and along the banks of the Upper Mississippi generally. + + +3. PETROSILEX. + +In large isolated masses in the bed of the Illinois River, on the +shallow rapids between the junction of the Fox and Vermilion Rivers. It +is mostly arranged in stripes or circles of white, gray, yellow, &c., +resembling certain jaspers, or approaching sometimes to hornstone. The +bed of the Illinois River, at this place, is a species of gray +sandstone. Also, in detached fragments, on the south shore of Lake +Superior, intimately mixed with prehnite. In regard to the latter, +Professor Dewey, of Williamstown College, writes me: "I have received +from Dr. Torrey, a curious mixture of petrosilex and prehnite, in +imperfect radiating crystals, which was sent him by you and collected at +the West. He did not tell me the name, but examination showed what it +was. The association is singularly curious." The locality of this +mineral is Keweena Point, Lake Superior. + + +4. MICA. + +Occurs rarely in the granite of Lake Superior. It is found in place on +the Huron Islands. Also, in minute folia, in the alluvial soil of the +Upper Mississippi. A beautiful aggregate, consisting of plates of +gold-yellow mica, connected with very black and shining crystals of +schorl, has been dug up from the alluvial soil of the Island of +Michilimackinac. + + +5. SCHORL. + +1. _Common Schorl._--In crystals, in boulders of granite, at Green Bay. + +2. _Tourmaline._--With the preceding. + + +6. FELDSPAR. + +As an ingredient in the granite of Huron Islands, Lake Superior. Also, +in detached masses of granite along the west shores of Lake Michigan. +Also, in the form of prismatic crystals of a light-green color, in the +rolled masses of hornblende, porphyry, greenstone, and epidotic boulders +of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. + + +7. PREHNITE. + +This mineral occurs at Keweena Point, on Lake Superior. It is found in +connection with isolated blocks of amygdaloid, of primitive greenstone, +and of petrosilex. Sometimes native copper, and carbonate of copper, are +also present in the same specimen. In some instances, a partial +decomposition has taken place, converting its green color into +greenish-white, or perfect white, and rendering it so soft as to be cut +with a knife. Sometimes the grains or masses of native copper are +interspersed among the prehnite, and slender threads of this metal +occasionally pass through the aggregated mass of greenstone, prehnite, +&c., so that, on breaking it, the fragments are still held together by +these metallic fibres. + + +8. HORNBLENDE. + +1. _Common Hornblende._--Occurs as a constituent of the hornblende rocks +near Point Chegoimegon, Lake Superior. Also, at the Peace Rock, on the +Upper Mississippi, and in certain granite aggregates, and rolled masses +of porphyries, &c., around the shores of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and +Superior. + +2. _Actynolite._--In slender, translucent, greenish crystals, pervading +rolled masses of serpentine, on the west shores of Lake Michigan. + + +9. WOODSTONE. + +1. _Mineralized Wood._--In bed of the River Des Plaines, Illinois. + +2. _Agatized Wood._--This variety of fossil wood is found along the +alluvial shores of the Mississippi and of the Missouri. + + +c. _Calcareous Minerals._ + + +1. CARBONATE OF LIME. + +Of a substance so universally distributed throughout the western +country, it will not be necessary to give many localities, and these +will be principally confined to its crystalline forms. + +Subs. 1.--_Calcareous Spar._ + +_Crystallized Calcareous Spar._--This mineral occurs, in minute +rhomboidal crystals, in the calcareous rock of the Island of +Michilimackinac. Sometimes these crystals fill cavities or seams of the +rock, or are studded over the angular surfaces of masses of vesicular +limestone of that island. I also found this mineral at Dubuque's mines, +and in small crystals in the metalliferous limestone bordering the Fox +River, between the post of Green Bay and Winnebago Lake, where it is +associated with iron pyrites and blende. + +Subs. 2.--_Compact Limestone._ + +In proceeding northwest of Detroit, this mineral is first observed, in +situ, on an island in Lake Huron. It is afterwards found to be the +prevailing rock along the south and southwest shores of Lake Huron. In +many places, it incloses fossil remains. Sometimes it is _earthy_, as at +Bay De Noquet, a part of Green Bay, on Lake Michigan, where it contains +very perfect remains of the terrebratula. (Parkinson.) In other places, +no remains whatever are visible, and the structure is firm and compact; +or even passes, by a further graduation, into transition-granular, of +which, it is believed, the west shores of Lake Michigan afford an +instance. It is most commonly based upon sandstone, which also contains, +in many places, the fossil organized remains of various species of +crustaceous animals, and of vegetables, sometimes, coal, &c. + +Subs. 3.--_Agaric Mineral._ + +This mineral substance occurs in crevices and cavities in the calcareous +rock of the Island of Michilimackinac, Michigan. + +Subs. 4.--_Concrete Carbonate of Lime._ + +1. _Calcareous Sinter._--In the form of _stalactites_ and _stalagmites_, +in a cave situated near Prairie du Chien, on the Upper Mississippi. + +2. _Calcareous Tufa._--A remarkable formation of tufa is seen on the +east banks of the Wabash River, near Wynemac's Village, about ten miles +above the junction of the Tippecanoe. It extends for several miles, and +is deposited to the thickness of thirty or forty feet above the water, +forming cliffs which are covered with alluvial soil and sustain a growth +of forest trees. The precise points of its commencement and +disappearance were not observed. The structure is cellular or vesicular, +and resembles, in some places, a coarse dried mortar. It is very light, +and possesses a white color in inferior situations, but the surface is +somewhat colored by fallen leaves and other decaying vegetation. It +imbeds fluvatile shells and some vegetable remains, the species of which +have not been ascertained. The opposite, or west side of the river +consists of a kind of puddingstone, or caschalo, made up of pebbles of +quartz, &c., cemented by carbonate of lime, of a yellow color and +translucent. This beautiful aggregate is overlayed by a stratum, of +fifteen or twenty feet in thickness, of diluvial soil. These localities +fall within the limits of the State of Indiana; but on territories still +occupied, if not owned, by the aborigines. + +3. _Pseudomorphous Carbonate of Lime._--This form of carbonate of lime +occurs in Pope County, Illinois, a district celebrated for its +fluorspar, lead, crystallized quartz, &c., and bearing the unequivocal +marks of a secondary formation. Scattered in large masses over the soil, +we observe compact limestone, with very perfect cubical, octahedral, or +other regular cavities, which have manifestly originated from crystals +of fluorspar. The most common _impress_ of this kind appears to have +resulted from two cubes variously joined--a form of appearance very +common to the Illinois fluates. Some of these cubical cavities exceed +three inches square; but in no case is any remaining portion of the spar +in these cavities, or anywise connected with the fragments of limestone +thus impressed, although, at the same time, the spar is very abundant in +the alluvial soil where these curious limestones are found. + +2. SULPHATE OF LIME. + +Subs. _Gypsum._ + +1. _Fibrous Gypsum._--In the alluvial soil of the St. Martin's Islands, +Lake Huron. The fibres are sometimes five or six inches in length, of a +white color and delicate crystalline lustre. Sometimes these fibrous +masses are partially colored yellow or brown, apparently from the clay, +or mixed alluvion, in which they are imbedded. + +2. _Granular Gypsum._ } +3. _Granularly-Foliated Gypsum._ } With the preceding. +4. _Earthy Gypsum._ } + + +3. FLUATE OF LIME. + +_Fluor-Spar._--On the United States Mineral Reserve, Pope County, +Illinois. This locality is abundant, and the mineral readily and +constantly to be obtained. I first obtained specimens in June, 1818, and +afterwards visited it in July, 1821. It is disseminated in loose masses +throughout the soil, and in veins in the calcareous rocks. The spot most +noted and resorted to, and where the original discovery was made, is +four miles west of Barker's Ferry, at Cave-in-Rock, on the banks of the +Ohio, and about twenty-six miles, by the course of the river, below +Shawneetown. It is situated in the midst of a hilly, broken region, +called _the Knobs_, a tract of highlands intervening between the banks +of the Ohio and the Saline. The distance of this range from north to +south, or parallel with the course of the Ohio, cannot be stated. It +probably extends from near the banks of the Wabash River to the Little +Chain of Rocks. Its breadth--from Barker's Ferry, west, to Ensminger's, +at the Saline, is about twenty miles. It thus separates, by a rocky +border, the prairies of the Illinois from the current of the Ohio River. +These knobs, wherever observed, bear the indubitable marks of secondary +formation, and may be stated to consist, essentially, of compact +limestone resting on sandstone. The sandstone is sometimes so much +colored by iron, and by globular or irregular masses of iron stone, as +to give that rock a very singular aspect. This may be particularly +instanced in the mural front of the Battery rocks on the banks of the +Ohio. Every part of this formation has more or less the appearance of a +mineral country; and it is already known as the locality of ores of +lead, iron, and zinc, of crystallized quartz, of opal, heavy spar, +crystallized pyrites, and of very perfect fossil madrepores. In one +place (near the head of Hurricane Island) this spar forms a very large +and compact vein, dipping under the bed of the Ohio. Where the rock has +been explored, it is found in connection with sulphuret of lead, but it +has been mostly procured, because most easy of access, in the alluvial +soil. I went out about half a mile west of the Ohio, where a new +locality has been opened, and, in removing about five or six solid feet +of earth, procured as many specimens as filled a box of fourteen inches +square. None of these were more than two feet below the surface. One of +these specimens is an irregular octahedral crystal, eight inches in +diameter. The color of these masses is various shades of blue, violet, +or red, sometimes perfectly white or yellow; and the form most commonly +assumed is a cube, sometimes truncated at two or more angles, or +variously clustered. The external lustre of the crystals, raised from +alluvial soil, is feeble, but quite brilliant when taken from veins and +cavities in the rock. These spars from the alluvion do not appear to +exist as rock debris, or fragments worn off from other formations, but +as original deposits. There are no marks of attrition. They appear as +much in place as the limestone rocks below. It should also be +recollected that this mineral tract is terminated by one of the greatest +and most valuable salt formations in the western country--that of the +Illinois Saline. + +_Septaria: Ludus Helmontii._--This variety of calcareous marl is found, +in orbicular or flattened masses, along the eastern shores of Lake +Michigan, between the rivers St. Joseph's and Kalemazo. Its original +situation appears to be the beds of marly clay which form the banks of +Lake Michigan at these places, from which these masses have been +disengaged by the waves, and left promiscuously among the washed and +eroded debris of the shore. These masses are penetrated by numerous +seams and lines of calcareous spar, sometimes radiating star-like, or +intersecting each other irregularly. Occasionally, these seams are +filled with sulphuret of zinc, and in these cases the spar, if any be +present, is rose-colored. + + +d. _Aluminous Minerals._ + + +1. ARGILLACEOUS SLATE. + +1. _Argillite_, or _Common Argillaceous Slate_.--Along the banks of the +River St. Louis, at the Grand Portage, &c. It occurs in a vertical +position, embracing veins, or subordinate beds, of grauwakke, milky +quartz, chlorite slate, and silicious slate, &c. It is bounded on one +side by red sandstone, and on the other by an extensive tract of +diluvial soil. + +2. _Bituminous Shale._--In detached masses, along the shores of Lake +Huron, between Fort Gratiot and Thunder Bay. It contains amorphous +masses of iron pyrites, of a yellow color and metallic brilliancy, which +soon tarnishes on exposure to the air. + + +2. CHLORITE. + +_Chlorite Slate._--In subordinate strata in the argillite of the River +St. Louis. + + +3. STAUROTIDE. + +In garnet-colored crystals, in detached blocks of mica-slate, in the +drift of Lake Huron. These crystals consist of two intersecting +six-sided prisms, truncated at both ends, forming the cross. They are +nearly opaque, or feebly translucent on the fractured edge. + + +4. CLAY. + +1. _Plastic Clay._--Very extensive beds of this clay are seen along the +west shore of Lake Michigan, between Sturgeon Bay Portage and Chicago. +Its color is generally a light blue, verging sometimes into deep blue or +grayish-white. It is plastic in water, adheres strongly to the tongue, +takes a polish from the nail, and emits an argillaceous odor when +moistened or breathed upon. These beds of clay frequently contain iron +pyrites, both in the crystallized and amorphous state. + +2. _Pipe Clay._--In the flats of the St. Clair and Lake George, +Michigan. A bed of clay, apparently answering to this description, +exists at White River, Lake Michigan. Its color is a grayish-white, +verging to blue. It is very unctuous and adhesive when first raised, but +acquires more or less of a meagre feel as it parts with its moisture, +drying in firm and compact masses. + +3. _Variegated Clay._--On the banks of the River St. Peter's, Upper +Mississippi. Neither the quantity in which it exists, nor the precise +locality is known. Its color is white, variegated with stripes, spots, +or clouds of red or yellow. + +4. _Azure Blue Clay of St. Peter's._--The locality of this substance, as +communicated by the Indians, is the declivity of a hill, in the rear of +the village of Sessitongs, one mile above the confluence of the Terre +Blue River with the St. Peter's. It is found near the foot of this hill, +between two layers of sandstone rock, in a vein about fifteen inches in +thickness. This vein is elevated about twenty feet above the waters of +the Terre Bleu, and does not extend far in the direction of the river. +Having been resorted to by the Sioux Indians a long time, a considerable +excavation has been made, but the supply is constant. The color of this +mineral substance (its distinguishing character) is an azure copper +blue of more or less intensity. It is ductile and moderately adhesive, +when first taken up, or when moistened with water, but acquires an +almost stony solidity on drying. It is considerably adulterated with +sand or particles of quartz. It parts with its moisture rapidly on +exposure to the atmosphere, and dries without much apparent diminution +of volume. + +5. _Green Clay of St. Peter's._--This differs little from the preceding, +except in its color, which is a deep or verdigris green, admitting some +diversity of shades. Its composition appears to be, essentially, +alumina, silica, carbonate of copper, water, and iron. + +6. _Opwagunite_; _Calamet Stone_; _Pipe Stone._--The last of these terms +is a translation of the first, which is Algonquin. Under these names, a +peculiar kind of stone, which is much employed by the Indians for pipes, +has been alluded to by travellers and geographers from the earliest +times. It appears to be a variety of argillaceous wacke. Its color is +most commonly a uniform dull red, resembling that of red chalk. +Sometimes it is spotted with brown or yellow, but these spots are very +minute, and the colors usually faint. It is perfectly opaque, very +compact in its structure, and possessing that degree of hardness which +admits its being cut or scraped with a knife, or sawed without injury to +a common hand-saw, when first raised from the quarry; but it acquires +hardness by exposure, and even takes a polish. But it is not capable of +receiving a polish by the usual process of rubbing with grit-stone and +pumice, these substances being too harsh for it. The Indian process is +to scrape or file it smooth, and give it a polish by rubbing with the +scouring rush. Its powder is a light red, and emits an argillaceous odor +when wetted. This substance is procured at the Coteau des Prairie, +intermediate between the sources of the St. Peter's and the Great Sioux +Rivers. Some other places have been mentioned as affording this mineral, +particularly a locality on the waters of Chippewa River; but the mineral +procured here is chocolate-colored. + + +e. _Magnesian Minerals._ + +1. SERPENTINE. + +At Presque Isle Point, Lake Superior, common and precious, in isolated +masses; also, in connection with, and imbedding native copper, along +the southern shore of Lake Superior, at Ontonagon River, &c. + + +2. STEATITE. + +At Presque Isle, near River au Mort, Lake Superior, in connection with +the serpentine formation. Also, at the Lake of the Woods, of a black or +very dark color, where it is employed by the Indians in carving pipes. + + +3. ASBESTOS. + +_Common Asbestos._--In serpentine and steatite, at Presque Isle Point, +Lake Superior. Also, in minute veins, in detached masses of diallage and +serpentine rocks, on the west shore of Lake Michigan. These veins are no +more than a fourth of an inch in width; and the fibres of asbestos occur +transversely. They are very flexible, and easily reducible into a +flocculent mass. + + +f. _Barytic Minerals._ + + +SULPHATE OF BARYTES. + +_Lamellar Sulphate of Barytes._--In detached masses, imbedded in +diluvial soil, at the mines of Peosta, or Dubuque, on the Upper +Mississippi, where it is accompanied by sulphuret of lead, calcareous +spar, &c. Also, at the Mine au Fevre (now Galena), and at the mouth of +the Sissinaway River, on the east banks of the Mississippi, between +Prairie du Chien and Fort Armstrong. Its colors are white or yellow, and +it is frequently incrusted with a thin coat of yellow oxide of iron. It +is most commonly opaque. The only translucent specimen seen was procured +at Dubuque's mines. + + +g. _Strontian Minerals._ + + +SULPHATE OF STRONTIAN. + +_Foliated Sulphate of Strontian._--At Presque Isle (Wayne's Battle +Ground), on the Maumee River, Wood County, Ohio. It occurs in veins and +cavities, in compact limestone, most commonly in the form of flattened +prisms. Its color is blue, frequently a very light or sky-blue, and the +crystals are fully translucent, or even transparent. In some instances, +they appear to have suffered a partial decomposition, and fall into +fragments in the act of raising, or are covered with a white powdery +crust, frequently visible only on the summits or terminating points of +the prisms. The same limestone yields crystallized calcareous spar. Both +these substances are abundant in the rocky banks and in the bed of the +Maumee. Also, on Grosse Isle, Detroit River, Michigan. + + +h. _Bituminous Minerals._ + +1. BITUMEN. + +_Petroleum._--Occurs in cavities, in loose fragments of limestone rock, +along the west shore of Lake Michigan, between Milwaukie and Chicago. +These masses of rock lie promiscuously among fragments of quartz, +granite, sandstone, fossil madrepores, &c., along the alluvial shore of +the lake, and appear to have been washed up from its bed. The petroleum +is in a free and liquid state; but, where it has suffered an exposure to +the atmosphere, it has acquired a stiff and tar-like consistence passing +into _maltha_. Not unfrequently, fragments of mineral coal are also +found scattered along these shores, and there is reason to conclude that +a bituminous formation exists in the contiguous inferior strata forming +the basin of the lake. + +2. GRAPHITE. + +_Granular Graphite._--In a small vein, in the clay-slate of the River +St. Louis, at the head of the nine-mile portage. It is coarse-grained +and _gritty_. + +3. COAL. + +_Slaty Coal._--The only spot where this mineral has been observed, in +situ, is at La Charbonniére, on the west banks of the Illinois River, at +the computed distance of one hundred and twenty miles south of the post +of Chicago. It is here seen in horizontal strata, not exceeding two or +three inches in thickness, interposed between layers of sandstone and +shale. Breaking out on the declivity of the bank of the river, where the +overlaying strata are constantly crumbling down, and thus obscuring the +seams, no very satisfactory examination could be made in a hasty visit; +but the nature and position of the rock strata and soils, and the +general aspect of the country, do not justify the conclusion that the +bed is of much thickness or extent. Valuable beds may be discovered, +however, by exploring this formation. This coal has a shining black +color, a slaty structure, inflames readily, burning with a bright flame. +It is very fragile where exposed to the weather, falling into fine +fragments. Hence, a very black color has been communicated to the +contiguous and overlaying soil, which is manifestly more or less the +result of disintegrated coal. + +Detached fragments of coal, corresponding in mineral characters with the +above, are occasionally found around the southern shores of Lake +Michigan. The inference, as to the existence of coal around the shores +of this lake, is obvious. And we are led to inquire: Does the La +Charbonniére formation of coal exist in the sandstone and limestone +strata forming the table-land between the Illinois River and Lake +Michigan, and reappearing around the basin of the latter, but at such a +depression below its surface as to elude observation? And, if so, does +not this coal formation extend quite across the southern portion of the +peninsula of Michigan? The secondary character of the region alluded to, +so far as observed, the horizontal and relative position of the strata, +and the general uniformity which is generally observed in the species +and order of the coal measures, favor this suggestion. + + +i. _Soda._ + +1. MURIATE OF SODA. + +No traces of salt are known to have been discovered in those parts of +the territory of the United States situated north of latitude 46° 31´ +(which is that of the Sault Ste. Marie) and _east_ of the Mississippi +River. The great secondary formations which pervade the western country +cease south of this general limit, and with them terminate the salt +springs, the gypsum beds, the coal measures, and other connected +minerals which are generally found in association. It is one of the most +important facts which the science of geology has contributed to the +stock of useful information, that, in the natural order of the rocky and +earthy deposits, muriate of soda always occupies a position contiguous +to that of gypsum. This intimate connection between the sulphate of lime +and the muriate of soda, enables us, by the discovery of the one, to +predict, with considerable but not unerring certainty, the presence of +the other. It adds weight to an observation first made among the salt +formations of Europe, to find its general correctness corroborated by +the relative position of these substances in the United States. These +remarks will apply particularly to the salt formations of New York, and +to some portions of the muriatiferous region of Virginia and the +Arkansas. + +There appears to be a salt formation extending from the northwest angle +of the Ohio through Michigan, for a distance of two hundred to three +hundred miles. It commences in the Seweekly country, passing around the +Sandusky River of Lake Erie, where an extensive bed of granular gypsum +has recently been discovered, and continues, probably, northwest, so as +to embrace the Saganaw basin, and reach quite to the end of the +peninsula, and embracing, perhaps, the Gypsum Islands of Lake Huron, ten +miles northeast of Michilimackinac. All the brine springs and gypsum +beds noticed in the region are situated in the line of this formation. + +During the fall of 1821, a number of gentlemen at the Island of +Michilimackinac united in the expenses of a tour for exploring the +Skeboigon River, a stream which originates in the peninsula of Michigan, +and flows into Lake Huron opposite the Island of Bois Blanc. The +particular object of this party was to ascertain the precise locality of +certain salt springs reported to exist upon that stream. They proceeded +to the places indicated, and examined several springs more or less +impregnated with salt, but reported that, owing to the jealousy and +hostility of those bands of Indians who were found upon that stream, +they were not enabled fully to accomplish the object in view. + +There are several salt springs reported to exist near the Indian village +of Wendagon, on the Sciawassa River, and others on the Titabawassa +River, the principal tributaries of the Sagana. Little is, however, +known respecting these springs, but the water is represented to be so +strongly impregnated, that the Indians manufacture from it all the salt +necessary for their villages. + +Grand River Valley has also been mentioned among the localities of salt +water and gypsum rocks. + +Hints may thus be derived of value to the future commerce of the +country. Scarcely any of the new states are without indications of the +existence of salt. Every day is adding to the number of localities. + +In the region _west_ of the Mississippi, I was informed that salt +occurs, in the crystallized form, in the territories of the Yanktons, +who inhabit the flat country at the sources of the River St. Peter's. In +certain parts of these plains, the salt exists on the surface. It is +mixed with earth, in specimens brought to me, but crystallized in cubes, +very imperfect, of a gray or grayish-white color. The Indians scrape it +up from certain parts of the prairies or plains, where the salt water is +prevented from draining off. + + +2. ALKALINE SULPHATE OF ALUMINA. + +This salt exists, in the form of efflorescences, in the cavities and +fissures of rocks along the southeast parts of the shores of Sagana Bay, +Lake Huron, and in the argillaceous formations at Erie, on Lake Erie, +Pennsylvania. + + * * * * * + +These positions embrace the principal localities of minerals noticed. In +travelling rapidly through a remote wilderness, there was but little +opportunity to explore off the track; and the whole observation was +confined to the mere surface of the country, which is much obscured by +diluvial and alluvial formations. + +It will be seen that the region of Lake Superior has been a fruitful +field for mineralogical inquiry, and it is one which invites further +exploration. Its mineralogy affords a variety of interesting substances +which are objects of scientific research, and it may be anticipated to +be the future theatre of extensive mining operations. The country +northwest of Lake Superior, and the Upper Mississippi north of the Falls +of St. Anthony--consisting mostly of upheaved primitive rocks and the +pebble-drift, or diluvial, formations--has furnished but few subjects of +mineralogical remark. + +The district of country between the Falls of St. Anthony and Prairie du +Chien, in common with the more southern portions of the Mississippi +Valley, partakes of all the interest which the mineral kingdom presents +in a calcareous and metalliferous country of secondary formation. It +has added considerably to my collection. It is probable the Rivers St. +Peter's, St. Croix, and Chippeway would well reward exploration; but the +mines of Dubuque particularly invite a mineralogical survey. Their +future importance cannot fail to be duly appreciated. + +If the country has put on an aspect unfavorable to mineralogy, its +geological features have been observed to sustain its interest. + +Much of the interest growing out of the examination, for the first time, +of the mineralogy and natural history of the country, is such as to +commend itself, in an especial manner, to the consideration of men of +science, and of associations devoted to scientific details, rather than +the department of a government. To these former, nature is a storehouse +of facts, and a perpetual anxiety is felt by this class of observers to +know the range, not only of our rock formations, but of our plants, +shells, fossils, and other classes of objects in our physical geography. +Such desires I have endeavored, as far as my means permitted, to +gratify. The fresh-water conchology of the lakes and rivers visited was +often attractive, when other objects excited little interest. The +species collected in this department have been referred to the New York +Lyceum of Natural History. + +With these remarks, the result of an arduous and interesting journey +through a part of the continent hitherto unexplored, I have the honor to +conclude my report, and to terminate the trust confided to me. + + I am, sir, with respect, + Your obedient servant, + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, + _Geologist, &c. of the Ex. Exp._ + + +VIII. + +(A.) + + _A Report to the Senate of the United States, in Answer to a + Resolution passed by this Body, respecting the Value and Extent of + the Mineral Lands on Lake Superior._[235] By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + [235] _To the Senate of the United States:_-- + + In compliance with a resolution of the Senate of the 8th May last, + requesting "information relative to the copper mines on the southern + shore of Lake Superior, their number, value, and position, the names + of the Indian tribes who claim them, the practicability of + extinguishing their titles, and the probable advantage which may + result to the Republic from the acquisition and working these mines," + I herewith transmit a report from the Secretary of War, which + comprises the information desired in the resolution referred to. + + JAMES MONROE. + + WASHINGTON, 7th December, 1822. + + + DEPARTMENT OF WAR, 3d December, 1822. + + The Secretary of War, to whom was referred the resolution of the + Senate of the 8th May last, requesting the President of the United + States "to communicate to the Senate, at the commencement of the next + session of Congress, any information which may be in the possession + of the Government, derived from special agents or otherwise, showing + the number, value, and position of the copper mines on the south + shore of Lake Superior, the names of the Indian tribes who claim + them, the practicability of extinguishing their title, and the + probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the + acquisition and working these mines," has the honor to transmit a + report of Henry R. Schoolcraft, Indian agent at the Sault of Ste. + Marie, on the copper mines in the region of Lake Superior, which + contains all the information in relation to the subject in this + department. + + All which is respectfully submitted. + + J. C. CALHOUN. + + To the PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. + + SAULT STE. MARIE, October 1, 1822. + +SIR: In reply to the inquiries, contained in a resolution of the Senate +of the United States, respecting the existence of copper mines in the +region of Lake Superior, inclosed to me in a note from the War +Department, dated 8th May, 1822, I have the honor to submit to you the +following facts and remarks:-- + +1. In relation to "_the number, value, and position of the copper mines +on the south shore of Lake Superior_." The remote position of the +country alluded to, the infrequency of communication, and the little +reliance to be placed on information derived through the medium of the +aborigines or of traders, who are wholly engrossed with other objects, +presents an embarrassment at the threshold of this inquiry, which must +be felt by every person who turns his attention to the subject. The +information sought for demands a minute acquaintance with the natural +features and mineral structure of the country, which can only be +acquired by personal examination; and it is a species of research +requiring more leisure, better opportunities, and a freer participation +in personal fatigue, than usually falls to the share of tourists and +travellers. Not only are those difficulties to be encountered which are +inseparable from the collection of isolated facts in a new and unsettled +country, but those, also, which are peculiar to the subject, connected +as it is, at every stage of the inquiry, with the prejudices and +superstitions of the Indian tribes. [B.] It can, therefore, excite +little surprise that, after having been the theme of speculation for +more than a century, and obtained the notice of several works of merit +in Europe,[236] both the position and value of these mineral beds have +continued to the present times to be but partially known. To ascertain +more clearly their value and importance to the Republic were objects +more particularly confided to me as a member of the expedition sent by +the Indian Department, in the year 1820, to traverse and explore those +regions. My report of the 6th of November of that year--a copy of which, +marked A, is herewith transmitted--gives the result of that inquiry. +After a lapse of two years, little can be added. Reflection and +subsequent inquiry convince me that the facts advanced in that report +will be corroborated by future observation. No circumstance has +transpired which is calculated to prove that my suggestions with regard +to the fertility and future importance of those mines are fallacious; on +the contrary, all information tends to strengthen and confirm those +suggestions. Specimens of pure and malleable copper continue to be +brought in to me by the aborigines from that region, but it is not +deemed necessary to particularize in this place the additional +localities. It will be sufficient to observe, that the number of these +new discoveries justifies the expectations that have been created +respecting the metalliferous character of the region of the Ontonagon, +and the south shore of Lake Superior. [C.] + + [236] _Vide_ Jameson's Mineralogy, Parkes's Chemical Catechism, + Phillips's Elementary Introduction to Mineralogy. + +I shall here add the result of an accurate analysis made upon a specimen +of this copper at the mint of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, at the +request of Mr. Eustis, minister plenipotentiary from the United States, +who carried samples of the American copper to that country. The report +of the inspector of the mint, which communicates the result of this +analysis, has the following remarks upon the natural properties of this +species of copper, and the mode of its production: "From every +appearance, the piece of copper seems to have been taken from a mass +that has undergone fusion. The melting was, however, not an operation of +art, but a natural effect caused by a volcanic eruption. The stream of +lava probably carried along in its course the aforesaid body of copper, +that had formed into one collection, as fast as it was heated enough to +run, from all parts of the mine. The united mass was probably borne in +this manner to the place where it now rests in the soil. The +crystallized form, observable everywhere on the original surface of the +metal that has been left untouched or undisturbed, leads me to presume +that the fusion it has sustained was by a process of nature; since this +crystallized surface can only be supposed to have been produced by a +slow and gradual cooling, whereby the copper assumed regular figures as +its heat passed into other substances, and the metal itself lay exposed +to the air. + +"As to the properties of the copper itself, it may be observed that its +color is a clear red; that it is peculiarly qualified for rolling and +forging; and that its excellence is indicated by its resemblance to the +copper usually employed by the English for plating. The dealers in +copper call this sort _Peruvian copper_ to distinguish it from that of +_Sweden_, which is much less malleable. The specimen under consideration +is incomparably better than Swedish copper, as well on account of its +brilliant color as for the fineness of its pores and its extreme +ductility. Notwithstanding, before it is used in manufactures, or for +the coining of money, it ought to be melted anew, for the purpose of +purifying it from such earthy particles as it may contain. The +examination of the North American copper, in the sample received from +his excellency the minister, by the operation of the cupel and test by +fire, has proved that it does not contain the smallest particle of +silver, gold, or any other metal." It is a coincidence worthy of remark, +that the suggestions offered by the assayer respecting the volcanic +origin of these masses of copper, are justified by the leading features +of the Porcupine Mountains, and by the melted granites found upon the +heights called Grande Sables and Ishpotonga. + +2. The second and third inquiries of the resolution relate to "_the +names of the Indian tribes who claim the mines, and the practicability +of extinguishing their title_." By the treaty concluded at this post on +the 16th of June, 1820, the Ojibwai[237] Indians cede to the United +States four miles square of territory, bounded by the River St. Mary's, +and including the portage around the falls.[238] This is the most +northerly point to which the Indian title has been extinguished in the +United States. The different bands of Ojibwais possess all the country +northwest of this post, extending through Lake Superior to the sources +of the Mississippi, where they are bounded by the Assennaboins, the +Crees, and the Chippewyans of the Hudson Bay colony. Their lands extend +down the Mississippi to the Sioux boundary, an unsettled line between +the junction of the River De Corbeau and the Falls of St. Anthony. South +of Lake Superior, they claim to the possessions of the Winnebagoes, on +the Ouisconsin and Fox Rivers, and to those of the Pottawatamies and +Ottoways, on Lake Michigan. The Wild Rice, or Monomonee Indians, are an +integral part of the Ojibwai nation, deriving their name from the great +reliance they place on the zizania aquatica as an article of food. They +live in small, dispersed bands between the Ojibwais of the lake, and the +Winnebagoes of Fox River. Those residing among the Ojibwais speak the +same language, but with many peculiarities and corruptions on the waters +of Green Bay. They claim the respective tracts upon which they are +located. These are, principally, the valleys of the Fox and Monomonee +Rivers, and the rice lands contiguous to the Fol. Avoine, Clam Lake, and +Lac de Flambeau, which lie on the table-lands between Lake Superior and +the Mississippi. + + [237] For the different names applied to this tribe of Indians, see + Appendix H. + + [238] _Vide_ acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress + of the United States, page 88. + +The right of soil to all that part of the Peninsula of Michigan not +purchased by the United States is divided between the Ojibwais and the +Ottoways. The former claim all the shores and islands of Lake Huron +situated north of the Saganaw purchase, except those in the vicinity of +Michilimackinac and the St. Martin, or Gypsum Islands, which were ceded +by treaty on the 6th of July, 1820.[239] Their territories continue +north, through the River St. Mary's, embracing the country on both +banks, and the islands in the river, saving Drummond's Island, which is +garrisoned by the British, and the Four Mile concession at the Sault or +Falls, now occupied by a detachment of the United States' army. It is +not deemed necessary to point out the limits of their territories with +more precision, or to pursue them into the Canadas, where they are also +very extensive. It will sufficiently appear, from this outline, that the +discoveries of copper on the south shore of Lake Superior are upon their +lands. That some of these discoveries have been made upon, or will be +traced to, the possessions of the North Monomonees, is also probable. + + [239] _Vide_ acts passed at the second session of the 16th Congress, + p. 91. + +With respect to the practicability of extinguishing the Indian title, no +difficulty is to be apprehended. Living in small villages, or tribes of +the same mark, scattered over an immense territory, and often reduced to +great poverty by the failure of game and fish, it is presumed there +would be a disposition among their chiefs and head men to dispose of +portions of it. Those districts which most abound in minerals, +presenting a rough and rocky surface, are the least valuable to them as +hunting-grounds; and the goods and annuities which they would receive in +exchange must be vastly more important to them than any game which these +mineral lands now afford. + +3. "_The probable advantage which may result to the Republic from the +acquisition and working of these mines._" How far metallic mines, +situated upon the public domain, may be considered as a source of +national wealth, and what system of management is best calculated to +produce the greatest advantages to the public revenue, are inquiries +which are not conceived to be presented for consideration in this place; +nor should I presume to offer any speculations upon topics which have +been so often discussed, and so fully settled. In applying axioms, +however, to a species of productive industry, the results of which are +so very various under various situations, great caution is undoubtedly +necessary; and it must appear manifest, on the slightest reflection, how +much the comparative value of metallic mines, equally fertile and +productive, ever depends upon situation and local advantages. +Dismissing, therefore, all questions of abstract policy, I shall here +adduce a few facts in relation to the fertility of these mineral beds, +and their position with respect to a market--points upon which their +value to the nation must ultimately turn. + +That copper is abundantly found on the south shore of Lake Superior has +been shown. It is unnecessary here to add to, or repeat the instances of +its occurrence, or to urge, from an inspection of the surface, the +fertility of subterranean beds. All the facts which I possess in +relation to this subject are before you, and you will assign to them +such importance as they merit. It is a subject upon which I have +bestowed some reflection and much inquiry, superadded to limited +opportunities of personal observation, and the result has led me to form +a favorable estimate of their value and importance. It is not only +certain that a prodigious number of masses of metallic copper are found +along the borders of the lake, but every appearance authorizes a +conclusion that they are only the indications of near and continuous +veins. Some of these masses are of unexampled size, and all present +metallic copper in a state of great purity and fineness. Of its ductile +and excellent qualities for the purposes of coinage and sheathing, the +analysis of Utrecht leaves no doubt. It is true that a mistaken idea has +prevailed among travellers and geographers respecting the weight of the +great mass of copper on the Ontonagon River; but it is, nevertheless, of +extraordinary dimensions, and I have endeavored to show, from their +works, how these errors have originated, and that the metal is +disseminated throughout a much greater extent of country, and in masses +of every possible form and size. Until my facts and data can, therefore, +be proved to be fallacious, I must be permitted to consider these mines +not only fertile in native copper and its congenerous species, but +unparalleled in extent, and to recommend them as such to the notice of +the Government. + +But, whatever degree of incertitude may exist respecting the riches of +these mines, their situation with respect to a market can admit of no +dispute. As little can there be concerning the advantages which this +situation presents for the purposes of mining and commerce. Let us +compare it with that of other mines, and appeal to acknowledged facts +for the decision. The value of a coal mine, a stone quarry, or a gypsum +bed, often arises as much from its situation as its fertility. But the +proposition may be reversed with respect to a metallic mine, the value +of which to the proprietor arises more from its fertility and less from +its situation. Gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, &c., when separated from +the matrix of the mine, are so valuable that they can bear to be +transported a long journey over land, and the most distant voyage by +water. Their worth in coined money, produce, or manufactures, is not +fixed in the particular circles of country where they are dug up, but +depends upon the seaboard market, and embraces all countries. The silver +of Mexico and Peru circulates throughout Europe, and is carried to +China. It is no objection to those mines that they are situated in the +Cordilleras, or upon the high table-lands of the American continent, and +must be carried a thousand miles upon the backs of mules to the seaside. +The very discovery of those mines has rendered many poor silver mines of +Europe of no value, although possibly situated in the environs of the +best silver markets in the world. It is the fertility, and not the +situation of such mines, that constitutes their chief value; and it is +so with many of the coarser metals. + +The tin of the Island of Banka, and the Peninsula of Siam in Asia, and +the copper of Japan, find their way to Europe, and are articles of +commerce in the United States. The cobalt of Saxony is sent to Pekin, +and the platina of Choco, to all parts of the world. In all these +instances, the fertility of the mines compensates for every disadvantage +of situation. But this principle is not alone confined to mines of tin, +copper, &c.; it even holds true of the heavy and bulky articles of iron, +lead, and salt. The lead of Missouri finds a market at New York, +Philadelphia, and Boston, and will be carried to Europe. It is no +objection that it must be conveyed in wagons forty miles from the +interior, and sent a voyage of 3,000 miles in steamboats and merchant +ships. The great fertility of the mines counterbalances the +disadvantages of its remote position from the market, and it is the +price of the metal in the market which always regulates its price at the +mines. The malleable iron of Sweden is consumed on the summits of the +Alleghany, although its strata are replete with iron ore, which is +worked at numerous forges along the rivers which proceed from each side +of it. It is believed that the salt springs of Onondaga, from their +copiousness alone, would supply a vast portion of the interior and +seaboard of the United States with salt, even if the facilities of water +carriage had not been presented by the Erie Canal. The value of such +mines and minerals ever depends as much upon the abundance as upon the +favorable position of them. It is far otherwise with quarries of stone, +gypsum, marl, fossil coal, &c., whose contiguity to a good market +establishes their value. No abundance of these articles would justify a +land carriage of one hundred miles. They constitute a species of +mining, the profits and value of which increases in the ratio of the +surrounding population, and as the country advances in improvements. But +this advantage is far less sensibly felt, and cannot be considered +essential to the successful working of mines of silver, copper, &c. +Neither the remote position, therefore, of the Lake Superior copper +mines, nor the want of a surrounding population, present objections of +that force which would at first seem to exist; and it is confidently +believed that, if their fertility is such as facts indicate, they may be +opened and wrought with eminent advantage to the Republic. But let us +examine their situation with respect to a market, and compare it with +that of other mines of the same metal, and of some of the coarser +metals, which bear a considerable land, and the most distant water +carriage. To favor the inquiry, let it be granted for the moment that +proximity of situation to a market, or free water carriage, are +indispensable to the success and value of the most fertile mines. + +Assuming the confluence of the Ontonagon River with Lake Superior (which +is apparently the centre of the mine district) as the place where the +metal is first to be embarked for market, it must be carried down the +lake 300 miles to the Sault or rapids of St. Mary's. Here, if it is in +barges, it may descend the rapids in perfect safety, as is the +invariable practice of the traders on arriving with their annual returns +of furs and skins from the north. If in vessels, it must be transferred +either into boats or carts, and carried half a mile to the foot of the +rapids, where it will again be embarked in vessels, and transported +through the Lakes Huron, St. Clair, and Erie, and their connecting +straits, to Buffalo, a distance of 650 miles. The progress made in the +construction of the great canal which is to connect the lakes and +Atlantic, is such as to leave no doubt upon any reasonable mind of the +full completion of that work with the close of the year 1824. Through +this channel, the transportation is to be continued in boats or barges, +by a voyage of 353 miles, to the Hudson at Albany; thence a sloop +navigation of 144 miles, which, for speed and freedom from risk, is +perhaps unequalled in all America, takes it into the harbor of New York, +making the entire distance, from the mouth of the Ontonagon, 1,447 +miles. From New York it is distributed to our naval depots, and to the +markets of Europe. It is exchanged for the lead of Missouri, the iron +of Sweden, or the silver of Mexico; and the same ready communication +transports the return cargo to Buffalo, from whence the commerce is +extended, by means of the lakes, throughout western New York, +Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and the interminable +regions of the north. Thus it is seen that, when the Erie Canal is +completed, a free and direct water communication, from the mines to one +of the best markets in America, will exist, in which the rapids of St. +Mary's are the only interruption, and this is only an interruption to +large vessels. Not only so, but the Ontonagon River may be ascended many +miles with vessels of light burden, and thus the copper of Lake +Superior, wafted from the heart of the interior, and from the base of +the Porcupine Mountains, into the harbors of New York, Philadelphia, &c. +Of this whole distance, 1,047 miles are now navigated by the largest +class of river craft and lake schooners; the balance of the distance is +the length of the Erie Canal. (See Note D.) + +Let it be recollected that there are no mines of copper situated upon +the margin of the sea, and that every quintal of sheet copper, bolts, +nails, &c., which we receive from Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, or +Japan, is transported a greater or less distance on turnpikes or canals, +before it reaches the place of shipment. The richest copper mines of the +Russian empire are seated on the summits of the Uralian Mountains; those +of Fahlun, in Sweden, and Cornwall, in England, are scarcely more +favored as to position; and, owing to a want of coal, all the ores +raised at the latter are transported into Wales to be smelted.[240] But +we need not resort to Europe for instances. All the lead raised at the +fertile mines in Missouri is transported an average distance of forty +miles in carts and wagons before it reaches the banks of the +Mississippi. Steamboats take it to New Orleans, a distance, by the +shortest computation, of 1,000 miles. But it must still pass through the +Gulf of Mexico, and encounter the perils of the Capes of Florida, and a +voyage of 2,000 miles along the coast of the United States, before it +reaches its principal marts. The average cost of transporting a +hundredweight of lead from Mine au Breton and Potosi to the banks of the +Mississippi, during the year 1818, was seventy-five cents. The distance +is thirty-six miles. The price of conveying the same quantity from the +storehouses at Herculaneum and St. Genevieve to New Orleans, by +steamboats, was seventy cents. The distance exceeds 1,000 miles. Hence, +it costs more to transport a given quantity thirty-six miles by land +than to convey it 1,000 by water. These rates have probably varied +since, but the proportionate expense of land carriage, compared to that +of water, will remain the same. A quintal of copper may, therefore, be +transported from the mines of Superior to Buffalo or Lockport, in New +York, for the same sum required to convey an equal quantity of lead from +Potosi to St. Genevieve. If we consider the city of New York as the +market of both, no hesitancy or doubt can be experienced as to the +decided and palpable advantages possessed by the northern mines. It is +only necessary to adduce these facts; the conclusions are inevitable. In +every point of view, the distance of these mines from the market +presents no solid objection to their being explored with profit to the +nation. + + [240] Silliman. + +Pig copper, which is the least valuable form in which this metal is +carried to market, is now quoted in the Atlantic cities at 19 cents per +pound; sheathing, at 27; brazier's, at 32. I have no data at hand to +show the amount of these articles consumed in the United States, and for +which we are annually transmitting immense sums to enrich foreign +States. But those who best appreciate the advantages of commerce will +readily supply the estimate. It would be an interesting inquiry to +ascertain how much of the sums yearly paid for sheathing copper, bolts, +nails, engravers' plates, &c., is contributed to the wealth of the +respective foreign States who possess mines of this metal. We can look +back to a period in the history of Great Britain, when that power did +not contribute one pound of copper to the commerce of Europe. During a +period of nine years, closing with the memorable year (in American +history) of 1775, the produce of the copper mines of Cornwall was 2,650 +tons of fine copper. (See Note E.) Since that time, the yearly returns +of those mines exhibit a constant increase; and the copper mines of +Great Britain are now the most valuable in the world. The amount +produced by the mines of Cornwall and Devon, after deducting the charges +of smelting, for the single year of 1810, was 969,376 pounds sterling. +(See Note F.) The clear profits of the Dolgoath mine, one of the richest +in Cornwall, for a period of five months, during the year 1805, was +£18,000, which is at the rate of £43,200, or $192,000, per annum. Next +to Great Britain, the most considerable mines of Europe are those of +Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Westphalia, as it was in 1808. Of less +importance are those of Denmark, France, Saxony, Prussia, and Spain. The +proportion in which the British mines exceed those of the most favored +European nation is as 200,000 x 67,000. (See Note G.) + +There is another consideration connected with this subject which is +worthy of remark. Should it be inquired what would be the effects of the +purchase of these mines upon the condition of the Indian tribes, the +reply is obvious. It would have the most beneficial tendency. They would +not only profit by an exchange of their waste lands for goods, +implements of husbandry, the stipulated services of blacksmiths, +teachers, &c., but the intercourse would have a happy tendency to allay +those bitter feelings which, through the instigation of the British +authorities in the Canadas, they have manifested, and still continue to +feel, in degree, towards the United States. The measures which the +President has recently directed to be pursued to assuage these feelings +of hostility, and to induce them to cherish proper sentiments of +friendship and respect, are already in a train of execution that bids +fair for success. Continued exertions, and the necessary and proper +means, are all that seem necessary to confirm and complete the effect; +and whatever measures have a tendency to increase the intercourse of +American citizens with these "remote tribes," and to give them a true +conception of the power and justice, and the pacific and benevolent +policy of our Government, must favor and hasten such a result. + + I have the honor to be, sir, + With the highest respect, + Your most obedient servant, + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, + _U. S. Indian Agent at the Sault Ste. Marie_. + + Hon JOHN C. CALHOUN, + _Secretary of War, Washington_. + + +_Notes._ + + +(B.) + +Among the numerous superstitions which the Indian tribes entertain, that +respecting mines is not the least remarkable. They are firmly impressed +with a belief that any information communicated to the whites, +disclosing the position of mines or metallic treasures situated upon +their grounds, is displeasing to their manitos, and even to the Great +Spirit himself, from whom they profess to derive every good and valuable +gift; and that this offence never fails to be visited upon them in the +loss of property, in the want of success in their customary pursuits or +pastimes, in untimely death, or some other singular disaster or untoward +event. This opinion, although certainly not a strange one to be +cherished by a barbarous people, is, nevertheless, believed to have had +its origin in the transactions of an era which is not only very well +defined, but must ever remain conspicuous in the history of the +discovery and settlement of America. It is very well known that the +precious metals were the principal objects which led the Spanish +invaders to penetrate into the interior of Mexico and Peru, and +ultimately to devastate and conquer the country, to plunder and destroy +its temples, and to tax and enslave its ill-fated inhabitants. It is +equally certain that, to escape these scenes of cruelty and oppression, +many tribes and fragments of tribes, when further resistance became +hopeless, fled towards the north, preferring the enjoyment of liberty +and tranquillity upon the chilly borders of the northern lakes, to the +pains of servitude in the mild and delightful valleys of Mexico, and the +golden plains of the Incas. In this way, many tribes who originally +migrated from the north, along the Pacific Ocean, to the Gulf of +California, and thence over all New Spain, were returned towards the +north over the plains of Texas and the valley of the Mississippi; those +tribes nearest the scenes of the greatest atrocities always pressing +upon the remoter and less civilized, who, in turn, pressed upon the +nations less enlightened than themselves, and finally drove them into +the unfrequented forests of the north. Among these terrified tribes, the +traditions of the Ojibwais affirm that their ancestors came, and that +they originally dwelt in a country destitute of snows. Many tribes who +now speak idioms of their language were left upon the way, and have +since taken distinctive names. Among these, are the Pottawatamies, the +Ottoways, &c. The latter formerly were, as they still remain, the +agriculturists. The Miamis and Shawnees, whose languages bear some +affinity, preceded them in their flight. The Winnebagoes, speaking a +separate and original tongue, came later, and preserve more distinct +traditions of their migration. All these tribes carried with them the +strong prejudices and fixed hatred excited by the cruelty, rapacity, and +cupidity of their European conquerors; and, above all, of that +insatiable thirst for gold and silver which led the Spaniards to sack +their towns, burn their temples, and torture their people. Cruelty and +injustice of so glaring a character must have made upon their minds too +deep an impression ever to be forgotten, or completely erased from their +traditions. To that memorable epoch we must, therefore, look for the +origin of that cautious and distrustful disposition which these tribes +have since manifested with regard to the mines and minerals situated +upon their lands; and the circumstance seems to offer an abundant +excuse, if not a justification, for those prevarications and evasions +which present a continual series of embarrassment to every person who +seeks through their aid to develop the mineral resources, or describe +the natural productions, of their territories. Hence, too, the cause why +they are prone to imagine that all mineral or metallic substances +obtained or sought upon their lands, are susceptible of being converted +or _transmuted_ into the precious metals. + + +(C.) + +The following _additional_ localities of native copper, derived from +sources entitled to respect, and accompanied, in some instances, by +specimens of the metal, may here be given:-- + +1. Grand Menou, or Isle Royal, Lake Superior. Captain----, of the +schooner----, in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company, on Lake +Superior, describes this island as affording frequent masses of copper. +While becalmed off its shores in the spring of 1822, and, afterwards, in +coasting along the island for a distance of one hundred miles, his men +frequently went ashore, and never failed to bring back with them lumps +of metallic copper, which they found promiscuously scattered among the +fragments of rock. These were more abundant in approaching its +southwestern extremity, where they unite in representing it to exist in +a solid vein. Specimens of limpid quartz, chalcedony, and striped agate, +were also brought to me from this island. [J. S. J. J.] + +2. On the extremity of the great peninsula, called by the natives +Meenaiewong, or Keweena Point, which forms so prominent a feature in the +physiognomy of Lake Superior. It occurs in the detached form. [J. H. J. +J.] + +3. At Point aux Beignes, which is the east cape of the entrance into +L'Ance Quewiwenon. A mass from this place was raised from the sandstone +rock, which predominates there. [J. Y. B.] + +4. At Caug Wudjieu, or the Porcupine Mountains, Lake Superior; in +masses, enveloped with a green crust, along the banks of the Carp, or +Neemaibee River, which originates in these mountains. [W. M. G. Y. J. +J.] + +5. On the banks of Lac Courterroile. This lake lies near the source of +the River Broule, or Cawesacotai, which enters Lake Superior near La +Pointe. It occurs in the alluvial soil, which is a kind of loamy earth, +with pebbles intermixed, but of a rich quality, and timbered with beech +and maple. It is found mostly in small, flat masses, more or less +oxidated. [B. G. J. G. Y.] + +6. In a vein on the shore of Lake Superior, between La Riviere de Mort +and St. John's, a little to the west of Presque Isle. [J. J.] + +7. On the northeast branch of the Ontonagon River. [J. H.] + +8. In the precipitous bluffs called Le Portail, and the Pictured Rocks. +A green matter oozes from the seams in these rocks, and forms a kind of +stalactites, which is apparently a carbonate of copper. [G. Y.] + +These localities embrace a range of more than two hundred miles along +the south shore of Lake Superior, which proves how intimately this metal +and its ores are identified with the rocks and the soil of that region. + + +(D.) + +In all our calculations respecting the position and advantages of these +mines, too much stress cannot be laid upon the facilities of the lake +navigation. It is believed that a ton of merchandise, or a barrel bulk, +can be transported through the lakes at the same rates that are paid in +the coasting trade of the United States. Nor is the risk greater. The +best data which I can command, induce me to conclude that a quintal of +copper can be conveyed from the place of shipment on Lake Superior, to +the city of New York, for _one dollar_. The present price of +transportation, for a barrel bulk, from Buffalo to Mackina, may be +stated, on the average of freights, at 8_s._, New York. The mean weight +of a barrel bulk, taking flour as the standard, may be safely put down +at 200 lbs. gross, being 50 cents per cwt. But it must be recollected +that there is no return freight; and, consequently, that this sum covers +the expenses not only of the outward and return voyage, but still leaves +a profit to the owner. Messrs. Gray and Griswold, sutlers of the 2d +regiment, paid 9_s._ 6_d._, New York, per barrel bulk, from Buffalo to +the Sault. This gives a result of 59 cents per cwt. But, if a return +cargo could be obtained, one-half of this sum would afford an equal +profit on the voyage; and it is believed that the article of bar copper +could at all times be conveyed from the Sault to Buffalo for 20 cents +per cwt. Being a very convenient species of ballast, it would oftentimes +be taken in lieu of stone, and, consequently, cost no greater sum than +the price of carrying it on board. But the facilities and cheapness of +the lake navigation cannot, perhaps, be better illustrated than by +stating the price of provisions at the post of St. Mary's, every article +of which is carried from 300 to 700 miles through the lakes. The +following statement of the assistant commissary has been politely +furnished at my request:-- + + SAULT STE. MARIE, October, 1822. + +DEAR SIR: Agreeably to your request, I send you a statement of the +actual cost of subsistence stores furnished at this post for the use of +troops at present making the military establishment, ordered by the +Government to this place. + +The prices of the several articles below enumerated are at a small +advance on the stores of the settlers outside of the cantonment. + +The expenses of subsisting, or rather of maintaining, a garrison at this +place will be as small, if not less, per annum, than at any other +frontier post in our country. The provisions for the soldier cost as +little, I believe, as at any other post, and next year we shall be able +to raise all the forage for the use of our beef cattle, and the horses +and oxen of the quartermaster's department. + + I am, dear sir, yours, &c., + W. BICKER, + _A. C. S. U. S. A._ + + +_Statement of the Cost of United States Subsistence Stores at the Sault +de Ste. Marie, 1822._ + + Cents. + Pork, per pound 4-1/4 + Flour, per pound 1-9/10 + Whiskey, per gallon 29 + Fresh beef, per pound 6-1/2 + Vinegar, per gallon 22 + Salt, per bushel 90 + Soap, per pound 10 + Candles, per pound 20-1/2 + Beans, per quart 4-7/10 + +The total cost of a soldier's ration is 9 cents and 1 mill per diem. + + WALTER BICKER, + _A. C. S. U. S. A._ + +H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT, Esq., _U. S. I. Agent_. + + +(E.) + + +_Statement of the Returns of Copper Ores Smelted at the Mines of +Cornwall (Eng.) from 1726 to 1775.--[Rees's Cyclopedia.]_ + + -------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- + Periods. |Tons of ore.|Average price| Amount. |Annual quantity + | | per ton. | |of fine copper. + -------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- + 1726 to 1735 | 64,800 | £7 15 10 | £473,500| 700 tons + 1736 to 1745 | 75,520 | 7 8 6 | 560,106| 830 " + 1746 to 1755 | 98,790 | 7 8 0 | 731,457| 1,080 " + 1756 to 1765 | 169,699 | 7 6 6 |1,243,045| 1,800 " + 1766 to 1775 | 264,273 | 6 14 6 |1,778,337| 2,650 " + -------------+------------+-------------+---------+--------------- + + +(F.) + +_Statement of the Produce of the Mines of Cornwall and Devon (Eng.) for +a period of four years, ending with 1811._ + +------------------+-------------+------------+----------+--------- + | 1808 | 1809 | 1810 | 1811 +------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- + |Corn- |Devon|Corn- |Devon| Cornwall | Cornwall + |wall | |wall | |and Devon |and Devon +------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- +Tons of ore. | | | | | | + Tons. |73,434 |3,725|72,038|3,210| 80,238 |73,579 + cwt. | 2 | 0 | 12 | 0 | 14 | 0 + qrs. | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 +------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- +Fine copper. | | | | | | + Tons. |7,118 | 369 |6,972 | 365 | 7,006 | 6,272 + cwt. | 5 | 10 | 17 | 1 | 13 | 0 + qrs. | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 + lbs. | 17 | 0 | 17 | 3 | 5 | 2 +------------------+-------+-----+------+-----+----------+--------- +Average | | | | +standard £ | 107 | 122 | 141 | 125 +per ton. | | | | +------------------+-------+------------+----------------+--------- +Annual amount £|781,348| 875,784 | 969,376 | 769,379 +after deducting | | | | +charges of s.| 16 | 2 | 19 | 4 +smelting. | | | | +------------------+-------+------------+----------------+--------- + + +(G.) + +_Table of the Annual Quantity of Copper raised from the Earth in +Different Countries, in Quintals--the Quintal valued at 100 lbs._ + + 1. England 200,000 + 2. Russia 67,000 + 3. Austria, including Bohemia, Gallicia, + Hungary, Transylvania, Styria, + Carinthia, Carniola, Salzburg, and + Moravia 60,000 + 4. Sweden 22,000 + 5. Westphalia, in 1808 17,229 + 6. States of Denmark 8,500 + 7. Bavaria, including the Tyrol 3,000 + 8. France 2,500 + 9. Saxony, in 1808 1,320 + 10. Prussia, as left by the treaty of Tilsit 337 + 11. Spanish European mines 309 + -------- + Total, 382,186 + + +(H.) + +I shall here give the synonoma for this tribe of Indians, which appears +to have been first recognized by the United States as an independent +tribe by Wayne's treaty of 1795,[241] under the name of Chipewa. This +name has been retained in all subsequent treaties with them, not, +however, without some discrepance in the orthography. These variations +are chiefly marked by the introduction of the letter _p_ at the +beginning of the second syllable, or the vowel _y_ annexed to the third; +producing Chip-_pe_-wa, Chip-_pe_-wa_y_, and Chip-e-_way_. The French +missionaries and traders, whose policy it was to discard the names of +the aboriginal tribes from their conversations, bestowed upon this +tribe, at a very early period, the _nom de guerre_ of _Saulteurs_, or +_Sauteurs_, from the Sault or Falls of St. Mary's, which was the ancient +seat of this tribe--a name which is still retained by the Canadians, and +by many of the American traders. Among the early French writers, they +were also sometimes denominated _Outchipouas_. There is as little +uniformity among travellers and geographers. Pinkerton, Darby, Morse, +Carver, Mackenzie, and Herriot, either employ the word according to the +orthography of Wayne's treaty, or with the modifications above noticed. +The name of Chippewyans, employed by Mackenzie, relates to a tribe +residing north and west of the sources of the Mississippi, who speak a +language having no affinity, and are a distinct people. Henry, who was +well versed in the Chippewa language, also conforms to the popular +usage, but observes that the true name, as pronounced by themselves, is +Ojibwa. + + [241] This fact is not stated in full confidence. I cannot refer to + any authorities to prove that they were formally recognized by the + United States before this very recent period. By the French and + British governments they were known soon after the first settlements + at Quebec and Albany (A. D. 1608, 1614), and subsequently treated + with. A band of warriors from Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior, under + the command of Waub Ojeag, or the White Fisher, was present at the + taking of Fort Niagara by Sir W. Johnston in 1759. + +Having taken pains to ascertain and fix the pronunciation of this word, +I have not hesitated to introduce it into my correspondence and official +accounts; but I am aware of my great temerity in so doing. Popular +prejudices, and several of the authorities above cited, stand opposed to +the proposed innovation. The continued use of the word "Chippewa" is +also sanctioned by a name entitled to conclusive respect. "I write the +word in this way," observes the Executive of Michigan, "because I am +apprehensive the orthography is inveterately fixed, and not because I +suppose it is correct." Still, there are reasons for changing it. +Justice to this unfortunate race requires it. Since the popular apathy +to their condition is such that every remembrance of their actual +customs, manners, and traditions will probably perish with them, and +their _name_, ere long, be all that is left, it is at least incumbent +upon us to transmit _that_ to posterity in its true sound--as the +fathers and sachems pronounced it. If, then, there is an acknowledged +error in this respect, shall we hesitate to correct it? + + +IX. + +_Rapid Glances at the Geology of Western New York, west of the Rome +Summit, in 1820._[242] + + [242] At the time these sketches were written, no geological + observations had been made on this field, which has, at subsequent + periods, been so elaborately described; nor had the topic itself + attracted much attention. I landed at New York, in the ship + Arethusa, from New Orleans, in the summer of 1819, and published, + in that city, in the fall of that year, an account of the + lead-bearing rocks of Missouri, and their supporting white + sandstones, which rest, in horizontal deposits, on the primitive + formation of the St. Francis; bringing, at the same time, a rich + collection of the mineralogy of that region, which soon became + known in private cabinets. This became the cause of my employment, + by the United States Government, to visit the alleged copper mines + on Lake Superior, as a member of the expedition to the sources of + the Mississippi. I left Oneida County, in the district remarked on, + on the 10th of April of that year, and reached the banks of the + Niagara River on the 29th of that month. On returning from the + sources of the Mississippi, I entered the same region on the 17th of + October, and reached Oneida on the 21st of the same month. Prior to + my visit to the Great West, I had dwelt some three years--namely, + 1809, '10, '11, '12--in Oneida and Ontario counties. These were the + opportunities enjoyed, up to the period, for acquiring a knowledge of + the geography and geology of the country. Mr. A. Eaton's _Index to + Geology_, published early in 1820, embraces nothing extending to + western New York. + +ROCK FORMATIONS.--1. Assuming the area of the most eastwardly head of +the Onondaga Valley, the Wood Creek, and the Rome Summit, and the valley +of the Niagara, with an indefinite extent laterally, to form the limits +of this inquiry; it is in coincidence with all known facts to say that +it is a secondary region, consisting of the sedimentary and +semi-crystalline strata, the lines of which are perfectly horizontal. +Colored sandstone, generally red, forms the lowest observed stratum. + +Wherever streams have worn deep channels, they either disclose this rock +or its adjuncts, the grits, or silicious sinter. It is apparent in the +chasm at Niagara Falls, about half a mile below the cataract. It is +often seen on the surface of the country, or buried slightly beneath the +soil. In color, hardness, and other characters, there is a manifest +variety. But, considered as a "formation," no doubt can exist of its +unity. Its thickness can only be conjectured, as no labor has, so far as +we know, penetrated through it. + +Judging from observations made in Cattaraugus County, in 1818, the coal +measures have been completely swept from this area. + +2. Next in point of altitude, is the series of dark, carbonaceous, +shelly slate rock. The thickness of this formation, as indicated at +Niagara, cannot be less than ninety feet. It is also often a +surface-rock in the district, forming portions of the banks of lakes, +streams, &c. It is characterized by organic remains of nascent species. +Portions of it also disclose rounded masses of pre-existing rocks. + +3. Last in the order of superposition, is the secondary limestone +formation. It is, most commonly, of a dark, sedimentary aspect. It is +not invariably so, but portions of it have a shining, semi-crystalline +fracture. Shades of color also vary considerably, but it never, in the +scale of colors, exceeds a whitish-gray. Viewed at different localities, +the mass is either compact, fetid, shelly, or silicious. Much of it +produces good quicklime. It is often rendered "bastard," as the phrase +is, by argillaceous and earthy impurities. Organic impressions, and +remains of sea shells and coarse corals are frequent. Encrinites give +some portions of it the appearance of eyed or dotted secondary marble. +The occurrence of a hard variety of hornstone, which is not flint, is +apparently confined to the compact, fetid variety. This formation, like +the two preceding, may be found to consist of separate strata. +Localities, joining, overlaying, substrata, mineral contents, organic +species, &c., require observation. The following notices are added. + +GEOLOGICAL CHANGES.--The evidences which are furnished of ancient +submersion, which has "changed and overturned" vast portions of the +solid land, are neither few nor equivocal. They are seen as well in the +rock strata as the alluvial soils. The most elevated hills and the +lowest valleys are equally productive of the evidences of extensive +changes. The whole aspect of the country seems to attest to the ancient +dominion of water. But the most striking proof of its agency is, +perhaps, found in the sea-shells, polypi, and crustacea, which are +preserved, in their outlines, in solid strata. Some of these are most +vivid in their shapes and ray-like markings, particularly the univalve +shells. + +A subsequent change, in the surface of the country, is indicated by the +marks of attrition and watery action upon the faces of these rocks, in +situations greatly elevated above the present water-levels. This action +must, consequently, be referred to a period when extensive submersions, +in the nature of lakes or semi-seas, existed; for there is no power in +present lakes and streams, however swelled and reinforced by rains or +melting snows, to reach even a moiety of the elevation of these ancient +water-marks. It is to the era of these last submersions that we are +encouraged, by evidences, to look, as the disturbing cause which has +buried trees, leaves, and bones in alluvial soils. + +_Action of Water._--In examining some portions of the flat lands of +Ontario County, such as the township of Phelps, there are strata of a +fine sedimentary soil, such as might be expected to result from the +settlings of water not greatly agitated. The bottoms of mill-ponds +afford an analogous species of soil. In these level districts, there are +also not unfrequently observed fields of bare flat rock, of the +limestone species, which is checkered in its surface, conveying the idea +of their having formed a flooring to some former lake. An appearance of +this kind may be seen a few hundred yards from the meeting-house in +Phelps. The rock, in this instance, is a carbonate of lime, and affords +organic remains. + +The Oak Openings, in Erie County, are a kind of natural meadows or +prairies. Many suppose them to have been ancient clearings; but of this +the Indians have no tradition, and the evidences of such a settlement +are by no means satisfactory. In many places, on these extensive +openings, there are naked and barren layers of calcareous rock, whose +surface exhibits appearances analogous to those in Ontario. The +limestone is, however, of a darker color, and contains numerous imbedded +nodules of hornstone, and it emits a fetid odor on breaking. + +In crossing the elevated calcareous highlands, between Danville and +Arkport, in Steuben County, we perceive in the bluff rocks which bound +the valley of the Conestoga River, at an elevation of perhaps two +hundred feet above its bed, horizontal water-marks, deeply impressed +upon the face of the rocks, as if the waters had formerly stood at that +level; and it is impossible to resist the conviction, in travelling over +this rugged district of country, that it has not been totally submerged +by waters, which have been suddenly drawn off, but by gradual or +periodical exhaustions, standing for many ages at different levels. + +SLATE ROCKS.--These were, not inaptly, denominated "brittle slate," by +Dr. Mitchell, in 1809. Brittleness is their pervading character; and it +is owing to this quality, in a formation of great thickness, that the +action of the water at Niagara Falls is of so very striking a character. +There is no portion of the Niagara slate solid enough to be used for +building stone. It is uniformly shelly, and exhibits, even in hand +specimens, its reproduced character.[243] Those portions of the general +formation which are solid constitute silicious slate. A locality of this +variety may be seen at the Halfway House, eight miles east of +Canandaigua. + + [243] Appropriately pronounced a "secondary graywacke slate," by Mr. + Eaton. + +SENECA LAKE.--This clear and picturesque lake has its bed in the +secondary formations, and may be referred to as exhibiting localities of +them. Its upper parts afford the compact limestone in quadrangular +blocks. Large portions of its margin consist of the brittle carbonaceous +slate. The shores, from the vicinity of Rose's Farm to Appletown, are +little else but a continuous bank of the slate. On the opposite coast, +it is also visible at various localities below the Crooked Lake inlet. +Cashong Creek may be particularly referred to. A short ascent of its +valley brings the spectator into a scene where the walled masses of +slaty rock assume a character of grandeur. Among the recent portions +which have been thrown into the valley, may be seen masses having large +species of the stem-like organic remains, which indicate its newness as +a formation. Here are also disclosed orbicular masses, and pebbles of +other rocks, imbedded in the slate. These prove it to be--what its +texture would, in other places, indicate--a secondary slate. + +The order of position on the banks of this lake is the same as at +Niagara; but the sandstone is not apparent above the water line. Its +existence, in the bed of the lake, may be satisfactorily inferred, from +the masses of yellow coarse sand which are driven up at the foot of the +lake, and particularly around its outlet. When the winds prevail, the +water is driven violently against this part of the shore. As it is an +alluvial flat, they soon surmount the stated margin, and produce a +partial inundation. On their recession, wreathes of sand remain. + +DILUVIAL ELEVATIONS.--Bounding the alluvial plain of the Seneca outlet +westward, there is a series of remarkable wave-like ridges, whose +direction is parallel to that of the lake. On the declivity-stop of the +first of these ridges, stands the village of Geneva, the buildings of +which are thus displayed in an amphitheatric manner above the clear +expanse of the lake. The substratum of these ridges is an argillaceous, +compact soil of the eldest formation. Some parts of it are a stiff clay, +and yield septaria; but there is no considerable portion of it, which +has been examined, wholly destitute of primitive boulders and pebbles. +Little doubt can remain but that it is the result of the broken-down +slaty rock mixed with the extraneous and far-fetched primitive masses. +They are conclusive of its diluvial character. I have attentively +examined this formation, in the section of it exposed on the shores of +the lake between the village of Geneva and Two-mile Point. All its +solid, stony contents are piled along the margin of the lake, the soil +being completely washed away. Granite, quartz, and trap pebble-stones +and boulders, are here promiscuously strewn with recent debris. Over the +argillaceous deposit is spread a mantle of newer soil, of unequal depth +and character, which forms, exclusively, the theatre of farming and +horticultural labors. + +WHITE SPRINGS.--On the declivity of one of these parallel ridges, at the +distance of two miles from the lake, is found an extensive bed of white +marl. This deposit, which is on the estate of the late Judge Nicholas, +covers many acres, and yields so copious a spring of pure water that it +is sufficient, at the distance of about three hundred yards from its +issue, to turn a gristmill. There are to be found in this bed of marl +several species of helix and voluta. The marl is generally covered with +an alluvial deposit of two feet in depth. The depth of the marl itself +is unexplored. Is not this marl the result of decomposed sea shells? + +BEDS OF QUARTZOSE SAND.--In certain parts of the Seneca Valley are found +limited deposits of a white quartzose sand, in a state of comparative +purity. This substance is capable of being readily vitrified by the +addition of alkaline fluxes, and is thus converted into glass. Its +existence, as a local deposit, beneath separate strata of alluvial soil, +supporting a growth of trees and shrubs, is such as to render it +probable that the present stream, in its exhausted state, could have had +no agency in producing these deposits. If we are compelled to look to a +former condition of the waters passing off through this valley, as +affording the requisite power of deposit, we are then carried back to an +era in the geology of the country which we must refer to, to account for +by far the greater number of changes in all its recent soils. Indeed, +wherever we examine these soils, out of the range comprehended between +high- and low-water mark, on any existing lake or stream, there will be +found occasion to resort to the agency of more general and anterior +submersions. A few localities may be appealed to. + +FOSSIL WOOD.--In digging a well in the Genesee Valley, one mile east of +the river (at Hosmer's), part of the trunk of a tree, of mature growth, +was found at the depth of forty-one feet below the surface. The soil was +a loose sand mixed with gravel. The position is more elevated than the +flats, so called. + +ANTLERS.--A large pair of elk's horns were discovered in an excavation +made for the foundation of a mill at Clyde, in Seneca County. They were +imbedded in alluvial soil, ten feet below the surface. This surface had +been cleared of elm and other forest trees of mature growth. Near the +same place, logs of wood were found at the depth of fourteen feet. These +discoveries were made in the valley of Clyde River, which is formed by +the junction of the Canandaigua Outlet with Mud Creek. + +FROGS ENCLOSED IN THE GEOLOGICAL COLUMN.--At Carthage, on the Genesee, +twelve or fifteen frogs were found in excavating a layer of compact clay +marl, about nine feet below the surface. The position is several hundred +feet above the bed of the Genesee River, to which elevation no one, +after viewing the spot, will deem it probable its waters could have +reached, this side of the diluvian era. + +A frog was dug out of the solid rock, at Lockport, Niagara County, by +the workmen engaged in excavating the canal. It was enveloped by the +limestone which abounds in cavities filled with crystals of strontian +and dog-tooth spar. It came to life for a few moments, and then expired. +There was no aperture by which it could possibly communicate with the +atmospheric air. The cavity was only large enough to retain it, without +allowing room for motion. + +The inclosure of animals of the inferior classes in the sedimentary +strata, and even in the most solid substance of rock, is a fact which +has been frequently noticed, without, however, any very satisfactory +theory having been given of the process, at least to common +apprehension. _Vide_ Addenda, for some further notices of this kind. + +FOSSIL VEGETATION.--A well was dug in the lower part of the village of +Geneva, in 1820, which disclosed, at the depth of thirteen feet, the +branches and buds of a cedar-tree. They were found lying across the +excavation, and in the sides of it; and were in excellent preservation. +No one could conjecture in what age they had been buried. But this +discovery would seem to establish the position that the catastrophe +occurred _in the spring_. + +MADREPORE.--A madrepore, measuring eight inches in diameter, was found +in the upland soil of Caledonia, Genesee County. Smaller specimens of +the same species occur in that township. Madrepores of a large size have +also been found imbedded in the soil, or lying on the surface, in +various places in Cattaraugus and Alleghany counties. They are locally +denominated petrified wasps' nests. The lands containing these loose +fossil remains are contiguous to, or based on, secondary rocks at +considerable elevations. + +BOULDERS AND PRIMITIVE GRAVEL.--But the most abundant evidences of +diluvial action are furnished by the masses of foreign crystalline rocks +which are scattered, in blocks of various sizes, on the surface of the +soil, or imbedded at all depths within it. Primitive rocks are foreign +to the district, and these masses could not, therefore, have resulted +from local disintegration. They must have been transported from a +distance. They required not only an adequate cause for their removal, +but one commensurate with the effects. Such a cause Cuvier supposes, in +discussing the general question, may have existed in eruptions, or in +the action of oceanic masses of water, operating at an ancient period. + +The latter opinion appears to be generally adopted. Dr. Mitchell, in +reference to northwestern boulders, attributes their distribution over +secondary regions to the draining of interior seas or lakes. Mr. Hayden, +in his _Geological Essays_, refers them to the action of oceanic +currents setting "from north and east to south and west." + +SUBORDINATE AND EQUIVALENT STRATA.--These constitute the most intricate +subjects of reference. They are either adjuncts or residuary deposits of +leading formations. But their order, as accompanying series, must +sometimes be sought for by a previous determination of the formations +themselves. Could we certainly know, for instance, that the sandstone of +Western New York is or is not the true coal-sandstone, or the limestone +is or is not the carboniferous limestone, it would at once direct to +positive eras, and serve to impart confidence in the prediction of +unknown deposits of an important character. But, in order to fix the +formations, it is often the safest mode of procedure to employ the +subordinate and local deposits as evidences of the character of the +formations embracing them. + +GYPSUM.--A stratum of gypsum of the plaster of Paris kind--that is, +consisting of an admixture of the carbonate with the sulphate of +lime--occurs on the banks of the Canandaigua outlet. It has been chiefly +explored in the township of Phelps, Ontario. In visiting the principal +bed (1820), I found the following order of deposits composing the banks +of the outlet:-- + +1. Alluvial soil of a dark, arenaceous, and mellow character, having +small stones of the primitive kind sparingly interspersed, two and a +half to three feet. Cultivated in improved farms. + +2. Shelly limestone, of an earthy, dull-gray color and loose texture, in +layers, three feet. + +3. Limestone of a more firm character, but still shelly, or rather +slaty, fissile, and easily quarried, six feet. This stratum contains +iron pyrites in a decomposed state. Also, nodular or kidney-shaped +masses of what the quarrymen call _plaster-eggs_--apparently snowy +gypsum. + +4. Plaster of Paris, ten feet. This stratum yields granular, earthy, +fibrous, and foliated gypsum. It is the first two varieties which are +quarried. In some places, the mass is firm enough to admit of blasting. +In others, it is loose and veiny, and is readily broken up with iron +bars and sledges. Portions of it appear to consist of a shelly limestone +identical with No. 2. They are rejected in quarrying. + +5. Limestone similar to No. 3, four feet. + +At this depth it is covered by the waters of the outlet. How deep it +extends is uncertain. The rapids at the village of Vienna are caused by +shelving strata of this limestone. + +There is a suite character in these strata which appears to constitute +them a single deposit. The plaster-bed at Canasaraga exists in a ledge +more elevated in reference to the local stream, and presents a broader +section of the limestone. The shades of difference which are observable +in its color and texture, do not appear to indicate a difference of +geological era. Nor do appearances denote, for the calcareous formation +which embraces these beds, much antiquity in the scale of secondary +rocks. + +SALIFEROUS RED CLAY-MARL.--Examinations, at various points, render it a +probable supposition that the red clay-marl of western New York is the +equivalent for the new red sandstone, in positions where the latter +is--as it often is--wanting. It is extensively deposited in the upland +soils, in the range of the salt rock and gypsum counties, from the +summit grounds of Oneida County west. It may be seen in various stages +of the decomposition. I have more attentively examined it on the upper +parts of the Scanado[244] and Oneida creeks. Large areas of it exist in +Westmoreland, Verona, and Vernon townships, and bordering the valley +grounds of the Oneida reservation, and the northerly portions of +Sullivan County. The existence of salt water might, apparently, be +searched for with as much probability of success, in the district thus +indicated, as at more westerly points. + + [244] Usually written Skenanodoah, but pronounced as above. + +COAL-FORMATION.--With a strong predisposition to regard our leading +sandstone and limestone surface-formations as members of the +"independent" or true coal-formation, inquiry has led me to relinquish +the impression that they will, to any great degree, be found to yield +this mineral. If the sandstone is--as facts indicate it to be--the new +red or saliferous sandstone, it may be expected to yield thin seams of +coal, in distant places, but no deposit of this mineral which will +reward exploration in this or its super-incumbent series of rocks, the +slates, limestones, &c. It will result, that the coal-measures, properly +so denominated, are a prior deposit in the order of series; and, should +they hereafter be found, such a discovery must take place above the +range of the sandstone, which is the basis rock at Niagara and Genesee +Falls. + +Having premised the character of the sandstone, all the series occupying +a position above it must derive their character, as secondary deposits, +from this. The limestone cannot, therefore, be a part of the +carboniferous or "medial." The slates, as shown at Cashong, are +fragmentary, and rather nearer slaty grauwacks. The arenaceous and +calcareous upper deposits assume nearly the position of the oolitic +series, and, in fact, ought, in some localities, to be regarded as +equivalents. + +WESTERN COAL-MINES.--Much of the data employed in these inquiries is the +result of previous examinations of the great coal deposits in the Ohio +Valley, and other parts of the western country. Here we have the +coal-sandstone and the slate clay, with slate, &c., alternating with the +coal-measures. Such is the order of deposits at the junction of the +Alleghany and Monongahela, where the formation is well developed, and +where there exists, too, in the elevated valley hills, several +repetitions of the series. The zechstone, or compact limestone, which is +a pervading rock in the Mississippi Valley, occupies a position next +above the great Mississippi sandstone.[245] It may always be +distinguished from the shelly, entrochal limestone of the Genesee,[246] +by the absence of gypsum and of the fetid odor emitted on fracture. + + [245] This formation cannot be called "red sandstone," from its being + generally white or gray, but appears to occupy the position of the + "horizontal red sandstone" among European rocks. + + [246] The cornutiferous lime-rock of Mr. Eaton. + +ALLEGHANY VALLEY.--A question of interest, in connection with the extent +of the Ohio Valley coal-formation, arises from the attempt to fix the +point to which this formation ascends the Alleghany Valley--being the +direct avenue into Western New York. I have examined this valley in its +entire length between Pittsburg and Olean, in Cattaraugus County, and +have not been able to observe that there are any evidences of its +termination below the latter point. The general order and parallelism +of strata remain the same. The coal stratum is apparently present. The +qualities of the coal at Armstrong, and at various points below French +Creek--the first primary fork of the river--are not distinguishable from +the products of the Pittsburg galleries. Less search has been made above +that point, but wherever the hills have been penetrated, they have--as +at Brokenstraw--produced the bituminous coal. Above the Conawango +Valley, which brings in the redundant waters of Chatauque Lake, the +Alleghany discloses frequent rapids. The effect of parallelism upon the +strata is to sink the coal-measures deeper as they ascend the Alleghany; +and this cause may, in connection with the unexplored character of the +country, be referred to in accounting for the absence of coal along this +part of the line. The reappearance of traces of this mineral at Potato +Creek, forty miles above Olean, is a proof, however, that the +coal-formation extends to that point. This locality is a few miles +within the limits of Pennsylvania. It occurs in a valley. + +COAL IN WESTERN NEW YORK.--The coal-bed above Olean is south of the +summit of the Genesee, and not remote from its primary source. The +expectation may be indulged that the western coal-formation embraces +portions of Cattaraugus and Alleghany or Steuben counties. The noted +spring of naphtha, called Seneca Oil, is on Oil Creek in this county. As +this substance, in the class of bitumens, is nearly allied to the coal +series, it may be deemed favorable to the existence of the formation in +the substrata.[247] Fragments of carbonized wood are frequently found in +the large tracts of marine sand,[248] as well as in some of the mixed +alluvions of these counties; and it needs but an examination, as cursory +as it has fallen to my lot to make, of this portion of the country, to +render it one of high geological interest, and to denote that the +coal-measures probably extend into some portions of Western New +York.[249] + + [247] These tracts bear a valuable growth of pines, which constitute + the source of a profitable lumber trade with the Ohio Valley. + + [248] This mineral oil also occurs in several of the lower tributaries + of the Alleghany River, within the coal district. + + [249] A discovery of coal has been announced in Alleghany County, New + York, as these sheets are going through the press, more than thirty + years after these lines were penned. + + +ADDENDA. + +_Animals inclosed in Rock, &c._ + +TOADS.--In 1770, a toad was brought to Mr. Grignon inclosed in two +hollow shells of stone; but, on examining it nicely, Mr. G. discovered +that the cavity bore the impression of a shell-fish, and, of +consequence, he concluded it to be apocryphal. + +In 1771, another instance occurred, and was the subject of a curious +memoir read by Mr. Guettard to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. +It was thus related by that famous naturalist:-- + +In pulling down a wall, which was known to have existed upwards of a +hundred years, a toad was found without the smallest aperture being +discoverable by which it could have entered. Upon inspecting the animal, +it was apparent that it had been dead but a very little time; and in +this state it was presented to the Academy, which induced Mr. Guettard +to make repeated inquiries into the subject, the particulars of which +will be read with pleasure in the excellent memoir we have just cited. + +WORMS.--Two living worms were found, in Spain, in the middle of a block +of marble which a sculptor was carving into a lion, of the natural +color, for the royal family. These worms occupied two small cavities to +which there was no inlet that could possibly admit the air. They +subsisted, probably, on the substance of the marble, as they were the +same color. This fact is verified by Captain Ulloa, a famous Spaniard, +who accompanied the French academicians in their voyage to Peru to +ascertain the figure of the earth. He asserts that he saw these two +worms. + +ADDER.--We read in the _Affiches de Provence_, 17 June, 1772, that an +adder was found alive in the centre of a block of marble thirty feet in +diameter. It was folded nine times round, in a spiral line. It was +incapable of supporting the air, and died a few minutes after. Upon +examining the stone, not the smallest trace was to be found by which it +could have glided in or received air. + +CRAWFISH.--Misson, in his _Travels through Italy_, mentions a crawfish +that was found alive in the middle of a marble in the environs of +Tivoli. + +FROGS.--M. Peyssonel, king's physician at Guadaloupe, having ordered a +pit to be dug in the back part of his house, live frogs were found by +the workmen in beds of petrifaction. M. P., suspecting some deceit, +descended into the pit, dug the bed of the rock and petrifactions, and +drew out himself green frogs, which were alive, and perfectly similar to +what we see every day. + +We are informed by the _European Magazine_, February 21, 1771, that M. +Herissan inclosed three live toads in so many cases of plaster, and shut +them up in a deal box, which he also covered with thick plaster. On the +6th of April, 1774, having taken away the plaster, he opened the box, +and found the cases whole and two of the toads alive. The one that died +was larger than the others, and had been more compressed in its case. A +careful examination of this experiment convinced those who had witnessed +it, that the animals were so inclosed that they could have no possible +communication with the external air, and that they must have existed +during this lapse of time without the smallest nourishment. + +The Academy prevailed upon M. Herissan to repeat the experiment. He +inclosed again the two surviving toads, and placed the box in the hands +of the Secretary, that the Society might open it whenever they should +think proper. But this celebrated naturalist was too strongly interested +in the subject to rest satisfied with a single experiment; he made, +therefore, the two following:-- + +1. He placed, 15 April, 1771, two live toads in a basin of plaster, +which he covered with a glass case that he might observe them +frequently. On the 9th of the following month, he presented the +apparatus to the Academy. One of the toads was still living; the other +had died the preceding night. + +2. The same day, April 15, he inclosed another toad in a glass bottle, +which he buried in sand, that it might have no communication with the +external air. This animal, which he presented to the Academy at the same +time, was perfectly well, and even croaked whenever the bottle was shook +in which he was confined. It is to be lamented that the death of M. +Herissan put a stop to these experiments. + +We beg leave to observe upon this subject, that the power which these +animals appear to possess of supporting abstinence for so long a time, +may depend upon a very slow digestion, and, perhaps, from the singular +nourishment which they derive from themselves. M. Grignon observes that +this animal sheds its skin several times in the course of a year, and +that it always swallows it. He has known, he says, a large toad shed its +skin six times in one winter. In short, those which, from the facts we +have related, may be supposed to have existed many centuries without +nourishment, have been in a total inaction, in a suspension of life, or +a temperature that has admitted of no dissolution; so that it was not +necessary to repair any loss, the humidity of the surrounding matter +preserving that of the animal, who wanted only the component parts not +to be dried up, to preserve it from destruction. + +The results of modern chemistry and philosophy have proved the number of +elementary substances to be far greater than was admitted in the +preceding century. And this discovery is progressive, and will probably +go on a long time; after which, it is not improbable a new race of +chemical and philosophical observers will spring up, who will be able to +decompose many substances we now consider elementary, and thus again +reduce the number of elements of which all external matter is composed. +It would not be wonderful if posterity should reduce the number of +elements even as low as the ancients had them. Such a result would throw +new light on the mysterious and intricate connection which seems to +exist between animal, vegetable, and mineral matter. We should then, +perhaps, have less cause to wonder that toads, &c., are capable of +supporting life in stone, that birds should exist in solid blocks of +wood, &c. + +But toads are not the only animals which are capable of living for a +considerable length of time without nourishment and communication with +the external air. The instances of the oysters and dactyles, mentioned +at the beginning of this article, may be advanced as a proof of it. But +there are other examples.--_European Magazine_, March, 1791. + +A beetle, of the species called capricorn, was found in a piece of wood +in the hold of a ship at Plymouth. The wood had no external mark of any +aperture.--_European Magazine_. + +A bug eat itself out of a cherry table at Williamstown, Mass. See an +account of this phenomenon, by Professor Dewey, in the _Lit. and Philos. +Repertory_. + +These phenomena remind us of others of a similar nature and equally +certain. + +In a trunk of an elm, about the size of a man's body, three or four feet +above the root, and precisely in the centre, was found, in 1719, a live +toad, of a moderate size, thin, and which occupied but a very small +space. As soon as the wood was cut, it came out and slipped away very +alertly. No tree could be more sound. No place could be discovered +through which it was possible for the animal to have penetrated, which +led the recorder of the fact to suppose that the spawn from which it +originated must, from some unaccountable accident, have been in the tree +from the very moment of its first vegetation. The toad had lived in the +tree without air, and, what is still more surprising, had subsisted on +the substance of the wood, and had grown in proportion as the tree had +grown. This fact was attested by M. Hebert, Ancient Professor of +Philosophy at Caen. + +In 1731, M. Leigne wrote to the Academy of Sciences at Paris an account +of a phenomenon exactly similar to the preceding one, except that the +tree was larger, and was an oak instead of an elm, which makes the +instance the more surprising. From the size of the oak, M. Leigne judged +that the toad must have existed in it without air or any external +nourishment, for the space of eighty or a hundred years. + +We shall cite a third instance, related in a letter the 5th Feb. 1780, +written from the neighborhood of Saint Mexent, of which the following is +a copy. + +"A few days ago, I ordered an oak tree of a tolerable size to be cut +down, and converted into a beam that was wanting for a building I was +then constructing. Having separated the head from the trunk, three men +were employed in squaring it to the proper size. About four inches were +to be cut away on each side. I was present during the transaction. +Conceive what was their astonishment when I saw them throw aside their +tools, start back from the tree, and fix their eyes on the same point +with a kind of amazement and terror. I instantly approached, and looked +at that part of the tree which had fixed their attention. My surprise +equalled theirs, on seeing a toad, about the size of a large pullet's +egg, incrusted, in a manner, in the tree, at the distance of four inches +from the diameter and fifteen from the root. It was cut and mangled by +the axe, but still moved. I drew it with difficulty from its abode, or +rather prison, which it filled so completely that it seemed to have been +compressed. I placed it on the grass; it appeared old, thin, +languishing, decrepit. We afterwards examined the tree with the nicest +care, to discover how it had glided in; but the tree was perfectly whole +and sound."--_European Magazine._ + +BAT.--A woodman engaged in splitting timber for rail-posts in the woods +close by the lake in Haming (a seat of Mr. Pringle's in Selkirkshire), +lately discovered, in the centre of a large wild cherry tree, a living +bat, of a bright scarlet color, which he foolishly suffered to escape, +from fear, being fully persuaded it was (with the characteristic +superstition of the inhabitants of that part of the country) a "being +not of this world." The tree presented a small cavity in the centre, +where the bat was inclosed, but is perfectly sound and solid on each +side.--_N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository_, taken from the +_London Semi-Monthly Magazine_. + +SKULL IN WOOD.--A tenant of the Rev. J. Cattle, of Warwick, lately +presented to him a part of the solid butt of an oak tree, containing +within it the skull of some animal (unknown). It was in the part of the +tree nine feet above the ground, and was perfectly inclosed in solid +timber.--_N. Y. Lit. Journ. and Belles-Lettres Repository_, from +_European Magazine_. + + +X. + +_A Memoir on the Geological Position of a Fossil-Tree in the Series of +the Secondary Rocks of the Illinois._ + +The spirit of inquiry which has been excited in this country in regard +to objects of natural history, while it has enlarged the boundaries of +our knowledge of existing species, has directed some of its more +valuable researches to those organized forms which have perished and +become embalmed in the shape of petrifactions, in the body of solid +rocks. A petrified tree of this kind has recently been discovered in the +secondary[250] rocks at the source of the Illinois River. Having +recently visited this evidence of former changes in the flora of the +West, I embrace the occasion, while my recollections are fresh, to give +an account of it. + + [250] This term is superseded, in geological discussions of the + present day, by the term _silurian_, which embraces all strata of the + era between the _palæozoic_ and _tertiary_ formations. + +The tract of country separating the southern shores of Lake Michigan +from the Illinois River, is a plat of table-land composed of compact +limestone, based on floetz or horizontal sandstone. This formation +embraces the contiguous parts of Illinois, and spreads through Indiana, +Ohio, and the Peninsula of Michigan. It is overspread with a deposit of +the drift era, covered with a stratum of alluvial soil, presenting a +pleasing surface of prairies, forests, and streams. These features may +be considered as peculiarly characteristic of the junction of the Rivers +Kankakee and Des Plaines, which constitute the Illinois River. This +junction is effected about forty miles south of Chicago. + +The fossil in question occurs about forty rods above the junction of the +Kankakee. The sandstone embracing it is deposited in perfectly +horizontal layers, of a gray color and close grain. It lies in the bed +of the Des Plaines. The action of this stream has laid bare the trunk of +the tree to the extent of fifty-one feet six inches. The part at the +point where it is overlaid in the western bank is two feet six inches in +diameter. Its mineralization is complete. The trunk is simple, straight, +scabrous, without branches, and has the usual taper observed in the +living specimen. It lies nearly at right angles to the course of the +river, pointing towards the southeast, and extends about half the width +of the stream. Notwithstanding the continual abrasion to which it is +exposed by the volume of passing water, it has suffered little apparent +diminution, and is still firmly imbedded in the rock, with the exception +of two or three places where portions of it have been disengaged and +carried away; but no portion of what remains is elevated more than a few +inches above the surface of the rock. It is owing, however, to those +partial disturbances that we are enabled to perceive the columnar form +of the trunk, its cortical layers, the bark by which it is enveloped, +and the peculiar cross fracture, which unite to render the evidence of +its ligneous origin so striking and complete. From these characters and +appearances, little doubt can remain that it is referable to the species +juglans nigra, a tree very common to the forest of the Illinois, as +well as to most other parts of the immense region drained by the waters +of the Mississippi. The woody structure is most obvious in the outer +rind of the trunk, extending to a depth of two or three inches, and +these appearances become less evident as we approximate the heart. +Indeed, the traces of organic structure in its interior, particularly +when viewed in the hand specimen, are almost totally obliterated and +exchanged, the vegetable matter being replaced by a mixed substance, +analogous, in its external character, to some of the silicated and +impure calcareous carbonates of the region. Like those carbonates, it is +of a brownish-gray color and compact texture, effervesces slightly in +the nitric and muriatic acids, yields a white streak under the knife, +and presents solitary points, or facets, of crystals resembling calc +spar. All parts of the tree are penetrated by pyrites of iron of a brass +yellow color, disseminated through the most solid and stony parts of the +interior, filling interstices in the outer rind, or investing its +capillary pores. There are also the appearances of rents or seams +between the fibres of the wood, caused by its own shrinkage, which are +now filled with a carbonate of lime, of a white color and crystallized. + +From an effect analogous to carbonization, the exterior rind and bark of +the tree have acquired a blackish-hue, while the inclosing rock is of a +light-gray color, characters which are calculated to arrest attention. + +There is reason to conclude that the subject under consideration is the +joint result, partly of the infiltration of mineral matter into its +pores and crevices, prior to inclosure in the rock, and partly to the +chemical action educed by the great catastrophe by which it was +translated from its parent forest, and suddenly enveloped in a bed of +solidifying sand. + +At the time of my visit (August 13, 1821), the depth of water upon the +floetz rocks forming the bed of the River Des Plaines, would vary from +one to two feet; but it was at a season when these higher tributaries, +and the Illinois itself, are generally at their lowest stage. Like most +of the confluent rivers of the Mississippi and their tributaries, the +Des Plaines is subject to great fluctuations, and during its periodical +floods may be estimated to carry a depth of eight or ten feet of water +to the junction of the Kankakee. At those periods, the water is also +rendered turbid by the quantity of alluvial matter it carries down, and +a search for this organic fossil must prove unsuccessful. But during the +prevalence of the summer droughts, in an atmosphere of little humidity, +when the waters are drained to the lowest point of depression, and +acquire the greatest degree of transparency, it forms a very conspicuous +trait in the geology of the stream, and no person, seeking the spot, can +fail to be directed to it. + +The sand-rock containing this petrifaction is found in a horizontal +position, differing only with respect to hardness and color. The remains +of fossil organized bodies in this stratum are not abundant, or have not +been successfully sought. It is probable that future observations will +prove that its organic conservata are chiefly referable to the vegetable +kingdom. It is certain, that this inference is justified by the facts +which are before me, and particularly by the characteristic appearances +of the strata in the bed of the River Des Plaines, where the imbedded +walnut is the representative of the ancient flora. At a short distance +above, where the bed of the Des Plaines approaches nearer the summit +level, limestone ensues, and continues from that point northward to the +shores of Lake Michigan. In the vicinity of Chicago, where this +limestone is quarried for economical purposes, it is characterized by +the fossil remains of molluscous species. + +Lake Erie lies at an elevation of five hundred and sixty-five feet above +the Atlantic.[251] + + [251] Public Documents relating to the New York Canals, with an + Introduction, &c., by Colonel Haines. + +There exists a water communication between the head of Lake Michigan, at +Chicago, and the River Des Plaines, during the periodical rises of the +latter, but its summer level is about seven feet lower, at the +termination of the Chicago portage, than the surface of the lake. From +this point to its junction with the Kankakee, a computed distance of +fifty miles, the bed of the Des Plaines may be considered as having a +mean southern depression of ten inches per mile, so that the floetz +rocks at its mouth, lying on a level of forty-eight feet eight inches +below the surface of Lake Michigan, have an altitude which cannot vary +far from five hundred and fifty feet above the Atlantic. There are no +mountains for a vast distance either east or west of this stream. It is +a country of plains, in which are occasionally to be seen alluvial +hills of moderate elevation; but the most striking inequalities of +surface proceed from the streams which have worn their deep-seated +channels through it; and an oceanic overflow capable of covering the +country, and producing these strata by deposition, would also submerge +all the immense tracts of secondary and alluvial country between the +Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, converting into an arm of the sea the +great valley of the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico north to the +Canadian Lakes. We find in the alluvial soil along the Illinois and Des +Plaines blocks of granite, hornblende, and gneiss, of the drift stratum, +exhibiting the same appearances of attrition, and of having been +transported from their parent beds, which characterize the secondary +tablelands along the margin of the great American lakes, the prairies of +Illinois, and the western parts of New York. + +There is nothing, perhaps, in the progress of modern science, which has +tended to facilitate geological research so much as the study and +investigation of fossil organic remains. They teach, with unerring +lights, how extensively the ancient flora and fauna of this continent +have been prostrated, leaving their exact impressions, in all their +minuteness, in the newly-formed stratifications. That these impressions, +fresh and vivid as we find them, should mark the eras of depositions and +crystallization of rocks from the suspension of their elements in water, +is the observation of Werner, and it is to him we owe the elements of +the Neptunian hypothesis. His general recognition of the epochs of the +primitive, transition, and secondary rocks, appears too probable not to +commend itself to adoption with regard to all strata which can be +conceived to be the products of watery menstrua. + +But it remained for Werner, who was the first to perceive an order in +strata, also to point out the important application of fossil organic +bodies in elucidating their eras, and the natural order of their +superposition. + +To adopt the words of Dr. Thomas Cooper:-- + +"There appears to be a series of strata, or, as Werner calls them, +formations, that may be considered as surrounding the nucleus of the +earth. The first formed, or lowest series, always preserve the same +situation to each other, except where occasional eruptions, or +circumstances not of a general nature, make a variety in their +situations. These strata are not only the deepest, but they are also the +highest that are observable in the crust of the earth; forming the tops +of the highest mountains. They are characterized by an appearance of +crystallization, and by containing no remains of organic matter, animal +or vegetable. The strata or formations that in general constitute this +first, deepest, highest, and crystallized series, are granite, gneiss, +mica-slate, clay-slate, primitive greenstone, granular limestone, +serpentine, porphyry, and sienite. These formations are so generally +found, and in the same situations as incumbent upon or subtending each +other relatively, that they may be considered as universal. Their +crystallized appearance shows that their particles have either been +dissolved or very finely suspended in water, so that the attraction of +crystallization has been free to operate; that this water has been deep, +so that the lowermost parts of it have not been much agitated during the +crystallization, which would otherwise have been more confused than it +is; and, indeed, the oldest formations are the best crystallized. A part +of the water covering the nucleus must have been taken up, as water of +crystallization, in the primitive formations. When these were deposited, +there were no vegetables formed; of course, no animals; nay, even the +sea was unpeopled, for there is no trace of any organic remains in these +strata. Even the belemnites, the asteriæ, the echini, the entrochi, the +most simple forms of oceanic animal life, do not occur until the +transition strata appear. Hence the propriety of denominating these +formations _primitive_. + +"By processes of nature, besides the consumption of water by the new +crystallized masses, to us unknown, the waters appear to have +diminished. The highest parts of the primitive formations became the +shores to the water superincumbent on their bases and middle regions; +the simplest forms of oceanic animals came into existence; the mosses +and lichens of high latitude would generally occupy the surface of the +primitive strata, gradually decomposed by the alternate action of air +and water after many ages. During this period, while the strata were in +a state of _transition_ from the chaotic to the habitable state, other +deposits would gradually be made from the waters, now decreased in +quantity, and take their place below the summits of the primitive +range. Those summits being exposed to the action of the atmosphere, of +rains, of frost probably, and to the action also of the waters with +their contents still incumbent on the earliest strata, would furnish +masses and particles washed away, which would mingle with the deposits +of the transition series. This series, therefore, will exhibit +appearances of mechanical and chemical intermixture of earths and +stones, such as are found in the silicious porphyries, the graywackes, +the silicious and argillaceous hornblende rocks, the elder red +sandstone, &c. During the period when these transition formations were +deposited, there would be no land animals, for there would be no +vegetables for them to feed upon. There would be no vegetables unless +some few lichens, mosses, or ericas, that would find foothold upon the +slight decomposition that, after the lapse of some ages, would take +place on the surface of the primitive rocks. The sea only would be +peopled, and that but sparingly; for, in that mass of muddy water, none +but the lowest and most inferior grades of animal life, and such as do +not inhabit deep water, could exist. Hence, we find the transition +formations contain in their substances some belemnites, asteriæ, +entrochi, echini, &c., but no organized vegetable substance except, very +rarely, in the latest rocks of this series, and no remains whatever of +terrestrial animals. Indeed, in the high latitudes of the outgoings or +summits of the primitive strata, very few vegetables, even at the +present day, can live. No vegetation fit for animal life could take +place until the transition, and most of the next series of _secondary_ +or _floetz_ formations had subsided. These would occupy lower and lower +situations, till a rich soil, from every kind of intermixture of earth +mechanically deposited, would afford a proper temperature of region, and +an easily decomposed soil, wherein vegetables could grow. + +"Next to the transition series, come the _secondary_, or, as the German +mineralogists call them, the _floetz_ rocks; so called, because they +appear to be more floated or horizontal, though I confess the +appellation does not appear to me peculiarly appropriate. These strata +consist principally of sandstone, limestone--sometimes fetid from +bituminous impregnations, sometimes shelly--secondary greenstone, +graphite, coal, gypsum, rock salt. I have observed that the Alpine +heights of the primitive mountains could at no time furnish much food. +The same remark, but in a less degree, will apply to the transition +range; the low and kindly climates occupied by the secondary series. +The soft and decomposable nature of these depositions would furnish the +true theatre of vegetable life, and, until these regions were filled +with vegetables, the race of animals could not have been produced; for +on what could they subsist? Graminivorous animals, therefore, must have +succeeded the various forms of vegetable existence; and carnivorous, the +graminivorous. The vegetable matter imbedded in the substance of the +secondary strata will consist of the remains of vegetables that grow in +the transition strata; and the animal remains will consist chiefly of +such animals as were produced in the early stages of animal existence, +particularly the smaller aquatic animals; and, of these, chiefly +shell-fish, as shells are not so soon decomposed as mere animal +substance." + +It is to the latter class of depositions--to the secondary series--that +we must refer the sandstone of the River Des Plaines, in which we find a +walnut, of mature growth, enveloped by, and imbedded in the rock, in the +most complete state of mineralization; and, since all geological writers +who subscribe to the Neptunian theory are constrained to employ the +agency of oceanic depositions of different eras, in explaining the +structure of the earth's surface, it is one of the most obvious and +important conclusions, to be drawn from the fact that such submersions +and depositions of rock matter have taken place subsequent to the +existence of forests of mature growth, and that the rock strata and beds +composing the exterior of the earth are the result of different +geological epochs, and of successive subsidences of chaotic +matter--positions which have been so severely attacked and so often +denied, particularly by the disciples of the Huttonian school, that it +is not without a feeling of lively interest, I communicate a discovery +which appears so conclusive on the subject. + +Considerations arising from the frontier position of the country, and +the infrequency of the communication, have also induced me to draw from +incidental sources, a corroboration of the facts advanced. + +In a letter to Governor Cass, of Michigan, dated September 17, 1821, I +made the following observations on the subject under review:-- + +"I consider the petrified tree discovered during our recent journey up +the Illinois, so extraordinary an object in the natural history of the +country, and calculated to lead to conclusions so important to the +science of geology, that I am anxious to avail myself of your concurrent +testimony as to the fact of the existence of the tree in a mineralized +state, and the natural appearances of the spot where it lies imbedded. I +feel the more solicitude on this subject, as I am aware that any +description of this phenomenon which I may be induced to communicate to +the public, will be received with a degree of caution and scrutiny which +it is the province of the naturalist to exercise whenever any discovery +is announced affecting the existing theories of the natural sciences, or +tending to increase the volume of facts upon which their advancement and +perfection depend. I am aware, also, that whatever degree of caution and +vigilance it may be proper to exercise to prevent errors from mingling +with the sound doctrines of the physical and other sciences, still more +care and circumspection is requisite in examining facts which affect the +progress of geology." + +I quote an extract from Governor Cass's reply on the subject:-- + +"The appearance of the wood and bark indicates that it was a black +walnut, the juglans nigra of our forests. We computed its original +diameter, at the place where it is concealed in the earth, to have been +three feet, and at the other end eighteen inches. The texture of the +wood, and the bark and knots, are nearly as distinct as in the living +subject, and the process of decay had not commenced previous to the +commencement of this wonderful conversion. Every part of the mass which +we could examine is solid stone, and readily yields fire by the +collision with steel. + +"When we visited the spot, the water of the river was at the lowest +stage; but there was no part of the tree within some inches of the +surface. The rocky bed of the stream was formed round and upon it. We +raised from it pieces of the rock, which were evidently _in situ_, and +which had been formed upon the tree posterior to the period of its +deposit in its present situation. This rock is a species of sandstone, +whose characteristic features must be well known to you. + +"There are no mineralized substances of vegetable origin in the vicinity +of this specimen, nor are there any appearances which indicate that its +present condition has been caused by any peculiar property in the waters +of the Des Plaines." + + +ADDENDA. + +The publication of the foregoing memoir led to several letters being +addressed to the author on topics connected with it. Some of these were +from gentlemen eminent in science or politics, whose opinions are +entitled to the highest respect. Extracts are given from such only as +introduce new data, either of fact or opinion. + +GEOLOGICAL THEORIES.--Professor Dewey, of Williams College, observes: "A +friend has just lent me your 'Memoir on a Fossil-Tree.' Though the +account is very interesting, I do not perceive its exact bearing on the +Neptunian and Plutonian hypotheses. The fault is doubtless in me, and +you will excuse my remarks and set me right. I had supposed the +Huttonians and Wernerians did not dispute about the manner in which the +_secondary_ rocks were formed. Macculloch, and others before him, led me +into this opinion, though it may be erroneous. But Bakewell, who is +referred to as authority in _Rees's Cyclopædia_, says, p. 131: +'Geologists are agreed that secondary rocks have been formed by the +agency of water.' If this be so, they would agree generally with the +account of Dr. Cooper respecting the formation of petrifactions, and +especially those of vegetables, and the fossil-tree would be treated of +in a similar manner by both." + +Hutton's original hypothesis, and not the modifications of it introduced +by the Neptu-Vulcanists, were adverted to in reply. Subsequently, +Professor Dewey writes:-- + +"I was greatly obliged by your letter in various respects, and I write +you now to make my acknowledgments for it, as well as to maintain the +correctness of your notions on the Huttonian hypothesis. As you had seen +a Scotch mineralogist directly from the mint of Playfair, I had every +reason to suppose you had received correct views of Playfair's notions +on the subject. I have been led, therefore, to examine the matter, and, +as I may have set you on the search, I wish to prevent your continuing +it on my account, or from what I wrote. + +"Playfair's Illustrations I have never seen. Occasional extracts, or +allusions to its points, have fallen in my way. But I have before me a +very full abstract of Hutton's paper on the subject, from the +_Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_. It is from the very +paper in which he announces his hypothesis. In that paper he mentions +that the consolidation of all the hard crust of the globe has been +effected by _heat_ and _fusion_, extending it to secondary as well as +primitive rocks, and mentioning particularly Spanish marble, shell +limestone, oolite, and chalk. + +"This operation of heat, he says, is exemplified by _chalk, which is to +be found in all gradations, from marble to loose chalk_. This is his +precise notion, but not his words. I had once looked at this paper +before, and thought much of this theory; but this thought had been +obliterated from my mind by thoughts advanced by others, as I thought in +consistency with the sentence I quoted from Bakewell. At least, one +objection to Hutton's views would be removed by modifying his theory in +the manner it seems to be by Bakewell. Though Hutton does not think this +to be necessary; for he appears to feel no difficulty in accounting for +petrifactions of wood on his hypothesis, for he mentions that _we have +many proofs of the penetration of flinty matter, in a state of fusion, +in other bodies, such as insulated pieces of flint in chalk or sand, and +fossil wood penetrated with silicious matter_. + +"Still, the grand reasons of Hutton for employing heat as the agent of +consolidation are opposed to the above modification of his theory. These +reasons, as you know, are the insolubility of most mineral substances in +water, and the disappearance of the water from the cavities of minerals +which have been consolidated. The first is, indeed, the great one for +Hutton; for the crystallization of salts in water, and the existence of +liquids, in some cases, in the cavities of the most solid minerals, show +well enough that the water might or might not disappear, as the +circumstances were different. + +"If the Huttonians maintain, as he did, the formation of petrifactions +by heat, which consistency requires, I concede, indeed, to you that that +fossil-tree stands as a grand monument of some different process; and +yet, we can hardly suppose that they do not see great difficulty in the +common notion on the subject. The rapidity with which the petrifactions +must have taken place--a point well illustrated in Hayden's _Geological +Essays_--seems to require some new notions on the subject. What these +may be, I cannot tell; but I believe that neither of these two +hypotheses will be adopted exclusively, half a century hence, on this +point, or on geology generally. I think, with you, that our countrymen +need illumination on the subject of Hutton's hypothesis, and I wish some +one would attempt it." + +TRAP-ROCKS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA.--"I suspect the greenstone of our +country, when examined as it ought to be, will be found, in its +geological relations, much to resemble the basalt of Europe; and that +the same difficulties will attend it, on Werner's hypothesis, as now +attend the basalt. Indeed, I know not how we can account for what +Bakewell and Macculloch state on this hypothesis." + +SANDSTONE OF VIRGINIA.--"I have seen a piece of a petrified tree, about +eight inches through, found in the sandstone of Virginia, but could get +none of it. The petrifaction was far finer than the stone in which it +lay, and was, like it, silex." + +SANDSTONE OF OHIO.--C. Atwater, Esq., in a letter to the author, +observes:-- + +"I can assure you that the finding of whole trees in sandstone is +nothing strange in this State. Some of these trees are imbedded in +sandstone one hundred feet below the surface. Zanesville and Gallipolis +are the best spots to find these fossils. + +"There is no part of the tree but what I have in my cabinet, not +excepting their leaves, fruit, and even fungi attached to them." + +MOSAICAL HISTORY OF THE CREATION.--B. Irvine, Esq., in adverting to +remarks on the Illinois fossil, observes:-- + +"They may yet awaken some ideas in the minds of the people on the +wonders of physics--and I had almost said, the _slow miracles of +creation_; for, if ever there was a time when matter existed not, it is +pretty evident that _millions of years_, instead of six days, were +necessary to establish order in chaos, let Cuvier, &c. temporize as they +may. However, it is the humble allotment of the herd to believe or +stare; it is the glory of intelligent men to inquire and admire." + +The doctrine of materialism, adverted to by Mr. Irvine, it is the +province of divines to controvert. One remark may be predicted on the +biblical era of the six days. It is now believed to be generally +conceded by eminent geologists and ecclesiastics, that the term "day," +employed by the translators of the English version of the Scriptures, is +used in Gen. ch. i. in a sense synonymous with "era" or "time," as it is +emphatically used in Gen. ch. ii. ver. 4. For an able exposition of the +present views on this subject, see the _American Journal of Science_, +vol. XXV. No. 1. + + +4. BOTANY. + +XI. + +A descriptive list of the plants collected on the expedition, drawn up +by Dr. John Torrey, has been published in the fourth volume of the +_American Journal of Science_. References to this standard work may be +conveniently made by botanists. + + +5. ZOOLOGY. + + +No professed zoologist was attached to the expedition, the topic being +left to such casual attention as members of it might find it convenient +to bestow. Of the fauna of the region, it was not believed that there +were any of the prominent species which were improperly classed in the +_Systema Naturæ_ of Linnæus. It was doubtless desirable to know +something more particularly of the character and habitat of the American +species of the reindeer (_C. sylvestris_) and hyena, or glutton. Perhaps +something new was to be gleaned respecting the extent of the genera +arctomys and sciurus, among the smaller quadrupeds, and in the +departments of birds and reptilia. The mode of travel gave but little +opportunity of meeting the larger species in their native haunts, but it +afforded opportunities of examining the skins of the quadrupeds at the +several trading stations, and of listening to the narrations of persons +who had engaged in their capture. + +In effect, the crustacea of the streams furnished the most constant and +affluent subject for enlarging the boundaries of species and varieties. +The collections in this department were referred to members of the +Lyceum of Natural History at New York, and of the Academy of Natural +Sciences at Philadelphia. The results of their examinations have been +published in two of the principal scientific journals of the country. It +had been originally proposed to republish these papers in this Appendix, +together with that on the botanical collections, and some other topics; +but the long time that has elapsed, renders it, on second thought, +inexpedient. Distinct references to the several papers are given. + + +XII. + +_A Letter embracing Notices of the Zoology of the Northwest._ + + By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + VERNON, N.Y., October 27, 1820. + +DEAR SIR: I reached this place, on my return from the sources of the +Mississippi River, on the 21st instant, having left the canal at Oneida +Creek at four o'clock in the morning, whence I footed it three miles +through the forest, by a very muddy road, to the ancient location of +Oneida Castle, while my baggage was carried by a man on horseback. + +The plan of the expedition embraced the circumnavigation of the coasts +of Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior. From the head of the latter, we +ascended the rapid River of St. Louis to a summit which descends west to +the Upper Mississippi, the waters of which we entered about five hundred +miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, and some three hundred miles above +the ulterior point reached with boats by Lieutenant Pike in December, +1805. + +From this point we ascended the Mississippi, by its involutions, to its +upper falls at Pakagama, where it dashes over a rock formation. A vast +plateau of grass and aquatic plants succeeds, through which it winds as +in a labyrinth. On this plateau we encountered and passed across the +southern Lake Winnipek. Beyond this, the stream appears to be but little +diminished, unless it be in its depth. It is eventually traced to a very +large lake called Upper Lac Ceder Rouge, but to which we applied the +name of Cass Lake. This is the apparent navigable source of the river, +and was our terminal point. It lies in latitude 47° 25´ 23´´. + +The whole of this summit of the continent is a vast formation of drift +and boulders, deposited in steps. In descending it, we found the river +crossed by the primitive rocks in latitude about 46°, and it enters the +great limestone formation by the cataract of St. Anthony's Falls, in +latitude 44° 58´ 40´´. We descended the river below this point, by its +windings among high and picturesque cliffs, to the influx of the +Wisconsin, estimated to be three hundred miles. Thence we came through +the Wisconsin and Fox valleys to Green Bay, on an arm of Lake Michigan, +and, having circumnavigated the latter, returned through Lakes Huron and +St. Clair to Detroit. The line of travel is about four thousand two +hundred miles. Such a country--for its scenery, its magnificence, and +resources, and the strong influence it is destined ultimately to have on +the commerce, civilization, and progress of the country--the sun does +not shine on! Its topography, latitudes and longitudes, heights and +distances, have been accurately obtained by Captain Douglass, of West +Point, who will prepare an elaborate map and description of the country. + +Personally, I have not been idle. If I have sat sometimes, in mute +wonder, gazing on such scenes as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, or +the sylvan beauty and mixed abruptness of the Falls of St. Anthony, it +has been but the idleness of admiration. I have kept my note book, my +sketch-book, and my pencil in my hands, early and late; nor have once, +during the whole journey, transferred myself, at an early hour, from the +camp-fire or pallet to the canoe, merely to recompose myself again to +sleep. If the mineralogy or geology of the country often presented +little to note, the scenery, or the atmosphere, or that lone human +boulder, the American Indian, did. The evidences of the existence of +copper in the basin of Lake Superior are ample. There is every +indication of its abundance that the geologist could wish. Nature here +has operated on a grand scale. By means of volcanic fires, she has +infused into the trap-rocks veins of melted metal, which not inaptly +represent the arteries of the human system; for wherever the broken-down +shores of this lake are examined, they disclose, not the sulphurets and +carbonates of this ore, but fragments and lumps of virgin veins. These, +the winds and waves have scattered far and wide. + +But what, you will ask, can be reported of its quadrupeds, birds, +reptilia, and general zoology? Have you measured the height and length +of the mastodon--"the great bull"--who the Indians told Mr. Jefferson +resisted the thunderbolts, and leaped over the great lakes?[252] Truly, +I beg you to spare me on this head. You are aware that we had no +professed zoologist. + + [252] Notes on Virginia. + +I herewith inclose you a list of such animals as came particularly under +our notice. Imperfect as it is, it will give you the general facts. The +dried and stuffed skins of such species as were deemed to be +undescribed, or were otherwise worthy attention, will be transmitted for +description. Among these is a species of squirrel, of peculiar +character, from the vicinity of St. Peter's, together with a species of +mus, a burrowing animal, which is very destructive to vegetation. This +appears to be the hamster of Georgia. Of the larger class of quadrupeds, +we met, in the forest traversed, the black bear, deer, elk, and buffalo. +The latter we encountered in large numbers, about one hundred and fifty +miles above the Falls of St. Anthony, about latitude 45°, on the east +bank of the river. We landed for the chase, and had a full opportunity +of observing its size, color, gait, and general appearance. + +Great interest was imparted to portions of the tour by the ornithology +of the country, and it only required the interest and skill in this line +of a Wilson or an Audubon, to have not only identified, but also added +to the list of species.[253] + + [253] The only addition to ornithology which it fell to my lot to + make, was in the grosbeck family, and this occurred after I came to + return to St. Mary's. Mr. Wm. Cooper has called the new species + fringilia vespertina, from the supposition that it sings during the + evening. The Chippewas call this species paushkundame, from its + thick and penetrating bill. + +The geological character of the country has been found highly +interesting. The primitive rocks rise up in high orbicular groups on the +banks of Lake Superior. The interstices between groups are filled up +with coarse red, gray, or mottled sandstone, which lies, generally, in a +horizontal position, but is sometimes waved or raised up vertically. +Volcanic fires have played an important part here. I have been impressed +with the fact that the granitical series are generally deficient in +mica, its place being supplied by hornblende. Indeed, the rock is more +truly sienite, very little true granite being found, and, in these +cases, it is in the form of veins or beds in the sienite. + +There have also been great volcanic fires and upliftings under the +sources of the Mississippi. Greenstone and trap are piled up in huge +boulders. The most elevated rock, in place, on the sources of the +Mississippi, is found to be quartzite. This is at the Falls of Pakagama. +In coming down the Mississippi, soon after passing the latitude of 46°, +the river is found to have its bed on greenstones and sienites, till +reaching near to the Falls of St. Anthony, where the great western +horizontal limestone series begins. To facilitate the study of the +latter, opportunities were sought of detecting its imbedded forms of +organic life, but their infrequency, and the rapid mode of our +journeying, was averse to much success in this line without the +boundaries of the great lake basins. + +In the department of mineralogy, I have not as brilliant a collection as +I brought from Potosi in 1819--but, nevertheless, one of value--the +country explored being a wilderness, and very little labor having been +applied in excavations. Among the objects secured, I have fine specimens +of the various forms of native copper and its ores, together with +crystallized sulphurets of lead, zinc, and iron; native muriate of soda, +graphite, sulphate of lime, and strontian, and the attractive forms +which the species of the quartz family assume, in the shore debris of +the lakes, under the names of agate, carnelian, &c. The whole will be +prepared and elaborately reported to the Department. + +I found the freshwater shells of this region to be a very attractive +theme of observation in places + + "Where the tiger steals along, + And the dread Indian chants his dismal song;" + +where, indeed, there was scarcely anything else to attract attention; +and I have collected a body of bivalves, which will be forwarded to our +mutual friend, Dr. Mitchell, for description. Indeed, the present +communication is designed, after you have perused it, to pass under his +eye. No one in our scientific ranks is more alive to the progress of +discovery in all its physical branches. Governor Clinton, in one of his +casual letters, has very happily denominated him the Delphic oracle, for +all who have a question to ask come to him, and his scientific memory +and research, in books, old and new, are such, that it must be a hard +question indeed which he cannot solve. + +Next to him, as an expounder of knowledge, you, my dear sir, as the +representative of the _corps editorial_, take your place. For, if it is +the writer of books who truly increases information, every decade's +experience more and more convinces me that it is the editor of a diurnal +journal who diffuses it, by his brief critical notices, or by giving a +favorable or unfavorable impetus to public opinion. + +I am expected, I find, to publish my private narrative of the +expedition, to serve at least--if I may say so--as a stay to popular +expectation, until the more matured results can be duly elaborated. I am +taking breath here, among my friends, for a few days, and shall be +greatly governed by your judgment in the matter, after my arrival at +Albany. + + I am, sir, + With sincere respect, + Your obedient servant, + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +To NATHANIEL H. CARTER, Esq., Albany. + + +_List of Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. observed._ + +The identification of species in this list, by giving the Indian name, +is herein fixed. + + ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) SCIENTIFIC NAME. + NAME. + Buffalo, Pe-zhík-i,[254] Bos Americanus. _Gm._ + Elk, Mush-kos, Cervus Canadensis. _L._ + Deer (common), Wa-wash-ká-shi, Cervus Virginianus. _Gm._ + Moose, Möz, Cervus alces. _L._ + Black Bear, Muk-wah, Ursus Americanus. _Gm._ + Wolf (gray), My-een-gan, Canis vulpes. _L._ + Wolverine, Gwin-gwe-au-ga,[255] Ursus luscus. _L._ + Fox (red), Waú-goosh Canis vulpes. _L._ + Badger, Ak-kuk-o-jeesh, Meles labradoria. _C._ + Fox (black), Muk-wau-goosh, Canis argenteus. _C._ + Muskrat, Wau-zhusk, Fiber vulgaris. _C._ + Martin, Wau-be-zha-si, Mustela mortes. _L. & B._ + Fisher, O-jeeg, Mustela Pennanti. _C. Am._ + ed., app. v. + Beaver, Am-ik, Castor fiber. _B._ + Otter, Ne-gik, Lutra vulgaris. _L._ + Porcupine, Kaug, Hystrix cristata. _C._ + + [254] This animal was found grazing the prairies on the east bank of + the Mississippi, about latitude 45° 30´. + + [255] Means under-ground drummer. + + ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME. + + Raccoon, Ais-e-bun (from _ais_, + a shell, and _bun_, + past tense), Procyon lotor. _C._ + Hare, Wau-bose, Lepus Americanus. + _Gm._ + Polecat, She-kaug, Mephites putorius. + _Cu._ + Squirrel (red), Ad-je-dah-mo, Sciurus vulgaris. + _C._ + Squirrel (ground or + striped), Ah-gwing-woos, Sciurus striatus. + _C._ + Squirrel (an apparently + new species). + Pouched Rat or Hamster, No-naw-pau-je-ne-ka-si, Mus busarius. _Shaw._ + Weasel, Shin-gwoos, Mustela vulgaris. _L._ + Mink, Shong-waish-ke, Mustela lutreola. _C._ + Jerboa, called the + Jumping Mouse,[256] Dipus. _C._ + Eagle (bald), Mik-a-zi,[257] F. lucocephulus. + _L._ + Fork-tailed Hawk, Ca-niew, F. furcatus. _L._ + Chicken Hawk, Cha-mees, F. communis. _C._ + Pigeon Hawk, Pe-pe-ge-wa-zains, F. columbarius. + _Wilson._ + Raven, Kaw-gaw-ge, Corvus corax. _L._ + Crow, On-daig, C. corone. _L._ + Magpie, Wau-bish-kau-gau-gi + (White Raven),[258] C. pica. _L._ + Cormorant, Kau-kau-ge-sheeb + (Raven-duck), P. carbe. _Brin._ + Pelican, Shay-ta, P. onocrotalus. + _Illig._ + Goose, Wa-wa, An. anser. _L._ + Brant, Ne-kuh, An. bernicla. + _Wilson._ + Duck (d. and m.), Shee-sheeb (a generic + term), Anas. + Duck (saw-bill), On-zig, A. tadorna. _C._ + Duck (Red-head or Misquon-dib, A. rufus. _Gm._ + Fall), + Duck (alewives), Ah-ah-wa. + Swan, Wau-bis-si, A. cygnus. _C._ + Heron, Moosh-kow-e-si, Ardea. _C._ + Plover, Tchwi-tchwish-ke-wa, Charadriûs. _C._ + Turkey, Mis-is-sa, Meleagris. _C._ + Blackbird, Os-sig-in-ok, The red-winged + species. + Rail, Muk-ud-a-pe-nais, + Jay (blue), Dain-da-si,[259] Garrulus. _C._ + Whippoorwill, Paish-kwa, Caprimulgas. _L._ + Robin, O-pee-chi, T. migratorius. _L._ + + [256] Found at Lapointe, Lake Superior. + + [257] This is a generic term for the eagle family. It is believed the + kanieu, or black eagle, is regarded by them as the head of the + family. The feathers of the falco furcatus are highly valued by + warriors. + + [258] The meaning is white raven. + + [259] The term is from dain-da, a bullfrog. + + ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN (ALGONQUIN) NAME. SCIENTIFIC NAME. + Kingfisher, Me-je-ge-gwun-a, Alcedo. _C._ + Pigeon, O-mee-mi, Columba emigratoria. + Partridge, Pe-na,[260] Tetrao. _C._ + Crane, Ad-je-jawk, Crane family. + Gull, Ky-aushk, Gull family. + Woodpecker, Ma-ma, Picus. _C._ + Snipe, Pah-dus-kau-unzh-i, Scolipax. _C._ + Owl, Ko-ko-ko-o,[261] } Generic terms for the + Loon, Mong, } species. + Mocking-bird + (seen as far + north as + Michilimackinac), T. polyglotis. _Wilson._ + Sturgeon, Na-ma, Acipenser. _L._ + Sturgeon + (paddle-nose), Ab-we-on-na-ma, Acipenser spatularia. _C._ + White-fish, Ad-ik-um-aig[262] (means + deer of the water). + Salmon trout, Na-ma-gwoos, } Salmo. _L._ + Trout (speckled), Na-zhe-ma-gwoos, } + Carp, Nam-a-bin, Denotes the red fin. + Catfish, Miz-zi, Silurus. _C._ + Bass, O-gau. The striped species. + Tulibee, O-dön-a-bee (wet-mouth). + Eel, Pe-miz-zi (a specific + term). A specific term. + Snake, Ke-ná-bik (a generic), } + Snake, A species supposed } Ophidia. _C._ + peculiar, + Turtle (lake), Mik-e-nok, } + Turtle (small } Chelonia. _C._ + land), Mis-qua-dais, } + + [260] This is the prairie grouse of the West. + + [261] The name is generic for the owl family. + + [262] This term arises from _adik_, a reindeer, and _gumaig_, waters. + +PHILOLOGICAL NOTE.--Three of these fifty-seven terms of Indian +nomenclature are monosyllables, and twenty-four dissyllables. The latter +are compounds, as in _muk-wah_ (black animal), and _wau-bose_ (white +little animal); and it is inferable that all the names over a single +syllable are compounds. Thus, aisebun (raccoon), is from _ais_, a shell, +and the term past tense of verbs in _bun_. + + +XIII. + +_Species of Bivalves collected in the Northwest, by Mr. Schoolcraft and +Captain Douglass, on the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, +in 1820._ By D. H. BARNES. + +This paper, by which a new impulse was given to the study of our +freshwater conchology, and many species were added to the list of +discoveries, was published in two papers, to be found in the pages of +_Silliman's American Journal of Science_, vol. vi. pp. 120, 259. + + +XIV. + + _Freshwater Shells collected in the Valleys of the Fox and Wisconsin, + in 1820, by Mr. Schoolcraft._ By ISAAC LEA, Member American + Philosophical Society. + + +A description of these shells, in which several new species are +established, was published by the ingenious conchologist, Mr. I. Lea, of +Philadelphia, in the _Transactions of the American Philosophical +Society_, vol. v. p. 37, Plate III., &c. + + +XV. + + _Summary Remarks respecting the Zoology of the Northwest noticed by + the Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1820._ By Dr. + SAMUEL L. MITCHELL. + + +The squirrel [from the vicinity of the Falls of St. Anthony], is a +species not heretofore described, and has been named _sciurus tredecem +striatus_, or the federation squirrel. (A.) + +The pouched rat, or _mus busarius_, has been seen but once in Europe. +This was a specimen sent to the British Museum from Canada, and +described by Dr. Shaw. But its existence is rather questioned by Chev. +Cuvier. Both animals have been described, and the descriptions published +in the 21st vol. of the _Medical Repository_, of New York, pp. 248, 249. +The specimens [from the West] are both preserved in my museum. Drawings +have been executed by the distinguished artist Milbert, and forwarded by +him, at my request, to the administrators of the King's Museum, at +Paris, of which he is a corresponding member. My descriptions accompany +them. The animals are retained as too valuable to be sent out of the +country. [B.] + +The paddle-fish is the _spatularia_ of Shaw, and _polydon_ of Lacepede. +It lives in the Mississippi only, and the skeleton, though incomplete, +is better than any other person here possesses. It is carefully +preserved in my collection. + +The serpent is a species of the ophalian genus anguis, the oveto of the +French, and the blind worm of the English. The loss of the tail of this +fragile creature renders an opinion a little dubious; but it is +supposed to be _opthiosaureus_ of Dandrige, corresponding to the _anguis +ventralis_ of Linnæus, figured by Catesby. + +The shells afford a rich amount of an undescribed species. The whole of +the univalves and bivalves received from Messrs. Schoolcraft and +Douglass have been assembled and examined, with all I possessed before, +and with Mr. Stacy Collins's molluscas brought from the Ohio. Mr. Barnes +is charged with describing and delineating all the species not contained +in Mr. Say's _Memoir of the Productions of the Land and Fresh Waters of +North America_. The finished work will be laid before the Lyceum, and +finally be printed in Mr. Silliman's _New Haven Journal_. The species by +which geology will be enriched will amount, probably, to nine or ten. +(C.) We shall endeavor to be just to our friends and benefactors. + + S. L. MITCHELL. + For GOV. CASS. + +_Notes._ + +(A.) + +An animal similar, in some respects, has been subsequently found on the +Straits of St. Mary's, Michigan, a specimen of the dried skin of which I +presented to the National Institute at Washington; but, from the absence +of the head bones and teeth, it is not easy to determine whether it is a +sciurus, or arctomys. + +(B.) + +The duplicature of the cheeks of this animal having been extended +_outwardly_ in drying the skin, was left in its rigid state, giving it +an unnatural appearance, which doubtless led to the incredulity of +Cuvier when he saw the figure and description of Dr. Shaw. Dr. Mitchell +was led to a similar error of opinion, at first, as to the natural +position of these bags; but afterwards, when the matter was explained to +him, corrected this mistaken notion. + +(C.) + +By reference to the descriptions of Mr. Barnes and Mr. Lea, recited +above, the number will be seen to have exceeded this estimate. + + +XVI. + +Mus Busarius. Vide _Medical Repository_, vol. xxi. p. 248. + + +XVII. + +Sciurus Tredecem Striatus. _Medical Repository_, vol. xxi. + + +XVIII. + +Proteus. _American Journal of Science_, vol. iv. + + +6. METEOROLOGY. + + +XIX. + +_Memoranda of Climatic Phenomena and the Distribution of Solar Heat in +1820._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +The influence of solar heat on the quantity of water which is discharged +from the great table lands which give origin to the sources of the +Mississippi was such, during the summer months of 1820, that, on +reaching those altitudes in latitude but a few minutes north of 47°, on +the 21st of July, it was found impracticable to proceed higher in +tracing out its sources. Attention had been directed to the phenomena of +temperatures, clouds, evaporations, and solar influences, from the +opening of the year, but they were not prosecuted with all the +advantages essential to generalization. Still, some of the details +noticed merit attention as meteorological memoranda which may be +interesting in future researches of this kind, and it is with no higher +view that these selections are made. + +_Observations made at Geneva, N. Y._ + + 1820. 7 A.M. 1 P.M. 7 P.M. REMARKS. + + April 20 64° 73° 60° Clear. + " 21 62 74 61 Clear. + " 22 65 78 66 Clear. + " 23 60 69 59 Clear. + " 24 59 70 61 Clear. + " 25 54 64 55 Clear. + " 26 55 67 54 Cloudy, with rain. + " 27 50 60 51 Rainy. + " 28 64 ... ... Clear. + +_Observations made at Buffalo, N. Y._ + + 1820. 8 A.M. 2 P.M. REMARKS. + + April 30 43° 60° Clear. + May 1 49 64 Clear. + " 2 45 63 Clear. + " 3 44 65 Clear. + " 4 46 79 Cloudy. + " 5 40 68 Cloudy, with rain. + " 6 44 ... Cloudy. + +These places are but ninety miles apart, yet such is the influence of +the lake winds on the temperature of the latter position, that it +denotes an atmospheric depression of temperature of 5°. At the same +time, the range between the maximum and minimum was exactly the same. + +_Observations made at Detroit._ + + 1820. 8 A.M. 12 M. 6 P.M. REMARKS. WIND. + + May 15, 50° 61° 51° Fair. N. E. + " 16, 49 62 50 Fair. N. E. + " 17, 50 64 51 Fair. N. E. + " 18, 52 64 60 Fair. N. E. + " 19, 60 68 60 Fair. N. E. + " 20, 64 68 63 Fair. N. E. + " 21, 67 82 66 Fair. S. W. + " 22, 64 88 82 Fair. S. W. + " 23, 72 84 76 Cloudy, some rain W. N. W. + " 24, 53 64 ... Cloudy. N. W. + +The average temperature of this place for May is denoted to be some five +or six degrees higher while the wind remained at N.E., but on its +changing to S.W. (on the 21st), the temperature ran up four degrees at +once. As soon as it changed to N.W. (on the 24th), the thermometer fell +from its range on the 21st fourteen degrees. + +The uncommon beauty and serenity of the Michigan autumns, and the +mildness of its winters, have often been the subject of remark. By a +diary of the weather kept by a gentleman in Detroit, in the summer and +fall of 1816, from the 24th of July to the 22d of October, making +eighty-nine days, it appears that + + 57 were fair, + 12 cloudy, and + 20 showery and rainy. + +By a diary kept at the garrison of Detroit (Fort Shelby), agreeable to +orders from the War Department, from the 15th of Nov. 1818, to the 28th +of Feb. 1819, making 105 days, + + 40 of them are marked "clear," + 40 "cloudy," + 13 "clear and cloudy," and + 12 "cloudy, with rain or snow." + +By Fahrenheit's thermometer, kept at the same place, and under the same +direction, it appears that the medium temperature of the atmosphere was +agreeable to the following statement:-- + + 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9 P.M. Average. Lowest deg. Highest deg. + Nov. 13 to 30, 41° 47° 41° 43° 31° 58° + December, 22 29 25 25 2 50 + January, 30 31 30 30 10 58 + February, 29 39 31 33 8 58 + Prevailing winds, S. W. and N. W. + +_Observations on Lake and River St. Clair, Michigan._ + + 1820. 6 A.M. 8 A.M. 12 M. 2 P.M. 6 P.M. 8 P.M. REMARKS. + May 24, ... ... ... ... ... 51° + " 25, 47° 56° 56° ... 46° ... Clear. Wind N. W. + " 26, ... 52 53 56° 45 ... Clear. Wind N. W. + " 27, ... 54 55 ... ... 44 Clear. Wind N. W. + +_Temperature of the Water of Lake and River St. Clair._ + + May 25, at 6 A. M., 49° at 12 M., 54° + " 26, at 8 A. M., 55 at 2 P. M., 55 + " 27, at 8 A. M., 54 at 12 M., 55 at 8 P. M., 50° + +_Observations on Lake Huron._ + + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + May| 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 |June 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 5 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 46° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 6 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 50°| 52 | 48 | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 8 A.M. |54° | 44 | 46 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49 + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 9 A.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| 57 | .. | .. | 51 | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 11 A.M.| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 12 M. |53° | .. | 53 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | 57 | 57 + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 1 P.M. | .. | .. | .. |55° | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 2 P.M. | .. | 70°| .. | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 3 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | 54°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 5 P.M. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 49°| .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 6 P.M. | .. | 53°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 44| 46 + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 7 P.M. | .. | .. | 48°| 48 | 54 | 50 | 47 | 45 | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+---- + 8 P.M. | 41°| .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- + Average | 51°| 55 | 49 | 53 | 54 |52-½|52-½| 49 |49-½| 50-½ |51 6-10 + temp. | | | | | | | | | | | + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- + REMARKS.|[A] |[B] |[C] | | | | |[D] |[E] | [F] | [G] + --------+----+----+----+----+-------+----+----+----+----+-------+-------- + + [Note A: Clear. Wind N. W.] + [Note B: Clear in the morning; in the afternoon high wind from N. W. + with thunder and lightening.] + [Note C: Clear. Wind high; N. W.] + [Note D: Cloudy, with rain. Winds strong; N. W.] + [Note E: Flying clouds. Wind strong; N. W.] + [Note F: Clear. Wind Strong; N. W.] + [Note G: Average temperature] + +_Water at Lake Huron._ + + Average. + May 28, at 5 A.M., 55° at 12 A.M., 58° at 7 P.M., 56° 56° + " 29, at 7 A.M., 54 at 12 A.M., 60 at 7 P.M., 63 59 + June 1, at 5 A.M., 42 at 11 A.M., 52 at 7 P.M., 44 40 + " 3, at 6 A.M., 46 at 2 P.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 46 47 + " 6, at 8 A.M., 50 at 12 A.M., 52 at 6 P.M., 49 50-½ + +_Observations at Michilimackinac and on the Straits of St. Mary's._ + + ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- + 1820.| 6 | 8 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 9 | | + |A.M.|A.M.|A.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|P.M.|Average.| WEATHER. + ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- + June 7|... |... | 59°|61° |... |... |59° |59-½° |Clear. + " 8 |... |... | 59 |... |64° |... |59 |60 |Clear. + " 9 |... |... | 53 |... |... |53° |... |52-½ |Cloudy with rain. + " 10 |... |55° | ...|... |60 |... |54 |56 |Cloudy with rain. + " 11 |... |52 | ...|... |54 |... |51 |52 |Clear. + " 12 |... |54 | ...|55 |... |... |52 |53 |Clear. + " 13 |53° |... | ...|63 |... |... |58 |58 |Fair. + " 14 |55 |... | ...|73 |... |... |57 |61 |Cloudy. + " 15 |... |66 | ...|... |68 |62 |... |65 |Clear. + " 16 |... |52 | 70 |82 |... |66 |... |69 |Clear. + " 17 |... |58 | ...|... |82 |... |78 |74 |Clear. + " 18 |56 |... | ...|76 |... |... |68 |66 |Cloudy; rain. + ------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+--------+----------------- + + ------+--------------- + 1820. | WIND. + ------+--------------- + June 7| W. N. W. + " 8 | W. N. W. + " 9 | + " 10 | W. + " 11 | S. E. + " 12 | S. E. + " 13 | S. W. + " 14 | S. W. + " 15 | S. W. } + " 16 | S. W. } St. + " 17 | S. W. } Mary's + " 18 | N. W. + ------+--------------- + +The chief conclusion to be drawn, is the extreme fluctuations of winds +and temperatures, in these exposed positions on the open lakes. + +_Observations on Lake Superior._ + + --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + 1820. | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 + | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. | A.M. + --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + June 19 | .. | .. | 64 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 20 | .. | 72 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 + | | | | | | | | | + " 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | .. + " 22 | .. | .. | 55 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 23 | .. | 65 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 + " 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 58 | .. | .. | .. | 74 + " 25 | .. | .. | .. | 60 | .. | .. | .. | 62 | .. + " 26 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. | .. + " 27 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 28 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 29 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 79 | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 76 | .. | .. | 84 + July 1 | 54 | .. | .. | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 2 | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 75 | .. | .. + " 3 | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + | | | | | | | | | + " 4 | .. | .. | .. | 57 | .. | 61 | .. | .. | .. + --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + + --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + 1820. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 + | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. | P.M. + --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + June 19 | 78 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 72 | .. | .. + " 20 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 | 71 | .. | .. + | | | | | | | | + " 21 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 70 | .. | .. + " 22 | .. | .. | 63 | .. | .. | .. | 49 | .. + " 23 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 24 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 | 63 | .. + " 25 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + " 26 | .. | 83 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 68 + " 27 | .. | 71 | .. | .. | .. | 69 | .. | .. + " 28 | 91 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 74 | .. | .. + " 29 | 94 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 86 | .. + " 30 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 60 + July 1 | .. | 75 | .. | 80 | .. | 68 | .. | .. + " 2 | .. | 76 | .. | .. | .. | 65 | .. | 65 + " 3 | .. | .. | 66 | .. | .. | 52 | .. | 61 + | | | | | | | | + " 4 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. + --------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + + --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ + 1820. | 9 | 10 | Average | REMARKS. + | P.M. | P.M. | temp. | + --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ + June 19 | .. | .. | 70-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. + " 20 | .. | .. | 71-½ | Stormy and rain. Wind N. W. + | | | | Hurricane at night. + " 21 | 50 | .. | 62 | Calm. + " 22 | .. | .. | 55-½ | Clear. Wind light from N. W. + " 23 | .. | 70 | 67-½ | Clear. Wind S. E. + " 24 | .. | .. | 63 | Clear. High wind, N. W. + " 25 | 53 | .. | 62-½ | Clear. Wind N. W. + " 26 | .. | .. | 73 | Rainy. Wind W. N. W. + " 27 | .. | .. | 69 | Clear. Wind E. N. E. (Fair!) + " 28 | .. | .. | 79-½ | Sky clear. Wind N. W. + " 29 | .. | .. | 88 | Clear. Wind N. W. + " 30 | .. | .. | 73 | Clear. Wind N. W. + July 1 | .. | .. | 67-½ | Misty. Wind light at N. N. W. + " 2 | .. | .. | 70 | Clear. Wind W. S. W. + " 3 | .. | .. | 65 | Cloudy, mist, and rain. Wind + | | | | S. S. W. + " 4 | .. | .. | | Wind S. S. W. + --------+------+------+---------+------------------------------ + +_Temperature of Lake Superior._ + + Lake + average. + June 20, at 6 P.M., 55° 55° + " 21, at 10 A.M., 60 at 6 P.M., 56° at 9 P.M., 56° 57 + " 22, at 6 A.M., 56 at 3 P.M., 54 55 + " 23, at 5 A.M., 52 at 12 A.M., 56 at 10 P.M., 64 57 + " 24, at 6 P.M., 54 at 7 P.M., 51 53 + " 25, at 7 A.M., 67 at 11 A.M., 66 at 9 P.M., 68 60 + " 26, at 9 A.M., 56 at 8 P.M., 57 56 + " 27, at 8 A.M., 57 at 6 P.M., 62 60 + " 28, at 8 A.M., Superior 62° at 6 P.M., Lake 72 } 67 + Ontonagon 54 River 71 } + " 29, at 8 A.M., Lake 64 61 + River 68 at 1 P.M., River 76 at 7 P.M., 75° + " 30, at 8 P.M., River 74 + July 1, at 8 A.M., 61 at 2 P.M., 65 at 6 P.M., 66 64 + " 2, at 4 A.M., 63 at 11 A.M., 64 at 2 P.M., 68 at 9 P.M., 62 64 + " 3, at 6 A.M., 62 at 3 P.M., 60 at 9 P.M., 58 60 + " 4, at 7 A.M., 58 + +It will be observed that the fluctuations of temperature noticed at +lower points on the lake chain, about the latitude of Michilimackinac, +have also characterized the entire length of Lake Superior. The +atmosphere observed at three separate times, during twenty-four days, by +Fahrenheit's thermometer, during the months of June and July, has varied +from an average temperature of 62° to 88°, agreeable to masses of clouds +interposed to the rays of the sun, and to shifting currents of wind, +which have often suddenly intervened. Its waters, spreading for a length +of five hundred miles from E. to W., observed during the same time by as +many immersions of the instrument, has not varied more than two degrees +below or above the average temperature of 55° in mere surface +observations. + +_Observations on the Sources of the Mississippi River._ + + --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- + | 5 | 7 | 8 | 12 | 2 | 8 | 9 + | A. M. | A. M. | A. M. | M. | P. M. | P. M. | P. M. + --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- + July 17 | ... | ... | ... | 76° | 80° | 79° | 78° + " 18 | ... | ... | 51° | 64 | 66 | 53 | 50 + " 19 | ... | ... | 46 | 63 | 70 | 55 | ... + " 20 | ... | ... | 60 | 80 | 84 | 75 | ... + " 21 | ... | ... | 68 | 86 | 88 | 85 | 74 + " 22 | ... | ... | 73 | 88 | 90 | 77 | ... + " 23 | ... | ... | 70 | 82 | 88 | 78 | ... + " 24 | ... | ... | 74 | 87 | 80 | 78 | ... + " 25 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 85 | 74 | ... + " 26 | 61° | ... | ... | ... | 81 | 61 | ... + " 27 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 80 | 75 | ... + " 28 | 62 | ... | ... | ... | 76 | 61 | ... + " 29 | 50 | ... | ... | ... | 74 | 52 | ... + " 30 | ... | 60° | ... | ... | 76 | ... | 63 + " 31 | ... | 65 | ... | ... | 81 | ... | 69 + Aug. 1 | ... | 67 | ... | ... | 83 | 70 | ... + " 2 | ... | 72 | ... | ... | [263]| ... | ... + --------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-------+-------+------- + + --------+--------------------------------- + | REMARKS. + | + --------+--------------------------------- + July 17 | Morning rainy, then fair. + " 18 | Fair. + " 19 | Night rainy, morning cloudy, + | then fair. + " 20 | + " 21 | + " 22 | Cloudy, some thunder. + " 23 | Night and morning rain, + | afternoon thunder. + " 24 | Fair. + " 25 | Fair. + " 26 | Morning fair, evening cloudy + | and rain, clear. + " 27 | Morning fair, evening fair. + " 28 | Morning fair, rain in afternoon. + " 29 | Clear. + " 30 | Wind N. W., weather clear. + " 31 | Wind W., weather clear. + Aug. 1 | Fair. + " 2 | Fair. + --------+--------------------------------- + + [263] Broke instrument. + + +_Observations at St. Peter's (now Minnesota)._ + + 1820. 7 A.M. 2 P.M. 9. A.M. WINDS. WEATHER. + July 15, 61° 79° 64° S. Clear; fair. + " 16, 62 82 76 S. Clear; rain towards morning. + " 17, 70 88 61 W. Cloudy; rain, thunder and + lightning. + " 18, 58 78 56 E. Clear. + " 19, 59 80 64 S. Cloudy; rain P.M. + " 20, 68 80 65 S. Clear. + " 21, 69 84 72 S. Clear. + " 22, 75 88 72 W. Clear; cloudy P.M., rain, + thunder and lightning during + the night. + " 23, 73 86 70 W. Clear, cloudy; rain and fair + weather alternately. + " 24, 70 89 72 W. Clear; calms. + " 25, 70 80 66 W. Clear; high winds at night. + " 26, 68 82 64 W. Clear; calm. + " 27, 72 78 62 W. Clear. + " 28, 67 75 58 S. E. Clear; fresh winds. + " 29, 60 71 54 N. E. Clear. + " 30, 60 76 63 N. W. Clear. + " 31, 65 81 69 W. Clear. + +_Meteorological Journal kept at Chicago by Dr. A. Wolcott._ + + 1820. Daylight. 9 A. M. 2 P. M. 9 P. M. WIND. WEATHER. + Jan. 1, 4° 11° 10° 0° W. N. W. Cloudy; light + snow; first + ice in the + river, 14 + inches thick; + none in the + lake. + " 2, 10 14 25 12 W. N. W. Clear. + " 3, 4 9 13 14 W. S. W. Clear. + " 4, 9 14 19 9 W. Clear. + " 5, 9 5 4 10 W. N. W. Clear. + " 6, 11 4 15 28 S. S. W. Clear. + " 7, 36 36 39 36 S. W. Cloudy. + " 8, 32 32 34 33 N. N. E. Cloudy. + " 9, 32 33 36 34 N. E. Cloudy. + " 10, 32 31 31 25 N. E. Snow-storm. + " 11, 14 14 16 2 N. Clear. + " 12, 17 15 2 12 S. S. W. Clear. + " 13, 20 24 25 12 W. S. W. Clear. + " 14, 14 15 15 15 N. Snow-squalls. + " 15, 12 14 15 10 N. N. W. Clear; lake + covered with + moving ice, as + far as the eye + can see. + " 16, 20 20 21 21 E. N. E. Snow-storm. + " 17, 14 14 25 10 W. N. W. Clear. + " 18, 14 18 15 6 W. Cloudy. + " 19, 10 0 10 2 W. N. W. Clear. + " 20, 6 12 25 13 W. Clear. + " 21, 20 22 26 28 E. N. E. Snow-storm. + " 22, 7 11 12 5 N. W. Clear. + " 23, 20 4 0 3 W. Clear. + " 24, 2 6 18 16 W. Clear. + " 25, 4 3 9 7 W. Clear. + " 26, 16 19 26 28 E. S. E. Snow-storm. + " 27, 18 21 25 8 S. W. Cloudy. + " 28, 8 1 11 10 W. N. W. Clear. + " 29, 12 20 31 18 W. Cloudy; ice 18 + inches on + river. + " 30, 6 6 4 5 W. Clear. + " 31, 6 5 3 17 W. N. W. Clear; snow 22 + inches deep. + Feb. 1, 12 0 14 16 S. E. Cloudy. + " 2, 22 25 29 20 E. N. E. Snow-storm; ice + 18-¾ inches on + river. + " 3, 10 7 9 7 W. Clear. + " 4, 0 5 25 24 E. S. E. Clear. + " 5, 30 36 40 40 S. W. Clear. + " 6, 11 12 32 24 S. Clear. + " 7, 28 33 42 30 W. S. W. Clear. + " 8, 30 34 40 32 E. Cloudy and mist; + snow during + the night fell + six inches. + " 9, 30 34 34 31 E. Clear. + Feb. 10, 31 32 39 32 E. Cloudy. + " 11, 28 32 38 34 S. Clear. + " 12, 32 39 34 20 N. E. Cloudy. + " 13, 12 22 39 32 W. S. W. Clear. + " 14, 34 39 37 36 E. Cloudy; some + rain with + thunder. + " 15, 36 38 39 36 E. Cloudy; some + rain with + thunder. + " 16, 38 42 47 33 S. W. Clear. + " 17, 27 27 28 22 W. Light clouds. + " 18, 10 22 28 30 E. Cloudy. + " 19, 32 36 46 24 W. Clear. + " 20, 15 22 24 16 W. Clear. + " 21, 8 20 37 38 S. W. Clear. + " 22, 34 40 45 32 W. Clear. + " 23, 28 37 46 36 S. W. Cloudy; rain + and hail with + thunder. + " 24, 30 33 40 39 E. Clear. + " 25, 44 50 59 54 S. W. Clear. + " 26, 50 49 38 36 S. W. Cloudy; tempest + of wind with + flurries of + rain and hail. + " 27, 30 31 34 28 W. N. W. Clear. + " 28, 20 28 30 39 S. E. Clear. + " 29, 28 36 50 37 S. W. Clear. + Mar. 1, 32 35 36 18 N. N. W. Clear. + " 2, 8 15 25 20 N. N. W. Clear. + " 3, 26 30 36 22 W. N. W. Cloudy. + " 4, 19 28 42 36 S. W. Clear. + " 5, 30 32 36 23 N. E. Cloudy. + " 6, 13 19 25 14 N. N. W. Clear. + " 7, 16 17 24 18 E. N. E. Cloudy; + light snow. + " 8, 17 24 23 21 N. E. Cloudy. + " 9, 22 24 26 23 N. N. E. Cloudy. + " 10, 24 26 31 24 N. N. E. Cloudy. + " 11, 22 24 29 31 E. N. E. Cloudy. + " 12, 28 32 33 32 E. S. E. Cloudy; + light snow. + " 13, 32 37 39 34 E. N. E. Cloudy. + " 14, 32 36 36 33 E. N. E. Cloudy; + light snow. + " 15, 26 32 ... ... + +Agreeable to a register kept at Council Bluffs during the month of +January, 1820, the highest and lowest temperature at that place were, +respectively, 36° and 22°, the month giving a mean of 17.89. Compared +with the observed temperature, for the same month, at the following +positions in the United States, both east and west of the Alleghanies, +the Missouri Valley reveals the fact of its being adapted to the +purposes of a profitable agriculture.[264] + + [264] In Europe, the mean annual temperature necessary for the + production of certain plants is-- + + For the sugar-cane 67° + " coffee 64 + " orange 63 + " olive 54 + " vine (vitis vinifera) 51 + + Mean temperature Highest. Lowest. + of the month. + Council Bluffs 17.89° 36° 22° + Wooster 16.69 36 zero + Zanesville 25.34 42 zero + Marietta 28.42 45 zero + Chillicothe 32.48 48 10 + Cincinnati 28.76 46 11 + Jeffersonville 23.05 50 6 + Shawneetown 32.91 52 8 + Huntsville 36.43 62 12 + Tuscaloosa 46.63 74 17 + Cahaba 65.87 73 54 + Ouachita 34.16 68 10 + New Orleans 52.16 78 25 + Portsmouth, N. H. 19.31 40 4[265] + Washington City 29.19 45 4 + + Council Bluffs, lat. 41° 45´, long. 19° 50´ W. of the capitol. + New Orleans, " 29 57 " 12 53 W. " + Portsmouth, " 43 05 " 6 10 E. " + Difference of lat. 13° 48´. Difference of long. 26°. + + [265] Below zero. + +Nor does it appear that the same quantity of snow falls in the Missouri +Valley which is common east of the Alleghany Mountains. At the Council +Bluffs, on the last of January, snow was but twelve inches deep; at the +same period, it was three feet or more throughout the Eastern States. + +A snow-storm fell over the middle and eastern latitudes of the United +States, for the first time, during the autumn of the year (1820), in the +first half of November. As a precursor to this, slight drifts and gusts +of snow had showed themselves at Albany on the 25th, 26th, and 28th of +October.[266] + + [266] Meteorological journal kept at the Albany Academy for October, + 1820. + +"MONTREAL, CANADA, October 28, 1820.--On Wednesday last we had the first +fall of snow this season. It commenced in the forenoon, and continued +slightly during the remainder of the day. Although expected to +disappear, the frosts in the nights have been pretty severe, and a +considerable quantity still remains (Saturday) at the moment we are +writing." + +"SALEM, N. Y. October 31.--On Saturday last (27th), we had our first +snow for the season. It fell during most of the forenoon, and for an +hour or two the atmosphere was quite filled with it. Some cool and +shaded spots still remain whitened, though yesterday was one of our +pleasant autumnal days, with a mild west wind." + +_Early Sleighing._--The _Burlington_ (Vt.) _Sentinel_ of the 27th ult. +says: "On Tuesday night and Wednesday, the snow fell in this place about +eight inches deep on the level. It is said to be twelve inches deep in +some of the adjoining towns."--_October, 1820._ + +At Philadelphia, it began on Saturday, 11th (morning), snow-storm from +the east, and continued all day. At night a hurricane, accompanied by +torrents of rain and snow, which did not subside until the 12th in the +morning. Weather unsettled on the 13th. + +At Worcester, a severe snow-storm, from northeast, on the 11th and 12th. +On the 13th, snow was ten inches deep, the weather cold, and sleighing +good. + +Snow in Poughkeepsie fell twelve inches deep, and produced excellent +sleighing. + +At New Haven (Conn.), it began with snow, hail, and rain, on Saturday +evening, 11th. The day before was wintery cold. The storm continued, +without intermission, till Monday, 13th. + +At Boston, it also began on Saturday, 11th, from the northeast, and fell +six inches. On Sunday, rain and snow. Monday cold, and indifferent +sleighing in the _streets_.--_Boston paper_, Nov. 14th. + +In Vernon, Oneida County, it began on the 11th, in the evening, and +continued, in all, till Monday, 13th, giving us snow, rain, hail, and +wind, alternately. On the 15th, the snow, which lay six inches deep, +began to thaw, and this was the beginning of our Indian summer. + +The Buffalo papers, of November 14th, say that several vessels were +lost in the gale and snow-storm, or driven ashore. The storm closed up +on the 13th, at New York City; the wind at northwest, and very cold. The +rain, snow, and hail which had fallen gave good sleighing a part of that +day. These notices cover an area of about five hundred miles square, +proving, the universality of our autumnal phenomena. + + +_Indian Summer._ + +This season appears to be produced by the settling of a thin azure +vapor. It is supposed to arise from the partial decomposition of the +foliage of the forest after the autumnal rains are past. "What is called +the Indian summer," says an observer at Albany, "usually gives us +fifteen or twenty days of uncommonly pleasant fall weather, commencing +in the early part of October. The present season it set in as usual, and +we had a week or ten days of very fine weather, when a northeast storm +commenced, and continued for part of two days; within which time more +rain is supposed to have fallen than during the whole of the preceding +summer and fall. Most of the streams and springs were filled, and the +Hudson River, in many places, overflowed its banks. It however again +cleared off pleasant, and remained so till Tuesday evening, when another +storm of rain commenced, which continued the whole night. In the +morning, there was some fall of hail accompanying the rain, and about 8 +o'clock a slight flurry of snow, and another on Thursday evening; since +which the weather has set in cold, and has the appearance of the closing +in of fall or the setting in of winter. We however expect to put off +winter and cold weather for some time yet, and anticipate many pleasant +days in November." + +Indian summer, in Oneida, commenced on the 15th November. The weather +had previously been cold, with snow and rain and a murky atmosphere. + + Wednesday, Nov. 15. The snow, which lay six inches deep, began to + thaw, and the sky was clear and sunny. + Thursday, " 16. Was a clear and pleasant day throughout; snow + continued to melt. + Friday, " 17. The same, and smoky; warm sunshine; not a cloud to + be seen; snow melts. + Saturday, " 18. The same. + Sunday, " 19. The same; full moon; cloudy, with wind in the + evening; snow gone. + Monday, " 20. The same; sky clear and warm. + Tuesday, " 21. Weather cloudy; wind S. E.; prepares for a change; + a little snow during the previous night, but melts + from the roofs this morning; no sun appears. + Wednesday, " 22. Cloudy, dull morning; rain afternoon; sun appeared + a few moments about 4 P. M. + Thursday, " 23. Cloudy, with alternate sunshine and rain. + Friday, " 24. Clear and pleasant. + Saturday, " 25. Clear and pleasant. + +Dr. Freeman, of Boston, in one of his occasional sermons, employs the +following poetic language in relation to this American phenomenon:-- + +"The southwest is the pleasantest wind which blows in New England. In +the month of October, in particular, after the frosts which commonly +take place at the end of September, it frequently produces two or three +weeks of fair weather, in which the air is perfectly transparent, and +clouds, which float in a sky of the purest azure, are adorned with +brilliant colors. If at this season a man of an affectionate heart and +ardent imagination should visit the tombs of his friends, the +southwestern breezes, as they breathe through the glowing trees, would +seem to him almost articulate. Though he might not be so wrapped in +enthusiasm as to fancy that the spirits of his ancestors were whispering +in his ear, yet he would at least imagine that he heard 'the still small +voice' of God. This charming season is called the Indian Summer, a name +which is derived from the natives, who believe that it is caused by a +wind which comes immediately from the court of their great and +benevolent God Cantantowan, or the Southwestern God; the God who is +superior to all other beings, who sends them every blessing which they +enjoy, and to whom the souls of their fathers go after their decease." + + +7. INDIAN HIEROGLYPHICS, OR PICTURE WRITING, LANGUAGES, AND HISTORY. + + +XX. + + _Pictographic Mode of Communicating Ideas among the Northwestern + Indians, observed during the Expedition to the Sources of the + Mississippi in 1820, in a Letter to the Secretary of War._ By Hon. + LEWIS CASS. + + + DETROIT, February 2, 1821. + +SIR: An incident occurred upon my recent tour to the Northwest, so rare +in itself, and which so clearly shows the facility with which +communications may be opened between savage nations, without the +intervention of letters, that I have thought it not improper to +communicate it to you. + +The Chippewas and Sioux are hereditary enemies, and Charlevoix says they +were at war when the French first reached the Mississippi. I endeavored, +when among them, to learn the cause which first excited them to war, and +the time when it commenced. But they can give no rational account. An +intelligent Chippewa chief informed me that the disputed boundary +between them was a subject of little importance, and that the question +respecting it could be easily adjusted. He appeared to think that they +fought because their fathers fought before them. This war has been waged +with various success, and, in its prosecution, instances of courage and +self-devotion have occurred, within a few years, which would not have +disgraced the pages of Grecian or of Roman history. Some years since, +mutually weary of hostilities, the chiefs of both nations met and agreed +upon a truce. But the Sioux, disregarding the solemn compact which they +had formed, and actuated by some sudden impulse, attacked the Chippewas, +and murdered a number of them. The old Chippewa chief who descended the +Mississippi with us was present upon this occasion, and his life was +saved by the intrepidity and generous self-devotion of a Sioux chief. +This man entreated, remonstrated, and threatened. He urged his +countrymen, by every motive, to abstain from any violation of their +faith, and, when he found his remonstrances useless, he attached himself +to this Chippewa chief, and avowed his determination of saving or +perishing with him. Awed by his intrepidity, the Sioux finally agreed +that he should ransom the Chippewa, and he accordingly applied to this +object all the property he owned. He then accompanied the Chippewa on +his journey until he considered him safe from any parties of the Sioux +who might be disposed to follow him. + +I subjoin an extract from the journal of Mr. Doty, an intelligent young +gentleman who was with the expedition. This extract has already been +published, but it may have escaped your observation, and the incident +which it describes is so heroic in itself, and so illustrative of the +Indian character, that I cannot resist the temptation of transmitting it +to you. + +EXTRACT FROM MR. DOTY'S JOURNAL.--"The Indians of the upper country +consider those of the Fond du Lac as very stupid and dull, being but +little given to war. They count the Sioux their enemies, but have +heretofore made few war excursions. + +"Having been frequently reprimanded by some of the more vigilant Indians +of the north, and charged with cowardice, and an utter disregard for the +event of the war, thirteen men of this tribe, last season, determined to +retrieve the character of their nation by making an excursion against +the Sioux. Accordingly, without consulting the other Indians, they +secretly departed, and penetrated far into the Sioux country. +Unexpectedly, at night, they came upon a party of the Sioux, amounting +to near one hundred men, and immediately began to prepare for battle. +They encamped a short distance from the Sioux, and, during the night, +dug holes in the ground into which they might retreat and fight to the +last extremity. They appointed one of their number (the youngest) to +take a station at a distance and witness the struggle, and instructed +him, when they were all slain, to make his escape to their own land, and +state the circumstances under which they had fallen. + +"Early in the morning, they attacked the Sioux in their camp, who, +immediately sallying out upon them, forced them back to the last place +of retreat they had resolved upon. They fought desperately. More than +twice their own number were killed before they lost their lives. Eight +of them were tomahawked in the holes to which they had retreated; the +other four fell on the field! The THIRTEENTH returned home, according +to the directions be had received, and related the foregoing +circumstances to his tribe. They mourned their death; but, delighted +with the bravery of their friends, unexampled in modern times, they were +happy in their grief. + +"This account I received of the very Indian who was of the party and had +escaped." + +The Sioux are much more numerous than the Chippewas, and would have +overpowered them long since had the operations of the former been +consentaneous. But they are divided into so many different bands, and +are scattered over such an extensive country, that their efforts have no +regular combination. + +Believing it equally consistent with humanity and sound policy that +these border contests should not be suffered to continue; satisfied that +you would approve of any plan of pacification which might be adopted, +and feeling that the Indians have a full portion of moral and physical +evils, without adding to them the calamities of a war which had no +definite object, and no probable termination; on our arrival at Sandy +Lake, I proposed to the Chippewa chiefs that a deputation should +accompany us to the mouth of the St. Peter's, with a view to establish a +permanent peace between them and the Sioux. The Chippewas readily +acceded to this proposition, and ten of their principal men descended +the Mississippi with us. + +The computed distance from Sandy Lake to the St. Peter's is six hundred +miles, and, as I have already had the honor to inform you, a +considerable proportion of the country has been the theatre of hostile +enterprises. The Mississippi here traverses the immense plains which +extend to the Missouri, and which present to the eye a spectacle at once +interesting and fatiguing. Scarcely the slightest variation in the +surface occurs, and they are entirely destitute of timber. In this +debatable land, the game is very abundant; buffaloes, elks, and deer +range unharmed, and unconscious of harm. The mutual hostilities of the +Chippewas and Sioux render it dangerous for either, unless in strong +parties, to visit this portion of the country. The consequence has been +a great increase of all the animals whose flesh is used for food, or +whose fur is valuable for market. We found herds of buffaloes quietly +feeding upon the plains. There is little difficulty in approaching +sufficiently near to kill them. With an eagerness which is natural to +all hunters, and with an improvidence which always attends these +excursions, the animal is frequently killed without any necessity, and +no other part of them is preserved but the tongue. + +There is something extremely novel and interesting in this pursuit. The +immense plains, extending as far as the eye can reach, are spotted here +and there with droves of buffaloes. The distance and the absence of +known objects render it difficult to estimate the size or the number of +these animals. The hunters approach cautiously, keeping to the leeward, +lest the buffaloes, whose scent is very acute, should observe them. The +moment a gun is fired, the buffaloes scatter and scour the field in +every direction. Unwieldy as they appear, they move with considerable +celerity. It is difficult to divert them from their course, and the +attempt is always hazardous. One of our party barely escaped with his +life from this act of temerity. The hunters, who are stationed upon +different parts of the plain, fire as the animals pass them. The +repeated discharge of guns in every direction, the shouts of those who +are engaged in the pursuit, and the sight of the buffaloes at full speed +on every side, give an animation to the scene which is rarely equalled. + +The droves which we saw were comparatively small. Some of the party whom +we found at St. Peter's, and who arrived at that place by land from the +Council Bluffs, estimated one of the droves which they saw to contain +two thousand buffaloes. + +As we approached this part of the country, our Chippewa friends became +cautious and observing. The flag of the United States was flying upon +all our canoes, and, thanks to the character which our country acquired +by the events of the last war, I found in our progress through the whole +Indian country, after we had once left the great line of communication, +that this flag was a passport which rendered our journey safe. We +consequently felt assured that no wandering party of the Sioux would +attack even their enemies, while under our protection. But the Chippewas +could not appreciate the influence which the American flag would have +upon other nations, nor is it probable that they estimated with much +accuracy the motives which induced us to assume the character of an +umpire. + +The Chippewas landed occasionally to examine whether any of the Sioux +had recently visited that quarter. In one of these excursions, a +Chippewa found in a conspicuous place, a piece of birch bark, made flat +by being fastened between two sticks at each end, and about eighteen +inches long by fifteen broad. This bark contained the answer of the +Sioux nation to the proposition which had been made by the Chippewas for +the termination of hostilities. So sanguinary has been the contest +between these tribes, that no personal communication could take place. +Neither the sanctity of the office, nor the importance of the message, +could protect the ambassadors of either party from the vengeance of each +other. Some time preceding, the Chippewas, anxious for the restoration +of peace, had sent a number of their young men into these plains with a +similar piece of bark, upon which they had represented their desire. The +bark had been left hanging to a tree in an exposed situation, and had +been found and taken away by a party of the Sioux. + +The propositions had been examined and discussed in the Sioux villages, +and the bark which we found contained their answer. The Chippewa who had +prepared the bark for his tribe was with us, and on our arrival at St. +Peter's, finding it was lost, I requested him to make another. He did +so, and produced what I have no doubt was a perfect _fac-simile_. We +brought with us both of these _projets_, and they are now in the hands +of Capt. Douglass. He will be able to give a more intelligible +description of them than I can from recollection, and they could not be +in the possession of one more competent to the task. + +The Chippewas explained to us with great facility the intention of the +Sioux, and apparently with as much readiness as if some common character +had been established between them. + +The junction of the St. Peter's with the Mississippi, where a principal +part of the Sioux reside, was represented, and also the American fort, +with a sentinel on duty, and the flag flying. The principal Sioux chief +is named the Six, alluding, I believe, to the bands or villages under +his influence. To show that he was not present at the deliberations upon +the subject of peace, he was represented upon a smaller piece of bark, +which was attached to the other. To identify him, he was drawn with six +heads and a large medal. Another Sioux chief stood in the foreground, +holding the pipe of peace in his right hand, and his weapons in his +left. Even we could not misunderstand that. Like our own eagle with the +olive-branch and arrows, he was desirous of peace, but prepared for war. + +The Sioux party contained fifty-nine warriors, and this number was +indicated by fifty-nine guns, which were drawn upon one corner of the +bark. The only subject which occasioned any difficulty in the +interpretation of the Chippewas, was owing to an incident, of which they +were ignorant. The encampment of our troops had been removed from the +low grounds upon the St. Peter's, to a high hill upon the Mississippi; +two forts were therefore drawn upon the bark, and the solution of this +enigma could not be discovered till our arrival at St. Peter's. + +The effect of the discovery of this bark upon the minds of the Chippewas +was visible and immediate. Their doubts and apprehensions appeared to be +removed, and during the residue of the journey, their conduct and +feelings were completely changed. + +The Chippewa bark was drawn in the same general manner, and Sandy Lake, +the principal place of their residence, was represented with much +accuracy. To remove any doubt respecting it, a view was given of the old +northwest establishment, situated upon its shore, and now in the +possession of the American Fur Company. No proportion was preserved in +their attempt at delineation. One mile of the Mississippi, including the +mouth of the St. Peter's, occupied as much space as the whole distance +to Sandy Lake; nor was there anything to show that one part was nearer +to the spectator than another; yet the object of each party was +completely obtained. Speaking languages radically different from each, +for the Sioux constitute one of three grand divisions into which the +early French writers have arranged the aborigines of our country, while +the Chippewas are a branch of what they call Algonquins, and without any +conventional character established between them, these tribes thus +opened a communication upon the most important subject which could +occupy their attention. Propositions leading to a peace were made and +accepted, and the simplicity of the mode could only be equalled by the +distinctness of the representations, and by the ease with which they +were understood. + +An incident like this, of rare occurrence at this day, and throwing +some light upon the mode of communication before the invention of +letters, I thought it not improper to communicate to you. It is only +necessary to add, that on our arrival at St. Peter's, we found Col. +Leavenworth had been as attentive and indefatigable upon this subject, +as upon every other which fell within the sphere of his command. + +During the preceding winter, he had visited a tribe of the Chippewas +upon this pacific mission, and had, with the aid of the agent, Mr. +Talliafero, prepared the minds of both tribes for a permanent peace. The +Sioux and Chippewas met in council, at which we all attended, and smoked +the pipe of peace together. They then, as they say in their figurative +language, buried the tomahawk so deep that it could never be dug up +again, and our Chippeway friends departed well satisfied with the result +of their mission. + +I trust that Mr. Bolvin, the agent at Prairie du Chien, has been able +before this to communicate to you a successful account of the +negotiation which I instructed him to open between the Sacs and Foxes, +forming one party, and the Sioux. Hostilities were carried on between +these tribes, which, I presume, he has been able to terminate. + +We discovered a remarkable coincidence, as well in the sound as in the +application, between a word in the Sioux language and one in our own. +The circumstance is so singular that I deem it worthy of notice. The +Sioux call the Falls of St. Anthony HA HA, and the pronunciation is in +every respect similar to the same words in the English language. I could +not learn that this word was used for any other purpose, and I believe +it is confined in its application to that place alone.[267] The +traveller in ascending the Mississippi turns a projecting point, and +these falls suddenly appear before him at a short distance. Every man, +savage or civilized, must be struck with the magnificent spectacle which +opens to his view. There is an assemblage of objects which, added to the +solitary grandeur of the scene, to the height of the cataract, and to +the eternal roar of its waters, inspire the spectator with awe and +admiration. + + [267] Iha ha [iha-ikiha] are words given as equivalent to laugh, + _v._ in Riggs's Dictionary of the Dakota language, published by the + Smithsonian Institution in 1852. Ihapi, _n._, is laughter. The letter + _h_, with a dot, represents a strong guttural, resembling the Arabic + _Kha_. Iha, by the same authority, is the lips or cover to anything; + it is also an adverb of doubt. The vowel _i_ has the sound of _i_ in + marine, or _e_ in me. + +In his _Anecdotes of Painting_, it is stated by Horace Walpole, that "on +the invention of fosses for boundaries, the common people called them Ha +Ha's! to express their surprise on finding a sudden and unperceived +check to their walk." I believe the word is yet used in this manner in +England. It is certainly not a little remarkable that the same word +should be thus applied by one of the most civilized and by one of the +most barbarous people, to objects which, although not the same, were yet +calculated to excite the admiration of the observer. + +Nothing can show more clearly how fallacious are those deductions of +comparative etymology, which are founded upon a few words carefully +gleaned here and there from languages having no common origin, and which +are used by people who have neither connection nor intercourse. The +common descent of two nations can never be traced by the accidental +consonance of a few syllables or words, and the attempt must lead us +into the regions of fancy. + +The Sioux language is probably one of the most barren which is spoken by +any of our aboriginal tribes. Colonel Leavenworth, who made considerable +proficiency in it, calculated, I believe, that the number of words did +not exceed one thousand. They use more gestures in their conversation +than any Indians I have seen, and this is a necessary result of the +poverty of their language. + +I am well aware, that the subject of this letter is not within the +ordinary sphere of official communications. But I rely for your +indulgence upon the interest which you have shown to procure and +disseminate a full knowledge of every subject connected with the +internal condition of our country. + +I am preparing a memoir upon the present state of the Indians, agreeably +to the intimation in my letter of September last. I shall finish and +transmit it to you as soon as my other duties will permit. + + Very respectfully, sir, + I have, &c., + LEWIS CASS. + + Hon. JOHN C. CALHOUN, + _Secretary of War_. + + +XXI. + +_Inquiries respecting the History of the Indians of the United States._ + +By LEWIS CASS. + +These queries were published at Detroit in separate pamphlets, about the +era of 1822, and communicated to persons in the Indian country supposed +to be capable of furnishing the desired information. The results became +the topic of several critical disquisitions, which appeared in the pages +of the _North American Review_ in 1825 and 1826; disquisitions the +spirit and tone of which created, as the reader who is posted up on the +topic will remember, a sensation among philological and philosophical +readers. + +Whether we are most to admire the bold tone of inquiry assumed by Gen. +Cass, the acumen displayed in the discussions, the eloquence of the +language, or the general soundness of the positions taken, is the only +question left for decision. Certainly, nobody can arise from the perusal +of these papers without becoming wiser or better informed on the +subjects discussed. The mere luxury of high-toned and eloquent language +is a gratification to the inquirer. But he cannot close these +investigations into a subject of deep historical and philological +interest without feeling established in the principles of historic +truth, or warmed in his literary ardor. + +Prominent among the topics of the initial discussion, was the work of +John Dunn Hunter, a singular adventurer in the Indian country, or, +perhaps, an early captive, who, after wandering to the Atlantic cities, +where his harmless inefficiency of character gained no favorable +attention, found his way to London, where the booksellers concocted a +book of travels from him, in which the United States is unscrupulously +traduced for its treatment of the Indians. The scathing which this +person and his book received arises from its having fallen in the way of +the business journeys of the critic to visit some of the principal +scenes referred to; and among others, the residence of John Dunn, of +Missouri, after whom he professed to be named, who utterly denied all +knowledge of the man or of his purported adventures. + +The question of the authenticity of the Indian traditions of Mr. +Heckewelder, derived from a single tribe, and that tribe telling +stories to salve up its own disastrous history, and the mere literary +capacities of the man to put his materials in order, is propounded and +examined in connection with the contemporary traditions and languages of +other tribes. These traditions had been communicated to the Pennsylvania +Historical Society, in 1816, and were published under the special +auspices of Mr. Duponceau, in 1819. From the internal evidence of the +letters themselves, the critic pronounces them to be reproductions of +Mr. Duponceau himself; and it is an evidence of the aptness of this +deduction to be told that Mr. Gallatin admitted (_vide_ my _Personal +Memoirs_, p. 623), that the letters of Mr. Heckewelder had all been +rewritten previous to publication. It could no longer be a subject of +admiration to philologists, that from such imperfect sources of +information, that distinguished scholar should have pronounced the +opinion that the Delaware language rather exceeds than falls short of +the Greek and Latin in the affluence of syntactical forms and capacities +of expression. _Trans. Hist. and Lit. Com., Am. Philo. Soc._, vol. i. p. +415. + + +XXII. + +_A Letter on the Origin of the Indian Race of America, and the +Principles of their Mode of uttering Ideas; addressed to John Johnston, +Esq., late of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan._ By Dr. J. MCDONNELL, of +Belfast, Ireland. + + BELFAST, April 16, 1817. + +MY DEAR J.: I feel always as if I am guilty of some great crime, in not +writing to you. + +An account came to Sir Joseph Banks, of very curious rocks, with odd +stripes and colors, having been seen, this last war, by sailors on the +lakes, I think on Lake Superior.[268] Pray keep up your thoughts to the +geography of rocks. I got some lately from Bombay, exactly ditto with +our Causeway.[269] + + [268] Most probably this idea arose from the very marked precipices + of the coast denominated Pictured Rocks. + + H. R. S. + + [269] The Giant's Causeway, on the Coast of Antrim. + +I shall ever regret the not having seen your daughter. I think it likely +that mingling the European blood and character with the Indian might +bring out some superior traits of character. Lest my letter should +altogether fail of presenting any useful point, I must put some +questions to you that would be worth something if answered. + +A man has published, in 1816, an octavo volume in Trenton (United +States), the author's name Boudinot, to explain some things about the +Indian nations, and, among other things, he fancies some resemblance +between their languages and Hebrew. Baron Von Humboldt, a Prussian, was +in Spanish America lately, and he found the natives had Hebrew opinions +and usages, evidently things borrowed from Jewish doctrines. I don't +want you to inquire much about their being of this extraction, but +observe, for me, whether their languages have no pronouns, as one +author, Colden, stated fifty years ago; and whether they are defective +in the prepositions, as this Boudinot states; and whether those near you +have any words, idioms, or traditions that are expressive of their early +origin, or their connection with European nations. + +In fact, I think you are better circumstanced, in most respects, than +any other man that I ever heard of, to do something worth notice in that +way; for, although you have not books, nor knowledge of many tongues, +yet you could collect lists of great and radical words, expressed with +proper letters, so that others could compare those words with Asiatic, +and African, and European tongues, so as to enable mankind to judge of +similitudes or dissimilitudes. + +The words most apt to pervade different nations, and to pass from one +people to another, are articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, +prepositions; next to these, numerals; next to these, whatever terms are +expressive of striking, useful, hurtful, or very clear and definite +objects and ideas; for, if the conceptions we have of things be not very +definite, clear, and distinct, the idea and the word are not likely to +float down the stream of time together, they will be jostled and +separated. Be very careful in spelling the Indian words; spell them in +different ways, where our letters don't square exactly with their +sounds. Take notice of their musical tones, and whether these tones get +in, as essential parts, into their speech; and, above all, remember that +a _word_ is a _thing_, and that it may be examined as a _record_, or +considered like a coin or medal, as well as if it had the stamp of a +king or mint upon it. + +I will write more if this vessel does not sail to-day. God bless you and +yours, and believe me, in haste, your affectionate cousin. + + J. McDONNELL. + + +XXIII. + +_Difficulties of Studying the Indian Tongues of the United States._ By +Dr. ALEXANDER WOLCOTT, Jr. + +Dr. Wolcott will be remembered by the early inhabitants of Chicago, when +that place was still a military post and the site of an Indian agency, +the latter of which trusts he filled. In 1820, the Pottowattomie tribe +of Indians and their confederates--the Illinois--Chippewas, and +Ottowas--possessed the whole surrounding regions, roving as lords of the +prairies. These numerous and fierce hunter-tribes, who traded their +peltries for fineries, had many horses, loved rum and fine clothes, and +despised all restraints, came in to him, at his agency, as the +mouthpiece of the President, to transact their affairs, and they often +lingered for days and weeks around the place, which gave him a good +opportunity of becoming familiar with their manners, customs, and +history. + +Dr. Wolcott was a man of education, of high morals, dignified manners, +and noble sentiments, with decidedly saturnine feelings, and a keen +perception of the ridiculous. Constitutionally averse to much or labored +personal effort, his leisure hours, in this seclusion from society, were +hours devoted to reading and social converse, and his attention was +appropriately called by Gen. Cass to the "Inquiries," No. 21, above +referred to. The reply which he at length communicated was written in so +happy a vein, that I obtained permission to publish the substance of it, +in 1824, in my _Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi +Valley_, p. 381. It declares an important truth, which all must concur +in, who have attempted the study of the Indian languages, for they are +required to perform the prior labor of ascertaining and generalizing the +principles of their accidence and concord. When I first came to St. +Mary's, in 1822, and began the study of the Chippewa, I asked in vain +the simple question how the plural was formed. It was formed, in truth, +in twelve different ways, agreeably to the vowels of terminal syllables; +but this could not be declared until quires of paper had been written +over, the whole vocabulary explored, and days and nights devoted to it. +My first interpreter could not tell a verb from a noun, and was +incapable of translating the simplest sentence literally. Besides his +ignorance, he was so great a liar that I never knew when to believe him. +He sometimes told the Indians the reverse of what I said, and often told +me the reverse of what they said. + + +XXIV. + +_Examination of the Elementary Structure of the Algonquin Language as it +appears in the Chippewa Tongue._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +INTRODUCTORY NOTE. + + SAULT STE. MARIE, May 31, 1823. + +SIR: In order to answer your inquiries, I have improved my leisure +hours, during the part of the summer following our arrival here (6th +July last), and the entire winter and spring, in examining the words and +forms of expression of the Chippewa, or (as the Indians pronounce it) +Odjibwa, tongue. I have found, as I anticipated, my most efficient aid, +in this inquiry, in Mr. Johnston, and the several members of his +intelligent family; my public interpreter being too unprecise and +profoundly ignorant of the rules of grammar to be of much use in the +investigation. Mr. Johnston, as you are aware, perhaps, came from the +north of Ireland, where his connections are highly respectable, during +the first term of General Washington's administration. He brought +letters from high sources to the Governor-General of Canada; but having, +while at Montreal, fallen in with Don Andrew Tod, a countryman, who had +the monopoly of the fur trade of Louisiana, in a spirit of enterprise +and adventure, he threw himself into that, at the time, fascinating +pursuit, and visited Michilimackinac. Circumstances determined him to +fix his residence at St. Mary's, where he has resided, making frequent +visits to Montreal and Great Britain, about thirty years. His children +have been carefully instructed in the English language and literature, +and the whole family are familiar with the Indian. Without such +proficient aid, I should have labored against serious impediments at +every step; and, with them, I have found the inquiry, in a philological +point of view, involved in many, and some of them insuperable +difficulties. The results I communicate to you, rather as an earnest of +what may be hereafter done in this matter, than as completely fulfilling +inquiries which it would require Horne Tooke himself, with the aid of +the Bodleian library, to unravel. + + With respect, &c., + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + His Excellency Gov. LEWIS CASS. + + +EXAMINATION OF THE ODJIBWA. + +1, 2. _Simple Sounds._--The language is one of easy enunciation. It has +sixteen simple consonental and five vowel sounds. Of these, two are +labials, _b_ and _p_; five dentals, _d_, _t_, _s_, _z_, _j_, and _g_ +soft; two nasals, _m_ and _n_; and four gutturals, _k_, _q_, _c_, and +_g_ hard. There is a peculiar nasal combination in _ng_, and a peculiar +terminal sound of _g_, which may be represented by _gk_. Of the mixed +dipthongal and consonental sounds, those most difficult to English +organs are the sounds in _aiw_ and _auw_. + +3. _Letters not used._--The language is wholly wanting in the sound of +_th_. It drops the sound of _v_ entirely, substituting _b_, in attempts +to pronounce foreign words. The sound of _l_ is sometimes heard in their +necromantic chants; but, although it appears to have been known to the +old Algonquin, it is supplied, in the Odjibwa of this day, exclusively +by _n_. It also eschews the sounds of _f_, _r_, and _x_, leaving its +simple consonental powers of utterance, as above denoted, at sixteen. In +attempts to pronounce English words having the sound of _f_, they +substitute _p_, as in the case of _v_. The sound of _r_ is either +dropped, or takes the sound of _au_. Of the letter _x_ they make no use; +the nearest approach I have succeeded in getting from them is _ek-is_, +showing that it is essentially a foreign sound to them. The aspirate _h_ +begins very few words, not exceeding five in fifteen hundred, but it is +a very frequent sound in terminals, always following the slender or +Latin sound of _a_, but never its broad sound in _au_, or its peculiarly +English sound as heard in the _a_ of _may_, _pay_, _day_. The terminal +syllable of the tribal name (Odjibwa), offers a good evidence of this +rule, this syllable being never sounded by the natives either _wah_ or +_wau_, but always _wa_. These rules of utterance appear to be constant +and imperative, and the natives have evidently a nice ear to +discriminate sounds. + +_Rule of Euphony._--In the construction of words, it is required that a +consonant should _precede_ or _follow_ a vowel. In dissyllables wherein +two consonants are sounded in juxtaposition, it happens from the joining +of two syllables, the first of which ends and the last begins with a +consonant, as _muk-kuk_, a box, and _os-sin_, a stone; the utterance in +these cases being confluent. But in longer compounds this juxtaposition +is generally avoided by throwing in a vowel for the sake of euphony, as +in the term _assinebwoin_, the _e_ in which is a mere connective, and +has no meaning by itself. Nor is it allowable for vowels to follow each +other in syllabication, except in the restricted instances where the +being or existence of a thing or person is affirmed, as in the +vowel-words _i-e-e_ and _i-e-a_, the animate and inanimate forms of this +declaration. In these cases, there is a distinct accent on each vowel. + +4. _Accent._--The accent generally falls on full or broad vowels, and +never on short vowels; such accented vowels are always significant, and +if they are repeated in a compound word, the accents are also repeated, +the only difference being that there are primary and secondary accents. +Thus, in the long descriptive name for a horse, _Pa-bá-zhik-ó-ga-zhé_, +which is compounded of a numeral term and two nouns, meaning, the animal +with solid hoofs; there are three accents, the first of which is +primary, while the others succeed each other with decreased intensity. +By a table of words which I have constructed, and had carefully +pronounced over by the natives, it is denoted that dissyllables are +generally accented on the final syllable, trisyllables on the second, +and words of four syllables on the second and fourth. But these +indications may not be constant or universal, as it is perceived that +the accents vary agreeably to the distribution of the full and +significant vowels. + +5. _Emphasis._--Stress is laid on particular words in sentences to which +the speaker designs to impart force, and the whole tone of the entire +sentiment and passages is often adapted to convey particular +impressions. This trait more frequently comes out in the private +narrative of real or imaginary scenes, in which the narrator assumes the +very voice and tone of the real or supposed actor. Generally, in their +dealings and colloquial intercourse, there is a significant stress laid +on the terms, _meenungaika_, certainly; _kaigait_, truly; _kaugaigo_, +nothing at all; _tiau_, behold; _woh-ow_, who; _auwanain_, were; and +other familiar terms of inquiry, denial, or affirmation in daily use. + +6. _Conjugation._--The simplest form in which their verbs are heard, is +in the third person singular of the indicative, as _he speaks_, _he +says_, _he loves_, _he dances_, or in the first person present of the +imperative. The want of a distinction between the pronouns _he_ and +_she_, is a defect which the language shares, I believe, with other very +ancient and rude tongues. Conjugations are effected for persons, tenses, +and number, very much as they are in other rude languages, particularly +those of the transpositive class. The verb is often a single root, or +syllable, as _saug_, love; but owing to the tendency of adding +qualifying particles, their verbs are cluttered up with other meanings. +The word _saug_ is therefore never heard as an element by itself. In the +first place, it takes before it the pronoun, and in the second place, +the object of action; so that _nesaugeau_, I love him, or her, or a +person, is one of the simplest of their colloquial phrases. And of this +term, the e, being the fourth syllable, is mere verbiage, means nothing +by itself, and is thrown in for euphony. + +Tenses are formed by adding _gee_ to the pronoun for the perfect, and +_gah_ for the future, and _gahgee_ for the second future. These terms +play the part, and supply the want of, auxiliary verbs. The imperative +is made in _gah_, and the potential in _dau_ where the second future is +_daugee_. The subjunctive is made by prefixing the word _kishpin_, +meaning if. The inflection _nuh_, asks a question, and as it can be put +to all the forms of the conjugation, it establishes an interrogative +mood. The particle see, negatives the verb, and thus all verbs can be +conjugated positively and negatively. + +To constitute the plural, the letter _g_ is added to the conjugations; +thus, _nesaugeaug_ means, I love them. But this is an animate plural, +and can only be added to words of the vital class. Besides, if the verb +or noun to be made plural does not end in a vowel, but in a consonant, +the _g_ cannot be added without interposing a vowel. It results, +therefore, that the vowel class of words have their plurals in _äg_, +_eeg_, _ig_, _og_, or _ug_. But, if the class of words be non-vital and +numerical, the plural is made in the letter _n_. But this letter cannot, +as in the other form, be added, unless the word terminate in a vowel, +when the regular plurals are _än_, _een_, _in_, _on_, or _un_. This +simple principle clears up one cause of perplexity in the conjugations, +and denotes a philosophical method, which divides the whole vocabulary +into two classes; while this provision _supersedes_, it answers the +purpose of _gender_. There is, in fact, no gender required by the +conjugations, it being sufficient to denote the _vitality_ or +_non-vitality_ of the class. Nothing can be clearer. This is one of the +leading traits of the grammar of the language, upon the observance of +which the best speakers pride themselves. + +It does not, however, result that, because there is no gender required +in the conjugations, the idea of sexuality is unknown to the +nomenclature. Quite the contrary. The tenses for male and female, in the +chief orders of creation, are _iaba_ and _nozha_. These words prefixed +to the proper names of animals, produce expressions of precisely the +same meaning, and also the same inelegance; as if we should say, male +goose, female goose, male horse, and female horse, male man and female +man. The term for man (_inini_) is masculine, and that for woman +(_equa_) feminine in its construction. It is only in the conjugations +that the principle of gender becomes lost in that of vitality. + +7. _Active and passive voices._--The distinction between these two +classes of verbs is made by the inflection _ego_. By adding this form to +the active verb, its action is reversed, and thrown back on the +nominative. Thus, the verb to carry is _nim bemön_, I carry; _nim +bemön-ego_, I am carried. _Adowawa_ is the act of thumping, as a log by +the waves on the shore._ Adowawa-ego_ is a log that is thumped by the +waves on shore. _Nesaugeah_, I love; _Nesaugeigo_, I am loved. In the +latter phrase, the personal term _au_ is dropped, and the long sound of +_e_ slips into _i_, which converts the inflection into _igo_ instead of +_ego_. + +8. _Participles._--My impression is, that the Indians are in the habit +of using participles, often to the exclusion of other proper forms of +the verb. The vocabulary contains abundantly the indicative forms of the +verb. To run, to rise, to see, to eat, to tie, to burn, to strike, to +sing, to cry, to dance, are the common terms of parlance; but as soon as +these terms come to be connected with the action of particular persons, +this action appears to be spoken of as if existing--both the past and +future tenses being thrown away; and the senses appear to be, I, you, +he, or they; running, rising, seeing, eating, tying, burning, striking, +singing, crying, dancing. At least, I have not been able to convince +myself that the action is not referred to as existing. When the +participles should be used, they, on the contrary, employ the indicative +forms, by which such sentences are made as, he run, he walk, for +running, walking. + +The general want of the substantive verb, in their colloquial phrases, +constantly leads to imperfect forms of syntax. Thus, _nëbä_ is the +indicative, first person of the verb to sleep; but if the term, I am +sleeping, be required, the phrase is _ne nëbä_, simply, I sleep. So, +too, _tshägiz_ is the first person indicative to burn; but the +colloquial phrase, I am burned, or burning, is _nen tshägiz_--the verb +remaining in the indicative, and not taking the participle form. + +It is not common to address persons by their familiar names, as with +us--as John, or James. The very contrary is the usage of Indian society, +the object being to conceal all personal names, unless they be forced +out. If it be required to express this sentence, namely: Adario has gone +out (or temporarily departed), but will soon return; the equivalent is +_Ogima_, _ke mahjaun_, _panema_, _ke takooshin_. This sentence literally +retranslated is, Chief, he gone; by and by, he (will) return--the noun +chief being put for the personal noun Adario. It will be perceived that +the pronoun _ke_ is repeated after the noun, making, chief, he gone. +_Panema_ is an adverb which is undeclinable under all circumstances, and +_tahkooshin_, the future tense of the verb to arrive, or come (by land). +The phraseology is perfectly loaded with local or other particulars, +which constantly limit the action of verbs to places, persons, and +things. + + +XXV. + +_A Vocabulary of the Odjibwa Algonquin Language._ BY H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +On referring to the manuscript of this vocabulary, it is found to fill a +large folio volume, which puts it out of my power to insert it in this +connection. It is hoped to bring it into the series of the Ethnological +volumes, now in the process of being published at Philadelphia, under +the auspices of Congress. + + + + + APPENDIX + + No. 2. + + THE EXPEDITION TO ITASCA LAKE IN 1832. + + + + +SYNOPSIS. + + +1. INDIAN LANGUAGES. + + I. II. Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of + the Odjibwa Substantive. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + III. Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-adjective. By + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + IV. Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and Properties + of the Pronoun. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +2. NATURAL HISTORY. + + V. Zoology. + + 1. Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the Northwestern + parts of the United States. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.--_Northwest + Journal._ + + 2. Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered by Mr. + Schoolcraft in the Northwest. By WILLIAM COOPER.--_Annals of the + New York Lyceum of Natural History._ + + 3. A list of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft during his Expedition + to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1832. By WILLIAM COOPER. + + VI. Botany. + + 1. List of Species and Localities of Plants collected during the + Exploratory Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft in 1831 and 1832. By + DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D., _Surgeon to said Expeditions_. + + VII. Mineralogy and Geology. + + 1. A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper in the Trap Rocks + of Upper Michigan. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON. + + 2. Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver, and the Ores of Silver, + in the Stratification of the Basins of Lakes Huron and Superior. + By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + 3. A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals observed in the + Northwest. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + 4. Geological Outlines of the Valley of Takwymenon in the Basin of + Lake Superior. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + 5. Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of the Deposit of Red + Sandstone of St. Mary's Falls, Michigan. By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + +3. INDIAN TRIBES. + + VIII. Condition and Disposition. + + 1. Official Report to the War Department, of an Expedition through + Upper Michigan and Northern Wisconsin in 1831. By HENRY R. + SCHOOLCRAFT. + + 2. Brief Notes of a Tour in 1831, from Galena, in Illinois, to Fort + Winnebago, on the source of Fox River, Wisconsin. By HENRY R. + SCHOOLCRAFT. + + 3. Official Report of the Expedition to Itasca Lake in 1832. By HENRY + R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + 4. Report of the Vaccination of the Indians in 1832, under the + authority of an Act of Congress. By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON. + + +4. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY. + + IX. Astronomical and Barometrical Observations. + + 1. Table of Geographical Positions observed in 1836. By J. N. + NICOLLET. + + +5. SCENERY. + + X. Letters on the Scenery of Lake Superior. By MELANCTHON WOOLSEY. + _Vide_ Southern Literary Messenger, 1836. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +1. INDIAN LANGUAGE. + +I. + +_Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of the +Odjibwa Substantive._[270] + + [270] Mr. Du Ponceau did me the honor, in 1834, to translate these + two inquiries on the substantive in full, for the prize paper on the + Algonquin, before the National Institute of France. + +INQUIRY 1. + + Observations on the Ojibwai substantive. 1. The provision of the + language for indicating gender--Its general and comprehensive + character--The division of words into animate and inanimate + classes. 2. Number--its recondite forms, arising from the terminal + vowel in the word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate + possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the objective + person. + +Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian languages, +have resulted in elucidating the principles governing the use of the +verb, which has been proved to be full and varied in its inflections. +Either less attention has been paid to the other parts of speech, or +results less suited to create high expectations of their flexibility and +powers have been attained. The Indian verb has thus been made to stand +out, as it were in bold relief, as a shield to defects in the +substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact, compensating, by its +multiform appendages of prefix and suffix--by its tensal, its +pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its adverbial +terminations, for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts of speech. +Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the present inquiry, +the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until I have considered the +substantive, and its more important adjuncts. + +Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches, and the +actions or condition, which determine the relation of one object to +another, are perhaps the first points to demand attention in the +invention of languages. And they have certainly imprinted themselves +very strongly, with all their materiality, and with all their local, and +exclusive, and personal peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and the +verb not only thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as in +all languages; but they continue to perform their first offices, with +less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would appear to +be reconcilable with a clear expression of the circumstances of time and +place, number and person, quality and quantity, action and repose, and +the other accidents, on which their definite employment depends. But to +enable the substantives and attributives to perform these complex +offices, they are provided with inflections, and undergo changes and +modifications, by which words and phrases become very concrete in their +meaning, and are lengthened out to appear formidable to the eye. Hence +the polysyllabic, and the descriptive character of the language, so +composite in its aspect and in its forms. + +To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible, the prominent +ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear to have been the +paramount object with the inventors of the language. Hence, +concentration became a leading feature. And the pronoun, the adjective, +the adverb, and the preposition, however they may be disjunctively +employed in certain cases, are chiefly useful as furnishing materials to +the speaker, to be worked up into the complicated texture of the verb +and the substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike, than the +language, viewed in its original, elementary state--in a vocabulary, for +instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a vocabulary can now be +formed, and the same language as heard under its oral, amalgamated form. +Its transpositions may be likened to a picture, in which the copal, the +carmine, and the white lead, are no longer recognized as distinct +substances, but each of which has contributed its share towards the +effect. It is the painter only who possesses the principle, by which one +element has been curtailed, another augmented, and all, however +seemingly discordant, made to coalesce. + +Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives and compounds; +to afford rules for giving verbs substantive, and substantives verbal +qualities; to concentrate the meaning of words upon a few syllables, or +upon a single letter, or alphabetical sign; and to supply modes of +contraction and augmentation, and, if I may so say, _short cuts_, and +_by-paths_ to meanings, which are equally novel and interesting. To +arrive at its primitives, we must pursue an intricate thread, where +analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of those +accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules of +material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only after a +process of this kind, that the _principle of combination_--that secret +wire, which moves the whole machinery can be searched for, with a +reasonable prospect of success. The labor of analysis is one of the most +interesting and important, which the subject presents. And it is a labor +which it will be expedient to keep constantly in view, until we have +separately considered the several parts of speech, and the grammatical +laws by which the language is held together; and thus established +principles and provided materials wherewith we may the more successfully +labor. + +1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it must +be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes itself so +constantly to view, as the principle which separates all words, of +whatever denomination, into animates and inanimates, as they are applied +to objects in the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom. This principle +has been grafted upon most words, and carries its distinctions +throughout the syntax. It is the gender of the language; but a gender of +so unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common distinctions of a +masculine and feminine, and to give a twofold character to the parts of +speech. The concords which it requires, and the double inflections it +provides, will be mentioned in their appropriate places. It will be +sufficient here to observe, that animate nouns require animate verbs for +their nominatives, animate adjectives to express their qualities, and +animate demonstrative pronouns to mark the distinctions of person. Thus, +if we say, "I see a man; I see a house," the termination of the verb +must be changed. What was in the first instance _wâb imâ_, is altered +to _wâb indân_. _Wâb_, is here the infinitive, but the root of this verb +is still more remote. If the question occurs "Is it a good man, or a +good house," the adjective, which, in the inanimate form is +_onishish-í_, is, in the animate _onishish-i[n']_. If the question be +put, "Is it this man, or this house," the pronoun _this_, which is _mâ +bum_, in the animate, is changed to _mâ ndun_, in the inanimate. + +Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds, fishes, insects, +reptiles, crustacæ, the sun, and moon, and stars, thunder, and +lightning, for these are personified; and whatever either possesses +animal life, or is endowed, by the peculiar opinions and superstitions +of the Indians, with it. In the vegetable kingdom, their number is +comparatively limited, being chiefly confined to trees, and those only +while they are referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species +of fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the speaker +to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates: but it is a choice +seldom resorted to, except in conformity with stated exceptions. These +conventional exceptions are not numerous, and the more prominent of +them, may be recited. The cause of the exceptions it is not always easy +to perceive. It may, however, generally be traced to a particular +respect paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real or +fancied properties--the uses to which they are applied, or the +ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the altar of +sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so necessary in the chase; +a feather, the honored sign of martial prowess; a kettle, so valuable in +the household; a pipe, by which friendships are sealed and treaties +ratified; a drum, used in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the +mask of authority; vermilion, the appropriate paint of the warrior; +wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants remembered. These +are among the objects, in themselves inanimates, which require the +application of animate verbs, pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby +transferred to the animate class. + +It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are only +employed as animates, while the objects are referred to as whole and +complete species. But the gender must be changed, when it becomes +necessary to speak of separate numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are +separate nouns, so long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot, +head, eye, ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while +his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but neck, +back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like manner, eagle, +swan, dove, are distinguished as animates; but beak, wing, tail, are +arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine, ash, are animate; branch, leaf, +root, inanimates. + +Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule--the reasons for +which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought, either in +peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar qualities or uses +of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle, and the claws of the bear, +and of other animals, which furnish ornaments for the neck, are +invariably spoken of, under the animate form. The hoofs and horns of all +quadrupeds, which are applied to various economical and mystic purposes; +the castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man, are similarly +situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some exceptions of this +nature; such are the names for the outer bark of all trees (except the +birch), and the branches, the roots, and the resin of the spruce, and +its congeners. + +In a language, which considers all nature as separated into two classes +of bodies, characterized by the presence or absence of life; neuter +nouns will scarcely be looked for, although such may exist without my +knowledge. Neuters are found amongst the verbs and the adjectives, but +it is doubtful whether they render the nouns to which they are applied +neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The subject in all its +bearings is interesting, and a full and minute description of it would +probably elicit new light respecting some doubtful points in the +language, and contribute something towards a curious collateral +topic--the history of Indian opinions. I have stated the principle +broadly, without filling up the subject of exceptions as fully as it is +in my power, and without following its bearings upon points which will +more properly come under discussion at other stages of the inquiry. A +sufficient outline, it is believed, has been given, and having thus met, +at the threshold, a principle deeply laid at the foundation of the +language, and one which will be perpetually recurring, I shall proceed +to enumerate some other prominent features of the substantive. + +2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without +number. But there are, probably, few which furnish so many modes of +indicating it, as the Odjibwa. There are as many modes of forming the +plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet there is no distinction between a +limited and unlimited plural; although there is, in the pronoun, an +_inclusive_ and an _exclusive_ plural. Whether we say _man_ or _men_, +_two men_ or _twenty men_, the singular _inin´i_, and the plural +_nin´iwug_, remains the same. But if we say _we_, or _us_, or _our men_ +(who are present), or _we_, or _us_, or _our Indians_ (in general), the +plural _we_, and _us_, and _our_--for they are rendered by the same +form--admit of a change to indicate whether the objective person be +_included_ or _excluded_. This principle, of which full examples will be +given under the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous instance +of the use of particular plurals. And it carries its distinctions, by +means of the pronouns, separable and inseparable, into the verbs and +substantives, creating the necessity of double conjugations and double +declensions, in the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for +"Our Father," which, in the inclusive form is _Kósinân_, is, in the +exclusive, _Nósinân_. + +The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power of the +language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of the verb and +substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of persons or objects, +but arises from the operations of the verb. The general plural is +variously made. But the plurals making inflections take upon themselves +an additional power or sign, by which substantives are distinguished +into animate and inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns +plural would end in the vowels _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_. But to mark the +gender, the letter _g_ is added to animates, and the letter _n_ to +inanimates, making the plurals of the first class terminate in _âg_, +_eeg_, _ig_, _ôg_, _ug_, and of the second class in _ân_, _een_, _in_, +_ôn_, _un_. Ten modes of forming the plural are thus provided, five of +which are animate, and five inanimate plurals. A strong and clear line +of distinction is thus drawn between the two classes of words; so +unerring, indeed, in its application, that it is only necessary to +inquire how the plural is formed, to determine whether it belonged to +one or the other class. The distinctions which we have endeavored to +convey will, perhaps, be more clearly perceived, by adding examples of +the use of each of the plurals. + +Animate Plural. + + a. Odjibwâi, a Chippewa. Odjibwaig, Chippewas. + e. Ojee, a Fly. Oj-eeg, Flies. + i. Kosénan, Our father, (in.) Kosenân-ig, Our fathers, (in.) + o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees. + u. Ais, a Schell. Ais-ug, Shells. + + +Inanimate Plural. + + a. Ishkôdai, Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires. + e. Wadôp, Alder. Wadôp-een, Alders. + i. Adetaig, Fruit. Adetaig-in, Fruits. + o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds. + u. Meen, Berry. Meen-un, Berries. + +Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the addition of +the _g_, or _n_, shows at once, both the plural and the gender. In other +instances, as in _peenai_, a partridge--_seebi_, a river--it requires a +consonant to precede the plural vowel, in conformity with a rule +previously stated. Thus, _peenai_, is rendered _peenai-wug_--and +_seebi_, _seebi-wun_. Where the noun singular terminates in the broad, +instead of the long sound of _a_, as in _ogimâ_, a chief, _ishpatinâ_, a +hill, the plural is _ogim-ag_, _ishpatinân_. But these are mere +modifications of two of the above forms, and are by no means entitled to +be considered as additional plurals. + +Comparatively few substances are without number. The following may be +enumerated:-- + + Missun´, Firewood. Ussáimâ, Tobacco. + Pinggwi, Ashes. Naigow, Sand. + Méjim, Food. Ahwun, Mist. + Kôn, Snow. Kimmiwun, Rain. + Mishk´wi, Blood. Ossâkumig, Moss. + Ukkukkuzhas, Coals. Unitshimin, Peas. + +Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known. But it is less +an object, in this lecture, to pursue exceptions into their minutest +ramifications, than to sketch broad rules, applicable, if not to every +word, to at least a majority of words in the language. + +There is, however, one exception from the general use of number, so +peculiar in itself, that not to point it out would be an unpardonable +remissness in giving the outlines of a language, in which it is an +object neither to extenuate faults nor to overrate beauties. This +exception consists in the want of number in the _third person_ of the +declensions of animate nouns, and the conjugation of animate verbs. Not +that such words are destitute of number, in their simple forms, or when +used under circumstances requiring no change of these simple forms--no +prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at a glance, how very +limited such an application of words must be, in a transpositive +language. + +Thus _mang_ and _kâg_ (loon and porcupine) take the plural inflection +_wug_, becoming _mang wug_ and _kâg wug_ (loons and porcupines). So, in +their pronominal declension:-- + + My loon Ni mang oom + Thy loon Ki mang oom + My porcupine Ni gâg oom + Thy porcupine Ki gâg oom + My loons Ni mang oom ug + Thy loons Ki mang oom ug + My porcupines Ni gâg oom ug + Thy porcupines Ki gâg oom ug + +But his loon, or loons (_o many oom un_), his porcupine or porcupines +(_o gâg oom un_), are without number. The rule applies equally to the +class of words in which the pronouns are inseparable. Thus, my father +and thy father, _nôs_ and _kôs_, become my fathers and thy fathers, by +the numerical inflection _ug_, forming _nôsug_ and _kôsug_. But _ôsun_, +his father or fathers, is vague, and does not indicate whether there be +one father or twenty fathers. The inflection _un_, merely denotes the +_object_. The rule also applies equally to sentences in which the noun +is governed by or governs the verb. Whether we say, "I saw a bear," +_ningi wâbumâ mukwah_, or "a bear saw me," _mukwah ningi wâbumig_, the +noun, itself, undergoes no change, and its number is definite. But _ogi +wâbumân muk-wun_, "he saw bear," is indefinite, although both the verb +and the noun have changed their endings. And if the narrator does not +subsequently determine the number, the hearer is either left in doubt, +or must resolve it by a question. In fine, the whole acts of the third +person are thus rendered questionable. This want of precision, which +would seem to be fraught with so much confusion, appears to be obviated +in practice, by the employment of adjectives, by numerical inflections +in the relative words of the sentence, by the use of the indefinite +article, _paizhik_, or by demonstrative pronouns. Thus, _paizhik mukwun +ogi wâbumân_, conveys with certainty the information "he saw _a_ bear." +But in this sentence both the noun and the verb retain the objective +inflections, as in the former instances. These inflections are not +uniformly _un_, but sometimes _een_, as in _ogeen_, his mother, and +sometimes _ôn_, as in _odakeek-ôn_, his kettle, in all which instances, +however, the number is left indeterminate. It may hence be observed, and +it is a remark which we shall presently have occasion to corroborate, +that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns (which have no objective +form), forms the objective inflection to animate nouns, which have no +number in the third person. + +3. This leads us to the consideration of the mode of forming +possessives, the existence of which, when it shall have been indicated +by full examples, will present to the mind of the inquirer, one of those +tautologies in grammatical forms, which, without imparting additional +precision, serve to clothe the language with accumulated verbiage. The +strong tendency to combination and amalgamation, existing in the +language, renders it difficult, in fact, to discuss the principles of it +in that elementary form which could be wished. In the analysis of words +and forms we are constantly led from the central point of discussion. To +recur, however, from these collateral unravellings to the main thread of +inquiry, at as short and frequent intervals as possible, and thus to +preserve the chain of conclusions and proofs, is so important, that, +without keeping the object distinctly in view, I should despair of +conveying any clear impressions of those grammatical features which +impart to the language its peculiar character. + +It has been remarked that the distinctions of number are founded upon a +modification of the five vowel sounds. Possessives are likewise founded +upon the basis of the vowel sounds. There are five declensions of the +noun to mark the possessive, ending in the possessive in _âm_, _eem_, +_im_, _ôm_, _um_, _oom_. Where the nominative ends with a vowel, the +possessive is made by adding the letter _m_, as in _maimai_, a woodcock, +_ni maimaim_, my woodcock, &c. Where the nominative ends in a consonant, +as in _ais_, a shell, the full possessive inflection is required, making +_nin daisim_, my shell. In the latter form, the consonant _d_ is +interposed between the pronoun and noun, and sounded with the noun, in +conformity with a general rule. Where the nominative ends in the broad +in lieu of the long sound of _a_, as in _ogimâ_, a chief, the +possessive is _âm_. The sound of _i_, in the third declension, is that +of _i_ in pin, and the sound of _u_, in the fifth declension, is that of +_u_ in bull. The latter will be uniformly represented by _oo_. + +The possessive declensions run throughout both the animate and inanimate +classes of nouns, with some exceptions in the latter, as knife, bowl, +paddle, &c. + +Inanimate nouns are thus declined. + +Nominative. + +Ishkôdai, Fire. + +Possessive. + + My, Nin Dishkod-aim. + Thy, Ki Dishkod-aim. + His, O Dishkod-aim. + Our, Ki Dishkod-aim-inân. (in.) + -- Ni Dishkod-aim-inân. (ex.) + Your, Ki Dishkod-aim-iwâ. + Their, O Dishko-aim-iwâ. + +Those words which form exceptions from this declension, take the +separable pronouns before them as follows:-- + + Môkoman, A Knife. + Ni môkoman, My Knife. + Ki môkoman, Thy Knife. + O môkoman, His Knife, &c. + +Animate substantives are declined precisely in the same manner as +inanimate, except in the third person, which takes to the possessive +inflections, _aim_, _eem_, _im_, _ôm_, _oom_, the objective particle +_un_, denoting the compound inflection of this person, both in the +singular and plural, _aimun_, _eemun_, _imun_, _ômun_, _oomun_, and the +variation of the first vowel sound, _âmun_. Thus, to furnish an example +of the second declension, _bizhiki_, a bison, changes its forms to +_nim_, _bizhik-im_, my bison--_ke bizhik-im_, thy bison, _O +bizhik-imun_, his bison, or bisons. + +The cause of this double inflection in the third person, may be left for +future inquiry. But we may add further examples in aid of it. We cannot +simply say, "The chief has killed a bear," or, to reverse the object +upon which the energy of the verb is exerted, "The bear has killed a +chief." But, _ogimâ ogi nissân muk-wun_, literally, "Chief he has has +killed him bear," or, _mukwah ogi_ _nissân ogimân_, "Bear he has killed +him chief." Here the verb and the noun are both objective in _un_, which +is sounded _ân_, where it comes after the broad sound of _a_, as in +_nissân_, objective of the verb to kill. If we confer the powers of the +English possessive (_'s_), upon the inflections _aim_, _eem_, _im_, +_ôm_, _oom_, and _âm_, respectively, and the meaning of _him_, and of +course _he_, _her_, _his_, _hers_, _they_, _theirs_ (as there is no +declension of the pronoun, and no number to the third person), upon the +objective particle _un_, we shall then translate the above expression, +_o bizhik-eemum_, his bison's hisn. If we reject this meaning, as I +think we should, the sentence would read, "His bison," him, a mere +tautology. + +It is true, it may be remarked, that the noun possessed, has a +corresponding termination, or pronominal correspondence, with the +pronoun possessor, also a final termination indicative of its being the +_object_ on which the verb exerts its influence--a mode of expression, +which, so far as relates to the possessive, would be deemed superfluous, +in modern languages; but may have some analogy in the Latin accusatives +_am_, _um_, _em_. + +It is a constant and unremitting aim in the Indian languages to +distinguish the actor from the object, partly by prefixes, and partly by +inseparable suffixes. That the termination _un_, is one of these +inseparable particles, and that its office, while it confounds the +number, is to designate the object, appears probable from the fact, that +it retains its connection with the noun, whether the latter follow or +precede the verb, or whatever its position in the sentence may be. + +Thus we can, without any perplexity in the meaning say, +_Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân Pontiac-un_, "Frenchmen, they did love +Pontiac him." Or to reverse it, _Pontiac-un Waimittigôzhiwug ogi sagiân_, +"Pontiac, he did Frenchmen he loved." The termination _un_, in both +instances, clearly determines the object beloved. So in the following +instance, _Sagunoshug ogi sagiân Tecumseh-un_, "Englishmen, they did +love Tecumseh," or _Tecumseh-un Sagunoshug oji sagiân_, "Tecumseh, he +did Englishmen he loved." + +In tracing the operation of this rule, through the doublings of the +language, it is necessary to distinguish every modification of sound, +whether it is accompanied or not accompanied by a modification of the +sense. The particle _un_, which thus marks _the third person and +persons_, is sometimes pronounced _wun_, and sometimes _yun_, as the +harmony of the word to which it is suffixed may require. But not the +slightest change is thereby made in its meaning. + + Wâbojeeg ogi meegân-ân nâdowaisi-wun. + + Wâbojeeg fought his enemies. L.[271] W. he did fight them, his + enemy, or enemies. + + O sâgi-ân inini-wun. + + He, or she, loves a man. L. He, or she, loves him-man, or men. + + Kigo-yun waindji pimmâdizziwâd. + + They subsist on fish. L. Fish or fishes, they upon them, they live. + + Ontwa o sagiân odi-yun. + + Ontwa loves his dog. L. O. he loves him, his dog, or dogs. + + [271] L. for _literally_. + +In these sentences, the letters _w_ and _y_ are introduced before the +inflection _un_, merely for euphony's sake, and to enable the speaker to +utter the final vowel of the substantive, and the inflective vowel, +without placing both under the accent. It is to be remarked in these +examples, that the verb has a corresponding inflection with the noun, +indicated by the final consonant _n_, as in _sagiâ-n_, objective of the +verb _to love_. This is merely a modification of _un_, where it is +requisite to employ it after broad _a_ (_aw_), and it is applicable to +nouns as well as verbs whenever they end in that sound. Thus, in the +phrase, "He saw a chief," _O wâbumâ-n O gimâ-n_, both noun and verb +terminate in _n_. It is immaterial to the sense, which precedes. And +this leads to the conclusion, which we are in some measure compelled to +state in anticipation of our remarks on the verb: That verbs must not +only agree with their nominatives in number, person, and _gender_ (we +use the latter term for want of a more appropriate one), but also with +their objectives. Hence, the objective sign _n_ in the above examples. +Sometimes this sign is removed from the ending of the verb, to make room +for the plural of the nominative person, and is subjoined to the latter. +Thus, + + O sagiâ(wâ)n. + They love them (him or them). + +In this phrase, the interposed syllable (_wâ_) is, apparently, the +plural--it is a reflective plural--of _he_--the latter being indicated, +as usual, by the sign _O_. It has been observed, above, that the +deficiency in number, in the third person, is sometimes supplied "by +numerical inflections in the relative words of the sentence," and this +interposed particle (_wâ_) affords an instance in point. + +The number of the nominative pronoun appears to be thus rendered +precise, but the objective is still indefinite. + +When two nouns are used without a verb in the sentence, or when two +nouns compose the whole matter uttered, being in the third person, both +have the full objective inflection. Thus, + + Os-(un). Odi-(yun). + His father's dog. L. His father--his dog or dogs. + +There are certain words, however, which will not admit the objective +_un_, either in its simple or modified forms. These are rendered +objective in _een_, or _ôn_. + + O wâbumâ-(n), ossin-(een). + He sees the stone. L. He sees him--stone or stones. + O wâbumâ-(n) mittig o mizh-(een). L. He sees him, tree or trees. + He sees an oak tree. + O mittig wâb (een), gyai o bikwuk-(ôn). + His bow and his arrows. L. His bow him, and his arrows, him or them. + Odyâ | wâ | wâ (n), akkik-(ôn). + They possess a kettle. L. They own them, kettle or kettles. + +The syllable _wâ_, in the verb of the last example included between bars +(instead of parentheses), is the reflective plural _they_ pointed out in +a preceding instance. + +I shall conclude these remarks, with full examples of each pronominal +declension. + +_a._ First declension, forming the first and second persons in _aim_, +and the third in _aimun_. + +Nominative. + + Pinâi, a partridge. + Pinâi-wug, partridges. + + +First and second person. + + My, Nim Bin-aim. + Thy, Ki Bin-aim. + Our, Ki Bin-aim inân. Inclusive plural. + Our, Ni Bin-aiminân. Exclusive plural. + Your, Ki Bin-aim wâ. + + +Third person. + + His, O Bin-aim (un). + Their, O Bin-aim iwâ (n). + +_e._ Second declension forming the first and second persons in eem, and +the third in _eemun_. + +Nominative. + + Ossin, a stone. + Ossineen, stones. + + +First and second persons. + + My, Nin Dossin-eem. + Thy, Ki Dossin-eem. + Our, Ki Dossin-eeminân. (in.) + Our, Ni Dossin-eeminân. (ex.) + Your, Ke Dossin-eemewâ. + + +Third person. + + His, O Dossin-eem(un). + Their, O Dossin-eemewâ (n). + +_i._ Third declension forming the first and second persons in _im_, and +the third in _imun_. + +Nominative. + + Ais, a shell. + Aisug, shells. + +First and second persons. + + My, Nin Dais-im. + Thy, Ki Dais-im. + Our, Ki Dais-iminân. (in.) + Our, Ni Dais-iminân. (ex.) + Your, Ki Dais-imiwâ. + +Third person. + + His, O Dais-im (un). + Their, O Dais-imewâ (n). + +_o._ Fourth declension forming the first and second persons in _ôm_, and +the third in _ômun_. + +Nominative. + + Monidô, a Spirit. + Monidôg, Spirits. + +First and second persons. + + My, Ni Monid-ôm. + Thy, Ki Monid-ôm. + Our, Ki Monid-ôminân. (in.) + Our, Ni Monid-ôminân. (ex.) + Your, Ki Monid-ômiwâ. + +Third person. + + His, O Monid-ôm (un). + Their, O Monid-ômewâ (n). + +_u._ (_oo_) Fifth declension forming the first and second persons in +_oom_, and the third in _oomun_. + +Nominative. + + Môz, a Moose. + Môzôg, Moose. + +First and second persons. + + My, Ni Môz-oom. + Thy, Ki Môz-oom. + Our, Ki Môz-oominân. (in.) + Our, Ni Môz-oominân. (ex.) + Your, Ki Môz-oomiwu. + +Third person. + + His, O Môz oom (un). + Their, O Môz oomiwâ (n). + +_aw._ Additional declension, required when the noun ends in the broad, +instead of the long sound of a, forming the possessive in _âm_, and the +objective in _âmun_. + +Nominative. + + Ogimâ, a Chief. + Ogimâg, Chiefs. + +First and second persons. + + My, Ni Dôgim âm. + Thy, Ki Dôgim âm. + Our, Ki Dôgim âminân. (in.) + Our, Ni Dôgim âminân. (ex.) + Your, Ki Dôgim âmiwâ. + +Third person. + + His, O Dôgim âm (un). + Their, O Dôgim âmiwâ (n). + +The abbreviations, _in._, and _ex._, in these declensions, mark the +inclusive and exclusive forms of the pronoun plural. The inflection of +the third person, as it is superadded to the first and second, is +included between parentheses, that the eye, unaccustomed to these +extended forms, may readily detect it. + +Where the inseparable, instead of the separable pronoun is employed, the +possessive inflection of the first and second person is dispensed with, +although the inflection of the third is still retained. + +Os: Father. + +_S. singular._ + + Nos. My father. + Kos. Thy father. + Os-un. His father. _Sing. and plural._ + Nos-inân. Our father. (ex.) + Kos-inân. Our father. (in.) + Kos-iwâ. Your father. + Os-iwân. Their father. _Sing. and plural._ + +_S. plural._ + + Nos-ug. My fathers. + Kos-ug. Thy fathers. + Os-un. His fathers. _Sing. and plural._ + Nos.-inân ig. Our fathers. (ex.) + Kos.-inân ig. Our fathers. (in.) + Kos-iwâg. Your fathers. + Os-iwân. Their fathers. _Sing. and plural._ + +The word dog, and this word alone, is declined in the following manner. + +Annimoosh: a Dog. + +_S. singular._ + + Nin Dy (or Di) My dog. + Ki Dy Thy dog. + O Dy-un His dog or dogs. + Ki Dy-inân Our dog. (in.) + Ni Dy-inân Our dog. (ex.) + Ki Dy-iwâ Your dog. + O Dy-iwân Their dog, &c. + +_S. plural._ + + Nin Dy-ug My dogs. + Ki Dy-ug Thy dogs. + O Dy-un His dogs, &c. + Ki Dy-inânig Our dogs. (in.) + Ni Dy-inânig Our dogs. (ex.) + Ki Dy-iwâg Your dogs. + O Dy-iwân His dogs, &c. + +The word _Dy_, which supplies this declension, is derived from _Indyiâm_ +mine. _pron. an._--a derivative form of the word, which is, however, +exclusively restricted, in its meaning, to the dog. If the expression +_Nin Dy_ or _N' Dy_, is sometimes applied to the horse, it is because it +is thereby intended to call him, my dog, from his being in a state of +servitude similar to that of the dog. It must be borne in mind, as +connected with this subject, that the dog, in high northern latitudes, +and even as far south as 42 degrees, is both a beast of draught and of +burden. He is compelled during the winter season to draw the _odâban_, +or Indian sleigh; and sometimes to support the burden upon his back, by +means of a kind of drag constructed of slender poles. + +A review of the facts which have been brought together respecting the +substantive, will show that the separable or inseparable pronouns under +the form of prefixes, are throughout required. It will also indicate, +that the inflections of the first and second persons which occupy the +place of possessives, and those of the third person, resembling +objectives, pertain to words, which are either primitives, or denote but +a single object, as _moose_, _fire_. There is, however, another class of +substantives, or substantive expressions, and an extensive class--for it +embraces a great portion of the compound descriptive terms--in the use +of which no pronominal prefixes are required. The distinctions of person +are, exclusively, supplied by pronominal suffixes. Of this character are +the words descriptive of country, place of dwelling, field of battle, +place of employment, &c. The following example will furnish the +inflections applicable to this entire class of words:-- + +Aindâd: Home, or place of dwelling. + + _S. singular._ + Aindâ-yân. My home. + Aindâ-yun. Thy home. + Aindâ-d. His home. + Aindâ-yâng. Our home. (ex.) + Aindâ-yung. Our home. (in.) + Aindâ-yaig. Your home. + Aindâ-wâd. Their home. + +_S. plural._ + + Aindâ-yân-in. My homes. + Aindâ-yun-in. Thy homes. + Aindâ-jin. His homes. + Aindâ-yâng-in. Our homes. (ex.) + Aindâ-yung-in. Our homes. (in.) + Aindâ-yaig-in. Your homes. + Aindâ-wâdjin. Their homes. + +By these examples, it is perceived that the final _d_ in _aindâd_ is not +essential to its primitive meaning; and that the place of the pronoun +is, in respect to this word, invariably a suffix. _Aindâd_ means, truly, +not home, but his home. The plural is formed by the inflection _in_, +except in the third person, where the sound of _d_ sinks in _j_. + + +INQUIRY 2. + + Further remarks on the substantive--Local, diminutive, derogative, and + tensal inflections--Mode in which the latter are employed to + denote the disease of individuals, and to indicate the past and + future seasons--Restricted or sexual terms--Conversion of the + substantive into a verb, and the reciprocal character of the verb + by which it is converted into a substantive--Derivative and + compound substantives--Summary of the properties of this part of + speech. + +In the view which has been taken of the substantive in the preceding +Inquiry, it has been deemed proper to exclude several topics, which, +from their peculiarities, it was believed could be more satisfactorily +discussed in a separate form. Of this character are those modifications +of the substantive by which locality, diminution, a defective quality, +and the past tense are expressed; by which various adjective and +adverbial significations are given; and, finally, the substantives +themselves converted into verbs. Such are also the mode of indicating +the masculine and feminine (both merged, as we have shown, in the +animate class), and those words which are of a strictly _sexual_ +character, or are restricted in their _use_ either to males or females. +Not less interesting is the manner of forming derivatives, and of +conferring upon the derivatives so formed a _personality_, distinguished +as either animate or inanimate, at the option of the speaker. + +Much of the flexibility of the substantive is derived from these +properties, and they undoubtedly add much to the figurative character of +the language. Some of them have been thought analogous to case, +particularly that inflection of the noun which indicates the locality of +the object. But if so, then there would be equally strong reasons for +establishing an _adjective_, and an _adverbial_, as well as a _local_ +case, and a plurality of forms in each. But it is believed that no such +necessity exists. There is no regular declension of these forms, and +they are all used under limitations and restrictions incompatible with +the true principles of case. + +It is under this view of the subject, that the discussion of these forms +has been transferred, together with the other accidents of the +substantive just adverted to, and reserved as the subject-matter of a +separate inquiry. And in now proceeding to express the conclusions at +which we have arrived touching these points, it will be an object so to +compress and arrange the materials before us, as to present within a +small compass the leading facts and examples upon which each separate +position depends. + +1. That quality of the noun which, in the shape of an inflection, +denotes the relative situation of the object, by the contiguous position +of some accessory object, is expressed in the English language by the +prepositions _in_, _into_, _at_, or _on_. In the Indian, they are +denoted by an inflection. Thus, the phrase "In the box," is rendered in +the Indian by one word, _mukukoong_. Of this word, _mukuk_, simply, is +box. The termination, _oong_, denoting the locality, not of the box, but +of the object sought after. The expression appears to be precise, +although there is no definite article in the language. + +The substantive takes this form, most commonly, after a question has +been put, as _Anindi ni môkoman-ais?_ "Where is my penknife?" +_Mukukoong_ (in the box), _addôpowin-ing_ (on the table), are definite +replies to this question. But the form is not restricted to this +relation. _Chimân-ing n'guh pôz_, "I shall embark in the canoe;" +_wakyigum n'ghu izhâ_, "I shall go into the house," are perfectly +correct, though somewhat formal expressions, when the canoe or the house +are present to the speaker's view. + +The meaning of these inflections has been restricted to _in_, _into_, +_at_, and _on_, but they are the more appropriate forms of expressing +the first three senses, there being other modes besides these of +expressing the preposition _on_. These modes consist in the use of +prepositions, and will be explained under that head. The choice of the +one or the other is, however, with the speaker. Generally, the +inflection is employed when there is some circumstance or condition +of the noun either concealed or not fully apparent. Thus, +_Muzzinyigun-ing_, is the appropriate term for "In the book," and _may_ +also be used to signify "On the book." But if it is meant only to +signify _on_ the book, something visible being referred to, the +preposition _ogidj_ would be used, that word indicating with certainty +_on_, and never _in_. _Wakyigun-ing_ indicates with clearness "In the +house;" but if it is necessary to say "On the house," and it be meant at +the same time to exclude any reference to the interior, the expression +would be changed to _ogidj wakyigun_. + +It will be proper further to remark in this place, in the way of +limitation, that there is also a separate preposition signifying _in_. +It is _pinj_. But the use of this word does not, in all cases, supersede +the necessity of inflecting the noun. Thus, the expression _pindigain_, +is literally walk in, or enter. But if it is intended to say, "Walk in +the house," the local, and not the simple form of house must be used; +and the expression is, _Pindigain waky'igun-ing_, "Enter in the house," +the verbal form which this preposition _pinj_ puts on, having no +allusion to the act of _walking_, but merely implying position. + +The local inflection, which, in the above examples, is _ing_ and _oong_, +is further changed to _aing_ and _eeng_, as the ear may direct--changes +which are governed chiefly by the terminal vowel of the noun. Examples +will best supply the rule, as well as the exceptions to it. + +SIMPLE FORM. LOCAL FORM. + +a. First inflection in _aing_. + + Ishkodai Fire Ishkod-aing In, &c. the fire. + Muskodai Prairie Muskod-aing In, &c. the prairie. + Mukkuddai Powder Mukkud-aing In, &c. the powder. + Pimmedai Grease Pimmid-aing In, &c. the grease. + +e. Second inflection in _eeng_.[272] + + [272] The double vowel is here employed to indicate the long sound of + _i_, as _i_ in machine. + + Seebi River Seeb-eeng In, &c. the river. + Neebi Water Neeb-eeng In, &c. the water. + Miskwi Blood Miskw-eeng In, &c. the blood. + Unneeb Elm Unneeb-eeng In, &c. the elm. + +i. Third inflection in _ing_. + + Kôn Snow Kôn-ing In, &c. the snow. + Min Berry Meen-ing In, &c. the berry. + Chimân Canoe Chimân-ing In, &c. the canoe. + Muzziny´egun Book Muzziny´egun-ing In, &c. the book. + +o. Fourth inflection in _oong_. + + Azhibik Rock Azhibik-oong In, &c. the rock. + Gizhig Sky Gizhig-oong In, &c. the sky. + Kimmiwun Rain Kimmiwun-oong In, &c. the rain. + Akkik Kettle Akkik-oong In, &c. the kettle. + + Throw it in the fire. + 1. Puggidôn ishkod-aing. + Go into the prairie. + 2. Muskôdaing izhân. + He is in the elm. + 3. Unnib-eeng iâ. + It is on the water. + 4. Nib-eeng attai. + Put it on the table. + 5. Addôpôwin-ing attôn. + Look in the book. + 6. Enâbin muzziny´igun-ing. + You stand in the rain. + 7. Kimmiwun-oong ki nibow. + What have you in that box? + 8. Waigonain aitaig mukuk-oong? + Put it in the kettle. + 9. Akkik-oong attôn, or Pôdawain. + My bow is not in the lodge; neither is it in the canoe, nor on + the rock. + 10. Kâwin _pindiq_ iâsi ni mittigwâb; kâwiuh gyai chimân-_ing_; + kâwin gyai âzhibik-_oong_. + +An attentive inspection of these examples will show that the local form +pertains either to such nouns of the animate class as are in their +nature inanimate, or at most possessed of vegetable life. And here +another conclusion presses upon us; that where these local terminations, +in all their variety, are added to the names of animated beings, when +such names are the nominatives of adjectives or adjective-nouns, these +words are converted into terms of qualification, indicating _like_, +_resembling_, _equal_. Thus, if we wish to say to a boy, "He is like a +man," the expression is, _Inin-ing izzhinâgozzi_; or, if to a man, "He +is like a bear," _Mukk-oong izzhinâgozzi_; or, to a bear, "He is like a +horse, _Pabaizhikogâzh-ing izzhinâgozzi_. In all these expressions, the +word _izzhi_ is combined with the pronominal inflection _â_ (or _nâ_) +and the animate termination _gozzi_. And the inflection of the +nominative is merely an adjective corresponding with _izzhi_--a term +indicative of the general qualities of persons or animated beings. Where +a comparison is instituted, or a resemblance pointed out, between +inanimate instead of animate objects, the inflection _gozzi_ is changed +to _gwud_, rendering the expression, which was, in the animate form, +_izzhinâ_gozzi, in the inanimate form _izzhinâ_zgwud. + +There is another variation of the local form of the noun, in addition to +those above instanced, indicative of locality in a more general sense. +It is formed by _ong_ or _nong_--frequent terminations in geographical +names. Thus, from _Ojibwai_, Chippewa, is formed _Ojibwai_nong, "Place +of the Chippewas." From _Wamattigozhiwug_, Frenchmen, is formed +_Wamittigozhi_nong, "Place of Frenchmen." From _Ishpatinâ_, Hill, +_Ishpatinong_, "Place of the hill," &c. The termination _ing_, is also +sometimes employed in this more general sense, as in the following names +of places:-- + + Monomonikâ_ning_. In the place of wild rice. + Moninggwunikâ_ning_. In the place of sparrows. + Ongwashagoosh_ing_. In the place of the fallen tree, &c. + +2. The diminutive forms of the noun are indicated by _ais_, _eas_, _ôs_, +and _aus_, as the final vowel of the word may require. Thus, _Ojibwai_, +a Chippewa, becomes _Ojibw-ais_, a little Chippewa: _Inin´i_, a man, +_inin-ees_, a little man: _Amik_, a beaver, _amik-ôs_, a young beaver: +_Ogimâ_, a chief, _ogim-âs_, a little chief, or a chief of little +authority. Further examples may be added. + +SIMPLE FORM. DIMINUTIVE FORM. + +--ais. + + A woman Eekwâ Eekwâz-ais. + A partridge Pinâ Pin-ais. + A woodcock Mâimâi Mâim-ais. + An island Minnis Minnis-ais. + A grape Shômin Shômin-ais. + A knife Môkoman Môkoman-ais. + +--ees. + + A stone Ossin Ossin-ees. + A river Seebi Seeb-ees. + A pigeon Omimi Omim-ees. + A bison Pizhiki Pizhik-ees. + A potato Opin Opin-ees. + A bird Pinâisi Pinâish-ees. + +--ôs. + + A moose Môz Môz-ôs. + An otter Nigik Nigik-ôs. + A reindeer Addik Addik-ôs. + An elk Mushkôs Mushkôs-ôs. + A hare Wâbôs Wâbôs-ôs. + A box Mukuk Mukuk-ôs. + +--aus. + + A bass Ogâ Og-âs. + A medal Shôniâ Shôni-âs. + A bowl Onâgun Onâg-âns. + A bed Nibâgun Nibâg-aûns. + A gun Pâshkizzigun Pâshkizzig-âns. + A house Wakyigun Wakyig-âns. + +In the last four examples, the letter _n_, of the diminutive, retains +its full sound. + +The use of diminutives has a tendency to give conciseness to the +language. As far as they can be employed they supersede the use of +adjectives, or prevent the repetition of them. And they enable the +speaker to give a turn to the expression, which is often very +successfully employed in producing ridicule or contempt. When applied to +the tribes of animals, or to inorganic objects, their meaning, however, +is, very nearly, limited to an inferiority in size or age. Thus, in the +above examples, _pizhik-ees_, signifies a calf; _omim-ees_, a young +pigeon; and _ossin-ees_, a pebble, &c. But _inin-ees_, and _ogim-âs_, +are connected with the idea of mental or conventional as well as bodily +inferiority. + + 1. I saw a little chief, standing upon a small island, with an inferior + medal abouthis neck. + Ogimâs n'gi wâbumâ nibowid minnisainsing onâbikowân shoniâsun. + + 2. Yamoyden threw at a young pigeon. + Ogi pukkitaiwun omimeesun Yamoyden. + + 3. A buffalo calf stood in a small stream. + Pizhikees ki nibowi sibeesing. + + 4. The little man fired at a young moose. + Ininees ogi pâshkizwân môzôsun. + + 5. Several diminutive-looking bass were lying in a small bowl, upon + a small table. + Addôpowinaising attai onâgâns abbiwâd ogâsug. + +Some of these sentences afford instances of the use, at the same time, +of both the local and diminutive inflections. Thus, the word +_minnisainsing_, signifies literally, "in the little island;" +_seebees-ing_, "in the little stream;" _addôpowinais ing_, "on the small +table." + +3. The preceding forms are not the only ones by which adjective +qualities are conferred upon the substantive. The syllable _ish_, when +added to a noun, indicates a bad or dreaded quality, or conveys the idea +of imperfection or decay. The sound of this inflection is sometimes +changed to _eesh_, _oosh_, or _aush_. Thus, _Chimân_, a canoe, becomes +_Chimânish_, a bad canoe; _Ekwai_, a woman, _Ekwaiwish_, a bad woman; +_nibi_, water, becomes _nibeesh_, turbid or strong water; _mittig_, a +tree, becomes _mittigoosh_, a decayed tree; _akkik_, a kettle, +_akkikoosh_, a worn-out kettle. By a further change, _wibid_, a tooth, +becomes _wibidâsh_, a decayed or aching tooth, &c. Throughout these +changes the final sound of _sh_ is retained, so that this sound alone, +at the end of a word, is indicative of a faulty quality. + +In a language in which the expressions _bad-dog_ and _faint-heart_ are +the superlative terms of reproach, and in which there are few words to +indicate the modifications between positively good and positively bad, +it must appear evident that adjective inflections of this kind must be +convenient, and sometimes necessary modes of expression. They furnish a +means of conveying censure and dislike, which, though often mild, is +sometimes severe. Thus, if one person has had occasion to refuse the +offered hand of another--for it must be borne in mind that the Indians +are a hand-shaking people as well as the Europeans--the implacable party +has it at his option, in referring to the circumstance, to use the +adjective form of hand, not _onindj_, but _oninjeesh_, which would be +deemed contemptuous in a high degree. So, also, instead of _odâwai +winini_, a trader, or man who sells, the word may be changed to _odâwai +winini_wish, implying a bad or dishonest trader. It is seldom that a +more pointed or positive mode of expressing personal disapprobation or +dislike is required; for, generally speaking, more is implied by these +modes than is actually expressed. + +The following examples are drawn from the inorganic as well as organic +creation, embracing the two classes of nouns, that the operation of +these forms may be fully perceived. + + SIMPLE FORM. ADJECTIVE FORM. + +--ish. + + A bowl Onâgun Onâgun-ish. + A house Wakyigun Wakyigun-ish. + A pipe Opwâgun Opwâgun-ish. + A boy Kweewizais Kweewizais-ish. + A man Inini Ininiw-ish. + +--eesh. + + Water Neebi Neeb-ish. + A stone Ossin Ossin-eesh. + A potato Opin Opin-eesh. + A fly Ojee Oj-eesh. + A bow Mittigwâb Mittigwâb-eesh. + +--oosh. + + An otter Neegik Neegik-oosh. + A beaver Ahmik Ahmik-oosh. + A reindeer Addik Addik-oosh. + A kettle Akkeek Akkeek-oosh. + An axe Wagâkwut Wagâkwut-oosh. + +--aush. + + A foot Ozid Ozid-âsh. + An arm Onik Onik-âsh. + An ear Otowug Otowug-âsh. + A hoof Wunnussid Wunnussid-âsh. + A rush mat Appukwa Appukw-âsh. + +These forms cannot be said, strictly, to be without analogy in the +English, in which the limited number of words terminating in _ish_, as +saltish, blackish, furnish a correspondence in sound with the first +adjective form. + +It may subserve the purposes of generalization to add, as the result of +the foregoing inquiries, that substantives have a diminutive form, made +in _ais_, _ees_, _ôs_, or _âs_; a derogative form, made in _ish_, +_eesh_, _oosh_, or _âsh_; and a local form, made in _aing_, _eeng_, +_ing_, or _oong_. By a principle of accretion, the second or third may +be added to the first form, and the third to the second. + +EXAMPLE. + + Serpent, s. Kinai´bik. + + ---- s. diminutive. ----ôns, implying Little serpent. + ---- s. derogative. ----ish, " Bad serpent. + ---- s. local. ----ing, " In (the) serpent. + ---- s. dim. and der. ----ônsish, " Little bad serpent. + ---- s. dim. and lo. ----ônsing, " In (the) little + serpent. + ---- s. dim. der. and lo. ----ônsishing, " In (the) little bad + serpent. +4. More attention has, perhaps, been bestowed upon these points than +their importance demanded; but, in giving anything like a comprehensive +sketch of the substantive, they could not be omitted; and, if mentioned +at all, it became necessary to pursue them through their various changes +and limitations. Another reason has presented itself. In treating of an +unwritten language, of which others are to judge chiefly from examples, +it appeared desirable that the positions advanced should be accompanied +by the data upon which they respectively rest--at least, by so much of +the data employed as to enable philologists to appreciate the justice or +detect the fallacy of our conclusions. To the few who take any interest +in the subject at all, minuteness will not seem tedious, and the +examples will be regarded with deep interest. + +As much of our time as we have already devoted to these lesser points of +inquiry, it will be necessary, at this place, to point out other +inflections and modifications of the substantive, to clear it from +obscurities, that we may go into the discussion of the other parts of +speech unincumbered. + +Of these remaining forms, none is more interesting than that which +enables the speaker, by a simple inflection, to denote that the +individual named has ceased to exist. This delicate mode of conveying +melancholy intelligence, or alluding to the dead, is effected by placing +the object in the past tense. + + Aiekid-ôpun aieko Garrangula-bun. + So the deceased Garrangula spoke. + +The syllable _bun_, in this sentence, added to the noun, and _ôpun_ +added to the verb, place both in the past tense. And, although the +death of the Indian orator is not mentioned, that fact would be +invariably inferred. + +Names which do not terminate in a vowel sound, require a vowel prefixed +to the tensal inflection, rendering it _ôbun_ or _ebun_. Inanimate as +well as animate nouns take these inflections. + + PRESENT. PAST FORM. + + Tecumseh, Tecumsi-bun. + Tammany, Tamani-bun. + Skenandoah, Skenandoa-bun. + Nôs (my father), Nos-êbun. + Pontiac, Pontiac-ibun. + Waub Ojeeg, Waub Ojeeg-ibun. + Tarhe, Tarhi-bun. + Mittig (a tree), Mittig-ôbun. + Akkik (a kettle), Akkik-ôbun. + Môz (a moose), Môz-ôbun. + +By prefixing the particle _Tah_ to these words, and changing the +inflection of the animate nouns to _iwi_, and the inanimates to _iwun_, +they are rendered future. Thus, _Tah Pontiac-iwi_; _Tah Mittig-iwun_, +&c. + +The names for the seasons only come under the operation of these rules, +when the year before the last, or the year after the next, is referred +to. The last and the ensuing season are indicated as follows:-- + + PRESENT. LAST. NEXT. + + Spring, Seegwun, Seegwun-oong, Seegwung. + Summer, Neebin, Neebin-oong, Neebing. + Autumn, Tahgwâgi, Tahgwâg-oong, Tahgwâgig. + Winter, Peebôn, Peebôn-oong, Peebông. + + I spent last winter in hunting. + Ning´i nunda-wainjigai peebônoong. + I shall go to Detroit next spring. + Ninjah izhâ Wâwiâ´tunong seegwung. + +5. _Sexual Nouns.--_The mode of indicating the masculine and feminine +having been omitted in the preceding Inquiry, as not being essential to +any concordance with the verb or adjective, is, nevertheless, connected +with a striking peculiarity of the language--the exclusive use of +certain words by one or the other sex. After having appeared to the +founders of the language a distinction not necessary to be engrafted in +the syntax, there are yet a limited number of words to which the idea of +sex so strongly attaches, that it would be deemed the height of +impropriety in a female to use the masculine, and in a male to use the +feminine expressions. + +Of this nature are the words _Neeji_ and _Nindongwai_, both signifying +my friend, but the former is appropriated to males and the latter to +females. A Chippewa cannot, therefore, say to a female, my friend; nor a +Chippewa woman to a male, my friend. Such an interchange of the terms +would imply arrogance or indelicacy. Nearly the whole of their +interjections--and they are numerous--are also thus exclusively +appropriated; and no greater breach of propriety in speech could be +committed, than a woman's uttering the masculine exclamation of +surprise, _Tyâ!_ or a man's descending to the corresponding female +interjection, _N'yâ!_ + +The word _Neenimoshai_, my cousin, on the contrary, can only be applied, +like husband and wife, by a male to a female, or a female to a male. If +a male wishes to express this relation of a male, the term is +_Neetowis_; and the corresponding female term _Neendongwooshai_. + +The terms for uncle and aunt are also of a twofold character, though not +restricted like the preceding in their use. _Neemishomai_, is my uncle +by the father's side; _Neezhishai_, my uncle by the mother's side. +_Neezigwoos_, is my paternal aunt; _Neewishai_, my maternal aunt. + +There are also exclusive words to designate elder brother and younger +brother; but, what would not be expected after the fore going examples, +they are indiscriminately applied to younger brothers and sisters. +_Neesgai_, is my elder brother, and _neemissai_, my elder sister. +_Neeshemai_, my younger brother or younger sister, and may be applied to +any brother or sister except the eldest. + +The number of words to which the idea of sex is attached, in the usual +acceptation, is limited. The following may be enumerated. + + MASCULINE. FEMININE. + + Inin´i, A man. Ekwai´, A woman. + Kwee´wizais, A boy. Ekwa´zais, A girl. + Oskinahwai, A young man. Oskineegakwai, A young woman. + Akiwaizi, An old man. Mindimô´ed, An old woman. + Nôsai, My father. Nin Gah, My mother. + Ningwisis, My son. Nin dânis, My daughter. + Ni ningwun, My son-in-law. Nis sim, My daughter-in-law. + + MASCULINE. FEMININE. + + Ni nâbaim, My husband. Nimindimôimish, My wife. + Nimieshomiss, My grandfather. Nôkômiss, My grandmother. + Ogimâ, A chief. Ogemâkwâ, A chiefess. + Addik, A reindeer. Neetshâni, A doe. + Annimoosh, A dog. Kiskisshâi, A bitch. + +The sex of the brute creation is most commonly denoted by prefixing the +words _Iâbai_, male, and _Nôzhai_, female. + +6. _Reciprocal Changes of the Noun._--The pronominal particles with +which verbs as well as substantives are generally encumbered, and the +habit of using them in particular and restricted senses, leave but +little occasion for the employment of either the present or past +infinitive. Most verbs are transitives. A Chippewa does not say I love, +without indicating, by an inflection of the verb, the object beloved: +and thus the expression is constantly, I love him, or her, &c. Neither +does the infinitive appear to be generally the ultimate form of the +verb. + +In changing their nouns into verbs, it will not, therefore, be expected +that the change should uniformly result in the infinitive, for which +there is so little use, but in such of the personal forms of the various +moods as circumstances may require. Most commonly, the third person +singular of the indicative, and the second person singular of the +imperative, are the simplest aspects under which the verb appears; and +hence these forms have been sometimes mistaken for, and reported as the +present infinitive. There are some instances in which the infinitive is +employed. Thus, although an Indian cannot say I love, thou lovest, &c., +without employing the objective forms of the verb to love, yet he can +say I laugh, I cry, &c.; expressions in which, the action being confined +to the speaker himself, there is no transition demanded. And in all +similar instances the present infinitive, with the proper pronoun +prefixed, is employed. + +There are several modes of transforming a substantive into a verb. The +following examples will supply the rules, so far as known, which govern +these changes:-- + + INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE. + + Chimân, a canoe. Chimai, he paddles. Chimain, paddle thou. + Pashkizzigun, a gun. Pashkizzigai, he fires. Pashkizzigain, fire + thou. + Jeesidyigun, a broom. Jeesidyigai, he sweeps. Jeesidyigain, sweep + thou. + Weedjeeagun, a helper. Weedôkagai, he helps. Weedjeei-wain, help + thou. + Ojibwâi, a Chippewa. Ojibwâmoo, he speaks Ojibwâmoon, speak thou + Chippewa. Chippewa. + +Another class of nouns is converted into the first person, indicative, +of a pseudo-declarative verb, in the following manner:-- + + Monido, A spirit. Ne Monidôw, I (am) a spirit. + Wassaiâ, Light. Ne Wassaiâw, I (am) light. + Ishkodai, Fire. Nin Dishkodaiw, I (am) fire. + Weendigô, A monster. Ni Weendigôw, I (am) a monster. + Addik, A deer. Nin Daddikoow, I (am) a deer. + Wakyigun, A house. Ni Wakyiguniw, I (am) a house. + Pinggwi, Dust, ashes. Nim Binggwiw, I (am) dust, &c. + +The word _am_, included in parenthesis, is not in the original, unless +we may suppose the terminals _ow_, _aw_, _iw_, _oow_, to be derivatives +from _Iaw_. These changes are reciprocated by the verb, which, as often +as occasion requires, is made to put on a substantive form. The particle +_win_, added to the indicative of the verb, converts it into a +substantive. Thus-- + + Keegido, He speaks. Keegidowin, Speech. + Pâshkizzigai, He fires. Pashkizzigaiwin, Ammunition. + Agindasoo, He counts. Agindasoowin, Numbers. + Wahyiâzhinggai, He cheats. Wahyiâzhinggaiwin, Fraud. + Minnikwâi, He drinks. Minnikwâiwin, Drink. + Kubbâshi, He encamps. Kubbâishiwin, An encampment. + Meegâzoo, He fights. Meegâzoowin, A fight. + Ojeengai, He kisses. Ojeendiwin, A kiss. + Annôki, He works. Annôkiwta, Work. + Pâpi, He laughs. Pâpiwin, Laughter. + Pimâdizzi, He lives. Pimâdoiziwin, Life. + Onwâibi, He rests. Onwâibiwin, Rest. + Annamiâ, He prays. Annamiâwin, Prayer. + Nibâ, He sleeps. Nibâwin, Sleep. + Odâwai, He trades. Odâwaiwin, Trade. + +Adjectives are likewise thus turned into substantives:-- + + Keezhaiwâdizzi, He generous. Keezhaiwâdizziwin, Generosity. + Minwaindum, He happy. Minwaindumowin, Happiness. + Keezhaizeâwizzi, He industrious. Keezhaizhâwizziwin, Industry. + Kittimâgizzi, He poor. Kittimâgizziwin, Poverty. + Aukkoossi, He sick. Aukkoossiwin, Sickness. + Kittimishki, He lazy. Kittimishkiwin, Laziness. + Nishkâdizzi, He angry. Nishkâdizziwin, Anger. + Baikâdizzi, She chaste. Baikâdizziwin, Chastity. + +In order to place the substantives thus formed in the third person, +corresponding with the indicative from which they were changed, it is +necessary only to prefix the proper pronoun. Thus, _Ogeezhaiwâdizziwin_, +his generosity, &c. + +7. _Compound Substantives._--The preceding examples have been given +promiscuously from the various classes of words, primitive and +derivative, simple and compound. Some of these words express but a +single idea, as, _ôs_, father--_gah_, mother--_môz_, a moose--_kâg_, a +porcupine--_mang_, a loon--and appear to be incapable of further +division. All such words may be considered as primitives, although some +of them may be contractions of dissyllabic words. There are also a +number of dissyllables, and _possibly_ some trisyllables, which, in the +present state of our analytical knowledge of the language, may be deemed +both simple and primitive. Such are _neebi_, water; _ossin_, a stone; +_geezis_, the sun; _nodin_, wind. But it may be premised, as a principle +which our investigations have rendered probable, that all polysyllabic +words, all words of three syllables, _so far as examined_, and most +words of two syllables, are compounds. + +The application of a syntax, formed with a view to facilitate the rapid +conveyance of ideas by consolidation, may, it is presumable, have early +led to the coalescence of words, by which all the relations of object +and action, time and person, were expressed. And in a language which is +only spoken, and not written, the primitives would soon become obscured +and lost in the multiform appendages of time and person, and the +recondite connection of actor and object. And this process of +amalgamation would be a progressive one. The terms that sufficed in the +condition of the simplest state of nature, or in a given latitude, would +vary with their varying habits, institutions, and migrations. The +introduction of new objects and new ideas would require the invention of +new words, or what is much more probable, existing terms would be +modified or compounded to suit the occasion. No one who has paid much +attention to the subject, can have escaped noticing a confirmation of +this opinion, in the extreme readiness of our western Indians to bestow, +on the instant, names, and appropriate names--to any new object +presented to them. A readiness not attributable to their having at +command a stock of generic polysyllables--for these it would be very +awkward to wield--but, as appears more probable, to the powers of the +syntax, which permits the resolution of new compounds from existing +roots, and often concentrates, as remarked in another place, the entire +sense of the parent words, upon a single syllable, and sometimes upon a +single letter. + +Thus it is evident that the Chippewas possessed names for a living tree, +_mittig_, and a string, _aiâb_, before they named the bow +_mittigwâb_--the latter being compounded under one of the simplest rules +from the two former. It is further manifest that they had named earth +_akki_, and (any solid, stony, or metallic mass) _âbik_, before they +bestowed an appellation upon the kettle, _akkeek_, or _akkik_, the +latter being derivatives from the former. In process of time these +compounds became the bases of other compounds, and thus the language +became loaded with double, and triple, and quadruple compounds, concrete +in their meaning and formal in their utterance. + +When the introduction of metals took place, it became necessary to +distinguish the clay from the iron pot, and the iron from the copper +kettle. The original compound, _akkeek_, retained its first meaning, +admitting the adjective noun _piwâbik_ (itself a compound) iron, when +applied to a vessel of that kind, _piwâbik akkeek_, iron kettle. But a +new combination took place to designate the copper kettle, _mishwâkeek_, +red metal kettle; and another expression to denote the brass kettle, +_ozawâbik akkeek_, yellow metal kettle. The former is made up from +_miskôwâbik_, copper (literally _red-metal_--from _miskwâ_, red, and +_âbik_, the generic above mentioned), and _akkeek_, kettle. _Ozawâbik_, +brass, is from _ozawâ_, yellow, and the generic _âbik_--the term +_akkeek_ being added in its separate form. It may, however, be used in +its connected form of _wukkeek_, making the compound expression +_ozawâbik wukkeek_. + +In naming the horse _paibâizhikôgazhi, i. e._ the animal with solid +hoofs, they have seized upon the feature which most strikingly +distinguished the horse from the cleft-footed animals, which were the +only species known to them at the period of the discovery. And the word +itself affords an example, at once, both of their powers of +concentration, and brief, yet accurate description, which it may be +worth while to analyze. _Paizhik_ is one, and is also used as the +indefinite article--the only article the language possesses. This word +is further used in an adjective sense, figura-tively indicating, united, +solid, undivided. And it acquires a plural signification by doubling, or +repeating the first syllable, with a slight variation of the second. +Thus, _Pai-baizhik_ denotes not _one_, or _an_, but several; and when +thus used in the context, renders the noun governed plural. _Oskuzh_ is +the nail, claw, or horny part of the foot of beasts, and supplies the +first substantive member of the compound _gauzh_. The final vowel is +from _ahwaisi_, a beast; and the marked _o_, an inseparable connective, +the office of which is to make the two members coalesce, and harmonize. +The expression thus formed becomes a substantive, specific in its +application. It may be rendered plural like the primitive nouns, may be +converted into a verb, has its diminutive, derogative, and local form, +and, in short, is subject to all the modifications of other +substantives. + +Most of the modern nouns are of this complex character. And they appear +to have been invented to designate objects, many of which were +necessarily unknown to the Indians in the primitive ages of their +existence. Others, like their names for a copper-kettle and a horse, +above mentioned, can date their origin further back than the period of +the discovery. Of this number of nascent words, are most of their names +for those distilled or artificial liquors, for which they are indebted +to Europeans. Their name for water, _neebi_, for the fat of animals, +_weenin_, for oil or grease, _pimmidai_, for broth, _nâbôb_, and for +blood, _miskwi_, belong to a very remote era, although all but the first +appear to be compounds. Their names for the tinctures or extracts +derived from the forest, and used as dyes, or medicines, or merely as +agreeable drinks, are mostly founded upon the basis of the word _âbo_, a +liquid, although this word is never used alone. Thus-- + + Shomin-âbo, Wine, From Shomin, a grape, âbo, a liquor. + Ishkôdâi-wâbo, Spirits, From Ishkôdâi, fire, &c. + Mishimin-âbo, Cider, From Mishimin, an apple, &c. + Tôtôsh-âbo, Milk, From Tôtôsh, the female breast, &c. + Sheew-âbo, Vinegar, From Sheewun, sour, &c. + Annibeesh-âbo, From Annibeeshun, leaves, &c. + Ozhibiegun-aubo, From Ozhibiêgai, he writes, &c. + +In like manner their names for the various implements and utensils of +civilized life, are based upon the word _Jeegun_, one of those +primitives, which, although never disjunctively used, denotes, in its +modified forms, the various senses implied by our words instrument, +contrivance, machine, &c. And by prefixing to this generic a +substantive, verb, or adjective, or parts of one or each, an entire new +class of words is formed. In these combinations, the vowels e and o are +sometimes used as connectives. + + Keeshkeebô-jeegun, A saw, From Keeshkeezhun, v. a. to + cut. + Seeseebô-jeegun, A file, From Seesee, to rub off, &c. + Wassakoonen-jeegun, A candle, From Wassakooda, bright, + biskoona, flame, &c. + Beeseebô-jeegun, A coffee-mill, From Beesâ, fine grains, &c. + Minnikwâd-jeegun, A drinking-vessel, From Minnekwâi, he drinks, + &c. + Tâshkeebôd-jeegun, A saw-mill, From Taushkâ, to split, &c. + Mudwâiabeed-jeegun, A violin, From Mudwâwâi, sound, âiâb, a + string, &c. + +Sometimes this termination is shortened into _gun_, as in the following +instances:-- + + Onâ-gun, A dish. + Tikkina-gun, A cradle. + Neeba-gun, A bed. + Puddukkyi-gun, A fork. + Puggimmâ-gun, A war-club. + Opwâ-gun, A pipe. + Wassâitshie-gun, A window. + Wakkyi-gun, A house. + Pôdahwâ-gun, A fire-place. + Sheema-gun, A lance. + +Another class of derivatives is formed from _wyân_, indicating, +generally, an undressed skin. Thus-- + + Muk-wyân, A bear skin, From Mukwah, a bear, and wyaun, a + skin. + Wazhusk-wyân, A muskrat skin, From Wazhusk, a muskrat, &c. + Wabôs-wyân, A rabbit skin, From Wabôs, a rabbit, &c. + Neegik-wyân, An otter skin, From Neegih, an otter, &c. + Ojeegi-wyân, A fisher skin, From Ojeeg, a fisher, &c. + Wabizhais-ewyân, a martin skin, from wabizhais, a martin, &c. + +_Wâbiwyân_, a blanket, and _bubbuggiwyân_, a shirt, are also formed from +this root. As the termination _wyân_, is chiefly restricted to undressed +skins, or peltries, that of _waigin_ is, in like manner, generally +applied to dressed skins or to cloths. Thus-- + + Monido-waigin, Blue cloth, shrouds, From Monido, spirits, &c. + Misk-waigin, Red cloth, From Miskwâ, red, &c. + Nondâ-waigin, Scarlet. + Peezhiki-waigin, A buffalo robe, From Peezhiki, a buffalo, + &c. + Addik-waigin, A cariboo skin, From Addik, a cariboo, &c. + Ozhauwushk-waigin, Green cloth, From Ozhâwushkwâ, green. + +An interesting class of substantives is derived from the third person +singular of the present indicative of the verb, by changing the vowel +sound of the first syllable, and adding the letter d to that of the +last, making the terminations in _aid_, _âd_, _eed_, _id_, _ood_. Thus, +_Pimmoossâ_, he walks, becomes _pâmmoossâd_, a walker. + +aid. + + Munnissai, He chops. Mânissaid, A chopper. + Ozhibeigai, He writes. Wâzhibeigaid, A writer. + Nundowainjeegai, He hunts. Nândowainjeegaid, A hunter. + +âd. + + Neebâ, He sleeps. Nâbâd, A sleeper. + Kwâbahwâ, He fishes (with Kwyâbahwâd, A fisher (with + scoop net). scoop net). + Puggidowâ, He fishes (with Pâgidowâd, A fisher (with + seine). seine). + +eed. + + Annokee, He works. Anokeed, A worker. + Jeessakea, He juggles. Jossakeed, A juggler. + Munnigobee, He pulls bark. Mainigobeed, A bark puller. + +id. + + Neemi, He dances. Nâmid, A dancer. + Weesinni, He eats. Wâssinid, An eater. + Pimâdizzi, He lives. Paimaudizzid, A living being. + +ood. + + Nugamoo, He sings. Naigumood, A singer. + Keegido, He speaks. Kâgidood, A speaker. + Keewonimoo, He lies. Kâwunimood, A liar. + +This class of words is rendered plural in _ig_--a termination, which, +after _d_ final in the singular, has a soft pronunciation, as if written +_jig_. Thus, _Nâmid_, a dancer, _nâmidjig_, dancers. + +The derogative form is given to these generic substantives by +introducing _ish_, or simply _sh_, in place of the _d_, and changing +the latter to _kid_, making the terminations in _ai_, _aishkid_, +in _â_, _âshkid_, in _e_, _eeshkid_, in _i_, _ishkid_, and in _oo_, +_ooshkid_. Thus, _naindowainjeegaid_, a hunter, is changed to +_naindowainjeegaishkid_, a bad or unprofitable hunter. _Naibâd_, a +sleeper, is changed to _naibâshkid_, a sluggard. _Jossakeed_, a juggler, +to _jossakeeshkid_, a vicious juggler. _Wâsinnid_, an eater, to +_wâssinishkid_, a gormandizer. _Kâgidood_, a speaker, _kâgidooshkid_, a +babbler. And in these cases the plural is added to the last educed form, +making _kâgidooshkidjig_, babblers, &c. + +The word _nittâ_, on the contrary, prefixed to those expressions, +renders them complimentary. For instance, _nittâ naigumood_, is a fine +singer, _nittâ kâgidood_, a ready speaker, &c. + +Flexible as the substantive has been shown to be, there are other forms +of combination that have not been adverted to--forms, by which it is +made to coalesce with the verb, the adjective, and the preposition, +producing a numerous class of compound expressions. But it is deemed +most proper to defer the discussion of these forms to their several +appropriate heads. + +Enough has been exhibited to demonstrate its prominent grammatical +rules. It is not only apparent that the substantive possesses number and +gender, but it also undergoes peculiar modifications to express locality +and diminution, to denote adjective qualities and to indicate tense. It +exhibits some curious traits connected with the mode of denoting the +masculine and feminine. It is modified to express person and to +distinguish living from inanimate masses. It is rendered possessive by a +peculiar inflection, and provides particles, under the shape either of +prefixes or suffixes, separable or inseparable, by which the actor is +distinguished from the object--and all this, without changing its proper +substantive character, without putting on the aspect of a pseudo +adjective, or a pseudo verb. Its changes to produce compounds are, +however, its most interesting, its most characteristic trait. Syllable +is heaped upon syllable, word upon word, and derivative upon derivative, +until its vocabulary is crowded with long and pompous phrases, most +formidable to the eye. + +So completely transpositive do the words appear, that like chessmen on a +board, their elementary syllables can be changed at the will of the +player, to form new combinations to meet new contingencies, so long as +they are changed in accordance with certain general principles and +conventional rules; in the application of which, however, much depends +upon the will or the skill of the player. What is most surprising, all +these changes and combinations, all these qualifications of the object, +and distinctions of the person, the time, and the place, do not +supersede the use of adjectives, and pronouns, and verbs, and other +parts of speech woven into the texture of the noun, in their elementary +and conjunctive forms. + + +III. + +_Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-Adjective._ + +INQUIRY 3. + + Observations on the adjective--Its distinction into two classes + denoted by the presence or absence of vitality--Examples of the + animates and inanimates--Mode of their conversion into + substantives--How pronouns are applied to these derivatives, and + the manner of forming compound terms from adjective bases to + describe the various natural phenomena--The application of these + principles in common conversation, and in the description of + natural and artificial objects--Adjectives always preserve the + distinction of number--Numerals--Arithmetical capacity of the + language--The unit exists in duplicate. + +1. It has been remarked that the distinction of words into animates and +inanimates, is a principle intimately interwoven throughout the +structure of the language. It is, in fact, so deeply imprinted upon its +grammatical forms, and is so perpetually recurring, that it may be +looked upon, not only as forming a striking peculiarity of the language, +but as constituting the fundamental principle of its structure, from +which all other rules have derived their limits, and to which they have +been made to conform. No class of words appears to have escaped its +impress. Whatever concords other laws impose, they all agree, and are +made subservient in the establishment of this. + +It might appear to be a useless distinction in the adjective, when the +substantive is thus marked; but it will be recollected that it is in the +plural of the substantive only that the distinction is marked; and we +shall, presently have occasion to show that redundancy of forms is, to +considerable extent, obviated in practice. + +For the origin of the principle itself, we need look only to nature, +which endows animate bodies with animate properties and qualities, and +_vice versâ_. But it is due to the tribes who speak this language, to +have invented one set of adjective symbols to express the ideas +peculiarly appropriate to the former, and another set applicable +exclusively to the latter; and to have given the words good and bad, +black and white, great and small, handsome and ugly, such modifications +as are practically competent to indicate the general nature of the +objects referred to, whether provided with, or destitute of, the vital +principle. And not only so, but, by the figurative use of these forms, +to exalt inanimate masses into the class of living beings, or to strip +the latter of its properties of life--a principle of much importance to +their public speakers. + +This distinction is shown in the following examples, in which it will be +observed that the inflection _izzi_ generally denotes the personal, and +_au_, _un_, or _wud_, the impersonal forms. + + ADJ. INANIMATE. ADJ. ANIMATE. + + Bad, Monaudud, Monaudizzi. + Ugly, Gushkoonaugwud, Gushkoonaugoozzi. + Beautiful, Bishegaindaugwud, Bisheguindaugoozzi. + Strong, Söngun, Söngizzi. + Soft, Nökun, Nökizzi. + Hard, Mushkowau, Mushkowizzi. + Smooth, Shoiskwau, Shoiskoozzi. + Black, Mukkuddäwau, Mukkuddäwizzi. + White, Waubishkau, Waubishkizzi. + Yellow, Ozahwau, Ozahwizzi. + Red, Miskwau, Miskwizzi. + Blue, Ozhahwushkwau, Ozhahwushkwizzi. + Sour, Sheewun, Sheewizzi. + Sweet, Weeshköbun, Weeshköbizzi. + Light, Naugun, Naungizzi. + +It is not, however, in all cases, by mere modifications of the adjective +that these distinctions are expressed. Words totally different in sound, +and evidently derived from radically different roots, are, in some few +instances, employed; as in the following examples:-- + + ADJ. INANIMATE. ADJ. ANIMATE. + + Good, Onisheshin, Minno. + Bad, Monaudud, Mudjee. + Large, Mitshau, Mindiddo. + Small, Pungee, Uggaushe. + Old, Geekau, Gitizzi. + +It may be remarked of these forms, that, although the impersonal will, +in some instances, take the personal inflections, the rule is not +reciprocated, and _minno_, and _mindiddo_, and _gitizzi_, and all words +similarly situated, remain unchangeably animates. The word _pungee_ is +limited to the expression of quantity, and its correspondent, +_uggaushi_, to size or quality. _Kishedä_ (hot) is restricted to the +heat of a fire; _keezhautä_, to the heat of the sun. There is still a +third term to indicate the natural heat of the body; _kizzizoo_. +_Mitshau_ (large) is generally applied to countries, lakes, rivers, &c.; +_mindiddo_, to the body; and _gitshee_, indiscriminately. _Onishishin_, +and its correspondent, _onishishshä_, signify handsome or fair, as well +as good. _Kwonaudy_, a. a., and _kwonaudyewun_, a. i., mean, strictly, +handsome, and imply nothing further. _Minno_ is the appropriate personal +form for good. _Mudjee_ and _monaudud_ may reciprocally change genders, +the first by the addition of _iee_, and the second by altering _ud_ to +_izzi_. + +Distinctions of this kind are of considerable importance in a practical +point of view, and their observance or neglect is noticed with +scrupulous exactness by the Indians. The want of inanimate forms to such +words as happy, sorrowful, brave, sick, &c., creates no confusion, as +inanimate nouns cannot, strictly speaking, take upon themselves such +qualities; and when they do--as they sometimes do--by one of those +extravagant figures of speech which are used in their tales of +transformations, the animate form answers all purposes; for in these +tales the whole material creation may be clothed with animation. The +rule, as exhibited in practice, is limited, with sufficient accuracy, to +the boundaries prescribed by nature. + +To avoid a repetition of forms, were the noun and the adjective both to +be employed in their usual relation, the latter is endowed with a +pronominal or substantive inflection; and the use of the noun in its +separate form is thus wholly superseded. Thus, _onishishin_, a. i., and +_onishishsha_, a. a., become _wänishishing_, "That which is good or +fair," and _wänishishid_, "He who is good or fair." The following +examples will exhibit this rule under each of its forms:-- + +COMPOUND OR NOUN-ADJECTIVE ANIMATE. + + Black, Mukkuddawizzi, Mäkuddäwizzid. + White, Waubishkizzi, Wyaubishkizzid. + Yellow, Ozahwizzi, Wäzauwizzid. + Red, Miskwizzi, Mäskoozzid. + Strong, Söngizzi, Swöngizzid. + +NOUN-ADJECTIVE INANIMATE. + + Black, Mukkuddäwau, Mäkuddäwaug. + White, Waubishkau, Wyaubishkaug. + Yellow, Ozahwau, Wäzhauwaug. + Red, Miskwau, Maiskwaug. + +The animate forms, in these examples, will be recognized as exhibiting a +further extension of the rule, mentioned in the preceding Inquiry, by +which substantives are formed from the indicative of the verb by a +permutation of the vowels; and these forms are likewise rendered plural +in the manner there mentioned. They also undergo changes to indicate the +various persons. For instance, _onishisha_ is thus declined to mark the +person:-- + + Wänishish-eyaun, I (am) good or fair. + Wänishish-eyun, Thou (art) good or fair. + Wänishish-id, He (is) good or fair. + Wänishish-eyaung, We (are) good or fair. (ex.) + Wänishish-eyung, We (are) good or fair. (in.) + Wänishish-eyaig, Ye (are) good or fair. + Wänishish-idjig, They (are) good or fair. + +The inanimate forms, being without person, are simply rendered plural by +_in_, changing _maiskwaug_ to _maiskwaug-in_, &c. &c. The verbal +signification which these forms assume, as indicated in the words am, +art, is, are, is to be sought in the permutative change of the first +syllable. Thus, _o_ is changed to _wä_, _muk_ to _mäk_, _waub_ to +_wy-aub_, _ozau_ to _wäzau_, _misk_ to _maisk_, &c. The pronoun, as is +usual in the double compounds, is formed wholly by the inflections +_eyaun_, _eyun_, &c. + +The strong tendency of the adjective to assume a personal or +pronomico-substantive form, leads to the employment of many words in a +particular or exclusive sense; and, in any future practical attempts +with the language, it will be found greatly to facilitate its +acquisition, if the adjectives are arranged in distinct classes, +separated by this characteristic principle of their application. The +examples we have given are chiefly those which may be considered +strictly animate or inanimate, admit of double forms, and are of general +use. Many of the examples recorded in the original manuscripts employed +in these inquiries, are of a more concrete character, and, at the same +time, a more limited use. Thus, _shaugwewe_ is a weak person; +_nökaugumme_, a weak drink; _nökaugwud_, a weak or soft piece of wood. +_Sussägau_ is fine, but can only be applied to personal appearance; +_beesau_, indicates fine grains. _Keewushkwä_ is giddy, and +_keewushkwäbee_, giddy with drink--both being restricted to the third +person. _Söngun_ and _songizzi_ are the personal and impersonal forms of +strong, as given above, but _mushkowaugumme_ is strong drink. In like +manner, the two words for hard, as above, are restricted to solid +substances. _Sunnuhgud_ is hard (to endure). _Waindud_ is easy (to +perform). _Söngodää_ is brave; _shaugedää_, cowardly; _keezhinghowizzi_, +active; _kizheekau_, swift; _onaunegoozzi_, lively; _minwaindum_, happy; +_gushkaindum_, sorrowful; but all these forms are confined to the third +person of the indicative, singular. _Pibbigwun_ is a rough or knotted +substance; _pubbiggozzi_, a rough person. _Keenwau_ is long or tall (any +solid mass). _Kaynozid_ is a tall person. _Tahkozid_ a short person. +_Wassayau_ is light; _wassaubizzoo_, the light of the eye; _wasshauzhä_, +the light of a star or any luminous body. _Keenau_ is sharp; +_keenaubikud_, a sharp knife or stone. _Keezhaubikeday_ is hot metal, a +hot stove, &c. _Keezhaugummeday_ is hot water. _Uubudgeetön_ is useful, +a useful thing. _Wauweeug_ is frivolous, anything frivolous in word or +deed. _Tubbushish_ appears to be a general term for low. _Ishpimming_ is +high in the air. _Ishpau_ is applied to any high fixture, as a house, +&c. _Ishpaubikau_ is a high rock. _Taushkaubikau_, a split rock. + +These combinations and limitations meet the inquirer at every step; they +are the current phrases of the language; they present short, ready, and +often beautiful modes of expression; and, as they shed light both upon +the idiom and genius of the language, I shall not scruple to add further +examples and illustrations. Ask a Chippewa the name for a rock, and he +will answer _awzhebik_. The generic import of _awbik_ has been +explained. Ask him the name for red rock, and he will answer +_miskwaubik_; for white rock, and he will answer _waubaubik_; for black +rock, _mukkuddäwaubik_; for yellow rock, _ozahwaubik_; for green rock, +_ozhahwushkwaubik_; for bright rock, _wassayaubik_; for smooth rock, +_shoishkwaubik_, &c.--compounds in which the words red, white, black, +yellow, &c., unite with _aubik_. Pursue this inquiry, and the following +forms will be elicited:-- + +Impersonal. + + Miskwaubik-ud, It (is) a red rock. + Waububik-ud, It (is) a white rock. + Mukkudäwaubik-ud, It (is) a black rock. + Ozahwaubik-ud, It (is) a yellow rock. + Wassayaubik-ud, It (is) a bright rock. + Shoiskwaubik-ud, It (is) a smooth rock. + +Personal. + + Miskwaubik-izzi, He (is) a red rock. + Waububik-izzi, He (is) a white rock. + Mukkudäwaubik-izzi, He (is) a black rock. + Ozahwaubik-izzi, He (is) a yellow rock. + Wassayaubik-izzi, He (is) a bright rock. + Shoiskwaubik-izzi, He (is) a smooth rock. + +Add _bun_ to these terms, and they are made to have passed away; prefix +_tah_ to them, and their future appearance is indicated. The word "is" +in the translations, although marked with parentheses, is not deemed +wholly gratuitous. There is, strictly speaking, an idea of existence +given to these compounds, by the particle _au_, in _aubic_, which seems +to be indirectly a derivative from that great and fundamental root of +the language _Iau_. _Bik_ is apparently the radix of the expression for +"rock." + +Let this mode of interrogation be continued, and extended to other +adjectives, or the same adjectives applied to other objects, and results +equally regular and numerous will be obtained. _Minnis_, we shall be +told is an island; _miskominnis_, a red island; _mukkuddäminnis_, a +black island; _waubeminnis_, a white island, &c. _Annokwut_, is a cloud; +_miskwaunakwut_, a red cloud; _mukkuddawukwut_, a black cloud; +_waubahnokwut_, a white cloud; _ozahwushkwahnakwut_, a blue cloud, &c. +_Neebe_ is the specific term for water; but is not generally used in +combination with the adjective. The word _guma_, like _aubo_, appears to +be a generic term for water, or potable liquids. Hence, the following +terms:-- + + Gitshee, Great. Gitshiguma, Great water. + Nokun, Weak. Nökauguma, Weak drink. + Mushkowau, Strong. Mushkowauguma, Strong drink. + Weeshkobun, Sweet. Weeshkobauguma, Sweet drink. + Sheewun, Sour. Sheewauguma, Sour drink. + Weesugun, Bitter. Weesugauguma, Bitter drink. + Minno, Good. Minwauguma, Good drink. + Monaudud, Bad. Mahnauguma, Bad drink. + Miskwau, Red. Miskwauguma, Red drink. + Ozahwau, Yellow. Ozahwauguma, Yellow drink. + Weenun, Dirty. Weenauguma, Dirty water. + Peenud, Clean. Peenauguma, Clean water. + +From _minno_, and from _monaudud_, good and bad, are derived the +following terms: _Minnopogwud_, it tastes well; _minnopogoozzi_, he +tastes well; _mawzhepogwud_, it tastes bad; _mawzhepogoozzi_, he tastes +bad. _Minnomaugwud_, it smells good; _minnomaugoozzi_, he smells good;_ +mauzhemaugud_, it smells bad; _mauzhemaugoozzi_, he smells bad. The +inflections _gwud_, and _izzi_, here employed, are clearly indicative, +as in other combinations, of the words _it_ and _him_. + +_Baimwa_, is sound; _baimwäwa_, the passing sound; _minwäwa_, a pleasant +sound; _maunwäwa_, a disagreeable sound; _mudwayaushkau_, the sound of +waves dashing on the shore; _mudwayaunnemud_, the sound of winds; +_mudwayaukooshkau_, the sound of falling trees; _mudwäkumigishin_, the +sound of a person falling upon the earth; _mudwaysin_, the sound of any +inanimate mass falling on the earth. These examples might be continued +_ad infinitum_. Every modification of circumstances, almost every +peculiarity of thought, is expressed by some modification of the +orthography. Enough has been given to prove that the adjective combines +itself with the substantive, the verb, and the pronoun, that the +combinations thus produced are numerous, afford concentrated modes of +conveying ideas, and oftentimes, happy turns of expression. Numerous and +prevalent as these forms are, they do not, however, preclude the use of +adjectives in their simple forms. The use of the one or the other +appears to be generally at the option of the speaker. In most cases +brevity or euphony dictates the choice. Usage results from these +applications of the principles. There may be rules resting upon a +broader basis; but if so, they do not appear to be very obvious. Perhaps +the simple adjectives are often employed before verbs and nouns, in the +first and second persons singular. + + Ningee minno neebau-nabun, I have slept well. + Ningee minno weesin, I have eaten a good meal. + Ningee minno pimmoossay, I have walked well, or a good + distance. + Kägät minno geezhigud, It (is) a very pleasant day. + Kwanaudy ningödahs, I have a handsome garment. + Ke minno iau nuh, Are you well? + Auneende ain deyun, What ails you? + Keezhamonedo aupädush shäwainemik, God prosper you. + Aupädush shäwaindaugoozzegun, Good luck attend you. + Aupädush nau kinwainzh pimmaudizziyun, May you live long. + Onauneegoozzin, Be (thou) cheerful. + Ne minwaindum waubumenaun, I (am) glad to see you. + Kwanaudj kweeweezains, A pretty boy. + Kägät söngedää, He (is) a brave man. + Kägät onishishsha, She (is) handsome. + Gitshee kinözee, He (is) very tall. + Uggausau bäwizzi, She (is) slender. + Gitshee sussaigau, He (is) fine dressed. + Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug meegwunug, They (are) beautiful feathers. + Ke daukoozzinuh, Are you sick? + Monaudud muundun muskeekee, This (is) bad medicine. + Monaudud aindauyun, My place of dwelling (is) bad. + Aindauyaun mitshau, My place of dwelling (is) large. + Ne mittigwaub onishishsha, My bow (is) good. + Ne bikwukön monaududön, But my arrows (are) bad. + Ne minwaindaun appaukoozzegun, I love mild or mixed tobacco. + Kauweekau neezhikay ussämau ne But I never smoke pure tobacco. + suggus-wannausee, + Monaudud maishkowaugumig, Strong drink (is) bad. + Keeguhgee budjeëgonaun, It makes us foolish. + Gitshee Monedo neebe ogee özhetön, The Great Spirit made water. + Ininewug dush ween ishködäwaubo ogee But man made whiskey. + oz-hetönahwau, + +These expressions are put down promiscuously, embracing verbs and nouns +as they presented themselves, and without any effort to support the +opinion, which may or may not be correct, that the elementary forms of +the adjectives are most commonly required before verbs and nouns in the +first and second persons. The English expression is thrown into Indian +in the most natural manner, and, of course, without always giving +adjective for adjective or noun for noun. Thus, God is rendered, not +_monedo_, but _Geezha monedo, merciful spirit_. Good luck is rendered by +the compound phrase, _shäwaindaugoozzegun_, indicating in a very general +sense, the influence of kindness or benevolence on _success in life_. +_Söngedää_ is, alone, _a brave man_, and the word _kägät_ prefixed, is +an adverb. In the expression "mild tobacco," the adjective is entirely +dispensed with in the Indian, the sense being sufficiently rendered by +the compound noun _appaukoozzegun_, which always means the Indian weed +or smoking mixture. _Ussämau_, on the contrary, without the adjective, +signifies pure tobacco. _Bikwukön_, signifies blunt or lumpy-headed +arrows; _assowaun_, is the barbed arrow. _Kwonaudj kweeweezains_ means, +not simply "pretty boy," but _pretty little boy_; and there is no mode +of using the word boy but in this diminutive form, the word itself being +a derivative _kewewe coryugal_, with the regular diminutive in _ains_. +_Onauneegoozzin_, embraces the pronoun, verb, and adjective, _be thou +cheerful_. In the last phrase of the examples, "man" is rendered men +(_inineewuy_) in the translation, as the term _man_ cannot be employed +in the general plural sense it conveys in this connection in the +original. The word "whiskey" is rendered by the compound phrase, +_ishködawaubo_, literally _fire-liquor_, a generic for all kinds of +ardent spirits. + +These aberrations from the literal terms will convey some conceptions of +the difference of the two idioms, although, from the limited nature and +object of the examples, they will not indicate the full extent of the +difference. In giving anything like the spirit of the original, much +greater deviations in the written forms must appear. And in fact, not +only the structure of the language, but the mode and _order of thought_ +of the Indians is so essentially different, that any attempts to +preserve the English idiom, to give letter for letter, and word for +word, must go far to render the translation pure nonsense. + +2. Varied as the adjective is in its changes, it has no comparative +inflection. A Chippewa cannot say that one substance is hotter or colder +than another, or of two or more substances unequally heated, that this +or that is the hottest or coldest, without employing adverbs or +accessory adjectives; and it is accordingly by adverbs and accessory +adjectives that the degrees of comparison are expressed. + +_Pimmaudizziwin_, is a very general substantive expression, indicating +the _tenor of being or life_. _Izzhewäbizziwin_, is a term near akin to +it, but more appropriately applied to the _acts_, _conduct_, _manner_, +or _personal deportment_ of life. Hence the expressions-- + + Nem bimmaudizziwin, My tenor of life. + Ke bimmaudizziwin, Thy tenor of life. + O pimmaudizziwin, His tenor of life, &c. + Nin dizhewäbizziwin, My personal deportment. + Ke dizhewäbizziwin, Thy personal deportment. + O Izzhewäbizziwin, His personal deportment, &c. + +To form the positive degree of comparison from these terms, _minno_, +good, and _mudjee_, bad, are introduced between the pronoun and verb, +giving rise to some permutations of the vowels and consonants, which +affect the sound only. Thus-- + + Ne minno pimmaudizziwin, My good tenor of life. + Ke minno pimmaudizziwin, Thy good tenor of life. + Minno pimmaudizziwin, His good tenor of life. + Ne mudjee pimmaudizziwin, My bad tenor of life. + Ke mudjee pimmaudizziwin, Thy bad tenor of life. + Mudjee pimmaudizziwin, His bad tenor of life. + +To place these forms in the comparative degree, _nahwudj_, _more_, is +prefixed to the adjective; and the superlative is denoted by _mahmowee_, +an adverb or an adjective as it is variously applied, but the meaning of +which is, in this connection, _most_. The degrees of comparison may be, +therefore, set down as follows:-- + + Positive, Kishedä. Hot (restricted to the heat of a fire), + Comparative, Nahwudj kishedä. More hot, + Superlative, Mahmowee kishedä. Most hot. + + Your manner of life is good, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin onishishin. + Your manner of life is better, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin nahwudj onishishin. + Your manner of life is best, Ke dizzhewäbizziwin mahwoweé onishishin. + His manner of life is best, Odizzhewäbizziwin mahmowee onishishinine. + Little Turtle was brave, Mikkenoköns söngedääbun. + Tecumseh was braver, Tecumseh nahwudj söngedääbun. + Pontiac was bravest, Pontiac mahmowee söngedääbun. + +3. The adjective assumes a negative form when it is preceded by the +adverb. Thus, the phrase _songedää_, he is brave, is changed to _kahween +söngedääsee_, he is not brave. + + POSITIVE. + + Neebwaukah, He is wise. + Kwonaudjewe, She is handsome. + Oskineegee, He is young. + Shaugweewee, He is feeble. + Geekkau, He is old. + Mushkowizzi, He is strong. + + NEGATIVE. + + Kahween neebwaukah-see, He is not wise. + Kahween kwonaudjewee-see, She is not handsome. + Kahween oskineegee-see, He is not young. + Kahween Shaugweewee-see, He is not feeble. + Kahween Geekkau-see, He is not old. + Kahween Mushkowizzi-see, He is not strong. + +From this rule the indeclinable adjectives, by which is meant those +adjectives which do not put on the personal and impersonal forms by +inflection, but consist of radically different roots, form exceptions. + + Are you sick? Ke dahkoozzi nuh? + You are not sick! Kahween ke dahkoozzi-see. + I am happy, Ne minwaindum. + I am unhappy, Kahween ne minwainduz-see. + His manner of life is bad, Mudjee izzhewabizzi. + His manner of life is not bad, Kahween mudjee izzhewabizzi-see. + It is large, Mitshau muggud. + It is not large, Kahween mitshau-seenön. + +In these examples, the declinable adjectives are rendered negative in +_see_; the indeclinable, remain as simple adjuncts to the verbs; and the +_latter_ put on the negative form. + +4. In the hints and remarks which have now been furnished respecting the +Chippewa adjective, its powers and inflections have been shown to run +parallel with those of the substantive, in its separation into animates +and inanimates; in having the pronominal inflections; in taking an +inflection for tense--a topic which, by the way, has been very cursorily +passed over--and in the numerous modifications to form the compounds. +This parallelism has also been intimated to hold good with respect to +number--a subject deeply interesting in itself, as it has its analogy +only in the ancient languages--and it was therefore deemed best to defer +giving examples, till they could be introduced without abstracting the +attention from other points of discussion. + +_Minno_ and _mudjee_, good and bad, being of the limited number of +personal adjectives which modern usage permits being applied, although +often improperly applied to inanimate objects, they, as well as a few +other adjectives, form exceptions to the use of number. Whether we say +"a good man" or "a bad man," "good men" or "bad men," the words _minno_ +and _mudjee_ remain the same. But all the declinable and coalescing +adjectives--adjectives which join on, and, as it were, _melt into_ the +body of the substantive--take the usual plural inflections, and are +governed by the same rules in regard to their use, as the substantive; +personal adjectives requiring personal plurals, &c. + +ADJECTIVES ANIMATE. + +Singular. + + Onishishewe mishemin, Good apple. + Kwonaudjewe eekwä, Handsome woman. + Songedää inine, Brave man. + Bishegaindaugoozzi peenasee, Beautiful bird. + Ozahwizzi ahmo, Yellow bee. + +Plural. + + Onishishewe-wug mishemin-ug, Good apples. + Kwonaudjewe-wug eekwä-wug, Handsome women. + Songedää-wug inine-wug, Brave men. + Bishegaindaugoozzi-wug peenasee-wug, Beautiful birds. + Ozahwizzi-wug ahm-ög, Yellow bees. + +ADJECTIVES INANIMATE. + +Singular. + + Onishishin mittig, Good tree. + Kwonaudj tshemaun, Handsome canoe. + Monaudud ishkoda, Bad fire. + Weeshkobun aidetaig, Sweet fruit. + +Plural. + + Onishishin-ön mittig-ön, Good trees. + Kwonaudjewun-ön tshemaun-un, Handsome canoes. + Monaudud-ön ishkod-än, Bad fires. + Weeshkobun-ön aidetaig-in, Sweet fruits. + +Peculiar circumstances are supposed to exist in order to render the use +of the adjective, in this connection with the noun, necessary and +proper. But, in ordinary instances, as the narration of events, the noun +would precede the adjective; and oftentimes, particularly where a second +allusion to objects previously named became necessary, the compound +expressions would be used. Thus, instead of saying "the yellow bee," +_wazzahwizzid_ would distinctly convey the idea of that insect, _had the +species been before named_. Under similar circumstances, +_kain-waukoozzid_, _agausheid_, _söngaunemud_, _mushkowaunemud_, would +respectively signify, "a tall tree," "a small fly," "a strong wind," "a +hard wind." And these terms would become plural in _jig_, which, as +before mentioned, is a mere modification of _ig_, one of the five +general animate plural inflections of the language. + +_Kägät wahwinaudj abbenöjeeug_, is an expression indicating they are +_very handsome children_. But _beeweezheewug monetösug_ denotes _small +insects_. _Minno neewugizzi_, is "good tempered," "he is good tempered." +_Mawshininewugizzi_, is "bad tempered," both having their plural in +_wug_. _Nin nuneenahwaindum_, "I am lonesome." _Nin nuneenahwaindaumin_, +"we (excluding you) are lonesome." _Waweea_, is a term generally used to +express the adjective sense of round. _Kwy_, is the scalp; _weewikwy_, +his scalp. Hence, _weewukwon_, "hat," _wayweewukwonid_, "a wearer of the +hat;" and its plural, _wayweewukwonidjig_, "wearers of the hats"--the +usual term applied to Europeans, or white men generally. These examples +go to prove that under every form in which the adjective can be traced, +whether in its simplest or most compound state, it is susceptible of +number. + +The numerals of the language are converted into adverbs by the +inflection _ing_, making one, _once_, &c. The unit exists in duplicate. + + Päzhik, One, _general unit_. } Aubeding, Once. + Ingoot, One, _numerical unit_. } + Neesh, Two. Neeshing, Twice. + Niswee, Three. Nissing, Thrice. + Neewin, Four. Neewing, Four times. + Naunun, Five. Nauning, Five times. + N'goodwaswä, Six. N'goodwautsking, Six times. + Neeshwauswä, Seven. Neeshwautshing, Seven times. + Shwauswe, Eight. Shwautshing, Eight times. + Shongusswe, Nine. Shongutshing, Nine times. + Metauswe, Ten. Meetaushing, Ten times. + +These inflections can be carried as high as they can compute numbers. +They count decimally. After reaching ten, they repeat, ten and one, ten +and two, &c. to twenty. Twenty is a compound signifying two tens; +thirty, three tens, &c.; a mode which is carried up to one +hundred--_n'goodwak_. _Wak_ then becomes the word of denomination, +combining with the names of the digits until they reach a thousand, +_meetauswauk_, literally _ten hundred_. Here a new compound term is +introduced, made by prefixing twenty to the last denominator, +_neeshtonnah duswak_, which doubles the last term, thirty triples it, +forty quadruples it, &c. till the computation reaches to ten thousand, +_n'goodwak dushing n'goodwak_, one hundred times one hundred. This is +the probable extent of all certain computation. The term _gitshee_ +(great), prefixed to the last denomination, leaves the number +indefinite. + +There is no form of the numerals corresponding to second, third, fourth, +&c. They can only further say, _nittum_, first, and _ishkwaudj_, last. + + +IV. + +_Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and Properties of +the Pronoun._ + +INQUIRY 4. + + Nature and principles of the pronoun--Its distinction into + preformative and subformative classes--Personal pronouns--The + distinction of an inclusive and exclusive form in the number of + the first person plural--Modifications of the personal pronouns to + imply existence, individuality, possession, ownership, position, + and other accidents--Declension of pronouns to answer the purpose + of the auxiliary verbs--Subformatives, how employed to mark the + persons--Relative pronouns considered--Their application to the + causative verbs--Demonstrative pronouns--Their separation into two + classes, animates and inanimates--Example of their use. + +Pronouns are buried, if we may so say, in the structure of the verb. In +tracing them back to their primitive forms, through the almost infinite +variety of modifications which they assume, in connection with the verb, +substantive, and adjective, it will facilitate analysis to group them +into preformative and subformative, which include the terms that have +already been made use of--pronominal prefixes, and suffixes--and which +admit of the further distinction of separable and inseparable. By +separable, is intended those forms which have a meaning by themselves, +and are thus distinguished from the inflective and subformative +pronouns, and pronominal particles, significant only in connection with +another word. + +1. Of the first class, are the personal pronouns _Neen_ (I), _Keen_ +(Thou), and _Ween_ or _O_ (He or She). They are declined, to form the +plural persons, in the following manner:-- + + I, Neen. We, Keen owind. (in.) + We, Neen owind. (ex.) + Thou, Keen. Ye, Keen owau. + He or she, Ween or O. They, Ween owau. + +Here the plural persons are formed by a numerical inflection of the +singular. The double plural of the first person, of which both the rule +and examples have been incidentally given in the remarks on the +substantive, is one of those peculiarities of the language which may, +perhaps, serve to aid in a comparison of it with other dialects, kindred +and foreign. As a mere conventional agreement for denoting whether the +person addressed be included or excluded, it may be regarded as an +advantage to the language. It enables the speaker, by the change of a +single consonant, to make a full and clear discrimination, and relieves +the narration from doubts and ambiguity, where doubts and ambiguity +would otherwise often exist. On the other hand, by accumulating +distinctions, it loads the memory with grammatical forms, and opens a +door for improprieties of speech. We are not aware of any inconveniences +in the use of a general plural; but, in the Indian, it would produce +confusion. And it is, perhaps, to that cautious desire of personal +discrimination, which is so apparent in the structure of the language, +that we should look for the reason of the duplicate forms of this word. +Once established, however, and both the distinction, and the necessity +of a constant and strict attention to it, are very obvious and striking. +How shall he address the Deity? If he say, "Our Father who art in +heaven," the inclusive form of _our_ makes the Almighty one of the +suppliants, or family. If he use the exclusive form, it throws him out +of the family, and may embrace every living being but the Deity. Yet, +neither of these forms can be used very well in prayer, as they cannot +be applied directly _to_ the object addressed. It is only when speaking +_of_ the Deity, under the name of father, to other persons, that the +inclusive and exclusive forms of the word _our_ can be used. The dilemma +may be obviated by the use of a compound descriptive phrase, _Wä ö se +mig o yun_, signifying, "Thou, who art the father of all," or "universal +father." In practice, however, the question is cut short by those +persons who have embraced Christianity. It has seemed to them that, by +the use of either of the foregoing terms, the Deity would be thrown into +too remote a relation to them; and I have observed that in prayer they +invariably address Him by the term used by children for the father of a +family--that is, _nosa_, "my father." + +The other personal pronouns undergo some peculiar changes when employed +as preformatives before nouns and verbs, which it is important to +remark. Thus _neen_, is sometimes rendered _ne_, or _nin_, and sometimes +_nim_. _Keen_, is rendered _ke_, or _kin_. In compound words, the mere +signs of the first and second pronouns, _N_ and _K_, are employed. The +use of _ween_ is limited; and the third person, singular and plural, is +generally indicated by the sign _O_. + +The particle _suh_, added to the complete forms of the disjunctive +pronouns, imparts a verbal sense to them; and appears, in this instance, +to be a succedaneum for the substantive verb. Thus _Neen_, I, becomes +_neensuh_, it is I. _Keen_, thou, becomes _keensuh_, it is thou; and +_ween_, he or she, _weensuh_, it is he or she. This particle may be also +added to the plural forms. + + Keenowind suh, It is we. (in.) + Neenowind suh, It is we. (ex.) + Keenowau suh, It is ye, or you. + Weenowau suh, It is they. + +If the word _aittah_, be substituted for _suh_, a set of adverbial +phrases are formed:-- + + Neen aittah, I only. Neen aittah wind, We, &c. (ex.) + Keen aittah wind, We, &c. (in.) + Keen aittah, Thou only. Keen aittah wau, You, &c. + Ween aittah, He or she only. Ween aittah wau, They, &c. + +In like manner, _nittum_, first, and _ishkwaudj_, last, give rise to the +following arrangement of the pronoun:-- + + Neen nittum, I first. + Keen nittum, You or thou first. + Ween nittum, He or she first. + Keen nittum ewind, We first. (in.) + Neen nittum ewind, We first. (ex.) + Keen nittum ewau, Ye or you first. + Ween nittum ewau, They first. + +ISHKWAUDJ. + + Neen ishkwaudj, I last. + Keen ishkwaudj, Thou last. + Ween ishkwaudj, He or she last. + Keenowind ishkwaudj, We last. (in.) + Neenowind ishkwaudj, We last. (ex.) + Keenowau ishkwaudj, Ye or you last. + Weenowau ishkwaudj, They last. + +The disjunctive forms of the pronoun are also sometimes preserved before +verbs and adjectives. + + NEEZHIKA. Alone, (_an._) + + Neen neezhika, I alone. + Keen neezhika, Thou alone. + Ween neezhika, He or she alone. + Keenowind neezhika, We alone. (in.) + Neenowind neezhika, We alone. (ex.) + Keenowau neezhika, Ye or you alone. + Weenowau neezhika, They alone. + +To give these expressions a verbal form, the substantive verb, with its +pronominal modifications, must be superadded. For instance, _I am_ +alone, &c. is thus rendered:-- + + Neen neezhika nindyau, I am alone + aumin. + Keen neezhika keedyau, Thou art alone + aum. + Ween neezhika iyau, He or she is alone, &c. + wug. + +In the subjoined examples, the noun OW, body, is changed to a verb, by +the permutation of the vowel, changing OW, to AUW; which last takes the +letter _d_ before it when the pronoun is prefixed:-- + + I am a man, Neen nin dauw. + Thou art a man, Keen ke dauw. + He is a man, Ween ah weeh. + We are men, (in.) Ke dauw we min. + We are men, (ex.) Ne dauw we min. + Ye are men, Ke dauw mim. + They are men, Weenowau ah weeh wug. + +In the translation of these expressions, "man" is used as synonymous +with "person." If the specific term _inine_ had been introduced, in the +original, the meaning thereby conveyed would be, in this particular +connection, "I am a man," with respect to _courage_, &c. in opposition +to effeminacy. It would not be simply declarative of _corporeal +existence_, but of existence in a _particular state or condition_. + +In the following phrases, the modified forms, or the signs only, of the +pronouns are used: + + N'debaindaun, I own it. + Ke debaindaun, Thou ownst it. + O debaindaun, He or she owns it. + N'debaindaum-in, We own it. (ex.) + Ke debaindaum-in, We own it. (in.) + Ke debaindaun-ewau, Ye own it. + O debaindaun-ewau, They own it. + +These examples are cited as exhibiting the manner in which the +_prefixed_ and preformative pronouns are employed, both in their full +and contracted forms. To denote possession, nouns specifying the things +possessed are required; and, what would not be anticipated had not full +examples of this species of declension been given in another place, the +purposes of distinction are not affected by a simple change of the +pronoun, as _I_ to _mine_, &c., but by a subformative inflection of the +_noun_, which is thus made to have a reflective operation upon the +pronoun speaker. It is believed that sufficient examples of this rule, +in all the modifications of inflection, have been given under the head +of the substantive. But as the substantives employed to elicit these +modifications were exclusively _specific_ in their meaning, it, may be +proper here, in further illustration of an important principle, to +present a generic substantive under their compound forms. + +I have selected for this purpose one of the primitives. IE-AU´, is the +abstract term for matter. It is in the animate form. Its inanimate +correspondent is IE-EE´. These are two important roots. And they are +found in combination, in a very great number of derivative words. It +will be sufficient here, to show their connection with the pronoun, in +the production of a class of terms in very general use. + +Animate Forms. + +Possessive. + + SINGULAR. PLURAL. + + Nin dyë aum, Mine. Nin dyë auminaun, Ours. (ex.) + Ke dyë auminaun, Ours. (in.) + Ke dyë aum, Thine. Ke dyë aumewau, Yours. + +Objective. + + O dyë aum-un, His + or Hers. O dyë aumewaun, Theirs. + + +Inanimate Forms. + +Possessive. + + SINGULAR. PLURAL. + + Nin dyë eem, Mine. Nin dyë eeminaun, Ours. (ex.) + Ke dyë eeminaun, Ours. (in.) + Ke dyë eem, Thine. Ke dyë eemewau, Yours. + +Objective. + + O dyë eem. His + or Hers. O dyë eemewau, Theirs. (pos. in.) + +In these forms the noun is singular throughout. To render it plural, as +well as the pronoun, the appropriate general plurals _ug_ and _un_, or +_ig_ and _in_, must be superadded. But it must be borne in mind, in +making these additions, "that the plural inflection to inanimate nouns +(which have no objective case), forms the objective case to animate, +which have no number in the third person." (p. 461.) The particle _un_, +therefore, which is the appropriate plural for the inanimate nouns in +these examples, is only the objective mark of the animate. + +The plural of I, is _naun_, the plural of thou and he, _wau_. But as +these inflections would not coalesce smoothly with the possessive +inflections, the connective vowels _i_ and _e_ are prefixed, making the +plural of I, _inaun_, and of thou, &c., _ewau_. + +If we strike from these declensions the root IE, leaving its animate and +inanimate forms AU and EE, and adding the plural of the noun, we shall +then, taking the _animate_ declension as an instance, have the following +formula of the pronominal declensions: + + ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- + Pronoun singular. + | Place of the noun. + | | Possessive inflection. + | | | Objective inflection to the noun singular. + | | | | Connective vowel. + | | | | | Plural inflection of the + | | | | | pronoun. + | | | | | | Objective inflection, + | | | | | | noun plural. + | | | | | | | Plural of the noun. + ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- + Ne | | aum | | i | naun | | ig + Ke | | aum | | e | wau | | g + O | | aum | un | | | | + O | | aum | | e | wau | n | + ---+---+-----+----+---+------+---+---- + +To render this formula of general use, six variations (five in addition +to the above) of the possessive inflection are required, corresponding +to the six classes of substantives, whereby _aum_ would be changed to +_äm_, _eem_, _im_, _öm_, and _oom_, conformably to the examples +heretofore given in treating of the substantive. The objective +inflection would also be sometimes changed to _een_, and sometimes to +_oan_. + +Having thus indicated the mode of distinguishing the person, number, +relation, and gender, or what is deemed its technical equivalent, the +mutations words undergo, not to mark the distinctions of _sex_, but the +presence or absence of _vitality_, I shall now advert to the inflections +which the pronouns take for _tense_, or rather to form the auxiliary +verbs, have, had, shall, will, may, &c.; a very curious and important +principle, and one which clearly demonstrates that no part of speech has +escaped the transforming genius of the language. Not only are the three +great modifications of time accurately marked in the verbal form of the +Chippewas, but, by the inflection of the pronoun, they are enabled to +indicate some of the oblique tenses, and thereby to conjugate their +verbs with accuracy and precision. + +The particle _gee_ added to the first, second, and third person +singular, of the present tense, changes them to the perfect past, +rendering I, thou, he, I did, have, or had; thou didst, hast, or hadst; +he or she did, have, or had. If _gah_ be substituted for _gee_, the +first future tense is formed, and the perfect past added to the first +future, forms the conditional future. As the eye may prove an auxiliary +in the comprehension of forms which are not familiar, the following +tabular arrangement of them is presented. + +First person, I. + + Nin gee, I did, have, had. + Nin gah, I shall, will. + Nin gah gee, I shall have, will have. + +Second person, Thou. + + Ke gee, Thou didst, hast, hadst. + Ke gah, Thou shalt, wilt. + Ke gah gee, Thou shalt have, wilt have. + +Third person, He or She. + + O gee, He or she did, have, had. + O gah, He or she did, have, had. + O gah gee, He or she shall have, will have. + +The present and imperfect tense of the potential mood is formed by +_dau_, and the perfect by _gee_ suffixed, as in other instances. + +First person, I. + + Nin dau, I may, can, &c. + Nin dau gee, I may have, can have, &c. + +Second person, Thou. + + Ke dau, Thou mayst, canst, &c. + Ke dau gee, Thou mayst have, canst have, &c. + + Third person, He or She. + + O dau, He or she may, can, &c. + O dau gee, He or she may have, can have, &c. + +In conjugating the verbs through the plural person, the singular terms +for the pronoun remain, and they are rendered plural by a retrospective +action of the pronominal inflections of the verb. In this manner the +pronoun-verb auxiliary has a general application, and the necessity of +double forms is avoided. + +The preceding observations are confined to the formative or _prefixed_ +pronouns. The inseparable suffixed or subformative are as follows:-- + + Yaun, My. + Yun, Thy. + Id or d, His or hers. + Yaung, Our. (ex.) + Yung, Our. (in.) + Yaig, Your. + Waud, Their. + +These pronouns are exclusively employed as suffixes, and as suffixes to +the descriptive compound substantives, adjectives, and verbs. Both the +rule and examples have been stated under the head of the substantives, +p. 463, and adjectives, p. 492. Their application to the verb will be +shown as we proceed. + +2. _Relative Pronouns._--In a language which provides for the +distinction of person by particles prefixed or suffixed to the verb, it +will scarcely be expected that separate and independent relative +pronouns should exist, or if such are to be found, their use, as +separate parts of speech, must, it will have been anticipated, be quite +limited; limited to simple interrogatory forms of expression, and not +applicable to the indicative or declaratory. Such will be found to be +the fact in the language under review; and it will be perceived from the +subjoined examples, that in all instances requiring the relative pronoun +_who_, other than the simple interrogatory forms, this relation is +indicated by the inflections of the verb, or adjective, &c. Nor does +there appear to be any declension of the separate pronoun corresponding +to _whose_ and _whom_. + +The word _Ahwaynain_, may be said to be uniformly employed in the sense +of _who_, under the limitations we have mentioned. For instance-- + + Who is there? Ahwaynain e-mah ai-aud? + Who spoke? Ahwaynain kau keegoedood? + Who told you? Ahwaynain kau weendumoak? + Who are you? Ahwaynain iau we yun? + Who sent you? Ahwaynain waynönik? + Who is your father? Ahwaynain kös? + Who did it? Ahwaynain kau tödung? + Whose dog is it? Ahwaynain way dyid? + Whose pipe is that? Ahwaynain döpwaugunid en-eu? + Whose lodge is it? Ahwaynain way weegewomid? + Whom do you seek? Ahwaynain nain dau wau bumud? + Whom have you here? Ahwaynain oh-amau _ai_ auwaud? + +Not the slightest variation is made in these phrases between who, whose, +and whom. + +Should we wish to change the interrogative, and to say he who is there, +he who spoke, he who told you, &c., the separable personal pronoun +_ween_ (he) must be used in lieu of the relative; and the following +forms will be elicited:-- + + Ween, kau unnönik, He (who) sent you. + Ween, kau geedood, He (who) spoke. + Ween, _ai_-aud e-mah, He (who) is there. + Ween, kau weendumoak, He (who) told you. + Ween, kau tödung, He (who) did it, &c. + +If we object that, in these forms, there is no longer the relative +pronoun _who_, the sense being simply he sent you, he spoke, &c., it is +replied that, if it be intended only to say he sent you, &c., and not he +_who_ sent you, &c., the following forms are used:-- + + Ke gee unnönig, He (sent) you. + Ainnözhid, He (sent) me. + Ainnönaud, He (sent) him. + Iau e-mau, He is there. + Ke geedo, He (spoke). + Ke gee weendumaug, He (told) you. + Ke to dum, He did it. + +We reply to this answer of the native speaker, that the particle _kau_ +prefixed to a verb, denotes the past tense; that in the former series of +terms in which this particle appears, the verbs are in the perfect +indicative, and in the latter, they are in the present indicative, +marking the difference only between _sent_ and _send_, _spoke_ and +_speak_, &c.; and that there is absolutely no relative pronoun in either +series of terms. We further observe, that the personal pronoun _ween_, +prefixed to the first set of terms, may be prefixed, with equal +propriety, to the second set, and that its use or disuse is perfectly +optional with the speaker, as he may wish to give additional energy or +emphasis to the expression. To these positions, after reflection, +discussion, and examination, we receive an assent, and thus the +uncertainty is terminated. + +We now wish to apply the principle thus elicited to verbs causative, and +to other compound terms--to the adjective verbs, for instance--and to +the other verbal compound expressions, in which the objective and the +nominative persons are incorporated as a part of the verb, and are not +prefixes to it. This may be shown in the causative verb-- + +TO MAKE HAPPY. + + Mainwaindumëid, He (who) makes _me_ happy. + Mainwaindumëik, He (who) makes _thee_ happy. + Mainwaindumëaud, He (who) makes _him_ happy. + Mainwaindumëinung, He (who) makes _us_ happy. (in.) + Mainwaindumëyaug, He (who) makes _us_ happy. (ex.) + Mainwaindumëinnaig, He (who) makes _ye_ or _you_ happy. + Mainwaindumëigowaud, He (who) makes _them_ happy. + +And so the forms might be continued throughout all the objective +persons-- + + Mainwaindum ë yun, _Thou_ (who) makest me happy, &c. + +The basis of these compounds is _minno_, "good," and _aindum_, "the +mind." Hence, _minwaindum_, "he happy." The adjective, in this +connection, cannot be translated "good," but its effect upon the noun is +to denote that state of the mind which is at rest with itself. The first +change from this simple compound, is to give the adjective a verbal +form; and this is effected by a permutation of the vowels of the first +syllable--a rule of very extensive application--and by which, in the +present instance, the phrase "he happy," is changed to "he makes happy," +(_mainwaindum_.) The next step is to add the suffix personal pronouns, +_id_, _ik_, _aud_, &c., rendering the expressions, "he makes _me_ +happy," &c. But, in adding these increments, the vowel _e_ is thrown +between the adjective-verb and the pronoun suffixed, making the +expression, not _mainwaindum-yun_, but _mainwaindum ëyun_. Generally, +the vowel e, in this situation, is a connective, or introduced merely +for the sake of euphony. And those who maintain that it is here +employed as a personal pronoun, and that the relative _who_ is implied +by the final inflection, overlook the inevitable inference, that if the +marked _e_ stands for _me_ in the first phrase, it must stand for _thee_ +in the second, _he_ in the third, _us_ in the fourth, &c. As to the +meaning and office of the final inflections _id_, _ik_, &c., whatever +they may, in an involuted sense, _imply_, it is quite clear, by turning +to the list of _suffixed personal pronouns_, and _animate plurals_, that +they mark the persons, I, thou, he, &c., we, ye, they, &c. + +Take, for example, _minwaindumëigowaud_, "he (who) makes them happy." Of +this compound, _minwaindum_, as before shown, signifies "he makes +happy." But as the verb is in the singular number, it implies that but +_one person_ is made happy; and the suffixed personal pronouns +_singular_, mark the distinctions between _me_, _thee_, and _he_, or +_him_. + +_Minwaindum-e-ig_ is the verb plural, and implies that several persons +are made happy; and, in like manner, the suffixed personal pronouns +_plural_, mark the distinctions between we, ye, they, &c.; for it is a +rule of the language, that a strict concordance must exist between the +number of the verb and the number of the pronoun. The termination of the +verb consequently always indicates whether there be one or many objects +to which its energy is directed. And as animate verbs can be applied +only to animate objects, the numerical inflections of the verb are +understood to mark the number of persons. But this number is +indiscriminate, and leaves the sense vague until the pronominal suffixes +are superadded. Those who, therefore, contend for the _sense_ of the +relative pronoun "who" being given in the last-mentioned phrase, and all +phrases similarly formed by a succedaneum, contend for something like +the following form of translation: "He makes them happy--him!" or +"Him--he (meaning 'who') makes them happy." + +The equivalent for _what_, is _waygonain_. + + What do you want? Waygonain wau iauyun? + What have you lost? Waygonain kau wonetöyun? + What do you look for? Waygonain nain dahwau bundahmun? + What is this? Waygonain ewinain maundun? + What will you have? Waygonain kad iauyun? + What detained you? Waygonain kau oon dahme egöyun? + What are you making? Waygonain wayzhetöyun? + What have you there? Waygonain e-mau iauyun? + +The use of this pronoun, like the preceding, appears to be confined to +simple interrogative forms. The word _auneen_, which sometimes supplies +its place, or is used for want of the pronoun _which_, is an adverb, and +has considerable latitude of meaning. Most commonly, it may be +considered as the equivalent for _how_, in what manner, or at what time. + + What do you say? Auneen akeedöyun? + What do you call this? Auneen aizheneekaudahmun + maundun?(i.) + What ails you? Auneen aindeeyun? + What is your name? Auneen aizheekauzoyun? + Which do you mean, this or that? (an.) Auneen ah-ow ainud, woh-ow + gämau ewaidde? + Which do you mean, this or that? (in.) Auneen eh-eu ewaidumun oh-oo + gämau ewaidde? + Which boy do you mean? Auneen ah-ow-ainud? + +By adding to this word the particle _de_, it is converted into an adverb +of place, and may be rendered _where_. + + Where do you dwell? Auneende aindauyun? + Where is your son? Auneende ke gwiss? + Where did you see him? Auneende ke waubumud? + Where did you see it? Auneende ke waubundumun? + Where are you going? Auneende azhauyun? + Where did you come from? Auneende ka oonjeebauyun? + Where is your pipe? Auneende ke döpwaugun? + Where is your gun? Auneende ke baushkizzigun? + +By a still further modification, it is rendered an adverb of inquiry of +the cause or motive. + + Why do you do so? Auneeshween eh eu todumun? + Why do you say so? Auneeshween eh eu ekeedoyun? + Why are you angry? Auneeshween nishkaudizzeyun? + Why will you depart? Auneeshween wee matyauyun? + Why will you not depart? Auneeshween matyauseewun? + Why have you come? Auneeshween ke peëzhauyun? + Tell me why? Weendumowishin auneeshween? + Wherefore is it so? Auneeshween eh-eu izzhewaibuk? + (in.) + Wherefore did you strike him? Auneeshween ke pukketaywud? + +3. Demonstrative pronouns are either animate or inanimate, and may be +arranged as follows:-- + + ANIMATE. INANIMATE. + + Mau-bum (impersonal), } This. Maun-dun (inanimate proper). + Woh-ow (personal), } Oh-oo (inanimate conventional). + Ah-ow, That. Eh-eu. + Mau-mig, These. Mau-min. + Ig-eu (personal), } Those. In-eu (inanimate proper). + I-goo (impersonal), } O-noo (inanimate conventional). + +These words are not always used merely to ascertain the object, but +often, perhaps always, when the object is present to the sight, have a +substantive meaning, and are used without the noun. It creates no +uncertainty, if a man be standing at some distance to say, _Ah-ow_; or +if a canoe be lying at some distance, to say, _Eh-eu_; the meaning is +clearly, that _person_, or that _canoe_, whether the noun be added or +not. Or, if there be two animate objects standing together, or two +inanimate objects lying together, the words _maumig_ (a.), or _maumin_ +(i.), if they be near, or _ig-eu_, (a.), or _in-eu_ (i.), if they be +distant, are equally expressive of the _materiality_ of the objects, as +well as their relative position. Under other circumstances the noun +would be required, as where two animate objects of diverse character--a +man and a horse for instance--were standing near each other; or a canoe +and a package of goods were lying near each other--and, in fact, under +all circumstances--the noun _may_ be used after the demonstrative +pronoun, without violating any rule of grammar, although not without the +imputation, in many instances, of being over-formal and unnecessarily +minute. What is deemed redundant, however, in oral use, and amongst a +people who supply much by sight and gesticulation, becomes quite +necessary in writing the language; and, in the following sentences, the +substantive is properly employed after the pronoun:-- + + This dog is very lean, Gitshee bukaukuddoozo woh-ow + annemoosh. + These dogs are very lean, Gitshee bukaukuddoozowug o-goo + annemooshug. + Those dogs are fat, Ig-eu annemooshug ween-in-oowug. + That dog is fat, Ah-ow annemoosh ween-in-oo. + This is a handsome knife, Gagait onishishin maundun mokomahn. + These are handsome knives, Gagait wahwinaudj o-noo mokomahnun. + Those are bad knives, Monaududön in-euwaidde mokomahnun. + Give me that spear, Meezhishin eh-eu ahnitt. + Give me those spears, Meezhishin in-eu unnewaidde + ahnitteen. + That is a fine boy, Gagait kwonaudj ah-ow kweewezains. + Those are fine boys, Gagait wahwinaudj ig-euwaidde + kweewezainsug. + This boy is larger than that, Nahwudj mindiddo woh-ow kweewezains + ewaidde dush. + That is what I wanted, Meeh-eu wau iauyaumbaun. + This is the very thing I wanted, Mee-suh oh-oo wau iauyaumbaun. + +In some of these expressions, the pronoun combines with an adjective, as +in the compound words _ineuwaidde_ and _igeuwaidde_, _those yonder_ +(in.), and _those yonder_ (an.). Compounds which exhibit the full +pronoun in coalescence with the adverb _ewaidde_, yonder. + + +2. NATURAL HISTORY. + +V. + +ZOOLOGY. + + 1. _Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the Northwestern + parts of the United States._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. (Northwest + Journal.) + + 2. _Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered by Mr. + Schoolcraft in the Northwest._ By WILLIAM COOPER. (Annals of the + New York Lyceum of Natural History.) + + 3. CONCHOLOGY.--_List of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, in the + Western and Northwestern Territory._ By WILLIAM COOPER. + + +HELIX. + +1. HELIX ALBOLABRIS, _Say_. Near Lake Michigan. + +2. HELIX ALTERNATA, _Say_. Banks of the Wabash, near and above the +Tippecanoe. Mr. Say remarks, that these two species, so common in the +Atlantic States, were not met with in Major Long's second expedition, +until their arrival in the secondary country at the eastern extremity of +Lake Superior. + +PLANORBIS. + +3. PLANORBIS CAMPANULATUS, _Say_. Itasca (or La Biche) Lake, the source +of the Mississippi. + +4. PLANORBIS TRIVOLVIS, _Say_. Lake Michigan. These two species were +also observed by Mr. Say, as far east as the Falls of Niagara. + +LYMNEUS. + +5. LYMNEUS UMBROSUS, _Say_, Am. Con. iv. pl. xxxi. Fig. 1. Lake +Winnipec, Upper Mississippi, and Rainy Lake. + +6. LYMNEUS REFLEXUS, _Say_, l. c. pl. xxxi. Fig. 2. Rainy Lake, Seine +River, and Lake Winnipec. + +7. LYMNEUS STAGNALIS. Lake a la Crosse, Upper Mississippi. + +PALUDINA. + +8. PALUDINA PONDEROSA, _Say_. Wisconsin River. + +9. PALUDINA VIVIPARA, _Say_, Am. Con. i. pl. x. The American specimens +of this shell are more depressed than the European, but appear to be +identical in species. + +MELANIA. + +10. MELANIA VIRGINICA, _Say_. Lake Michigan. + +ANODONTA. + +11. ANODONTA CATARACTA, _Say_. Chicago, Lake Michigan. This species, Mr. +Lea remarks, has a great geographical extension. + +12. ANODONTA CORPULENTA, _Nobis_. Shell thin and fragile, though less so +than others of the genus; much inflated at the umbones, margins somewhat +compressed; valves connate over the hinge in perfect specimens; surface +dark brown, in old shells; in younger, of a pale dingy green, and +without rays, in all I have examined; beaks slightly undulated at the +tip. The color within is generally of a livid coppery hue, but +sometimes, also, pure white. + +Length of a middling sized specimen, four and a half inches, breadth, +six and a quarter. It is often eighteen inches in circumference round +the border of the valves, with a diameter through the umbones of three +inches. Inhabits the Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien to Lake +Pepin. + +This fine shell, much the largest I have seen of the genus, was first +sent by Mr. Schoolcraft, to the Lyceum, several years ago. So far as I +am able to discover, it is undescribed, and a distinct and remarkable +species. It may be known by its length being greater in proportion to +its breadth than in the other American species, by the subrhomboidal +form of the posterior half, and generally, by the color of the nacre, +though this is not to be relied on. It appears to belong to the genus +SYMPHYNOTA of Mr. Lea. + +ALASMODONTA. + +13. ALASMODONTA COMPLANATA, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA COMPLANATA, _Lea_. +Shell Lake, River St. Croix, Upper Mississippi. Many species of shells +found in this lake grow to an extraordinary size. Some of the present +collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, measure nineteen inches in circumference. + +14. ALASMODONTA RUGOSA, _Barnes_. St. Croix River, and Lake Vaseux, St. +Mary's River. + +15. ALASMODONTA MARGINATA, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St. Mary's River; very +large. + +16. ALASMODONTA EDENTULA? _Say_. ANODON AREOLATUS? _Swainson_. Lake +Vaseux. The specimens of this shell are too old and imperfect to be +safely determined. + +UNIO. + +17. UNIO TUBERCULATUS, _Barnes_. Painted Rock, Upper Mississippi. + +18. UNIO PUSTULOSUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien, to Lake +Pepin. + +19. UNIO VERRUCOSUS, _Barnes_, _Lea_. St. Croix River of the Upper +Mississippi. + +20. UNIO PLICATUS, _Le Sueur_, _Say_. Prairie du Chien, and River St. +Croix. + +The specimens of U. PLICATUS sent from this locality by Mr. Schoolcraft +have the nacre beautifully tinged with violet, near the posterior border +of the shell, and are also much more ventricose than those found in more +eastern localities, as Pittsburg, for example; at the same time, I +believe them to be of the same species. Similar variations are observed +in other species; the specimens from the south and west generally +exhibiting a greater development. + +21. UNIO TRIGONUS, _Lea_. From the same locality as the last, and like +it unusually ventricose. + +22. UNIO EBENUS, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and +Lake Pepin. + +23. UNIO GIBBOSUS, _Barnes_. St. Croix River, Upper Mississippi, + +24. UNIO RECTUS, _Lamarck_. U. PRÆLONGUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, +from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin, and the River St. Croix. The +specimens collected by Mr. Schoolcraft, vary much in the color of the +nacre. Some have it entirely white, others rose purple, and others +entirely of a very fine dark salmon color. This species inhabits the St. +Lawrence as far east as Montreal. + +25. UNIO SILIQUOIDEUS, _Barnes_, and U. INFLATUS, _Barnes_. Upper +Mississippi, between Prairie du Chien and Lake Pepin. Large, ponderous, +and the epidermis finely rayed. + +26. UNIO COMPLANATUS, _Lea_. U. PURPUREUS, _Say_. Lake Vaseux, St. +Mary's River. Lake Vaseux is an expansion of the River St. Mary, a +tributary of the upper lakes. This shell does not appear to exist in any +of the streams flowing into the Mississippi. + +27. UNIO CRASSUS, _Say_. Upper Mississippi, Prairie du Chien. + +28. UNIO RADIATUS, _Barnes_. Lake Vaseux. The specimen is old and +imperfect, but I believe it to be the U. RADIATUS of our conchologists, +which is common in Lake Champlain and also inhabits the St. Lawrence. + +29. UNIO OCCIDENS, _Lea_. U. VENTRICOSUS, _Say_, Am. Con. U. +VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes?_ Wisconsin and St. Croix Rivers, and Shell Lake. +Epidermis variously colored, and marked with numerous rays. + +30. UNIO VENTRICOSUS, _Barnes_. Upper Mississippi, from Prairie du Chien +to Lake Pepin and Shell Lake. The varieties of this, and the preceding +pass insensibly into each other. Those from Shell Lake are of +extraordinary size. + +31. UNIO ALATUS, _Say_. SYMPHYNOTA ALATA, _Lea_. Upper Mississippi, and +Shell Lake. Found also in Lake Champlain, by the late Mr. Barnes. + +32. UNIO GRACILIS, _Barnes_. SYMPHYNOTA GRACILIS, _Lea_. Upper +Mississippi, and Shell Lake. The specimens brought by Mr. Schoolcraft +are larger and more beautiful than I have seen from any other locality. + + +VI. + +BOTANY. + + 1. _A List of Species and Localities of Plants collected in the + Northwestern Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft of 1831 and 1832._ + By DOUGLASS HOUGHTON, M. D., Surgeon to the expeditions. + +The localities of the following plants are transcribed from a catalogue +kept during the progress of the expeditions, and embrace many plants +common to our country, which were collected barely for the purpose of +comparison. A more detailed account will be published at some future +day. + + _Aster tenuifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + " _sericea_, Nuttall. River de Corbeau, Missouri Ter. + " _lævis?_ Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. + " _concolor_, Willdenow. Fox River, Northwest Ter. + " (_N. Spec._). Sources of Yellow River, Northwest Ter. + _Andropogon furcatus_, Willdenow. Sources of Yellow River, Northwest + Ter. + _Alopecurus geniculatus_, Linnæus. Sault Ste. Marie, M. T. + _Aira flexuosa._ Sault Ste. Marie, M. T. + _Allium tricoccum_, Aiton. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior. + " _cernuum_, Roth. River de Corbeau to the sources of the + Miss. + " (_N. Spec._). St. Louis River of Lake Superior. + _Amorpha canescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. + _Artemisia canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + " _sericea_, Nuttall. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. + " _gnaphaloides_, Nuttall. Fox River, Northwest Ter. + _Arabis hirsuta_, De Candolle. Upper Mississippi. + " _lyrata_, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Arundo canadensis_, Mx. Lake Superior. + _Arenaria lateriflora_, Linn. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + _Alnus glauca_, Mx. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss. + _Alliona albida_, Walter. Yellow River, Northwest Ter. + _Aronia sanguinea._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Alectoria jubata._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Aletris farinosa._ Prairies of Michigan Ter. + _Bidens beckii_, Torrey. St. Croix River to the sources of the Miss. + _Bunias maritima_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. + _Baptisia coerulea_, Michaux. Fox River, Northwest Ter. + _Blitum capitatum._ Northwest Ter. + _Betula papyracea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of + the Miss. + " _glandulosa._ Savannah River, Northwest Ter. + _Bartramia fontana._ Lake Superior. + _Bromus canadensis_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. + _Batschia canescens._ Plains of the Mississippi. + " " Var. (or _N. Spec._). Lake Superior. + _Carex paucifolia._ Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. + " _scirpoides_, Schkuhr. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. + " _limosa_, Linn. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. + " _curata_, Gmelin. Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. Ter. + " (apparently _N. Spec._ allied to _C. scabrata_.) Sources of the + Miss. + " _washingtoniana_, Dewy. Lake Superior. + " _lacustris_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + " _oedere_, Ehrhart. Leech Lake. + " _logopodioides_, Schkuhr. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. + " _rosea_, Var. Lake Superior. + " _festucacea_, Schkuhr. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. + _Cyperus mariscoides_, Elliott. Upper Mississippi. + " _alterniflorus_, Schwinitz. River St. Clair, Mich. Ter. + _Cnicus pitcheri_, Torrey. Lakes Michigan and Superior. + _Coreopsis palmata_, Nuttall. Prairies of the Upper Mississippi. + _Cardamine pratensis._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Calamagrostis coarctata_, Torrey. Lake Winnipec. + _Cetraria icelandica._ Lakes Superior and Michigan. + _Corydalis aurea_, Willdenow. Cass Lake, Upper Mississippi. + " _glauca_, Persoon. Lake Superior. + _Cynoglossum amplexicaule_, Michaux. Sault Ste. Marie. + _Cassia chamoecrista._ Upper Mississippi. + _Corylus americana_, Walter. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + " _rostrata_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + _Cistus canadensis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of + the Miss. + _Cornus circinata_, L'Heritier. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + _Cypripedium acaule_, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + _Cymbidium pulchellum_, Swartz. Lake Superior to the sources of + the Miss. + _Corallorhiza multiflora_, Torrey. Lake Superior. + _Convallaria borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of + the Mississippi. + " _trifolia_, Linn. Lake Superior. + _Cenchrus echinatus_, Linn. Upper Mississippi. + _Cerastium viscosum_, Linn. Lake Superior. + " _oblongifolium_, Torrey. Michigan Ter. + _Campanula acuminata_, Michaux. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. + _Chrysosplenium oppositifolium._ Lake Superior to the Mississippi. + _Cinna arundinacea_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + _Drosera linearis_, Hooker. Lake Superior. + " _rotundifolia._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + " _americana_, Muhlenberg. Lake Superior to the sources of + the Miss. + _Dracocephalum virginicum_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River, Northwest + Territory. + _Delphinium virescens_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. + _Danthonia spicata_, Willdenow. Mauvais River of Lake Superior. + _Dirca palustris_, Willdenow. Ontonagon River of Lake Superior. + _Equisetum limosum_, Torrey. Lake Superior. + " _palustr_e, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + " _variegatum_, Smith. Lake Michigan. + _Erigeron integrifolium_, Bigelow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. + " _purpureum_, Willdenow. Falls of Peckagama, Upper + Miss. + " (_N. Spec._). Sources of St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. + _Erigeron heterophyllum_, Var. or (_N. Spec._). Sources of St. Croix + River, Northwest Ter. + _Eryngium aquaticum_, Jussieu. Galena, Ill. + _Euphorbia corollata_, Willdenow. Red Cedar River. + _Eriophorum virginicum_, Linn. Lake Superior. + " _alpinum_, Linn. Lake Superior. + " _polystachyon_, Linn. Lake Superior. + _Empetrum nigrum_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Erysimum chiranthoides_, Linn. Lake Superior: + _Eriocaulon pellucidum_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Euchroma coccinea_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. + _Elymus striatus_, Willdenow. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. + " _virginicus_, Linn. St. Croix River, Northwest Ter. + _Festuca nutans_, Willdenow. Lake Winnipec. + _Glycera fluitans_, Brown. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. + _Gyrophora papulosa_. Lake Superior. + _Gentiana crinita_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. + _Geranium carolinianum_. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. + _Galium lanceolatum_, Torrey. Red Cedar River to the Mississippi. + _Gerardia pedicularis_. Fox River, Northwest Ter. + " _maritima_, Rafinesque. Lake Michigan. + _Galeopsis tetrahit_, Var. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter. + _Gnaphalium plantaginium_, Var. Sources of the Mississippi. + _Goodyera pubescens_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + _Hippophæ canadensis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + " _argentea_, Pursh. Lake Superior. + _Hedeoma glabra_, Persoon. Lake Michigan to the sources of the + Miss. + _Hydropeltis purpurea_, Michaux. Northwest Ter. + _Hippuris vulgaris_. Yellow River to sources of the Mississippi. + _Hudsonia tomentosa_, Nuttall. Lake Superior. + _Hypericum canadense_. Lake Superior. + " _prolificum_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. + _Hieracium fasciculatum_, Pursh. Pukwàewa Lake, Northwest Ter. + _Hierochloa borealis_, Roemer & Schultes. Lake Superior. + _Holcus lanatus_. Savannah River, Northwest Ter. + _Houstonia longifolia_, Willdenow. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. + _Heuchera americana_, Linn. St. Louis River of Lake Superior. + _Hypnum crista-castrensis._ Sources of the Mississippi. + _Hordeum jubatum._ Upper Red Cedar Lake. + _Helianthus decapetalis._ Northwest Ter. + " _gracilis_, Torrey. Upper Lake St. Croix, Northwest Ter. + _Hyssopus anisatus_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. + " _scrophularifolius_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + _Inula villosa_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. + _Ilex canadensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Juncus nodosus._ St. Mary's River. + " _polycephalus_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Koeleria nitida_, Nuttall. Lake Winnipec. + _Lycopodium dendroideum_, Michaux. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Mississippi. + " _annotinum_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Mississippi. + _Lonicera hirsuta_, Eaton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + " _sempervirens_, Aiton. Lake Superior. + _Lechea minor._ Upper Mississippi. + _Linhea borealis_, Willdenow. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Lathyrus palustris._ Lake Superior. + " _decaphyllus_, Pursh. Leech Lake. + " _maritimus_, Bigelow. Lake Superior. + _Lobelia kalmii_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. + " _claytoniana_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. + " _puberula?_ Michaux. Yellow River, Northwest Ter. + _Liatris scariosa_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + " _cylindrica_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. + _Lysimachia revoluta_, Nuttall. Lake Superior. + " _thyrsifolia_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Ledum latifolium_, Aiton. Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Myrica gale_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + _Malva (N. Spec.)._ Upper Mississippi. + _Monarda punctata_, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi. + " _oblongata_, Aiton. Upper Mississippi. + _Microstylis ophioglossoides_, Willdenow. Lac la Biche [Itasca]. + _Myriophyllum spicatum._ Lake Superior. + _Mitella cordifolia_, Lamarck. Lake Superior. + _Menyanthes trifoliata._ Lake Superior to the sources of the Miss. + _Myosotis arvensis_, Sibthorp. St. Clair River, Mich. Ter. + _Nelumbium luteum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + _OEnothera biennis_, Var. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior. + " _serrulata_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. + _Psoralea argophylla_, Pursh. Falls of St. Anthony. + _Primula farinosa_, Var. _Americana_, Torrey. Lakes Huron and + Superior. + " _mistassinica_, Michaux. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. + _Pingwicula_ (_N. Spec._). Presque Isle, Lake Superior. + _Parnassia americana_, Muhlenberg. Lake Michigan. + _Pedicularis gladiata_, Michaux. Fox River. + _Pinus nigra_, Lambert. Lake Superior. + " _banksiana_, Lambert. Lake Superior. + _Populus tremuloides_, Michaux. Northwest Ter. + " _lævigata_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + _Prunus depressa_, Pursh. Lakes Superior and Michigan. + _Petalostemon violaceum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + " _candidum_, Willdenow. Upper Mississippi. + _Potentilla tridentata_, Aiton. Lake Superior. + " _fruticosa_, Linnæus. Lakes Superior and Michigan. + _Pyrola uniflora_, Mauvais River of Lake Superior. + _Polygonum amphibium_, Linnæus. St. Croix River. + " _cilinode_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + " _articulatum_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. + " _coccinium_, Willdenow. St. Croix River. + _Polygala polygama_, Walter. Northwest Ter. + _Phlox aristata_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. + _Poa canadensis._ Upper Mississippi. + _Pentstemon gracile_, Nuttall. Upper Red Cedar Lake. + " _grandiflorum_, Nuttall. Falls of St. Anthony. + _Physalis lanceolata_, Var. (or _N. Spec._). Lac la Biche [Itasca]. + _Quercus coccinea_, Wangenheim. Upper Red Cedar Lake. + " _obtusiloba_, Michaux. Upper Mississippi. + _Ranunculus filiformis_, Michaux. Falls of St. Mary, Mich. Ter. + " _pusillus_, Pursh. Mich. Ter. + " _prostratus_, Lamarck. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. + " _lacustris_, Beck & Tracy. Upper Mississippi. + _Rudbeckia hirta_, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi and Michigan Ter. + " _digitata_, Aiton. Upper Mississippi. + _Rubus parviflorus_, Nuttall. Lake Superior to the sources of the + Miss. + " _hispidus_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. + " _saxatilis_, Var. _canadensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Rosa gemella_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + " _rubifolia_, Brown. Michigan Ter. + _Ribes albinervum_, Michaux. Sources of the St. Croix River. + _Saururus cernuus_, Linnæus. Upper Mississippi. + _Streptopus roseus_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Sisymbrium brachycarpum_, Richardson. Lake Superior. + " _chiranthoides_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. + _Swertia deflexa_, Smith. Bois Brulé River of Lake Superior. + _Silphium terebinthinaceum_, Elliott. Michigan Territory to the Miss. + " _gummiferum_. Fox River to the Mississippi. + _Stachys aspera_, Var. Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Sterocaulon paschale._ Lake Superior. + _Struthiopteris pennsylvanica_, Willdenow. Lake Superior. + _Scirpus frigetur?_ Lake of the Isles, Northwest Ter. + " _palustris_, Linnæus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. + _Salix prinoides_, Pursh. Mauvais River of Lake Superior. + " _longifolia_, Muhlenberg. Upper Mississippi. + _Spiræa opulifolia_, Var. _tomentella_, De Candolle. Lake Superior. + _Sorbus americana_, Willdenow. Lake Huron to the head of Lake + Superior. + _Smilax rotundifolia_ Linnæus. Lake Superior to the Mississippi. + _Silene antirrhina_, Linnæus. Lac la Biche. + _Saxifraga virginiensis_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Scutellaria ambigua_, Nuttall. Upper Mississippi. + _Solidago virgaurea_, Var. _alpina._ Lake Superior. + _Stipa juncea_, Nuttall. Usawa R. + _Symphora racemosa_, Michaux. Source of the Miss. R. + _Senecio balsamitæ_, Var. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Miss. + _Sagittaria heterophylla_, Pursh. Upper Miss. + _Tanacetum huronensis_, Nuttall. Lakes Michigan and Superior. + _Tussilago palmata_, Willdenow. Lake Michigan. + _Tofeldia pubens_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + _Triglochin maritimum_, Linnæus. Lake Superior. + _Thalyctrum corynellum_, De Candolle. St. Louis River. + _Triticum repens_, Linnæus. Leech Lake. + _Troximon virginicum_, Pursh. Lake Winnipec. + _Talinum teretifolium_, Pursh. St. Croix River. + _Tradescantia virginica._ Upper Mississippi. + _Utricularia cornuta_, Michaux. Lake Superior. + " _purpurea_, Walter. Lac Chetac, N. W. Ter. + _Uraspermum canadense_, Lake Superior to the Miss. + _Viola lanceolata_, Linnæus. Sault Ste. Marie. + " _pedata_, Var. (or _N. Spec._). Lac la Biche, sources of the + Miss. + _Viburnum oxycoccus_, Pursh. Lake Superior. + " _lentago._ Lake Superior. + _Vernonia novoboracensis_, Willdenow. Upper Miss. + _Verbena bracteosa_, Michaux. Upper Miss. + " _stricta_, Ventenat. Upper Miss. + _Zapania nodiflora_, Michaux. Galena, Illinois. + _Zigadenus chloranthus_, Richardson. Sandy shores of Lake Michigan. + _Zizania aquatica_, Pursh. Illinois to the sources of the Miss. + + +VII. + +MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. + +1. _A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper in the Geological +Basin of Lake Superior._ By Dr. D. HOUGHTON. + +FREDONIA, N. Y., November 14, 1831. + +SIR: In fulfilment of the duties assigned to me in the late expedition +into the Indian country, under the direction of H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq., +Indian Agent, I would beg leave to transmit to you the following +observations relative to the existence of copper in the country +bordering on the southern shore of Lake Superior. + +It is without doubt true that this subject has long been viewed with an +interest far beyond its actual merit. Each mass of native copper which +this country has produced, however insulated, or however it may have +been separated from its original position, appears to have been +considered a sure indication of the existence of that metal in beds; +and hence we occasionally see, upon maps of that section of our country, +particular portions marked as containing "copper mines," where no copper +now exists. But, while it is certain that a combination of circumstances +has served to mislead the public mind with regard to the geological +situation and existing quantity of that metal, it is no less certain +that a greater quantity of insulated native copper has been discovered +upon the borders of Lake Superior, than in any other equal portion of +North America. + +Among the masses of native copper which have engaged the attention of +travellers in this section of country, one, which from its great size +was early noticed, is situated on the Ontonagon River, a stream which +empties its waters into the southern part of Lake Superior, 331 miles +above the Falls of the Ste. Marie. The Ontonagon River is, with some +difficulty, navigable by batteaux 36 miles, at which place, by the union +of two smaller streams--one from an easterly and the other from a +westerly direction--the main stream is formed. The mass of copper is +situated on the western fork, at a distance of six or eight miles from +the junction. + +The face of the country through the upper half of the distance from Lake +Superior is uneven, and the irregularity is given it by hills of marly +clay, which occasionally rise quite abruptly to the height of one or two +hundred feet. No rock was observed _in situ_, except in one place, +where, for a distance, the red sandstone was observed, forming the bed +of the river. + +The mass of copper lies, partly covered by water, directly at the foot +of a clay hill, from which, together with numerous boulders of the +primitive rocks, it has undoubtedly been washed by the action of the +water of the river. Although it is completely insulated, there is much +to interest in its examination. Its largest surface measures three and a +half by four feet, and this, which is of malleable copper, is kept +bright by the action of the water, and has the usual appearance of that +metal when worn. To one surface is attached a small quantity of rock, +singularly bound together by threads of copper, which pass through it in +all directions. This rock, although many of its distinctive characters +are lost, is evidently a dark colored serpentine, with small +interspersed masses of milky quartz. + +The mass of copper is so situated as to afford but little that would +enable us to judge of its original geological position. In examining the +eastern fork of the river, I discovered small water-worn masses of +trap-rock, in which were specks of imbedded carbonate of copper and +copper black; and with them were occasionally associated minute specks +of serpentine, in some respects resembling that which is attached to the +large mass of copper; and facts would lead us to infer that the trap +formation which appears on Lake Superior east of the Ontonagon River, +crosses this section of country at or near the source of that river, and +at length forms one of the spurs of the Porcupine Mountains. + +Several smaller masses of insulated native copper have been discovered +on the borders of Lake Superior, but that upon Ontonagon River is the +only one which is now known to remain. + +At as early a period as before the American Revolution, an English +mining company directed their operations to the country bordering on +Lake Superior, and Ontonagon River was one point to which their +attention was immediately directed. Traces of a shaft, sunk in the clay +hill, near a mass of copper, are still visible--a memento of ignorance +and folly. + +Operations were also commenced on the southern shore of Lake Superior, +near the mouth of a small stream, which, from that circumstance, is +called Miners' River. Parts of the names of the miners, carved upon the +sandstone rock at the mouth of the river, are still visible. What +circumstance led to the selection of this spot does not now appear. No +mineral traces are at this day perceptible, except occasional +discolorations of the sandstone rock by what is apparently a mixture of +the carbonates of iron and copper; and this is only to be observed where +water, holding in solution an extremely minute portion of these salts, +has trickled slowly over those rocks. + +It does not, in fact, appear that the red sandstone, which constitutes +the principal rock formation of the southern shore of Lake Superior, is +in any instance metalliferous in any considerable degree. If this be +true, it would require but little reflection to convince one of the +inexpediency of conducting mining operations at either of the points +selected for that purpose; and it is beyond a doubt true, that the +company did not receive the least inducement to continue their labors. + +In addition to these masses of native copper, an ore of that metal has +long been known to the lake traders as the green rock, in which the +characteristic substances are the green and blue carbonates of copper, +accompanied by copper black. It is situated upon Keweena Point, 280 +miles above the falls of the Ste. Marie. The ore is embraced by what is +apparently a recently formed crag; and, although it is of a kind and so +situated as to make an imposing appearance, there is little certainty of +its existence in large quantities in this formation. The ore forms a +thin covering to the pebbles of which the body of the rock is composed, +and is rarely observed in masses separate from it. The crag is composed +of angular fragments of trap-rock, and the formation is occasionally +traversed by broad and continuous belts of calc. spar, here and there +tinged with copper. Although the ore was not observed in any +considerable quantity, except at one point, it apparently exists in +minute specks through a greater part of the crag formation, which +extends several miles, forming the shore of the lake. + +This examination of the crag threw new interest upon the trap formation, +which had been first observed to take the place of the sandstone at the +bottom of a deep bay, called Montreal Bay, on the easterly side of +Keweena Point. The trap-rock continues for a few miles, when the crag +before noticed appears to lie directly upon it, and to form the +extremity of the point; the crag, in turn, disappears, and the trap-rock +is continued for a distance of six or eight miles upon the westerly side +of the point, when the sandstone again reappears. + +The trap-rock is of a compact granular texture, occasionally running +into the amygdaloid and toadstone varieties, and is rich in imbedded +minerals, such as amethystine quartz, smoky quartz, carnelian, +chalcedony, agate, &c., together with several of the ores of copper. +Traces of copper ore in the trap-rock were first noticed on the easterly +side of Keweena Point, and near the commencement of the trap formation. +This ore, which is an impure copper black, was observed in a vein of +variable thickness, but not in any part exceeding two and a half inches. +It is sufficiently compact and hard to receive a firm polish, but it is +rather disposed to break into small irregular masses. A specimen +furnished, upon analysis, 47.5 per cent. of pure copper. + +On the western side of Keweena Point, the same ore appears under +different circumstances, being disseminated through the body of the +trap-rock, in grains varying in size from a pin's head to a pea. +Although many of these grains are wholly copper black, they are +occasionally only depositions of the mineral upon specks of carnelian, +chalcedony, or agate, or are more frequently composed, in part, of what +is apparently an imperfect steatite. The ore is so connected with, and +so much resembles in color the rock, of which it may be said to be a +constituent part, that they might easily, during a hasty examination, be +confounded. A random specimen of the rock furnished, upon analysis, 3.2 +per cent. of pure copper. The rock continues combined with that mineral +for nearly the space of three miles. Extremely thin veins of copper +black were observed to traverse this same rock; and in enlargements of +these were discovered several masses of amorphous native copper. The +latter mineral appeared in two forms--the one consisting of compact and +malleable masses, varying from four to ten ounces each; and the other, +of specks and fasciculi of pure copper, binding together confused masses +of copper green, and partially disintegrated trap-rock; the latter was +of several pounds' weight. Each variety was closely embraced by the +rock, although the action of the water upon the rock had occasionally +exposed to view points of the metal. In addition to the accompanying +copper green, which was in a disintegrated state, small specks of the +oxide of copper were associated in most of the native specimens. + +Circumstances would not permit an examination of any portion of the trap +formation, except that bordering directly upon the lake. But facts would +lead us to infer that that formation extends from one side of Keweena +Point to the other, and that a range of thickly wooded hills, which +traverses the point, is based upon, if not formed of that rock. An +Indian information, which, particularly upon such a subject, must be +adopted with caution, would sanction the opinion that the prominent +constituents are the same wherever the rock is observed. + +After having duly considered the facts which are presented, I would not +hesitate to offer, as an opinion, that the trap-rock formation was the +original source of the masses of copper which have been observed in the +country bordering on Lake Superior; and that, at the present day, +examinations for the ores of copper could not be made in that country +with hopes of success, except in the trap-rock itself; which rock is not +certainly known to exist upon any place upon Lake Superior, other than +Keweena Point. + +If this opinion be a correct one, the cause of, failure of the mining +company in this region is rendered plain. Having considered each +insulated mass of pure metal as a true indication of the existence of a +bed in the vicinity, operations were directed to wrong points; when, +having failed to realize their anticipations, the project was abandoned +without further actual investigation. We would be induced to infer that +no attempts were made to learn the original source of the metal which +was discovered, and thus, while the attention was drawn to insulated +masses, the ores, ordinary in appearance, but more important _in sitû_, +were neglected; and perhaps, from the close analogy in appearance to the +rock with which they were associated, no distinction was observed. + +What quantity of ore the trap-rock of Keweena Point may be capable of +producing, can only be determined by minute and laborious examination. +The indications which were presented by a hasty investigation are here +embodied, and with deference submitted to your consideration. + +I have the honor to be, + Sir, your obedient, servant, + DOUGLASS HOUGHTON. + +Hon. LEWIS CASS, _Secretary of War_. + +2. _Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver and Ores of Silver in the +Stratification of the Basins of Lakes Huron and Superior._ By HENRY R. +SCHOOLCRAFT. + +Traces of this metal which have been found in the drift and boulder +stratum of both Lakes Huron and Superior, indicate the existence of the +metal in place. During my residence at St. Mary's, two specimens of its +occurrence were brought to my notice. The first of these consisted of +points of native silver in a moderately large mass of native copper, +found in 1823, near the entrance of the _Nama_ or Sturgeon River into +Keweena Lake, of the large peninsula of that name, in Lake Superior. +Like the majority of such masses of the region, it had no adhering +portion of rock or vein stone, from which a judgment might be formed of +its original position. + +I had, the prior year, set up my mineralogical cabinet in my office, and +stated to the Indians, who roved over large tracts, my solicitude to +collect specimens of the mineral productions of the country of every +description, and, indeed, of its zoology, always acknowledging their +comity, in bringing me specimens in any department of natural history, +by some small present; and I found this to be a means of extending my +inquiries. + +Subsequently, I received a boulder specimen from the shores of Lake +Huron, containing veins of native silver. Part of the metal had been +detached. I submitted these specimens to the Lyceum of Natural History +at New York, in 1825. The following remarks are taken from their annals. + +_Mineralogical and Chemical Characters._--By examining this mineral, it +will be perceived to possess the color, lustre, malleability, and other +obvious characters of native silver. It is so soft as to be easily cut +by the knife; and in a state of purity which permits it to spread under +the hammer. These characters serve to distinguish it from antimonial +silver, which is not _malleable_; from native antimony which tarnishes +on exposure, &c. The metal occurs in thin, massive veins in the rock. +These veins sometimes intersect, but never cross each other. It is also +disseminated in small particles through the stone, or spread in +flattened masses over its surface. Some of these masses were detached by +the discoverer, but have been preserved, and are presented to the Lyceum +with the more solid and undisturbed portions. + +By submitting a small portion of the metal to the action of nitric acid, +I obtained an imperfect solution. On repeating the experiment, and +adding a little sulphuric acid, the action was more brisk, and a clear +and apparently perfect solution effected. By standing, however, a pulpy, +white precipitate appeared at the bottom of the glass. This was +collected and submitted to the action of the blowpipe, on a basis of +charcoal. The result gave a number of minute, metallic globules, +possessing greater lustre, malleability, and ductility, than the +original mass. I repeated the latter experiment, adding to the +nitro-sulphuric solution muriate of soda. A more perfect precipitation +of the white powder was effected; but the results with the blowpipe +remained the same. + +_Geognostic Position._--It is a rolled mass. An opinion of the specific +character of the rock may be dubious, from the smallness of the +specimen. It appears to have been detached from a stratum of gneiss, and +is essentially composed of quartz. The blackish color of some parts of +this latter mineral would, at first glance, lead us to attribute this +color to the presence of hornblende; but, on closer examination, it will +be perceived to be owing to a dark-colored steatite, which, in certain +parts of the rock, is well developed, soft, and easily cut. A little +calcspar is intermingled with the steatite. + +_Locality._--I am indebted to the politeness of Lieut. Lewis S. +Johnston, of the British Indian Department, at Malden (U. C.), for the +opportunity of adding this specimen to the mineralogical cabinet of the +Lyceum. This gentleman, as he informed me, obtained it from an Indian, +who picked it up on the southeastern shores of Lake Huron, near Point +aux Barques, in Michigan Territory. That part of Lake Huron was +cursorily examined by me, in the year 1820, in the course of the +expedition conducted by Gov. Cass, through the upper lakes, &c. I +consider it remarkable, even in a region abounding in rolled rocks, for +the great number and variety of granite, gneiss, hornblende, and trap +boulders, scattered along the shores of the lake. The water here is +generally shallow and dangerous to approach in vessels; these boulder +stones sometimes extending and presenting themselves above water for a +mile or more from land. But we could not satisfy ourselves by an +examination necessarily partial, that either of the primitive species +mentioned, existed there in any other condition than as rolled masses, +or displacements of rock strata, contiguous, perhaps, but not observed. +Dr. Bigsby has informed me, that he observed the gneiss _in sitû_, on +the northwestern shores of this lake. The nearest rock in place, and +that which in fact constitutes the abraded and caverned promontory of +Point aux Barques, is gray sandstone. + +The occurrence of this metal in the copper-bearing and other +metalliferous rocks of this region, may be confidently affirmed.[273] + + [273] At the date of this publication, it is known that this metal + occurs, both as a constituent of the mass copper in Lake Superior, + and is also developed in veins in the stratification. + +3. _A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals observed in the +Northwest in 1831 and 1832._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + + CLASS I. _Bodies not metallic, containing an acid._ + +1. CALCAREOUS SPAR. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded in small +globular masses, in the trap-rock; also forming veins in the same +formation. Some of the masses break into rhombic forms, and possess a +certain but not perfect degree of transparency; others are opaque, or +discolored by the green carbonate of copper. Also in the trap-rock +between Fond du Lac and Old Grand Portage, Lake Superior, in perfect, +transparent rhombs, exhibiting the property of double refraction. Also, +at the lead mines, in Iowa County, in the marly clay formation, often +exhibiting imperfect prisms, variously truncated. + +2. CALCAREOUS TUFA. Mouth of the River Brulé, of Lake Superior. In +small, friable, broken masses, in the diluvial soil. Also, in the gorge +below the Falls of St. Anthony. In detached, vesicular masses, amidst +debris. + +3. COMPACT CARBONATE OF LIME. In the calcareous cliffs of horizontal +formation, commencing at the Falls of St. Anthony. Carboniferous. + +4. SEPTARIA. In the reddish clay soil, between Montreal River and +Lapointe, Lake Superior. + +5. GYPSUM. In the sandstone rock at the Point of Grand Sable West, Lake +Superior. In orbicular masses, firmly imbedded. Not abundant. Granular, +also imperfectly foliated. + +6. CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. Serpentine rock, at Presque Isle, Lake +Superior. Compact. + +7. HYDRATE OF MAGNESIA? With the preceding. + + CLASS II. _Earthy compounds, amorphous or crystalline._ + +8. COMMON QUARTZ. Huron Islands, Lake Superior; also the adjoining +coast. In very large veins or beds. White, opaque. + +9. GRANULAR QUARTZ. Falls of Peckagama, Upper Mississippi. _In sitû._ + +10. SMOKY QUARTZ. In the trap-rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior, +crystallized. In connection with amethystine quartz. + +11. AMETHYST. With the preceding. Also, at the Pic Bay, and at +Gargontwa, north shore of Lake Superior, in the trap-rock, in perfect +crystals, of various intensity of color. + +12. CHALCEDONY. Keweena Point, Lake Superior. In globular or orbicular +masses, in amygdaloid rock. Often, in detached masses along the shores. + +13. CARNELIAN. With the preceding. + +14. HORNSTONE. In detached masses, very hard, on the shores of Lake +Superior. Also, at Dodgeville, Iowa County, Mich. Ter., in fragments or +nodular masses in the clay soil. + +15. JASPER. In the preceding locality. Common and striped, exceedingly +difficult of being acted on by the wheel. Not observed _in sitû_. + +16. AGATE. Imbedded in the trap-rocks of Lake Superior, and also +detached, forming a constituent of its detritus. Variously colored. +Often made up of alternate layers of chalcedony, carnelian, and +cacholong. Sometimes zoned, or in fortification points. Specimens not +taken from the rock are not capable of being scratched by quartz or +flint, and are incapable of being acted on by the file; consequently, +_harder_ than any of the described species. + +17. CYANITE. Specimens of this mineral, in flat, six-sided prisms, +imbedded in a dark primitive rock, were brought out from Lac du Flambeau +outlet, where the rock is described as existing _in sitû_. The locality +has not been visited, but there are facts brought to light, within the +last two or three years, to justify the extension of the primitive to +that section of country. + +18. PITCHSTONE. A detached mass of this mineral, very black and +lava-like, was picked up in the region of Lake Superior, where the +volcanic mineral, trachyte, is common among the rolled masses. Neither +of these substances have been observed _in sitû_. + +19. MICA. Huron Islands, Lake Superior. In granite. + +20. SCHORL. Common. Outlet of Lac du Flambeau. Also, in a detached mass +of primitive rock at Green Bay. + +21. FELDSPAR. Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior. + +22. BASALT. Amorphous. Granite Point, Lake Superior. + +23. STILBITE. Amygdaloid rock, Keweena Point, Lake Superior. + +24. ZEOLITE. Mealy. With the preceding. + +25. ZEOLITE. Radiated. Lake Superior. This mineral consists of fibres, +so delicate and firmly united as to appear almost compact, radiating +from a centre. Some of the masses produced by this radiation measure 2.5 +inches in diameter. They are of a uniform, pale, yellowish red. This +mineral has not been traced _in sitû_, being found in detached masses of +rock, and sometimes as water-worn portions of radii. Its true position +would seem to be the trap-rock. + +26. ASBESTUS. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. In the serpentine formation. + +27. HORNBLENDE. Very abundant as a constituent of the primitive rocks on +the Upper Mississippi, and in the basin of Lake Superior. Often in +distinct crystals. + +28. DIALLAGE, GREEN. Lake Superior. In detached masses, connected with +primitive boulders. _Harder_ than the species. + +29. SERPENTINE, COMMON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. + +30. SERPENTINE, PRECIOUS. With the preceding. Color, a light pistachio +green, and takes a fine polish. Exists in veins in the common variety. + +31. PSEUDOMORPHOUS SERPENTINE. With the preceding. This beautiful green +mineral constitutes a portion of the veins of the precious serpentine. +Its crystalline impressions are very distinct. + +32. ARGILLITE. River St. Louis, northwest of Lake Superior. Nearly +vertical in its position. + + CLASS III. _Combustibles._ + +33. PEAT. Marine sand formation composing the shore of Lake Superior, +between White-fish Point and Grand Marais. Also, on the island of +Michilimackinac. + + CLASS IV. _Ores and Metals._ + +34. NATIVE COPPER. West side of Keweena Point, Lake Superior. Imbedded +in a vein with carbonate of copper, and copper black, in the trap-rock. + +35. COPPER BLACK. With the preceding. + +36. CARBONATE OF COPPER, GREEN. With the preceding. + +These two minerals (35 and 36) characterize the trap-rock of the +peninsula of Keweena, Lake Superior, from Montreal Bay, extending to and +around its extremity, west, to Sand-hill Bay. The entire area may be +estimated to comprise a rocky, serrated coast of about seventy-five +miles in length, and not to exceed seven or eight miles in width. The +principal veins are at a point called Roche Verd, and along the coast +which we refer to as the Black Rocks. At the latter, native copper is +one of the constituents of the vein. + +Green and blue carbonate of copper was also observed in limited +quantity, in small rounded masses, at one of the lead diggings near +Mineral Point, Iowa County. + +37. CHROMATE OF IRON. Presque Isle, Lake Superior. + +38. SULPHURET OF LEAD. Lead mines of Iowa County, Michigan Territory. + +39. EARTHY CARBONATE OF LEAD. Brigham's mine, Iowa County, Mich. Ter. +Also, in small masses, of a yellowish white, dirty color, and great +comparative weight, at several of the lead mines (diggings) in the more +westerly and southern parts of the county. + +4. _Geological Outline of the Taquimenon Valley of Lake Superior._ By +HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +The River Takquimenon originates on a plateau between the northern +shores of Lake Michigan and the southeastern coast of Lake Superior. At +a central point on this plateau, there lies a lake of moderate size, +which, in the translated Indian phrase, is called Heartsblood Lake. A +little to the west of this lake, and, perhaps, connected with it, +originates the head stream of the North Manistic River of Lake Michigan, +running southwest. Towards the northeast the Takwymenon takes its way, +winding through level grassy plains, till it reaches the rim of the +geological basin that circumscribes Lake Superior. The height of this +point is conjectural. It is probably one hundred and fifty feet above +the level of the lake. + +To comprehend the geography of the region, it is necessary to advert to +the fact that the sandstone formation, which appears in the picturesque +form of the Pictured Rocks, is last seen in its range eastward at La +Pointe des Grande Sable, where its surface is of a compact structure and +dull red color. Between this locality and the bold cape of Point +Iroquois, at the head of St. Mary's River, there intervenes an extensive +formation of gravel, boulders, and sand. The length of this line of +coast is about ninety miles, its breadth to the basinic rim, perhaps +thirty. It is covered with small pines, spruce, birch, and poplar, with +frequent sphagnous tracts and ponds; the lake shore, where the sands are +continually accumulated, being higher than the interior portions. It +has, from early days, been a favorite resort for beaver, from which it +is called by the natives, Namikong, meaning, excellent place of beavers. + +This tract of the Namikong is primarily due to diluvial formations, with +a comparatively recent hem of lake action, consisting of sands and +pebbles pushed up by the waves of Lake Superior. Through this tract, +from the plateaux, four small rivers make their way to the lake. They +are, in their order, from west to east, the river of Grand Mauvais, the +Twin River, the Shelldrake, and the Tacquimenon, which enters the lake +fifteen miles from Point Iroquois. + +Of these streams, the Tacquimenon carries the largest body of water into +the lake. It is already a stream of seventy feet wide, and three feet +deep, when it reaches the rim of sandstone rocks referred to. Over +these, it is plunged, at a single perpendicular leap, forty feet, +falling like a curtain. It drops into a vast concavity in the sand rock, +where the water is of unfathomable depth, black and still. I had reached +this point in a canoe manned by Indians. They had urged their way up a +very rapid brawling bed for six miles above the lower falls, and when we +reached this still, deep, and dark basin, they said that care was +required to keep from under the suction of the falling sheet. + +The lower falls of the stream are probably twelve or fourteen feet. They +are broken into several fan-shaped cascades, and present a picturesque +appearance--an idea which has also impressed the Chippewas, for they +refer to it as a favorite locality of fairies. Hence their name for it. +Immediately below these falls the river winds about, making a peninsula, +which is covered with deciduous trees and a fertile soil. The amount of +water power at this point is such as must command attention whenever the +country justifies settlement. + +5. _Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of the Deposit of +Sandstone Rock at St. Mary's Falls._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +Lake Superior presents to the eye the singular spectacle of a body of +pure translucent water, five hundred miles in length from east to west, +and one hundred and eighty or two hundred miles wide. This vast mass of +water is thought to have an extreme depth--I know not on what +principles--of nine hundred feet deep. It lies at an elevation of six +hundred feet above the Atlantic ocean, at high water. + +From this depth there has been protruded from its bottom two species of +formations, which were thus elevated by volcanic forces, namely, the +trap and the granitical series. Cones and high mural cliffs, with large +rents, make this basis one of great inequalities. To fill up these, the +sedimentary rocks, by a natural law of gravitation, let fall the +dissolved and suspended matter which constitutes the horizontal strata, +such as the neutral and deep-colored sandstones. This process also gives +origin to grauwackes and the grauwacke slates and the argillites. But +these horizontal deposits do not all retain their horizontality. They +were tilted up by other volcanic forces, after the deposition and +hardening of the sandstones, as we see them at the north foot of the +Porcupine Mountains and along the rugged valley of the St. Louis River. + +This secondary upheaval or series of upheavals, is conceived to furnish +proof of epochs. Strata of the same mineral constitution and system of +formation which are upheaved, are clearly of posterior age to the +horizontal. Some of these strata of the secondary, epoch have only had +their horizontality disturbed, while others are quite vertical. Yet, the +disturbances of an epoch are only relative, and it remains true that any +disturbance, however slight, in the fundamental series, throws the epoch +beyond the newer fletz and tertiary formations. + +Some theory of this kind is necessary in scrutinizing the position of +the St. Mary's sandstone, which is manifestly of the palaozoic era. It +has felt the impulse of disturbance, although it appears to be little. +Evidences of this are most perceptible in the British Channel, on the +north side of the Island of St. Joseph. This channel, and, indeed, the +entire course of the river up to Lake Superior, is the line of +juxtaposition between the rocks of elder and the secondary epoch. At the +extreme foot of Sugar Island occurs the remains of a stratum of the +sandstone era, consisting of white quartz filled with coarse red jasper +pebbles. I observed remains of this stratum of remarkable rock, which +have been broken off and swept away in the basin of Lake Huron, +deposited in boulder masses on its southern shores. + +The sandstone of St. Mary's is, structurally, brittle, fissile, and +worthless, as a building material. Its substructure is complicated and +made up of thin layers exactly deposited, as if from watery suspension, +but deposited without disturbance. These sub-layers of construction, are +sometimes cut off by parallel lines at right angles, or by new series of +layers diagonally formed, or in echelon. + + +3. INDIAN TRIBES. + +VIII. + +CONDITION AND DISPOSITION. + + 1. _Official Report of an Expedition through Upper Michigan and Northern + Wisconsin in 1831._ + +SAULT STE. MARIE, Sept. 21, 1831. + +SIR: In compliance with instructions to endeavor to terminate the +hostilities between the Chippewas and Sioux, I proceeded into the +Chippewa country with thirteen men in two canoes, having the necessary +provisions and presents for the Indians, an interpreter, a physician to +attend the sick, and a person in charge of the provisions and other +public property. The commanding officer of Fort Brady furnished me with +an escort of ten soldiers, under the command of a lieutenant; and I took +with me a few Chippewas, in a canoe provided with oars, to convey a part +of the provisions. A flag was procured for each canoe. I joined the +expedition at the head of the portage, at this place, on the 25th of +June; and, after visiting the Chippewa villages in the belt of country +between Lake Superior and the Mississippi, in latitudes 44° to 46°, +returned on the 4th of September, having been absent seventy-two days, +and travelled a line of country estimated to be two thousand three +hundred and eight miles. I have now the honor to report to you the route +pursued, the means employed to accomplish the object, and such further +measures as appear to me to be necessary to give effect to what has been +done, and to insure a lasting peace between the two tribes. + +Reasons existed for not extending the visit to the Chippewa bands on the +extreme Upper Mississippi, on Red Lake, and Red River, and the River De +Corbeau. After entering Lake Superior, and traversing its southern +shores to Point Chegoimegon, and the adjacent cluster of islands, I +ascended the Mauvaise River to a portage of 8-¾ miles into the +Kaginogumac, or Long Water Lake. This lake is about eight miles long, +and of very irregular width. Thence, by a portage of 280 yards, into +Turtle Lake; thence, by a portage of 1,075 yards, into Clary's Lake, so +called; thence, by a portage of 425 yards, into Lake Polyganum; and +thence, by a portage of 1,050 yards, into the Namakagon River, a branch +of the River St. Croix of the Upper Mississippi. The distance from Lake +Superior to this spot is, by estimation, 124 miles. + +We descended the Namakagon to the Pukwaewa, a rice lake, and a Chippewa +village of eight permanent lodges, containing a population of 53 +persons, under a local chief called Odabossa. We found here gardens of +corn, potatoes, and pumpkins, in a very neat state of cultivation. The +low state of the water, and the consequent difficulty of the navigation, +induced me to leave the provisions and stores at this place, in charge +of Mr. Woolsey, with directions to proceed (with part of the men, and +the aid of the Indians) to _Lac Courtorielle_, or Ottowa Lake, and there +await my arrival. I then descended the Namakagon in a light canoe, to +its discharge into the St. Croix, and down the latter to Yellow River, +the site of a trading-post and an Indian village, where I had, by +runners, appointed a council. In this trip I was accompanied by Mr. +Johnson, sub-agent, acting as interpreter, and by Dr. Houghton, adjunct +professor of the Rensselaer school. We reached Yellow River on the 1st +of August, and found the Indians assembled. After terminating the +business of the council (of which I shall presently mention the +results), I reascended the St. Croix and the Namakagon, to the portage +which intervenes between the latter and Lac Courtorielle. The first of +the series of carrying-places is about three miles in length, and +terminates at the Lake of the Isles (_Lac des Isles_); after crossing +which, a portage of 750 yards leads to _Lac du Gres_. This lake has a +navigable outlet into Ottowa Lake, where I rejoined the advanced party +(including Lieutenant Clary's detachment) on the 5th of August. + +Ottowa Lake is a considerable expanse of water, being about twelve miles +long, with irregular but elevated shores. A populous Chippewa village +and a trading-post are located at its outlet, and a numerous Indian +population subsists in the vicinity. It is situated in a district of +country which abounds in rice lakes, has a proportion of prairie or +burnt land, caused by the ravages of fire, and, in addition to the small +fur-bearing animals, has several of the deer species. It occupies, +geographically, a central situation, being intermediate, and commanding +the communications between the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, and +between Lake Superior and the Upper Mississippi. It is on the great +slope of land descending towards the latter, enjoys a climate of +comparative mildness, and yields, with few and short intervals of +extreme want, the means of subsistence to a population which is still +essentially erratic. These remarks apply, with some modifications, to +the entire range of country (within the latitudes mentioned) situated +west and south of the high lands circumscribing the waters of Lake +Superior. The outlet of this Lake (Ottowa) is a fork of Chippewa River, +called Ottowa River. + +I had intended to proceed from this lake, either by following down the +Ottowa branch to its junction with the main Chippewa, and then ascending +the latter into Lac du Flambeau, or by descending the Ottowa branch only +to its junction with the northwest fork, called the Ochasowa River; and, +ascending the latter to a portage of sixty _pauses_, into the Chippewa +River. By the latter route time and distance would have been saved, and +I should, in either way, have been enabled to proceed from Lac du +Flambeau to Green Bay by an easy communication into the Upper +Ouisconsin, and from the latter into the Menomonie River, or by Plover +Portage into Wolf River. This was the route I had designed to go on +quitting Lake Superior; but, on consulting my Indian maps, and obtaining +at Ottowa Lake the best and most recent information of the distance and +the actual state of the water, I found neither of the foregoing routes +practicable, without extending my time so far as to exhaust my supplies. +I was finally determined to relinquish the Lac du Flambeau route, by +learning that the Indians of that place had dispersed, and by knowing +that a considerable delay would be caused by reassembling them. + +The homeward route by the Mississippi was now the most eligible, +particularly as it would carry me through a portion of country occupied +by the Chippewas, in a state of hostility with the Sioux, and across the +disputed line at the mill. Two routes, to arrive at the Mississippi, +were before me--either to follow down the outlet of Ottowa Lake to its +junction with the Chippewa, and descend the latter to its mouth, or to +quit the Ottowa Lake branch at an intermediate point, and, after +ascending a small and very serpentine tributary, to cross a portage of +6,000 yards into Lake Chetac. I pursued the latter route. + +Lake Chetac is a sheet of water about six miles in length, and it has +several islands, on one of which is a small Chippewa village and a +trading-post. This lake is the main source of Red Cedar River (called +sometimes the _Folle Avoine_), a branch of the Chippewa River. It +receives a brook at its head from the direction of the portage, which +admits empty canoes to be conveyed down it two _pauses_, but is then +obstructed with logs. It is connected by a shallow outlet with Weegwos +Lake, a small expanse which we crossed with paddles in twenty-five +minutes. The passage from the latter is so shallow that a portage of +1,295 yards is made into Balsam of Fir or _Sapin_ Lake. The baggage is +carried this distance, but the canoes are brought through the stream. +Sapin Lake is also small; we were thirty minutes in crossing it. Below +this point, the river again expands into a beautiful sheet of water, +called Red Cedar Lake, which we were an hour in passing; and afterward +into _Bois François_, or Rice Lake. At the latter place, at the distance +of perhaps sixty miles from its head, I found the last fixed village of +Chippewas on this stream, although the hunting camps, and other signs of +temporary occupation, were more numerous below than on any other part of +the stream. This may be attributed to the abundance of the Virginia deer +in that vicinity, many of which we saw, and of the elk and moose, whose +tracks were fresh and numerous in the sands of the shore. Wild rice is +found in all the lakes. Game, of every species common to the latitude, +is plentiful. The prairie country extends itself into the vicinity of +Rice Lake; and for more than a day's march before reaching the mouth of +the river, the whole face of the country puts on a sylvan character, as +beautiful to the eye as it is fertile in soil, and spontaneously +productive of the means of subsistence. A country more valuable to a +population having the habits of our northwestern Indians could hardly be +conceived of; and it is therefore cause of less surprise that its +possession should have been so long an object of contention between the +Chippewas and Sioux. + +About sixty miles below Rice Lake commences a series of rapids, which +extend, with short intervals, 24 miles. The remainder of the distance, +to the junction of this stream with the Chippewa, consists of deep and +strong water. The junction itself is characterized by commanding and +elevated grounds, and a noble expanse of waters. And the Chippewa River, +from this spot to its entrance into the Mississippi, has a depth and +volume, and a prominence of scenery, which mark it to be inferior to +none, and superior to most of the larger tributaries of the Upper +Mississippi. Before its junction, it is separated into several mouths, +from the principal of which the observer can look into Lake Pepin. +Steamboats could probably ascend to the falls. + +The whole distance travelled, from the shores of Lake Superior to the +mouth of the Chippewa, is, by estimation, 643 miles, of which 138 should +be deducted for the trip to Yellow River leaving the direct practicable +route 505 miles. The length of the Mauvaise to the portage is 104; of +the Namakagon, from the portage, 161; of the Red Cedar, 170; of the +Chippewa, from the entrance of the latter, 40. Our means of estimating +distances was by time, corrected by reference to the rapidity of water +and strength of wind, compared with our known velocity of travelling in +calm weather on the lakes. These estimates were made and put down every +evening, and considerable confidence is felt in them. The courses were +accurately kept by a canoe compass. I illustrate my report of this part +of the route by a map protracted by Dr. Houghton. On this map, our +places of encampment, the sites and population of the principal Indian +villages, the trading-posts, and the boundary lines between the Sioux +and Chippewa, are indicated. And I refer you to it for several details +which are omitted in this report. + +The present state of the controversy between the Sioux and the Chippewas +will be best inferred from the facts that follow. In stating them, I +have deemed it essential to preserve the order of my conferences with +the Indians, and to confine myself, almost wholly, to results. + +Along the borders of Lake Superior, comparatively little alarm was felt +from the hostile relation with the Sioux. But I found them well informed +of the state of the difficulties, and the result of the several +war-parties that had been sent out the last year. A system of +information and advice is constantly kept up by runners; and there is no +movement meditated on the Sioux borders, which is not known and +canvassed by the lake bands. + +They sent warriors to the scene of conflict last year, in consequence of +the murder committed by the Sioux on the St. Croix. Their sufferings +from hunger during the winter, and the existence of disease at Torch +Lake (_Lac du Flambeau_), and some other places, together with the +entire failure of the rice crop, had produced effects, which were +depicted by them and by the traders in striking colors. They made these +sufferings the basis of frequent and urgent requests for provisions. +This theme was strenuously dwelt upon. Whatever other gifts they asked +for, they never omitted the gift of food. They made it their first, +their second, and their third request. + +At Chegoimegon, on Lake Superior (or _La Pointe_, emphatically so +called), I held my first and stated council with the Indians. This is +the ancient seat of the Chippewa power in this quarter. It is a central +and commanding point, with respect to the country lying north, and west, +and south of it. It appears to be the focus from which, as radii from a +centre, the ancient population emigrated; and the interior bands +consequently look back to it with something of the feelings of parental +relation. News from the frontiers flies back to it with a celerity which +is peculiar to the Indian mode of express. I found here, as I had +expected, the fullest and most recent information from the lines. +Mozojeed, the principal man at Ottowa Lake, had recently visited them +for the purpose of consultation; but returned on the alarm of an attack +upon his village. + +The Indians listened with attention to the message transmitted to them +from the President, and to the statements with which it was enforced. +Pezhickee, the venerable and respected chief of the place, was their +speaker in reply. He lamented the war, and admitted the folly of keeping +it up; but it was carried on by the Chippewas in self-defence, and by +volunteer parties of young men, acting without the sanction of the old +chiefs. He thought the same remark due to the elder Sioux chiefs, who +probably did not sanction the crossing of the lines, but could not +restrain their young men. He lived, he said, in an isolated situation, +did not mingle in the interior broils, and did not deem himself +responsible for acts done out of his own village, and certainly not for +the acts of the villages of Torch Lake, Ottowa Lake, and the St. Croix. +He had uniformly advised his people to sit still and remain at peace, +and he believed that none of his young men had joined the war-parties of +last year. The Government, he said, should have his hearty co-operation +in restoring peace. He referred to the sub-agency established here in +1826, spoke of its benefits, and wished to know why the agent had been +withdrawn, and whether he would be instructed to return? In the course +of his reply, he said that formerly, when the Indians lived under the +British government, they were usually told what to do, and in very +distinct terms; but they were now at a loss. From what had been said and +done at the treaty of Fond du Lac, he expected the care and protection +of the American government, and that they would advance towards, instead +of (as in the case of the sub-agency) withdrawing from them. He was +rather at a loss for our views respecting the Chippewas, and he wished +much for my advice in their affairs. + +I thought it requisite to make a distinct reply to this point. I told +him that when they lived under the British government, they were +justified in shaping their course according to the advice they received; +but that, on the transfer of the country, their allegiance was +transferred with it. And when our Government hoisted its flag at +Mackinac (1796), it expected from the Indians living within our +boundaries the respect due to it; and it acknowledged, at the same time, +the reciprocal obligations of care and protection. That it always aimed +to fulfil these obligations, of which facts within his own knowledge and +memory would afford ample proofs. I referred him to the several efforts +the Government had made to establish a lasting peace between the +Chippewas and Sioux; for which purpose the President had sent one of his +principal men (alluding to Gov. Cass), in 1820, who had visited their +most extreme northwestern villages, and induced themselves and the Sioux +to smoke the pipe of peace together at St. Peter's. In accordance with +these views, and acting on the information then acquired, the President +had established an agency for their tribe at Sault Ste. Marie, in 1822. +That, in 1825, he had assembled at Prairie du Chien all the tribes who +were at variance on the Upper Mississippi, and persuaded them to make +peace, and, as one of the best means of insuring its permanency, had +fixed the boundaries of their lands. Seeing that the Chippewas and Sioux +still continued an harassing and useless contest, he had sent me to +remind them of this peace and these boundaries, which, I added, you, +Perikee, yourself agreed to, and signed, in my presence. I come to bring +you back to the terms of this treaty. Are not these proofs of his care +and attention? Are not these clear indications of his, views respecting +the Chippewas? The chief was evidently affected by this recital. The +truth appeared to strike him forcibly; and he said, in a short reply, +that he was now _advised_; that he would hereafter feel himself to be +advised, &c. He made some remarks on the establishment of a mission +school, &c., which, being irrelevant, are omitted. He presented a pipe, +with an ornamented stem, as a token of his friendship, and his desire of +peace. + +I requested him to furnish messengers to take belts of wampum and +tobacco, with three separate messages, viz: to Yellow River, to Ottowa +Lake, and to Lac du Flambeau, or Torch Lake; and also, as the water was +low, to aid me in the ascent of the Mauvaise River, and to supply guides +for each of the military canoes, as the soldiers would here leave their +barge, and were unacquainted with the difficulties of the ascent. He +accordingly sent his oldest son (Che-che-gwy-ung) and another person, +with the messages, by a direct trail, leading into the St. Croix +country. He also furnished several young Chippewas to aid us on the +Mauvaise, and to carry baggage on the long portage into the first +intermediate lake west of that stream. + +After the distribution of presents, I left Chegoimegon on the 18th of +July. The first party of Indians met at the Namakagon, belonging to a +Chippewa village called Pukwaewa; having, as its geographical centre and +trading-post, Ottowa Lake. As I had directed part of the expedition to +precede me there, during my journey to Yellow River, I requested these +Indians to meet me at Ottowa Lake, and assist in conveying the stores +and provisions to that place--a service which they cheerfully performed. +On ascending the lower part of the Namakagon, I learned that my +messenger from Lake Superior had passed, and, on reaching Yellow River, +I found the Indians assembled and waiting. They were encamped on an +elevated ridge, called Pekogunagun, or the Hip Bone, and fired a salute +from its summit. Several of the neighboring Indians came in after my +arrival. Others, with their chiefs, were hourly expected. I did not +deem it necessary for all to come in, but proceeded to lay before +them the objects of my visit, and to solicit their co-operation in an +attempt to make a permanent peace with the Sioux, whose borders we then +were near. Kabamappa, the principal chief, not being a speaker, +responded to my statements and recommendations through another person +(Sha-ne-wa-gwun-ai-be). He said that the Sioux were of bad faith; that +they never refused to smoke the pipe of peace with them, and they never +failed to violate the promise of peace thus solemnly made. He referred +to an attack they made last year on a band of Chippewas and half-breeds, +and the murder of four persons. Perpetual vigilance was required to meet +these inroads. Yet he could assert, fearlessly, that no Chippewa +war-party from the St. Croix had crossed the Sioux line for years; that +the murder he had mentioned was committed within the Chippewa lines; and +although it was said, at the treaty of Prairie du Chien, that the first +aggressor of territorial rights should be punished, neither punishment +was inflicted by the Government, nor had any atonement or apology thus +far been made for this act by the Sioux. He said his influence had been +exerted in favor of peace; that he had uniformly advised both chiefs and +warriors to this effect; and he stood ready now to do whatever it was +reasonable he should do on the subject. + +I told him it was not a question of recrimination that was before us. It +was not even necessary to go into the inquiry of who had spilt the first +blood since the treaty of Prairie du Chien. The treaty had been +violated. The lines had been crossed. Murders had been committed by the +Chippewas and by the Sioux. These murders had reached the ears of the +President, and he was resolved to put a stop to them. I did not doubt +but that the advice of the old chiefs, on each side, had been pacific. I +did not doubt but that his course had been _particularly_ so. But rash +young men, of each party, had raised the war-club; and when they could +not go openly, they went secretly. A stop must be put to this course, +and it was necessary the first movement should be made _somewhere_. It +was proper it should be made here, and be made at this time. Nothing +could be lost by it; much might be gained; and if a negotiation was +opened with the Sioux chiefs while I remained, I would second it by +sending an explanatory message to the chiefs and to their agent. I +recommended that Kabamappa and Shakoba, the war-chief of Snake River, +should send jointly wampum and tobacco to the Petite Corbeau and to +Wabisha, the leading Sioux chiefs on the Mississippi, inviting them to +renew the league of friendship, and protesting their own sincerity in +the offer. I concluded by presenting him with a flag, tobacco, wampum, +and ribbons, to be used in the negotiation. After a consultation, he +said he would not only send the messages, but, as he now had the +protection of a flag, he would himself go with the chief Shakoba to the +Petite Corbeau's village. I accompanied these renewed offers of peace +with explanatory messages, in my own name, to Petite Corbeau and to +Wabisha, and a letter to Mr. Taliaferro, the Indian agent at St. +Peter's, informing him of these steps, and soliciting his co-operation. +A copy of this letter is hereunto annexed. I closed the council by the +distribution of presents; after which the Indians called my attention to +the conduct of their trader, &c. + +Information was given me immediately after my arrival at Yellow River, +that Neenaba, a popular war-leader from the Red Cedar fork of Chippewa +River, had very recently danced the war-dance with thirty men at Rice +Lake of Yellow River, and that his object was to enlist the young men of +that place in a war-party against the Sioux. I also learned that my +message for Ottowa Lake had been promptly transmitted through Neenaba, +whom I was now anxious to see. I lost not an hour in reascending the St. +Croix and the Namakagon. I purchased two additional canoes of the +Indians, and distributed my men in them, to lighten the draught of +water, and facilitate the ascent; and, by pushing early and late, we +reached Ottowa Lake on the fifth day in the morning. Neenaba had, +however, delivered his message, and departed. I was received in a very +friendly and welcome manner, by Mozojeed, of the band of Ottowa Lake; +Wabezhais, of the Red Devil's band of the South Pukwaewa; and Odabossa, +of the Upper Namakagon. After passing the usual formalities, I prepared +to meet them in council the same day, and communicate to them the +objects of my mission. + +In the course of the conference at this place, I obtained the +particulars of a dispute which had arisen between the Chippewas of this +quarter, which now added to their alarm, as they feared the latter would +act in coincidence with their ancient enemies, the Sioux. The reports of +this disturbance had reached me at the Sault, and they continued, with +some variations, until my arrival here. The following are the material +facts in relation to this new cause of disquietude: In the summer of +1827, Okunzhewug, an old woman, the wife of Kishkemun, the principal +chief of Torch Lake, a man superannuated and blind, attended the treaty +of Butte des Morts, bearing her husband's medal. She was treated with +the respect due to the character she represented, and ample presents +were directed to be given to her; among other things, a handsome hat. +The latter article had been requested of her by a young Menomonie, and +refused. It is thought a general feeling of jealousy was excited by her +good reception. A number of the Menomonies went on her return route as +far as the Clover Portage, where she was last seen. Having never +returned to her village, the Chippewas attributed her death to the +Menomonies. Her husband died soon after; but she had numerous and +influential relatives to avenge her real or supposed murder. This is the +account delivered by the Chippewas, and it is corroborated by reports +from the traders of that section of the country. Her singular +disappearance and secret death at the Clover Portage, is undisputed; and +whether caused or not by any agency of the Menomonies, the belief of +such agency, and that of the most direct kind, is fixed in the minds of +the Chippewas, and has furnished the basis of their subsequent acts in +relation to the Menomonie hunting-parties who have visited the lower +part of Chippewa River. Two women belonging to one of these parties +were killed by a Chippewa war-party traversing that part of the country +the ensuing year. The act was disclaimed by them as not being +intentional, and it was declared they supposed the women to be Sioux. On +a close inquiry, however, I found the persons who committed this act +were relatives of Okunzewug, which renders it probable that the murder +was intentionally perpetrated. This act further widened the breach +between the two hitherto fraternal tribes; and the Chippewas of this +quarter began to regard the Menomonie hunting-parties, who entered the +mouth of the Chippewa River, as intruders on their lands. Among a people +whose means of verbal information is speedy, and whose natural sense of +right and wrong is acute, the more than usual friendship and apparent +alliance which have taken place between the Menomonies and Sioux, in the +contest between the Sacs and Foxes, and the murder by them jointly of +the Fox chief White Skin and his companions at a smoking council, in +1830, have operated to increase the feeling of distrust; so much so, +that it was openly reported at Chegoimegon, at Yellow River, and Ottowa +Lake, that the Menomonies had formed a league with the Sioux against the +Chippewas also, and they were fearful of an attack from them. A +circumstance that had given point to this fear, and made it a subject of +absorbing interest, when I arrived at Ottowa Lake, was the recent murder +of a Menomonie chief by a Chippewa of that quarter, and the demand of +satisfaction which had been made (it was sometimes said) by the Indian +agent at Prairie du Chien, and sometimes by the commanding officer, with +a threat to march troops into the country. This demand, I afterward +learned from the Indians at Rice Lake, and from a conversation with +General Street, the agent at Prairie du Chien, had not been made, either +by himself or by the commanding officer; and the report had probably +arisen from a conversation held by a subaltern officer in command of a +wood or timber-party near the mouth of the Chippewa River, with some +Chippewas who were casually met. Its effects, however, were to alarm +them, and to lead them to desire a reconciliation with the Menomonies. I +requested them to lose no time in sending tobacco to the Menomonies, and +adjusting this difference. Mozojeed observed that the murder of the +Menomonie had been committed by a person _non compos_, and he deplored +the folly of it, and disclaimed all agency in it for himself and his +band. The murderer, I believe, belonged to his band; he desired a +reconciliation. He also said the measures adopted at Yellow River, to +bring about a firm peace with the Sioux, had his fullest approbation, +and that nothing on his part should be wanting to promote a result in +every view so wise and so advantageous to the Indians. In this +sentiment, Wabezhais and Odabossa, who made distinct speeches, also +concurred. They confirmed their words by pipes, and all the assembly +made an audible assent. I invested Mozojeed with a flag and a medal, +that he might exert the influence he has acquired among the Indians +beneficially for them and for us, and that his hands might thus be +officially strengthened to accomplish the work of pacification. I then +distributed presents to the chiefs, warriors, women, and children, in +the order of their being seated, and immediately embarked, leaving them +under a lively and enlivened sense of the good-will and friendship of +the American government, on this first official visit to them, and with +a sincere disposition, so far as could be judged, to act in obedience to +its expressed and known wishes. + +The Indians at Torch Lake being dispersed, and my message to them not +having been delivered, from this uncertainty of their location, I should +have found reasons for not proceeding in that direction, independent of +the actual and known difficulties of the route at that time. I was still +apprehensive that my appearance had not wholly disconcerted the +war-party of Neenaba, and lost no time in proceeding to his village on +the Red Cedar fork. We found the village at Lake Chetac, which in 1824 +was 217 strong, almost totally deserted, and the trading-house burnt. +Scattering Indians were found along the river. The mutual fear of +interruption was such that Mr. B. Cadotte, Sen., the trader at Ottowa +Lake, thought it advisable to follow in our train for the purpose of +collecting his credits at Rice Lake. + +While at breakfast on the banks of Sapin Lake, a returning war-party +entered the opposite side of it; they were evidently surprised, and they +stopped. After reconnoitring us, they were encouraged to advance, at +first warily, and afterward with confidence. There were eight canoes, +with two men in each; each man had a gun, war-club, knife, and +ammunition-bag: there was nothing else except the apparatus for +managing the canoe. They were all young men, and belonged to the +vicinity of Ottowa Lake. Their unexpected appearance at this place gave +me the first information that the war-party at Neenaba had been broken +up. They reported that some of their number had been near the mill, and +that they had discovered signs of the Sioux being out, in the moose +having been driven up, &c. In a short conference, I recited to them the +purpose of the council at Ottowa Lake, and referred them to their chiefs +for particulars, enjoining their acquiescence in the proposed measures. + +I found at Rice Lake a band of Chippewas, most of them young men, having +a prompt and martial air, encamped in a very compact form, and prepared +at a moment's notice, for action. They saluted our advance with a +smartness and precision of firing that would have done honor to drilled +troops. Neenaba was absent on a hunting-party; but one of the elder men +pointed out a suitable place for my encampment, as I intended here to +put new bottoms to my bark canoes. He arrived in the evening, and +visited my camp with forty-two men. This visit was one of ceremony +merely; as it was late, I deferred anything further until the following +day. I remained at this place part of the 7th, the 8th, and until 3 +o'clock on the 9th of August. And the following facts present the result +of several conferences with this distinguished young man, whose +influence is entirely of his own creation, and whose endowments, +personal and mental, had not been misrepresented by the Indians on my +route, who uniformly spoke of him in favorable terms. He is located at +the most advanced point towards the Sioux borders, and, although not in +the line of ancient chiefs, upon him rests essentially the conduct of +affairs in this quarter. I therefore deemed it important to acquire his +confidence and secure his influence, and held frequent conversations +with him. His manner was frank and bold, equally free from servility and +repulsiveness. I drew his attention to several subjects. I asked him +whether the saw-mill on the lower part of the Red Cedar, was located on +Chippewa lands? He said, Yes. Whether it was built with the consent of +the Chippewas? He said, No; it had been built, as it were, by stealth. I +asked him if anything had been subsequently given them in acknowledgment +of their right to the soil? He said, No; that the only acknowledgment +was their getting tobacco to smoke when they visited the mill; that the +Sioux claimed it to be on their side of the line, but the Chippewas +contended that their line ran to a certain bluff and brook below the +mill. I asked him to draw a map of the lower part of Chippewa River, +with all its branches, showing the exact lines as fixed by the treaty at +Prairie du Chien, and as understood by them. I requested him to state +the facts respecting the murder of the Menomonie, and the causes that +led to it; and whether he, or any of his band, received any message from +the agent or commanding officer at Prairie du Chien, demanding the +surrender of the murderer? To the latter inquiry he answered promptly, +No. He gave in his actual population at 142; but it is evident that a +very considerable additional population, particularly men, resort there +for the purpose of hunting a part of the year. + +The day after my arrival, I prepared for and summoned the Indians to a +council, with the usual formalities. I opened it by announcing the +objects of my visit. Neenaba and his followers listened to the terms of +the message, the means I had adopted to enforce it, and, finally, to the +request of co-operation on the part of himself and band, with strict +attention. He confined his reply to an expression of thanks, allusions +to the peculiarity of his situation on an exposed frontier, and general, +sentiments of friendship. He appeared to be mentally embarrassed by my +request to drop the war-club, on the successful use of which he had +relied for his popularity, and whatever of real power he possessed. He +often referred to his young men, over whom he claimed no superiority, +and who appeared to be ardently attached to him. I urged the principal +topic upon his attention, presenting it in several lights. I finally +conferred on him, personally, a medal and flag, and directed the +presents intended for his band to be laid, in gross, before him. + +After a pause, Neenaba got up, and spoke to the question, connecting it +with obvious considerations, of which mutual rights, personal safety, +and the obligation to protect the women and children, formed the basis. +The latter duty was not a slight one. Last year, the Sioux had killed a +chief on the opposite shore of the lake, and, at the same time, decoyed +two children, who were in a canoe, among the rice, and killed and +beheaded them. He said, in allusion to the medal and flag, that these +marks of honor were not necessary to secure his attention to any +requests made by the American government. And after resuming his seat +awhile (during which he overheard some remarks not pleasing to him, from +an Indian on the opposite side of the ring), he finally got up and +declined receiving them until they were eventually pressed upon him by +the young warriors. Everything appeared to proceed with great harmony, +and the presents were quickly distributed by one of his men. It was not, +however, until the next day, when my canoes were already put in the +water, that he came with his entire party, to make his final reply, and +to present the peace-pipe. He had thrown the flag over one arm, and held +the war-club perpendicularly in the other hand. He said that, although +he accepted the one, he did not drop the other; he held fast to both. +When he looked at the one, he should revert to the counsels with which +it had been given, and he should aim to act upon those counsels; but he +also deemed it necessary to hold fast the war-club; it was, however, +with a determination to use it in defence, and not in attack. He had +reflected upon the advice sent to the Chippewas by the President, and +particularly that part of it which counselled them to sit still upon +their lands; but while they sat still, they also wished to be certain +that their enemies would sit still. And the pipe he was now about to +offer, he offered with a request that it might be sent to the President, +asking him to use his power to prevent the Sioux from crossing the +lines. The pipe was then lit, handed round, the ashes knocked out, and a +formal presentation of it made. This ceremony being ended, I shook hands +with them, and immediately embarked. + +On the second day afterward, I reached the saw-mill, the subject of such +frequent allusion, and landed there at 7 o'clock in the morning. I found +a Mr. Wallace in charge, who was employed, with ten men, in building a +new dam on a brook of the Red Cedar, the freshet of last spring having +carried away the former one. I inquired of him where the line between +the Sioux and Chippewas crossed. He replied that the line crossed above +the mill, he did not precisely know the place; adding, however, in the +course of conversation, that he believed the land in this vicinity +originally belonged to the Chippewas. He said it was seven years since +any Sioux had visited the mill; and that the latter was owned by persons +at Prairie du Chien. + +The rapids of the Red Cedar River extend (according to the estimates +contained in my notes) about twenty-four miles. They commence a few +miles below the junction of Meadow River, and terminate about two miles +below the mills. This extension of falling water, referred to in the +treaty as a fixed point, has led to the existing uncertainty. The +country itself is of a highly valuable character for its soil, its game, +its wild rice, and its wood. We found the butternut among those species +which are locally included under the name of _Bois franc_, by the +traders. The land can, hereafter, be easily brought into cultivation, as +it is interspersed with prairie; and its fine mill privileges will add +to its value. Indeed, one mile square is intrinsically worth one hundred +miles square of Chippewa country, in some other places. + +The present saw-mills (there are two), are situated 65 miles from the +banks of the Mississippi. They are owned exclusively by private +citizens, and employed for their sole benefit. The boards are formed +into rafts; and these rafts are afterward attached together, and floated +down the Mississippi to St. Louis, where they command a good price. The +business is understood to be a profitable one. For the privilege, no +equivalent has been paid either to the Indians or to the United States. +The first mill was built several years ago, and before the conclusion of +the treaty of Prairie du Chien, fixing boundaries to the lands. A permit +was given for building, either verbal or written, as I have been +informed, by a former commanding officer at Prairie du Chien. I make +these statements in reference to a letter I have received from the +Department since my return, but which is dated June 27th, containing a +complaint of one of the owners of the mill, that the Chippewas had +threatened to burn it, and requesting me to take the necessary +precautionary measures. I heard nothing of such a threat, but believe +that the respect which the Chippewas have professed, through me, for the +American government, and the influence of my visit among them, will +prevent a resort to any measures of violence; and that they will wait +the peaceable adjustment of the line on the rapids. I will add that, +_wherever_ that line may be determined, in a reasonable probability, to +fall, the mill itself cannot be supplied with logs for any length of +time, if _it is now so supplied_, without cutting them on Chippewa +lands, and rafting them down the Red Cedar. Many of the logs heretofore +sawed at this mill, have been rafted _up stream_, to the mill. And I +understood from the person in charge of it, that he was now anxious to +ascertain new sites for chopping; that his expectations were directed up +the stream, but that his actual knowledge of the country, in that +direction, did not embrace a circumference of more than five miles. + +The line between the Chippewa and Sioux, as drawn on the MS. map of +Neenaba, strikes the rapids on Red Cedar River at a brook and bluff a +short distance below the mill. It proceeds thence, across the point of +land between that branch of the main Chippewa, to an island in the +latter; and thence, up stream, to the mouth of Clearwater River, as +called for by the treaty, and from this point to the bluffs of the +Mississippi Valley (where it corners on Winnebago land), on Black River, +and not to the "_mouth_" of Black River, as erroneously inserted in the +5th article of the treaty; the Chippewas never having advanced any +claims to the lands at the mouth of Black River. This map, being drawn +by a Chippewa of sense, influence, and respectability, an exact copy of +it is herewith forwarded for the use of the Department, as embracing the +opinions of the Chippewas on this point. The lines and geographical +marks were drawn on paper by Neenaba himself, and the names translated +and written down by Mr. Johnston. + +It is obvious that the adjustment of this line must precede a permanent +peace on this part of the frontiers. The number of Chippewas +particularly interested in it is, from my notes, 2,102; to which, 911 +may be added for certain bands on Lake Superior. It embraces 27 +villages, and the most influential civil and war chiefs of the region. +The population is enterprising and warlike. They have the means of +subsistence in _comparative_ abundance. They are increasing in numbers. +They command a ready access to the Mississippi by water, and a ready +return from it by land. Habits of association have taught them to look +upon this stream as the theatre of war. Their young men are carried into +it as the natural and almost only means of distinction. And it is in +coincidence with all observation to say that they are now, as they were +in the days of Captain Carver, the terror of the east bank of this +river, between the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers. No other tribe has +now, or has had, within the memory of man, a village or permanent +possession on this part of the shore. It is landed on in fear. It is +often passed by other nations by stealth, and at night. Such is not an +exaggerated picture. And with a knowledge of their geographical +advantages, and numbers, and distribution, on the tributary streams, +slight causes, it may be imagined, will often excite the young and +thoughtless portion of them to raise the war-club, to chant the +war-song, and follow the war-path. + +To remove these causes, to teach them the folly of such a contest, to +remind them of the treaty stipulations and promises solemnly made to the +Government, and to the Sioux, and to induce them to renew those +promises, and to act on fixed principles of political faith, were the +primary objects committed to me; and they were certainly objects of +exalted attainment, according as well with the character of the +Government as with the spirit and moral and intellectual tone of the +age. To these objects I have faithfully, as I believe, devoted the means +at my command. And the Chippewas cannot, hereafter, err on the subject +of their hostilities with the Sioux, without knowing that the error is +disapproved by the American government, and that a continuance in it +will be visited upon them in measures of severity. + +Without indulging the expectation that my influence on the tour will +have the effect to put an end to the spirit of predatory warfare, it may +be asserted that this spirit has been checked and allayed; and that a +state of feeling and reflection has been produced by it, which cannot +fail to be beneficial to our relations with them, and to their relations +with each other. The messages sent to the Sioux chiefs, may be +anticipated to have resulted in restoring a perfect peace during the +present fall and ensuing winter, and will thus leave to each party the +undisturbed chase of their lands. The meditated blow of Steenaba was +turned aside, and his war-party arrested and dispersed at the moment it +was ready to proceed. Every argument was used to show them the folly and +the insecurity of a continuance of the war. And the whole tenor and +effect of my visit has been to inform and reform these remote bands. It +has destroyed the charm of their seclusion. It has taught them that +their conduct is under the super-vision of the American government; that +they depend on its care and protection; that no other government has +power to regulate trade and send traders among them; finally, that an +adherence to foreign counsels, and to anti-pacific maxims, can be +visited upon them in measures of coercion. That their country, hitherto +deemed nearly inaccessible, can be penetrated and traversed by men and +troops, with baggage and provisions, even in midsummer, when the waters +are lowest; and that, in proportion as they comply with political +maxims, as benevolent as they are just, will they live at peace with +their enemies, and have the means of subsistence for an increased +population among themselves. The conduct of the traders in this quarter, +and the influence they have exerted, both moral and political, cannot +here be entered upon, and must be left to some other occasion, together +with statistical details and other branches of information not arising +from particular instructions. + +It may be said that the Indians upon the St. Croix and Chippewa Rivers, +and their numerous branches, have been drawn into a close intercourse +with Government. But it will be obvious that a perseverance in the +system of official advice and restraints, is essential to give +permanence to the effects already produced, and to secure a firm and +lasting peace between them and the Sioux. To this end, the settlement of +the line upon the Red Cedar Fork is an object which claims the attention +of the Department; and would justify, in my opinion, the calling +together the parties interested, at some convenient spot near the +junction of the Red Cedar River with the Chippewa. Indeed, the handsome +elevation, and the commanding geographical advantages of this spot, +render it one which, I think, might be advantageously occupied as a +military post. Such an occupancy would have the effect to keep the +parties at peace; and the point of land, on which the work is proposed +to be erected, might be purchased from the Sioux, together with such +part of the disputed lands near the mills as might be deemed necessary +to quiet the title of the Chippewas. By acquiring this portion of +country for the purposes of military occupancy, the United States would +be justified in punishing any murders committed upon it; and I am fully +convinced that no measure which could, at this time, be adopted, would +so certainly conduce to a permanent peace between the tribes. I +therefore beg leave, through you, to submit these subjects to the +consideration of the honorable the Secretary of War, with every distrust +in my own powers of observation, and with a very full confidence in his. + +I have the honor to be, sir, + Very respectfully, your obedient servant, + H. R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +TO ELBERT HERRING, ESQ., _Com. Ind. Affairs._ + + 2. _Brief Notes of a Tour in 1831, from Galena, in Illinois, to Fort + Winnebago, on the source of Fox River, Wisconsin._ By HENRY R. + SCHOOLCRAFT. + +Time admonishes me of my promise to furnish you some account of my +journey from Galena to Fort Winnebago. But I confess, that time has +taken away none of those features which make me regard it as a task. +Other objects have occupied so much of my thoughts, that the subject has +lost some of its vividness, and I shall be obliged to confine myself +more exclusively to my notes than I had intended. This will be +particularly true in speaking of geological facts. Geographical features +impress themselves strongly on the mind. The shape of a mountain is not +easily forgotten, and its relation to contiguous waters and woods is +recollected after the lapse of many years. The succession of plains, +streams, and settlements is likewise retained in the memory, while the +peculiar plains, the soils overlaying them, and all the variety of their +mineral and organic contents, require to be perpetuated by specimens and +by notes, which impose neither a slight nor a momentary labor. + +Limited sketches of this kind are, furthermore, liable to be +misconceived. Prominent external objects can only be brought to mind, +and these often reveal but an imperfect notion of the pervading +character of strata, and still less knowledge of their mineral contents. +Haste takes away many opportunities of observation; and scanty or +inconvenient means of transporting hand specimens, often deprive us of +the requisite data. Indeed, I should be loath to describe the few facts +I am about to communicate, had you not personally visited and examined +the great carboniferous and sandstone formation on the Mississippi and +Wisconsin, and thus got the knowledge of their features. The parallelism +which is apparent in these rocks, by the pinnacles which have been left +standing on high--the wasting effects of time in scooping out valleys +and filling up declivities--and the dark and castle-looking character of +the cherty limestone bluffs, as viewed from the water, while the shadows +of evening are deepening around, are suited to make vivid impressions. +And these broken and denuded cliffs offer the most favorable points for +making geological observations. There are no places inland where the +streams have cut so deep. On gaining the height of land, the strata are +found to be covered with so heavy a deposit of soil, that it is +difficult to glean much that can be relied on respecting the interior +structure. + +The angle formed by the junction of the Wisconsin with the Mississippi, +is a sombre line of weather-beaten rocks. Gliding along the current, at +the base of these rocks, the idea of a "hill country," of no very +productive character, is naturally impressed upon the observer. And this +impression came down, probably, from the days of Marquette, who was the +first European, that we read of, who descended the Wisconsin, and thus +became the true discoverer of the Mississippi. The fact that it yielded +lead ore, bits of which were occasionally brought in by the natives, was +in accordance with this opinion; and aided, it may be supposed, in +keeping out of view the real character of the country. I know not how +else to account for the light which has suddenly burst upon us from this +bank of the Mississippi, and which has at once proved it to be as +valuable for the purposes of agriculture as for those of mining, and as +sylvan in its appearance as if it were not fringed, as it were, with +rocks, and lying at a great elevation above the water. This elevation is +so considerable as to permit a lively descent in the streams, forming +numerous mill-seats. The surface of the country is not, however, broken, +but may be compared to the heavy and lazy-rolling waves of the sea after +a tempest. These wave-like plains are often destitute of trees, except a +few scattering ones, but present to the eye an almost boundless field of +native herbage. Groves of oak sometimes diversify those native meadows, +or cover the ridges which bound them. Very rarely does any rock appear +above the surface. The highest elevations, the Platte Mounds, and the +Blue Mound, are covered with soil and with trees. Numerous brooks of +limpid water traverse the plains, and find their way into either the +Wisconsin, Rock River, or the Mississippi. The common deer is still in +possession of its favorite haunts; and the traveller is very often +startled by flocks of the prairie-hen rising up in his path. The surface +soil is a rich black alluvion; it yields abundant crops of corn, and, so +far as they have been tried, all the cereal gramina. I have never, +either in the West or out of the West, seen a richer soil, or more +stately fields of corn and oats, than upon one of the plateaux of the +Blue Mound. + +Such is the country which appears to be richer in ores of lead than any +other mineral district in the world--which yielded forty millions of +pounds in seven years--produced a single lump of ore of two thousand +cubic feet--and appears adequate to supply almost any amount of this +article that the demands of commerce require. + +The River of Galena rises in the mineral plains of Iowa county, in that +part of the Northwestern Territory which is attached, for the purposes +of temporary government, to Michigan. It is made up of clear and +permanent springs, and has a descent which affords a very valuable +water-power. This has been particularly remarked at the curve called +Mill-seat Bend. No change in its general course, which is southwest, is, +I believe, apparent after it enters the northwest angle of the State of +Illinois. The town of Galena, the capital of the mining country, +occupies a somewhat precipitous semicircular bend, on the right (or +north) bank of the river, six or seven miles from its entrance into the +Mississippi. Backwater, from the latter, gives the stream itself the +appearance, as it bears the name, of a "river," and admits steamboat +navigation thus far. It is a rapid brook immediately above the town, and +of no further value for the purpose of navigation. Lead is brought in +from the smelting furnaces, on heavy ox-teams, capable of carrying +several tons at a load. I do not know that water _has been_, or that it +_cannot_ be made subservient in the transportation of this article from +the mines. The streams themselves are numerous and permanent, although +they are small, and it would require the aid of so many of these, on any +projected route, that it is to be feared the supply of water would be +inadequate. To remedy this deficiency, the Wisconsin itself might be +relied on. Could the waters of this river be conducted in a canal along +its valley from the portage to the bend at Arena, they might, from this +point, be deflected in a direct line to Galena. This route would cut the +mine district centrally, and afford the upper tributaries of the +Pekatolika and Fever Rivers as feeders. Such a communication would open +the way to a northern market, and merchandise might be supplied by the +way of Green Bay, when the low state of water in the Mississippi +prevents the ascent of boats. It would, at all times, obviate the +tedious voyage, which goods ordered from the Atlantic cities have to +perform through the straits of Florida and Gulf of Mexico. A railroad +could be laid upon this route with equal, perhaps superior advantages. +These things may seem too much like making arrangements for the next +generation. But we cannot fix bounds to the efforts of our spreading +population, and spirit of enterprise. Nor, after what we have seen in +the way of internal improvement, in our own day and generation, should +we deem anything too hard to be accomplished. + +I set out from Galena in a light wagon, drawn by two horses, about ten +o'clock in the morning (August 17th), accompanied by Mr. B. It had +rained the night and morning of the day previous, which rendered the +streets and roads quite muddy. A marly soil, easily penetrated by rain, +was, however, as susceptible to the influence of the sun, and, in a much +shorter period than would be imagined, the surface became dry. Although +a heavy and continued shower had thoroughly drenched the ground, and +covered it with superfluous water, but very little effects of it were to +be seen at this time. We ascended into the open plain country, which +appears in every direction around the town, and directed our course to +Gratiot's Grove. In this distance, which, on our programme of the route, +was put down, at fifteen miles, a lively idea of the formation and +character of the country is given. The eye is feasted with the +boundlessness of its range. Grass and flowers spread before and beside +the traveller, and, on looking back, they fill up the vista behind him. +He soon finds himself in the midst of a sylvan scene. Groves fringe the +tops of the most distant elevations, and clusters of trees--more rarely, +open forests--are occasionally presented. The trees appear to be almost +exclusively of the species of white oak and rough-bark hickory. Among +the flowers, the plant called rosin-weed attracts attention by its +gigantic stature, and it is accompanied, as certainly as substance by +shadow, by the wild indigo, two plants which were afterwards detected, +of less luxuriant growth, on Fox River. The roads are in their natural +condition; they are excellent, except for a few yards where streams are +crossed. At such places there is a plunge into soft, black muck, and it +requires all the powers of a horse harnessed to a wagon to emerge from +the stream. + +On reaching Gratiot's Grove, I handed letters of introduction to Mr. H. +and B. Gratiot. These gentlemen appear to be extensively engaged in +smelting. They conducted me to see the ore prepared for smelting in the +log furnace; and also the preparation of such parts of it for the ash +furnace as do not undergo complete fusion in the first process. The ash +furnace is a very simple kind of air furnace, with a grate so arranged +as to throw a reverberating flame upon the hearth where the prepared ore +is laid. It is built against a declivity, and charged, by throwing the +materials to be operated upon, down the flue. A silicious flux is used; +and the scoria is tapped and suffered to flow out, from the side of the +furnace, before drawing off the melted lead. The latter is received in +an excavation made in the earth, from which it is ladled out into iron +moulds. The whole process is conducted in the open air, with sometimes a +slight shed. The lead ore is piled in cribs of logs, which are roofed. +Hammers, ladles, a kind of tongs, and some other iron tools are +required. The simplicity of the process, the absence of external show in +buildings, and the direct and ready application of the means to the end, +are remarkable, as pleasing characteristics about the smelting +establishment. + +The ore used is the common sulphuret, with a foliated, glittering and +cubical fracture. It occurs with scarcely any adhering gangue. Cubical +masses of it are found, at some of the diggings, which are studded over +with minute crystals of calcareous spar. These crystals, when examined, +have the form of the dog-tooth spar. This broad, square-shaped, and +square-broken mineral, is taken from _east and west leads_, is most easy +to smelt, and yields the greatest per centum of lead. It is estimated to +produce fifty per cent. from the log furnace, and about sixteen more +when treated with a flux in the ash furnace. + +Miners classify their ore from its position in the mine. Ore from _east +and west leads_, is raised from clay diggings, although these diggings +may be pursued under the first stratum of rock. Ore from _north and +south leads_, is termed "sheet minerals," and is usually taken from rock +diggings. The vein or sheet stands perpendicularly in the fissure, and +is usually struck in sinking from six to ten feet. The sheet varies in +thickness from six or eight inches, in the broadest part, to not more +than one. The great mass found at "Irish diggings" was of this kind. + +I observed, among the piles of ore at Gratiot's, the combination of zinc +with lead ore, which is denominated _dry bone_. It is cast by as +unproductive. Mr. B. Gratiot also showed me pieces of the common ore +which had undergone desulphuration in the log furnace. Its natural +splendor is increased by this process, so as to have the appearance of +highly burnished steel. He also presented me some uniform masses of +lead, recrystallized from a metallic state, under the hearth of the ash +furnace. The tendency to rectangular structure in these delicate and +fragile masses is very remarkable. Crystallization appears to have taken +place under circumstances which opposed the production of a complete and +perfect cube or parallelogram, although there are innumerable rectangles +of each geometric form. + +In the drive from Gratiot's to Willow Springs, we saw a succession of +the same objects that had formed the prominent features of the landscape +from Galena. The platte mounds, which had appeared on our left all the +morning, continued visible until we entered the grove that embraces the +site of the springs. Little mounds of red earth frequently appeared +above the grass, to testify to the labors of miners along this part of +the route. In taking a hasty survey of some of the numerous excavations +of Irish diggings, I observed among the rubbish small flat masses of a +yellowish white amorphous mineral substance of great weight. I have not +had time to submit it to any tests. It appears too heavy and compact for +the earthy yellow oxide of lead. I should not be disappointed to find it +an oxide of zinc. No rock stratum protrudes from the ground in this part +of the country. The consolidated masses, thrown up from the diggings, +appear to be silicated limestone, often friable, and not crystalline. +Galena is found in open fissures in this rock. + +We reached the springs in the dusk of the evening, and found good +accommodations at Ray's. Distance from Galena thirty miles. + +The rain fell copiously during the night, and on the morning (18th) gave +no signs of a speedy cessation. Those who travel ought often, however, +to call to mind the remark of Xenophon, that "pleasure is the result of +toil," and not permit slight impediments to arrest them, particularly +when they have definite points to make. We set forward in a moderate +rain, but in less than an hour had the pleasure to perceive signs of its +mitigating, and before nine o'clock it was quite clear. We stopped a +short time at Bracken's furnace. Mr. Bracken gave me specimens of +organic remains, in the condition of earthy calcareous carbonates, +procured on a neighboring ridge. He described the locality as being +plentiful in casts and impressions such as he exhibited, which appeared +to have been removed from the surface of a shelly limestone. At +Rock-Branch diggings, I found masses of calcareous spar thrown from the +pits. The surface appears to have been much explored for lead in this +vicinity. I stopped to examine Vanmater's lead. It had been a productive +one, and affords a fair example of what are called east and west leads. +I observed a compass standing on the line of the lead, and asked Mr. V. +whether much reliance was to be placed upon the certainty of striking +the lead by the aid of this instrument. He said that it was much relied +on. That the course of the leads was definite. The present one varied +from a due east and west line but nine minutes, and the lead had been +followed without much difficulty. The position of the ore was about +forty feet below the surface. Of this depth about thirty-six feet +consisted of the surface rock and its earthy covering. A vein of marly +clay, enveloping the ore, was then penetrated. A series of pits had been +sunk on the course of it, and the earth and ore in the interstices +removed, and drawn to the surface by a windlass and bucket. Besides the +ore, masses of iron pyrites had been thrown out, connected with galena. +In stooping to detach some pieces from one of these masses, I placed my +feet on the verge of an abandoned pit, around which weeds and bushes had +grown. My face was, however, averted from the danger; but, on beholding +it, I was made sensible that the least deviation from a proper balance +would have pitched me into it. It was forty feet deep. The danger I had +just escaped fell to the lot of Mr. B.'s dog, who, probably deceived by +the growth of bushes, fell in. Whether killed or not, it was impossible +to tell, and we were obliged to leave the poor animal, under a promise +of Mr. V., that he would cause a windlass to be removed to the pit, to +ascertain his fate. + +At eleven o'clock we reached Mineral Point, the seat of justice of Iowa +county. I delivered an introductory letter to Mr. Ansley, who had made a +discovery of copper ore in the vicinity, and through his politeness, +visited the locality. The discovery was made in sinking pits in search +of lead ore. Small pieces of green carbonate of copper were found on +striking the rock, which is apparently silico-calcareous, and of a very +friable structure. From one of the excavations, detached masses of the +sulphuret, blue and green mingled, were raised. These masses are +enveloped with ochery clay. + +In riding out on horseback to see this locality, I passed over the ridge +of land which first received the appellation of "Mineral Point." No +digging was observed in process, but the heaps of red marly clay, the +vigorous growth of shrubbery around them, and the number of open or +partially filled pits, remain to attest the labor which was formerly +devoted in the search for lead. And this search is said to have been +amply rewarded. The track of discovery is conspicuously marked by these +excavations, which often extend, in a direct line, on the cardinal +points, as far as the eye can reach. Everywhere the marly clay formation +appears to have been relied on for the ore, and much of it certainly +appears to be _in sitû_ in it. It bears no traces of attrition; and its +occurrence in regular leads forbids the supposition of its being an +oceanic arrangement of mineral detritus. At Vanmater's, the +metalliferous clay marl is overlaid by a grayish sedimentary limestone. +Different is the geological situation of what is denominated _gravel +ore_, of which I noticed piles, on the route from Gratiot's. This bears +evident marks of attrition, and appears to have been uniformly taken +from diluvial earth. + +On returning to the village from this excursion, I found Mr. B. ready to +proceed, and we lost no time in making the next point in our proposed +route. A drive of five miles brought us to the residence of Colonel +Dodge, whose zeal and enterprise in opening this portion of our western +country for settlement, give him claims to be looked up to as a public +benefactor. I here met the superintendent of the mines (Captain Legate), +and after spending some time in conversation on the resources and +prospects of the country, and partaking of the hospitalities politely +offered by Colonel D. and his intelligent family, we pursued our way. +The village of Dodgeville lies at the distance of four miles. Soon after +passing through it some part of our tackle gave way, in crossing a +gully, and I improved the opportunity of the delay to visit the adjacent +diggings, which are extensive. The ore is found as at other mines, in +regular leads, and not scattered about promiscuously in the red marl. +Masses of brown oxide of iron were more common here than I had noticed +them elsewhere. Among the rubbish of the diggings, fragments of +hornstone occur. They appear to be, most commonly, portions of nodules, +which exhibit, on being fractured, various discolorings. + +Night overtook us before we entered Porter's Grove, which is also the +seat of mining and smelting operations. We are indebted to the +hospitality of Mr. M., of whom my companion was an acquaintance, for +opening his door to us, at an advanced hour of the evening. Distance +from Willow Springs, twenty-five miles. + +There is no repose for a traveller. We retired to rest at a late hour, +and rose at an early one. The morning (19th) was hazy, and we set +forward while the dew was heavy on the grass. Our route still lay +through a prairie country. The growth of native grass, bent down with +dew, nearly covered the road, so that our horses' legs were continually +bathed. The rising sun was a very cheerful sight, but as our road lay up +a long ascent, we soon felt its wilting effects. Nine miles of such +driving, with not a single grove to shelter us, brought us to Mr. +Brigham's, at the foot of the Blue Mound, being the last house in the +direction to Fort Winnebago. The distance from Galena is sixty-four +miles, and this area embraces the present field of mining operations. In +rapidly passing over it, mines, furnaces, dwelling-houses, mining +villages, inclosed fields, upland prairies (an almost continued +prairie), groves, springs, and brooks, have formed the prominent +features of the landscape. The impulse to the settlement of the country +was first given by its mineral wealth; and it brought here, as it were +by magic, an enterprising and active population. It is evident that a +far greater amount of labor was a few years ago engaged in mining +operations; but the intrinsic value of the lands has operated to detain +the present population, which may be considered as permanent. The lands +are beautifully disposed, well watered, well drained by natural streams, +and easily brought into cultivation. Crops have everywhere repaid the +labors of the farmer; and, thus far, the agricultural produce of the +country has borne a fair price. The country appears to afford every +facility for raising cattle, horses, and hogs. Mining, the cardinal +interest heretofore, has not ceased in the degree that might be inferred +from the depression of the lead market; and it will be pursued, with +increased activity, whenever the purposes of commerce call for it. In +the present situation of the country, there appear to be two objects +essential to the lasting welfare of the settlements: first, a title to +their lands from Congress; second, a northern market for the products of +their mines and farms. To these, a _third_ requisite may be considered +auxiliary, namely, the establishment of the seat of territorial +government at some point west of Lake Michigan, where its powers may be +more readily exercised, and the reciprocal obligations of governor and +people more vividly felt. + +Mr. Brigham, in whom I was happy to recognize an esteemed friend, +conducted us over his valuable plantation. He gave me a mass of a white, +heavy metallic substance, taken as an accompanying mineral, from a lead +of Galena, which he has recently discovered in a cave. Without +instituting any examination of it but such as its external characters +disclose, it may be deemed a native carbonate of lead. The mass from +which it was broken weighed ninety or one hundred pounds. And its +occurrence, at the lead, was not alone. + +From the Blue Mound to Fort Winnebago is an estimated distance of +fifty-six miles. The country is, however, entirely in a state of nature. +The trace is rather obscure; but, with a knowledge of the general +geography and face of the country, there is no difficulty in proceeding +with a light wagon, or even a loaded team, as the Indian practice of +firing the prairies every fall has relieved the surface from underbrush +and fallen timber. After driving a few miles, we encountered two +Winnebagoes on horseback, the forward rider having a white man in ties +behind him. The latter informed us that his name was H., that he had +come out to Twelve-mile Creek, for the purpose of locating himself +there, and was in pursuit of a hired man, who had gone off, with some +articles of his property, the night previous. With this relation, and a +_boshu_[274] for the natives, with whom we had no means of conversing, +we continued our way, without further incident, to Duck Creek, a +distance of ten miles. We here struck the path, which is one of the +boundary lines, in the recent purchase from the Winnebagoes. It is a +deeply marked horse path, cutting quite through the prairie sod, and so +much used by the natives as to prevent grass from growing on it; in this +respect, it is as well-defined a landmark as "blazed tree," or "saddle." +The surveyor appointed to run out the lines, had placed mile-posts on +the route, but the Winnebagoes, with a prejudice against the practice +which is natural, pulled up many, and defaced others. When we had gone +ten miles further, we began to see the glittering of water through the +trees, and we soon found ourselves on the margin of a clear lake. I +heard no name for this handsome sheet of water. It is one of the four +lakes, which are connected with each other by a stream, and have their +outlet into Rock River, through a tributary called the Guskihaw. We +drove through the margin of it, where the shores were sandy, and +innumerable small unio shells were driven up. Most of these small pieces +appeared to be helices. Standing tent-poles, and other remains of Indian +encampments, appeared at this place. A rock stratum, dark and +weather-beaten, apparently sandstone, jutted out into the lake. A little +further, we passed to the left of an abandoned village. By casting our +eyes across the lake, we observed the new position which had been +selected and occupied by the Winnebagoes. We often assign wrong motives, +when we undertake to reason for the Indian race; but in the present +instance, we may presume that their removal was influenced by too near a +position to the boundary path. + + [274] This term is in use by the Algic or Algonquin tribes, + particularly by the Chippewas. The Winnebagoes, who have no + equivalent for it, are generally acquainted with it, although I am + not aware that they have, to any extent, adopted it. It has been + supposed to be derived from the French _bon jour_. + +We drove to the second brook, beyond the lake, and encamped. + +Comfort in an encampment depends very much upon getting a good fire. In +this we totally failed last night, owing to our having but a small piece +of spunk, which ignited and burned out without inflaming our kindling +materials. The atmosphere was damp, but not sufficiently cooled to quiet +the ever-busy mosquito. Mr. B. deemed it a hardship that he could not +boil the kettle, so as to have the addition of tea to our cold repast. I +reminded him that there was a bright moon, and that it did not rain; and +that, for myself, I had fared so decidedly worse, on former occasions, +that I was quite contented with the light of the moon and a dry blanket. +By raising up and putting a fork under the wagon-tongue, and spreading +our tent-cloth over it, I found the means of insulating ourselves from +the insect hordes, but it was not until I had pitched my mosquito net +within it that we found repose. + +On awaking in the morning (20th), we found H., who had passed us the day +before in company with the Winnebagoes, lying under the wagon. He had +returned from pursuing the fugitive, and had overtaken us, after twelve +o'clock at night. He complained of being cold. We admitted him into the +wagon, and drove on to reach his camp at Twelve-mile Creek. In crossing +what he denominated Seven-mile Prairie, I observed on our right a +prominent wall of rock, surmounted with image-stones. The rock itself +consisted of sandstone. Elongated water-worn masses of stone had been +set up, so as to resemble, at a distance, the figures of men. The +illusion had been strengthened by some rude paints. This had been the +serious or the sportive work of Indians. It is not to be inferred, +hence, that the Winnebagoes are idolaters. But there is a strong +tendency to idolatry in the minds of the North American Indians. They do +not bow before a carved image, shaped like Dagon or Juggernaut; but they +rely upon their guardian spirits, or personal manitos, for aid in +exigencies, and impute to the skins of animals, which are preserved with +religious care, the power of gods. Their medicine institution is also a +gross and bold system of semi-deification connected with magic, +witchcraft, and necromancy. Their jossakeeds are impostors and jugglers +of the grossest stamp. Their wabenos address Satan directly for power; +and their metais, who appear to be least idolatrous, rely more upon the +invisible agency of spirits and magic influence, than upon the physical +properties of the medicines they exhibit. + +On reaching Twelve-mile Creek, we found a yoke of steers of H., in a +pen, which had been tied there two days and nights without water. He +evinced, however, an obliging disposition, and, after refreshing +ourselves and our horses, we left him to complete the labors of a "local +habitation." The intermediate route to Fort Winnebago afforded few +objects of either physical or mental interest. The upland soil, which +had become decidedly thinner and more arenaceous, after reaching the +Lake, appears to increase in sterility on approaching the Wisconsin. And +the occurrence of _lost rocks_ (primitive boulders), as Mr. B. happily +termed them, which are first observed after passing the Blue Mound, +becomes more frequent in this portion of the country, denoting our +approach to the borders of the northwestern primitive formation. This +formation, we have now reason to conclude, extends in an angle, so far +south as to embrace a part of Fox River, above Apukwa Lake. + +Anticipated difficulties always appear magnified. This we verified in +crossing Duck Creek, near its entrance into the Wisconsin. We found the +adjoining bog nearly dry, and drove through the stream without the water +entering into the body of the wagon. It here commenced raining. Having +but four miles to make, and that a level prairie, we pushed on. But the +rain increased, and poured down steadily and incessantly till near +sunset. In the midst of this rain-storm we reached the fort, about one +o'clock, and crossed over to the elevated ground occupied by the Indian +Department, where my sojourn, while awaiting the expedition, was +rendered as comfortable as the cordial greeting and kind attention of +Mr. Kinzie, the agent, and his intelligent family, could make it. + +A recapitulation of the distances from Galena makes the route as +follows, viz: Gratiot's Grove, fifteen miles; Willow Springs, fifteen; +Mineral Point, seven; Dodgeville, nine; Porter's Grove, nine; Blue +Mound, nine; Duck Creek, ten; Lake, ten; Twelve-mile Creek, twenty-four; +Crossing of Duck Creek, eight; and Fort Winnebago, four; total, one +hundred and twenty miles. + + H. R. S. + + To GEORGE P. MORRIS, ESQ., New York. + + + 3. _Official Report of the Exploratory Expedition to the Actual Source + of the Mississippi River in 1832._ + + OFFICE OF THE INDIAN AGENCY OF SAULT STE. MARIE, + Sept. 1, 1832. + +SIR: I had the honor to inform you, on the 15th ultimo, of my return +from the sources of the Mississippi, and that I should communicate the +details of my observations to you as soon as they could be prepared. + +On reaching the remotest point visited heretofore by official authority, +I found that the waters on that summit were favorable to my tracing this +river to its utmost sources. This point having been left undetermined by +prior expeditions, I determined to avail myself of the occasion to take +Indian guides, with light canoes, and, after encamping my heavy force, +to make the ascent. It was represented to be practicable in five days. I +accomplished it, by great diligence, in three. The distance is 158 miles +above Cass Lake. There are many sharp rapids, which made the trial +severe. The river expands into numerous lakes. + +After passing about forty miles north of Red Cedar Lake, during which we +ascended a summit, I entered a fine large lake, which, to avoid +repetitions in our geographical names, I called Queen Anne's Lake. From +this point the ascent of the Mississippi was due south; and it was +finally found to have its origin in a handsome lake, of some seven miles +in extent, on the height of land to which I gave the name of Itasca. + +This lake lies in latitude 47° 13' 25". It lies at an altitude of 1,575 +feet, by the barometer, above the Gulf of Mexico. It affords me +satisfaction to say, that, by this discovery, the geographical point of +the origin of this river is definitely fixed. Materials for maps and +plans of the entire route have been carefully collected by Lieut. James +Allen, of the U. S. Army, who accompanied me, with a small detachment of +infantry, as high as Cass Lake; and, having encamped them at that point, +with my extra men, he proceeded with me to Itasca Lake. The distance +which is thus added to the Mississippi, agreeably to him, is 164 miles, +making its entire length, by the most authentic estimates, to be 3,200 +miles. In this distance there are numerous and arduous rapids, in which +the total amount of ascent to be overcome is 173 feet. + +Councils were held with the Indians at Fond du Lac, at Sandy Lake, Cass +Lake, at the mouth of the Great De Corbeau River, &c. + +In returning, I visited the military bands at Leech Lake; passing from +thence to its source, and descending the whole length of the Crow-wing +River, and thence to St. Anthony's Falls, I assembled the Sioux at the +agency of St. Peter's, and at the Little Crow's village. The Chippewas +of the St. Croix and Broule Rivers were particularly visited. Many +thousands of the Chippewa and Sioux nations were seen and counselled +with, including their most distinguished chiefs and warriors. Everywhere +they disclaimed a connection with Black Hawk and his schemes. I left the +Mississippi, about forty miles above the point where, in a few days, the +Sauk chief was finally captured and his forces overthrown; and, reaching +the waters of Lake Superior, at the mouth of the Brule, returned from +that point to the agency at Sault de Ste. Marie. + +The flag of the Union has secured respect from the tribes at every +point; and I feel confident in declaring the Chippewas and Sioux, as +tribes, unconnected with the Black Hawk movement. + + I am, sir, very respectfully, + Your obedient servant, + HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, + _U. S. Ind. Agent._ + +C. HERRING, ESQ., _Commissioner of Indian Affairs_ + + +IV. + +VACCINATION OF THE INDIANS. + + 4. _Report of the number and position of the Indians vaccinated on the + Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi, conducted + by Mr. Schoolcraft, in 1832._ By Dr. DOUGLASS HOUGHTON. + + SAULT STE. MARIE, Sept. 21, 1832. + +SIR: In conformity with your instructions, I take the earliest +opportunity to lay before you such facts as I have collected, touching +the vaccination of the Chippewa Indians, during the progress of the +late expedition into their country: and also "of the prevalence, from +time to time, of the smallpox" among them. + +The accompanying table will serve to illustrate the "ages, sex, tribe, +and local situation" of those Indians who have been vaccinated by me. +With the view of illustrating more fully their local situation, I have +arranged those bands residing upon the shores of Lake Superior; those +residing in the Folle Avoine country (or that section of country lying +between the highlands southwest from Lake Superior, and the Mississippi +River); and those residing near the sources of the Mississippi River, +separately. + +Nearly all the Indians noticed in this table were vaccinated at their +respective villages; yet I did not fail to vaccinate those whom we +chanced to meet in their hunting or other excursions. + +I have embraced, with the Indians of the frontier bands, those +half-breeds, who, in consequence of having adopted more or less the +habits of the Indian, may be identified with him. + +But little difficulty has occurred in convincing the Indians of the +efficacy of vaccination; and the universal dread in which they hold the +appearance of the smallpox among them, rendered it an easy task to +overcome their prejudices, whatever they chanced to be. The efficacy of +the vaccine disease is well appreciated, even by the most interior of +the Chippewa Indians; and so universal is this information, that only +one instance occurred where the Indian had never heard of the disease. + +In nearly every instance the opportunity which was presented for +vaccination, was embraced with cheerfulness and apparent gratitude; at +the same time manifesting great anxiety that, for the safety of the +whole, each one of the band should undergo the operation. When +objections were made to vaccination, they were not usually made because +the Indian doubted the protective power of the disease, but because he +supposed (never having seen its progress), that the remedy must nearly +equal the disease which it was intended to counteract. + +Our situation, while travelling, did not allow me sufficient time to +test the result of the vaccination in most instances; but an occasional +return to bands where the operation had been performed, enabled me, in +those bands, either to note the progress of the disease, or to judge +from the cicatrices marking the original situation of the pustules, the +cases in which the disease had proved successful. + + ------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- + CHIPPEWA INDIANS. | MALES. | FEMALES. + ------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + | U | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | | U | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | + | n | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | O | n | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | O + | d | | | | | v | d | | | | | v + | e | t | t | t | t | e | e | t | t | t | t | e + BANDS. | r | o | o | o | o | r | r | o | o | o | o | r + | | | | | | | | | | | | + | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 8 + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 + | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . + ------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + LAKE SUPERIOR | | | | | | | | | | | | + {Sault Ste. Marie| 93| 22| 19| 8| 2| 1| 75| 28| 21| 10| 3| 1 + {Grand Island | 17| 9| 7| 2|...|...| 12| 5| 7|...|...|... + {Keweena Bay | 23| 11| 10| 6| 1|...| 20| 12| 17| 5| 2| 1 + {Ontonagon River | 7| 8| 10| 3|...|...| 13| 5| 12| 6| 1|... + {La Pointe | 37| 32| 40| 6| 2| 1| 38| 25| 28| 12| 2|... + {Fond du Lac | 50| 21| 45| 10| 2|...| 41| 18| 35| 13| 6| 2 + FOLLE AVOINE | | | | | | | | | | | | + COUNTRY | | | | | | | | | | | | + {Lac du Flambeau | 6| 2| 6| 1| 1|...| 2| 3| 4| 2| 2|... + {Ottowa Lake | 11| 4| 8| 1|...|...| 10| 7| 3| 2|...|... + {Yellow River | 11| 2| 6| 1|...|...| 11| 3| 6| 2| 1|... + {Nama Kowagun of | + {St. Croix River| 4| 1| 2| 1|...|...| 4|...| 3| 2|...|... + {Snake River | 14| 3| 7| 4| 1| 1| 25| 3| 12| 1| 1|... + SOURCES OF THE | | | | | | | | | | | | + MISSISSIPPI RIVER| | | | | | | | | | | | + {Sandy Lake | 75| 21| 47| 10| 2|...| 86| 19| 48| 23| 6| 2 + {Lake Winnipeg | 4| 4| 10| 3|...|...| 1| 1| 1| 2|...|... + {Cass, or Upper | | | | | | | | | | | | + {Red Cedar Lake | 18| 5| 11| 6|...| 1| 18| 3| 8| 5| 1| 1 + {Leech Lake | 76| 43| 73| 16| 4| 1| 96| 41| 61| 25| 2| 1 + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + Lake Superior |227|103|131| 35| 7| 2|199| 93|120| 46| 14| 5 + Folle Avoine | | | | | | | | | | | | + Country | 46| 12| 29| 8| 2| 1| 52| 12| 32| 9| 4|... + Sources of the | | | | | | | | | | | | + Mississippi |173| 73|141| 35| 6| 2|201| 64|118| 55| 9| 4 + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--- + Total | | | | | | | | | | | | + |446|188|301| 78| 15| 5|452|169|270|110| 27| 9 + ------------------+-----------------------+----------------------- + + ------------------+----------- + CHIPPEWA INDIANS. | + ------------------+---+---+--- + | | | + | | F | + | | e | + | M | m | T + BANDS. | a | a | o + | l | l | t + | e | e | a + | s | s | l + | . | . | . + ------------------+---+---+--- + LAKE SUPERIOR | | | + {Sault Ste. Marie|145|138|283 + {Grand Island | 35| 24| 59 + {Keweena Bay | 57|108 + {Ontonagon River | 28| 37| 65 + {La Pointe |118|106|224 + {Fond du Lac |128|115|243 + FOLLE AVOINE | | | + COUNTRY | | | + {Lac du Flambeau | 16| 15| 29 + {Ottowa Lake | 24| 22| 46 + {Yellow River | 20| 23| 43 + {Nama Kowagun of | + {St. Croix River| 8| 9| 17 + {Snake River | 30| 42| 72 + SOURCES OF THE | | | + MISSISSIPPI RIVER| | | + {Sandy Lake |155|184|339 + {Lake Winnipeg | 21| 5| 26 + {Cass, or Upper | | | + {Red Cedar Lake | 41| 36| 77 + {Leech Lake |213|226|439 + +---+---+--- + Lake Superior |505|477|982 + Folle Avoine | | | + Country | 98|109|207 + Sources of the | | | + Mississippi |430|451|881 + +---+---+--- + Total | 1| 1| 2 + |033|037|070 + ------------------+----------- + +About one-fourth of the whole number were vaccinated directly from the +pustules of patients laboring under the disease; while the remaining +three-fourths were vaccinated from crusts, or from virus which had been +several days on hand. I did not pass by a single opportunity for +securing the crusts and virus from the arms of healthy patients; and to +avoid, as far as possible, the chance of giving rise to a disease of a +spurious kind, I invariably made use of those crusts and that virus, for +the purposes of vaccination, which had been most recently obtained. To +secure, as far as possible, against the chances of escaping the vaccine +disease, I invariably vaccinated in each arm. + +Of the whole number of Indians vaccinated, I have either watched the +progress of the disease, or examined the cicatrices of about seven +hundred. An average of one in three of those vaccinated from crusts has +failed, while of those vaccinated directly from the arm of a person +laboring under the disease, not more than one in twenty has failed to +take effect--when the disease did not make its appearance after +vaccination, I have invariably, as the cases came under my examination, +revaccinated until a favorable result has been obtained. + +Of the different bands of Indians vaccinated, a large proportion of the +following have, as an actual examination has shown, undergone thoroughly +the effects of the disease; viz: Sault Ste. Marie, Keweena Bay, La +Pointe, and Cass Lake, being seven hundred and fifty-one in number; +while of the remaining thirteen hundred and seventy-eight, of other +bands, I think it may safely be calculated that more than three-fourths +have passed effectually under the influence of the vaccine disease: and +as directions to revaccinate all those in whom the disease failed, +together with instructions as to time and manner of vaccination, were +given to the chiefs of the different bands, it is more than probable +that, where the bands remained together a sufficient length of time, the +operation of revaccination has been performed by themselves. + +Upon our return to Lake Superior, I had reason to suspect, on examining +several cicatrices, that two of the crusts furnished by the +surgeon-general, in consequence of a partial decomposition, gave rise to +a spurious disease, and these suspicions were confirmed when +revaccinating with genuine vaccine matter, when the true disease was +communicated. Nearly all those Indians vaccinated with those two +crusts, have been vaccinated, and passed regularly though the vaccine +disease. + +The answers to my repeated inquiries respecting the introduction, +progress, and fatality of the smallpox, would lead me to infer that the +disease has made its appearance at least five times, among the bands of +Chippewa Indians noticed in the accompanying table of vaccination. + +The smallpox appears to have been wholly unknown to the Chippewas of +Lake Superior until about 1750; when a war-party, of more than one +hundred young men, from the bands resident near the head of the lake, +having visited Montreal for the purpose of assisting the French in their +then existing troubles with the English, became infected with the +disease, and but few of the party survived to reach their homes. It does +not appear, although they made a precipitate retreat to their own +country, that the disease was at this time communicated to any others of +the tribe. + +About the year 1770, the disease appeared a second time among the +Chippewas, but, unlike that which preceded it, it was communicated to +the more northern bands. + +The circumstances connected with its introduction are related nearly as +follows:-- + +Some time in the fall of 1767 or 8, a trader who had ascended the +Mississippi, and established himself near Leech Lake, was robbed of his +goods by the Indians residing at that lake; and, in consequence of his +exertions in defending his property, he died soon after. + +These facts became known to the directors of the Fur Company, at +Mackinac; and, each successive year after, requests were sent to the +Leech Lake Indians, that they should visit Mackinac, and make reparation +for the goods they had taken, by a payment of furs, at the same time +threatening punishment in case of a refusal. In the spring of 1770, the +Indians saw fit to comply with this request; and a deputation from the +band visited Mackinac, with a quantity of furs, which they considered an +equivalent for the goods which had been taken. The deputation was +received with politeness by the directors of the Company, and the +difficulties readily adjusted. When this was effected, a cask of liquor +and a flag closely rolled were presented to the Indians as a token of +friendship. They were at the same time strictly enjoined neither to +break the seal of the cask nor to unroll the flag, until they had +reached the heart of their own country. This they promised to observe; +but while returning, and after having travelled many days, the chief of +the deputation made a feast for the Indians of the band at Fond du Lac, +Lake Superior, upon which occasion he unsealed the cask and unrolled the +flag for the gratification of his guests. The Indians drank of the +liquor, and remained in a state of inebriation during several days. The +rioting was over, and they were fast recovering from its effects, when +several of the party were seized with violent pain. This was attributed +to the liquor they had drunk; but the pain increasing, they were induced +to drink deeper of the poisonous drug, and in this inebriated state +several of the party died, before the real cause was suspected. Other +like cases occurred; and it was not long before one of the war-party who +had visited Montreal in 1750, and who had narrowly escaped with his +life, recognized the disease as the same which had attacked their party +at that time. It proved to be so; and of those Indians then at Fond du +Lac, about three hundred in number, nearly the whole were swept off by +it. Nor did it stop here; for numbers of those at Fond du Lac, at the +time the disease made its appearance, took refuge among the neighboring +bands; and although it did not extend easterly on Lake Superior, it is +believed that not a single band of Chippewas north or west from Fond du +Lac escaped its ravages. Of a large band then resident at Cass Lake, +near the source of the Mississippi River, only one person, a child, +escaped. The others having been attacked by the disease, died before any +opportunity for dispersing was offered. The Indians at this day are +firmly of the opinion that the smallpox was at this time communicated +through the articles presented to their brethren by the agent of the Fur +Company at Mackinac; and that it was done for the purpose of punishing +them more severely for their offences. + +The most western bands of Chippewas relate a singular allegory of the +introduction of the smallpox into their country by a war-party, +returning from the plains of the Missouri, as nearly as information will +enable me to judge, in the year 1784. It does not appear that, at this +time, the disease extended to the bands east of Fond du Lac; but it is +represented to have been extremely fatal to those bands north and west +from there. + +In 1802 or 3, the smallpox made its appearance among the Indians +residing at the Sault Ste. Marie, but did not extend to the bands west +from that place. The disease was introduced by a voyager, in the employ +of the Northwest Fur Company, who had just returned from Montreal; and +although all communication with him was prohibited, an Indian +imprudently having made him a visit, was infected with and transmitted +the disease to others of the band. When once communicated, it raged with +great violence, and of a large band scarcely one of those then at the +village survived, and the unburied bones still remain, marking the +situation they occupied. From this band the infection was communicated +to a band residing upon St. Joseph's Island, and many died of it; but +the surgeon of the military post then there, succeeded, by judicious and +early measures, in checking it before the infection became general. + +In 1824, the smallpox again made its appearance among the Indians at the +Sault Ste. Marie. It was communicated by a voyager to the Indians upon +Drummond's Island, Lake Huron; and through them several families at +Sault Ste. Marie became infected. Of those belonging to the latter +place, more than twenty in number, only two escaped. The disease is +represented to have been extremely fatal to the Indians at Drummond's +Island. + +Since 1824, the smallpox is not known to have appeared among the Indians +at the Sault Ste. Marie, nor among the Chippewas north or west from that +place. But the Indians of these bands still tremble at the bare name of +a disease which (next to the compounds of alcohol) has been one of the +greatest scourges that has ever overtaken them since their first +communication with the whites. The disease, when once communicated to a +band of Indians, rages with a violence wholly unknown to the civilized +man. The Indian, guided by present feeling, adopts a course of treatment +(if indeed it deserves that appellation) which not unfrequently arms the +disease with new power. An attack is but a warning to the poor and +helpless patient to prepare for death, which will almost assuredly soon +follow. His situation under these circumstances is truly deplorable; for +while in a state that even, with proper advice, he would of himself +recover, he adds fresh fuel to the flame which is already consuming him, +under the delusive hope of gaining relief. The intoxicating draught +(when it is within his reach) is not among the last remedies to which he +resorts, to produce a lethargy from which he is never to recover. Were +the friends of the sick man, even under these circumstances, enabled to +attend him, his sufferings might be, at least, somewhat mitigated; but +they too are, perhaps, in a similar situation, and themselves without +even a single person to minister to their wants. Death comes to the poor +invalid, and, perhaps, even as a welcome guest, to rid him of his +suffering. + +By a comparison of the number of Indians vaccinated upon the borders of +Lake Superior with the actual population, it will be seen that the +proportion who have passed through the vaccine disease is so great as to +secure them against any general prevalence of the smallpox; and perhaps +it is sufficient to prevent the introduction of the disease to the bands +beyond, through this channel. But in the Folle Avoine country it is not +so. Of the large bands of Indians residing in that section of country, +only a small fraction have been vaccinated; while of other bands, not a +single person has passed through the disease. + +Their local situation undoubtedly renders it of the first importance +that the benefits of vaccination should be extended to them. Their +situation may be said to render them a connecting link between the +southern and northwestern bands of Chippewas; and while on the south +they are liable to receive the virus of the smallpox from the whites and +Indians, the passage of the disease through them to their more northern +brethren would only be prevented by their remaining, at that time, +completely separated. Every motive of humanity towards the suffering +Indian, would lead to extend to him this protection against a disease he +holds in constant dread, and of which he knows, by sad experience, the +fatal effects. The protection he will prize highly, and will give in +return the only boon a destitute man is capable of giving; the deep-felt +gratitude of an overflowing heart. + + I have the honour to be, + Very respectfully, sir, + Your obedient servant, + DOUGLASS HOUGHTON. + +HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT, ESQ., + _U. S. Ind. Agt., Sault de Ste. Marie._ + + +4. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY. + +IX. + +ASTRONOMICAL AND BAROMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS. + + 1. _A Table of Geographical Positions on the Mississippi River at Low + Water, observed in 1836._[275] By J. N. NICOLLET. + + [275] Com. Doc. No. 237. + + -------------------------------------------+-------------------+--------- + |ESTIMATED DISTANCES| + | BY WATER. |Altitudes + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. +---------+---------+above the + |From | From the| Gulf of + |place to | Gulf of | Mexico. + |place. | Mexico. | [276] + -------------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------- + Mouths of the Mississippi-- | _Miles._| _Miles._| _Feet._ + | | | + { The old Balize of the | | | + Northeast { French and pilot-house, | ... | ... | ... + pass { Light-house at the entrance | ... | ... | ... + | | | + South pass--light-house at the entrance | ... | ... | ... + | | | + { The new Balize and pilot-house| | | + Southwest { on the east bayou | ... | ... | ... + pass { The new light-house, completed| | | + { January, 1840 | ... | ... | ... + | | | + New Orleans Cathedral and level of its | | | + front pavement | 104 | 104 | 10.5 + | | | + NOTE.--Level of the Mississippi above } | | | + the Gulf of Mexico, 0.5 foot. } | | | + Greatest depth of the Mississippi } | | | + at low water, 113 feet. } | ... | ... | + Range between high and low water, } | | | + 13 feet. } | | | + | | | + Red River, north end of the island, | | | + opposite the mouth | 236 | 340 | 76 + | | | + Natchez, light-house | 66 | 406 | 86 + general level of the city | ... | ... | 264 + | | | + NOTE.--Range between high and low water, | | | + in 1835, 52 feet | | | + | | | + Yazoo River, the mouth | 128 | 534 | ... + | | | + White River, Montgomery's Landing, one | | | + mile above the mouth | 220 | 754 | 202 + | | | + New Madrid, Missouri | 361 | 1,115 | ... + | | | + Ohio River, north side of the mouth | 101 | 1,216 | 824 + | | | + Cape Girardeau | 41 | 1,257 | ... + | | | + St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and level | | | + of its pavement | 73 | 1,330 | 372 + | | | + St. Louis, garden of the Cathedral | 60 | 1,390 | 382 + | | | + Illinois River, the mouth | 36 | 1,426 | ... + | | | + Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a | | | + small island at the mouth | 168 | 1,594 | 444 + | | | + Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the | | | + mouth of the creek | 15 | 1,609 | 470 + | | | + Flint River, the mouth, above Burlington | 30 | 1,639 | 486 + | | | + Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the slough | 39 | 1,678 | 505 + | | | + Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above | | | + Davenport's residence | 44 | 1,722 | 528 + | | | + Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port Biron | | | + and Parkhurst | 15 | 1,737 | 554 + | | | + Prairie du Chien (Kipi-saging), American | | | + Fur Company's house | 195 | 1,932 | 642 + | | | + Summit of bluff on the eastern side of | | | + Prairie du Chien | ... | ... | 1,010 + | | | + Cap-à-l'ail, the summit--height above the | | | + Mississipi, 335 feet | 32 | 1,964 | 1,013 + | | | + Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth | 14 | 1,978 | ... + | | | + Hokah River (Root River), the mouth | 23 | 2,001 | ... + | | | + Praire à la Crosse River, the mouth | 3 | 2,004 | ... + | | | + Sappah River, or Black River opposite the | | | + old mouth | 31 | 2,035 | 683 + | | | + Top of mountain on right bank, opposite | | | + the old mouth | ... | ... | 1,214 + | | | + Dividing ridge between Sappah River and | | | + Prairie à la Crosse River, 6 miles | | | + east of Mississippi | ... | ... | 1,103 + + [276] The numbers in this column refer to the surface of the water in + the Mississippi at the point mentioned, except when otherwise + specially expressed. + + -------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + | | WEST OF + | | GREENWICH. + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |North | + |latitudes. +----------- + | |Longitudes + | | in time. + -------------------------------------------+-----------+----------- + Mouths of the Mississippi-- | ° ´ ´´ | _h. m. s._ + | | + { The old Balize of the | | + Northeast { French and pilot-house, | 29 7 15.3| 5 56 18.44 + pass { Light-house at the entrance | 29 8 32.8| 5 56 5.52 + | | + South pass--light-house at the entrance | 28 59 42.3| 5 56 29.40 + | | + { The new Balize and pilot-house| | + Southwest { on the east bayou | 28 59 49.5| 5 57 15.88 + pass { The new light-house, completed| | + { January, 1840 | 28 58 50 | 5 57 25.80 + | | + New Orleans Cathedral and level of its | | + front pavement | 29 57 23 | 5 59 56 + | | + NOTE.--Level of the Mississippi above } | | + the Gulf of Mexico, 0.5 foot. } | | + Greatest depth of the Mississippi } | | + at low water, 113 feet. } | .. | .. + Range between high and low water, } | | + 13 feet. } | | + | | + Red River, north end of the island, | | + opposite the mouth | 31 2 25 | 6 6 45 + | | + Natchez, light-house | 31 33 37 | 6 5 53.5 + general level of the city | | + | | + NOTE.--Range between high and low water, | | + in 1835, 52 feet | | + | | + Yazoo River, the mouth | 32 28 00 | 6 3 58 + | | + White River, Montgomery's Landing, one | | + mile above the mouth | 33 57 20| 6 1 47 + | | + New Madrid, Missouri | 36 34 30| 5 57 49 + | | + Ohio River, north side of the mouth | 37 00 25| 5 56 10 + | | + Cape Girardeau | 37 18 39| 5 57 8 + | | + St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and level | | + of its pavement | 37 59 47| 6 0 44.7 + | | + St. Louis, garden of the Cathedral | 38 37 28| 6 1 2.6 + | | + Illinois River, the mouth | 38 58 12| ... + | | + Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a | | + small island at the mouth | 40 21 43| 6 6 10 + | | + Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the | | + mouth of the creek | 40 30 34| 6 6 4 + | | + Flint River, the mouth, above Burlington | 40 52 56| ... + | | + Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the slough | 41 14 47| 6 5 26 + | | + Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above | | + Davenport's residence | 41 31 50| ... + | | + Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port Biron | | + and Parkhurst | 41 36 8| 6 1 56 + | | + Prairie du Chien (Kipi-saging), American | | + Fur Company's house | 43 3 6| 6 4 37.3 + | | + Summit of bluff on the eastern side of | | + Prairie du Chien | | + | | + Cap-à-l'ail, the summit--height above the | | + Mississipi, 335 feet | ... | ... + | | + Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth | 43 29 26| 6 4 40 + | | + Hokah River (Root River), the mouth | 43 47 00| 6 4 46 + | | + Praire à la Crosse River, the mouth | 43 49 00| 6 4 56 + | | + Sappah River, or Black River opposite the | | + old mouth | 43 57 14| 6 5 36 + | | + Top of mountain on right bank, opposite | | + the old mouth | ... | ... + | | + Dividing ridge between Sappah River and | | + Prairie à la Crosse River, 6 miles | | + east of Mississippi | ... | ... + + -------------------------------------------+------------+------------ + |WEST OF | + |GREENWICH. | + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. | |Authorities, + +-----------+ &c. + |Longitudes | + | in arc. | + -------------------------------------------+-----------+------------ + Mouths of the Mississippi-- | ° ´ ´´ | + | | + { The old Balize of the | | Captain A. + Northeast { French and pilot-house, | 89 4 36.6| Talcott. + pass { Light-house at the entrance | 89 1 22.9| do. + | | + South pass--light-house at the entrance | 89 7 27.1| do. + | | + { The new Balize and pilot-house| | + Southwest { on the east bayou | 89 18 58.2| do. + pass { The new light-house, completed| | + { January, 1840 | 89 21 27 | do. + | | + New Orleans Cathedral and level of its | | + front pavement | 89 59 4 | + | | + NOTE.--Level of the Mississippi above } | | + the Gulf of Mexico, 0.5 foot. } | | + Greatest depth of the Mississippi } | | + at low water, 113 feet. } | ... |Albert Stein, + Range between high and low water, } | | C. E. + 13 feet. } | | + | | + Red River, north end of the island, | | + opposite the mouth | 91 41 15 | Nicollet. + | | + Natchez, light-house | 91 28 22.5| do. + general level of the city | | + | | + NOTE.--Range between high and low water, | | + in 1835, 52 feet | | + | | + Yazoo River, the mouth | 90 59 30 | Ferrer. + | | + White River, Montgomery's Landing, one | | + mile above the mouth | 90 26 45 |Nicollet. + | | + New Madrid, Missouri | 89 27 15 |Ferrer. + | | + Ohio River, north side of the mouth | 89 2 30 |Ferrer's + | | longitude. + | | + Cape Girardeau | 89 17 00 |Long's 1st + | | expedition. + | | + St. Genevieve, Catholic church, and level | | + of its pavement | 90 11 10 |Nicollet. + | | + St. Louis, garden of the Cathedral | 90 15 39 | do. + | | + Illinois River, the mouth | ... |Long's 1st + | | expedition. + | | + Moingonan River (Des Moines River), a | | + small island at the mouth | 91 32 30 |Nicollet. + | | + Montrose, or old Fort Des Moines, the | | + mouth of the creek | 91 31 00 | do. + | | + Flint River, the mouth, above Burlington | ... | do. + | | + Maskudeng, the middle mouth of the slough | 91 21 30 | do. + | | + Rock Island, a quarter of a mile above | | + Davenport's residence | ... | do. + | | + Head of the Upper Rapids, below Port Biron | | + and Parkhurst | 90 29 00 | do. + | | + Prairie du Chien (Kipi-saging), American | | + Fur Company's house | 91 9 19.5| do. + | | + Summit of bluff on the eastern side of | | + Prairie du Chien | | + | | + Cap-à-l'ail, the summit--height above the | | + Mississipi, 335 feet | ... | do. + | | + Upper Iowa River, island at the mouth | 91 10 00 | do. + | | + Hokah River (Root River), the mouth | 91 11 30 | do. + | | + Praire à la Crosse River, the mouth | 91 14 00 | do. + | | + Sappah River, or Black River opposite the | | + old mouth | 91 24 00 | do. + | | + Top of mountain on right bank, opposite | | + the old mouth | ... | do. + | | + Dividing ridge between Sappah River and | | + Prairie à la Crosse River, 6 miles | | + east of Mississippi | ... | do. + + + TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS--CONTINUED. + MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT LOW WATER. + + -------------------------------------------+-------------------+--------- + |ESTIMATED DISTANCES| + | BY WATER. |Altitudes + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. +---------+---------+above the + |From | From the| Gulf of + |place to | Gulf of | Mexico. + |place. | Mexico. | + -------------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------- + Mountain Island, or _Montagne qui trempe à_|_Miles._ |_Miles._ | _Feet._ + _l'Eau_ of the French | 7 | 2,042 | ... + Miniskah River, or White-water River | 27 | 2,069 | ... + Wazi-oju River, or Pinewood River | | | + (_Rivière aux Embarras_ of the French) | 1 | 2,070 | ... + At Roque's, two and a half miles below | | | + Chippeway River | 14 | 2,084 | ... + Clear Water River, the mouth, northwest | | | + corner of Lake Pepin | ... | ... | ... + Reminicha (_Montagne la Grange_ of the | | | + French), upper end of Lake Pepin | 31 | 2,115 | 714 + Top of Reminicha | ... | ... | 1,036 + La Hontan River, the mouth (Cannon River | | | + of the Americans, Canoe River of the | | | + French) | 3 | 2,118 | ... + St. Croix River, the mouth | 32 | 2,150 | 729 + Upland on the banks of the Mississippi | | | + and Lake St. Croix | ... | ... | 866 + St. Peter's, the mouth | 42 | 2,192 | 744 + General level of the plateau on which Fort | | | + Snelling and the Indian agency stand | ... | ... | 850 + Pilot Knob, the top | ... | ... | 1,006 + Falls of St. Anthony, United States Cottage| 8 | 2,200 | 856 + Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the mouth| 19 | 2,219 | ... + Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River | | | + (Chippewas), | | | + Crow River of the Americans | 10 | 2,229 | ... + St. Francis River, Wicha-niwa River of the | | | + Sioux | 9 | 2,238 | ... + Migadiwin Creek, or War Creek, the mouth | 18 | 2,256 | ... + Kawakomik River, or Clear-Water River, the | | | + mouth | 24 | 2,280 | ... + Round Island, at the lower end of Osakis | | | + Rapids | ... | ... | ... + Osakis River, the mouth | 22 | 2,302 | ... + Watab River, the mouth | 3 | 2,305 | ... + Pekushino River, the mouth | 18 | 2,323 | ... + Wabezi River, or Swan River, a half mile | | | + above the mouth | 18 | 2,341 | 1,098 + Omoshkos River, or Elk River, the mouth | 10 | 2,351 | ... + Nokay's River, the mouth | 18 | 2,369 | ... + Kagi-wigwan River, the mouth (_Aile de | | | + Corbeau River_ of the French, Crow-Wing | | | + River of the Americans) | 12 | 2,381 | 1,130 + Nagadjika River, opposite the mouth | 18 | 2,399 | ... + Pine River, the mouth | 30 | 2,429 | 1,176 + Willow River, the mouth | 65 | 2,494 | ... + Sandy Lake River, the mouth | 32 | 2,526 | 1,253 + Swan River, the mouth | 38 | 2,564 | 1,290 + Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of the | | | + falls | 63 | 2,627 | 1,840 + Wanomon River, or Vermilion River, the | | | + mouth | 21 | 2,648 | ... + Eagle Nest savannah (_Marais aux Nids | | | + d'Aigle_ of the French) | 16 | 2,664 | ... + Leach Lake River, the mouth | 11 | 2,675 | 1,356 + Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a | | | + tongue of land near the entrance of the | | | + Mississippi | 80 | 2,755 | 1,402 + Pemidji Lake, or Lake Travers, the entrance| | | + of the Mississippi | 45 | 2,800 | 1,456 + Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's Island | 90 | 2,890 | 1,575 + Utmost sources of the Mississippi, at the | | | + summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or | | | + dividing ridge, between the Mississippi | | | + and Red River of the North | 6 | 2,896 | 1,680 + + -------------------------------------------+----------+----------- + | | WEST OF + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |North | GREENWICH. + |latitudes.+----------- + | |Longitudes + | | in time. + -------------------------------------------+----------+----------- + Mountain Island, or _Montagne qui trempe à_| ° ´ ´´ |_h. m. s._ + _l'Eau_ of the French | 44 1 7 | 6 6 2 + Miniskah River, or White-water River | 44 12 36 | 6 7 25 + Wazi-oju River, or Pinewood River | | + (_Rivière aux Embarras_ of the French) | 44 13 20 | 6 7 22 + At Roque's, two and a half miles below | | + Chippeway River | 44 23 24 | 6 8 00 + Clear Water River, the mouth, northwest | | + corner of Lake Pepin | 44 36 20 | 6 9 40 + Reminicha (_Montagne la Grange_ of the | | + French), upper end of Lake Pepin | 44 33 30 | 6 10 4 + Top of Reminicha | ... | ... + La Hontan River, the mouth (Cannon River | | + of the Americans, Canoe River of the | | + French) | 44 34 00 | 6 10 8 + St. Croix River, the mouth | 44 45 30 | 6 11 00 + Upland on the banks of the Mississippi | | + and Lake St. Croix | ... | ... + St. Peter's, the mouth | 44 52 46 | 6 12 19.6 + General level of the plateau on which Fort | | + Snelling and the Indian agency stand | ... | ... + Pilot Knob, the top | ... | ... + Falls of St. Anthony, United States Cottage| 44 58 40 | 6 12 42 + Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the mouth| 45 15 00 | ... + Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River | | + (Chippewas), | | + Crow River of the Americans | 45 16 00 | ... + St. Francis River, Wicha-niwa River of the | | + Sioux | 45 20 30 | ... + Migadiwin Creek, or War Creek, the mouth | 45 18 14 | 6 15 50 + Kawakomik River, or Clear-Water River, the | | + mouth | 45 24 25 | 6 16 30 + Round Island, at the lower end of Osakis | | + Rapids | 45 35 00 | 6 16 48 + Osakis River, the mouth | 45 35 35 | 6 16 48 + Watab River, the mouth | 45 37 00 | 6 16 58 + Pekushino River, the mouth | 45 46 50 | 6 17 14 + Wabezi River, or Swan River, a half mile | | + above the mouth | 45 54 30 | 6 17 28 + Omoshkos River, or Elk River, the mouth | 46 4 00 | 6 17 4 + Nokay's River, the mouth | 46 10 30 | 6 17 15 + Kagi-wigwan River, the mouth (_Aile de | | + Corbeau River_ of the French, Crow-Wing | | + River of the Americans) | 46 16 50 | 6 17 31 + Nagadjika River, opposite the mouth | 46 26 00 | ... + Pine River, the mouth | 46 35 00 | ... + Willow River, the mouth | 46 40 30 | 6 13 30 + Sandy Lake River, the mouth | 46 47 10 | 6 12 38 + Swan River, the mouth | 47 00 43 | 6 12 36 + Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of the | | + falls | 47 14 50 | 6 13 47 + Wanomon River, or Vermilion River, the | | + mouth | 47 11 4 | 6 14 10 + Eagle Nest savannah (_Marais aux Nids | | + d'Aigle_ of the French) | 47 18 10 | 6 14 36 + Leach Lake River, the mouth | 47 14 00 | 6 14 52 + Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a | | + tongue of land near the entrance of the | | + Mississippi | 47 25 23 | 6 18 16 + Pemidji Lake, or Lake Travers, the entrance| | + of the Mississippi | 47 28 46 | 6 19 22 + Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's Island | 47 13 35 | 6 20 8 + Utmost sources of the Mississippi, at the | | + summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or | | + dividing ridge, between the Mississippi | | + and Red River of the North | | + + -------------------------------------------+----------+------------ + | WEST OF | + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |GREENWICH.|Authorities, + +----------+ &c. + |Longitudes| + | in arc. | + -------------------------------------------+----------+------------ + Mountain Island, or _Montagne qui trempe à_| ° ´ ´´ | + _l'Eau_ of the French | 91 30 30 | Nicollet. + Miniskah River, or White-water River | 91 51 15 | do. + Wazi-oju River, or Pinewood River | | + (_Rivière aux Embarras_ of the French) | 91 50 30 | do. + At Roque's, two and a half miles below | | + Chippeway River | 92 00 00 | do. + Clear Water River, the mouth, northwest | | + corner of Lake Pepin | 92 25 00 | do. + Reminicha (_Montagne la Grange_ of the | | + French), upper end of Lake Pepin | 92 31 00 | do. + Top of Reminicha | ... | do. + La Hontan River, the mouth (Cannon River | | + of the Americans, Canoe River of the | | + French) | 92 32 00 | do. + St. Croix River, the mouth | 92 45 00 | do. + Upland on the banks of the Mississippi | | + and Lake St. Croix | ... | do. + St. Peter's, the mouth | 93 4 54 | do. + General level of the plateau on which Fort | | + Snelling and the Indian agency stand | ... | do. + Pilot Knob, the top | ... | do. + Falls of St. Anthony, United States Cottage| 93 10 30 | do. + Ishkode-wabo River, or Rum River, the mouth| ... | do. + Karishon River (Sioux), or Undeg River | | + (Chippewas), | | + Crow River of the Americans | ... | do. + St. Francis River, Wicha-niwa River of the | | + Sioux | ... | Nicollet. + Migadiwin Creek, or War Creek, the mouth | 93 57 30 | do. + Kawakomik River, or Clear-Water River, the | | + mouth | 94 7 30 | do. + Round Island, at the lower end of Osakis | | + Rapids | 94 12 00 | do. + Osakis River, the mouth | 94 12 00 | do. + Watab River, the mouth | 94 14 30 | do. + Pekushino River, the mouth | 94 18 30 | do. + Wabezi River, or Swan River, a half mile | | + above the mouth | 94 22 00 | do. + Omoshkos River, or Elk River, the mouth | 94 16 00 | do. + Nokay's River, the mouth | 94 18 45 | do. + Kagi-wigwan River, the mouth (_Aile de | | + Corbeau River_ of the French, Crow-Wing | | + River of the Americans) | 94 22 45 | do. + Nagadjika River, opposite the mouth | ... | do. + Pine River, the mouth | ... | do. + Willow River, the mouth | 93 22 30 | do. + Sandy Lake River, the mouth | 93 9 30 | do. + Swan River, the mouth | 93 9 00 | do. + Kabikons, or Little Falls, the head of the | | + falls | 93 26 45 | do. + Wanomon River, or Vermilion River, the | | + mouth | 93 32 30 | do. + Eagle Nest savannah (_Marais aux Nids | | + d'Aigle_ of the French) | 93 39 00 | do. + Leach Lake River, the mouth | 93 43 00 | do. + Lake Cass, the old trading-house on a | | + tongue of land near the entrance of the | | + Mississippi | 94 34 00 | do. + Pemidji Lake, or Lake Travers, the entrance| | + of the Mississippi | 94 50 30 | do. + Itasca Lake, Schoolcraft's Island | 95 2 00 | do. + Utmost sources of the Mississippi, at the | | + summit of the Hauteurs de Terre, or | | + dividing ridge, between the Mississippi | | + and Red River of the North | | + + TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS--CONTINUED. + REGIONS OF THE SOURCES OF THE MISSISSIPPI. + + -------------------------------+---------+----------+----------- + | | | WEST OF + |Altitudes| | GREENWICH. + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. |above the|North | + | Gulf of |latitudes.+----------- + | Mexico. | |Longitudes + | | | in time. + -------------------------------+---------+----------+----------- + Gayashk River, or Little Gull | _Feet._ | ° ´ ´´ |_h. m. s._ + River, the mouth | 1,131 | 46 18 50 | 6 17 44 + Gayashk Lake, or Little Gull | | | + Lake, end of Long Point | 1,152 | 46 24 28 | 6 17 30 + Kadicomeg Lake, or White-Fish | | | + Lake, the entrance of Pine | | | + River | 1,192 | 46 40 25 | 6 16 10 + Lake Chanché, southwest end | ... | 46 46 35 | ... + Lake Eccleston, northwest end | ... | 46 57 00 | ... + Leech Lake, Otter-tail Point | 1,380 | 47 11 40 | 6 17 20 + Leech Lake, the bay opposite | | | + Otter-tail Point | ... | 47 7 22 | 6 17 28 + Kabekonang River, the junction | | | + of the upper fork, near the | | | + next-mentioned portage | 1,406 | 47 16 00 | ... + Portage from Kabekonang River | | | + to La Place River, near the | | | + west end | 1,540 | 47 15 00 | ... + Assawa Lake, below the south | | | + end | 1,532 | 47 12 10 | 6 19 40 + Highest ridge on the portage | | | + between Assawa Lake and | | | + Itasca Lake | 1,695 | ... | ... + Cleared pine camp, on Leech | | | + Lake River | ... | 47 18 00 | 6 16 00 + + -------------------------------+----------+------------ + |WEST OF | + |GREENWICH.|Authorities, + PLACES OF OBSERVATION. +----------+ &c. + |Longitudes| + | in arc. | + -------------------------------+----------+------------ + Gayashk River, or Little Gull | ° ´ ´´ | + River, the mouth | 94 26 00 | Nicollet. + Gayashk Lake, or Little Gull | | + Lake, end of Long Point | 94 22 30 | do. + Kadicomeg Lake, or White-Fish | | + Lake, the entrance of Pine | | + River | 94 2 30 | do. + Lake Chanché, southwest end | ... | do. + Lake Eccleston, northwest end | ... | do. + Leech Lake, Otter-tail Point | 94 20 00 | do. + Leech Lake, the bay opposite | | + Otter-tail Point | 94 22 00 | do. + Kabekonang River, the junction | | + of the upper fork, near the | | + next-mentioned portage | ... | do. + Portage from Kabekonang River | | + to La Place River, near the | | + west end | ... | do. + Assawa Lake, below the south | | + end | 94 55 00 | do. + Highest ridge on the portage | | + between Assawa Lake and | | + Itasca Lake | ... | do. + Cleared pine camp, on Leech | | + Lake River | 94 00 00 | do. + + +5. SCENERY. + +X. + + (a) _Scenery of Lake Superior._ By HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. + +Few portions of America can vie in scenic attractions with this interior +sea. Its size alone gives it all the elements of grandeur; but these +have been heightened by the mountain masses which nature has piled along +its shores. In some places, these masses consist of vast walls, of +coarse gray, or drab-colored sandstone, placed horizontally, until they +have attained many hundred feet in height above the water. The action of +such an immense liquid area, forced against these crumbling walls by +tempests, has caused wide and deep arches to be worn into the solid +structure, at their base, into which the billows roll, with a noise +resembling low-pealing thunder. By this means, large areas of the +impending mass are at length undermined and precipitated into the lake, +leaving the split and rent parts, from which they have separated, +standing like huge misshapen turrets and battlements. Such is the varied +coast, called the Pictured Rocks. + +At other points of the coast, volcanic forces have operated, lifting up +these level strata into positions nearly vertical, and leaving them to +stand, like the leaves of a vast open book. At the same time, the +volcanic rocks sent up from below, have risen in high mountains, with +ancient gaping craters. Such is the condition of the disturbed +stratification at the Porcupine Mountains. + +The basin and bed of this lake act like a vast geological mortar, in +which the masses of broken and fallen stones are whirled about and +ground down, till all the softer ones, such as the sandstones, are +brought into the state of pure yellow sand. This sand is driven ashore +by the waves, where it is shoved up in long wreaths, and dried by the +sun. The winds now take it up, and spread it inland, or pile it +immediately along the coast, where it presents itself in mountain +masses. Such are the great sand dunes of the Grande Sables. + +There are yet other theatres of action for this sublime mass of inland +waters, where the lake has manifested, perhaps, still more strongly, its +abrasive powers. The whole force of its waters, under the impulse of a +northwest tempest, is directed against prominent portions of the shore, +which consist of black and hard volcanic rocks. Solid as these are, the +waves have found an entrance in veins of spar, or minerals of softer +texture, and have thus been led on their devastating course inland, +tearing up large fields of amygdaloid, or other rock; or, left portions +of them standing in rugged knobs, or promontories. Such are the east and +west coasts of the great peninsula of Keweena, which have recently +become the theatre of mining operations. + +When the visitor to these remote and boundless waters comes to see this +wide and varied scene of complicated geological disturbances and scenic +magnificence, he is absorbed in wonder and astonishment. The eye, once +introduced to this panorama of waters, is never done looking and +admiring. Scene after scene, cliff after cliff, island after island, and +vista after vista are presented. One day's scenes of the traveller are +but the prelude to another; and when weeks, and even months, have been +spent in picturesque rambles along its shores, he has only to ascend +some of its streams, and go inland a few miles, to find falls, and +cascades, and cataracts of the most beautiful or magnificent character. +Go where he will, there is something to attract him. Beneath his feet +are pebbles of agates; the water is of the most crystalline purity. The +sky is filled, at sunset with the most gorgeous piles of clouds. The air +itself is of the purest and most inspiring kind. To visit such a scene +is to draw health from its purest sources, and while the eye revels in +intellectual delights, the soul is filled with the liveliest symbols of +God, and the most striking evidences of his creative power. + + (b) _Letters of Mr. M. Woolsey._ _Southern Literary Messenger_, 1836. + Oneöta, p. 322. + +These spirited and graphic letters are unavoidably excluded. The +evidence they bear to the purity of principle, justness of taste, and +excellence of character of a young man, now no more, ought to preserve +his name from oblivion. He accompanied me in 1831, as a volunteer, in a +leisure moment, an admirer of nature, seeking health. + + + + +INDEX. + + + A + + A bear trapped, 98 + A box of minerals stolen, 40 + A granitical formation on Lake Superior, 88 + A long fast, 126 + A new philological principle in languages, 455 + A phenomenon, 103 + A precinct of Indian orgies, 115 + A sub-expedition to Sandy Lake, 112 + A war-party surprised, 552 + Account of sub-explorations of Green Bay, 210 + Acipenser oxyrinchus, 95 + Acipenser spatularia, 163 + Advance of Lake Superior to the Rocky Mountains, 109 + African and Indian marriages, 108 + Agaric mineral, 60 + Agate, 87 + Agglutinative properties of the Indian pronoun, 502 + Aggregate fall of the Mississippi below Sandy Lake, 150; + commencement of the calcareous rocks, 150 + Algoma, 107 + Algonquin language justly applauded, 122 + Algonac, 50 + Allenoga River, 250 + Allen's Lake, 263 + Aluminous minerals, 354 + American Indian policy, 546 + American antiquities, 166 + Amygdaloid, 90 + An Indian breakfast, 253 + An Indian grave with hieroglyphics, 88 + An Indian nonplused in the woods, 97 + An Indian salute, 120 + Analysis of Lake Superior copper at Utrecht, 364 + Anodonta corpulenta, 516 + Announcement of return of expedition, of 1820, 279 + Antique markings on the pinus resinosa, 552 + Antique notices of the lake mineralogy, 295 + Antiquities, 157; + first notice of in 1766, 165 + Apparent tide in the Baltic, 191 + Appearance of dune sand at Point aux Barques, 54 + Appendix No. 2, 449 + Apricots in bloom on the 22d of April, 41 + Arched rock, 61 + Argillaceous stratum of Detroit, 307 + Argillite, 111 + Artesian borings for water, 51 + Art of the wounded duck, 249 + Arts and manufactures of the Chippewas and Ottowas, 70 + Ascent of the Assowa River, 235 + Asphaltum and naphtha, 196 + Assassination of Owen Keveny, 69 + Assowa Lake, 239 + Atmospheric heat 28th June, 96 + Aux Sables Indians, 55 + + + B + + Bark letter in pictographic characters, 433 + Barometrical height of Cass Lake, 139 + Barytic minerals, 357 + Basin of Lake Michigan, 335 + Basin of Lake Superior, 318 + Bat in wood, 396 + Beltrami, 227 + Birch Lake, 263 + Birds inhabiting the region of Pakagama Falls, 130 + Birds of Lake Superior, 104 + Birds of the Wisconsin Valley, 181 + Bituminous minerals, 358 + Bivalve shells, 415 + Black River, 103 + Boatswain to Com. Perry in 1813, 194 + Botany, 408 + Boulders on the shores of Lake St. Clair, 49 + Boundary between Michigan and Wisconsin, 103 + Breadth of the Mississippi at Sandy Lake, 124 + Brigham's residence at Blue Mound, 568 + Brulé summit, 273 + Buckshot gravel, 62 + Buffalo hunt, 146 + + + C + + Cabotian Mountains, 110 + Calcareous minerals, 350 + Canadian canoe-song, 189 + Canoe-race, 48 + Capt. Douglass, 210 + Capt. Jouett, 269 + Capture and massacre of the garrison of old Mackinac, 63 + Carnage River, 248 + Carnelian, 87 + Carver's Cave, 159 + Carver's travels, 21 + Cass, his official report, 280 + Cass Lake, 130 + Cass Lake basin, 328 + Cass on Indian hieroglyphics, 430 + Cassville, Wisconsin, 169 + Chagoimegon, 105 + Chalcedony and calcareous spar, 54 + Charles Stokes, Esq., his geological memoir, 315 + Charlevoix's visit to America, 20 + Character and value of Dubuque's lead mines, 172 + Character of the bison, 147 + Character of the Canadian voyageur, 124 + Cheboigan, its etymology, 213 + Chenos, a masked coast, 73 + Chicago, etymology of name, population, and greatness, 198 + Chief Guelle Plat, 255 + Chippewa character of the Kekeewin, 154 + Chippewa dance, 87 + Chippewa term of salutation, 84 + Chippewa village, 94 + Cinnamon-colored radiated quartz, 163 + Claimants to mine lands, 365 + Clinton River, 49 + Club fungus partially fossilized, 204 + Coal in Western New York, 391 + Coast of boulders, 215 + Col. Croghan's attack at Fort Holmes in 1814, 64 + Col. Pierce, 58 + Coluber æstivus, 50 + Combustibles, 536 + Commercial value of copper, 372 + Conchology, 178 + Connection with Blackhawk's plans disclaimed, 272 + Cooper's description of shells, 515 + Copper-bearing trap-dykes, 89 + Copper boulder, its size, 97 + Copper-head snake, 238 + Copper ores of Mineral Point, 567 + Cormorant, 130 + Corn ripens at St. Peter's Valley, 153 + Cornu-ammonis; a fossiliferous coast, 56 + Corregonus albus, 260 + Cost of lake transportation, 376 + Council at Cass Lake, 251 + Council at Sandy Lake, 226 + Council at St. Peter's agency, 269 + Council at the ultimate point of the first expedition, 133 + Council with Indians; + their hostility, 78; + they raise the British flag, 79 + Crow-wing River, 145 + Crystals of iron pyrites, 196 + Cupreous formation, 324 + Cup-shaped concavities, 61 + + + D + + Dacota, or Nadownsie Indians, 158 + Danger escaped, 566 + Date and circumstance of Pike's visit to Sandy Lake, 117 + Date of Prairie du Chien, 167 + Date of the battle of Badaxe, 269 + Date of Wisconsin as a territorial name, 176 + De Witt Clinton offers the use of his library, 23 + Dead scaffolded, 122 + Defect of postal facilities, at Mackinac, 65 + Depth of the Detroit clay beds, 51 + Derogative inflections of the Indian noun, 476 + Descent of Itasca River, 246 + Description of the Indian canoe, 47 + Desiderata of discovery, 227 + Detroit completely burnt down in 1805, 44 + Detroit first founded in 1701, 45 + Difficulty of studying the Indian tongues, 441 + Difficulty of the descent of the Brulé, 273 + Diluvial elevations, 385 + Diminutive forms of the Odjibwa noun, 474 + Discover native copper, 90 + Discovery of Itasca Lake, 573 + Distance from Lake Superior to Lake Pepin, 544 + Distance from St. Peter's to the gulf, 153; + elevation of the country, 153 + Distances travelled in the expedition of 1831, 544 + Dr. McDonnell's letter, 439 + Dr. Mitchell's summary of discoveries, 416 + Drift-stratum, 115, 322 + Dubuque City, 170 + Du Ponceau's prize essay, 453 + + + E + + Earliest date of Winnebago history, 194 + Earthy compounds, 534 + Elementary structure of the Algonquin language, 442 + Elk Island, 216 + Elk River, its latitude, 147 + Elevation of Lake Superior, 107 + Elevation of the cliff of La Grange, 162 + Elevation of the country at the Savanna Portage, 120 + Encampment at St. Mary's, 76 + Ephemeral insects, 167 + Epoch of the deposit of St. Mary's sandstone, 539 + Epochs of geological action proved by fossils, 400 + Era of Pontiac's hostile movements, 62 + Era of the discovery of the St. Lawrence, 121 + Erismatolite, 103 + Erratic block stratum, 53 + Erratic block and drift stratum, 61 + Essay on the Odjibwa substantive, 453 + Establishment of a military post at St. Peter's, 152 + Etymology, 116 + Etymology of Manitowakie, 195 + Etymology of Minnesota, 156 + Etymology of Namikong, 85 + Etymology of Pawating, 81 + Etymology of Rum River, 150 + Etymology of the word Konamik, 186 + Etymology of the word Michilimackinac, 70 + Etymology of the word Mississippi, 140 + Etymology of the word Wisconsin, 179 + Etymology of Waganukizzie, 207 + Evidences of ancient Indian cultivation, 59 + Evidences of diluvial action, 318 + Explorations recommended, 285 + Extensive and fertile bow-shaped area, 135 + + + F + + Fallacious appearance of a tide in Green Bay, 191 + Fallacious information of the Indians, respecting the lead mines, 180 + Falls and precipices, 110 + Falls of St. Croix, 270 + Falls of the Montreal River, 103 + Federation group of islands of Lake Superior, 105, 321 + Feud between the Sioux and Chippewas, 545 + Final embarkation at Grosse Point, 49 + Final separation of the party at Fort Dearborn, 197 + First lake vessel built by La Salle, 212 + First steamboat visits Michilimackinac in 1819, 212 + Flat Rock Point, organic remains, 55 + Flock of pigeons drowned in storms, 195 + Flora of Lake Michigan, 206 + Fluor spar, 353 + Fond du Lac, 184 + Fondness of the Indians for melons, 170 + Forest-trees, 143 + Forest-trees buried by oceanic drift, 51 + Fort Holmes, when dismantled, 64 + Fort Howard, 190 + Fort Niagara built, 62 + Fossil fauna of the West, 199 + Fossil wood, 386 + Foundation of old Mackinac, 62 + Fox chief Aquoqua, 171 + Fox River Valley, 184 + Fox Village, 169 + Freshwater conchology, 188 + Freshwater shells of the Fox and Wisconsin, 416 + Friendship of Wawetum, 67 + Friendly act of the daughter of Wabojeeg, 80 + Frogs inclosed in stone, 386 + Fringillia vespertina, or Schoolcraft's grosbec, 515 + Further discussion of the Odjibwa substantive, 470 + + + G + + Galena, 174 + Generalizations on the Mississippi River, 139 + Geographical data of the portage from Lake Superior to the St. Croix + and Chippewa Rivers, 540 + Geological deductions, 300 + Geological memoranda, 119 + Geological monuments, 332 + Geology of Mackinac, 66 + Geological outlines of the Lake Superior coast, 109 + Geological phenomena, 245 + Geology, 261 + Glacial action, 216 + Globe of sandstone from a geological pocket-hole, 316 + Grammatical structure of sentences in the Odjibwa, 495 + Granite Point, 88 + Granular gypsum in sandstone, 86 + Graphic granite, 84 + Gratiot's Grove, 564 + Grauwackke, 111 + Grauwackke of Iron River, 321 + Grave of Dubuque, 174 + Gray wolf, 149, 166 + Great copper boulder on Lake Superior, 294 + Great sand dunes, 85 + Green Bay City, 191 + Group of the Manatouline Islands, 74 + Grosbec--new species, 515 + Gypsum, 65, 313 + + + H + + Habits of the anas canadensis, 234 + Helix, 515 + Hennepin, 151 + Henry Inman, 23 + Herds of buffalo east of the Mississippi, 432 + High value of the Lake Superior copper mines urged on Congress, 368 + Highest platform mound on the Mississippi, 157 + Highlands of Sauble, 310 + Historical data respecting Dubuque's mines, 174 + Historical data respecting the smallpox, 578 + Historical facts, 150 + History of Green Bay, 190 + History of the Chippewas, 121 + History of the Fox Indians, 175 + Hochungara, or Winnebagoes, 181 + Holcus fragrans, 157 + Houghton's analysis of the lake copper, 527 + Houghton's plants, 519 + How possessives are formed in the Chippewa, 461 + Human skull in the solid part of a living tree, 396 + Huron coast line, 309 + Huttonian theory, 405 + Hystrix, 73 + + + I + + Ice formed on the 19th of July, 127 + Illigan Lake, 264 + Image stone, 231 + Importance of vaccination to Indians, 581 + Impression of a trilobite in quartz, 66 + Indian altar, 55 + Indian birch-bark letter, 433 + Indian boundary, 149 + Indian chief Red Thunder, 158 + Indian chief Red Wing, 163 + Indian corn-dance, 160 + Indian council, 99 + Indian council at the mouth of the Crow-wing, 267 + Indian dwarf, 178 + Indian language, 453 + Indian myth of Itasca, stanzas on, 243 + Indian oratory, 256 + Indian queen, 254 + Indian summer, 428 + Indian superstition respecting mines, 374 + Indian symbol for a man, 113 + Indian term for geologist, 90 + Indian trait, 151 + Indian translation of an expression, 144 + Indian tribes visited in 1831, 540 + Indian women engage in mining, 173 + Indian women gathering rice, 130 + Indians turn mineralogists, 90 + Inquiries respecting the history of the Indians, 438 + Inter-European amalgamation, 77 + Intrepid act of Gen. Cass, 80 + Iron sand, 106 + Irving's Lake, 230 + Island of ancient Indian sepulchre, 194 + Itasca Lake, 246 + + + J + + James Riley, 78 + Jargon of the northwest, 234 + John Johnston, Esq., 80 + Journey from Albany to Geneva, 41 + Journey in a sleigh across the Highlands, 40 + + + K + + Kabamappa accuses the Sioux of treachery, 548 + Kaginogumaug, or Longwater Lake, 261 + Kakabika Falls, 247 + Kakala, its probable meaning, 187 + Kalamazoo, 203 + Kubba-Kunna, 234 + + + L + + La Hontan's apocryphal discovery on Long River, 19 + Lac Plè, 263 + Lac Traverse, 229 + Lac Vieux Desert, 263 + Lacustrine clay-flats of Lake St. Clair, 49 + Lake action, 318 + Lake Audrusia, 228 + Lake Chetac, 543 + Lake Douglass, 265 + Lake drift, 323 + Lake Pepin, 163, 332 + Lake St. Clair, 216 + Landscape of Michilimackinac, 71 + Last year the bison is seen east of the Mississippi, 148 + Latitude of Mackinac, 64 + Lead mines at Dubuque, 168, 333 + Leading events in the life of Gen. Macomb, 72 + Leaf River of the Crow-wing, 266 + Learn the state of the Sauc war, 269 + Leech Lake, 259 + Leech Lake River, 129; etymology, 129 + Left Hand River, 108 + Legal claim to the mine tract, 174 + Length of the Mississippi, 245 + Letter to Nathaniel H. Carter, Esq., 409 + Level of Lake Erie above tide-water, 43 + Limits of the cervus sylvestris, 515 + Line of discovery above Cass Lake, 244 + List of latitudes and longitudes, 289 + List of quadrupeds and birds observed, 413 + Little Crow chief, 157 + Little Vermilion Lake, 262 + Localities of minerals and rock strata, 211 + Locality of freshwater shells, 167 + Long Prairie River, 266 + Longitudinal phenomena, 109 + Lt. Col. Fowle, notice of, 168 + Lupus Americanus, 56 + Lyceum of Natural History, New York, extract from its annals, 532 + + + M + + M. Woolsey, 588 + Mackinac limestone, 312 + Magnesian minerals, 356 + Magnitude of Lake Michigan, 202 + Marquette's discovery of the Mississippi, 17 + Mass of native copper, on the shores of Winnebago Lake, 185 + Massachusetts Island, 105 + Mean temperature at the sources of the Upper Mississippi River, 123; + party for the ultimate discovery of this river, 123 + Mean temperature of St. Peter's Valley, 154 + Mean velocity of current of Mississippi River, 126 + Metallic masses, 100 + Metallic minerals, 340 + Meteorological journal kept at Chicago, 424 + Meteorology, 418 + Metoswa rapids, 229 + Metunna Rapids, 266 + Micaceous oxide of iron, 111 + Michigan--its population at various periods, 46 + Michilimackinac, 57, 311 + Michilimackinac first becomes a capital for the fur trade, 68; + J. J. Astor occupies it in 1816, 68 + Miera, or Walk-in-the-water, 212 + Milwaukie, its etymology, population, and resources, 196 + Mine of Peosta, 171 + Mineral character of Lake Superior, 100 + Mineralogy and geology, 292 + Mineralogy of the Northwest, 534 + Miners' mode of classifying ore, 564 + Mississippi first crossed by primary rocks, 147 + Mississippi from the influx of the Missouri, 138 + Mistake respecting American antiquities, 157 + Mode of converting a noun to a verb in the Odjibwa, 481 + Mollusks, 127 + Montruille an object of pity, 131 + Mozojeed, a chief of energy, 550 + Mr. Monroe's message of 7th December, 1822, 363 + Mr. Schoolcraft's Report on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior, 292 + Mukkundwa Indians, ethnological sketch, 258 + Murder of Gov. Semple, 255 + Muskego River, 104 + My first portage; what is "a piece," 90 + Mythologic notion, 99 + + + N + + Naiwa rapids, 236 + Native salt and native copper, 155 + Native silver, and its ores, 531 + Natural history, 515 + Nebeesh Island and Rapids, 75 + Neenaba, a partisan chief, 554 + New localities of copper, 375 + New seat for Hygeia and the Muses, 60 + New species in conchology, 417 + Nicollet's table of geographical positions, 582 + Noble reply of an Algonquin chief, 63 + Noble view, 83 + Number in the Chippewa, 457 + Number, value, &c. of the copper mines of Lake Superior, 363 + + + O + + Objects of governmental policy, 558 + Oblations to the dead, 123 + Observe the buffalo, 146 + Odjibwa animate and inanimate adjectives, 490 + Odjibwa compound words, 483 + Odjibwa numerals, 501 + Odjibwamong, 82 + Offering food to the dead, 123 + Official report of Gen. Cass, 280 + Okunzhewug, a chieftainess, murdered, 550 + Old English Copper-mining Company, 296 + Old Mackinac, its date, 208 + Onzig River, 84 + Ores and metals, 536 + Organic impressions, 313 + Organization of the expedition of 1832, 223 + Origin of the Indian race, 439 + Ornithology, 130 + Ortho-cerite limestone, 74 + Ottowa Lake, 542 + + + P + + Pakagama Falls, 127 + Palæontological rocks, 330 + Palaozoic sandstone, 539 + Peace Rock, 149 + Pelican, 177 + Perch or Assawa Lake, 362 + Period of the first military occupation of old Mackinac, 64 + Petrified leaf, with a sketch, 206 + Pewabik River, 102 + Physical Character of the Crow-wing River, 267 + Physical characters of the Mississippi, 133 + Pictographic device, 148 + Pictographic Indian inscription, 113 + Pictographic mode of communicating ideas, 430 + Pictured rocks, 86 + Pike's Bay, 251 + Pipe-stone, or opwagunite, 155 + Planorbis, 515 + Planorbis companulatus, 246 + Plants collected by Dr. Houghton, 519 + Plastic clay of St. Clair flats, 308 + Plateau of lakes and marshes, 128 + Polydon, 416 + Polyganum, 124 + Population and statistics of Mackinac in 1820, 64 + Population of Detroit in 1820, 45 + Population of Leech Lake, 260 + Population of Ottowas, 203 + Porcupine Mountains, 91, 323 + Porphyry and conglomerate boulders, 317 + Portage to the sources of Crow-wing River, 260 + Positive and negative forms of speech, in the Odjibwa, 497 + Potatoes vegetate in pure pebbles, 62 + Pouched rat, 156 + Practicability of working the Superior mines of copper and iron, 370; + advantages of transportation, 371 + Preliminary incidents at Washington, 39 + Preliminary Report of Exploring Expedition of 1832, 573 + Primary forks of the Mississippi, 232; + country disposed in plateaux, 233 + Principles of the Odjibwa noun-adjective, 489 + Produce of the copper mines of the world, 379 + Pseudomorphous forms, 314 + Pseudostoma pinetorum, 156 + Pusabika River, 102 + + + Q + + Quartz geodes, 334 + Quartzite rock, 127 + Queen Anne's Lake, 280 + Question of prepositions, 471 + + + R + + Racine, 197 + Rapid glances at the geology of Western New York, 381 + Rapids of the Mississippi above Sandy Lake, 125 + Rattlesnake of the Wisconsin Hills, 181 + Reach Detroit, after a passage of 62 hours, 44 + Reach Itasca Lake, its outline, 241 + Reach Lake Superior, 274 + Rebus nutkanus, 129 + Reciprocal death in a combat, 201 + Red Banks, 194 + Red jasper in quantity, 58 + Red oxide of iron, 155 + Red sandstone, 91 + Red sandstone of Lake Superior, 316 + Register of temperature in the United States, 426 + Reorganization of the first expedition at Chicago, 200 + Report of Dr. Houghton on the copper of Lake Superior, 526 + Report of Mr. Schoolcraft to the Senate on the mineral lands of Lake + Superior, 362 + Residents of Chicago in 1820, 197 + Return of expedition of 1820 to Detroit, 217; + summary notice of, 217 + Return to Sandy Lake, 142 + Returns of the Cornwall and Devon copper mines, 378 + Rifle shooting, 83 + Rise of waters in the lakes, 214 + River St. Croix, 162 + Robert de la Salle, 17 + Rosa parviflora, 144 + Ruins of Fort St. Joseph, built in 1795, 75 + Rule of euphony in the Algonquin language, 444; + active and passive voices, 446; + philosophical mode of denoting number, 445 + + + S + + Sacred island of the Indians, 70 + Saganaw Bay, 54, 310 + Saliferous red clay, 389 + Sandstone in a vertical position, 102 + Sandstone rock found in place on the east coast of Lake Huron, 52 + Sandy Lake, 327 + Sarracenia purpurea, or owl's moccasin, 214 + Saurian, 249 + Savanna of Gatchi Betobeeg, 141 + Savanna summit, 118 + Saw-mills in the Indian territory, 555 + Scenery of Lake Superior, 587 + Schoolcraft's examination of the Indian vowels, 443 + Schoolcraft's geological report, 304 + Schoolcraft's Island, 243 + Schoolcraft's official report in 1831, 540 + Septaria, 203 + Serpentine rock, 322 + Sexual nouns, 479 + Sheboigan, its etymology, 195 + Shingabawossin reopens negotiations, 81 + Sienitic and hornblende rock, 148 + Silicious minerals, 345 + Silurian limestone, 167 + Silver, a boulder specimen, 532 + Silver medal presented, 99 + Sioux masses of colored clays, 155 + Site of a massacre in 1812, 200 + Site of an ancient dune, 308 + Skeleton paradigm of the Indian verb, 507 + Sketch of Sandy Lake, 116 + Sketch of the banks of the Mississippi from St. Anthony, 137 + Sketch of the river at the Copper Rock, 97 + Sketches addressed to Gen. George P. Morris, 560 + Skull Cave, on the island of Mackinac, 66, + Alexander Henry's adventures in 1763, 66. + Smallpox appears among the Chippewas in 1750, 578 + Society on the island; + its peculiar phases, 69 + Soil and climate of Minnesota, 153 + Soldiers poor canoemen, 269 + Source of Assowa River, 240; + portage over the height of land, 240 + South coast line of Lake Superior, 320 + Species of freshwater shells, 181 + St. Anthony's Falls, its Indian name, 151 + St. Mary's Canal, 82 + St. Paul's, Minnesota, 159 + State of geological knowledge in 1819, 381 + Stationary distances on Lake Superior, 92 + Statistics of maple sugar made by the Indians, 71 + Statistics of the fur trade, 68 + Staurotide; native silver, 53 + Steamboat Walk-in-the-Water, 43 + Straits of St. Mary, 315 + Stratification, 81 + Stratum of quartzite rock, 141 + Sub-exploring party, 94 + Sub-formative pronouns in the Algonquin language, 509; + relative pronouns, 509; + demonstrative pronouns, 513 + Summit Lake, 263 + Sun above the horizon at 12 P. M., 106 + Superstition of the Indians, 571 + Synopsis of Appendix No. 1, 277 + + + T + + Table of latitudes and longitudes in the Northwest, 582 + Tabular view of minerals of the Northwest, 338 + Temperature required by tropical plants, 426 + Tenacity of life of the deer, 235 + Tensal inflections in the Algonquin, 478 + Testimonial to Capt. Douglass and Mr. Schoolcraft, 287 + The glutton, 141 + The Mississippi viewed in sections, 137 + The trap-rock the true copper-bearing medium, 530 + Thirteen-striped squirrel, 156 + Time required in passing Lake Superior, 107 + Topography and astronomy, 288 + Tortoise, 113 + Tortuous channel, 129 + Totem, 123 + Tour from Galena to Fort Winnebago, 560 + Track of Indian migration, 122 + Tramp through a swamp, 112 + Treaty of June 16, 1820, 81 + Trunk of a tree fossilized, 396 + Turtle River, 131 + + + U + + Ultimate point reached by the first expedition, 132 + Unio, 167, 517 + Unio food for the wild duck, 234 + Unio Schoolcraftensis, 181 + Upper Red Cedar Lake, 130 + Uva ursi, 88 + + + V + + Vaccination of Indians, 574 + Valley of Taquimenon, 537 + Valley of the St. Croix, 332 + Valley of the St. Louis, 325 + Vast caldron in grauwackke, 103 + Verbs in the Algonquin, how changed to substantives, 482 + Vermilion canoe, 254 + Vesicular crumbling limestone, 60 + Vestiges of a wreck on Lake Michigan, 202 + View of Lake Huron, 51 + Views of skeptics on the Mosaical chronology, 407 + Virginia Island, 105 + Visit Niagara, its etymology, 41, 42 + Visit to Gen. Dodge at his residence, 567 + Visit to the locality of the great mass of copper on Lake Superior, 299 + Vitric boulders, 324 + Volcanic upheavals, 305 + Voyageurs hired not to drink spirits, and to keep the Sabbath, 268 + + + W + + War-party of Neenaba broken up, 553 + Water-worn agates on the lacustrine summit, 112 + Waughpekennota, 193 + White crystalline sand rock, 331 + White Rock, 52 + White springs of Ontario, 385 + Width of Sandy Lake River at its outlet, 226 + Width of the Mississippi at the outlet of Cass Lake, 227 + Winnebago idea of geology, 185 + Winonao laita, 164 + Wisconsin, 183, 333 + Wisconsin lead mines; + aspect of the country, 561 + Wolverine, 141 + + + Y + + Year 1820 opens with severe weather, 40 + Yellow River war-party, 549 + + + Z + + Zeolite, 87 + Zinc found in the Wisconsin mines, 565 + Zoned agate, 237 + Zoological objects inclosed in rock, or the solid parts of trees, + &c., 392 + Zoology, 408 + + + + + * * * * * * + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43693 *** |