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diff --git a/43711-0.txt b/43711-0.txt index 30cfeec..7918840 100644 --- a/43711-0.txt +++ b/43711-0.txt @@ -1,38 +1,4 @@ -Project Gutenberg's A History of Chinese Literature, by Herbert A. Giles - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A History of Chinese Literature - -Author: Herbert A. Giles - -Release Date: September 13, 2013 [EBook #43711] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF CHINESE LITERATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43711 *** Transcriber's Note @@ -136,7 +102,7 @@ CONTENTS I. POETRY--MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE 119 II. CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP 137 - _BOOK THE FOURTH--THE T’ANG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 600-900) + _BOOK THE FOURTH--THE T‘ANG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 600-900) I. POETRY 143 II. CLASSICAL AND GENERAL LITERATURE 189 @@ -168,7 +134,7 @@ CONTENTS (A.D. 1644-1900) I. THE “LIAO CHAI”--THE “HUNG LOU MÊNG” 337 - II. THE EMPERORS K’ANG HSI AND CH’IEN LUNG 385 + II. THE EMPERORS K‘ANG HSI AND CH’IEN LUNG 385 III. CLASSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--POETRY 391 IV. WALL LITERATURE--JOURNALISM--WIT AND HUMOUR--PROVERBS AND MAXIMS 425 @@ -269,7 +235,7 @@ allowing, among other things, for certain modifications of form brought about by the substitution of paper and a camel’s-hair brush for the bamboo tablet and stylus of old. The actual stages by which that point was reached are so far unknown to us. China has her Cadmus in the -person of a prehistoric individual named Ts’ang Chieh, who is said to +person of a prehistoric individual named Ts‘ang Chieh, who is said to have had four eyes, and to have taken the idea of a written language from the markings of birds’ claws upon the sand. Upon the achievement of his task the sky rained grain and evil spirits mourned by night. @@ -376,7 +342,7 @@ From the date of the foundation of the Hsia dynasty the throne of the empire was transmitted from father to son, and there were no more abdications in favour of virtuous sages. The fourth division of the Book of History deals with the decadence of the Hsia rulers and their -final displacement in B.C. 1766 by T’ang the Completer, founder of the +final displacement in B.C. 1766 by T‘ang the Completer, founder of the Shang dynasty. By B.C. 1122, the Shang sovereigns had similarly lapsed from the kingly qualities of their founder to even a lower level of degradation and vice. Then arose one of the purest and most venerated @@ -528,7 +494,7 @@ the front rank of scholarship know it by heart, and each separate piece has been searchingly examined, until the force of exegesis can no farther go. There is one famous line which runs, according to the accepted commentary, “The muddiness of the Ching river appears from -the (clearness of the) Wei river.” In 1790 the Emperor Ch’ien Lung, +the (clearness of the) Wei river.” In 1790 the Emperor Ch‘ien Lung, dissatisfied with this interpretation, sent a viceroy to examine the rivers. The latter reported that the Ching was really clear and the Wei muddy, so that the wording of the line must mean “The Ching river is @@ -872,7 +838,7 @@ Confucius. The following is an extract (Legge’s translation):-- Confucius said: “Formerly, along with Lao Tan, I was assisting at a burial in the village of Hsiang, and when we had got to the path the -sun was eclipsed. Lao Tan said to me, ‘Ch’iu, let the bier be stopped +sun was eclipsed. Lao Tan said to me, ‘Ch‘iu, let the bier be stopped on the left of the road; and then let us wail and wait till the eclipse pass away. When it is light again we will proceed.’ He said that this was the rule. When we had returned and completed the burial, I said @@ -905,7 +871,7 @@ the ceremonial observances of everyday life. [Sidenote: THE SPRING AND AUTUMN] We now come to the last of the Five Classics as at present constituted, -the _Ch’un Ch’iu_, or Spring and Autumn Annals. This is a chronological +the _Ch‘un Ch‘iu_, or Spring and Autumn Annals. This is a chronological record of the chief events in the State of Lu between the years B.C. 722-484, and is generally regarded as the work of Confucius, whose native State was Lu. The entries are of the briefest, and comprise @@ -915,9 +881,9 @@ and natural phenomena. The following are a few illustrative extracts:-- “In the 7th year of Duke Chao, in spring, the Northern Yen State made -peace with the Ch’i State. +peace with the Ch‘i State. -“In the 3rd month the Duke visited the Ch’u State. +“In the 3rd month the Duke visited the Ch‘u State. “In summer, on the _chia shên_ day of the 4th month (March 11th, B.C. 594), the sun was eclipsed. @@ -943,7 +909,7 @@ life-withering like autumn.” [Sidenote: THE TSO CHUAN] -Such is the _Ch’un Ch’iu_; and if that were all, it is difficult to say +Such is the _Ch‘un Ch‘iu_; and if that were all, it is difficult to say how the boast of Confucius could ever have been fulfilled. But it is not all; there is a saving clause. For bound up, so to speak, with the Spring and Autumn, and forming as it were an integral part of the work, @@ -981,18 +947,18 @@ although there was famine, it was not very severe.” Under the 12th year of Duke Hsüan the Spring and Autumn says-- -“In spring the ruler of the Ch’u State besieged the capital of the +“In spring the ruler of the Ch‘u State besieged the capital of the Chêng State.” Thereupon the _Tso Chuan_ adds a long account of the whole business, from which the following typical paragraph is extracted:-- “In the rout which followed, a war-chariot of the Chin State stuck in -a deep rut and could not get on. Thereupon a man of the Ch’u State +a deep rut and could not get on. Thereupon a man of the Ch‘u State advised the charioteer to take out the stand for arms. This eased it a little, but again the horses turned round. The man then advised that the flagstaff should be taken out and used as a lever, and at last the -chariot was extricated. ‘Ah,’ said the charioteer to the man of Ch’u, +chariot was extricated. ‘Ah,’ said the charioteer to the man of Ch‘u, ‘we don’t know so much about running away as the people of your worthy State.’” @@ -1004,7 +970,7 @@ regulated all things by music.” Also that “the superior man will not listen to lascivious or seductive airs;” “he addresses himself to his lute in order to regulate his conduct, and not to delight his heart.” -When the rabid old anti-foreign tutor of the late Emperor T’ung Chih +When the rabid old anti-foreign tutor of the late Emperor T‘ung Chih was denouncing the barbarians, and expressing a kindly desire to “sleep on their skins,” he was quoting the phraseology of the _Tso Chuan_. @@ -1035,7 +1001,7 @@ doggerel found in the _Tso Chuan_:-- and for days every Chinaman was muttering the refrain-- “_Yü sai, yü sai - Ch’i chia fu lai._” + Ch‘i chia fu lai._” [Sidenote: KU-LIANG AND KUNG-YANG] @@ -1101,9 +1067,9 @@ different from the story told by Tso in reference to the same passage:-- _Text._--“In summer, in the 5th month, the Sung State made peace with -the Ch’u State. +the Ch‘u State. -“In B.C. 587 King Chuang of Ch’u was besieging the capital of +“In B.C. 587 King Chuang of Ch‘u was besieging the capital of Sung. He had only rations for seven days, and if these were exhausted before he could take the city, he meant to withdraw. He therefore sent his general to climb the ramparts and spy out the condition of @@ -1124,7 +1090,7 @@ and retired to report to his master. The latter said, ‘We must now capture the city before we withdraw.’ ‘Not so,’ replied the general; ‘I told the officer we had only rations for seven days.’ King Chuang was greatly enraged at this; but the general said, ‘If a small State like -Sung has officers who speak the truth, should not the State of Ch’u +Sung has officers who speak the truth, should not the State of Ch‘u have such men also?’ The king still wished to remain, but the general threatened to leave him, and thus peace was brought about between the two States.” @@ -1279,15 +1245,15 @@ changed her dwelling; this time to a house near a college, where he soon began to imitate the ceremonial observances in which the students were instructed, to the great joy and satisfaction of his mother. -Later on he studied under K’ung Chi, the grandson of Confucius; and +Later on he studied under K‘ung Chi, the grandson of Confucius; and after having attained to a perfect apprehension of the roms or Way of Confucius, became, at the age of about forty-five, Minister under -Prince Hsüan of the Ch’i State. But the latter would not carry out his +Prince Hsüan of the Ch‘i State. But the latter would not carry out his principles, and Mencius threw up his post. Thence he wandered away to several States, advising their rulers to the best of his ability, but making no very prolonged stay. He then visited Prince Hui of the Liang State, and abode there until the monarch’s death in B.C. 319. -After that event he returned to the State of Ch’i and resumed his old +After that event he returned to the State of Ch‘i and resumed his old position. In B.C. 311 he once more felt himself constrained to resign office, and retired finally into private life, occupying himself during the remainder of his days in teaching and in preparing @@ -1297,7 +1263,7 @@ of federation and imperialism, and he vainly tried to put into practice at an epoch of blood and iron the gentle virtues of the Golden Age. His criterion was that of Confucius, but his teachings were on a lower plane, dealing rather with man’s well-being from the point of view -of political economy. He was therefore justly named by Chao Ch’i the +of political economy. He was therefore justly named by Chao Ch‘i the Second Holy One or Prophet, a title under which he is still known. He was an uncompromising defender of the doctrines of Confucius, and he is considered to have effectually “snuffed out” the heterodox schools @@ -1465,7 +1431,7 @@ One more short treatise, known as the _Chung Yung_, which forms Ch. xxviii. of the Book of Rites, brings us to the end of the Four Books. Its title has been translated in various ways.[2] Julien rendered the term by “L’Invariable Milieu,” Legge by “The Doctrine of the Mean.” Its -authorship is assigned to K’UNG CHI, grandson of Confucius. +authorship is assigned to K‘UNG CHI, grandson of Confucius. He seems to have done little more than enlarge upon certain general principles of his grandfather in relation to the nature of man and right conduct upon earth. He seizes the occasion to pronounce an @@ -1547,19 +1513,19 @@ The _Erh Ya_, or Nearing the Standard, is a work which has often been assigned to the 12th century B.C. It is a guide to the correct use of many miscellaneous terms, including names of animals, birds, plants, etc., to which are added numerous illustrations. It was first -edited with commentary by Kuo P’o, of whom we shall read later on, and +edited with commentary by Kuo P‘o, of whom we shall read later on, and some Chinese critics would have us believe that the illustrations we now possess were then already in existence. But the whole question is involved in mystery. The following will give an idea of the text:-- -“For metal we say _lou_ (to chase); for wood _k’o_ (to carve); for bone -_ch’ieh_ (to cut),” etc., etc. +“For metal we say _lou_ (to chase); for wood _k‘o_ (to carve); for bone +_ch‘ieh_ (to cut),” etc., etc. * * * * * -[Sidenote: T’AN KUNG] +[Sidenote: T‘AN KUNG] -There are some interesting remains of a writer named T’AN KUNG, who +There are some interesting remains of a writer named T‘AN KUNG, who flourished in the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., and whose work has been included in the Book of Rites. The three following extracts will give an idea of his scope:-- @@ -1605,7 +1571,7 @@ contingency can be avoided altogether, I am willing; if not, then the duty will devolve upon you two.’ From that time forth the custom fell into desuetude.” -3. “When Confucius was crossing the T’ai mountain, he overheard a +3. “When Confucius was crossing the T‘ai mountain, he overheard a woman weeping and wailing beside a grave. He thereupon sent one of his disciples to ask what was the matter; and the latter addressed the woman, saying, ‘Some great sorrow must have come upon you that @@ -1670,14 +1636,14 @@ who died A.D. 256. There appears to have been an older work under this same title, but how far the later work is indebted to it, or based upon it, seems likely to remain unknown. -Another discredited work is the _Lü Shih Ch’un Ch’iu_, or Spring and +Another discredited work is the _Lü Shih Ch‘un Ch‘iu_, or Spring and Autumn of LÜ PU-WEI, who died B.C. 235 and was the putative sire of the First Emperor (see ch. vii.). It contains a great deal about the early history of China, some of which is no doubt based upon fact. -[Sidenote: MU T’IEN TZŬ CHUAN] +[Sidenote: MU T‘IEN TZŬ CHUAN] -Lastly, among spurious books may be mentioned the MU T’IEN TZŬ +Lastly, among spurious books may be mentioned the MU T‘IEN TZŬ CHUAN, an account of a mythical journey by a sovereign of the Chou dynasty, supposed to have been taken about 1000 B.C. The sovereign is unfortunately spoken of by his posthumous title, and the @@ -1704,7 +1670,7 @@ no law.” And again, “The men of old reckoned it the highest excellence in poetry that the meaning should lie beyond the words, and that the reader should have to think it out.” Of these three canons only the last can be said to have survived to the present day. But in the fourth -century B.C., Ch’ü Yüan and his school indulged in wild irregular +century B.C., Ch‘ü Yüan and his school indulged in wild irregular metres which consorted well with their wild irregular thoughts. Their poetry was prose run mad. It was allusive and allegorical to a high degree, and now, but for the commentary, much of it would be quite @@ -1736,20 +1702,20 @@ Overwhelmed by further disappointments, and sinking still more deeply into disfavour, so that he cared no longer to live, he went forth to the banks of the Mi-lo river. There he met a fisherman who accosted him, saying, “Are you not his Excellency the Minister? What has brought -you to this pass?” “The world,” replied Ch’ü Yüan, “is foul, and I +you to this pass?” “The world,” replied Ch‘ü Yüan, “is foul, and I alone am clean. There they are all drunk, while I alone am sober. So I am dismissed.” “Ah!” said the fisherman, “the true sage does not quarrel with his environment, but adapts himself to it. If, as you say, the world is foul, why not leap into the tide and make it clean? If all men are drunk, why not drink with them and teach them to avoid excess?” After some further colloquy, the fisherman rowed away; and -Ch’ü Yüan, clasping a large stone in his arms, plunged into the river +Ch‘ü Yüan, clasping a large stone in his arms, plunged into the river and was seen no more. This took place on the fifth of the fifth moon; -and ever afterwards the people of Ch’u commemorated the day by an +and ever afterwards the people of Ch‘u commemorated the day by an annual festival, when offerings of rice in bamboo tubes were cast into the river as a sacrifice to the spirit of their great hero. Such is the origin of the modern Dragon-Boat Festival, which is supposed to be a -search for the body of Ch’ü Yüan. +search for the body of Ch‘ü Yüan. A good specimen of his style will be found in the following short poem, entitled “The Genius of the Mountain.” It is one of “nine songs” which, @@ -1787,7 +1753,7 @@ cannot lay my grief.” [Sidenote: SUNG YÜ] Another leading poet of the day was SUNG YÜ, of whom we know -little beyond the fact that he was nephew of Ch’ü Yüan, and like his +little beyond the fact that he was nephew of Ch‘ü Yüan, and like his uncle both a statesman and a poet. The following extract exhibits him in a mood not far removed from the lamentations of the _Li Sao_:-- @@ -1851,7 +1817,7 @@ happiness of those halcyon days:-- It seems to have been customary in early days to attach inscriptions, poetical and otherwise, to all sorts of articles for daily use. On -the bath-tub of T’ang, founder of the Shang dynasty in B.C. +the bath-tub of T‘ang, founder of the Shang dynasty in B.C. 1766, there was said to have been written these words:--“If any one on any one day can make a new man of himself, let him do so every day.” Similarly, an old metal mirror bore as its legend, “Man combs his hair @@ -1902,12 +1868,12 @@ Lao Tzŭ was born, according to the weight of evidence, in the year B.C. 604. Omitting all reference to the supernatural phenomena which attended his birth and early years, it only remains to say that we really know next to nothing about him. There is a short biography -of Lao Tzŭ to be found in the history of Ssŭ-ma Ch’ien, to be dealt +of Lao Tzŭ to be found in the history of Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien, to be dealt with in Book II., chapter iii., but internal evidence points to embroidery laid on by other hands. Just as it was deemed necessary by pious enthusiasts to interpolate in the work of Josephus a passage referring to Christ, so it would appear that the original note by -Ssŭ-ma Ch’ien has been carefully touched up to suit the requirements +Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien has been carefully touched up to suit the requirements of an unauthenticated meeting between Lao Tzŭ and Confucius, which has been inserted very much _à propos de bottes_; the more so, as Confucius is made to visit Lao Tzŭ with a view to information on Rites, a subject @@ -1921,14 +1887,14 @@ you to write a book for me.’ Thereupon Lao Tzŭ wrote a book, in two parts, on Tao and Tê,[3] extending to over 5000 words. He then went away, and no one knows where he died.” -It is clear from Ssŭ-ma Ch’ien’s account that he himself had never seen +It is clear from Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien’s account that he himself had never seen the book, though a dwindling minority still believe that we possess that book in the well-known _Tao-Tê-Ching_. It must now be stated that throughout what are generally believed to be the writings of Confucius the name of Lao Tzŭ is never once mentioned.[4] It is not mentioned by Tso of the famous commentary, nor -by the editors of the Confucian Analects, nor by Tsêng Ts’an, nor by +by the editors of the Confucian Analects, nor by Tsêng Ts‘an, nor by Mencius. Chuang Tzŭ, who devoted all his energies to the exposition and enforcement of the teaching of Lao Tzŭ, never once drops even a hint that his Master had written a book. In his work will now be found an @@ -2008,7 +1974,7 @@ appreciation of this elusive Tao. CHUANG TZŬ was born in the fourth century B.C., and held a petty official post. “He wrote,” says the historian Ssŭ-ma -Ch’ien, “with a view to asperse the Confucian school and to glorify the +Ch‘ien, “with a view to asperse the Confucian school and to glorify the mysteries of Lao Tzŭ.... His teachings are like an overwhelming flood, which spreads at its own sweet will. Consequently, from rulers and ministers downwards, none could apply them to any definite use.” @@ -2170,7 +2136,7 @@ its right had already stuck fast, so it shrank back and begged to be excused. It then described the sea, saying, ‘A thousand _li_ would not measure its breadth, nor a thousand fathoms its depth. In the days of the Great Yü, there were nine years of flood out of ten; but -this did not add to its bulk. In the days of T’ang, there were seven +this did not add to its bulk. In the days of T‘ang, there were seven years out of eight of drought; but this did not narrow its span. Not to be affected by duration of time, not to be affected by volume of water,--such is the great happiness of the eastern sea.’ @@ -2181,12 +2147,12 @@ positive-negative domain, to attempt to understand me, Chuang Tzŭ, is like a mosquito trying to carry a mountain, or an ant to swim a river,--they cannot succeed.” -(3.) “Chuang Tzŭ was fishing in the P’u when the prince of Ch’u sent +(3.) “Chuang Tzŭ was fishing in the P‘u when the prince of Ch‘u sent two high officials to ask him to take charge of the administration of -the Ch’u State. +the Ch‘u State. “Chuang Tzŭ went on fishing, and without turning his head said, ‘I -have heard that in Ch’u there is a sacred tortoise which has been dead +have heard that in Ch‘u there is a sacred tortoise which has been dead now some three thousand years. And that the prince keeps this tortoise carefully enclosed in a chest on the altar of his ancestral temple. Now would this tortoise rather be dead, and have its remains venerated, or @@ -2410,11 +2376,11 @@ their wall, and then we will renew the attack.” This noble behaviour so delighted the enemy that they tendered allegiance on the spot. Lao Tzŭ said, “Do not value the man, value his abilities.” Whereupon -Huai-nan Tzŭ tells a story of a general of the Ch’u State who was fond +Huai-nan Tzŭ tells a story of a general of the Ch‘u State who was fond of surrounding himself with men of ability, and once even went so far as to engage a man who represented himself as a master-thief. His retainers were aghast; but shortly afterwards their State was attacked -by the Ch’i State, and then, when fortune was adverse and all was on +by the Ch‘i State, and then, when fortune was adverse and all was on the point of being lost, the master-thief begged to be allowed to try his skill. He went by night into the enemy’s camp, and stole their general’s bed-curtain. This was returned next morning with a message @@ -2423,7 +2389,7 @@ The same night our master-thief stole the general’s pillow, which was restored with a similar message; and the following night he stole the long pin used to secure the hair. “Good heavens!” cried the general at a council of war, “they will have my head next.” Upon which the army of -the Ch’i State was withdrawn. +the Ch‘i State was withdrawn. Among passages of general interest the following may well be quoted:-- @@ -2474,7 +2440,7 @@ period upon which we are now about to enter. The feudal spirit had long since declined, and the bond between suzerain and vassal had grown weaker and weaker until at length it had ceased to exist. Then came the opportunity and the man. The ruler of -the powerful State of Ch’in, after gradually vanquishing and absorbing +the powerful State of Ch‘in, after gradually vanquishing and absorbing such of the other rival States as had not already been swallowed up by his own State, found himself in B.C. 221 master of the whole of China, and forthwith proclaimed himself its Emperor. The Chou @@ -2491,7 +2457,7 @@ held the bird fast. ‘If it doesn’t rain to-day or to-morrow,’ cried the oyster-catcher, ‘there will be a dead mussel.’ ‘And if you don’t get out of this by to-day or to-morrow,’ retorted the mussel, ‘there will be a dead oyster-catcher.’ Meanwhile up came a fisherman and carried -off both of them. I fear lest the Ch’in State should be our fisherman.” +off both of them. I fear lest the Ch‘in State should be our fisherman.” [Sidenote: LI SSŬ] @@ -2523,7 +2489,7 @@ proscription of nobles and others from rival States:-- “As broad acres yield large crops, so for a nation to be great there should be a great population; and for soldiers to be daring their -generals should be brave. Not a single clod was added to T’ai-shan +generals should be brave. Not a single clod was added to T‘ai-shan in vain: hence the huge mountain we now behold. The merest streamlet is received into the bosom of Ocean: hence the Ocean’s unfathomable expanse. And wise and virtuous is the ruler who scorns not the masses @@ -2542,17 +2508,17 @@ effort was made to undo at least some of the mischief sustained by the national literature. An extra impetus was given to this movement by the fact that under the First Emperor, if we can believe tradition, the materials of writing had undergone a radical change. A general, -named Mêng T’ien, added to the triumphs of the sword the invention of +named Mêng T‘ien, added to the triumphs of the sword the invention of the camel’s-hair brush, which the Chinese use as a pen. The clumsy bamboo tablet and stylus were discarded, and strips of cloth or silk came into general use, and were so employed until the first century -A.D., when paper was invented by Ts’ai Lun. Some say that +A.D., when paper was invented by Ts‘ai Lun. Some say that brickdust and water did duty at first for ink. However that may be, the form of the written character underwent a corresponding change to suit the materials employed. Meanwhile, books were brought out of their hiding-places, and scholars -like K’UNG AN-KUO, a descendant of Confucius in the twelfth +like K‘UNG AN-KUO, a descendant of Confucius in the twelfth degree, set to work to restore the lost classics. He deciphered the text of the Book of History, which had been discovered when pulling down the old house where Confucius once lived, and transcribed large @@ -2660,7 +2626,7 @@ gods weep, and that it cannot possibly have come from any other hand save that of Li Ling. With this verdict the foreign student may well rest content. Here is the letter:-- -“O Tzŭ-ch’ing, O my friend, happy in the enjoyment of a glorious +“O Tzŭ-ch‘ing, O my friend, happy in the enjoyment of a glorious reputation, happy in the prospect of an imperishable name,--there is no misery like exile in a far-off foreign land, the heart brimful of longing thoughts of home! I have thy kindly letter, bidding me of good @@ -2675,7 +2641,7 @@ whole country is stiff with black ice. I hear naught but the moaning of the bitter autumn blast, beneath which all vegetation has disappeared. I cannot sleep at night. I turn and listen to the distant sound of Tartar pipes, to the whinnying of Tartar steeds. In the morning I sit -up and listen still, while tears course down my cheeks. O Tzŭ-ch’ing, +up and listen still, while tears course down my cheeks. O Tzŭ-ch‘ing, of what stuff am I, that I should do aught but grieve? The day of thy departure left me disconsolate indeed. I thought of my aged mother butchered upon the threshold of the grave. I thought of my innocent @@ -2699,7 +2665,7 @@ mistook my attitude for compliance, and urged me to a nobler course; ignorant that the joys of a foreign land are sources only of a keener grief. -“O Tzŭ-ch’ing, O my friend, I will complete the half-told record of +“O Tzŭ-ch‘ing, O my friend, I will complete the half-told record of my former tale. His late Majesty commissioned me, with five thousand infantry under my command, to carry on operations in a distant country. Five brother generals missed their way: I alone reached the theatre @@ -2734,17 +2700,17 @@ would have drawn off his forces. But a false traitor told him all: the battle was renewed, and we were lost. “The Emperor Kao Ti, with 300,000 men at his back, was shut up in -P’ing-ch’êng. Generals he had, like clouds; counsellors, like drops of +P‘ing-ch‘êng. Generals he had, like clouds; counsellors, like drops of rain. Yet he remained seven days without food, and then barely escaped with life. How much more then I, now blamed on all sides that I did -not die? This was my crime. But, O Tzŭ-ch’ing, canst thou say that I +not die? This was my crime. But, O Tzŭ-ch‘ing, canst thou say that I would live from craven fear of death? Am I one to turn my back on my country and all those dear to me, allured by sordid thoughts of gain? It was not indeed without cause that I did not elect to die. I longed, as explained in my former letter, to prove my loyalty to my prince. Rather than die to no purpose, I chose to live and to establish my good name. It was better to achieve something than to perish. Of old, Fan Li -did not slay himself after the battle of Hui-chi; neither did Ts’ao Mo +did not slay himself after the battle of Hui-chi; neither did Ts‘ao Mo die after the ignominy of three defeats. Revenge came at last; and thus I too had hoped to prevail. Why then was I overtaken with punishment before the plan was matured? Why were my own flesh and blood condemned @@ -2754,12 +2720,12 @@ face to Heaven, and beating my breast, shed tears of blood. “O my friend, thou sayest that the House of Han never fails to reward a deserving servant. But thou art thyself a servant of the House, and it would ill beseem thee to say other words than these. Yet Hsiao and Fan -were bound in chains; Han and P’êng were sliced to death; Ch’ao Ts’o +were bound in chains; Han and P‘êng were sliced to death; Ch‘ao Ts‘o was beheaded. Chou Po was disgraced, and Tou Ying paid the penalty with his life. Others, great in their generation, have also succumbed to the intrigues of base men, and have been overwhelmed beneath a weight of shame from which they were unable to emerge. And now, the misfortunes -of Fan Li and Ts’ao Mo command the sympathies of all. +of Fan Li and Ts‘ao Mo command the sympathies of all. “My grandfather filled heaven and earth with the fame of his exploits--the bravest of the brave. Yet, fearing the animosity of an @@ -2796,7 +2762,7 @@ must die like a dog in a barbarian land, who will be found to crook the back and bow the knee before an Imperial throne, where the bitter pens of courtiers tell their lying tales? -“O my friend, look for me no more. O Tzŭ-ch’ing, what shall I say? A +“O my friend, look for me no more. O Tzŭ-ch‘ing, what shall I say? A thousand leagues lie between us, and separate us for ever. I shall live out my life as it were in another sphere: my spirit will find its home among a strange people. Accept my last adieu. Speak for me to my old @@ -2829,7 +2795,7 @@ memorial:-- “Of the ten great follies of our predecessors, one still survives in the maladministration of justice which prevails. -“Under the Ch’ins learning was at a discount; brute force carried +“Under the Ch‘ins learning was at a discount; brute force carried everything before it. Those who cultivated a spirit of charity and duty towards their neighbour were despised. Judicial appointments were the prizes coveted by all. He who spoke out the truth was stigmatised @@ -2909,7 +2875,7 @@ some secret works on the black art, towards which his Majesty was much inclined. The results not proving successful, he was thrown into prison, but was soon released that he might carry on the publication of the commentary on the Spring and Autumn by Ku-liang. He also revised -and re-arranged the historical episodes known as the _Chan Kuo Ts’ê_, +and re-arranged the historical episodes known as the _Chan Kuo Ts‘ê_, wrote treatises on government and some poetry, and compiled Biographies of Eminent Women, the first work of its kind. @@ -2931,10 +2897,10 @@ A well-known figure in Chinese literature is YANG HSIUNG (B.C. and reading whatever he could lay his hands on. He stammered badly, and consequently gave much time to meditation. He propounded an ethical criterion occupying a middle place between those insisted -upon by Mencius and by Hsün K’uang, teaching that the nature of man +upon by Mencius and by Hsün K‘uang, teaching that the nature of man at birth is neither good nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that development in either direction depends wholly upon environment. In -glorification of the Book of Changes he wrote the _T’ai Hsüan Ching_, +glorification of the Book of Changes he wrote the _T‘ai Hsüan Ching_, and to emphasise the value of the Confucian Analects he produced a philosophical treatise known as the _Fa Yen_, both between A.D. 1 and 6. On completion of this last, his most famous work, a wealthy merchant @@ -2975,7 +2941,7 @@ learning in Confucian lore was profound, and he taught upwards of one thousand pupils. He introduced the system of printing notes or comments in the body of the page, using for that purpose smaller characters cut in double columns; and it was by a knowledge of this fact that a clever -critic of the T’ang dynasty was able to settle the spuriousness of an +critic of the T‘ang dynasty was able to settle the spuriousness of an early edition of the _Tao-Tê-Ching_ with double-column commentary, which had been attributed to Ho Shang Kung, a writer of the second century B.C. @@ -3035,7 +3001,7 @@ POETRY At the beginning of the second century B.C., poetry was still composed on the model of the _Li Sao_, and we are in possession of a number of works assigned to Chia I (B.C. 199-168), Tung-fang So (_b._ B.C. -160), Liu Hsiang, and others, all of which follow on the lines of Ch’ü +160), Liu Hsiang, and others, all of which follow on the lines of Ch‘ü Yüan’s great poem. But gradually, with the more definite establishment of what we may call classical influence, poets went back to find their exemplars in the Book of Poetry, which came as it were from the @@ -3243,11 +3209,11 @@ style of the Spring and Autumn. Since the Historical Record, every dynasty has had its historian, their works in all cases being formed upon the model bequeathed by Ssŭ-ma -Ch’ien. The Twenty-four Dynastic Histories of China were produced in +Ch‘ien. The Twenty-four Dynastic Histories of China were produced in 1747 in a uniform series bound up in 219 large volumes, and together show a record such as can be produced by no other country in the world. -The following are specimens of Ssŭ-ma Ch’ien’s style:-- +The following are specimens of Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien’s style:-- (1.) “When the House of Han arose, the evils of their predecessors had not passed away. Husbands still went off to the wars. The old and the @@ -3391,7 +3357,7 @@ effectually closed, so that not one of the workmen escaped. Trees and grass were then planted around, that the spot might look like the rest of the mountain.” -The history by Ssŭ-ma Ch’ien stops about 100 years before Christ. To +The history by Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien stops about 100 years before Christ. To carry it on from that point was the ambition of a scholar named Pan Piao (A.D. 3-54), but he died while still collecting materials for his task. His son, PAN KU, whose scholarship was extensive @@ -3457,7 +3423,7 @@ the seed had been sown, and a great rival to Taoism was about to appear on the scene. Towards the close of the second century A.D. another Indian -Buddhist, who had come to reside at Ch’ang-an in Shensi, translated +Buddhist, who had come to reside at Ch‘ang-an in Shensi, translated the _sûtra_ known as the Lotus of the Good Law, and Buddhist temples were built in various parts of China. By the beginning of the fourth century Chinese novices were taking the vows required for the Buddhist @@ -3615,7 +3581,7 @@ bringing with him 657 Buddhist books, besides many images and pictures and 150 relics. He spent the rest of his life translating these books, and also, like Fa Hsien, wrote a narrative of his travels. -This brings us down to the beginning of the T’ang dynasty, when +This brings us down to the beginning of the T‘ang dynasty, when Buddhism had acquired, in spite of much opposition and even persecution, what has since proved to be a lasting hold upon the masses of the Chinese people. @@ -3660,9 +3626,9 @@ shâstra tikâ_ of Nâgârdjuna. The following lines are by him:-- My heart, like running water, knows no peace. But bleeds and bleeds forever without cease._” -[Sidenote: K’UNG JUNG--WANG TS’AN] +[Sidenote: K‘UNG JUNG--WANG TS’AN] -There was K’UNG JUNG, a descendant of Confucius in the twentieth +There was K‘UNG JUNG, a descendant of Confucius in the twentieth degree, and a most precocious child. At ten years of age he went with his father to Lo-yang, where Li Ying, the Dragon statesman, was at the height of his political reputation. Unable from the press of visitors @@ -3671,11 +3637,11 @@ was a connection, and thus succeeded in getting in. When Li Ying asked him what the connection was, he replied, “My ancestor Confucius and your ancestor Lao Tzŭ were friends engaged in the quest for truth, so that you and I may be said to be of the same family.” Li Ying was -astonished, but Ch’ên Wei said, “Cleverness in youth does not mean -brilliancy in later life,” upon which K’ung Jung remarked, “You, sir, +astonished, but Ch‘ên Wei said, “Cleverness in youth does not mean +brilliancy in later life,” upon which K‘ung Jung remarked, “You, sir, must evidently have been very clever as a boy.” Entering official life, he rose to be Governor of Po-hai in Shantung; but he incurred the -displeasure of the great Ts’ao Ts’ao, and was put to death with all his +displeasure of the great Ts‘ao Ts‘ao, and was put to death with all his family. He was an open-hearted man, and fond of good company. “If my halls are full of guests,” he would say, “and my bottles full of wine, I am happy.” @@ -3717,7 +3683,7 @@ has been alleged, with more or less truth, that all Chinese poetry is pitched in the key of melancholy; that the favourite themes of Chinese poets are the transitory character of life with its partings and other ills, and the inevitable approach of death, with substitution of the -unknown for the known. Wang Ts’an had good cause for his lamentations. +unknown for the known. Wang Ts‘an had good cause for his lamentations. He was forced by political disturbances to leave his home at the capital and seek safety in flight. There, as he tells us, @@ -3761,14 +3727,14 @@ cut short, wrote a poem with a title which may be interpreted as “Regret that a Bucephalus should stand idle.” There was LIU CHÊNG, who was put to death for daring to cast an eye -upon one of the favourites of the great general Ts’ao Ts’ao, virtual +upon one of the favourites of the great general Ts‘ao Ts‘ao, virtual founder of the House of Wei. CH’ÊN LIN and YÜAN YÜ complete the tale. [Sidenote: TS’AO TS’AO] To these seven names an eighth and a ninth are added by courtesy: those of TS’AO TS’AO above mentioned, and of his third son, -Ts’ao Chih, the poet. The former played a remarkable part in Chinese +Ts‘ao Chih, the poet. The former played a remarkable part in Chinese history. His father had been adopted as son by the chief eunuch of the palace, and he himself was a wild young man much given to coursing and hawking. He managed, however, to graduate at the age of twenty, and, @@ -3797,15 +3763,15 @@ to the line:-- What will make us forget them? Wine, and only wine._” -After Ts’ao Ts’ao’s death came the epoch of the Three Kingdoms, the +After Ts‘ao Ts‘ao’s death came the epoch of the Three Kingdoms, the romantic story of which is told in the famous novel to be mentioned -later on. Ts’ao Ts’ao’s eldest son became the first Emperor of one of +later on. Ts‘ao Ts‘ao’s eldest son became the first Emperor of one of these, the Wei Kingdom, and TS’AO CHIH, the poet, occupied an awkward position at court, an object of suspicion and dislike. At ten years of age he already excelled in composition, so much so that his father thought he must be a plagiarist; but he settled the question by producing off-hand poems on any given theme. “If all the talent of -the world,” said a contemporary poet, “were represented by ten, Ts’ao +the world,” said a contemporary poet, “were represented by ten, Ts‘ao Chih would have eight, I should have one, and the rest of mankind one between them.” There is a story that on one occasion, at the bidding of his elder brother, probably with mischievous intent, he composed an @@ -3878,7 +3844,7 @@ the affairs of this world appeared but as so much duckweed on a river; while the two philanthropists at his side looked like two wasps trying to convert a caterpillar” (into a wasp, as the Chinese believe is done). -Another was HSI K’ANG, a handsome young man, seven feet seven +Another was HSI K‘ANG, a handsome young man, seven feet seven inches in height, who was married--a doubtful boon--into the Imperial family. His favourite study was alchemistic research, and he passed his days sitting under a willow-tree in his courtyard and experimenting @@ -3924,7 +3890,7 @@ the protection of the author in the troublous times during which he wrote. The sixth was WANG JUNG, who could look at the sun without -being dazzled, and lastly there was SHAN T’AO, a follower of +being dazzled, and lastly there was SHAN T‘AO, a follower of Taoist teachings, who was spoken of as “uncut jade” and as “gold ore.” Later on, in the fourth century, comes FU MI, of whom nothing @@ -3946,7 +3912,7 @@ is known beyond his verses, of which the following is a specimen:-- I would stand by thy side!_” We now reach a name which is still familiar to all students of poetry -in the Middle Kingdom. T’AO CH’IEN (A.D. 365-427), or T’ao Yüan-ming +in the Middle Kingdom. T‘AO CH’IEN (A.D. 365-427), or T‘ao Yüan-ming as he was called in early life, after a youth of poverty obtained an appointment as magistrate. But he was unfitted by nature for official life; all he wanted, to quote his own prayer, was “length of years and @@ -4001,7 +3967,7 @@ my song, or weave my verse beside the limpid brook. Thus will I work out my allotted span, content with the appointments of Fate, my spirit free from care.” -The “Peach-blossom Fountain” of Tao Ch’ien is a well-known and charming +The “Peach-blossom Fountain” of Tao Ch‘ien is a well-known and charming allegory, a form of literature much cultivated by Chinese writers. It tells how a fisherman lost his way among the creeks of a river, and came upon a dense and lovely grove of peach-trees in full bloom, @@ -4028,7 +3994,7 @@ the fisherman is never able to find it again. The gods had permitted the poet to go back for a brief span to the peach-blossom days of his youth. -One critic speaks of T’ao Ch’ien as “drunk with the fumes of spring.” +One critic speaks of T‘ao Ch‘ien as “drunk with the fumes of spring.” Another says, “His heart was fixed upon loyalty and duty, while his body was content with leisure and repose. His emotions were real, his scenery was real, his facts were real, and his thoughts were real. His @@ -4129,7 +4095,7 @@ conceit, and immediately wrote down the following:-- are blowing._” An official of the Sui dynasty was FU I (A.D. 554-639), who became -Historiographer under the first Emperor of the T’ang dynasty. He +Historiographer under the first Emperor of the T‘ang dynasty. He had a strong leaning towards Taoism, and edited the _Tao-Tê-Ching_. At the same time he presented a memorial asking that the Buddhist religion might be abolished; and when Hsiao Yü, a descendant of Hsiao @@ -4142,7 +4108,7 @@ adding that Hsiao Yü by defending their doctrines showed himself no better than they were. At this Hsiao Yü held up his hands, and declared that hell was made for such men as Fu I. The result was that severe restrictions were placed for a short time upon the teachers -of Buddhism. The Emperor T’ai Tsung once got hold of a Tartar priest +of Buddhism. The Emperor T‘ai Tsung once got hold of a Tartar priest who could “charm people into unconsciousness, and then charm them back to life again,” and spoke of his powers to Fu I. The latter said confidently, “He will not be able to charm me;” and when put to the @@ -4180,7 +4146,7 @@ when he came back, he was quite out of conceit with the empire, the government of which seemed to him but paltry trifling with knotted cords. -“Yüan Chi, T’ao Ch’ien,[11] and some others, about ten in all, made a +“Yüan Chi, T‘ao Ch‘ien,[11] and some others, about ten in all, made a trip together to Drunk-Land, and sank, never to rise again. They were buried where they fell, and now in the Middle Kingdom they are dubbed Spirits of Wine. @@ -4236,14 +4202,14 @@ his works on the Confucian Canon, and wrote on the _Erh Ya_. HSÜN HSÜ (_d._ A.D. 289) aided in drawing up a Penal Code for the newly-established Chin dynasty, took a leading part in editing the Bamboo Annals, which had just been discovered in Honan, provided a -preface to the _Mu T’ien Tzŭ Chuan_, and also wrote on music. +preface to the _Mu T‘ien Tzŭ Chuan_, and also wrote on music. KUO HSIANG (_d._ A.D. 312) occupied himself chiefly with the philosophy of Lao Tzŭ and with the writings of Chuang Tzŭ. It was said of him that his conversation was like the continuous downflow of a rapid, or the rush of water from a sluice. -KUO P’O (_d._ A.D. 324) was a scholar of great repute. Besides editing +KUO P‘O (_d._ A.D. 324) was a scholar of great repute. Besides editing various important classical works, he was a brilliant exponent of the doctrines of Taoism and the reputed founder of the art of geomancy as applied to graves, universally practised in China at the present day. @@ -4263,7 +4229,7 @@ Entering official life, he rose to high office, from which he retired in ill-health, loaded with honours. Personally, he was remarkable for having two pupils to his left eye. He was a strict teetotaller, and lived most austerely. He had a library of twenty thousand volumes. -He was the author of the histories of the Chin, Liu Sung, and Ch’i +He was the author of the histories of the Chin, Liu Sung, and Ch‘i dynasties. He is said to have been the first to classify the four tones. In his autobiography he writes, “The poets of old, during the past thousand years, never hit upon this plan. I alone discovered its @@ -4273,9 +4239,9 @@ whatever your Majesty pleases to make them,” replied Shên Yo, skilfully selecting for his answer four characters which illustrated, and in the usual order, the four tones in question. -[Sidenote: HSIAO T’UNG] +[Sidenote: HSIAO T‘UNG] -HSIAO T’UNG (A.D. 501-531) was the eldest son of Hsiao Yen, the +HSIAO T‘UNG (A.D. 501-531) was the eldest son of Hsiao Yen, the founder of the Liang dynasty, whom he predeceased. Before he was five years old he was reported to have learned the Classics by heart, and his later years were marked by great literary ability, notably in @@ -4315,7 +4281,7 @@ example. BOOK THE FOURTH -_THE T’ANG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 600-900) +_THE T‘ANG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 600-900) @@ -4327,7 +4293,7 @@ POETRY [Sidenote: POETRY] -The T’ang dynasty is usually associated in Chinese minds with much +The T‘ang dynasty is usually associated in Chinese minds with much romance of love and war, with wealth, culture, and refinement, with frivolity, extravagance, and dissipation, but most of all with poetry. China’s best efforts in this direction were chiefly produced @@ -4337,11 +4303,11 @@ generations. “Poetry,” says a modern Chinese critic, “came into being with the Odes, developed with the _Li Sao_, burst forth and reached perfection -under the T’angs. Some good work was indeed done under the Han and +under the T‘angs. Some good work was indeed done under the Han and Wei dynasties; the writers of those days seemed to have material in abundance, but language inadequate to its expression.” -The “Complete Collection of the Poetry of the T’ang Dynasty,” published +The “Complete Collection of the Poetry of the T‘ang Dynasty,” published in 1707, contains 48,900 poems of all kinds, arranged in 900 books, and filling thirty good-sized volumes. Some Chinese writers divide the dynasty into three poetical periods, called Early, Glorious, and @@ -4466,7 +4432,7 @@ A still more famous contemporary of his was CH’ÊN TZŬ-ANG (A.D. the notice of the public. He purchased a very expensive guitar which had been for a long time on sale, and then let it be known that on the following day he would perform upon it in public. This attracted a -large crowd; but when Ch’ên arrived he informed his auditors that he +large crowd; but when Ch‘ên arrived he informed his auditors that he had something in his pocket worth much more than the guitar. Thereupon he dashed the instrument into a thousand pieces, and forthwith began handing round copies of his own writings. Here is a sample, directed @@ -4491,9 +4457,9 @@ divinely-inspired teacher of the Confucian school:-- _Fools that ye are! In this ignoble light The true faith fades and passes out of sight._” -As an official, Ch’ên Tzŭ-ang once gained great _kudos_ by a truly +As an official, Ch‘ên Tzŭ-ang once gained great _kudos_ by a truly Solomonic decision. A man, having slain the murderer of his father, -was himself indicted for murder. Ch’ên Tzŭ-ang caused him to be put to +was himself indicted for murder. Ch‘ên Tzŭ-ang caused him to be put to death, but at the same time conferred an honorific distinction upon his village for having produced so filial a son. @@ -4585,10 +4551,10 @@ HAO, who graduated about A.D. 730. He wrote a poem on the Yellow-Crane pagoda which until quite recently stood on the bank of the Yang-tsze near Hankow, and was put up to mark -the spot where Wang Tzŭ-ch’iao, who had attained immortality, went up +the spot where Wang Tzŭ-ch‘iao, who had attained immortality, went up to heaven in broad daylight six centuries before the Christian era. The great Li Po once thought of writing on the theme, but he gave up the -idea so soon as he had read these lines by Ts’ui Hao:-- +idea so soon as he had read these lines by Ts‘ui Hao:-- “_Here a mortal once sailed up to heaven on a crane, @@ -4913,7 +4879,7 @@ offices of State. In 803 he presented a memorial protesting against certain extravagant honours with which the Emperor Hsien Tsung proposed to receive a bone of Buddha. The monarch was furious, and but for the intercession of friends it would have fared badly with the bold writer. -As it was, he was banished to Ch’ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung, where he +As it was, he was banished to Ch‘ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung, where he set himself to civilise the rude inhabitants of those wild parts. In a temple at the summit of the neighbouring range there is to be seen at this day a huge picture of the Prince of Literature, as he has been @@ -4932,9 +4898,9 @@ in rose-water. His writings, especially his essays, are often of the very highest order, leaving nothing to be desired either in originality or in style. But it is more than all for his pure and noble character, his calm and dignified patriotism, that the Chinese still keep his -memory green. The following lines were written by Su Tung-p’o, nearly +memory green. The following lines were written by Su Tung-p‘o, nearly 300 years after his death, for a shrine which had just been put up in -honour of the dead teacher by the people of Ch’ao-chou Fu:-- +honour of the dead teacher by the people of Ch‘ao-chou Fu:-- “_He rode on the dragon to the white cloud domain; He grasped with his hand the glory of the sky; @@ -5151,7 +5117,7 @@ poem of some length entitled “The Everlasting Wrong.” It refers to the ignominious downfall of the Emperor known as Ming Huang (A.D. 685-762), who himself deserves a passing notice. At his accession to the throne in 712, he was called upon to face an attempt on the -part of his aunt, the T’ai-p’ing Princess, to displace him; but this +part of his aunt, the T‘ai-p‘ing Princess, to displace him; but this he succeeded in crushing, and entered upon what promised to be a glorious reign. He began with economy, closing the silk factories and forbidding the palace ladies to wear jewels or embroideries, @@ -5172,7 +5138,7 @@ Eunuchs were appointed to official posts, and the grossest forms of religious superstition were encouraged. Women ceased to veil themselves as of old. Gradually the Emperor left off concerning himself with affairs of State; a serious rebellion broke out, and his Majesty sought -safety in flight to Ssŭch’uan, returning only after having abdicated +safety in flight to Ssŭch‘uan, returning only after having abdicated in favour of his son. The accompanying poem describes the rise of Yang Kuei-fei, her tragic fate at the hands of the soldiery, and her subsequent communication with her heart-broken lover from the world of @@ -5196,7 +5162,7 @@ shadows beyond the grave:-- And among the powder and paint of the harem her loveliness reigned supreme. In the chills of spring, by Imperial mandate, - she bathed in the Hua-ch’ing Pool, + she bathed in the Hua-ch‘ing Pool, Laving her body in the glassy wavelets of the fountain perennially warm. Then, when she came forth, helped by attendants, @@ -5274,8 +5240,8 @@ shadows beyond the grave:-- who reach the heights of Mount Omi; The bright gleam of the standards grows fainter day by day. - Dark the Ssŭch’uan waters, - dark the Ssŭch’uan hills; + Dark the Ssŭch‘uan waters, + dark the Ssŭch‘uan hills; Daily and nightly his Majesty is consumed by bitter grief. Travelling along, the very brightness @@ -5307,7 +5273,7 @@ shadows beyond the grave:-- In spring amid the flowers of the peach and plum, In autumn rains when the leaves - of the ~wu t’ung~ fall? + of the ~wu t‘ung~ fall? To the south of the western palace are many trees, And when their leaves cover the steps, @@ -5333,7 +5299,7 @@ shadows beyond the grave:-- But never once does her spirit come back to visit him in dreams._ - SPIRIT-LAND.--_A Taoist priest of Lin-ch’ung, + SPIRIT-LAND.--_A Taoist priest of Lin-ch‘ung, of the Hung-tu school, Was able, by his perfect art, to summon the spirits of the dead. @@ -5521,7 +5487,7 @@ he was ultimately taken up to heaven alive:-- Accept with philosophic calm whatever fate may be._” HSÜ AN-CHÊN, of the ninth century, is entitled to a place among the -T’ang poets, if only for the following piece:-- +T‘ang poets, if only for the following piece:-- “_When the Bear athwart was lying, And the night was just on dying, @@ -5544,7 +5510,7 @@ T’ang poets, if only for the following piece:-- And in dreamland pray to meet._” The following lines by TU CH’IN-NIANG, a poetess of the ninth century, -are included in a collection of 300 gems of the T’ang dynasty:-- +are included in a collection of 300 gems of the T‘ang dynasty:-- “_I would not have thee grudge those robes which gleam in rich array, @@ -5555,17 +5521,17 @@ are included in a collection of 300 gems of the T’ang dynasty:-- Alas! upon the withered stem no blooming flowers remain!_” -[Sidenote: SSŬ-K’UNG T’U] +[Sidenote: SSŬ-K‘UNG T‘U] It is time perhaps to bring to a close the long list, which might be -almost indefinitely lengthened. SSŬ-K’UNG T’U (A.D. 834-908) was a +almost indefinitely lengthened. SSŬ-K‘UNG T‘U (A.D. 834-908) was a secretary in the Board of Rites, but he threw up his post and became a hermit. Returning to Court in 905, he accidentally dropped part of his official insignia at an audience,--an unpardonable breach of Court etiquette,--and was allowed to retire once more to the hills, where he ultimately starved himself to death through grief at the murder of the youthful Emperor. He is commonly known as the Last of -the T’angs; his poetry, which is excessively difficult to understand, +the T‘angs; his poetry, which is excessively difficult to understand, ranking correspondingly high in the estimation of Chinese critics. The following philosophical poem, consisting of twenty-four apparently unconnected stanzas, is admirably adapted to exhibit the form under @@ -6054,10 +6020,10 @@ much medicine, that his grandmother insisted on naming him Po-yao sobriquet of the Prodigy. Entering upon a public career, he neglected his work for gaming and drink, and after a short spell of office he retired. Later on he rose once more, and completed the History of the -Northern Ch’i Dynasty. +Northern Ch‘i Dynasty. A descendant of Confucius in the thirty-second degree, and a -distinguished scholar and public functionary, was K’UNG YING-TA +distinguished scholar and public functionary, was K‘UNG YING-TA (574-648). He wrote a commentary on the Book of Odes, and is credited with certain portions of the History of the Sui Dynasty. Besides this, he is responsible for comments and glosses on the Great Learning and on @@ -6080,7 +6046,7 @@ answered within three days. CHANG CHIH-HO (eighth century), author of a work on the conservation of vitality, was of a romantic turn of mind and especially fond of Taoist speculations. He took office under the Emperor Su Tsung of the -T’ang dynasty, but got into some trouble and was banished. Soon after +T‘ang dynasty, but got into some trouble and was banished. Soon after this he shared in a general pardon; whereupon he fled to the woods and mountains and became a wandering recluse, calling himself the Old Fisherman of the Mists and Waters. He spent his time in angling, but @@ -6092,7 +6058,7 @@ a comfortable home instead of his poor boat, he replied, “I prefer to follow the gulls into cloudland, rather than to bury my eternal self beneath the dust of the world.” -The author of the _T’ung Tien_, an elaborate treatise on the +The author of the _T‘ung Tien_, an elaborate treatise on the constitution, still extant, was TU YU (_d._ 812). It is divided into eight sections under Political Economy, Examinations and Degrees, Government Offices, Rites, Music, Military Discipline, @@ -6128,7 +6094,7 @@ when I turn my gaze towards the hurry-scurry of the age, in its daily race for the seals and tassels of office, I ask myself if I am to reject those in order to take my place among the ranks of these. -“The Buddhist priest, Hao-ch’u, is a man of placid temperament and +“The Buddhist priest, Hao-ch‘u, is a man of placid temperament and of passions subdued. He is a fine scholar. His only joy is to muse o’er flood and fell, with occasional indulgence in the delights of composition. His family follow in the same path. He is independent of @@ -6485,11 +6451,11 @@ flakes scattered around. What sight more horrible than this!” * * * * * -[Sidenote: MEN OF T’ANG] +[Sidenote: MEN OF T‘ANG] The havoc wrought by the dreaded Tartars is indeed the theme of many a poem in prose as well as in verse. The following lines by CH’ÊN -T’AO, of about this date, record a patriotic oath of indignant +T‘AO, of about this date, record a patriotic oath of indignant volunteers and the mournful issue of fruitless valour:-- “_They swore the Huns should perish: they would die if needs they @@ -6498,7 +6464,7 @@ volunteers and the mournful issue of fruitless valour:-- Along the river-bank their bones lie scattered where they may, But still their forms in dreams arise to fair ones far away._” -Among their other glories, the T’angs may be said to have witnessed the +Among their other glories, the T‘angs may be said to have witnessed the birth of popular literature, soon to receive, in common with classical scholarship, an impetus the like of which had never yet been felt. @@ -6506,7 +6472,7 @@ But we must now take leave of this dynasty, the name of which has survived in common parlance to this day. For just as the northerners are proud to call themselves “sons of Han,” so do the Chinese of the more southern provinces still delight to be known as the “men of -T’ang.” +T‘ang.” @@ -6523,7 +6489,7 @@ CHAPTER I THE INVENTION OF BLOCK-PRINTING -The T’ang dynasty was brought to an end in 907, and during the +The T‘ang dynasty was brought to an end in 907, and during the succeeding fifty years the empire experienced no fewer than five separate dynastic changes. It was not a time favourable to literary effort; still production was not absolutely at a standstill, and some @@ -6552,7 +6518,7 @@ have appealed forcibly to the Tartar monarch, who at once appointed him grand tutor to the heir-apparent. By foreigners, on the other hand, he will be chiefly remembered as the inventor of the art of block-printing. It seems probable, indeed, that some crude form of this -invention had been already known early in the T’ang dynasty, but until +invention had been already known early in the T‘ang dynasty, but until the date of Fêng Tao it was certainly not applied to the production of books. Six years after his death the “fire-led” House of Sung was finally established upon the throne, and thenceforward the printing of @@ -6582,11 +6548,11 @@ HISTORY--CLASSICAL AND GENERAL LITERATURE [Sidenote: OU-YANG HSIU] The first move made in the department of history was nothing less than -to re-write the whole of the chronicles of the T’ang dynasty. The usual +to re-write the whole of the chronicles of the T‘ang dynasty. The usual scheme had already been carried out by Liu Hsü (897-946), a learned scholar of the later Chin dynasty, but on many grounds the result was pronounced unsatisfactory, and steps were taken to supersede it. The -execution of this project was entrusted to Ou-yang Hsiu and Sung Ch’i, +execution of this project was entrusted to Ou-yang Hsiu and Sung Ch‘i, both of whom were leading men in the world of letters. OU-YANG HSIU (1007-1072) had been brought up in poverty, his mother teaching him to write with a reed. By the time he was fifteen his great @@ -6602,7 +6568,7 @@ a specimen of his lighter work, greatly admired for the beauty of its style, and diligently read by all students of composition. The theme, as the reader will perceive, is the historian himself:-- -“The district of Ch’u is entirely surrounded by hills, and the peaks to +“The district of Ch‘u is entirely surrounded by hills, and the peaks to the south-west are clothed with a dense and beautiful growth of trees, over which the eye wanders in rapture away to the confines of Shantung. A walk of two or three miles on those hills brings one within earshot @@ -6631,7 +6597,7 @@ alway. Burden-carriers sing their way along the road, travellers rest awhile under the trees, shouts from one, responses from another, old people hobbling along, children in arms, children dragged along by hand, backwards and forwards all day long without a break,--these are -the people of Ch’u. A cast in the stream and a fine fish taken from +the people of Ch‘u. A cast in the stream and a fine fish taken from some spot where the eddying pools begin to deepen; a draught of cool wine from the fountain, and a few such dishes of meats and fruits as the hills are able to provide,--these, nicely spread out beforehand, @@ -6714,9 +6680,9 @@ brothers. He rose to high office, and was also a voluminous writer. A great favourite at Court, it is related that he was once at some Imperial festivity when he began to feel cold. The Emperor bade one of the ladies of the seraglio lend him a tippet, whereupon about a dozen -of the girls each offered hers. But Sung Ch’i did not like to seem +of the girls each offered hers. But Sung Ch‘i did not like to seem to favour any one, and rather than offend the rest, continued to sit -and shiver. The so-called New History of the T’ang Dynasty, which he +and shiver. The so-called New History of the T‘ang Dynasty, which he produced in co-operation with Ou-yang Hsiu, is generally regarded as a distinct improvement upon the work of Liu Hsü. It has not, however, actually superseded the latter work, which is still included among the @@ -6727,11 +6693,11 @@ recognised dynastic histories, and stands side by side with its rival. [Sidenote: SSŬ-MA KUANG] Meanwhile another star had risen, in magnitude to be compared only -with the effulgent genius of Ssŭ-ma Ch’ien. SSŬ-MA KUANG (1019-1086) +with the effulgent genius of Ssŭ-ma Ch‘ien. SSŬ-MA KUANG (1019-1086) entered upon an official career and rose to be Minister of State. But he opposed the great reformer, Wang An-shih, and in 1070 was compelled to resign. He devoted the rest of his life to the completion of his -famous work known as the _T’ung Chien_ or Mirror of History, a title +famous work known as the _T‘ung Chien_ or Mirror of History, a title bestowed upon it in 1084 by the Emperor, because “to view antiquity as it were in a mirror is an aid in the administration of government.” The Mirror of History covers a period from the fifth century B.C. down to @@ -6789,9 +6755,9 @@ by Chu Hsi. The following short satire, veiled under the symbolism of flowers, being in a style which the educated Chinaman most appreciates, is very widely known:-- -“Lovers of flowering plants and shrubs we have had by scores, but T’ao -Ch’ien alone devoted himself to the chrysanthemum. Since the opening -days of the T’ang dynasty, it has been fashionable to admire the peony; +“Lovers of flowering plants and shrubs we have had by scores, but T‘ao +Ch‘ien alone devoted himself to the chrysanthemum. Since the opening +days of the T‘ang dynasty, it has been fashionable to admire the peony; but my favourite is the water-lily. How stainless it rises from its slimy bed! How modestly it reposes on the clear pool--an emblem of purity and truth! Symmetrically perfect, its subtle perfume is wafted @@ -6803,7 +6769,7 @@ approach. culture; the peony the flower of rank and wealth; the water-lily, the Lady Virtue _sans pareille_. -“Alas! few have loved the chrysanthemum since T’ao Ch’ien, and none +“Alas! few have loved the chrysanthemum since T‘ao Ch‘ien, and none now love the water-lily like myself, whereas the peony is a general favourite with all mankind.” @@ -6813,7 +6779,7 @@ a valuable commentary upon the Book of Changes. The elder attracted some attention by boldly suppressing a stone image in a Buddhist temple which was said to emit rays from its head, and had been the cause of disorderly gatherings of men and women. A specimen of his verse will -be given in the next chapter. Ch’êng I wrote some interesting chapters +be given in the next chapter. Ch‘êng I wrote some interesting chapters on the art of poetry. In one of these he says, “Asked if a man can make himself a poet by taking pains, I reply that only by taking pains can any one hope to be ranked as such, though on the other hand the @@ -6895,7 +6861,7 @@ rife among us. Do you not agree with me?” [Sidenote: SU SHIH] SU SHIH (1036-1101), better known by his fancy name as Su -Tung-p’o, whose early education was superintended by his mother, +Tung-p‘o, whose early education was superintended by his mother, produced such excellent compositions at the examination for his final degree that the examiner, Ou-yang Hsiu, suspected them to be the work of a qualified substitute. Ultimately he came out first on the list. @@ -6937,13 +6903,13 @@ around us like a silken skein. The very monsters of the deep yielded to the influence of his strains, while the boatwoman, who had lost her husband, burst into a flood of tears. Overpowered by my own feelings, I settled myself into a serious mood, and asked my friend for some -explanation of his art. To this he replied, ‘Did not Ts’ao Ts’ao say-- +explanation of his art. To this he replied, ‘Did not Ts‘ao Ts‘ao say-- ‘_The stars are few, the moon is bright, The raven southward wings his flight?_’ -“‘Westwards to Hsia-k’ou, eastwards to Wu-ch’ang, where hill and -stream in wild luxuriance blend,--was it not there that Ts’ao Ts’ao +“‘Westwards to Hsia-k‘ou, eastwards to Wu-ch‘ang, where hill and +stream in wild luxuriance blend,--was it not there that Ts‘ao Ts‘ao was routed by Chou Yü? Ching-chou was at his feet: he was pushing down stream towards the east. His war-vessels stretched stem to stern for a thousand _li_: his banners darkened the sky. He poured out a libation @@ -7039,16 +7005,16 @@ His younger brother, SU CHÊ (1039-1112), poet and official, is chiefly known for his devotion to Taoism. He published an edition, with commentary, of the _Tao-Tê-Ching_. -[Sidenote: HUANG T’ING-CHIEN] +[Sidenote: HUANG T‘ING-CHIEN] -One of the Four Scholars of his century is HUANG T’ING-CHIEN +One of the Four Scholars of his century is HUANG T‘ING-CHIEN (1050-1110), who was distinguished as a poet and a calligraphist. He has also been placed among the twenty-four examples of filial piety, for when his mother was ill he watched by her bedside for a whole year without ever taking off his clothes. The following is a specimen of his epistolary style:-- -“Hsi K’ang’s verses are at once vigorous and purely beautiful, without +“Hsi K‘ang’s verses are at once vigorous and purely beautiful, without a vestige of commonplace about them. Every student of the poetic art should know them thoroughly, and thus bring the author into his mind’s eye. @@ -7080,7 +7046,7 @@ to an audience, and received an honorary post. He was then sent home to copy out his History of China, which covered a period from about B.C. 2800 to A.D. 600. A fine edition of this work, in forty-six large volumes, was published in 1749 by Imperial command, with a preface by -the Emperor Ch’ien Lung. He also wrote essays and poetry, besides a +the Emperor Ch‘ien Lung. He also wrote essays and poetry, besides a treatise in which he showed that the inscriptions on the Stone Drums, now in Peking, belong rather to the latter half of the third century B.C. than to the tenth or eleventh century B.C., as usually accepted. @@ -7096,7 +7062,7 @@ strong leaning towards Buddhism--some say that he actually became a Buddhist priest; at any rate, he soon saw the error of his ways, and gave himself up completely to a study of the orthodox doctrine. He was a most voluminous writer. In addition to his revision of the history -of Ssŭ-ma Kuang, which, under the title of _T’ung Chien Kang Mu_, is +of Ssŭ-ma Kuang, which, under the title of _T‘ung Chien Kang Mu_, is still regarded as the standard history of China, he placed himself first in the first rank of all commentators on the Confucian Canon. He introduced interpretations either wholly or partly at variance with @@ -7130,9 +7096,9 @@ adds a gloss to the effect that children are therefore in duty bound to take great care of themselves. In the preface to his work on the Four Books as explained by Chu -Hsi, published in 1745, Wang Pu-ch’ing (born 1671) has the following +Hsi, published in 1745, Wang Pu-ch‘ing (born 1671) has the following passage:--“Shao Yung tried to explain the Canon of Changes by numbers, -and Ch’êng I by the eternal fitness of things; but Chu Hsi alone +and Ch‘êng I by the eternal fitness of things; but Chu Hsi alone was able to pierce through the meaning, and appropriate the thought of the prophets who composed it.” The other best known works of Chu Hsi are a metaphysical treatise containing the essence of his later @@ -7195,29 +7161,29 @@ POETRY The poetry of the Sungs has not attracted so much attention as that -of the T’angs. This is chiefly due to the fact that although all +of the T‘angs. This is chiefly due to the fact that although all the literary men of the Sung dynasty may roughly be said to have contributed their quota of verse, still there were few, if any, who could be ranked as professional poets, that is, as writers of verse and of nothing else, like Li Po, Tu Fu, and many others under the -T’ang dynasty. Poetry now began to be, what it has remained in a +T‘ang dynasty. Poetry now began to be, what it has remained in a marked degree until the present day, a department of polite education, irrespective of the particle of the divine gale. More regard was paid to form, and the license which had been accorded to earlier masters was sacrificed to conventionality. The Odes collected by Confucius are, as we have seen, rude ballads of love, and war, and tilth, borne by their -very simplicity direct to the human heart. The poetry of the T’ang +very simplicity direct to the human heart. The poetry of the T‘ang dynasty shows a masterly combination, in which art, unseen, is employed to enhance, not to fetter and degrade, thoughts drawn from a veritable -communion with nature. With the fall of the T’ang dynasty the poetic +communion with nature. With the fall of the T‘ang dynasty the poetic art suffered a lapse from which it has never recovered; and now, in modern times, although every student “can turn a verse” because he has been “duly taught,” the poems produced disclose a naked artificiality which leaves the reader disappointed and cold. -[Sidenote: CH’ÊN T’UAN] +[Sidenote: CH’ÊN T‘UAN] -The poet CH’ÊN T’UAN (_d._ A.D. 989) began life under favourable +The poet CH’ÊN T‘UAN (_d._ A.D. 989) began life under favourable auspices. He was suckled by a mysterious lady in a green robe, who found him playing as a tiny child on the bank of a river. He became, in consequence of this supernatural nourishment, exceedingly clever and @@ -7306,7 +7272,7 @@ account of a _nuit blanche_, an excellent example of the difficult Sweet shapes of flowers across the blind the quivering moonbeams fling!_” -Here, too, is a short poem by the classical scholar, Huang T’ing-chien, +Here, too, is a short poem by the classical scholar, Huang T‘ing-chien, written on the annual visit for worship at the tombs of ancestors, in full view of the hillside cemetery:-- @@ -7327,7 +7293,7 @@ full view of the hillside cemetery:-- Where fool and hero, joined in death, beneath the brambles rot?_” -The grave student Ch’êng Hao wrote verses like the rest. Sometimes he +The grave student Ch‘êng Hao wrote verses like the rest. Sometimes he even condescended to jest:-- “_I wander north, I wander south, @@ -7419,16 +7385,16 @@ fact that there is little evidence forthcoming that such a system ever prevailed has only resulted in stimulating invention and forgery. A clever courtier, popularly known as “the nine-tailed fox,” was CH’ÊN -P’ÊNG-NIEN (A.D. 961--1017), who rose to be a Minister of State. He +P‘ÊNG-NIEN (A.D. 961--1017), who rose to be a Minister of State. He was employed to revise the _Kuang Yün_, a phonetic dictionary by some unknown author, which contained over 26,000 separate characters. This work was to a great extent superseded by the _Chi Yün_, on a similar plan, but containing over 53,000 characters. The latter was produced by -Sung Ch’i, mentioned in chap. iii., in conjunction with several eminent +Sung Ch‘i, mentioned in chap. iii., in conjunction with several eminent scholars. -TAI T’UNG graduated in 1237 and rose to be Governor of -T’ai-chou in Chehkiang. Then the Mongols prevailed, and Tai T’ung, +TAI T‘UNG graduated in 1237 and rose to be Governor of +T‘ai-chou in Chehkiang. Then the Mongols prevailed, and Tai T‘ung, unwilling to serve them, pleaded ill-health, and in 1275 retired into private life. There he occupied himself with the composition of the _Liu Shu Ku_ or Six Scripts, an examination into the origin and @@ -7450,7 +7416,7 @@ natural history, arranged, for want of an alphabet, under categories. It is curiously written in the poetical-prose style, and forms the foundation of a similar book of reference in use at the present day. Wu Shu was placed upon the commission which produced a much more -extensive work known as the _T’ai P’ing Yü Lan_. At the head of that +extensive work known as the _T‘ai P‘ing Yü Lan_. At the head of that commission was LI FANG (A.D. 924--995), a Minister of State and a great favourite with the Emperor. In the last year of his life he was invited to witness the Feast of Lanterns from the palace. On that occasion the @@ -7458,13 +7424,13 @@ Emperor placed Li beside him, and after pouring out for him a goblet of wine and supplying him with various delicacies, he turned to his courtiers and said, “Li Fang has twice served us as Minister of State, yet has he never in any way injured a single fellow-creature. Truly -this must be a virtuous man.” The _T’ai P’ing Yü Lan_ was reprinted +this must be a virtuous man.” The _T‘ai P‘ing Yü Lan_ was reprinted in 1812, and is bound up in thirty-two large volumes. It was so named because the Emperor himself went through all the manuscript, a task which occupied him nearly a year. A list of about eight hundred authorities is given, and the Index fills four hundred pages. -As a pendant to this work Li Fang designed the _T’ai P’ing Kuang Chi_, +As a pendant to this work Li Fang designed the _T‘ai P‘ing Kuang Chi_, an encyclopædia of biographical and other information drawn from general literature. A list of about three hundred and sixty authorities is given, and the Index fills two hundred and eighty pages. The edition @@ -7479,8 +7445,8 @@ and death are not known, but he flourished in the thirteenth century. Upon the collapse of the Sung dynasty he disappeared from public life, and taking refuge in his native place, he gave himself up to teaching, attracting many disciples from far and near, and fascinating all by -his untiring dialectic skill. He left behind him the _Wên Hsien T’ung -K’ao_, a large encyclopædia based upon the _T’ung Tien_ of Tu Yu, but +his untiring dialectic skill. He left behind him the _Wên Hsien T‘ung +K‘ao_, a large encyclopædia based upon the _T‘ung Tien_ of Tu Yu, but much enlarged and supplemented by five additional sections, namely, Bibliography, Imperial Lineage, Appointments, Uranography, and Natural Phenomena. This work, which cost its author twenty years of unremitting @@ -7507,7 +7473,7 @@ be sufficient to determine its real value:-- number of days it takes the heavens to revolve. “The skull of a male, from the nape of the neck to the top of the -head, consists of eight pieces--of a Ts’ai-chou man, nine. There is a +head, consists of eight pieces--of a Ts‘ai-chou man, nine. There is a horizontal suture across the back of the skull, and a perpendicular one down the middle. Female skulls are of six pieces, and have the horizontal but not the perpendicular suture. @@ -7599,13 +7565,13 @@ and despairing of his country, took upon his back the boy-Emperor, the last of the Sungs, and jumped from his doomed vessel into the river, thus bringing the great fire-led dynasty to an end. -[Sidenote: WÊN T’IEN-HSIANG] +[Sidenote: WÊN T‘IEN-HSIANG] Kublai Khan, who was a confirmed Buddhist, paid great honour to Confucius, and was a steady patron of literature. In 1269 he caused Bashpa, a Tibetan priest, to construct an alphabet for the Mongol language; in 1280 the calendar was revised; and in 1287 the Imperial -Academy was opened. But he could not forgive WÊN T’IEN-HSIANG +Academy was opened. But he could not forgive WÊN T‘IEN-HSIANG (1236-1283), the renowned patriot and scholar, who had fought so bravely but unsuccessfully against him. In 1279 the latter was conveyed to Peking, on which journey he passed eight days without eating. @@ -7613,11 +7579,11 @@ Every effort was made to induce him to own allegiance to the Mongol Emperor, but without success. He was kept in prison for three years. At length he was summoned into the presence of Kublai Khan, who said to him, “What is it you want?” “By the grace of the Sung Emperor,” Wên -T’ien-hsiang replied, “I became his Majesty’s Minister. I cannot serve +T‘ien-hsiang replied, “I became his Majesty’s Minister. I cannot serve two masters. I only ask to die.” Accordingly he was executed, meeting his death with composure, and making a final obeisance southwards, as though his own sovereign was still reigning in his own capital. The -following poem was written by Wên T’ien-hsiang while in captivity:-- +following poem was written by Wên T‘ien-hsiang while in captivity:-- “There is in the universe an Aura which permeates all things and makes them what they are. Below, it shapes forth land and water; above, the @@ -7664,7 +7630,7 @@ it is clear that the supremest efforts in literature move even the gods, and that it is not the verses of Tu Fu alone which can prevail against malarial fever.” -At the final examination for his degree in 1256, Wên T’ien-hsiang had +At the final examination for his degree in 1256, Wên T‘ien-hsiang had been placed seventh on the list. However, the then Emperor, on looking over the papers of the candidates before the result was announced, was immensely struck by his work, and sent for the grand examiner @@ -7672,7 +7638,7 @@ to reconsider the order of merit. “This essay,” said his Majesty, “shows us the moral code of the ancients as in a mirror; it betokens a loyalty enduring as iron and stone.” The grand examiner readily admitted the justice of the Emperor’s criticism, and when the list -was published, the name of Wên T’ien-hsiang stood first. The fame of +was published, the name of Wên T‘ien-hsiang stood first. The fame of that examiner, WANG YING-LIN (1223-1296), is likely to last for a long time to come. Not because of his association with one of China’s greatest patriots, nor because of his voluminous contributions @@ -7688,7 +7654,7 @@ Written in lines of three characters to each, and being in doggerel rhyme, it is easily committed to memory, and is known by heart by every Chinaman who has learnt to read. This Three Character Classic, as it is called, has been imitated by Christian missionaries, Protestant and -Catholic; and even the T’ai-p’ing rebels, alive to its far-reaching +Catholic; and even the T‘ai-p‘ing rebels, alive to its far-reaching influence, published an imitation of their own. Here are a few specimen lines, rhymed to match the original:-- @@ -7749,7 +7715,7 @@ perfection; if not, to destruction.” A considerable amount of poetry was produced under the Mongol sway, though not so much proportionately, nor of such a high order, as under -the great native dynasties. The Emperor Ch’ien Lung published in 1787 a +the great native dynasties. The Emperor Ch‘ien Lung published in 1787 a collection of specimens of the poetry of this Yüan dynasty. They fill eight large volumes, but are not much read. @@ -7782,7 +7748,7 @@ Here too is an oft-quoted stanza, to be found in any poetry primer:-- The prose writings of Liu Chi are much admired for their pure style, which has been said to “smell of antiquity.” One piece tells how a -certain noble who had lost all by the fall of the Ch’in dynasty, +certain noble who had lost all by the fall of the Ch‘in dynasty, B.C. 206, and was forced to grow melons for a living, had recourse to divination, and went to consult a famous augur on his prospects. @@ -7888,7 +7854,7 @@ an ordinary accompaniment to religious and other ceremonies, and that this continued for many centuries. Towards the middle of the eighth century, A.D., the Emperor -Ming Huang of the T’ang dynasty, being exceedingly fond of music, +Ming Huang of the T‘ang dynasty, being exceedingly fond of music, established a College, known as the Pear-Garden, for training some three hundred young people of both sexes. There is a legend that this College was the outcome of a visit paid by his Majesty to the @@ -7907,7 +7873,7 @@ in China from a purely choral performance, as in Greece. We are simply confronted with the accomplished fact. At the same time we hear of dramatic performances among the Tartars -at a somewhat earlier date. In 1031 K’ung Tao-fu, a descendant of +at a somewhat earlier date. In 1031 K‘ung Tao-fu, a descendant of Confucius in the forty-fifth degree, was sent as envoy to the Kitans, and was received at a banquet with much honour. But at a theatrical entertainment which followed, a piece was played in which his sacred @@ -7949,7 +7915,7 @@ ages of nine and fourteen. They have to learn all kinds of acrobatic feats, these being introduced freely into “military” plays. They also have to practise walking on feet bound up in imitation of women’s feet, no woman having been allowed on the stage since the days of the -Emperor Ch’ien Lung (A.D. 1736-1796), whose mother had been an +Emperor Ch‘ien Lung (A.D. 1736-1796), whose mother had been an actress. They have further to walk about in the open air for an hour or so every day, the head thrown back and the mouth wide open in order to strengthen the voice; and finally, their diet is carefully regulated @@ -7991,8 +7957,8 @@ the performer. A Chinese audience does not go to hear the play, but to see the actor. In 1678, at a certain market-town, there was a play performed which represented the execution of the patriot, General Yo Fei (A.D. 1141), brought about by the treachery of a rival, -Ch’in Kuei, who forged an order for that purpose. The actor who played -Ch’in Kuei (a term since used contemptuously for a spittoon) produced a +Ch‘in Kuei, who forged an order for that purpose. The actor who played +Ch‘in Kuei (a term since used contemptuously for a spittoon) produced a profound sensation; so much so, that one of the spectators, losing all self-control, leapt upon the stage and stabbed the unfortunate man to death. @@ -8074,23 +8040,23 @@ THE FLOWERY BALL. DRAMATIS PERSONÆ: - Su Tai-ch’in, _a Suitor_. + Su Tai-ch‘in, _a Suitor_. Hu Mao-yüan, _a Suitor_. - P’ing Kuei, _a Beggar_. - P’u-sa, _the Beggar’s Guardian Angel_. + P‘ing Kuei, _a Beggar_. + P‘u-sa, _the Beggar’s Guardian Angel_. Lady Wang, _daughter of a high Mandarin_. Gatekeeper. _Suitors, Servants, &c._ -SCENE--_Outside the city of Ch’ang-an_. +SCENE--_Outside the city of Ch‘ang-an_. - Su T’ai-ch’in. _At Ch’ang-an city I reside: + Su T‘ai-ch‘in. _At Ch‘ang-an city I reside: My father is a Mandarin; Oh! if I get the Flowery Ball, My cup of joy will overflow. - My humble name is Su T’ai-ch’in. + My humble name is Su T‘ai-ch‘in. To-day the Lady Wang will throw A Flowery Ball to get a spouse; And if perchance this ball strikes me, @@ -8139,9 +8105,9 @@ _Enter ~Hu Mao-yüan~._ [Exeunt. -_Enter ~P’ing Kuei~._ +_Enter ~P‘ing Kuei~._ - P’ing [sings.] _Ah! that day within the garden + P‘ing [sings.] _Ah! that day within the garden When my lady-love divine, Daughter of a wealthy noble, Promised that she would be mine. @@ -8175,7 +8141,7 @@ _Enter ~P’ing Kuei~._ Gatekeeper. _I say you’ll not!_ - P’ing [sings.] _Oh I dear, he’s stopped me! why, Heaven knows! + P‘ing [sings.] _Oh I dear, he’s stopped me! why, Heaven knows! It must be my hat and tattered clothes. I’ll stay here and raise an infernal din Until they consent to let me in._ @@ -8183,17 +8149,17 @@ _Enter ~P’ing Kuei~._ Gatekeeper. _I haven’t anything to spare, So come again another day._ - P’ing. _Oh! let me just go in to look._ + P‘ing. _Oh! let me just go in to look._ Gatekeeper. _Among the sons of noblemen What can there be for you to see? Begone at once, or I’ll soon make you._ - P’ing. _Alas! alas! what can I do? + P‘ing. _Alas! alas! what can I do? If I don’t get within the court, The Lady Wang will tire of waiting._ -_Enter ~P’u-sa~._ +_Enter ~P‘u-sa~._ Pu-sa [sings.] _By heaven’s supreme command I have flown Through the blue expanse of sky and air; @@ -8248,7 +8214,7 @@ _Enter ~Lady Wang~._ And the crowds down below Bewilder me so That I am in a most desperate state. - Oh! P’ing Kuei, if you really love me, + Oh! P‘ing Kuei, if you really love me, Hasten quickly to my side: If the words you spoke were idle, Why ask me to be your bride? @@ -8261,15 +8227,15 @@ _Enter ~Lady Wang~._ [Throws down the ball. - P’u-sa. _’Tis thus I seize the envied prize, + P‘u-sa. _’Tis thus I seize the envied prize, And give it to my protégé; I’ll throw it in his earthen bowl._ -[Throws the ball to P’ing Kuei. +[Throws the ball to P‘ing Kuei. Lady Wang [sings.] _Stay! I hear the people shouting-- What, the Ball some beggar struck? - It must be my own true P’ing Kuei-- + It must be my own true P‘ing Kuei-- I’ll go home and tell my luck! Maidens! through the temple kindle Incense for my lucky fate; @@ -8278,7 +8244,7 @@ _Enter ~Lady Wang~._ [Exeunt omnes. -_Enter ~Hu Mao-yüan~ and ~Su Tai-ch’in~._ +_Enter ~Hu Mao-yüan~ and ~Su Tai-ch‘in~._ Hu. _The second of the second moon The Dragon wakes to life and power; @@ -8297,7 +8263,7 @@ _Enter ~Gatekeeper~ and ~Beggar~._ Gatekeeper. _Only one poor beggar now remains within the hall, Who’d have thought that this poor vagrant would have got the Ball?_ - [To P’ing Kuei.] _Sir, you’ve come off well this morning: + [To P‘ing Kuei.] _Sir, you’ve come off well this morning: You must be a lucky man. Come with me to claim your bride, and Make the greatest haste you can._ @@ -8309,7 +8275,7 @@ all that makes the drama piquant to a European, and are very seldom, if ever, produced as they stand in print. Many collections of these have been published, not to mention the acting editions of each play, which can be bought at any bookstall for something like three a penny. -One of the best of such collections is the _Yüan ch’ü hsüan tsa chi_, +One of the best of such collections is the _Yüan ch‘ü hsüan tsa chi_, or Miscellaneous Selection of Mongol Plays, bound up in eight thick volumes. It contains one hundred plays in all, with an illustration to each, according to the edition of 1615. A large proportion of these @@ -8549,14 +8515,14 @@ come out first. This is how the great commander Chu-ko Liang is said to have replenished his failing stock of arrows. He sent a force of some twenty or more ships to feign an attack on the fleet of his powerful rival, -Ts’ao Ts’ao. The decks of the ships were apparently covered with large +Ts‘ao Ts‘ao. The decks of the ships were apparently covered with large numbers of fighting men, but these were in reality nothing more than straw figures dressed up in soldiers’ clothes. On each ship there were only a few sailors and some real soldiers with gongs and other noisy instruments. Reaching their destination, as had been carefully calculated beforehand, in the middle of a dense fog, the soldiers at once began to beat on their gongs as if about to go into action; -whereupon Ts’ao Ts’ao, who could just make out the outlines of vessels +whereupon Ts‘ao Ts‘ao, who could just make out the outlines of vessels densely packed with fighting men bearing down upon him, gave orders to his archers to begin shooting. The latter did so, and kept on for an hour and more, until Chu-ko Liang was satisfied with what he had got, @@ -8572,7 +8538,7 @@ severs it, and carries off the robe. The following extract will perhaps be interesting, dealing as it does with the use of anæsthetics long before they were dreamt of in this -country. Ts’ao Ts’ao had been struck on the head with a sword by the +country. Ts‘ao Ts‘ao had been struck on the head with a sword by the spirit of a pear-tree which he had attempted to cut down. He suffered such agony that one of his staff recommended a certain doctor who was then very much in vogue:-- @@ -8612,15 +8578,15 @@ that hour. Again, another man had had his toes bitten by a dog, the consequence being that two lumps of flesh grew up from the wound, one of which was very painful while the other itched unbearably. ‘There are ten needles,’ said Dr. Hua, ‘in the sore lump, and two black and -white _wei-ch’i_ pips in the other.’ No one believed this until Dr. Hua +white _wei-ch‘i_ pips in the other.’ No one believed this until Dr. Hua opened them with a knife and showed that it was so. Truly he is of the -same strain as Pien Ch’iao and Ts’ang Kung of old; and as he is now +same strain as Pien Ch‘iao and Ts‘ang Kung of old; and as he is now living not very far from this, I wonder your Highness does not summon him.’ -“At this, Ts’ao Ts’ao sent away messengers who were to travel day and +“At this, Ts‘ao Ts‘ao sent away messengers who were to travel day and night until they had brought Dr. Hua before him; and when he arrived, -Ts’ao Ts’ao held out his pulse and desired him to diagnose his case. +Ts‘ao Ts‘ao held out his pulse and desired him to diagnose his case. “‘The pain in your Highness’s head’ said Dr. Hua, ‘arises from wind, and the seat of the disease is the brain, where the wind is collected, @@ -8629,21 +8595,21 @@ for which there is but one remedy. You must first swallow a dose of hashish, and then with a sharp axe I will split open the back of your head and let the wind out. Thus the disease will be exterminated.’ -“Ts’ao Ts’ao here flew into a great rage, and declared that it was +“Ts‘ao Ts‘ao here flew into a great rage, and declared that it was a plot aimed at his life; to which Dr. Hua replied, ‘Has not your Highness heard of Kuan Yü’s wound in the right shoulder? I scraped the bone and removed the poison for him without a single sign of fear on his part. Your Highness’s disease is but a trifling affair; why, then, so much suspicion?’ -“‘You may scrape a sore shoulder-bone,’ said Ts’ao Ts’ao, ‘without much +“‘You may scrape a sore shoulder-bone,’ said Ts‘ao Ts‘ao, ‘without much risk; but to split open my skull is quite another matter. It strikes me now that you are here simply to avenge your friend Kuan Yü upon this opportunity.’ He thereupon gave orders that the doctor should be seized and cast into prison.” There the unfortunate doctor soon afterwards died, and before very long -Ts’ao Ts’ao himself succumbed. +Ts‘ao Ts‘ao himself succumbed. * * * * * @@ -8784,27 +8750,27 @@ scene which follows almost recalls _The Pilgrims Progress_:-- But he had not gone more than a mile or two before he came to a stream of rushing water about a league in breadth, with not a trace of any living being in sight. At this he was somewhat startled, and turning -to Wu-k’ung (the name of the monkey) said, ‘Our guide must surely +to Wu-k‘ung (the name of the monkey) said, ‘Our guide must surely have misdirected us. Look at that broad and boiling river; how shall we ever get across without a boat?’ ‘There is a bridge over there,’ -cried Wu-k’ung, ‘which you must cross over in order to complete +cried Wu-k‘ung, ‘which you must cross over in order to complete your salvation.’ At this Hsüan Tsang and the others advanced in the direction indicated, and saw by the side of the bridge a notice-board on which was written, ‘The Heavenly Ford.’ Now the bridge itself consisted of a simple plank; on which Hsüan Tsang remarked, ‘I am not going to trust myself to that frail and slippery plank to cross that wide and rapid stream. Let us try somewhere else.’ ‘But this is the -true path,’ said Wu-k’ung; ‘just wait a moment and see me go across.’ +true path,’ said Wu-k‘ung; ‘just wait a moment and see me go across.’ Thereupon he jumped on to the bridge, and ran along the shaky vibrating plank until he reached the other side, where he stood shouting out to the rest to come on. But Hsüan Tsang waved his hand in the negative, while his companions stood by biting their fingers and crying out, ‘We -can’t! we can’t! we can’t!’ So Wu-k’ung ran back, and seizing Pa-chieh +can’t! we can’t! we can’t!’ So Wu-k‘ung ran back, and seizing Pa-chieh (the pig) by the arm, began dragging him to the bridge, all the time calling him a fool for his pains. Pa-chieh then threw himself on the ground, roaring out, ‘It’s too slippery--it’s too slippery. I can’t do it. Spare me! spare me!’ ‘You must cross by this bridge,’ replied -Wu-k’ung, ‘if you want to become a Buddha;’ at which Pa-chieh said, +Wu-k‘ung, ‘if you want to become a Buddha;’ at which Pa-chieh said, ‘Then I can’t be a Buddha, sir. I have done with it: I shall never get across that bridge.’ @@ -8812,7 +8778,7 @@ across that bridge.’ boat appeared in sight, with a man punting it along, and calling out, ‘The ferry! the ferry!’ At this Hsüan Tsang was overjoyed, and shouted to his disciples that they would now be able to get across. By his -fiery pupil and golden iris, Wu-k’ung knew that the ferryman was no +fiery pupil and golden iris, Wu-k‘ung knew that the ferryman was no other than Namo Pao-chang-kuang-wang Buddha; but he kept his knowledge to himself, and hailed the boat to take them on board. In a moment it was alongside the bank, when, to his unutterable horror, Hsüan Tsang @@ -8826,16 +8792,16 @@ human beings pass over in peace. A bottomless ship can hardly cross the great ocean; yet for ages past I have ferried over countless hosts of passengers.’ -“When he heard these words Wu-k’ung cried out, ‘Master, make haste on +“When he heard these words Wu-k‘ung cried out, ‘Master, make haste on board. This boat, although bottomless, is safe enough, and no wind or sea could overset it.’ And while Hsüan Tsang was still hesitating, -Wu-k’ung pushed him forwards on to the bridge; but the former could not +Wu-k‘ung pushed him forwards on to the bridge; but the former could not keep his feet, and fell head over heels into the water, from which he was immediately rescued by the ferryman, who dragged him on board the -boat. The rest also managed, with the aid of Wu-k’ung, to scramble on +boat. The rest also managed, with the aid of Wu-k‘ung, to scramble on board; and then, as the ferryman shoved off, lo! they beheld a dead body floating away down the stream. Hsüan Tsang was greatly alarmed -at this; but Wu-k’ung laughed and said, ‘Fear not, Master; that dead +at this; but Wu-k‘ung laughed and said, ‘Fear not, Master; that dead body is your old self!’ And all the others joined in the chorus of ‘It is you, sir, it is you;’ and even the ferryman said, ‘Yes, it is you; accept my best congratulations.’ @@ -8886,7 +8852,7 @@ employed, his literary remains fill only three volumes. The following piece is a satire on the neglect of men of ability, which, according to him, was a marked feature of the administration of the Mongols:-- -“Têng Pi, whose cognomen was Po-i, was a man of Ch’in. He was seven +“Têng Pi, whose cognomen was Po-i, was a man of Ch‘in. He was seven feet high. Both his eyes had crimson corners, and they blinked like lightning flashes. In feats of strength he was cock of the walk; and once when his neighbour’s bulls were locked in fight, with a blow of @@ -9050,7 +9016,7 @@ behalf:-- “May it please your Majesty,--My husband was chief Minister in the Cavalry Department of the Board of War. Because he advised your Majesty -against the establishment of a tradal mart, hoping to prevent Ch’ou +against the establishment of a tradal mart, hoping to prevent Ch‘ou Luan from carrying out his design, he was condemned only to a mild punishment; and then, when the latter suffered defeat, he was restored to favour and to his former honours. @@ -9224,9 +9190,9 @@ of duty alone. For which, no doubt, you think me an ass.” * * * * * -[Sidenote: WANG TAO-K’UN] +[Sidenote: WANG TAO-K‘UN] -WANG TAO-K’UN took his third degree in 1547. His instincts +WANG TAO-K‘UN took his third degree in 1547. His instincts seemed to be all for a soldier’s life, and he rose to be a successful commander. He found ample time, however, for books, and came to occupy an honourable place among contemporary writers. His works, which, @@ -9404,12 +9370,12 @@ NOVELS AND PLAYS Novels were produced in considerable numbers under the Ming dynasty, but the names of their writers, except in a very few cases, have -not been handed down. The marvellous work known as the _Ch’in P’ing +not been handed down. The marvellous work known as the _Ch‘in P‘ing Mei_, from the names of three of the chief female characters, has been attributed to the grave scholar and statesman, Wang Shih-chêng (1526-1593); but this is more a guess than anything else. So also is the opinion that it was produced in the seventeenth century, as a -covert satire upon the morals of the Court of the great Emperor K’ang +covert satire upon the morals of the Court of the great Emperor K‘ang Hsi. The story itself refers to the early part of the twelfth century, and is written in a simple, easy style, closely approaching the Peking colloquial. It possesses one extraordinary characteristic. Many words @@ -9462,12 +9428,12 @@ reader must look upon the _Lieh Kuo_ as a genuine history, and not as a mere novel.” The following extract refers to a bogus exhibition, planned by the -scheming State of Ch’in, nominally to make a collection of valuables +scheming State of Ch‘in, nominally to make a collection of valuables and hand them over as respectful tribute to the sovereign House of Chou, but really with a view to a general massacre of the rival nobles -who stood in the way between the Ch’ins and their treasonable designs:-- +who stood in the way between the Ch‘ins and their treasonable designs:-- -“Duke Ai of Ch’in now proceeded with his various officers of State to +“Duke Ai of Ch‘in now proceeded with his various officers of State to prepare a place for the proposed exhibition, at the same time setting a number of armed men in ambuscade, with a view to carry out his ambitious designs; and when he heard that the other nobles had arrived, @@ -9484,7 +9450,7 @@ it is fitting that our several exhibits be forthwith produced and submitted for adjudication.’ “Sounds of assent from the nobles were heard at the conclusion of this -speech, but the Prime Minister of the Ch’i State, conscious that the +speech, but the Prime Minister of the Ch‘i State, conscious that the atmosphere was heavily laden with the vapour of death, as if from treacherous ambush, stepped forward and said:-- @@ -9511,7 +9477,7 @@ a tiger need be possessed only of physical courage; but how is that a sufficient recommendation for this office? Delay awhile, I pray, until I come and take the tablet myself.’ -“By this time Duke Ai had seen that the speaker was K’uai Hui, son of +“By this time Duke Ai had seen that the speaker was K‘uai Hui, son of the Duke of Wei, and forthwith inquired of him what his particular claim to the post might be. ‘I cut the head off a deadly dragon, and for that feat I claim this post.’ Duke Ai thereupon ordered Pien Chuang @@ -9520,7 +9486,7 @@ arguing that the slaughter of a dragon was simply a magician’s trick, and not at all to the present purpose. He added that if the tablet was to be taken from him, it would necessitate an appeal to force between himself and his rival. The contest continued thus for some time, -until at length the Prime Minister of Ch’i rose again, and solved the +until at length the Prime Minister of Ch‘i rose again, and solved the difficulty in the following terms:-- “‘The slaughter of a tiger involves physical courage, and the slaughter @@ -9550,7 +9516,7 @@ theme was in rhyme, and contained these eight lines:-- and true._’ “The theme had hardly been uttered, when up started Chi Nien, -generalissimo of the Ch’in State, and cried out, ‘This is but a +generalissimo of the Ch‘in State, and cried out, ‘This is but a question of natural philosophy; what difficulty is there in it?’ He thereupon advanced to the front, and, having obtained permission to compete, seized a stylus and wrote down the following reply:-- @@ -9575,7 +9541,7 @@ the same time there arose a great noise of drums and horns, and all the assembled nobles applauded loudly; whereupon Duke Ai personally invested him with the golden tablet and proclaimed him arbiter of the exhibition, for which Chi Nien was just about to return thanks, -when suddenly up jumped Wu Yüan, generalissimo of the Ch’u State, and +when suddenly up jumped Wu Yüan, generalissimo of the Ch‘u State, and coming forward, declared in an angry tone that Chi Nien’s answer did not dispose of the theme in a proper and final manner; that he had not removed the sacrificial vessel from its place, and that consequently he @@ -9591,7 +9557,7 @@ stylus and indited the following lines:-- ‘_The earth supports the sky; the sky supports the earth. ~Five~ is the mystic number which to the universe gave birth. Down from the sky come the eddying waves of the river’s rolling might. - In the K’un-lun range we must seek the germ of the mountain’s towering + In the K‘un-lun range we must seek the germ of the mountain’s towering height. By ~truth~, of the elements five, can most good work be done; And of all the ten thousand things that are, ~man~ is the wondrous one. @@ -9618,23 +9584,23 @@ The _Ching Hua Yüan_ is a less pretentious work than the preceding, but of an infinitely more interesting character. Dealing with the reign of the Empress Wu, who in A.D. 684 set aside the rightful heir and placed herself upon the throne, which she occupied for -twenty years, this work describes how a young graduate, named T’ang, +twenty years, this work describes how a young graduate, named T‘ang, disgusted with the establishment of examinations and degrees for women, set out with a small party on a voyage of exploration. Among all the strange places which they visited, the most curious was the Country of Gentlemen, where they landed and proceeded at once to the capital city. -“There, over the city gate, T’ang and his companions read the following +“There, over the city gate, T‘ang and his companions read the following legend:-- ‘_Virtue is man’s only jewel!_’ “They then entered the city, which they found to be a busy and prosperous mart, the inhabitants all talking the Chinese language. -Accordingly, T’ang accosted one of the passers-by, and asked him how it +Accordingly, T‘ang accosted one of the passers-by, and asked him how it was his nation had become so famous for politeness and consideration of others; but, to his great astonishment, the man did not understand the -meaning of his question. T’ang then asked him why this land was called +meaning of his question. T‘ang then asked him why this land was called the ‘Country of Gentlemen,’ to which he likewise replied that he did not know. Several other persons of whom they inquired giving similar answers, the venerable To remarked that the term had undoubtedly been @@ -9646,7 +9612,7 @@ poor, mutually respect each other’s feelings without reference to the wealth or social status of either; and this is, after all, the essence of what constitutes the true gentleman.’ -“‘In that case,’ cried T’ang, ‘let us not hurry on, but rather improve +“‘In that case,’ cried T‘ang, ‘let us not hurry on, but rather improve ourselves by observing the ways and customs of this people.’ “By and by they arrived at the market-place, where they saw an official @@ -9658,7 +9624,7 @@ asking. If you will oblige me by doubling the amount, I shall do myself the honour of accepting them; otherwise, I cannot but feel that you are unwilling to do business with me to-day.’ -“‘How very funny!’ whispered T’ang to his friends. ‘Here, now, is quite +“‘How very funny!’ whispered T‘ang to his friends. ‘Here, now, is quite a different custom from ours, where the buyer invariably tries to beat down the seller, and the seller to run up the price of his goods as high as possible. This certainly looks like the ‘consideration for @@ -9675,7 +9641,7 @@ I fully appreciate your kindness in that respect, I must really ask you to seek what you require at some other establishment. It is quite impossible for me to execute your commands.’ -“T’ang was again expressing his astonishment at this extraordinary +“T‘ang was again expressing his astonishment at this extraordinary reversal of the platitudes of trade, when the would-be purchaser replied, ‘For you, sir, to ask such a low sum for these first-class goods, and then to turn round and accuse me of over-considering your @@ -9695,7 +9661,7 @@ happened to be passing stepped aside and arranged the matter for them, by deciding that the runner was to pay the full price but to receive only four-fifths of the goods. -“T’ang and his companions walked on in silence, meditating upon the +“T‘ang and his companions walked on in silence, meditating upon the strange scene they had just witnessed; but they had not gone many steps when they came across a soldier similarly engaged in buying things at an open shop-window. He was saying, ‘When I asked the price of these @@ -9785,7 +9751,7 @@ him the difference. ‘Who knows,’ said he, ‘but that the present misery of this poor fellow may be retribution for overcharging people in a former life?’ -“‘Ah,’ said T’ang, when he had witnessed the finale of this little +“‘Ah,’ said T‘ang, when he had witnessed the finale of this little drama, ‘truly this is the behaviour of gentlemen!’ “Our travellers then fell into conversation with two @@ -9818,18 +9784,18 @@ adieu to their new friends and regain their ship.” * * * * * -[Sidenote: P’ING SHAN LÊNG YEN] +[Sidenote: P‘ING SHAN LÊNG YEN] -The _Chin Ku Ch’i Kuan_, or Marvellous Tales, Ancient and Modern, is a +The _Chin Ku Ch‘i Kuan_, or Marvellous Tales, Ancient and Modern, is a great favourite with the romance-reading Chinaman. It is a collection of forty stories said to have been written towards the close of the Ming dynasty by the members of a society who held meetings for that purpose. Translations of many, if not all, of these have been -published. The style is easy, very unlike that of the _P’ing Shan Lêng +published. The style is easy, very unlike that of the _P‘ing Shan Lêng Yen_, a well-known novel in what would be called a high-class literary style, being largely made up of stilted dialogue and over-elaborated verse composed at the slightest provocation by the various characters -in the story. These were P’ing and Yen, two young students in love +in the story. These were P‘ing and Yen, two young students in love with Shan and Lêng, two young poetesses who charmed even more by their literary talent than by their fascinating beauty. On one occasion a pretended poet, named Sung, who was a suitor for the hand of Miss Lêng, @@ -9843,7 +9809,7 @@ hundred sonnets, and so gained a name which will live for a thousand generations.” “Of course I could compose,” said Mr. Sung, “even after drinking, but I might become coarse. It is better to be fasting, and to feel quite clear in the head. Then the style is more finished, and -the verse more pleasing.” “Ts’ao Chih,” retorted Miss Lêng, “composed a +the verse more pleasing.” “Ts‘ao Chih,” retorted Miss Lêng, “composed a sonnet while taking only seven steps, and his fame will be remembered for ever. Surely occasion has nothing to do with the matter.” In the midst of Mr. Sung’s confusion, the uncle proposed that the former @@ -9910,7 +9876,7 @@ laughter-loving masses of the Chinese people. [Sidenote: KAO TSÊ-CH’ÊNG] -The _P’i Pa Chi_, or “Story of the Guitar,” stands easily at the head +The _P‘i Pa Chi_, or “Story of the Guitar,” stands easily at the head of the list, being ranked by some admirers as the very finest of all Chinese plays. It is variously arranged in various editions under twenty-four or forty-two scenes; and many liberties have been taken @@ -9994,7 +9960,7 @@ the defect by taking a piece off.” On the other hand, the pathetic character of the play gives it a high value with the Chinese; for, as we are told in the prologue, “it is much easier to make people laugh than cry.” And if we can believe all that is said on this score, every -successive generation has duly paid its tribute of tears to the _P’i Pa +successive generation has duly paid its tribute of tears to the _P‘i Pa Chi_. @@ -10009,7 +9975,7 @@ POETRY Though the poetry of the Ming dynasty shows little falling off, in point of mere volume, there are far fewer great poets to be found -than under the famous Houses of T’ang and Sung. The name, however, +than under the famous Houses of T‘ang and Sung. The name, however, which stands first in point of chronological sequence, is one which is widely known. HSIEH CHIN (1369-1415) was born when the dynasty was but a year old, and took his final degree before he had @@ -10255,23 +10221,23 @@ novels and plays are not included by the Chinese in the domain of pure literature. Such is the rule, to which there is in practice, if not in theory, one very notable exception. -[Sidenote: P’U SUNG-LING] +[Sidenote: P‘U SUNG-LING] -P’U SUNG-LING, author of the _Liao Chai Chih I_, which may +P‘U SUNG-LING, author of the _Liao Chai Chih I_, which may be conveniently rendered by “Strange Stories,” was born in 1622, and took his first degree in 1641. Though an excellent scholar and a most polished writer, he failed, as many other good men have done, to take the higher degrees by which he had hoped to enter upon an official career. It is generally understood that this failure was due to neglect of the beaten track of academic study. At any rate, his disappointment -was overwhelming. All else that we have on record of P’u Sung-ling, +was overwhelming. All else that we have on record of P‘u Sung-ling, besides the fact that he lived in close companionship with several eminent scholars of the day, is gathered from his own words, written when, in 1679, he laid down his pen upon the completion of a task which was to raise him within a short period to a foremost rank in the Chinese world of letters. The following are extracts from this record:-- -“Clad in wistaria, girdled with ivy,[35]--thus sang Ch’ü Yüan in +“Clad in wistaria, girdled with ivy,[35]--thus sang Ch‘ü Yüan in his _Li Sao_. Of ox-headed devils and serpent gods, he of the long nails[36] never wearied to tell. Each interprets in his own way the music of heaven; and whether it be discord or not, depends upon @@ -10279,7 +10245,7 @@ antecedent causes. As for me, I cannot, with my poor autumn firefly’s light, match myself against the hobgoblins of the age.[37] I am but the dust in the sunbeam, a fit laughing-stock for devils.[38] For my talents are not those of Yü Pao,[39] elegant explorer of the records of -the gods; I am rather animated by the spirit of Su Tung-p’o, who loved +the gods; I am rather animated by the spirit of Su Tung-p‘o, who loved to hear men speak of the supernatural. I get people to commit what they tell me to writing, and subsequently I dress it up in the form of a story; and thus in the lapse of time my friends from all quarters @@ -10313,7 +10279,7 @@ They are ‘in the bosky grove and at the frontier pass’[44]--wrapped in an impenetrable gloom!” For many years these “Strange Stories” circulated only in manuscript. -P’u Sung-ling, as we are told in a colophon by his grandson to the +P‘u Sung-ling, as we are told in a colophon by his grandson to the first edition, was too poor to meet the heavy expense of block-cutting; and it was not until so late as 1740, when the author must have been already for some time a denizen of the dark land he so much loved @@ -10353,7 +10319,7 @@ of these stories is to “glorify virtue and to censure vice,” the following story, entitled “The Talking Pupils,” may be taken as a fair illustration of the extent to which this pledge is redeemed:-- -“At Ch’ang-an there lived a scholar named Fang Tung, who, though by no +“At Ch‘ang-an there lived a scholar named Fang Tung, who, though by no means destitute of ability, was a very unprincipled rake, and in the habit of following and speaking to any woman he might chance to meet. The day before the spring festival of Clear Weather he was strolling @@ -10651,7 +10617,7 @@ make, I must allow,’ and the next moment Fêng-hsien stood by his side.” * * * * * -Here is a story of the nether world, a favourite theme with P’u +Here is a story of the nether world, a favourite theme with P‘u Sung-ling. It illustrates the popular belief that at death a man’s soul is summoned to Purgatory by spiritual lictors, who are even liable to make mistakes. Cataleptic fits or trances give rise to many similar @@ -10695,7 +10661,7 @@ much boring the reader. These lines are much admired:-- No moon, no light, to cheer the night-- Thyself that ray must bring._” -But we have seen perhaps enough of P’u Sung-ling. “If,” as Han +But we have seen perhaps enough of P‘u Sung-ling. “If,” as Han Yü exclaimed, “there is knowledge after death,” the profound and widespread esteem in which this work is held by the literati of China must indeed prove a soothing balm to the wounded spirit of the Last of @@ -10921,13 +10887,13 @@ and cried herself to sleep. Shortly after this, Pao-yü’s mother’s sister was compelled by circumstances to seek a residence in the capital. She brought with her -a daughter, Pao-ch’ai, another cousin to Pao-yü, but about a year +a daughter, Pao-ch‘ai, another cousin to Pao-yü, but about a year older than he was; and besides receiving a warm welcome, the two were invited to settle themselves comfortably down in the capacious family mansion of their relatives. Thus it was that destiny brought Pao-yü and his two cousins together under the same roof. -The three soon became fast friends. Pao-ch’ai had been carefully +The three soon became fast friends. Pao-ch‘ai had been carefully educated by her father, and was able to hold her own even against the accomplished Tai-yü. Pao-yü loved the society of either or both. He was always happy so long as he had a pretty girl by his side, and was, @@ -10947,14 +10913,14 @@ presence of his fair cousins, with whom, in fact, Pao-yü spent most of the time he ought to have devoted to his books. He was always running across to see either one or other of these young ladies, or meeting both of them in general assembly at his grandmother’s. It was at a -_tête-à-tête_ with Pao-ch’ai that she made him show her his marvellous +_tête-à-tête_ with Pao-ch‘ai that she made him show her his marvellous piece of jade, with the inscription, which she read as follows:-- “_Lose me not, forget me not, Eternal life shall be thy lot._” The indiscretion of a slave-girl here let Pao-yü become aware that -Pao-ch’ai herself possessed a wonderful gold amulet, upon which also +Pao-ch‘ai herself possessed a wonderful gold amulet, upon which also were certain words inscribed; and of course Pao-yü insisted on seeing it at once. On it was written-- @@ -10968,18 +10934,18 @@ that jealousy to which later on she succumbed. Meanwhile she almost monopolises the society of Pao-yü, and he, on his side, finds himself daily more and more attracted by the sprightly mischievous humour of the beautiful Tai-yü, as compared with the quieter and more orthodox -loveliness of Pao-ch’ai. Pao-ch’ai does not know what jealousy +loveliness of Pao-ch‘ai. Pao-ch‘ai does not know what jealousy means. She too loves to bandy words, exchange verses, or puzzle over conundrums with her mercurial cousin; but she never allows her thoughts to wander towards him otherwise than is consistent with the strictest maidenly reserve. Not so Tai-yü. She had been already for some time Pao-yü’s chief -companion when they were joined by Pao-ch’ai. She had come to regard +companion when they were joined by Pao-ch‘ai. She had come to regard the handsome boy almost as a part of herself, though not conscious of the fact until called upon to share his society with another. And so it was that although Pao-yü showed an open preference for herself, she -still grudged the lesser attentions he paid to Pao-ch’ai. As often as +still grudged the lesser attentions he paid to Pao-ch‘ai. As often as not these same attentions originated in an irresistible impulse to tease. Pao-yü and Tai-yü were already lovers in so far that they were always quarrelling; the more so, that their quarrels invariably ended, @@ -10991,11 +10957,11 @@ would die; upon which Pao-yü said that in that case he would become a monk and devote his life to Buddha; but in this instance it was he who shed the tears and she who had to wipe them away. -All this time Tai-yü and Pao-ch’ai were on terms of scrupulous +All this time Tai-yü and Pao-ch‘ai were on terms of scrupulous courtesy. Tai-yü’s father had recently died, and her fortunes now seemed to be bound up more closely than ever with those of the family in which she lived. She had a handsome gold ornament given her to -match Pao-ch’ai’s amulet, and the three young people spent their days +match Pao-ch‘ai’s amulet, and the three young people spent their days together, thinking only how to get most enjoyment out of every passing hour. Sometimes, however, a shade of serious thought would darken Tai-yü’s moments of enforced solitude; and one day Pao-yü surprised her @@ -11120,13 +11086,13 @@ authorities. Murder, suicide, and robbery happen upon the premises. The climax of prosperity had been reached and the hour of decadence had arrived. Still all went merry as a marriage-bell, and Pao-yü and Tai-yü continued the agreeable pastime of love-making. In this they -were further favoured by circumstances. Pao-ch’ai’s mother gave up +were further favoured by circumstances. Pao-ch‘ai’s mother gave up the apartments which had been assigned to her, and went to live in -lodgings in the city, of course taking Pao-ch’ai with her. Some time +lodgings in the city, of course taking Pao-ch‘ai with her. Some time previous to this, a slave-girl had casually remarked to Pao-yü that her young mistress, Tai-yü, was about to leave and go back again to the south. Pao-yü fainted on the spot, and was straightway carried off and -put to bed. He bore the departure of Pao-ch’ai with composure. He could +put to bed. He bore the departure of Pao-ch‘ai with composure. He could not even hear of separation from his beloved Tai-yü. And she was already deeply in love with him. Long, long ago her @@ -11201,14 +11167,14 @@ But the difficulty lay precisely there. Where each was perfection it became invidious to choose. In another famous Chinese novel, already described, a similar difficulty is got over in this way--the hero marries both. Here, however, the family elders were distracted by rival -claims. By their gentle, winning manners, Pao-ch’ai and Tai-yü had +claims. By their gentle, winning manners, Pao-ch‘ai and Tai-yü had made themselves equally beloved by all the inmates of these two noble houses, from the venerable grandmother down to the meanest slave-girl. Their beauty was of different styles, but at the bar of man’s opinion each would probably have gained an equal number of votes. Tai-yü was -undoubtedly the cleverer of the two, but Pao-ch’ai had better health; +undoubtedly the cleverer of the two, but Pao-ch‘ai had better health; and in the judgment of those with whom the decision rested, health -carried the day. It was arranged that Pao-yü was to marry Pao-ch’ai. +carried the day. It was arranged that Pao-yü was to marry Pao-ch‘ai. This momentous arrangement was naturally made in secret. Various preliminaries would have to be gone through before a verbal promise @@ -11280,7 +11246,7 @@ said pretty much what he was wanted to say, viz., that Pao-yü should marry some one with a golden destiny to help him on. So the chief actors in the tragedy about to be enacted had to be -consulted at last. They began with Pao-ch’ai, for various reasons; +consulted at last. They began with Pao-ch‘ai, for various reasons; and she, like a modest, well-bred maiden, received her mother’s commands in submissive silence. Further, from that day she ceased to mention Pao-yü’s name. With Pao-yü, however, it was a different @@ -11288,14 +11254,14 @@ thing altogether. His love for Tai-yü was a matter of some notoriety, especially with the slave-girls, one of whom even went so far as to tell his mother that his heart was set upon marrying her whom the family had felt obliged to reject. It was therefore hardly doubtful how -he would receive the news of his betrothal to Pao-ch’ai; and as in his +he would receive the news of his betrothal to Pao-ch‘ai; and as in his present state of health the consequences could not be ignored, it was resolved to have recourse to stratagem. So the altar was prepared, and naught remained but to draw the bright death across the victim’s throat. In the short time which intervened, the news was broken to Tai-yü in an exceptionally cruel manner. She heard by accident in conversation with -a slave-girl in the garden that Pao-yü was to marry Pao-ch’ai. The poor +a slave-girl in the garden that Pao-yü was to marry Pao-ch‘ai. The poor girl felt as if a thunderbolt had pierced her brain. Her whole frame quivered beneath the shock. She turned to go back to her room, but half unconsciously followed the path that led to Pao-yü’s apartments. Hardly @@ -11320,7 +11286,7 @@ found her with her mouth full of blood. By this time all formalities have been gone through and the wedding day is fixed. It is not to be a grand wedding, but of course there must be -a trousseau. Pao-ch’ai sometimes weeps, she scarcely knows why; but +a trousseau. Pao-ch‘ai sometimes weeps, she scarcely knows why; but preparations for the great event of her life leave her, fortunately, very little leisure for reflection. Tai-yü is in bed, and, but for a faithful slave-girl, alone. Nobody thinks much about her at this @@ -11351,7 +11317,7 @@ ceremony of worship, which made them irrevocably man and wife. Then, as is customary upon such occasions, Pao-yü raised his bride’s veil. For a moment he seemed as though suddenly turned into stone, as he stood there speechless and motionless, with fixed eyes gazing upon a face he -had little expected to behold. Meanwhile, Pao-ch’ai retired into an +had little expected to behold. Meanwhile, Pao-ch‘ai retired into an inner apartment; and then, for the first time, Pao-yü found his voice. “Am I dreaming?” cried he, looking round upon his assembled relatives @@ -11361,9 +11327,9 @@ and friends. care; your father is outside. He arranged it all.” “Who was that?” said Pao-yü, with averted head, pointing in the -direction of the door through which Pao-ch’ai had disappeared. +direction of the door through which Pao-ch‘ai had disappeared. -“It was Pao-ch’ai, your wife...” +“It was Pao-ch‘ai, your wife...” “Tai-yü, you mean; Tai-yü is my wife,” shrieked he, interrupting them; “I want Tai-yü! I want Tai-yü! Oh, bring us together, and save us @@ -11387,7 +11353,7 @@ moaned fitfully through the trees. But the bridegroom himself had already entered the valley of the dark shadow. Pao-yü was very ill. He raved and raved about Tai-yü, until -at length Pao-ch’ai, who had heard the news, took upon herself the +at length Pao-ch‘ai, who had heard the news, took upon herself the painful task of telling him she was already dead. “Dead?” cried Pao-yü, “dead?” and with a loud groan he fell back upon the bed insensible. A darkness came before his eyes, and he seemed to be transported into @@ -11413,7 +11379,7 @@ with the great sorrow of unreason. For now they could always hope; and when they saw him daily grow stronger and stronger in bodily health, it seemed that ere long even his mental equilibrium might be restored. The more so that he had ceased to mention Tai-yü’s name, and treated -Pao-ch’ai with marked kindness and respect. +Pao-ch‘ai with marked kindness and respect. All this time the fortunes of the two grand families are sinking from bad to worse. Pao-yü’s uncle is mixed up in an act of disgraceful @@ -11436,10 +11402,10 @@ money was scarce, and the voice of flattery unheard. The courtiers of prosperous days forgot to call, and even the servants deserted at their posts. And so it came about that the old lady fell ill, and within a few days was lying upon her death-bed. She spoke a kind word to all, -except to Pao-ch’ai. For her she had only a sigh, that fate had linked +except to Pao-ch‘ai. For her she had only a sigh, that fate had linked her with a husband whose heart was buried in the grave. So she died, and there was a splendid funeral, paid for out of funds raised at the -pawnshop. Pao-ch’ai appeared in white; and among the flowers which were +pawnshop. Pao-ch‘ai appeared in white; and among the flowers which were gathered around the bier, she was unanimously pronounced to be the fairest blossom of all. @@ -11486,7 +11452,7 @@ Nevertheless, he talks little, and seems to care less, about the honours and glory of this world; and what is stranger than all, he appears to have very much lost his taste for the once fascinating society of women. For a time he seems to be under the spell of a -religious craze, and is always arguing with Pao-ch’ai upon the +religious craze, and is always arguing with Pao-ch‘ai upon the advantages of devoting one’s life to the service of Buddha. But shortly before the examination he burned all the books he had collected which treated of immortality and a future state, and concentrated every @@ -11536,7 +11502,7 @@ the banditti who ravaged the country round about. There was Pao-yü’s success and his nephew’s; and above all, the gracious clemency of the Son of Heaven. Free pardons were granted, confiscated estates were returned. The two families basked again in the glow of Imperial favour. -Pao-ch’ai was about to become a mother; the ancestral line might be +Pao-ch‘ai was about to become a mother; the ancestral line might be continued after all. But Pao-yü, where was he? That remained a mystery still, against which even the Emperor’s mandate proved to be of no avail. @@ -11563,10 +11529,10 @@ Here quoted with reference to the official classes, in ridicule of the title under which they hold posts which, from a literary point of view, they are totally unfit to occupy. -[36] A poet of the T’ang dynasty, whose eyebrows met, whose nails were +[36] A poet of the T‘ang dynasty, whose eyebrows met, whose nails were very long, and who could write very fast. -[37] This is another hit at the ruling classes. Hsi K’ang, the +[37] This is another hit at the ruling classes. Hsi K‘ang, the celebrated poet, musician, and alchemist (A.D. 223-262), was sitting one night alone, playing upon his lute, when suddenly a man with a tiny face walked in, and began to stare hard at him, the @@ -11596,14 +11562,14 @@ image was imprinted thereon. [42] The six _gâti_ or conditions of existence, viz., angels, men, demons, hungry devils, brute beasts, and tortured sinners. -[43] The work of a well-known writer, named Lin I-ch’ing, who +[43] The work of a well-known writer, named Lin I-ch‘ing, who flourished during the Sung dynasty. [44] The great poet Tu Fu dreamt that his greater predecessor, Li -T’ai-po, appeared to him, “coming when the maple-grove was in darkness, +T‘ai-po, appeared to him, “coming when the maple-grove was in darkness, and returning while the frontier pass was still obscured,”--that is, at night, when no one could see him; the meaning being that he never -came at all, and that those “who know me (P’u Sung-ling)” are equally +came at all, and that those “who know me (P‘u Sung-ling)” are equally non-existent. [45] These two lines are short in the original. @@ -11613,11 +11579,11 @@ non-existent. CHAPTER II -THE EMPERORS K’ANG HSI AND CH’IEN LUNG +THE EMPERORS K‘ANG HSI AND CH’IEN LUNG The second Emperor of the Manchu dynasty, known to the world by his -year-title K’ANG HSI, succeeded to the throne in 1662 when he +year-title K‘ANG HSI, succeeded to the throne in 1662 when he was only eight years of age, and six years later he took up the reins of government. Fairly tall and well-proportioned, he loved all manly exercises and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright @@ -11633,13 +11599,13 @@ spite of war and rebellion, which must have encroached seriously upon his time, he found leisure to initiate and carry out, with the aid of the leading scholars of the day, several of the greatest literary enterprises the world has ever seen. The chief of these are (1) the -_K’ang Hsi Tzŭ Tien_, the great standard dictionary of the Chinese -language; (2) the _P’ei Wên Yün Fu_, a huge concordance to all +_K‘ang Hsi Tzŭ Tien_, the great standard dictionary of the Chinese +language; (2) the _P‘ei Wên Yün Fu_, a huge concordance to all literature, bound up in forty-four large closely-printed volumes; -(3) the _P’ien Tzŭ Lei P’ien_, a similar work, with a different +(3) the _P‘ien Tzŭ Lei P‘ien_, a similar work, with a different arrangement, bound up in thirty-six large volumes; (4) the _Yüan Chien Lei Han_, an encyclopædia, bound up in forty-four volumes; and (5) -the _T’u Shu Chi Ch’êng_, a profusely illustrated encyclopædia, in +the _T‘u Shu Chi Ch‘êng_, a profusely illustrated encyclopædia, in 1628 volumes of about 200 pages to each. To the above must be added a considerable collection of literary remains, in prose and verse, which, of course, were actually the Emperor’s own work. It cannot be @@ -11647,7 +11613,7 @@ said that any of these remains are of a high order, or are familiar to the public at large, with a single and trifling exception. The so-called Sacred Edict is known from one end of China to the other. It originally consisted of sixteen moral maxims delivered in 1670 under -the form of an edict by the Emperor K’ang Hsi. His Majesty himself had +the form of an edict by the Emperor K‘ang Hsi. His Majesty himself had just reached the mature age of sixteen. He had then probably discovered that men’s morals were no longer what they had been in the days of “ancient kings,” and with boyish earnestness he made a kindly effort @@ -11666,7 +11632,7 @@ order to give due weight to human relationships.” “Educate your sons and younger brothers, in order to hinder them from doing what is wrong.” -K’ang Hsi died in 1722, after completing a full cycle of sixty years +K‘ang Hsi died in 1722, after completing a full cycle of sixty years as occupant of the Dragon Throne. His son and successor, Yung Chêng, caused one hundred picked scholars to submit essays enlarging upon the maxims of his father, and of these the sixteen best were chosen, and in @@ -11727,7 +11693,7 @@ Here, instead of being carried away into some suggested train of thought, the reader is fairly entitled to ask “What then?” The following is a somewhat more spirited production. It is a song -written by Ch’ien Lung, to be inserted and sung in a play entitled +written by Ch‘ien Lung, to be inserted and sung in a play entitled “Picking up Gold,” by a beggar who is fortunate enough to stumble across a large nugget:-- @@ -11844,7 +11810,7 @@ LAN TING-YÜAN (1680-1733), better known as Lan Lu-chou, devoted himself as a youth to poetry, literature, and political economy. He accompanied his brother to Formosa as military secretary, and his account of the expedition attracted public attention. -Recommended to the Emperor, he became magistrate of P’u-lin, and +Recommended to the Emperor, he became magistrate of P‘u-lin, and distinguished himself as much by his just and incorrupt administration as by his literary abilities. He managed, however, to make enemies among his superior officers, and within three years he was impeached @@ -11942,14 +11908,14 @@ heaven.” The following is a specimen case dealing with the evil effects of superstitious doctrines:-- -“The people of the Ch’ao-yang district are great on bogies, and love +“The people of the Ch‘ao-yang district are great on bogies, and love to talk of spirits and Buddhas. The gentry and their wives devote themselves to Ta Tien, but the women generally of the neighbourhood flock in crowds to the temples to burn incense and adore Buddha, forming an unbroken string along the road. Hence, much ghostly and supernatural nonsense gets spread about; and hence it was that the -Hou-t’ien sect came to flourish. I know nothing of the origin of this -sect. It was started amongst the Ch’ao-yang people by two men, named +Hou-t‘ien sect came to flourish. I know nothing of the origin of this +sect. It was started amongst the Ch‘ao-yang people by two men, named Yen and Chou respectively, who said that they had been instructed by a white-bearded Immortal, and who, when an attempt to arrest them was made by a predecessor in office, absconded with their families and @@ -12159,14 +12125,14 @@ robbing others of their good name.” The _Ming Chi Kang Mu_, or History of the Ming Dynasty, which had been begun in 1689 by a commission of fifty-eight scholars, was laid before -the Emperor only in 1742 by CHANG T’ING-YÜ (1670-1756), a Minister of +the Emperor only in 1742 by CHANG T‘ING-YÜ (1670-1756), a Minister of State and a most learned writer, joint editor of the Book of Rites, Ritual of the Chou Dynasty, the Thirteen Classics, the Twenty-four Histories, Thesaurus of Phraseology, Encyclopædia of Quotations, the Concordance to Literature, &c. This work, however, did not meet with -the Imperial approval, and for it was substituted the _T’ung Chien Kang +the Imperial approval, and for it was substituted the _T‘ung Chien Kang Mu San Pien_, first published in 1775. Among the chief collaborators -of Chang T’ing-yü should be mentioned O-ÊRH-T’AI, the Mongol (_d._ +of Chang T‘ing-yü should be mentioned O-ÊRH-T‘AI, the Mongol (_d._ 1745), and CHU SHIH (1666-1736), both of whom were also voluminous contributors to classical literature. @@ -12194,7 +12160,7 @@ kept him for some time unemployed; and when on recovery he was sent into Shansi, he managed to quarrel with the Viceroy. At the early age of forty he retired from the official arena and led a life of lettered ease in his beautiful garden at Nanking. His letters, which have been -published under the title of _Hsiao Ts’ang Shan Fang Ch’ih Tu_, are +published under the title of _Hsiao Ts‘ang Shan Fang Ch‘ih Tu_, are extremely witty and amusing, and at the same time are models of style. Many of the best are a trifle coarse, sufficiently so to rank them with some of the eighteenth-century literature on this side of the globe; @@ -12218,7 +12184,7 @@ send me a cloak or a coat, and expect to get a whole epic in return! In this way, the prosperity on which you congratulate me would not count for much. -“Shun Yü-t’an of old sacrificed a bowl of rice and a perch to get a +“Shun Yü-t‘an of old sacrificed a bowl of rice and a perch to get a hundred waggons full of grain; he offered little and he wanted much. And have you not heard how a thousand pieces of silk were given for a single word? two beautiful girls for a stanza?--compared with which @@ -12240,7 +12206,7 @@ you asked me even for ten stanzas, I would freely have given them. But a great general knows his own strength as well as the enemy’s, and it would hardly be proper for me to lure you from men’s to women’s work, and place on your head a ribboned cap. How then do you venture to -treat me as Ts’ao Ts’ao [on his death-bed treated his concubines], by +treat me as Ts‘ao Ts‘ao [on his death-bed treated his concubines], by bestowing on me an insignificant tobacco-pouch? “Having nothing better to do, I have amused myself with these few lines @@ -12407,7 +12373,7 @@ pieces on the little saucers used as plates, and even putting them into the guests’ mouths, as if they were children or brides, too shy to help themselves. -There was a man in Ch’ang-an, he tells us, who was very fond of giving +There was a man in Ch‘ang-an, he tells us, who was very fond of giving dinners; but the food was atrocious. One day a guest threw himself on his knees in front of this gentleman and said, “Am I not a friend of yours?” @@ -12473,7 +12439,7 @@ work on his favourite subject. “People laugh at me, and say that I am cracked on flowers and a bibliomaniac; but surely study is the proper occupation of a literary man, and as for gardening, that is simply a rest for my brain and a -relaxation in my declining years. What does T’ao Ch’ien say?-- +relaxation in my declining years. What does T‘ao Ch‘ien say?-- ‘_Riches and rank I do not love, I have no hopes of heaven above._’ ... @@ -12481,7 +12447,7 @@ relaxation in my declining years. What does T’ao Ch’ien say?-- Besides, it is only in hours of leisure that I devote myself to the cultivation of flowers.” -Ch’ên Hao-tzŭ then runs through the four seasons, showing how each has +Ch‘ên Hao-tzŭ then runs through the four seasons, showing how each has its especial charm, contributing to the sum of those pure pleasures which are the best antidote against the ills of old age. He then proceeds to deal with times and seasons, showing what to do under @@ -12595,37 +12561,37 @@ Buddha. These are her farewell lines:-- One of the greatest of the scholars of the present dynasty was YÜAN YÜAN (1764-1849). He took his third degree in 1789, and at the -final examination the aged Emperor Ch’ien Lung was so struck with +final examination the aged Emperor Ch‘ien Lung was so struck with his talents that he exclaimed, “Who would have thought that, after passing my eightieth year, I should find another such man as this one?” He then held many high offices in succession, including the post of Governor of Chehkiang, in which he operated vigorously against the -Annamese pirates and Ts’ai Ch’ien, established the tithing system, +Annamese pirates and Ts‘ai Ch‘ien, established the tithing system, colleges, schools, and soup-kitchens, besides devoting himself to the preservation of ancient monuments. As Viceroy of the Two Kuang, he frequently came into collision with British interests, and did his best to keep a tight hand over the barbarian merchants. He was a voluminous writer on the Classics, astronomy, archæology, &c., and various important collections were produced under his patronage. Among these -may be mentioned the _Huang Ch’ing Ching Chieh_, containing upwards -of 180 separate works, and the _Ch’ou Jen Chuan_, a biographical +may be mentioned the _Huang Ch‘ing Ching Chieh_, containing upwards +of 180 separate works, and the _Ch‘ou Jen Chuan_, a biographical dictionary of famous mathematicians of all ages, including Euclid, Newton, and Ricci, the Jesuit Father. He also published a Topography of Kuangtung, specimens of the compositions of more than 5000 poets of Kiangsi, and a large collection of inscriptions on bells and vases. He also edited the Catalogue of the Imperial Library, the large -encyclopædia known as the _T’ai P’ing Yü Lan_, and other important +encyclopædia known as the _T‘ai P‘ing Yü Lan_, and other important works. * * * * * -[Sidenote: THE KAN YING P’IEN] +[Sidenote: THE KAN YING P‘IEN] Two religious works, associated with the Taoism of modern days, which have long been popular throughout China, may fitly be mentioned here. They are not to be bought in shops, but can always be obtained at temples, where large numbers are placed by philanthropists for -distribution gratis. The first is the _Kan Ying P’ien_, or Book of +distribution gratis. The first is the _Kan Ying P‘ien_, or Book of Rewards and Punishments, attributed by the foolish to Lao Tzŭ himself. Its real date is quite unknown; moderate writers place it in the Sung dynasty, but even that seems far too early. Although nominally @@ -12635,7 +12601,7 @@ mixed up that it is impossible to draw any sharp line of demarcation between the two. As Chu Hsi says, “Buddhism stole the best features of Taoism, and Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism; it is as though the one stole a jewel from the other, and the loser recouped -the loss with a stone.” Prefixed to the _Kan Ying P’ien_ will be found +the loss with a stone.” Prefixed to the _Kan Ying P‘ien_ will be found Buddhist formulæ for cleansing the mouth and body before beginning to read the text, and appeals to Maitrêya Buddha and Avalôkitêsvara. Married women and girls are advised not to frequent temples to be a @@ -12664,7 +12630,7 @@ due will be carried on to the account of his descendants. [Sidenote: THE YÜ LI CH’AO CHUAN] -The second of the two works under consideration is the _Yü Li Ch’ao +The second of the two works under consideration is the _Yü Li Ch‘ao Chuan_, a description of the Ten Courts of Purgatory in the nether world, through some or all of which every erring soul must pass before being allowed to be born again into this world under another form, or @@ -12989,13 +12955,13 @@ conversion into Chinese terms. The following are specimens of classical humour, being such as might be introduced into any serious biographical notice of the individuals concerned. -Ch’un-yü K’un (4th cent. B.C.) was the wit already mentioned, +Ch‘un-yü K‘un (4th cent. B.C.) was the wit already mentioned, who tried to entangle Mencius in his talk. On one occasion, when -the Ch’u State was about to attack the Ch’i State, he was ordered -by the Prince of Ch’i, who was his father-in-law, to proceed to the +the Ch‘u State was about to attack the Ch‘i State, he was ordered +by the Prince of Ch‘i, who was his father-in-law, to proceed to the Chao State and ask that an army might be sent to their assistance; to which end the Prince supplied him with 100 lbs. of silver and ten -chariots as offerings to the ruler of Chao. At this Ch’un-yü laughed +chariots as offerings to the ruler of Chao. At this Ch‘un-yü laughed so immoderately that he snapped the lash of his cap; and when the Prince asked him what was the joke, he said, “As I was coming along this morning, I saw a husbandman sacrificing a pig’s foot and a single @@ -13005,7 +12971,7 @@ bloom with crops and my barns burst with grain!’ And I could not help laughing at a man who offered so little and wanted so much.” The Prince took the hint, and obtained the assistance he required. -T’ao Ku (A.D. 902-970) was an eminent official whose name +T‘ao Ku (A.D. 902-970) was an eminent official whose name is popularly known in connection with the following repartee. Having ordered a newly-purchased waiting-maid to get some snow and make tea in honour of the Feast of Lanterns, he asked her, somewhat pompously, “Was @@ -13014,7 +12980,7 @@ were a rough lot. They just put up a gold-splashed awning, and had a little music and some old wine.” Li Chia-ming (10th cent. A.D.) was a wit at the Court of -the last ruler of the T’ang dynasty. On one occasion the latter drew +the last ruler of the T‘ang dynasty. On one occasion the latter drew attention to some gathering clouds which appeared about to bring rain. “They may come,” said Li Chia-ming, “but they will not venture to enter the city.” “Why not?” asked the Prince. “Because,” replied @@ -13317,7 +13283,7 @@ of Roman Catholic missionaries (_neo-missionariis accommodatus_). Another very important work, now rapidly approaching completion, is a translation by Professor E. Chavannes, Collège de France, of the famous history described in Book II. chap, iii., under the title of _Les -Mémoires Historiques de Se-ma Ts’ien_, the first volume of which is +Mémoires Historiques de Se-ma Ts‘ien_, the first volume of which is dated Paris, 1895. _Notes on Chinese Literature_, by A. Wylie, Shanghai, 1867, contains @@ -13414,7 +13380,7 @@ INDEX Catalogue of the Imperial Library, 387, 418 - _Chan Kuo Ts’ê_, 92 + _Chan Kuo Ts‘ê_, 92 CHANG CHI, 175, 176 @@ -13426,11 +13392,11 @@ INDEX CHANG PI, 209 - CHANG T’ING-YÜ, 404 + CHANG T‘ING-YÜ, 404 CH’ANG CH’IEN, 158 - Chao Ch’i, 36 + Chao Ch‘i, 36 CHAO I, 415 @@ -13448,11 +13414,11 @@ INDEX CH’ÊN LIN, 122 - CH’ÊN P’ÊNG-NIEN, 238 + CH’ÊN P‘ÊNG-NIEN, 238 - CH’ÊN T’AO, 204 + CH’ÊN T‘AO, 204 - CH’ÊN T’UAN, 233 + CH’ÊN T‘UAN, 233 CH’ÊN TZŬ-ANG, 147, 148 @@ -13476,11 +13442,11 @@ INDEX CH’IEN LUNG, 14, 228, 252, 387, 417 - _Chin Ku Ch’i Kuan_, 322 + _Chin Ku Ch‘i Kuan_, 322 - Ch’in Kuei, 261 + Ch‘in Kuei, 261 - _Ch’in P’ing Mei_, 309 + _Ch‘in P‘ing Mei_, 309 _Ching Hua Yüan_, 316-322 @@ -13488,7 +13454,7 @@ INDEX CHOU TUN-I, 219 - _Ch’ou Jen Chuan_, 418 + _Ch‘ou Jen Chuan_, 418 CHU HSI, 228-231 @@ -13502,15 +13468,15 @@ INDEX CHUANG TZŬ, 60-68 - _Ch’un Ch’iu_, 25 + _Ch‘un Ch‘iu_, 25 - Ch’un-yü K’un, 430 + Ch‘un-yü K‘un, 430 _Chung Yung_, 41 Classic of Filial Piety, 48 - Complete collection of the poetry of the T’ang dynasty, 143 + Complete collection of the poetry of the T‘ang dynasty, 143 Concordances, 385, 386 @@ -13603,7 +13569,7 @@ INDEX _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, 273, 276 - Hsi K’ang, 126 + Hsi K‘ang, 126 _Hsi Yu Chi_, 281-287, 310 @@ -13615,9 +13581,9 @@ INDEX _Hsiao Lin Kuang Chi_, 433-436 - _Hsiao Ts’ang Shan Fang Ch’ih Tu_, 405 + _Hsiao Ts‘ang Shan Fang Ch‘ih Tu_, 405 - HSIAO T’UNG, 139 + HSIAO T‘UNG, 139 HSIAO YEN, 133 @@ -13651,9 +13617,9 @@ INDEX HUANG-FU MI, 137 - _Huang Ch’ing Ching Chieh_, 418 + _Huang Ch‘ing Ching Chieh_, 418 - HUANG T’ING-CHIEN, 227, 228, 235, 236 + HUANG T‘ING-CHIEN, 227, 228, 235, 236 Humour, Classical, 430 @@ -13678,11 +13644,11 @@ INDEX Journalism, 428 - _Kan Ying P’ien_, 418 + _Kan Ying P‘ien_, 418 - K’ANG HSI, 385 + K‘ANG HSI, 385 - _K’ang Hsi Tzŭ Tien_, 385 + _K‘ang Hsi Tzŭ Tien_, 385 KAO CHÜ-NIEN, 237 @@ -13708,19 +13674,19 @@ INDEX KUNG-YANG, 29-31 - K’UNG AN-KUO, 80 + K‘UNG AN-KUO, 80 - K’UNG CHI, 36, 41 + K‘UNG CHI, 36, 41 - K’UNG JUNG, 120 + K‘UNG JUNG, 120 - K’ung Tao-fu, 258 + K‘ung Tao-fu, 258 - K’UNG YING-TA, 190 + K‘UNG YING-TA, 190 KUO HSIANG, 61, 137 - KUO P’O, 45, 138 + KUO P‘O, 45, 138 _Kuo Yü_, 26 @@ -13805,7 +13771,7 @@ INDEX LÜ PU-WEI, 48 - _Lü Shih Ch’un Ch’iu_, 48 + _Lü Shih Ch‘un Ch‘iu_, 48 _Lun Hêng_, 94 @@ -13832,7 +13798,7 @@ INDEX MÊNG HAO-JAN, 149 - Mêng T’ien, 80 + Mêng T‘ien, 80 _Ming Chi Kang Mu_, 404 @@ -13848,19 +13814,19 @@ INDEX Mo Ti, 37, 40, 41 - _Mu T’ien Tzŭ Chuan_, 49 + _Mu T‘ien Tzŭ Chuan_, 49 Nearing the Standard, 44, 45 - New History of the T’ang Dynasty, 217 + New History of the T‘ang Dynasty, 217 Nine Old Gentlemen of Hsiang-shan, 164 Novel, The Chinese, 276 - O-ÊRH-T’AI, 404 + O-ÊRH-T‘AI, 404 Odes. See Book of Odes @@ -13881,17 +13847,17 @@ INDEX Pear-Garden, The, 257 - _P’ei Wên Yün Fu_, 385 + _P‘ei Wên Yün Fu_, 385 - _P’i Pa Chi_, 325-328 + _P‘i Pa Chi_, 325-328 “Picking up Gold,” 389 - _P’ien Tzŭ Lei P’ien_, 386 + _P‘ien Tzŭ Lei P‘ien_, 386 _Ping Fa_, 43 - _P’ing Shan Lêng Yen_, 323, 324 + _P‘ing Shan Lêng Yen_, 323, 324 PO CHÜ-I, 163-175 @@ -13903,7 +13869,7 @@ INDEX Proverbs and Maxims, 437-439 - P’U SUNG-LING, 338-355 + P‘U SUNG-LING, 338-355 Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms, 111-114 @@ -13925,7 +13891,7 @@ INDEX Seven Scholars of the Chien-An Period, 119 - SHAN T’AO, 128 + SHAN T‘AO, 128 _Shanghai News_, 428 @@ -13961,7 +13927,7 @@ INDEX Spring and Autumn Annals, 25-31 - SSŬ-K’UNG T’U, 179-188 + SSŬ-K‘UNG T‘U, 179-188 SSŬ-MA CH’IEN, 57, 102-108 @@ -13983,7 +13949,7 @@ INDEX Su Tai, 77 - Su Tung-p’o, 161, 222 + Su Tung-p‘o, 161, 222 SU WU, 82, 83 @@ -14010,29 +13976,29 @@ INDEX ---- the Younger, 23 - TAI T’UNG, 238, 239 + TAI T‘UNG, 238, 239 - _T’ai Hsüan Ching_, 93 + _T‘ai Hsüan Ching_, 93 - _T’ai P’ing Kuang Chi_, 240 + _T‘ai P‘ing Kuang Chi_, 240 - _T’ai P’ing Yü Lan_, 239, 418 + _T‘ai P‘ing Yü Lan_, 239, 418 Tan Ming-lun, 342 - T’AN KUNG, 45-47 + T‘AN KUNG, 45-47 - T’ang the Completer, 9 + T‘ang the Completer, 9 Taoism, 56-74, 419 _Tao Tê Ching_, 56-60, 227 - T’AO CH’IEN, 128-132 + T‘AO CH’IEN, 128-132 - T’ao Ku, 431 + T‘ao Ku, 431 - T’ao Yüan-ming, 128 + T‘ao Yüan-ming, 128 Ten Courts of Purgatory, 420 @@ -14042,11 +14008,11 @@ INDEX Topography of Kuangtung, 418 - Ts’ai Ch’ien, 418 + Ts‘ai Ch‘ien, 418 TS’AI YUNG, 95 - Ts’ang Chieh, 6 + Ts‘ang Chieh, 6 TS’AO CHIH, 123, 124 @@ -14068,17 +14034,17 @@ INDEX TU YU, 191, 240 - _T’u Shu Chi Ch’êng_, 386 + _T‘u Shu Chi Ch‘êng_, 386 Tung-fang So, 54, 97 - _T’ung Chien_, 217 + _T‘ung Chien_, 217 - _T’ung Chien Kang Mu_, 228 + _T‘ung Chien Kang Mu_, 228 - _T’ung Chien Kang Mu San Pien_, 404 + _T‘ung Chien Kang Mu San Pien_, 404 - _T’ung Tien_, 191, 240 + _T‘ung Tien_, 191, 240 Twenty-four Dynastic Histories, 103 @@ -14101,7 +14067,7 @@ INDEX WANG PO, 146, 147 - Wang Pu-ch’ing, 229 + Wang Pu-ch‘ing, 229 Wang Shih-chêng, 309 @@ -14109,11 +14075,11 @@ INDEX Wang Su, 48 - WANG TAO-K’UN, 303-305 + WANG TAO-K‘UN, 303-305 WANG TS’AN, 121 - Wang Tzŭ-ch’iao, 151 + Wang Tzŭ-ch‘iao, 151 WANG WEI, 149, 150 @@ -14121,11 +14087,11 @@ INDEX WEI CHÊNG, 189 - _Wên Hsien T’ung K’ao_, 240 + _Wên Hsien T‘ung K‘ao_, 240 _Wên Hsüan_, 140 - WÊN T’IEN-HSIANG, 248-250 + WÊN T‘IEN-HSIANG, 248-250 Wên Tzŭ, 44 @@ -14174,13 +14140,13 @@ INDEX _Yü Chiao Li_, 309 - _Yü Li Ch’ao Chuan_, 420 + _Yü Li Ch‘ao Chuan_, 420 YÜAN CHI, 127 _Yüan Chien Lei Han_, 386 - _Yüan Ch’ü Hsüan Tsa Chi_, 268 + _Yüan Ch‘ü Hsüan Tsa Chi_, 268 YÜAN HSIEN, 127 @@ -14223,33 +14189,33 @@ p. 123 "TS’AO TSAO" changed to "TS’AO TS’AO" P. 170 "_Feather Jacket_" changed to "_Feather Jacket.”_" -p. 171 "Ssŭchuan" changed to "Ssŭch’uan" +p. 171 "Ssŭchuan" changed to "Ssŭch‘uan" p. 173 "SPIRIT-LAND." changed to "SPIRIT-LAND." -p. 179 "Tu" changed to "T’u" +p. 179 "Tu" changed to "T‘u" p. 184 "SECLUSION" changed to "SECLUSION." -p. 212 "C’hi" changed to "Ch’i" +p. 212 "C’hi" changed to "Ch‘i" -p. 222 "Tung-po" changed to "Tung-p’o" +p. 222 "Tung-po" changed to "Tung-p‘o" -p. 233 "CH’ÊN TUAN" changed to "CH’ÊN T’UAN" +p. 233 "CH’ÊN TUAN" changed to "CH’ÊN T‘UAN" -p. 249 "Tien-hsiang" changed "T’ien-hsiang" +p. 249 "Tien-hsiang" changed "T‘ien-hsiang" p. 275 "villain" changed to "villain." p. 283 "aswered" changed to "answered" -p. 338 "P’u Sung-lang" changed to "P’u Sung-ling" +p. 338 "P‘u Sung-lang" changed to "P‘u Sung-ling" p. 366 "of elm." changed to "of elm," p. 444 "386, 41" changed to "386, 418" -p. 445 "Mèng T’ien" changed to "Mêng T’ien" +p. 445 "Mèng T‘ien" changed to "Mêng T‘ien" p. 446 "_Shiu Hu Chuan_" changed to "_Shui Hu Chuan_" @@ -14274,376 +14240,6 @@ night-jar and nightjar oft-times and ofttimes -TAO-K’UN and TAO-K’UN - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Chinese Literature, by -Herbert A. 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