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diff --git a/old/43711.txt b/old/43711.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3c9f03f..0000000 --- a/old/43711.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,14651 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's A History of Chinese Literature, by Herbert A. Giles - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: A History of Chinese Literature - -Author: Herbert A. Giles - -Release Date: September 13, 2013 [EBook #43711] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF CHINESE LITERATURE *** - - - - -Produced by Henry Flower and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber's Note - -Italic text is indicated by _underscores_. Non-italic text in italic -blocks is marked by ~swung dashes~. - - - - - A HISTORY OF - CHINESE LITERATURE - - BY - - HERBERT A. GILES, M. A., LL. D. (ABERD.) - - PROFESSOR OF CHINESE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE - AND LATE H. B. M. CONSUL AT NINGPO - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK AND LONDON - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - 1927 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1901, - BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. - - - Printed in the United States of America - - - - -PREFACE - - -This is the first attempt made in any language, including Chinese, to -produce a history of Chinese literature. - -Native scholars, with their endless critiques and appreciations of -individual works, do not seem ever to have contemplated anything of the -kind, realising, no doubt, the utter hopelessness, from a Chinese point -of view, of achieving even comparative success in a general historical -survey of the subject. The voluminous character of a literature which -was already in existence some six centuries before the Christian era, -and has run on uninterruptedly until the present date, may well have -given pause to writers aiming at completeness. The foreign student, -however, is on a totally different footing. It may be said without -offence that a work which would be inadequate to the requirements of -a native public, may properly be submitted to English readers as an -introduction into the great field which lies beyond. - -Acting upon the suggestion of Mr. Gosse, to whom I am otherwise -indebted for many valuable hints, I have devoted a large portion of -this book to translation, thus enabling the Chinese author, so far as -translation will allow, to speak for himself. I have also added, here -and there, remarks by native critics, that the reader may be able to -form an idea of the point of view from which the Chinese judge their -own productions. - -It only remains to be stated that the translations, with the exception -of a few passages from Legge's "Chinese Classics," in each case duly -acknowledged, are my own. - - HERBERT A. GILES. - - CAMBRIDGE. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - _BOOK THE FIRST--THE FEUDAL PERIOD_ (B.C. 600-200) - - CHAP. PAGE - - I. LEGENDARY AGES--EARLY CHINESE CIVILISATION--ORIGIN OF WRITING 3 - II. CONFUCIUS--THE FIVE CLASSICS 7 - III. THE FOUR BOOKS--MENCIUS 32 - IV. MISCELLANEOUS WRITERS 43 - V. POETRY--INSCRIPTIONS 50 - VI. TAOISM--THE "TAO-TE-CHING" 56 - - _BOOK THE SECOND--THE HAN DYNASTY_ - (B.C. 200-A.D. 200) - - I. THE "FIRST EMPEROR"--THE BURNING OF THE BOOKS--MISCELLANEOUS - WRITERS 77 - II. POETRY 97 - III. HISTORY--LEXICOGRAPHY 102 - IV. BUDDHISM 110 - - _BOOK THE THIRD--MINOR DYNASTIES_ (A.D. 200-600) - - I. POETRY--MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE 119 - II. CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP 137 - - _BOOK THE FOURTH--THE T'ANG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 600-900) - - I. POETRY 143 - II. CLASSICAL AND GENERAL LITERATURE 189 - - _BOOK THE FIFTH--THE SUNG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 900-1200) - - I. THE INVENTION OF BLOCK-PRINTING 209 - II. HISTORY--CLASSICAL AND GENERAL LITERATURE 212 - III. POETRY 232 - IV. DICTIONARIES--ENCYCLOPAEDIAS--MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 238 - - _BOOK THE SIXTH--THE MONGOL DYNASTY_ - (A.D. 1200-1368) - - I. MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--POETRY 247 - II. THE DRAMA 256 - III. THE NOVEL 276 - - _BOOK THE SEVENTH--THE MING DYNASTY_ - (A.D. 1368-1644) - - I. MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--MATERIA MEDICA--ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF - AGRICULTURE 291 - II. NOVELS AND PLAYS 309 - III. POETRY 329 - - - _BOOK THE EIGHTH--THE MANCHU DYNASTY_ - (A.D. 1644-1900) - - I. THE "LIAO CHAI"--THE "HUNG LOU MENG" 337 - II. THE EMPERORS K'ANG HSI AND CH'IEN LUNG 385 - III. CLASSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--POETRY 391 - IV. WALL LITERATURE--JOURNALISM--WIT AND HUMOUR--PROVERBS AND - MAXIMS 425 - - - BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 441 - - INDEX 443 - - - - -BOOK THE FIRST - -_THE FEUDAL PERIOD_ (B.C. 600-200) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -LEGENDARY AGES--EARLY CHINESE CIVILISATION--ORIGIN OF WRITING - - -The date of the beginning of all things has been nicely calculated by -Chinese chronologers. There was first of all a period when Nothing -existed, though some enthusiasts have attempted to deal with a period -antecedent even to that. Gradually Nothing took upon itself the form -and limitations of Unity, represented by a point at the centre of -a circle. Thus there was a Great Monad, a First Cause, an Aura, a -Zeitgeist, or whatever one may please to call it. - -After countless ages, spent apparently in doing nothing, this Monad -split into Two Principles, one active, the other passive; one -positive, the other negative; light and darkness; male and female. The -interaction of these Two Principles resulted in the production of all -things, as we see them in the universe around us, 2,269,381 years ago. -Such is the cosmogony of the Chinese in a nutshell. - -The more sober Chinese historians, however, are content to begin with a -sufficiently mythical emperor, who reigned only 2800 years before the -Christian era. The practice of agriculture, the invention of wheeled -vehicles, and the simpler arts of early civilisation are generally -referred to this period; but to the dispassionate European student it -is a period of myth and legend: in fact, we know very little about -it. Neither do we know much, in the historical sense, of the numerous -rulers whose names and dates appear in the chronology of the succeeding -two thousand years. It is not indeed until we reach the eighth century -B.C. that anything like history can be said to begin. - -For reasons which will presently be made plain, the sixth century -B.C. is a convenient starting-point for the student of Chinese -literature. - -[Sidenote: FEUDALISM] - -China was then confined to a comparatively small area, lying for the -most part between the Yellow River on the north and the river Yang-tsze -on the south. No one knows where the Chinese came from. Some hold the -fascinating theory that they were emigrants from Accadia in the ancient -kingdom of Babylonia; others have identified them with the lost tribes -of Israel. No one seems to think they can possibly have originated in -the fertile plains where they are now found. It appears indeed to be -an ethnological axiom that every race must have come from somewhere -outside its own territory. However that may be, the China of the eighth -century B.C. consisted of a number of Feudal States, ruled by nobles -owning allegiance to a Central State, at the head of which was a king. -The outward tokens of subjection were homage and tribute; but after -all, the allegiance must have been more nominal than real, each State -being practically an independent kingdom. This condition of things -was the cause of much mutual jealousy, and often of bloody warfare, -several of the States hating one another quite as cordially as Athens -and Sparta at their best. - -There was, notwithstanding, considerable physical civilisation in the -ancient States of those early days. Their citizens, when not employed -in cutting each other's throats, enjoyed a reasonable security of life -and property. They lived in well-built houses; they dressed in silk -or homespun; they wore shoes of leather; they carried umbrellas; they -sat on chairs and used tables; they rode in carts and chariots; they -travelled by boat; and they ate their food off plates and dishes of -pottery, coarse perhaps, yet still superior to the wooden trencher -common not so very long ago in Europe. They measured time by the -sundial, and in the Golden Age they had the two famous calendar trees, -representations of which have come down to us in sculpture, dating -from about A.D. 150. One of these trees put forth a leaf every day for -fifteen days, after which a leaf fell off daily for fifteen more days. -The other put forth a leaf once a month for half a year, after which a -leaf fell off monthly for a similar period. With these trees growing in -the courtyard, it was possible to say at a glance what was the day of -the month, and what was the month of the year. But civilisation proved -unfavourable to their growth, and the species became extinct. - -In the sixth century B.C. the Chinese were also in possession -of a written language, fully adequate to the most varied expression of -human thought, and indeed almost identical with their present script, -allowing, among other things, for certain modifications of form brought -about by the substitution of paper and a camel's-hair brush for the -bamboo tablet and stylus of old. The actual stages by which that point -was reached are so far unknown to us. China has her Cadmus in the -person of a prehistoric individual named Ts'ang Chieh, who is said to -have had four eyes, and to have taken the idea of a written language -from the markings of birds' claws upon the sand. Upon the achievement -of his task the sky rained grain and evil spirits mourned by night. -Previous to this mankind had no other system than rude methods of -knotting cords and notching sticks for noting events or communicating -with one another at a distance. - -As to the origin of the written language of China, invention is -altogether out of the question. It seems probable that in prehistoric -ages, the Chinese, like other peoples, began to make rude pictures of -the sun, moon, and stars, of man himself, of trees, of fire, of rain, -and they appear to have followed these up by ideograms of various -kinds. How far they went in this direction we can only surmise. There -are comparatively few obviously pictorial characters and ideograms -to be found even in the script of two thousand years ago; but -investigations carried on for many years by Mr. L. C. Hopkins, H.M. -Consul, Chefoo, and now approaching completion, point more and more -to the fact that the written language will some day be recognised as -systematically developed from pictorial symbols. It is, at any rate, -certain that at a very early date subsequent to the legendary period -of "knotted cords" and "notches," while the picture-symbols were still -comparatively few, some master-mind reached at a bound the phonetic -principle, from which point the rapid development of a written language -such as we now find would be an easy matter. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -CONFUCIUS--THE FIVE CLASSICS - - -[Sidenote: BOOK OF HISTORY] - -In B.C. 551 CONFUCIUS was born. He may be regarded as the founder of -Chinese literature. During his years of office as a Government servant -and his years of teaching and wandering as an exile, he found time -to rescue for posterity certain valuable literary fragments of great -antiquity, and to produce at least one original work of his own. -It is impossible to assert that before his time there was anything -in the sense of what we understand by the term general literature. -The written language appears to have been used chiefly for purposes -of administration. Many utterances, however, of early, not to say -legendary, rulers had been committed to writing at one time or another, -and such of these as were still extant were diligently collected and -edited by Confucius, forming what is now known as the _Shu Ching_ or -Book of History. The documents of which this work is composed are -said to have been originally one hundred in all, and they cover a -period extending from the twenty-fourth to the eighth century B.C. -They give us glimpses of an age earlier than that of Confucius, if not -actually so early as is claimed. The first two, for instance, refer to -the Emperors Yao and Shun, whose reigns, extending from B.C. 2357 to -2205, are regarded as the Golden Age of China. We read how the former -monarch "united the various parts of his domain in bonds of peace, so -that concord reigned among the black-haired people." He abdicated in -favour of Shun, who is described as being profoundly wise, intelligent, -and sincere. We are further told that Shun was chosen because of his -great filial piety, which enabled him to live in harmony with an -unprincipled father, a shifty stepmother, and an arrogant half-brother, -and, moreover, to effect by his example a comparative reformation of -their several characters. - -We next come to a very famous personage, who founded the Hsia dynasty -in B.C. 2205, and is known as the Great Yue. It was he who, during the -reign of the Emperor Shun, successfully coped with a devastating flood, -which has been loosely identified with the Noachic Deluge, and in -reference to which it was said in the _Tso Chuan_, "How grand was the -achievement of Yue, how far-reaching his glorious energy! But for Yue we -should all have been fishes." The following is his own account (Legge's -translation):-- - -"The inundating waters seemed to assail the heavens, and in their vast -extent embraced the mountains and overtopped the hills, so that people -were bewildered and overwhelmed. I mounted my four conveyances (carts, -boats, sledges, and spiked shoes), and all along the hills hewed down -the woods, at the same time, along with Yi, showing the multitudes how -to get flesh to eat. I opened passages for the streams throughout the -nine provinces, and conducted them to the sea. I deepened the channels -and canals, and conducted them to the streams, at the same time, along -with Chi, sowing grain, and showing the multitudes how to procure -the food of toil in addition to flesh meat. I urged them further to -exchange what they had for what they had not, and to dispose of their -accumulated stores. In this way all the people got grain to eat, and -all the States began to come under good rule." - -A small portion of the Book of History is in verse:-- - - "_The people should be cherished, - And should not be downtrodden. - The people are the root of a country, - And if the root is firm, the country will be tranquil._ - - * * * * * - - _The palace a wild for lust, - The country a wild for hunting, - Rich wine, seductive music, - Lofty roofs, carved walls,-- - Given any one of these, - And the result can only be ruin._" - -From the date of the foundation of the Hsia dynasty the throne of the -empire was transmitted from father to son, and there were no more -abdications in favour of virtuous sages. The fourth division of the -Book of History deals with the decadence of the Hsia rulers and their -final displacement in B.C. 1766 by T'ang the Completer, founder of the -Shang dynasty. By B.C. 1122, the Shang sovereigns had similarly lapsed -from the kingly qualities of their founder to even a lower level of -degradation and vice. Then arose one of the purest and most venerated -heroes of Chinese history, popularly known by his canonisation as -Wen Wang. He was hereditary ruler of a principality in the modern -province of Shensi, and in B.C. 1144 he was denounced as dangerous to -the throne. He was seized and thrown into prison, where he passed two -years, occupying himself with the Book of Changes, to which we shall -presently return. At length the Emperor, yielding to the entreaties of -the people, backed up by the present of a beautiful concubine and some -fine horses, set him at liberty and commissioned him to make war upon -the frontier tribes. To his dying day he never ceased to remonstrate -against the cruelty and corruption of the age, and his name is still -regarded as one of the most glorious in the annals of the empire. It -was reserved for his son, known as Wu Wang, to overthrow the Shang -dynasty and mount the throne as first sovereign of the Chou dynasty, -which was to last for eight centuries to come. The following is a -speech by the latter before a great assembly of nobles who were siding -against the House of Shang. It is preserved among others in the Book of -History, and is assigned to the year B.C. 1133 (Legge's translation):-- - -"Heaven and Earth are the parents of all creatures; and of all -creatures man is the most highly endowed. The sincere, intelligent, -and perspicacious among men becomes the great sovereign, and the great -sovereign is the parent of the people. But now, Shou, the king of -Shang, does not reverence Heaven above, and inflicts calamities on the -people below. He has been abandoned to drunkenness, and reckless in -lust. He has dared to exercise cruel oppression. Along with criminals -he has punished all their relatives. He has put men into office on -the hereditary principle. He has made it his pursuit to have palaces, -towers, pavilions, embankments, ponds, and all other extravagances, -to the most painful injury of you, the myriad people. He has burned -and roasted the loyal and good. He has ripped up pregnant women. Great -Heaven was moved with indignation, and charged my deceased father, Wen, -reverently to display its majesty; but he died before the work was -completed. - -"On this account I, Fa, who am but a little child, have, by means -of you, the hereditary rulers of my friendly States, contemplated -the government of Shang; but Shou has no repentant heart. He abides -squatting on his heels, not serving God or the spirits of heaven and -earth, neglecting also the temple of his ancestors, and not sacrificing -in it. The victims and the vessels of millet all become the prey of -wicked robbers; and still he says, 'The people are mine: the decree is -mine,' never trying to correct his contemptuous mind. Now Heaven, to -protect the inferior people, made for them rulers, and made for them -instructors, that they might be able to be aiding to God, and secure -the tranquillity of the four quarters of the empire. In regard to who -are criminals and who are not, how dare I give any allowance to my own -wishes? - -"'Where the strength is the same, measure the virtue of the parties; -where the virtue is the same, measure their righteousness.' Shou has -hundreds of thousands and myriads of ministers, but they have hundreds -of thousands and myriads of minds; I have three thousand ministers, but -they have one mind. The iniquity of Shang is full. Heaven gives command -to destroy it. If I did not comply with Heaven, my iniquity would be as -great. - -"I, who am a little child, early and late am filled with apprehensions. -I have received charge from my deceased father, Wen; I have offered -special sacrifice to God; I have performed the due services to the -great Earth; and I lead the multitude of you to execute the punishment -appointed by Heaven. Heaven compassionates the people. What the people -desire, Heaven will be found to give effect to. Do you aid me, the one -man, to cleanse for ever all within the four seas. Now is the time!--it -may not be lost." - -Two of the documents which form the Book of History are directed -against luxury and drunkenness, to both of which the people seemed -likely to give way even within measurable distance of the death of Wen -Wang. The latter had enacted that wine (that is to say, ardent spirits -distilled from rice) should only be used on sacrificial occasions, and -then under strict supervision; and it is laid down, almost as a general -principle, that all national misfortunes, culminating in the downfall -of a dynasty, may be safely ascribed to the abuse of wine. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE ODES] - -The _Shih Ching_, or Book of Odes, is another work for the preservation -of which we are indebted to Confucius. It consists of a collection -of rhymed ballads in various metres, usually four words to the line, -composed between the reign of the Great Yue and the beginning of the -sixth century B.C. These, which now number 305, are popularly known -as the "Three Hundred," and are said by some to have been selected -by Confucius from no less than 3000 pieces. They are arranged under -four heads, as follows:--(_a_) Ballads commonly sung by the people in -the various feudal States and forwarded periodically by the nobles to -their suzerain, the Son of Heaven. The ballads were then submitted -to the Imperial Musicians, who were able to judge from the nature of -such compositions what would be the manners and customs prevailing -in each State, and to advise the suzerain accordingly as to the good -or evil administration of each of his vassal rulers. (_b_) Odes sung -at ordinary entertainments given by the suzerain. (_c_) Odes sung on -grand occasions when the feudal nobles were gathered together. (_d_) -Panegyrics and sacrificial odes. - -Confucius himself attached the utmost importance to his labours in this -direction. "Have you learned the Odes?" he inquired upon one occasion -of his son; and on receiving an answer in the negative, immediately -told the youth that until he did so he would be unfit for the society -of intellectual men. Confucius may indeed be said to have anticipated -the apophthegm attributed by Fletcher of Saltoun to a "very wise man," -namely, that he who should be allowed to make a nation's "ballads need -care little who made its laws." And it was probably this appreciation -by Confucius that gave rise to an extraordinary literary craze in -reference to these Odes. Early commentators, incapable of seeing the -simple natural beauties of the poems, which have furnished endless -household words and a large stock of phraseology to the language of -the present day, and at the same time unable to ignore the deliberate -judgment of the Master, set to work to read into countryside ditties -deep moral and political significations. Every single one of the -immortal Three Hundred has thus been forced to yield some hidden -meaning and point an appropriate moral. If a maiden warns her lover not -to be too rash-- - - "_Don't come in, sir, please! - Don't break my willow-trees! - Not that that would very much grieve me; - But alack-a-day! what would my parents say? - And love you as I may, - I cannot bear to think what that would be,_"-- - -commentators promptly discover that the piece refers to a feudal noble -whose brother had been plotting against him, and to the excuses of the -former for not visiting the latter with swift and exemplary punishment. - -Another independent young lady may say-- - - "_If you will love me dear, my lord, - I'll pick up my skirts and cross the ford, - But if from your heart you turn me out ... - Well, you're not the only man about, - You silly, silly, silliest lout!_"-- - -still commentaries are not wanting to show that these straightforward -words express the wish of the people of a certain small State that -some great State would intervene and put an end to an existing feud in -the ruling family. Native scholars are, of course, hide-bound in the -traditions of commentators, but European students will do well to seek -the meaning of the Odes within the compass of the Odes themselves. - -Possibly the very introduction of these absurdities may have helped to -preserve to our day a work which would otherwise have been considered -too trivial to merit the attention of scholars. Chinese who are in -the front rank of scholarship know it by heart, and each separate -piece has been searchingly examined, until the force of exegesis can -no farther go. There is one famous line which runs, according to the -accepted commentary, "The muddiness of the Ching river appears from -the (clearness of the) Wei river." In 1790 the Emperor Ch'ien Lung, -dissatisfied with this interpretation, sent a viceroy to examine the -rivers. The latter reported that the Ching was really clear and the Wei -muddy, so that the wording of the line must mean "The Ching river is -made muddy by the Wei river." - -The following is a specimen of one of the longer of the Odes, saddled, -like all the rest, with an impossible political interpretation, of -which nothing more need be said:-- - - "_You seemed a guileless youth enough, - Offering for silk your woven stuff;[1] - But silk was not required by you; - I was the silk you had in view. - With you I crossed the ford, and while - We wandered on for many a mile - I said, 'I do not wish delay, - But friends must fix our wedding-day ... - Oh, do not let my words give pain, - But with the autumn come again.'_ - - "_And then I used to watch and wait - To see you passing through the gate; - And sometimes, when I watched in vain, - My tears would flow like falling rain; - But when I saw my darling boy, - I laughed and cried aloud for joy. - The fortune-tellers, you declared, - Had all pronounced us duly paired; - 'Then bring a carriage,' I replied, - 'And I'll away to be your bride.'_ - - "_The mulberry-leaf, not yet undone - By autumn chill, shines in the sun. - O tender dove, I would advise, - Beware the fruit that tempts thy eyes! - O maiden fair, not yet a spouse, - List lightly not to lovers' vows! - A man may do this wrong, and time - Will fling its shadow o'er his crime; - A woman who has lost her name - Is doomed to everlasting shame._ - - "_The mulberry-tree upon the ground - Now sheds its yellow leaves around. - Three years have slipped away from me - Since first I shared your poverty; - And now again, alas the day! - Back through the ford I take my way. - My heart is still unchanged, but you - Have uttered words now proved untrue; - And you have left me to deplore - A love that can be mine no more._ - - "_For three long years I was your wife, - And led in truth a toilsome life; - Early to rise and late to bed, - Each day alike passed o'er my head. - I honestly fulfilled my part, - And you--well, you have broke my heart. - The truth my brothers will not know, - So all the more their gibes will flow. - I grieve in silence and repine - That such a wretched fate is mine._ - - "_Ah, hand in hand to face old age!-- - Instead, I turn a bitter page. - O for the river-banks of yore; - O for the much-loved marshy shore; - The hours of girlhood, with my hair - Ungathered, as we lingered there. - The words we spoke, that seemed so true, - I little thought that I should rue; - I little thought the vows we swore - Would some day bind us two no more._" - -Many of the Odes deal with warfare, and with the separation of wives -from their husbands; others, with agriculture and with the chase, -with marriage and feasting. The ordinary sorrows of life are fully -represented, and to these may be added frequent complaints against -the harshness of officials, one speaker going so far as to wish he -were a tree without consciousness, without home, and without family. -The old-time theme of "eat, drink, and be merry" is brought out as -follows:-- - - "_You have coats and robes, - But you do not trail them; - You have chariots and horses, - But you do not ride in them. - By and by you will die, - And another will enjoy them._ - - "_You have courtyards and halls, - But they are not sprinkled and swept; - You have bells and drums, - But they are not struck. - By and by you will die, - And another will possess them._ - - "_You have wine and food; - Why not play daily on your lute, - That you may enjoy yourself now - And lengthen your days? - By and by you will die, - And another will take your place._" - -The Odes are especially valuable for the insight they give us into the -manners, and customs, and beliefs of the Chinese before the age of -Confucius. How far back they extend it is quite impossible to say. An -eclipse of the sun, "an event of evil omen," is mentioned in one of the -Odes as a recent occurrence on a certain day which works out as the -29th August, B.C. 775; and this eclipse has been verified for -that date. The following lines are from Legge's rendering of this Ode:-- - - "_The sun and moon announce evil, - Not keeping to their proper paths. - All through the kingdom there is no proper government, - Because the good are not employed. - For the moon to be eclipsed - Is but an ordinary matter. - Now that the sun has been eclipsed, - How bad it is!_" - -The rainbow was regarded, not as a portent of evil, but as an improper -combination of the dual forces of nature,-- - - "_There is a rainbow in the east, - And no one dares point at it,_"-- - -and is applied figuratively to women who form improper connections. - -The position of women generally seems to have been very much what it -is at the present day. In an Ode which describes the completion of a -palace for one of the ancient princes, we are conducted through the -rooms,-- - - "_Here will he live, here will he sit, - Here will he laugh, here will he talk,_"-- - -until we come to the bedchamber, where he will awake, and call upon -the chief diviner to interpret his dream of bears and serpents. The -interpretation (Legge) is as follows:-- - - "_Sons shall be born to him:-- - They will be put to sleep on couches; - They will be clothed in robes; - They will have sceptres to play with; - Their cry will be loud. - They will be resplendent with red knee-covers, - The future princes of the land._ - - "_Daughters shall be born to him:-- - They will be put to sleep on the ground; - They will be clothed with wrappers; - They will have tiles to play with. - It will be theirs neither to do wrong nor to do good. - Only about the spirits and the food will they have to think, - And to cause no sorrow to their parents._" - -The distinction thus drawn is severe enough, and it is quite -unnecessary to make a comparison, as some writers on China have done, -between the tile and the sceptre, as though the former were but a dirty -potsherd, good enough for a girl. A tile was used in the early ages -as a weight for the spindle, and is here used merely to indicate the -direction which a girl's activities should take. - -Women are further roughly handled in an Ode which traces the prevailing -misgovernment to their interference in affairs of State and in matters -which do not lie within their province:-- - - "_A clever man builds a city, - A clever woman lays one low; - With all her qualifications, that clever woman - Is but an ill-omened bird. - A woman with a long tongue - Is a flight of steps leading to calamity; - For disorder does not come from heaven, - But is brought about by women. - Among those who cannot be trained or taught - Are women and eunuchs._" - -About seventy kinds of plants are mentioned in the Odes, including the -bamboo, barley, beans, convolvulus, dodder, dolichos, hemp, indigo, -liquorice, melon, millet, peony, pepper, plantain, scallions, sorrel, -sowthistle, tribulus, and wheat; about thirty kinds of trees, including -the cedar, cherry, chestnut, date, hazel, medlar, mulberry, oak, peach, -pear, plum, and willow; about thirty kinds of animals, including the -antelope, badger, bear, boar, elephant, fox, leopard, monkey, rat, -rhinoceros, tiger, and wolf; about thirty kinds of birds, including -the crane, eagle, egret, magpie, oriole, swallow, and wagtail; about -ten kinds of fishes, including the barbel, bream, carp, and tench; and -about twenty kinds of insects, including the ant, cicada, glow-worm, -locust, spider, and wasp. - -Among the musical instruments of the Odes are found the flute, the -drum, the bell, the lute, and the Pandaean pipes; among the metals -are gold and iron, with an indirect allusion to silver and copper; -and among the arms and munitions of war are bows and arrows, spears, -swords, halberds, armour, grappling-hooks, towers on wheels for use -against besieged cities, and gags for soldiers' mouths, to prevent them -talking in the ranks on the occasion of night attacks. - -The idea of a Supreme Being is brought out very fully in the Odes-- - - "_Great is God, - Ruling in majesty._" - -Also, - - "_How mighty is God, - The Ruler of mankind! - How terrible is His majesty!_" - -He is apparently in the form of man, for in one place we read of His -footprint. He hates the oppression of great States, although in another -passage we read-- - - "_Behold Almighty God; - Who is there whom He hates?_" - -He comforts the afflicted. He is free from error. His "Way" is hard to -follow. He is offended by sin. He can be appeased by sacrifice:-- - - "_We fill the sacrificial vessels with offerings, - Both the vessels of wood, and those of earthenware. - Then when the fragrance is borne on high, - God smells the savour and is pleased._" - -One more quotation, which, in deference to space limits, must be the -last, exhibits the husbandman of early China in a very pleasing light:-- - - "_The clouds form in dense masses, - And the rain falls softly down. - Oh, may it first water the public lands, - And then come to our private fields! - Here shall some corn be left standing, - Here some sheaves unbound; - Here some handfuls shall be dropped, - And there some neglected ears; - These are for the benefit of the widow._" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: BOOK OF CHANGES] - -The next of the pre-Confucian works, and possibly the oldest of all, is -the famous _I Ching_, or Book of Changes. It is ascribed to WEN WANG, -the virtual founder of the Chou dynasty, whose son, WU WANG, became the -first sovereign of a long line, extending from B.C. 1122 to B.C. 249. -It contains a fanciful system of philosophy, deduced originally from -Eight Diagrams consisting of triplet combinations or arrangements of a -line and a divided line, either one or other of which is necessarily -repeated twice, and in two cases three times, in the same combination. -Thus there may be three lines [TRIGRAM FOR HEAVEN], or three divided -lines [TRIGRAM FOR EARTH], a divided line above or below two lines -[TRIGRAM FOR LAKE] [TRIGRAM FOR WIND], a divided line between two -lines [TRIGRAM FOR FIRE], and so on, eight in all. These so-called -diagrams are said to have been invented two thousand years and more -before Christ by the monarch Fu Hsi, who copied them from the back of -a tortoise. He subsequently increased the above simple combinations -to sixty-four double ones, on the permutations of which are based -the philosophical speculations of the Book of Changes. Each diagram -represents some power in nature, either active or passive, such as -fire, water, thunder, earth, and so on. - -The text consists of sixty-four short essays, enigmatically and -symbolically expressed, on important themes, mostly of a moral, social, -and political character, and based upon the same number of lineal -figures, each made up of six lines, some of which are whole and the -others divided. The text is followed by commentaries, called the Ten -Wings, probably of a later date and commonly ascribed to Confucius, who -declared that were a hundred years added to his life he would devote -fifty of them to a study of the _I Ching_. - -The following is a specimen (Legge's translation):-- - -"_Text._ [HEXAGRAM FOR TREADING] This suggests the idea of one treading -on the tail of a tiger, which does not bite him. There will be progress -and success. - -"1. The first line, undivided, shows its subject treading his -accustomed path. If he go forward, there will be no error. - -"2. The second line, undivided, shows its subject treading the path -that is level and easy;--a quiet and solitary man, to whom, if he be -firm and correct, there will be good fortune. - -"3. The third line, divided, shows a one-eyed man who thinks he can -see; a lame man who thinks he can walk well; one who treads on the tail -of a tiger and is bitten. All this indicates ill-fortune. We have a -mere bravo acting the part of a great ruler. - -"4. The fourth line, undivided, shows its subject treading on the tail -of a tiger. He becomes full of apprehensive caution, and in the end -there will be good fortune. - -"5. The fifth line, undivided, shows the resolute tread of its subject. -Though he be firm and correct, there will be peril. - -"6. The sixth line, undivided, tells us to look at the whole course -that is trodden, and examine the presage which that gives. If it be -complete and without failure, there will be great good fortune. - -"_Wing._--In this hexagram we have the symbol of weakness treading on -that of strength. - -"The lower trigram indicates pleasure and satisfaction, and responds -to the upper indicating strength. Hence it is said, 'He treads on the -tail of a tiger, which does not bite him; there will be progress and -success.' - -"The fifth line is strong, in the centre, and in its correct place. Its -subject occupies the God-given position, and falls into no distress or -failure;--his action will be brilliant." - -As may be readily inferred from the above extract, no one really -knows what is meant by the apparent gibberish of the Book of Changes. -This is freely admitted by all learned Chinese, who nevertheless hold -tenaciously to the belief that important lessons could be derived from -its pages if we only had the wit to understand them. Foreigners have -held various theories on the subject. Dr. Legge declared that he had -found the key, with the result already shown. The late Terrien de la -Couperie took a bolder flight, unaccompanied by any native commentator, -and discovered in this cherished volume a vocabulary of the language of -the Bak tribes. A third writer regards it as a calendar of the lunar -year, and so forth. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: BOOK OF RITES] - -The _Li Chi_, or Book of Rites, seems to have been a compilation by -two cousins, known as the Elder and the Younger TAI, who flourished in -the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. From existing documents, said to have -emanated from Confucius and his disciples, the Elder Tai prepared a -work in 85 sections on what may be roughly called social rites. The -Younger Tai reduced these to 46 sections. Later scholars, such as Ma -Jung and Cheng Hsuean, left their mark upon the work, and it was not -until near the close of the 2nd century A.D. that finality in this -direction was achieved. It then became known as a _Chi_ = Record, not -as a _Ching_ = Text, the latter term being reserved by the orthodox -solely for such books as have reached us direct from the hands of -Confucius. The following is an extract (Legge's translation):-- - -Confucius said: "Formerly, along with Lao Tan, I was assisting at a -burial in the village of Hsiang, and when we had got to the path the -sun was eclipsed. Lao Tan said to me, 'Ch'iu, let the bier be stopped -on the left of the road; and then let us wail and wait till the eclipse -pass away. When it is light again we will proceed.' He said that this -was the rule. When we had returned and completed the burial, I said -to him, 'In the progress of a bier there should be no returning. When -there is an eclipse of the sun, we do not know whether it will pass -away quickly or not; would it not have been better to go on?' Lao Tan -said, 'When the prince of a state is going to the court of the Son of -Heaven, he travels while he can see the sun. At sundown he halts and -presents his offerings (to the spirit of the way). When a great officer -is on a mission, he travels while he can see the sun, and at sundown -he halts. Now a bier does not set forth in the early morning, nor -does it rest anywhere at night; but those who travel by starlight are -only criminals and those who are hastening to the funeral rites of a -parent.'" - -Other specimens will be found in Chapters iii. and iv. - - * * * * * - -Until the time of the Ming dynasty, A.D. 1368, another and -a much older work, known as the _Chou Li_, or Rites of the Chou -dynasty, and dealing more with constitutional matters, was always -coupled with the _Li Chi_, and formed one of the then recognised Six -Classics. There is still a third work of the same class, and also of -considerable antiquity, called the _I Li_. Its contents treat mostly of -the ceremonial observances of everyday life. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE SPRING AND AUTUMN] - -We now come to the last of the Five Classics as at present constituted, -the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, or Spring and Autumn Annals. This is a chronological -record of the chief events in the State of Lu between the years B.C. -722-484, and is generally regarded as the work of Confucius, whose -native State was Lu. The entries are of the briefest, and comprise -notices of incursions, victories, defeats, deaths, murders, treaties, -and natural phenomena. - -The following are a few illustrative extracts:-- - -"In the 7th year of Duke Chao, in spring, the Northern Yen State made -peace with the Ch'i State. - -"In the 3rd month the Duke visited the Ch'u State. - -"In summer, on the _chia shen_ day of the 4th month (March 11th, -B.C. 594), the sun was eclipsed. - -"In the 7th year of Duke Chuang (B.C. 685), in summer, in the -4th moon, at midnight, there was a shower of stars like rain." - -The Spring and Autumn owes its name to the old custom of prefixing to -each entry the year, month, day, and season when the event recorded -took place; spring, as a commentator explains, including summer, and -autumn winter. It was the work which Confucius singled out as that -one by which men would know and commend him, and Mencius considered -it quite as important an achievement as the draining of the empire -by the Great Yue. The latter said, "Confucius completed the Spring -and Autumn, and rebellious ministers and bad sons were struck with -terror." Consequently, just as in the case of the Odes, native wits -set to work to read into the bald text all manner of hidden meanings, -each entry being supposed to contain approval or condemnation, their -efforts resulting in what is now known as the praise-and-blame theory. -The critics of the Han dynasty even went so far as to declare the -very title elliptical for "praise life-giving like spring, and blame -life-withering like autumn." - -[Sidenote: THE TSO CHUAN] - -Such is the _Ch'un Ch'iu_; and if that were all, it is difficult to say -how the boast of Confucius could ever have been fulfilled. But it is -not all; there is a saving clause. For bound up, so to speak, with the -Spring and Autumn, and forming as it were an integral part of the work, -is a commentary known as the _Tso Chuan_ or TSO'S Commentary. -Of the writer himself, who has been canonised as the Father of Prose, -and to whose pen has also been attributed the _Kuo Yue_ or Episodes of -the States, next to nothing is known, except that he was a disciple of -Confucius; but his glowing narrative remains, and is likely to continue -to remain, one of the most precious heirlooms of the Chinese people. - -What Tso did was this. He took the dry bones of these annals and -clothed them with life and reality by adding a more or less complete -setting to each of the events recorded. He describes the loves and -hates of the heroes, their battles, their treaties, their feastings, -and their deaths, in a style which is always effective, and often -approaches to grandeur. Circumstances of apparently the most trivial -character are expanded into interesting episodes, and every now and -again some quaint conceit or scrap of proverbial literature is thrown -in to give a passing flavour of its own. Under the 21st year of Duke -Hsi, the Spring and Autumn has the following exiguous entry:-- - -"In summer there was great drought." - -To this the _Tso Chuan_ adds-- - -"In consequence of the drought the Duke wished to burn a witch. One of -his officers, however, said to him, 'That will not affect the drought. -Rather repair your city walls and ramparts; eat less, and curtail your -expenditure; practise strict economy, and urge the people to help one -another. That is the essential; what have witches to do in the matter? -If God wishes her to be slain, it would have been better not to allow -her to be born. If she can cause a drought, burning her will only -make things worse.' The Duke took this advice, and during that year, -although there was famine, it was not very severe." - -Under the 12th year of Duke Hsuean the Spring and Autumn says-- - -"In spring the ruler of the Ch'u State besieged the capital of the -Cheng State." - -Thereupon the _Tso Chuan_ adds a long account of the whole business, -from which the following typical paragraph is extracted:-- - -"In the rout which followed, a war-chariot of the Chin State stuck in -a deep rut and could not get on. Thereupon a man of the Ch'u State -advised the charioteer to take out the stand for arms. This eased it a -little, but again the horses turned round. The man then advised that -the flagstaff should be taken out and used as a lever, and at last the -chariot was extricated. 'Ah,' said the charioteer to the man of Ch'u, -'we don't know so much about running away as the people of your worthy -State.'" - -The _Tso Chuan_ contains several interesting passages on music, -which was regarded by Confucius as an important factor in the art of -government, recalling the well-known views of Plato in Book III. of -his _Republic_. Apropos of disease, we read that "the ancient rulers -regulated all things by music." Also that "the superior man will not -listen to lascivious or seductive airs;" "he addresses himself to his -lute in order to regulate his conduct, and not to delight his heart." - -When the rabid old anti-foreign tutor of the late Emperor T'ung Chih -was denouncing the barbarians, and expressing a kindly desire to "sleep -on their skins," he was quoting the phraseology of the _Tso Chuan_. - -One hero, on going into battle, told his friends that he should only -hear the drum beating the signal to advance, for he would take good -care not to hear the gong sounding the retreat. Another made each of -his men carry into battle a long rope, seeing that the enemy all wore -their hair short. In a third case, where some men in possession of -boats were trying to prevent others from scrambling in, we are told -that the fingers of the assailants were chopped off in such large -numbers that they could be picked up in double handfuls. - -Many maxims, practical and unpractical, are to be found scattered over -the _Tso Chuan_, such as, "One day's leniency to an enemy entails -trouble for many generations;" "Propriety forbids that a man should -profit himself at the expense of another;" "The receiver is as bad as -the thief;" "It is better to attack than to be attacked." - -When the French fleet returned to Shanghai in 1885 after being repulsed -in a shore attack at Tamsui, a local wit at once adapted a verse of -doggerel found in the _Tso Chuan_:-- - - "_See goggle-eyes and greedy-guts - Has left his shield among the ruts; - Back from the field, back from the field - He's brought his beard, but not his shield;_" - -and for days every Chinaman was muttering the refrain-- - - "_Yue sai, yue sai - Ch'i chia fu lai._" - -[Sidenote: KU-LIANG AND KUNG-YANG] - -There are two other commentaries on the Spring and Autumn, similar, -but generally regarded as inferior, to the _Tso Chuan_. They are by -KU-LIANG and KUNG-YANG, both of the fifth century B.C. The following -are specimens (Legge's translation, omitting unimportant details):-- - -_Text._--"In spring, in the king's first month, the first day of the -moon, there fell stones in Sung--five of them. In the same month, six -fish-hawks flew backwards, past the capital of Sung." - - The commentary of Ku-liang says, "Why does the text first say - "there fell," and then "stones"? There was the falling, and then - the stones. - - In "six fish-hawks flying backwards past the capital of Sung," - the number is put first, indicating that the birds were collected - together. The language has respect to the seeing of the eyes. - - The Master said, "Stones are things without any intelligence, and - fish-hawks creatures that have a little intelligence. The stones, - having no intelligence, are mentioned along with the day when - they fell, and the fish-hawks, having a little intelligence, are - mentioned along with the month when they appeared. The superior man - (Confucius) even in regard to such things and creatures records - nothing rashly. His expressions about stones and fish-hawks being - thus exact, how much more will they be so about men!" - - The commentary of Kung-yang says, "How is it that the text first - says "there fell," and then "stones"? - - "There fell stones" is a record of what was heard. There was heard - a noise of something falling. On looking at what had fallen, it was - seen to be stones, On examination it was found there were five of - them. - - Why does the text say "six," and then "fish-hawks"? - - "Six fish-hawks backwards flew" is a record of what was seen. When - they looked at the objects, there were six. When they examined - them, they were fish-hawks. When they examined them leisurely, they - were flying backwards. - -Sometimes these commentaries are seriously at variance with that of -Tso. For instance, the text says that in B.C. 689 the ruler of the Chi -State "made a great end of his State." Tso's commentary explains the -words to mean that for various urgent reasons the ruler abdicated. -Kung-yang, however, takes quite a different view. He explains the -passage in the sense that the State in question was utterly destroyed, -the population being wiped out by the ruler of another State in revenge -for the death in B.C. 893 of an ancestor, who was boiled to death at -the feudal metropolis in consequence of slander by a contemporary -ruler of the Chi State. It is important for candidates at the public -examinations to be familiar with these discrepancies, as they are -frequently called upon to "discuss" such points, always with the object -of establishing the orthodox and accepted interpretations. - -[Sidenote: KUNG-YANG CHUAN] - -The following episode is from Kung-yang's commentary, and is quite -different from the story told by Tso in reference to the same -passage:-- - -_Text._--"In summer, in the 5th month, the Sung State made peace with -the Ch'u State. - -"In B.C. 587 King Chuang of Ch'u was besieging the capital of -Sung. He had only rations for seven days, and if these were exhausted -before he could take the city, he meant to withdraw. He therefore -sent his general to climb the ramparts and spy out the condition of -the besieged. It chanced that at the same time an officer of the Sung -army came forth upon the ramparts, and the two met. 'How is your State -getting on?' inquired the general. 'Oh, badly,' replied the officer. -'We are reduced to exchanging children for food, and their bones are -chopped up for fuel.' 'That is bad indeed,' said the general; 'I had -heard, however, that the besieged, while feeding their horses with bits -in their mouths, kept some fat ones for exhibition to strangers. What -a spirit is yours!' To this the officer replied, 'I too have heard -that the superior man, seeing another's misfortune, is filled with -pity, while the ignoble man is filled with joy. And in you I recognise -the superior man; so I have told you our story.' 'Be of good cheer,' -said the general. 'We too have only seven days' rations, and if we -do not conquer you in that time, we shall withdraw.' He then bowed, -and retired to report to his master. The latter said, 'We must now -capture the city before we withdraw.' 'Not so,' replied the general; 'I -told the officer we had only rations for seven days.' King Chuang was -greatly enraged at this; but the general said, 'If a small State like -Sung has officers who speak the truth, should not the State of Ch'u -have such men also?' The king still wished to remain, but the general -threatened to leave him, and thus peace was brought about between the -two States." - -FOOTNOTE: - -[1] Supposed to have been stamped pieces of linen, used as a -circulating medium before the invention of coins. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE FOUR BOOKS--MENCIUS - - -[Sidenote: THE LUN YUe] - -No Chinaman thinks of entering upon a study of the Five Classics until -he has mastered and committed to memory a shorter and simpler course -known as The Four Books. - -The first of these, as generally arranged for students, is the _Lun -Yue_ or Analects, a work in twenty short chapters or books, retailing -the views of Confucius on a variety of subjects, and expressed so far -as possible in the very words of the Master. It tells us nearly all we -really know about the Sage, and may possibly have been put together -within a hundred years of his death. From its pages we seem to gather -some idea, a mere _silhouette_ perhaps, of the great moralist whose -mission on earth was to teach duty towards one's neighbour to his -fellow-men, and who formulated the Golden Rule: "What you would not -others should do unto you, do not unto them!" - -It has been urged by many, who should know better, that the negative -form of this maxim is unfit to rank with the positive form as given to -us by Christ. But of course the two are logically identical, as may -be shown by the simple insertion of the word "abstain;" that is, you -would not that others should abstain from certain actions in regard to -yourself, which practically conveys the positive injunction. - -When a disciple asked Confucius to explain charity of heart, he replied -simply, "Love one another." When, however, he was asked concerning the -principle that good should be returned for evil, as already enunciated -by Lao Tzu (see ch. iv.), he replied, "What then will you return for -good? No: return good for good; for evil, justice." - -He was never tired of emphasising the beauty and necessity of truth: "A -man without truthfulness! I know not how that can be." - -"Let loyalty and truth be paramount with you." - -"In mourning, it is better to be sincere than punctilious." - -"Man is born to be upright. If he be not so, and yet live, he is lucky -to have escaped." - -"Riches and honours are what men desire; yet except in accordance with -right these may not be enjoyed." - -Confucius undoubtedly believed in a Power, unseen and eternal, whom he -vaguely addressed as Heaven: "He who has offended against Heaven has -none to whom he can pray." "I do not murmur against Heaven," and so -on. His greatest commentator, however, Chu Hsi, has explained that by -"Heaven" is meant "Abstract Right," and that interpretation is accepted -by Confucianists at the present day. At the same time, Confucius -strongly objected to discuss the supernatural, and suggested that our -duties are towards the living rather than towards the dead. - -He laid the greatest stress upon filial piety, and taught that man is -absolutely pure at birth, and afterwards becomes depraved only because -of his environment. - -Chapter x. of the _Lun Yue_ gives some singular details of the every-day -life and habits of the Sage, calculated to provoke a smile among those -with whom reverence for Confucius has not been a first principle from -the cradle upwards, but received with loving gravity by the Chinese -people at large. The following are extracts (Legge's translation) from -this famous chapter:-- - -"Confucius, in his village, looked simple and sincere, and as if he -were not able to speak. When he was in the prince's ancestral temple or -in the court, he spoke minutely on every point, but cautiously. - -"When he entered the palace gate, he seemed to bend his body, as if it -were not sufficient to admit him. - -"He ascended the dais, holding up his robe with both his hands and his -body bent; holding in his breath also, as if he dared not breathe. - -"When he was carrying the sceptre of his prince, he seemed to bend his -body as if he were not able to bear its weight. - -"He did not use a deep purple or a puce colour in the ornaments of his -dress. Even in his undress he did not wear anything of a red or reddish -colour. - -"He required his sleeping dress to be half as long again as his body. - -"He did not eat rice which had been injured by heat or damp and turned -sour, nor fish or flesh which was gone. He did not eat what was -discoloured, or what was of a bad flavour, nor anything which was not -in season. He did not eat meat which was not cut properly, nor what was -served without its proper sauce. - -"He was never without ginger when he ate. He did not eat much. - -"When eating, he did not converse. When in bed, he did not speak. - -"Although his food might be coarse rice and vegetable soup, he would -offer a little of it in sacrifice with a grave respectful air. - -"If his mat was not straight, he did not sit on it. - -"The stable being burned down when he was at Court, on his return he -said, 'Has any man been hurt?' He did not ask about the horses. - -"When a friend sent him a present, though it might be a carriage and -horses, he did not bow. The only present for which he bowed was that of -the flesh of sacrifice. - -"In bed, he did not lie like a corpse. At home, he did not put on any -formal deportment. - -"When he saw any one in a mourning dress, though it might be an -acquaintance, he would change countenance; when he saw any one wearing -the cap of full dress, or a blind person, though he might be in his -undress, he would salute them in a ceremonious manner. - -"When he was at an entertainment where there was an abundance of -provisions set before him, he would change countenance and rise -up. On a sudden clap of thunder or a violent wind, he would change -countenance." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: MENCIUS] - -Next in educational order follows the work briefly known as -MENCIUS. This consists of seven books recording the sayings -and doings of a man to whose genius and devotion may be traced the -final triumph of Confucianism. Born in B.C. 372, a little over -a hundred years after the death of the Master, Mencius was brought up -under the care of his widowed mother, whose name is a household word -even at the present day. As a child he lived with her at first near -a cemetery, the result being that he began to reproduce in play the -solemn scenes which were constantly enacted before his eyes. His mother -accordingly removed to another house near the market-place, and before -long the little boy forgot all about funerals and played at buying and -selling goods. Once more his mother disapproved, and once more she -changed her dwelling; this time to a house near a college, where he -soon began to imitate the ceremonial observances in which the students -were instructed, to the great joy and satisfaction of his mother. - -Later on he studied under K'ung Chi, the grandson of Confucius; and -after having attained to a perfect apprehension of the roms or Way -of Confucius, became, at the age of about forty-five, Minister under -Prince Hsuean of the Ch'i State. But the latter would not carry out his -principles, and Mencius threw up his post. Thence he wandered away to -several States, advising their rulers to the best of his ability, but -making no very prolonged stay. He then visited Prince Hui of the Liang -State, and abode there until the monarch's death in B.C. 319. -After that event he returned to the State of Ch'i and resumed his old -position. In B.C. 311 he once more felt himself constrained -to resign office, and retired finally into private life, occupying -himself during the remainder of his days in teaching and in preparing -the philosophical record which now passes under his name. He lived at -a time when the feudal princes were squabbling over the rival systems -of federation and imperialism, and he vainly tried to put into practice -at an epoch of blood and iron the gentle virtues of the Golden Age. -His criterion was that of Confucius, but his teachings were on a lower -plane, dealing rather with man's well-being from the point of view -of political economy. He was therefore justly named by Chao Ch'i the -Second Holy One or Prophet, a title under which he is still known. He -was an uncompromising defender of the doctrines of Confucius, and he -is considered to have effectually "snuffed out" the heterodox schools -of Yang Chu and Mo Ti. - -The following is a specimen of the logomachy of the day, in which -Mencius is supposed to have excelled. The subject is a favourite -one--human nature:-- - -"Kao Tzu said, 'Human nature may be compared with a block of wood; duty -towards one's neighbour, with a wooden bowl. To develop charity and -duty towards one's neighbour out of human nature is like making a bowl -out of a block of wood.' - -"To this Mencius replied, 'Can you, without interfering with the -natural constitution of the wood, make out of it a bowl? Surely you -must do violence to that constitution in the process of making your -bowl. And by parity of reasoning you would do violence to human nature -in the process of developing charity and duty towards one's neighbour. -From which it follows that all men would come to regard these rather as -evils than otherwise.' - -"Kao Tzu said, 'Human nature is like rushing water, which flows east -or west according as an outlet is made for it. For human nature -makes indifferently for good or for evil, precisely as water makes -indifferently for the east or for the west.' - -"Mencius replied, 'Water will indeed flow indifferently towards the -east or west; but will it flow indifferently up or down? It will not; -and the tendency of human nature towards good is like the tendency of -water to flow down. Every man has this bias towards good, just as all -water flows naturally downwards. By splashing water, you may indeed -cause it to fly over your head; and by turning its course you may keep -it for use on the hillside; but you would hardly speak of such results -as the nature of water. They are the results, of course, of a _force -majeure_. And so it is when the nature of man is diverted towards evil.' - -"Kao Tzu said, 'That which comes with life is nature.' - -"Mencius replied, 'Do you mean that there is such a thing as nature in -the abstract, just as there is whiteness in the abstract?' - -"'I do,' answered Kao Tzu. - -"'Just, for instance,' continued Mencius, 'as the whiteness of a -feather is the same as the whiteness of snow, or the whiteness of snow -as the whiteness of jade?' - -"'I do,' answered Kao Tzu again. - -"'In that case,' retorted Mencius, 'the nature of a dog is the same as -that of an ox, and the nature of an ox the same as that of a man.' - -"Kao Tzu said, 'Eating and reproduction of the species are natural -instincts. Charity is subjective and innate; duty towards one's -neighbour is objective and acquired. For instance, there is a man who -is my senior, and I defer to him as such. Not because any abstract -principle of seniority exists subjectively in me, but in the same way -that if I see an albino, I recognise him as a white man because he -is so objectively to me. Consequently, I say that duty towards one's -neighbour is objective or acquired.' - -"Mencius replied, 'The cases are not analogous. The whiteness of a -white horse is undoubtedly the same as the whiteness of a white man; -but the seniority of a horse is not the same as the seniority of a -man. Does our duty to our senior begin and end with the fact of his -seniority? Or does it not rather consist in the necessity of deferring -to him as such?' - -"Kao Tzu said, 'I love my own brother, but I do not love another man's -brother. The distinction arises from within myself; therefore I call it -subjective or innate. But I defer to a stranger who is my senior, just -as I defer to a senior among my own people. The distinction comes to me -from without; therefore I call it objective or acquired." - -"Mencius retorted, 'We enjoy food cooked by strangers just as much as -food cooked by our own people. Yet extension of your principle lands -us in the conclusion that our appreciation of cooked food is also -objective and acquired.'" - - * * * * * - -The following is a well-known colloquy between Mencius and a sophist of -the day who tried to entangle the former in his talk:-- - -The sophist inquired, saying, "'Is it a rule of social etiquette that -when men and women pass things from one to another they shall not allow -their hands to touch?' - -"'That is the rule,' replied Mencius. - -"'Now suppose,' continued the sophist, 'that a man's sister-in-law were -drowning, could he take hold of her hand and save her?' - -"'Any one who did not do so,' said Mencius, 'would have the heart of a -wolf. That men and women when passing things from one to another may -not let their hands touch is a rule for general application. To save -a drowning sister-in-law by taking hold of her hand is altogether an -exceptional case.'" - - * * * * * - -The works of Mencius abound, like the Confucian Analects, in -sententious utterances. The following examples illustrate his general -bias in politics:--"The people are of the highest importance; the gods -come second; the sovereign is of lesser weight." - -"Chieh and Chou lost the empire because they lost the people, which -means that they lost the confidence of the people. The way to gain -the people is to gain their confidence, and the way to do that is to -provide them with what they like and not with what they loathe." - - * * * * * - -This is how Mencius snuffed out the two heterodox philosophers -mentioned above:-- - -"The systems of Yang Chu and Mo Ti fill the whole empire. If a man is -not a disciple of the former, he is a disciple of the latter. But Yang -Chu's egoism excludes the claim of a sovereign, while Mo Ti's universal -altruism leaves out the claim of a father. And he who recognises the -claim of neither sovereign nor father is a brute beast." - - * * * * * - -Yang Chu seems to have carried his egoism so far that even to benefit -the whole world he would not have parted with a single hair from his -body. - -"The men of old knew that with life they had come but for a while, -and that with death they would shortly depart again. Therefore they -followed the desires of their own hearts, and did not deny themselves -pleasures to which they felt naturally inclined. Fame tempted them not; -but led by their instincts alone, they took such enjoyments as lay in -their path, not seeking for a name beyond the grave. They were thus out -of the reach of censure; while as for precedence among men, or length -or shortness of life, these gave them no concern whatever." - -Mo Ti, on the other hand, showed that under the altruistic system all -calamities which men bring upon one another would altogether disappear, -and that the peace and happiness of the Golden Age would be renewed. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: TA HSUeEH AND CHUNG YUNG] - -In the _Ta Hsueeh_, or Great Learning, which forms Sect. xxxix. of the -Book of Rites, and really means learning for adults, we have a short -politico-ethical treatise, the authorship of which is unknown, but -is usually attributed partly to Confucius, and partly to TSENG -TS'AN, one of the most famous of his disciples. In the former -portion there occurs the following well-known climax:-- - -"The men of old, in their desire to manifest great virtue throughout -the empire, began with good government in the various States. To -achieve this, it was necessary first to order aright their own -families, which in turn was preceded by cultivation of their own -selves, and that again by rectification of the heart, following upon -sincerity of purpose which comes from extension of knowledge, this last -being derived from due investigation of objective existences." - - * * * * * - -One more short treatise, known as the _Chung Yung_, which forms Ch. -xxviii. of the Book of Rites, brings us to the end of the Four Books. -Its title has been translated in various ways.[2] Julien rendered the -term by "L'Invariable Milieu," Legge by "The Doctrine of the Mean." Its -authorship is assigned to K'UNG CHI, grandson of Confucius. -He seems to have done little more than enlarge upon certain general -principles of his grandfather in relation to the nature of man and -right conduct upon earth. He seizes the occasion to pronounce an -impassioned eulogium upon Confucius, concluding with the following -words:-- - -"Therefore his fame overflows the Middle Kingdom, and reaches the -barbarians of north and south. Wherever ships and waggons can go, or -the strength of man penetrate; wherever there is heaven above and earth -below; wherever the sun and moon shed their light, or frosts and dews -fall,--all who have blood and breath honour and love him. Wherefore it -may be said that he is the peer of God." - -FOOTNOTE: - -[2] _Chung_ means "middle," and _Yung_ means "course," the former being -defined by the Chinese as "that which is without deflection or bias," -the latter as "that which never varies in its direction." - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MISCELLANEOUS WRITERS - - -Names of the authors who belong to this period, B.C. 600 to -B.C. 200, and of the works on a variety of subjects attributed -to them, would fill a long list. Many of the latter have disappeared, -and others are gross forgeries, chiefly of the first and second -centuries of our era, an epoch which, curiously enough, is remarkable -for a similar wave of forgery on the other side of the world. As to the -authors, it will be seen later on that the Chinese even went so far as -to create some of these for antiquity and then write up treatises to -match. - -There was SUN TZU of the 6th century B.C. He is said -to have written the _Ping Fa_, or Art of War, in thirteen sections, -whereby hangs a strange tale. When he was discoursing one day with -Prince Ho-lu of the Wu State, the latter said, "I have read your book -and want to know if you could apply its principles to women." Sun Tzu -replied in the affirmative, whereupon the Prince took 180 girls out of -his harem and bade Sun Tzu deal with them as with troops. Accordingly -he divided them into two companies, and at the head of each placed a -favourite concubine of the Prince. But when the drums sounded for drill -to begin, all the girls burst out laughing. Thereupon Sun Tzu, without -a moment's delay, caused the two concubines in command to be beheaded. -This at once restored order, and ultimately the corps was raised to a -state of great efficiency. - -The following is an extract from the Art of War:-- - -"If soldiers are not carefully chosen and well drilled to obey, their -movements will be irregular. They will not act in concert. They will -miss success for want of unanimity. Their retreat will be disorderly, -one half fighting while the other is running away. They will not -respond to the call of the gong and drum. One hundred such as these -will not hold their own against ten well-drilled men. - -"If their arms are not good, the soldiers might as well have none. If -the cuirass is not stout and close set, the breast might as well be -bare. Bows that will not carry are no more use at long distances than -swords and spears. Bad marksmen might as well have no arrows. Even good -marksmen, unless able to make their arrows pierce, might as well shoot -with headless shafts. These are the oversights of incompetent generals. -Five such soldiers are no match for one." - -It is notwithstanding very doubtful if we have any genuine remains of -either Sun Tzu, or of Kuan Tzu, Wu Tzu, Wen Tzu, and several other -early writers on war, political philosophy, and cognate subjects. The -same remark applies equally to Chinese medical literature, the bulk of -which is enormous, some of it nominally dating back to legendary times, -but always failing to stand the application of the simplest test. - - * * * * * - -The _Erh Ya_, or Nearing the Standard, is a work which has often been -assigned to the 12th century B.C. It is a guide to the correct -use of many miscellaneous terms, including names of animals, birds, -plants, etc., to which are added numerous illustrations. It was first -edited with commentary by Kuo P'o, of whom we shall read later on, and -some Chinese critics would have us believe that the illustrations we -now possess were then already in existence. But the whole question is -involved in mystery. The following will give an idea of the text:-- - -"For metal we say _lou_ (to chase); for wood _k'o_ (to carve); for bone -_ch'ieh_ (to cut)," etc., etc. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: T'AN KUNG] - -There are some interesting remains of a writer named T'AN KUNG, who -flourished in the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., and whose work has been -included in the Book of Rites. The three following extracts will give -an idea of his scope:-- - -1. "One day Yu-tzu and Tzu-yu saw a child weeping for the loss of its -parents. Thereupon the former observed, 'I never could understand -why mourners should necessarily jump about to show their grief, and -would long ago have got rid of the custom. Now here you have an honest -expression of feeling, and that is all there should ever be.' - -"'My friend,' replied Tzu-yu, 'the mourning ceremonial, with all its -material accompaniments, is at once a check upon undue emotion and a -guarantee against any lack of proper respect. Simply to give vent to -the feelings is the way of barbarians. That is not our way. - -"'Consider. A man who is pleased will show it in his face. He will -sing. He will get excited. He will dance. So, too, a man who is vexed -will look sad. He will sigh. He will beat his breast. He will jump -about. The due regulation of these emotions is the function of a set -ceremonial. - -"'Further. A man dies and becomes an object of loathing. A dead body is -shunned. Therefore, a shroud is prepared, and other paraphernalia of -burial, in order that the survivors may cease to loathe. At death there -is a sacrifice of wine and meat; when the funeral cortege is about to -start, there is another; and after burial there is yet another. Yet no -one ever saw the spirit of the departed come to taste of the food. - -"'These have been our customs from remote antiquity. They have not been -discarded, because, in consequence, men no more shun the dead. What you -may censure in those who perform the ceremonial is no blemish in the -ceremonial itself.'" - -2. "When Tzu-chue died, his wife and secretary took counsel together as -to who should be interred with him. All was settled before the arrival -of his brother, Tzu-heng; and then they informed him, saying, 'The -deceased requires some one to attend upon him in the nether world. We -must ask you to go down with his body into the grave.' 'Burial of the -living with the dead,' replied Tzu-heng, 'is not in accordance with -established rites. Still, as you say some one is wanted to attend upon -the deceased, who better fitted than his wife and secretary? If this -contingency can be avoided altogether, I am willing; if not, then the -duty will devolve upon you two.' From that time forth the custom fell -into desuetude." - -3. "When Confucius was crossing the T'ai mountain, he overheard a -woman weeping and wailing beside a grave. He thereupon sent one of -his disciples to ask what was the matter; and the latter addressed -the woman, saying, 'Some great sorrow must have come upon you that -you give way to grief like this?' 'Indeed it is so,' replied she. 'My -father-in-law was killed here by a tiger; after that, my husband; -and now my son has perished by the same death.' 'But why, then,' -inquired Confucius, 'do you not go away?' 'The government is not -harsh,' answered the woman. 'There!' cried the Master, turning to his -disciples; 'remember that. Bad government is worse than a tiger.'" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: HSUeN TZU] - -The philosopher HSUeN TZU of the 3rd century B.C. -is widely known for his heterodox views on the nature of man, being -directly opposed to the Confucian doctrine so warmly advocated by -Mencius. The following passage, which hardly carries conviction, -contains the gist of his argument:-- - -"By nature, man is evil. If a man is good, that is an artificial -result. For his condition being what it is, he is influenced first of -all by a desire for gain. Hence he strives to get all he can without -consideration for his neighbour. Secondly, he is liable to envy and -hate. Hence he seeks the ruin of others, and loyalty and truth are set -aside. Thirdly, he is a slave to his animal passions. Hence he commits -excesses, and wanders from the path of duty and right. - -"Thus, conformity with man's natural disposition leads to all kinds of -violence, disorder, and ultimate barbarism. Only under the restraint of -law and of lofty moral influences does man eventually become fit to be -a member of regularly organised society. - -"From these premisses it seems quite clear that by nature man is evil; -and that if a man is good, that is an artificial result." - -The _Hsiao Ching_, or Classic of Filial Piety, is assigned partly to -Confucius and partly to TSENG TS'AN, though it more probably -belongs to a very much later date. Considering that filial piety is -admittedly the keystone of Chinese civilisation, it is disappointing to -find nothing more on the subject than a poor pamphlet of commonplace -and ill-strung sentences, which gives the impression of having been -written to fill a void. One short extract will suffice:-- - -"The Master said, 'There are three thousand offences against which the -five punishments are directed, and there is not one of them greater -than being unfilial. - -"'When constraint is put upon a ruler, that is the disowning of his -superiority; when the authority of the sages is disallowed, that is -the disowning of all law; when filial piety is put aside, that is the -disowning of the principle of affection. These three things pave the -way to anarchy.'" - - * * * * * - -The _Chia Yue_, or Family Sayings of Confucius, is a work with a -fascinating title, which has been ascribed by some to the immediate -disciples of Confucius, but which, as it now exists, is usually thought -by native scholars to have been composed by Wang Su, a learned official -who died A.D. 256. There appears to have been an older work -under this same title, but how far the later work is indebted to it, or -based upon it, seems likely to remain unknown. - -Another discredited work is the _Lue Shih Ch'un Ch'iu_, or Spring and -Autumn of LUe PU-WEI, who died B.C. 235 and was the putative sire of the -First Emperor (see ch. vii.). It contains a great deal about the early -history of China, some of which is no doubt based upon fact. - -[Sidenote: MU T'IEN TZU CHUAN] - -Lastly, among spurious books may be mentioned the MU T'IEN TZU -CHUAN, an account of a mythical journey by a sovereign of the -Chou dynasty, supposed to have been taken about 1000 B.C. The -sovereign is unfortunately spoken of by his posthumous title, and the -work was evidently written up in the 3rd century A.D. to suit -a statement found in Lieh Tzu (see chapter vi.) to the effect that the -ruler in question did make some such journey to the West. - - - - -Chapter V - -POETRY--INSCRIPTIONS - - -The poetry which is representative of the period between the death of -Confucius and the 2nd century B.C. is a thing apart. There is nothing -like it in the whole range of Chinese literature. It illumines many -a native pronouncement on the poetic art, the drift of which would -otherwise remain obscure. For poetry has been defined by the Chinese as -"emotion expressed in words," a definition perhaps not more inadequate -than Wordsworth's "impassioned expression." "Poetry," they say, "knows -no law." And again, "The men of old reckoned it the highest excellence -in poetry that the meaning should lie beyond the words, and that the -reader should have to think it out." Of these three canons only the -last can be said to have survived to the present day. But in the fourth -century B.C., Ch'ue Yuean and his school indulged in wild irregular -metres which consorted well with their wild irregular thoughts. Their -poetry was prose run mad. It was allusive and allegorical to a high -degree, and now, but for the commentary, much of it would be quite -unintelligible. - -[Sidenote: LI SAO] - -CH'Ue YUeAN is the type of a loyal Minister. He enjoyed the -full confidence of his Prince until at length the jealousies and -intrigues of rivals sapped his position in the State. Then it was -that he composed the _Li Sao_, or Falling into Trouble, the first -section of which extends to nearly 400 lines. Beginning from the -birth of the writer, it describes his cultivation of virtue and his -earnest endeavour to translate precept into practice. Discouraged by -failure, he visits the grave of the Emperor Shun (chapter ii.), and -gives himself up to prayer, until at length a phoenix-car and dragons -appear, and carry him in search of his ideal away beyond the domain of -mortality,--the chariot of the Sun moving slowly to light him longer -on the way, the Moon leading and the Winds bringing up the rear,--up -to the very palace of God. Unable to gain admission here, he seeks out -a famous magician, who counsels him to stand firm and to continue his -search; whereupon, surrounded by gorgeous clouds and dazzling rainbows, -and amid the music of tinkling ornaments attached to his car, he starts -from the Milky Way, and passing the Western Pole, reaches the sources -of the Yellow River. Before long he is once again in sight of his -native land, but without having discovered the object of his search. - -Overwhelmed by further disappointments, and sinking still more deeply -into disfavour, so that he cared no longer to live, he went forth to -the banks of the Mi-lo river. There he met a fisherman who accosted -him, saying, "Are you not his Excellency the Minister? What has brought -you to this pass?" "The world," replied Ch'ue Yuean, "is foul, and I -alone am clean. There they are all drunk, while I alone am sober. So -I am dismissed." "Ah!" said the fisherman, "the true sage does not -quarrel with his environment, but adapts himself to it. If, as you -say, the world is foul, why not leap into the tide and make it clean? -If all men are drunk, why not drink with them and teach them to avoid -excess?" After some further colloquy, the fisherman rowed away; and -Ch'ue Yuean, clasping a large stone in his arms, plunged into the river -and was seen no more. This took place on the fifth of the fifth moon; -and ever afterwards the people of Ch'u commemorated the day by an -annual festival, when offerings of rice in bamboo tubes were cast into -the river as a sacrifice to the spirit of their great hero. Such is the -origin of the modern Dragon-Boat Festival, which is supposed to be a -search for the body of Ch'ue Yuean. - -A good specimen of his style will be found in the following short poem, -entitled "The Genius of the Mountain." It is one of "nine songs" which, -together with a number of other pieces in a similar strain, have been -classed under the general heading, _Li Sao_, as above. - -"Methinks there is a Genius of the hills, clad in wistaria, girdled -with ivy, with smiling lips, of witching mien, riding on the red pard, -wild cats galloping in the rear, reclining in a chariot, with banners -of cassia, cloaked with the orchid, girt with azalea, culling the -perfume of sweet flowers to leave behind a memory in the heart. But -dark is the grove wherein I dwell. No light of day reaches it ever. The -path thither is dangerous and difficult to climb. Alone I stand on the -hill-top, while the clouds float beneath my feet, and all around is -wrapped in gloom. - -"Gently blows the east wind; softly falls the rain. In my joy I become -oblivious of home; for who in my decline would honour me now? - -"I pluck the larkspur on the hillside, amid the chaos of rock and -tangled vine. I hate him who has made me an outcast, who has now no -leisure to think of me. - -"I drink from the rocky spring. I shade myself beneath the spreading -pine. Even though he were to recall me to him, I could not fall to the -level of the world. - -"Now booms the thunder through the drizzling rain. The gibbons howl -around me all the long night. The gale rushes fitfully through the -whispering trees. And I am thinking of my Prince, but in vain; for I -cannot lay my grief." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SUNG YUe] - -Another leading poet of the day was SUNG YUe, of whom we know -little beyond the fact that he was nephew of Ch'ue Yuean, and like his -uncle both a statesman and a poet. The following extract exhibits him -in a mood not far removed from the lamentations of the _Li Sao_:-- - - "_Among birds the phoenix, among fishes the leviathan holds the - chiefest place; - Cleaving the crimson clouds the phoenix soars apace, - With only the blue sky above, far into the realms of space; - But the grandeur of heaven and earth is as naught to the - hedge-sparrow race._ - - _And the leviathan rises in one ocean to go to rest in a second, - While the depth of a puddle by a humble minnow as the depth of the - sea is reckoned._ - - _And just as with birds and with fishes, so too it is with man; - Here soars a phoenix, there swims a leviathan ... - Behold the philosopher, full of nervous thought, with a flame that - never grows dim, - Dwelling complacently alone; say, what can the vulgar herd know - of him?_" - -As has been stated above, the poems of this school are irregular -in metre; in fact, they are only approximately metrical. The poet -never ends his line in deference to a prescribed number of feet, but -lengthens or shortens to suit the exigency of his thought. Similarly, -he may rhyme or he may not. The reader, however, is never conscious of -any want of art, carried away as he is by flow of language and rapid -succession of poetical imagery. - -Several other poets, such as Chia I and Tung-fang So, who cultivated -this particular vein, but on a somewhat lower plane, belong to the -second century B.C., thus overlapping a period which must be -regarded as heralding the birth of a new style rather than occupied -with the passing of the old. - - * * * * * - -It may here be mentioned that many short pieces of doubtful age and -authorship--some few unquestionably old--have been rescued by Chinese -scholars from various sources, and formed into convenient collections. -Of such is a verse known as "Yao's Advice," Yao being the legendary -monarch mentioned in chapter ii., who is associated with Shun in -China's Golden Age:-- - - "_With trembling heart and cautious steps - Walk daily in fear of God ... - Though you never trip over a mountain, - You may often trip over a clod._" - -There is also the husbandman's song, which enlarges upon the national -happiness of those halcyon days:-- - - "_Work, work;--from the rising sun - Till sunset comes and the day is done - I plough the sod - And harrow the clod, - And meat and drink both come to me, - So what care I for the powers that be?_" - -[Sidenote: INSCRIPTIONS] - -It seems to have been customary in early days to attach inscriptions, -poetical and otherwise, to all sorts of articles for daily use. On -the bath-tub of T'ang, founder of the Shang dynasty in B.C. -1766, there was said to have been written these words:--"If any one on -any one day can make a new man of himself, let him do so every day." -Similarly, an old metal mirror bore as its legend, "Man combs his hair -every morning: why not his heart?" And the following lines are said to -be taken from an ancient wash-basin:-- - - "_Oh, rather than sink in the world's foul tide - I would sink in the bottomless main; - For he who sinks in the world's foul tide - In noisome depths shall for ever abide, - But he who sinks in the bottomless main - May hope to float to the surface again._" - -In this class of verse, too, the metre is often irregular and the rhyme -a mere jingle, according to the canons of the stricter prosody which -came into existence later on. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -TAOISM--THE "TAO-TE-CHING" - - -[Sidenote: TAO-TE-CHING] - -The reader is now asked to begin once more at the sixth century -B.C. So far we have dealt almost exclusively with what may -be called orthodox literature, that is to say, of or belonging to or -based upon the Confucian Canon. It seemed advisable to get that well -off our hands before entering upon another branch, scarcely indeed as -important, but much more difficult to handle. This branch consists of -the literature of Taoism, or that which has gathered around what is -known as the Tao or Way of LAO TZU, growing and flourishing -alongside of, though in direct antagonism to, that which is founded -upon the criteria and doctrines of Confucius. Unfortunately it is quite -impossible to explain at the outset in what this Tao actually consists. -According to Lao Tzu himself, "Those who know do not tell; those who -tell do not know." It is hoped, however, that by the time the end of -this chapter is reached, some glimmering of the meaning of Tao may have -reached the minds of those who have been patient enough to follow the -argument. - -[Sidenote: LAO TZU] - -Lao Tzu was born, according to the weight of evidence, in the year -B.C. 604. Omitting all reference to the supernatural phenomena -which attended his birth and early years, it only remains to say that -we really know next to nothing about him. There is a short biography -of Lao Tzu to be found in the history of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, to be dealt -with in Book II., chapter iii., but internal evidence points to -embroidery laid on by other hands. Just as it was deemed necessary by -pious enthusiasts to interpolate in the work of Josephus a passage -referring to Christ, so it would appear that the original note by -Ssu-ma Ch'ien has been carefully touched up to suit the requirements -of an unauthenticated meeting between Lao Tzu and Confucius, which has -been inserted very much _a propos de bottes_; the more so, as Confucius -is made to visit Lao Tzu with a view to information on Rites, a subject -which Lao Tzu held in very low esteem. This biography ends with the -following extraordinary episode:-- - -"Lao Tzu abode for a long time in Chou, but when he saw that the State -showed signs of decay, he left. On reaching the frontier, the Warden, -named Yin Hsi, said to him, 'So you are going into retirement. I beg -you to write a book for me.' Thereupon Lao Tzu wrote a book, in two -parts, on Tao and Te,[3] extending to over 5000 words. He then went -away, and no one knows where he died." - -It is clear from Ssu-ma Ch'ien's account that he himself had never seen -the book, though a dwindling minority still believe that we possess -that book in the well-known _Tao-Te-Ching_. - -It must now be stated that throughout what are generally believed -to be the writings of Confucius the name of Lao Tzu is never once -mentioned.[4] It is not mentioned by Tso of the famous commentary, nor -by the editors of the Confucian Analects, nor by Tseng Ts'an, nor by -Mencius. Chuang Tzu, who devoted all his energies to the exposition and -enforcement of the teaching of Lao Tzu, never once drops even a hint -that his Master had written a book. In his work will now be found an -account of the meeting of Confucius and Lao Tzu, but it has long since -been laughed out of court as a pious fraud by every competent Chinese -critic. Chu Hsi, Shen Jo-shui, and many others, declare emphatically -against the genuineness of the _Tao-Te-Ching_; and scant allusion would -indeed have been made to it here, were it not for the attention paid to -it by several more or less eminent foreign students of the language. -It is interesting as a collection of many genuine utterances of Lao -Tzu, sandwiched however between thick wads of padding from which little -meaning can be extracted except by enthusiasts who curiously enough -disagree absolutely among themselves. A few examples from the real Lao -Tzu will now be given:-- - -"The Way (Tao) which can be walked upon is not the eternal Way." - -"Follow diligently the Way in your own heart, but make no display of it -to the world." - -"By many words wit is exhausted; it is better to preserve a mean." - -"To the good I would be good. To the not-good I would also be good, in -order to make them good." - -"Recompense injury with kindness." - -"Put yourself behind, and you shall be put in front." - -"Abandon wisdom and discard knowledge, and the people will be benefited -an hundredfold." - -These last maxims are supposed to illustrate Lao Tzu's favourite -doctrine of doing nothing, or, as it has been termed, Inaction, a -doctrine inseparably associated with his name, and one which has ever -exerted much fascination over the more imaginative of his countrymen. -It was openly enunciated as follows:-- - -"Do nothing, and all things will be done." - -"I do nothing, and the people become good of their own accord." - -To turn to the padding, as rendered by the late Drs. Chalmers and -Legge, we may take a paragraph which now passes as chapter vi.:-- - -CHALMERS:--"The Spirit (like perennial spring) of the valley -never dies. This (Spirit) I call the abyss-mother. The passage of the -abyss-mother I call the root of heaven and earth. Ceaselessly it seems -to endure, and it is employed without effort." - - LEGGE:--"_The valley spirit dies not, aye the same; - The female mystery thus do we name. - Its gate, from which at first they issued forth, - Is called the root from which grew heaven and earth. - Long and unbroken does its power remain, - Used gently, and without the touch of pain._" - -One more example from Chalmers' translation will perhaps seal the fate -of this book with readers who claim at least a minimum of sense from an -old-world classic. - - "_Where water abides, it is good for adaptability. - In its heart, it is good for depth. - In giving, it is good for benevolence. - In speaking, it is good for fidelity._" - -That there was such a philosopher as Lao Tzu who lived about the time -indicated, and whose sayings have come down to us first by tradition -and later by written and printed record, cannot possibly be doubted. -The great work of Chuang Tzu would be sufficient to establish this -beyond cavil, while at the same time it forms a handy guide to a nearer -appreciation of this elusive Tao. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CHUANG TZU] - -CHUANG TZU was born in the fourth century B.C., and -held a petty official post. "He wrote," says the historian Ssu-ma -Ch'ien, "with a view to asperse the Confucian school and to glorify the -mysteries of Lao Tzu.... His teachings are like an overwhelming flood, -which spreads at its own sweet will. Consequently, from rulers and -ministers downwards, none could apply them to any definite use." - -Here we have the key to the triumph of the Tao of Confucius over the -Tao of Lao Tzu. The latter was idealistic, the former a practical -system for everyday use. And Chuang Tzu was unable to persuade the -calculating Chinese nation that by doing nothing, all things would -be done. But he bequeathed to posterity a work which, by reason of -its marvellous literary beauty, has always held a foremost place. -It is also a work of much originality of thought. The writer, it is -true, appears chiefly as a disciple insisting upon the principles of -a Master. But he has contrived to extend the field, and carry his own -speculations into regions never dreamt of by Lao Tzu. - -The whole work of Chuang Tzu has not come down to us, neither can all -that now passes under his name be regarded as genuine. Alien hands have -added, vainly indeed, many passages and several entire chapters. But -a sable robe, says the Chinese proverb, cannot be eked out with dogs' -tails. Lin Hsi-chung, a brilliant critic of the seventeenth century, to -whose edition all students should turn, has shown with unerring touch -where the lion left off and the jackals began. - -The honour of the first edition really belongs to a volatile spirit of -the third century A.D., named Hsiang Hsiu. He was probably the -founder, at any rate a member, of a small club of bibulous poets who -called themselves the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. Death, however, -interrupted his labours before he had finished his work on Chuang Tzu, -and the manuscript was purloined by Kuo Hsiang, a scholar who died -A.D. 312, and with some additions was issued by the latter as -his own. - -Before attempting to illustrate by extracts the style and scope of -Chuang Tzu, it will be well to collect from his work a few passages -dealing with the attributes of Tao. In his most famous chapter, -entitled Autumn Floods, a name by which he himself is sometimes spoken -of, Chuang Tzu writes as follows:-- - -"Tao is without beginning, without end." Elsewhere he says, "There is -nowhere where it is not." "Tao cannot be heard; heard, it is not Tao. -Tao cannot be seen; seen, it is not Tao. Tao cannot be spoken; spoken, -it is not Tao. That which imparts form to forms is itself formless; -therefore Tao cannot have a name (as form precedes name)." - -"Tao is not too small for the greatest, nor too great for the smallest. -Thus all things are embosomed therein; wide, indeed, its boundless -capacity, unfathomable its depth." - -"By no thoughts, by no cogitations, Tao may be known. By resting in -nothing, by according in nothing, Tao may be approached. By following -nothing, by pursuing nothing, Tao may be attained." - -In these and many like passages Lao Tzu would have been in full -sympathy with his disciple. So far as it is possible to deduce anything -definite from the scanty traditions of the teachings of Lao Tzu, -we seem to obtain this, that man should remain impassive under the -operation of an eternal, omnipresent law (Tao), and that thus he will -become in perfect harmony with his environment, and that if he is -in harmony with his environment, he will thereby attain to a vague -condition of general immunity. Beyond this the teachings of Lao Tzu -would not carry us. Chuang Tzu, however, from simple problems, such as -a drunken man falling out of a cart and not injuring himself--a common -superstition among sailors--because he is unconscious and therefore -in harmony with his environment, slides easily into an advanced -mysticism. In his marvellous chapter on The Identity of Contraries, he -maintains that from the standpoint of Tao all things are One. Positive -and negative, this and that, here and there, somewhere and nowhere, -right and wrong, vertical and horizontal, subjective and objective, -become indistinct, as water is in water. "When subjective and objective -are both without their correlates, that is the very axis of Tao. And -when that axis passes through the centre at which all Infinities -converge, positive and negative alike blend into an infinite One." -This localisation in a Centre, and this infinite absolute represented -by One, were too concrete even for Chuang Tzu. The One became God, and -the Centre, assigned by later Taoist writers to the pole-star (see -Book IV. ch. i.), became the source of all life and the haven to which -such life returned after its transitory stay on earth. By ignoring the -distinctions of contraries "we are embraced in the obliterating unity -of God. Take no heed of time, nor of right and wrong; but passing into -the realm of the Infinite, make your final rest therein." - -That the idea of an indefinite future state was familiar to the mind of -Chuang Tzu may be gathered from many passages such as the following:-- - -"How then do I know but that the dead repent of having previously clung -to life? - -"Those who dream of the banquet, wake to lamentation and sorrow. Those -who dream of lamentation and sorrow, wake to join the hunt. While they -dream, they do not know that they dream. Some will even interpret the -very dream they are dreaming; and only when they awake do they know -it was a dream. By and by comes the Great Awakening, and then we find -out that this life is really a great dream. Fools think they are awake -now, and flatter themselves they know if they are really princes or -peasants. Confucius and you are both dreams; and I who say you are -dreams,--I am but a dream myself." - -The chapter closes with a paragraph which has gained for its writer an -additional epithet, Butterfly Chuang:-- - -"Once upon a time, I, Chuang Tzu, dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering -hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was -conscious only of following my fancies as a butterfly, and was -unconscious of my individuality as a man. Suddenly, I awaked, and -there I lay, myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man -dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly dreaming I -am a man." - -Chuang Tzu is fond of paradox. He delights in dwelling on the -usefulness of useless things. He shows that ill-grown or inferior trees -are allowed to stand, that diseased pigs are not killed for sacrifice, -and that a hunchback can not only make a good living by washing, for -which a bent body is no drawback, but escapes the dreaded press-gang in -time of war. - -With a few illustrative extracts we must now take leave of Chuang Tzu, -a writer who, although heterodox in the eyes of a Confucianist, has -always been justly esteemed for his pointed wit and charming style. - - * * * * * - -(1.) "It was the time of autumn floods. Every stream poured into the -river, which swelled in its turbid course. The banks receded so far -from one another that it was impossible to tell a cow from a horse. - -"Then the Spirit of the River laughed for joy that all the beauty of -the earth was gathered to himself. Down with the stream he journeyed -east, until he reached the ocean. There, looking eastwards and seeing -no limit to its waves, his countenance changed. And as he gazed over -the expanse, he sighed and said to the Spirit of the Ocean, 'A vulgar -proverb says, that he who has heard but part of the truth thinks no one -equal to himself. And such a one am I. - -"'When formerly I heard people detracting from the learning of -Confucius, or underrating the heroism of Po I, I did not believe. But -now that I have looked upon your inexhaustibility--alas for me had I -not reached your abode, I should have been for ever a laughing-stock to -those of comprehensive enlightenment!' - -"To which the Spirit of the Ocean replied, 'You cannot speak of ocean -to a well-frog, the creature of a narrower sphere. You cannot speak of -ice to a summer-insect,--the creature of a season. You cannot speak -of Tao to a pedagogue: his scope is too restricted. But now that you -have emerged from your narrow sphere and have seen the great ocean, -you know your own insignificance, and I can speak to you of great -principles.'" - -(2.) "Have you never heard of the frog in the old well?--The frog said -to the turtle of the eastern sea, 'Happy indeed am I! I hop on to -the rail around the well. I rest in the hollow of some broken brick. -Swimming, I gather the water under my arms and shut my mouth. I plunge -into the mud, burying my feet and toes; and not one of the cockles, -crabs, or tadpoles I see around me are my match. [Fancy pitting the -happiness of an old well, ejaculates Chuang Tzu, against all the water -of Ocean!] Why do you not come, sir, and pay me a visit?'[5] - -"Now the turtle of the eastern sea had not got its left leg down ere -its right had already stuck fast, so it shrank back and begged to be -excused. It then described the sea, saying, 'A thousand _li_ would -not measure its breadth, nor a thousand fathoms its depth. In the -days of the Great Yue, there were nine years of flood out of ten; but -this did not add to its bulk. In the days of T'ang, there were seven -years out of eight of drought; but this did not narrow its span. Not -to be affected by duration of time, not to be affected by volume of -water,--such is the great happiness of the eastern sea.' - -"At this the well-frog was considerably astonished, and knew not -what to say next. And for one whose knowledge does not reach to the -positive-negative domain, to attempt to understand me, Chuang Tzu, -is like a mosquito trying to carry a mountain, or an ant to swim a -river,--they cannot succeed." - -(3.) "Chuang Tzu was fishing in the P'u when the prince of Ch'u sent -two high officials to ask him to take charge of the administration of -the Ch'u State. - -"Chuang Tzu went on fishing, and without turning his head said, 'I -have heard that in Ch'u there is a sacred tortoise which has been dead -now some three thousand years. And that the prince keeps this tortoise -carefully enclosed in a chest on the altar of his ancestral temple. Now -would this tortoise rather be dead, and have its remains venerated, or -be alive and wagging its tail in the mud?' - -"'It would rather be alive,' replied the two officials, 'and wagging -its tail in the mud.' - -"'Begone!' cried Chuang Tzu. 'I too will wag my tail in the mud.'" - -(4.) "Chuang Tzu one day saw an empty skull, bleached, but still -preserving its shape. Striking it with his riding whip, he said, 'Wert -thou once some ambitious citizen whose inordinate yearnings brought -him to this pass?--some statesman who plunged his country in ruin, and -perished in the fray?--some wretch who left behind him a legacy of -shame?--some beggar who died in the pangs of hunger and cold? Or didst -thou reach this state by the natural course of old age?' - -"When he had finished speaking, he took the skull, and placing it under -his head as a pillow, went to sleep. In the night, he dreamt that the -skull appeared to him, and said, 'You speak well, sir; but all you say -has reference to the life of mortals, and to mortal troubles. In death -there are none of these. Would you like to hear about death?' - -"Chuang Tzu having replied in the affirmative, the skull began:--'In -death, there is no sovereign above, and no subject below. The workings -of the four seasons are unknown. Our existences are bounded only by -eternity. The happiness of a king among men cannot exceed that which we -enjoy.' - -"Chuang Tzu, however, was not convinced, and said, 'Were I to prevail -upon God to allow your body to be born again, and your bones and flesh -to be renewed, so that you could return to your parents, to your wife, -and to the friends of your youth--would you be willing?' - -"At this, the skull opened its eyes wide and knitted its brows and -said, 'How should I cast aside happiness greater than that of a king, -and mingle once again in the toils and troubles of mortality?'" - -(5.) "The Grand Augur, in his ceremonial robes, approached the shambles -and thus addressed the pigs:-- - -"'How can you object to die? I shall fatten you for three months. I -shall discipline myself for ten days and fast for three. I shall strew -fine grass, and place you bodily upon a carved sacrificial dish. Does -not this satisfy you?' - -"Then speaking from the pigs' point of view, he continued, 'It is -better perhaps after all to live on bran and escape the shambles....' - -"'But then,' added he, speaking from his own point of view, 'to enjoy -honour when alive one would readily die on a war-shield or in the -headsman's basket.' - -"So he rejected the pigs' point of view and adopted his own point of -view. In what sense then was he different from the pigs?" - -(6.) "When Chuang Tzu was about to die, his disciples expressed a wish -to give him a splendid funeral. But Chuang Tzu said, 'With heaven and -earth for my coffin and shell, with the sun, moon, and stars as my -burial regalia, and with all creation to escort me to the grave,--are -not my funeral paraphernalia ready to hand?' - -"'We fear,' argued the disciples, 'lest the carrion kite should eat the -body of our Master'; to which Chuang Tzu replied, 'Above ground I shall -be food for kites, below I shall be food for mole-crickets and ants. -Why rob one to feed the other?'" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LIEH TZU] - -The works of LIEH TZU, in two thin volumes, may be procured at -any Chinese book-shop. These volumes profess to contain the writings -of a Taoist philosopher who flourished some years before Chuang Tzu, -and for a long time they received considerable attention at the hands -of European students, into whose minds no suspicion of their real -character seems to have found its way. Gradually the work came to be -looked upon as doubtful, then spurious; and now it is known to be a -forgery, possibly of the first or second century A.D. The scholar--for -he certainly was one--who took the trouble to forge this work, was -himself the victim of a strange delusion. He thought that Lieh Tzu, to -whom Chuang Tzu devotes a whole chapter, had been a live philosopher of -flesh and blood. But he was in reality nothing more than a figment of -the imagination, like many others of Chuang Tzu's characters, though -his name was less broadly allegorical than those of All-in-Extremes, -and of Do-Nothing-Say-Nothing, and others. The book attributed to him -is curious enough to deserve attention. It is on a lower level of -thought and style than the work of Chuang Tzu; still, it contains much -traditional matter and many allusions not found elsewhere. To its -author we owe the famous, but of course apocryphal, story of Confucius -meeting two boys quarrelling about the distance of the sun from the -earth. One of them said that at dawn the sun was much larger than at -noon, and must consequently be much nearer; but the other retorted that -at noon the sun was much hotter, and therefore nearer than at dawn. -Confucius confessed himself unable to decide between them, and was -jeered at by the boys as an impostor. But of all this work perhaps the -most attractive portion is a short story on Dream and Reality:-- - -"A man of the State of Cheng was one day gathering fuel, when he came -across a startled deer, which he pursued and killed. Fearing lest any -one should see him, he hastily concealed the carcass in a ditch and -covered it with plaintain leaves, rejoicing excessively at his good -fortune. By and by, he forgot the place where he had put it, and, -thinking he must have been dreaming, he set off towards home, humming -over the affair on his way. - -"Meanwhile, a man who had overheard his words, acted upon them, and -went and got the deer. The latter, when he reached his house, told his -wife, saying, 'A woodman dreamt he had got a deer, but he did not know -where it was. Now I have got the deer; so his dream was a reality.' 'It -is you,' replied his wife, 'who have been dreaming you saw a woodman. -Did he get the deer? and is there really such a person? It is you who -have got the deer: how, then, can his dream be a reality?' 'It is -true,' assented the husband, 'that I have got the deer. It is therefore -of little importance whether the woodman dreamt the deer or I dreamt -the woodman.' - -"Now when the woodman reached his home, he became much annoyed at the -loss of the deer; and in the night he actually dreamt where the deer -then was, and who had got it. So next morning he proceeded to the place -indicated in his dream,--and there it was. He then took legal steps to -recover possession; and when the case came on, the magistrate delivered -the following judgment:--'The plaintiff began with a real deer and an -alleged dream. He now comes forward with a real dream and an alleged -deer. The defendant really got the deer which plaintiff said he dreamt, -and is now trying to keep it; while, according to his wife, both the -woodman and the deer are but the figments of a dream, so that no one -got the deer at all. However, here is a deer, which you had better -divide between you.'" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: HAN FEI TZU] - -HAN FEI TZU, who died B.C. 233, has left us fifty-five essays of -considerable value, partly for the light they throw upon the connection -between the genuine sayings of Lao Tzu and the _Tao-Te-Ching_, and -partly for the quaint illustrations he gives of the meaning of -the sayings themselves. He was deeply read in law, and obtained -favour in the eyes of the First Emperor (see Book II., ch. i.); but -misrepresentations of rivals brought about his downfall, and he -committed suicide in prison. We cannot imagine that he had before him -the _Tao-Te-Ching_. He deals with many of its best sayings, which may -well have come originally from an original teacher, such as Lao Tzu is -supposed to have been, but quite at random and not as if he took them -from an orderly work. And what is more, portions of his own commentary -have actually slipped into the _Tao-Te-Ching_ as text, showing how -this book was pieced together from various sources. Again, he quotes -sentences not to be found in the _Tao-Te-Ching_. He illustrates such a -simple saying as "To see small beginnings is clearness of sight," by -drawing attention to a man who foresaw, when the tyrant Chou Hsin (who -died B.C. 1122) took to ivory chopsticks, that the tide of luxury had -set in, to bring licentiousness and cruelty in its train, and to end in -downfall and death. - -Lao Tzu said, "Leave all things to take their natural course." To -this Han Fei Tzu adds, "A man spent three years in carving a leaf out -of ivory, of such elegant and detailed workmanship that it would lie -undetected among a heap of real leaves. But Lieh Tzu said, 'If God -Almighty were to spend three years over every leaf, the trees would be -badly off for foliage.'" - -Lao Tzu said, "The wise man takes time by the forelock." Han Fei Tzu -adds, "One day the Court physician said to Duke Huan, 'Your Grace is -suffering from an affection of the muscular system. Take care, or it -may become serious.' 'Oh no,' replied the Duke, 'I have nothing the -matter with me;' and when the physician was gone, he observed to his -courtiers, 'Doctors dearly love to treat patients who are not ill, and -then make capital out of the cure.' Ten days afterwards, the Court -physician again remarked, 'Your Grace has an affection of the flesh. -Take care, or it may become serious.' The Duke took no notice of -this, but after ten days more the physician once more observed, 'Your -Grace has an affection of the viscera. Take care, or it may become -serious.' Again the Duke paid no heed; and ten days later, when the -physician came, he simply looked at his royal patient, and departed -without saying anything. The Duke sent some one to inquire what was -the matter, and to him the physician said, 'As long as the disease -was in the muscles, it might have been met by fomentations and hot -applications; when it was in the flesh, acupuncture might have been -employed; and as long as it was in the viscera, cauterisation might -have been tried; but now it is in the bones and marrow, and naught -will avail.' Five days later, the Duke felt pains all over his body, -and sent to summon his physician; but the physician had fled, and the -Duke died. So it is that the skilful doctor attacks disease while it is -still in the muscles and easy to deal with." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: HUAI-NAN TZU] - -To clear off finally this school of early Taoist writers, it will be -necessary to admit here one whose life properly belongs to the next -period. Liu An, a grandson of the founder of the Han dynasty, became -Prince of Huai-nan, and it is as HUAI-NAN TZU, the Philosopher -of that ilk, that he is known to the Chinese people. He wrote an -esoteric work in twenty-one chapters, which we are supposed still to -possess, besides many exoteric works, such as a treatise on alchemy, -none of which are extant. It is fairly certain, however, that alchemy -was not known to the Chinese until between two and three centuries -later, when it was introduced from the West. As to the book which -passes under his name, it is difficult to assign to it any exact date. -Like the work of Lieh Tzu, it is interesting enough in itself; and -what is more important, it marks the transition of the pure and simple -Way of Lao Tzu, etherealised by Chuang Tzu, to the grosser beliefs -of later ages in magicians and the elixir of life. Lao Tzu urged his -fellow-mortals to guard their vitality by entering into harmony with -their environment. Chuang Tzu added a motive, "to pass into the realm -of the Infinite and make one's final rest therein." From which it is -but a step to immortality and the elixir of life. - -Huai-nan Tzu begins with a lengthy disquisition "On the Nature of Tao," -in which, as elsewhere, he deals with the sayings of Lao Tzu after the -fashion of Han Fei Tzu. Thus Lao Tzu said, "If you do not quarrel, no -one on earth will be able to quarrel with you." To this Huai-nan Tzu -adds, that when a certain ruler was besieging an enemy's town, a large -part of the wall fell down; whereupon the former gave orders to beat a -retreat at once. "For," said he in reply to the remonstrances of his -officers, "a gentleman never hits a man who is down. Let them rebuild -their wall, and then we will renew the attack." This noble behaviour so -delighted the enemy that they tendered allegiance on the spot. - -Lao Tzu said, "Do not value the man, value his abilities." Whereupon -Huai-nan Tzu tells a story of a general of the Ch'u State who was fond -of surrounding himself with men of ability, and once even went so far -as to engage a man who represented himself as a master-thief. His -retainers were aghast; but shortly afterwards their State was attacked -by the Ch'i State, and then, when fortune was adverse and all was on -the point of being lost, the master-thief begged to be allowed to try -his skill. He went by night into the enemy's camp, and stole their -general's bed-curtain. This was returned next morning with a message -that it had been found by one of the soldiers who was gathering fuel. -The same night our master-thief stole the general's pillow, which was -restored with a similar message; and the following night he stole the -long pin used to secure the hair. "Good heavens!" cried the general at -a council of war, "they will have my head next." Upon which the army of -the Ch'i State was withdrawn. - -Among passages of general interest the following may well be quoted:-- - -"Once when the Duke of Lu-yang was at war with the Han State, and -sunset drew near while a battle was still fiercely raging, the Duke -held up his spear, and shook it at the sun, which forthwith went back -three zodiacal signs." - -The end of this philosopher was a tragic one. He seems to have mixed -himself up in some treasonable enterprise, and was driven to commit -suicide. Tradition, however, says that he positively discovered the -elixir of immortality, and that after drinking of it he rose up to -heaven in broad daylight. Also that, in his excitement, he dropped the -vessel which had contained this elixir into his courtyard, and that -his dogs and poultry sipped up the dregs, and immediately sailed up to -heaven after him! - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] Te is the exemplification of Tao. - -[4] The name Lao Tan occurs in four passages in the Book of Rites, but -we are expressly told that by it is not meant the philosopher Lao Tzu. - -[5] "To the minnow, every cranny and pebble and quality and accident of -its little native creek may have become familiar; but does the minnow -understand the ocean tides and periodic currents, the trade-winds, -and monsoons, and moon's eclipses...?"--_Sartor Resartus_, Natural -Supernaturalism. - - -BOOK THE SECOND - -_THE HAN DYNASTY_ (B.C. 200--A.D. 200) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE "FIRST EMPEROR"--THE BURNING OF THE BOOKS--MISCELLANEOUS WRITERS - - -Never has the literature of any country been more closely bound up with -the national history than was that of China at the beginning of the -period upon which we are now about to enter. - -The feudal spirit had long since declined, and the bond between -suzerain and vassal had grown weaker and weaker until at length it had -ceased to exist. Then came the opportunity and the man. The ruler of -the powerful State of Ch'in, after gradually vanquishing and absorbing -such of the other rival States as had not already been swallowed up -by his own State, found himself in B.C. 221 master of the -whole of China, and forthwith proclaimed himself its Emperor. The Chou -dynasty, with its eight hundred years of sway, was a thing of the past, -and the whole fabric of feudalism melted easily away. - -This catastrophe was by no means unexpected. Some forty years -previously a politician, named Su Tai, was one day advising the King -of Chao to put an end to his ceaseless hostilities with the Yen State. -"This morning," said he, "when crossing the river, I saw a mussel open -its shell to sun itself. Immediately an oyster-catcher thrust in his -bill to eat the mussel, but the latter promptly closed its shell and -held the bird fast. 'If it doesn't rain to-day or to-morrow,' cried the -oyster-catcher, 'there will be a dead mussel.' 'And if you don't get -out of this by to-day or to-morrow,' retorted the mussel, 'there will -be a dead oyster-catcher.' Meanwhile up came a fisherman and carried -off both of them. I fear lest the Ch'in State should be our fisherman." - -[Sidenote: LI SSU] - -The new Emperor was in many senses a great man, and civilisation made -considerable advances during his short reign. But a single decree has -branded his name with infamy, to last so long as the Chinese remain -a lettered people. In B.C. 13, a trusted Minister, named Li -Ssu, is said to have suggested an extraordinary plan, by which the -claims of antiquity were to be for ever blotted out and history was -to begin again with the ruling monarch, thenceforward to be famous -as the First Emperor. All existing literature was to be destroyed, -with the exception only of works relating to agriculture, medicine, -and divination; and a penalty of branding and four years' work on -the Great Wall, then in process of building, was enacted against all -who refused to surrender their books for destruction. This plan was -carried out with considerable vigour. Many valuable works perished; -and the Confucian Canon would have been irretrievably lost but for the -devotion of scholars, who at considerable risk concealed the tablets -by which they set such store, and thus made possible the discoveries -of the following century and the restoration of the sacred text. So -many, indeed, of the literati are said to have been put to death for -disobedience that melons actually grew in winter on the spot beneath -which their bodies were buried. - -LI SSU was a scholar himself, and the reputed inventor of -the script known as the Lesser Seal, which was in vogue for several -centuries. The following is from a memorial of his against the -proscription of nobles and others from rival States:-- - -"As broad acres yield large crops, so for a nation to be great there -should be a great population; and for soldiers to be daring their -generals should be brave. Not a single clod was added to T'ai-shan -in vain: hence the huge mountain we now behold. The merest streamlet -is received into the bosom of Ocean: hence the Ocean's unfathomable -expanse. And wise and virtuous is the ruler who scorns not the masses -below. For him, no boundaries of realm, no distinctions of nationality -exist. The four seasons enrich him; the Gods bless him; and, like our -rulers of old, no man's hand is against him." - -The First Emperor died in B.C. 210,[6] and his feeble son, the -Second Emperor, was put to death in 207, thus bringing their line to an -end. The vacant throne was won by a quondam beadle, who established the -glorious House of Han, in memory of which Chinese of the present day, -chiefly in the north, are still proud to call themselves Sons of Han. - -So soon as the empire settled down to comparative peace, a mighty -effort was made to undo at least some of the mischief sustained by the -national literature. An extra impetus was given to this movement by -the fact that under the First Emperor, if we can believe tradition, -the materials of writing had undergone a radical change. A general, -named Meng T'ien, added to the triumphs of the sword the invention of -the camel's-hair brush, which the Chinese use as a pen. The clumsy -bamboo tablet and stylus were discarded, and strips of cloth or silk -came into general use, and were so employed until the first century -A.D., when paper was invented by Ts'ai Lun. Some say that -brickdust and water did duty at first for ink. However that may be, the -form of the written character underwent a corresponding change to suit -the materials employed. - -Meanwhile, books were brought out of their hiding-places, and scholars -like K'UNG AN-KUO, a descendant of Confucius in the twelfth -degree, set to work to restore the lost classics. He deciphered the -text of the Book of History, which had been discovered when pulling -down the old house where Confucius once lived, and transcribed large -portions of it from the ancient into the later script. He also wrote a -commentary on the Analects and another on the Filial Piety Classic. - - * * * * * -[Sidenote: CH'AO TS'O--LI LING] - -CH'AO TS'O (perished B.C. 155), popularly known as -Wisdom-Bag, was a statesman rather than an author. Still, many of his -memorials to the throne were considered masterpieces, and have been -preserved accordingly. He wrote on the military operations against the -Huns, pleading for the employment of frontier tribes, "barbarians, who -in point of food and skill are closely allied to the Huns." "But arms," -he says, "are a curse, and war is a dread thing. For in the twinkling -of an eye the mighty may be humbled, and the strong may be brought -low." In an essay "On the Value of Agriculture" he writes thus:-- - -"Crime begins in poverty; poverty in insufficiency of food; -insufficiency of food in neglect of agriculture. Without agriculture, -man has no tie to bind him to the soil. Without such tie he readily -leaves his birth-place and his home. He is like unto the birds of the -air or the beasts of the field. Neither battlemented cities, nor deep -moats, nor harsh laws, nor cruel punishments, can subdue this roving -spirit that is strong within him. - -"He who is cold examines not the quality of cloth; he who is hungry -tarries not for choice meats. When cold and hunger come upon men, -honesty and shame depart. As man is constituted, he must eat twice -daily, or hunger; he must wear clothes, or be cold. And if the stomach -cannot get food and the body clothes, the love of the fondest mother -cannot keep her children at her side. How then should a sovereign keep -his subjects gathered around him? - -"The wise ruler knows this. Therefore he concentrates the energies of -his people upon agriculture. He levies light taxes. He extends the -system of grain storage, to provide for his subjects at times when -their resources fail." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LI LING] - -The name of LI LING (second and first centuries B.C.) -is a familiar one to every Chinese schoolboy. He was a military -official who was sent in command of 800 horse to reconnoitre the -territory of the Huns; and returning successful from this expedition, -he was promoted to a high command and was again employed against -these troublesome neighbours. With a force of only 5000 infantry he -penetrated into the Hun territory as far as Mount Ling-chi (?), where -he was surrounded by an army of 30,000 of the Khan's soldiers; and when -his troops had exhausted all their arrows, he was forced to surrender. -At this the Emperor was furious; and later on, when he heard that -Li Ling was training the Khan's soldiers in the art of war as then -practised by the Chinese, he caused his mother, wife, and children to -be put to death. Li Ling remained some twenty years, until his death, -with the Huns, and was highly honoured by the Khan, who gave him his -daughter to wife. - -With the renegade Li Ling is associated his patriot contemporary, -SU WU, who also met with strange adventures among the Huns. Several -Chinese envoys had been imprisoned by the latter, and not allowed to -return; and by way of reprisal, Hun envoys had been imprisoned in -China. But a new Khan had recently sent back all the imprisoned envoys, -and in A.D. 100 Su Wu was despatched upon a mission of peace to return -the Hun envoys who had been detained by the Chinese. Whilst at the -Court of the Khan his fellow-envoys revolted, and on the strength of -this an attempt was made to persuade him to throw off his allegiance -and enter the service of the Huns; upon which he tried to commit -suicide, and wounded himself so severely that he lay unconscious for -some hours. He subsequently slew a Chinese renegade with his own -hand; and then when it was found that he was not to be forced into -submission, he was thrown into a dungeon and left without food for -several days. He kept himself alive by sucking snow and gnawing a -felt rug; and at length the Huns, thinking that he was a supernatural -being, sent him away north and set him to tend sheep. Then Li Ling was -ordered to try once more by brilliant offers to shake his unswerving -loyalty, but all was in vain. In the year 86, peace was made with -the Huns, and the Emperor asked for the return of Su Wu. To this the -Huns replied that he was dead; but a former assistant to Su Wu bade -the new envoy tell the Khan that the Emperor had shot a goose with -a letter tied to its leg, from which he had learnt the whereabouts -of his missing envoy. This story so astonished the Khan that Su Wu -was released, and in B.C.. 81 returned to China after a captivity of -nineteen years. He had gone away in the prime of life; he returned a -white-haired and broken-down old man. - -Li Ling and Su Wu are said to have exchanged poems at parting, and -these are to be found published in collections under their respective -names. Some doubt has been cast upon the genuineness of one of those -attributed to Li Ling. It was pointed out by Hung Mai, a brilliant -critic of the twelfth century, that a certain word was used in the -poem, which, being part of the personal name of a recent Emperor, would -at that date have been taboo. No such stigma attaches to the verses -by Su Wu, who further gave to his wife a parting poem, which has been -preserved, promising her that if he lived he would not fail to return, -and if he died he would never forget her. But most famous of all, and -still a common model for students, is a letter written by Li Ling to -Su Wu, after the latter's return to China, in reply to an affectionate -appeal to him to return also. Its genuineness has been questioned by Su -Shih of the Sung dynasty, but not by the greatest of modern critics, -Lin Hsi-chung, who declares that its pathos is enough to make even the -gods weep, and that it cannot possibly have come from any other hand -save that of Li Ling. With this verdict the foreign student may well -rest content. Here is the letter:-- - -"O Tzu-ch'ing, O my friend, happy in the enjoyment of a glorious -reputation, happy in the prospect of an imperishable name,--there is -no misery like exile in a far-off foreign land, the heart brimful of -longing thoughts of home! I have thy kindly letter, bidding me of good -cheer, kinder than a brother's words; for which my soul thanks thee. - -"Ever since the hour of my surrender until now, destitute of all -resource, I have sat alone with the bitterness of my grief. All day -long I see none but barbarians around me. Skins and felt protect me -from wind and rain. With mutton and whey I satisfy my hunger and slake -my thirst. Companions with whom to while time away, I have none. The -whole country is stiff with black ice. I hear naught but the moaning of -the bitter autumn blast, beneath which all vegetation has disappeared. -I cannot sleep at night. I turn and listen to the distant sound of -Tartar pipes, to the whinnying of Tartar steeds. In the morning I sit -up and listen still, while tears course down my cheeks. O Tzu-ch'ing, -of what stuff am I, that I should do aught but grieve? The day of thy -departure left me disconsolate indeed. I thought of my aged mother -butchered upon the threshold of the grave. I thought of my innocent -wife and child, condemned to the same cruel fate. Deserving as I might -have been of Imperial censure, I am now an object of pity to all. Thy -return was to honour and renown, while I remained behind with infamy -and disgrace. Such is the divergence of man's destiny. - -"Born within the domain of refinement and justice, I passed into -an environment of vulgar ignorance. I left behind me obligations to -sovereign and family for life amid barbarian hordes; and now barbarian -children will carry on the line of my forefathers. And yet my merit -was great, my guilt of small account. I had no fair hearing; and when -I pause to think of these things, I ask to what end I have lived? With -a thrust I could have cleared myself of all blame: my severed throat -would have borne witness to my resolution; and between me and my -country all would have been over for aye. But to kill myself would have -been of no avail: I should only have added to my shame. I therefore -steeled myself to obloquy and to life. There were not wanting those who -mistook my attitude for compliance, and urged me to a nobler course; -ignorant that the joys of a foreign land are sources only of a keener -grief. - -"O Tzu-ch'ing, O my friend, I will complete the half-told record of -my former tale. His late Majesty commissioned me, with five thousand -infantry under my command, to carry on operations in a distant country. -Five brother generals missed their way: I alone reached the theatre -of war. With rations for a long march, leading on my men, I passed -beyond the limits of the Celestial Land, and entered the territory of -the fierce Huns. With five thousand men I stood opposed to a hundred -thousand: mine jaded foot-soldiers, theirs horsemen fresh from the -stable. Yet we slew their leaders, and captured their standards, and -drove them back in confusion towards the north. We obliterated their -very traces: we swept them away like dust: we beheaded their general. A -martial spirit spread abroad among my men. With them, to die in battle -was to return to their homes; while I--I venture to think that I had -already accomplished something. - -"This victory was speedily followed by a general rising of the Huns. -New levies were trained to the use of arms, and at length another -hundred thousand barbarians were arrayed against me. The Hun chieftain -himself appeared, and with his army surrounded my little band, so -unequal in strength,--foot-soldiers opposed to horse. Still my tired -veterans fought, each man worth a thousand of the foe, as, covered -with wounds, one and all struggled bravely to the fore. The plain was -strewed with the dying and the dead: barely a hundred men were left, -and these too weak to hold a spear and shield. Yet, when I waved my -hand and shouted to them, the sick and wounded arose. Brandishing their -blades, and pointing towards the foe, they dismissed the Tartar cavalry -like a rabble rout. And even when their arms were gone, their arrows -spent, without a foot of steel in their hands, they still rushed, -yelling, onward, each eager to lead the way. The very heavens and the -earth seemed to gather round me, while my warriors drank tears of -blood. Then the Hunnish chieftain, thinking that we should not yield, -would have drawn off his forces. But a false traitor told him all: the -battle was renewed, and we were lost. - -"The Emperor Kao Ti, with 300,000 men at his back, was shut up in -P'ing-ch'eng. Generals he had, like clouds; counsellors, like drops of -rain. Yet he remained seven days without food, and then barely escaped -with life. How much more then I, now blamed on all sides that I did -not die? This was my crime. But, O Tzu-ch'ing, canst thou say that I -would live from craven fear of death? Am I one to turn my back on my -country and all those dear to me, allured by sordid thoughts of gain? -It was not indeed without cause that I did not elect to die. I longed, -as explained in my former letter, to prove my loyalty to my prince. -Rather than die to no purpose, I chose to live and to establish my good -name. It was better to achieve something than to perish. Of old, Fan Li -did not slay himself after the battle of Hui-chi; neither did Ts'ao Mo -die after the ignominy of three defeats. Revenge came at last; and thus -I too had hoped to prevail. Why then was I overtaken with punishment -before the plan was matured? Why were my own flesh and blood condemned -before the design could be carried out? It is for this that I raise my -face to Heaven, and beating my breast, shed tears of blood. - -"O my friend, thou sayest that the House of Han never fails to reward a -deserving servant. But thou art thyself a servant of the House, and it -would ill beseem thee to say other words than these. Yet Hsiao and Fan -were bound in chains; Han and P'eng were sliced to death; Ch'ao Ts'o -was beheaded. Chou Po was disgraced, and Tou Ying paid the penalty with -his life. Others, great in their generation, have also succumbed to the -intrigues of base men, and have been overwhelmed beneath a weight of -shame from which they were unable to emerge. And now, the misfortunes -of Fan Li and Ts'ao Mo command the sympathies of all. - -"My grandfather filled heaven and earth with the fame of his -exploits--the bravest of the brave. Yet, fearing the animosity of an -Imperial favourite, he slew himself in a distant land, his death being -followed by the secession, in disgust, of many a brother-hero. Can this -be the reward of which thou speakest? - -"Thou too, O my friend, an envoy with a slender equipage, sent on that -mission to the robber race, when fortune failed thee even to the last -resource of the dagger. Then years of miserable captivity, all but -ended by death among the wilds of the far north. Thou left us full of -young life, to return a graybeard; thy old mother dead, thy wife gone -from thee to another. Seldom has the like of this been known. Even the -savage barbarian respected thy loyal spirit: how much more the lord -of all under the canopy of the sky? A many-acred barony should have -been thine, the ruler of a thousand-charioted fief! Nevertheless, they -tell me 'twas but two paltry millions, and the chancellorship of the -Tributary States. Not a foot of soil repaid thee for the past, while -some cringing courtier gets the marquisate of ten thousand families, -and each greedy parasite of the Imperial house is gratified by the -choicest offices of the State. If then thou farest thus, what could I -expect? I have been heavily repaid for that I did not die. Thou hast -been meanly rewarded for thy unswerving devotion to thy prince. This -is barely that which should attract the absent servant back to his -fatherland. - -"And so it is that I do not now regret the past. Wanting though I -may have been in my duty to the State, the State was wanting also in -gratitude towards me. It was said of old, 'A loyal subject, though not -a hero, will rejoice to die for his country.' I would die joyfully even -now; but the stain of my prince's ingratitude can never be wiped away. -Indeed, if the brave man is not to be allowed to achieve a name, but -must die like a dog in a barbarian land, who will be found to crook the -back and bow the knee before an Imperial throne, where the bitter pens -of courtiers tell their lying tales? - -"O my friend, look for me no more. O Tzu-ch'ing, what shall I say? A -thousand leagues lie between us, and separate us for ever. I shall live -out my life as it were in another sphere: my spirit will find its home -among a strange people. Accept my last adieu. Speak for me to my old -acquaintances, and bid them serve their sovereign well. O my friend, -be happy in the bosom of thy family, and think of me no more. Strive -to take all care of thyself; and when time and opportunity are thine, -write me once again in reply. - -"Li Ling salutes thee!" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LU WEN-SHU] - -One of the Chinese models of self-help alluded to in the _San Tzu -Ching_, the famous school primer, to be described later on, is LU -WEN-SHU (first century B.C.). The son of a village gaoler, he was sent -by his father to tend sheep, in which capacity he seems to have formed -sheets of writing material by plaiting rushes, and otherwise to have -succeeded in educating himself. He became an assistant in a prison, -and there the knowledge of law which he had picked up stood him in -such good stead that he was raised to a higher position; and then, -attracting the notice of the governor, he was still further advanced, -and finally took his degree, ultimately rising to the rank of governor. -In B.C. 67 he submitted to the throne the following well-known -memorial:-- - -"May it please your Majesty. - -"Of the ten great follies of our predecessors, one still survives in -the maladministration of justice which prevails. - -"Under the Ch'ins learning was at a discount; brute force carried -everything before it. Those who cultivated a spirit of charity and duty -towards their neighbour were despised. Judicial appointments were -the prizes coveted by all. He who spoke out the truth was stigmatised -as a slanderer, and he who strove to expose abuses was set down as a -pestilent fellow. Consequently all who acted up to the precepts of our -ancient code found themselves out of place in their generation, and -loyal words of good advice to the sovereign remained locked up within -their bosoms, while hollow notes of obsequious flattery soothed the -monarch's ear and lulled his heart with false images, to the exclusion -of disagreeable realities. And so the rod of empire fell from their -grasp for ever. - -"At the present moment the State rests upon the immeasurable bounty and -goodness of your Majesty. We are free from the horrors of war, from the -calamities of hunger and cold. Father and son, husband and wife, are -united in their happy homes. Nothing is wanting to make this a golden -age save only reform in the administration of justice. - -"Of all trusts, this is the greatest and most sacred. The dead man -can never come back to life: that which is once cut off cannot be -joined again. 'Rather than slay an innocent man, it were better that -the guilty escape.' Such, however, is not the view of our judicial -authorities of to-day. With them, oppression and severity are reckoned -to be signs of magisterial acumen and lead on to fortune, whereas -leniency entails naught but trouble. Therefore their chief aim is to -compass the death of their victims; not that they entertain any grudge -against humanity in general, but simply that this is the shortest cut -to their own personal advantage. Thus, our market-places run with -blood, our criminals throng the gaols, and many thousands annually -suffer death. These things are injurious to public morals and hinder -the advent of a truly golden age. - -"Man enjoys life only when his mind is at peace; when he is in -distress, his thoughts turn towards death. Beneath the scourge what is -there that cannot be wrung from the lips of the sufferer? His agony is -overwhelming, and he seeks to escape by speaking falsely. The officials -profit by the opportunity, and cause him to say what will best confirm -his guilt. And then, fearing lest the conviction be quashed by higher -courts, they dress the victim's deposition to suit the circumstances of -the case, so that, when the record is complete, even were Kao Yao[7] -himself to rise from the dead, he would declare that death still left -a margin of unexpiated crime. This, because of the refining process -adopted to ensure the establishment of guilt. - -"Our magistrates indeed think of nothing else. They are the bane of -the people. They keep in view their own ends, and care not for the -welfare of the State. Truly they are the worst criminals of the age. -Hence the saying now runs, 'Chalk out a prison on the ground, and no -one would remain within. Set up a gaoler of wood, and he will be found -standing there alone.'[8] Imprisonment has become the greatest of all -misfortunes, while among those who break the law, who violate family -ties, who choke the truth, there are none to be compared in iniquity -with the officers of justice themselves. - -"Where you let the kite rear its young undisturbed, there will the -phoenix come and build its nest. Do not punish for misguided advice, -and by and by valuable suggestions will flow in. The men of old said, -'Hills and jungles shelter many noxious things; rivers and marshes -receive much filth; even the finest gems are not wholly without flaw. -Surely then the ruler of an empire should put up with a little abuse.' -But I would have your Majesty exempt from vituperation, and open to the -advice of all who have aught to say. I would have freedom of speech -in the advisers of the throne. I would sweep away the errors which -brought the downfall of our predecessors. I would have reverence for -the virtues of our ancient kings and reform in the administration of -justice, to the utter confusion of those who now pervert its course. -Then indeed would the golden age be renewed over the face of the glad -earth, and the people would move ever onwards in peace and happiness -boundless as the sky itself." - - * * * * * - -LIU HSIANG (B.C. 80-89) was a descendant of the -beadle founder of the great Han dynasty. Entering into official life, -he sought to curry favour with the reigning Emperor by submitting -some secret works on the black art, towards which his Majesty was -much inclined. The results not proving successful, he was thrown into -prison, but was soon released that he might carry on the publication of -the commentary on the Spring and Autumn by Ku-liang. He also revised -and re-arranged the historical episodes known as the _Chan Kuo Ts'e_, -wrote treatises on government and some poetry, and compiled Biographies -of Eminent Women, the first work of its kind. - -His son, LIU HSIN, was a precocious boy, who early -distinguished himself by wide reading in all branches of literature. -He worked with his father upon the restoration of the classical -texts, especially of the Book of Changes, and later on was chiefly -instrumental in establishing the position of Tso's Commentary on -the Spring and Autumn. He catalogued the Imperial Library, and in -conjunction with his father discovered--some say compiled--the Chou -Ritual. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: YANG HSIUNG] - -A well-known figure in Chinese literature is YANG HSIUNG (B.C. -53-A.D. 18). As a boy he was fond of straying from the beaten track -and reading whatever he could lay his hands on. He stammered badly, -and consequently gave much time to meditation. He propounded an -ethical criterion occupying a middle place between those insisted -upon by Mencius and by Hsuen K'uang, teaching that the nature of man -at birth is neither good nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that -development in either direction depends wholly upon environment. In -glorification of the Book of Changes he wrote the _T'ai Hsuean Ching_, -and to emphasise the value of the Confucian Analects he produced a -philosophical treatise known as the _Fa Yen_, both between A.D. 1 and -6. On completion of this last, his most famous work, a wealthy merchant -of the province was so struck by its excellence that he offered to -give 100,000 _cash_ if his name should merely be mentioned in it. But -Yang answered with scorn that a stag in a pen or an ox in a cage would -not be more out of place than the name of a man with nothing but money -to recommend him in the sacred pages of a book. Liu Hsin, however, -sneeringly suggested that posterity would use Yang Hsiung's work to -cover pickle-jars. - -Besides composing some mediocre poetry, Yang Hsiung wrote on -acupuncture, music, and philology. There is little doubt that he did -not write the _Fang Yen_, a vocabulary of words and phrases used in -various parts of the empire, which was steadily attributed to him until -Hung Mai, a critic of the twelfth century, already mentioned in Chapter -I. of this Book, made short work of his claims. - - * * * * * - -A brilliant writer who attracted much attention in his day was WANG -CH'UNG (A.D. 27-97). He is said to have picked up his education at -bookstalls, with the aid of a superbly retentive memory. Only one of -his works is extant, the _Lun Heng_, consisting of eighty-five essays -on a variety of subjects. In these he tilts against the errors of the -age, and exposes even Confucius and Mencius to free and searching -criticisms. He is consequently ranked as a heterodox thinker. He -showed that the soul could neither exist after death as a spirit nor -exercise any influence upon the living. When the body decomposes, the -soul, a phenomenon inseparable from vitality, perishes with it. He -further argued that if the souls of human beings were immortal, those -of animals would be immortal likewise; and that space itself would not -suffice to contain the countless shades of the men and creatures of all -time. - -MA JUNG (A.D. 79-166) was popularly known as the Universal Scholar. His -learning in Confucian lore was profound, and he taught upwards of one -thousand pupils. He introduced the system of printing notes or comments -in the body of the page, using for that purpose smaller characters cut -in double columns; and it was by a knowledge of this fact that a clever -critic of the T'ang dynasty was able to settle the spuriousness of an -early edition of the _Tao-Te-Ching_ with double-column commentary, -which had been attributed to Ho Shang Kung, a writer of the second -century B.C. - -[Sidenote: TS'AI YUNG--CHENG HSUeAN] - -TS'AI YUNG (A.D. 133-192), whose tippling propensities earned for him -the nickname of the Drunken Dragon, is chiefly remembered in connection -with literature as superintending the work of engraving on stone the -authorised text of the Five Classics. With red ink he wrote these out -on forty-six tablets for the workmen to cut. The tablets were placed -in the Hung-tu College, and fragments of them are said to be still in -existence. - -The most famous of the pupils who sat at the feet of Ma Jung was CHENG -HSUeAN (A.D. 127-200). He is one of the most voluminous of all the -commentators upon the Confucian classics. He lived for learning. The -very slave-girls of his household were highly educated, and interlarded -their conversation with quotations from the Odes. He was nevertheless -fond of wine, and is said to have been able to take three hundred -cups at a sitting without losing his head. Perhaps it may be as well -to add that a Chinese cup holds about a thimbleful. As an instance of -the general respect in which he was held, it is recorded that at his -request the chief of certain rebels spared the town of Kao-mi (his -native place), marching forward by another route. In A.D. 200 Confucius -appeared to him in a vision, and he knew by this token that his hour -was at hand. Consequently, he was very loth to respond to a summons -sent to him from Chi-chou in Chihli by the then powerful Yuean Shao. He -set out indeed upon the journey, but died on the way. - -It is difficult to bring the above writers, representatives of -a class, individually to the notice of the reader. Though each -one wandered into by-paths of his own, the common lode-star was -Confucianism--elucidation of the Confucian Canon. For although, -with us, commentaries upon the classics are not usually regarded as -literature, they are so regarded by the Chinese, who place such works -in the very highest rank, and reward successful commentators with the -coveted niche in the Confucian temple. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] An account of the mausoleum built to receive his remains will be -found in Chapter iii. of this Book. - -[7] A famous Minister of Crime in the mythical ages. - -[8] Contrary to what was actually the case in the Golden Age. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -POETRY - - -At the beginning of the second century B.C., poetry was still composed -on the model of the _Li Sao_, and we are in possession of a number -of works assigned to Chia I (B.C. 199-168), Tung-fang So (_b._ B.C. -160), Liu Hsiang, and others, all of which follow on the lines of Ch'ue -Yuean's great poem. But gradually, with the more definite establishment -of what we may call classical influence, poets went back to find -their exemplars in the Book of Poetry, which came as it were from the -very hand of Confucius himself. Poems were written in metres of four, -five, and seven words to a line. Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju (_d._ B.C. 117), a -gay Lothario who eloped with a young widow, made such a name with his -verses that he was summoned to Court, and appointed by the Emperor to -high office. His poems, however, have not survived. - -MEI SHENG (_d._ B.C. 140), who formed his style -on Ssu-ma, has the honour of being the first to bring home to his -fellow-countrymen the extreme beauty of the five-word metre. From him -modern poetry may be said to date. Many specimens of his workmanship -are extant:-- - - (1.) "_Green grows the grass upon the bank, - The willow-shoots are long and lank; - A lady in a glistening gown - Opens the casement and looks down - The roses on her cheek blush bright, - Her rounded arm is dazzling white; - A singing-girl in early life, - And now a careless roue's wife.... - Ah, if he does not mind his own, - He'll find some day the bird has flown!_" - - (2.) "_The red hibiscus and the reed, - The fragrant flowers of marsh and mead, - All these I gather as I stray, - As though for one now far away. - I strive to pierce with straining eyes - The distance that between us lies. - Alas that hearts which beat as one - Should thus be parted and undone!_" - -[Sidenote: LIU-HENG--LIU CH'E] - -LIU HENG (_d_. B.C. 157) was the son by a concubine -of the founder of the Han dynasty, and succeeded in B.C. -180 as fourth Emperor of the line. For over twenty years he ruled -wisely and well. He is one of the twenty-four classical examples of -filial piety, having waited on his sick mother for three years without -changing his clothes. He was a scholar, and was canonised after death -by a title which may fairly be rendered "Beauclerc." The following is a -poem which he wrote on the death of his illustrious father, who, if we -can accept as genuine the remains attributed to him, was himself also a -poet:-- - - "_I look up, the curtains are there as of yore; - I look down, and there is the mat on the floor; - These things I behold, but the man is no more._ - - "_To the infinite azure his spirit has flown, - And I am left friendless, uncared-for, alone, - Of solace bereft, save to weep and to moan._ - - "_The deer on the hillside caressingly bleat, - And offer the grass for their young ones to eat, - While birds of the air to their nestlings bring meat_ - - "_But I a poor orphan must ever remain, - My heart, still so young, overburdened with pain - For him I shall never set eyes on again._ - - "_'Tis a well-worn old saying, which all men allow, - That grief stamps the deepest of lines on the brow: - Alas for my hair, it is silvery now!_ - - "_Alas for my father, cut off in his pride! - Alas that no more I may stand by his side! - Oh, where were the gods when that great hero died?_" - -The literary fame of the Beauclerc was rivalled, if not surpassed, by -his grandson, LIU CH'E (B.C. 156-87), who succeeded in B.C. 140 as -sixth Emperor of the Han dynasty. He was an enthusiastic patron of -literature. He devoted great attention to music as a factor in national -life. He established important religious sacrifices to heaven and -earth. He caused the calendar to be reformed by his grand astrologer, -the historian SSU-MA CH'IEN, from which date accurate chronology -may be almost said to begin. His generals carried the Imperial arms -into Central Asia, and for many years the Huns were held in check. -Notwithstanding his enlightened policy, the Emperor was personally -much taken up with the magic and mysteries which were being gradually -grafted on to the Tao of Lao Tzu, and he encouraged the numerous quacks -who pretended to have discovered the elixir of life. The following are -specimens of his skill in poetry:-- - - "_The autumn blast drives the white scud in the sky, - Leaves fade, and wild geese sweeping south meet the eye; - The scent of late flowers fills the soft air above. - My heart full of thoughts of the lady I love. - In the river the barges for revel-carouse - Are lined by white waves which break over their bows; - Their oarsmen keep time to the piping and drumming.... - Yet joy is as naught - Alloyed by the thought - That youth slips away and that old age is coming._" - -The next lines were written upon the death of a harem favourite, to -whom he was fondly attached:-- - - "_The sound of rustling silk is stilled, - With dust the marble courtyard filled; - No footfalls echo on the floor, - Fallen leaves in heaps block up the door.... - For she, my pride, my lovely one, is lost, - And I am left, in hopeless anguish tossed._" - -A good many anonymous poems have come down to us from the first century -B.C., and some of these contain here and there quaint and -pleasing conceits, as, for instance-- - - "_Man reaches scarce a hundred, yet his tears - Would fill a lifetime of a thousand years._" - -The following is a poem of this period, the author of which is -unknown:-- - - "_Forth from the eastern gate my steeds I drive, - And lo! a cemetery meets my view; - Aspens around in wild luxuriance thrive, - The road is fringed with fir and pine and yew. - Beneath my feet lie the forgotten dead, - Wrapped in a twilight of eternal gloom; - Down by the Yellow Springs their earthy bed, - And everlasting silence is their doom. - How fast the lights and shadows come and go! - Like morning dew our fleeting life has passed; - Man, a poor traveller on earth below, - Is gone, while brass and stone can still outlast. - Time is inexorable, and in vain - Against his might the holiest mortal strives; - Can we then hope this precious boon to gain, - By strange elixirs to prolong our lives?... - Oh, rather quaff good liquor while we may, - And dress in silk and satin every day!_" - -[Sidenote: THE LADY PAN] - -Women now begin to appear in Chinese literature. The Lady PAN -was for a long time chief favourite of the Emperor who ruled China -B.C. 32-6. So devoted was his Majesty that he even wished her -to appear alongside of him in the Imperial chariot. Upon which she -replied, "Your handmaid has heard that wise rulers of old were always -accompanied by virtuous ministers, but never that they drove out with -women by their side." She was ultimately supplanted by a younger and -more beautiful rival, whereupon she forwarded to the Emperor one of -those fans, round or octagonal frames of bamboo with silk stretched -over them,[9] which in this country are called "fire-screens," -inscribed with the following lines:-- - - "_O fair white silk, fresh from the weaver's loom, - Clear as the frost, bright as the winter snow-- - See! friendship fashions out of thee a fan, - Round as the round moon shines in heaven above, - At home, abroad, a close companion thou, - Stirring at every move the grateful gale. - And yet I fear, ah me! that autumn chills, - Cooling the dying summer's torrid rage, - Will see thee laid neglected on the shelf, - All thought of bygone days, like them bygone._" - -The phrase "autumn fan" has long since passed into the language, and is -used figuratively of a deserted wife. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[9] The folding fan, invented by the Japanese, was not known in China -until the eleventh century A.D., when it was introduced -through Korea. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -HISTORY--LEXICOGRAPHY - - -[Sidenote: SSU-MA CH'IEN] - -So far as China is concerned, the art of writing history may be said -to have been created during the period under review. SSU-MA CH'IEN, -the so-called Father of History, was born about B.C. 145. At the age -of ten he was already a good scholar, and at twenty set forth upon a -round of travel which carried him to all parts of the empire. In B.C. -110 his father died, and he stepped into the hereditary post of grand -astrologer. After devoting some time and energy to the reformation of -the calendar, he now took up the historical work which had been begun -by his father, and which was ultimately given to the world as the -Historical Record. It is a history of China from the earliest ages down -to about one hundred years before the Christian era, in one hundred and -thirty chapters, arranged under five headings, as follows:--(1) Annals -of the Emperors; (2) Chronological Tables; (3) Eight chapters on Rites, -Music, the Pitch-pipes, the Calendar, Astrology, Imperial Sacrifices, -Watercourses, and Political Economy; (4) Annals of the Feudal Nobles; -and (5) Biographies of many of the eminent men of the period, which -covers nearly three thousand years. In such estimation is this work -justly held that its very words have been counted, and found to number -526,500 in all. It must be borne in mind that these characters were, -in all probability, scratched with a stylus on bamboo tablets, and that -previous to this there was no such thing as a history on a general and -comprehensive plan; in fact, nothing beyond mere local annals in the -style of the Spring and Autumn. - -Since the Historical Record, every dynasty has had its historian, their -works in all cases being formed upon the model bequeathed by Ssu-ma -Ch'ien. The Twenty-four Dynastic Histories of China were produced in -1747 in a uniform series bound up in 219 large volumes, and together -show a record such as can be produced by no other country in the world. - -The following are specimens of Ssu-ma Ch'ien's style:-- - -(1.) "When the House of Han arose, the evils of their predecessors had -not passed away. Husbands still went off to the wars. The old and the -young were employed in transporting food. Production was almost at a -standstill, and money became scarce. So much so, that even the Son of -Heaven had not carriage-horses of the same colour; the highest civil -and military authorities rode in bullock-carts, and the people at large -knew not where to lay their heads. - -"At this epoch, the coinage in use was so heavy and cumbersome that -the people themselves started a new issue at a fixed standard of -value. But the laws were too lax, and it was impossible to prevent -grasping persons from coining largely, buying largely, and then holding -against a rise in the market. The consequence was that prices went up -enormously. Rice sold at 10,000 _cash_ per picul; a horse cost 100 -ounces of silver. But by and by, when the empire was settling down to -tranquillity, his Majesty Kao Tsu gave orders that no trader should -wear silk nor ride in a carriage; besides which, the imposts levied -upon this class were greatly increased, in order to keep them down. -Some years later these restrictions were withdrawn; still, however, -the descendants of traders were disqualified from holding any office -connected with the State. - -"Meanwhile, certain levies were made on a scale calculated to meet -the exigencies of public expenditure; while the land-tax and customs -revenue were regarded by all officials, from the Emperor downwards, -as their own personal emolument. Grain was forwarded by water to the -capital for the use of the officials there, but the quantity did not -amount to more than a few hundred thousand piculs every year. - -"Gradually the coinage began to deteriorate and light coins to -circulate; whereupon another issue followed, each piece being marked -'half an ounce.' But at length the system of private issues led -to serious abuses, resulting first of all in vast sums of money -accumulating in the hands of individuals; finally, in rebellion, until -the country was flooded with the coinage of the rebels, and it became -necessary to enact laws against any such issues in the future. - -"At this period the Huns were harassing our northern frontier, and -soldiers were massed there in large bodies; in consequence of which -food became so scarce that the authorities offered certain rank and -titles of honour to those who would supply a given quantity of grain. -Later on, drought ensued in the west, and in order to meet necessities -of the moment, official rank was again made a marketable commodity, -while those who broke the laws were allowed to commute their penalties -by money payments. And now horses began to reappear in official -stables, and in palace and hall signs of an ampler luxury were visible -once more. - -"Thus it was in the early days of the dynasty, until some seventy years -after the accession of the House of Han. The empire was then at peace. -For a long time there had been neither flood nor drought, and a season -of plenty had ensued. The public granaries were well stocked; the -Government treasuries were full. In the capital, strings of _cash_ were -piled in myriads, until the very strings rotted, and their tale could -no longer be told. The grain in the Imperial storehouses grew mouldy -year by year. It burst from the crammed granaries, and lay about until -it became unfit for human food. The streets were thronged with horses -belonging to the people, and on the highroads whole droves were to be -seen, so that it became necessary to prohibit the public use of mares. -Village elders ate meat and drank wine. Petty government clerkships -and the like lapsed from father to son; the higher offices of State -were treated as family heirlooms. For there had gone abroad a spirit of -self-respect and of reverence for the law, while a sense of charity and -of duty towards one's neighbour kept men aloof from disgrace and shame. - -"At length, under lax laws, the wealthy began to use their riches for -evil purposes of pride and self-aggrandisement and oppression of the -weak. Members of the Imperial family received grants of land, while -from the highest to the lowest, every one vied with his neighbour in -lavishing money on houses, and appointments, and apparel, altogether -beyond the limit of his means. Such is the everlasting law of the -sequence of prosperity and decay. - -"Then followed extensive military preparations in various parts of -the empire; the establishment of a tradal route with the barbarians -of the south-west, for which purpose mountains were hewn through -for many miles. The object was to open up the resources of those -remote districts, but the result was to swamp the inhabitants in -hopeless ruin. Then, again, there was the subjugation of Korea; its -transformation into an Imperial dependency; with other troubles nearer -home. There was the ambush laid for the Huns, by which we forfeited -their alliance, and brought them down upon our northern frontier. -Nothing, in fact, but wars and rumours of wars from day to day. -Money was constantly leaving the country. The financial stability of -the empire was undermined, and its impoverished people were driven -thereby into crime. Wealth had been frittered away, and its renewal -was sought in corruption. Those who brought money in their hands -received appointments under government. Those who could pay escaped -the penalties of their guilt. Merit had to give way to money. Shame -and scruples of conscience were laid aside. Laws and punishments were -administered with severer hand. From this period must be dated the rise -and growth of official venality." - -(2.) "The Odes have it thus:--'We may gaze up to the mountain's brow: -we may travel along the great road;' signifying that although we cannot -hope to reach the goal, still we may push on thitherwards in spirit. - -"While reading the works of Confucius, I have always fancied I -could see the man as he was in life; and when I went to Shantung I -actually beheld his carriage, his robes, and the material parts of his -ceremonial usages. There were his descendants practising the old rites -in their ancestral home, and I lingered on, unable to tear myself -away. Many are the princes and prophets that the world has seen in -its time, glorious in life, forgotten in death. But Confucius, though -only a humble member of the cotton-clothed masses, remains among us -after many generations. He is the model for such as would be wise. By -all, from the Son of Heaven down to the meanest student, the supremacy -of his principles is fully and freely admitted. He may indeed be -pronounced the divinest of men." - -(3.) "In the 9th moon the First Emperor was buried in Mount Li, which -in the early days of his reign he had caused to be tunnelled and -prepared with that view. Then, when he had consolidated the empire, -he employed his soldiery, to the number of 700,000, to bore down to -the Three Springs (that is, until water was reached), and there a -foundation of bronze[10] was laid and the sarcophagus placed thereon. -Rare objects and costly jewels were collected from the palaces and from -the various officials, and were carried thither and stored in vast -quantities. Artificers were ordered to construct mechanical cross-bows, -which, if any one were to enter, would immediately discharge their -arrows. With the aid of quicksilver, rivers were made, the Yang-tsze, -the Hoang-ho, and the great ocean, the metal being poured from one into -the other by machinery. On the roof were delineated the constellations -of the sky, on the floor the geographical divisions of the earth. -Candles were made from the fat of the man-fish (walrus), calculated to -last for a very long time. - -"The Second Emperor said, 'It is not fitting that the concubines of -my late father who are without children should leave him now;' and -accordingly he ordered them to accompany the dead monarch to the next -world, those who thus perished being many in number. - -"When the interment was completed, some one suggested that the workmen -who had made the machinery and concealed the treasure knew the great -value of the latter, and that the secret would leak out. Therefore, -so soon as the ceremony was over, and the path giving access to the -sarcophagus had been blocked up at its innermost end, the outside -gate at the entrance to this path was let fall, and the mausoleum was -effectually closed, so that not one of the workmen escaped. Trees and -grass were then planted around, that the spot might look like the rest -of the mountain." - -The history by Ssu-ma Ch'ien stops about 100 years before Christ. To -carry it on from that point was the ambition of a scholar named Pan -Piao (A.D. 3-54), but he died while still collecting materials -for his task. His son, PAN KU, whose scholarship was extensive -and profound, took up the project, but was impeached on the ground that -he was altering the national records at his own discretion, and was -thrown into prison. Released on the representations of a brother, he -continued his work; however, before its completion he became involved -in a political intrigue and was again thrown into prison, where he -died. The Emperor handed the unfinished history to PAN CHAO, -his gifted sister, who had been all along his assistant, and by her it -was brought to completion down to about the Christian era, where the -occupancy of the throne by a usurper divides the Han dynasty into two -distinct periods. This lady was also the author of a volume of moral -advice to young women, and of many poems and essays. - -[Sidenote: HSUe SHEN] - -Lexicography, which has since been so widely cultivated by the Chinese, -was called into being by a famous scholar named HSUe SHEN (_d._ -A.D. 120). Entering upon an official career, he soon retired -and devoted the rest of his life to books. He was a deep student of the -Five Classics, and wrote a work on the discrepancies in the various -criticisms of these books. But it is by his _Shuo Wen_ that he is now -known. This was a collection, with short explanatory notes, of all -the characters--about ten thousand--which were to be found in Chinese -literature as then existing, written in what is now known as the Lesser -Seal style. It is the oldest Chinese dictionary of which we have any -record, and has hitherto formed the basis of all etymological research. -It is arranged under 540 radicals or classifiers, that is to say, -specially selected portions of characters which indicate to some extent -the direction in which lies the sense of the whole character, and its -chief object was to exhibit the pictorial features of Chinese writing. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[10] Variant "firm," _i.e._ was firmly laid. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -BUDDHISM - - -The introduction of Buddhism into China must now be considered, -especially under its literary aspect. - -So early as B.C. 217 we read of Buddhist priests, Shih-li-fang and -others, coming to China. The "First Emperor" seems to have looked upon -them with suspicion. At any rate, he threw them into prison, from -which, we are told, they were released in the night by a golden man -or angel. Nothing more was heard of Buddhism until the Emperor known -as Ming Ti, in consequence, it is said, of a dream in which a foreign -god appeared to him, sent off a mission to India to see what could be -learnt upon the subject of this barbarian religion. The mission, which -consisted of eighteen persons, returned about A.D. 67, accompanied by -two Indian Buddhists named Kashiapmadanga and Gobharana. These two -settled at Lo-yang in Honan, which was then the capital, and proceeded -to translate into Chinese the Sutra of Forty-two Sections--the -beginning of a long line of such. Soon afterwards the former died, but -the seed had been sown, and a great rival to Taoism was about to appear -on the scene. - -Towards the close of the second century A.D. another Indian -Buddhist, who had come to reside at Ch'ang-an in Shensi, translated -the _sutra_ known as the Lotus of the Good Law, and Buddhist temples -were built in various parts of China. By the beginning of the fourth -century Chinese novices were taking the vows required for the Buddhist -priesthood, and monasteries were endowed for their reception. - -[Sidenote: FA HSIEN] - -In A.D. 399 FA HSIEN started on his great pedestrian journey from the -heart of China overland to India, his object being to procure copies -of the Buddhist Canon, statues, and relics. Those who accompanied him -at starting either turned back or died on the way, and he finally -reached India with only one companion, who settled there and never -returned to China. After visiting various important centres, such as -Magadha, Patna, Benares, and Buddha-Gaya, and effecting the object of -his journey, he took passage on a merchant-ship, and reached Ceylon. -There he found a large junk which carried him to Java, whence, after -surviving many perils of the sea, he made his way on board another -junk to the coast of Shantung, disembarking in A.D. 414 with all -his treasures at the point now occupied by the German settlement of -Kiao-chow. - -The narrative of his adventurous journey, as told by himself, is still -in existence, written in a crabbed and difficult style. His itinerary -has been traced, and nearly all the places mentioned by him have been -identified. The following passage refers to the desert of Gobi, which -the travellers had to cross:-- - -"In this desert there are a great many evil spirits and hot winds. -Those who encounter the latter perish to a man. There are neither birds -above nor beasts below. Gazing on all sides, as far as the eye can -reach, in order to mark the track, it would be impossible to succeed -but for the rotting bones of dead men which point the way." - -Buddha-Gaya, the scene of recent interesting explorations conducted by -the late General Cunningham, was visited by Fa Hsien, and is described -by him as follows:-- - -"The pilgrims now arrived at the city of Gaya, also a complete waste -within its walls. Journeying about three more miles southwards, they -reached the place where the Bodhisatva formerly passed six years in -self-mortification. It is very woody. From this point going west a -mile, they arrived at the spot where Buddha entered the water to bathe, -and a god pressed down the branch of a tree to pull him out of the -pool. Also, by going two-thirds of a mile farther north, they reached -the place where the two lay-sisters presented Buddha with congee made -with milk. Two-thirds of a mile to the north of this is the place where -Buddha, sitting on a stone under a great tree and facing the east, ate -it. The tree and the stone are both there still, the latter being about -six feet in length and breadth by over two feet in height. In Central -India the climate is equable; trees will live several thousand, and -even so much as ten thousand years. From this point going north-east -half a yojana, the pilgrims arrived at the cave where the Bodhisatva, -having entered, sat down cross-legged with his face to the west, and -reflected as follows: 'If I attain perfect wisdom, there should be -some miracle in token thereof.' Whereupon the silhouette of Buddha -appeared upon the stone, over three feet in length, and is plainly -visible to this day. Then heaven and earth quaked mightily, and the -gods who were in space cried out, saying, 'This is not the place -where past and future Buddhas have attained and should attain perfect -wisdom. The proper spot is beneath the Bo tree, less than half a yojana -to the south-west of this.' When the gods had uttered these words, -they proceeded to lead the way with singing in order to conduct him -thither. The Bodhisatva got up and followed, and when thirty paces from -the tree a god gave him the _kus'a_ grass. Having accepted this, he -went on fifteen paces farther, when five hundred dark-coloured birds -came and flew three times round him, and departed. The Bodhisatva went -on to the Bo tree, and laying down his _kus'a_ grass, sat down with -his face to the east. Then Mara, the king of the devils, sent three -beautiful women to approach from the north and tempt him; he himself -approaching from the south with the same object. The Bodhisatva pressed -the ground with his toes, whereupon the infernal army retreated in -confusion, and the three women became old. At the above-mentioned place -where Buddha suffered mortification for six years, and on all these -other spots, men of after ages have built pagodas and set up images, -all of which are still in existence. Where Buddha, having attained -perfect wisdom, contemplated the tree for seven days, experiencing the -joys of emancipation; where Buddha walked backwards and forwards, east -and west, under the Bo tree for seven days; where the gods produced -a jewelled chamber and worshipped Buddha for seven days; where the -blind dragon Muchilinda enveloped Buddha for seven days; where Buddha -sat facing the east on a square stone beneath the nyagrodha tree, and -Brahma came to salute him; where the four heavenly kings offered their -alms-bowls; where the five hundred traders gave him cooked rice and -honey; where he converted the brothers Kasyapa with their disciples to -the number of one thousand souls--on all these spots stupas have been -raised." - -The following passage refers to Ceylon, called by Fa Hsien the Land -of the Lion, that is, Singhala, from the name of a trader who first -founded a kingdom there:-- - -"This country had originally no inhabitants; only devils and spirits -and dragons lived in it, with whom the merchants of neighbouring -countries came to trade. When the exchange of commodities took place, -the devils and spirits did not appear in person, but set out their -valuables with the prices attached. Then the merchants, according -to the prices, bought the things and carried them off. But from the -merchants going backwards and forwards and stopping on their way, -the attractions of the place became known to the inhabitants of the -neighbouring countries, who also went there, and thus it became a great -nation. The temperature is very agreeable in this country; there is -no distinction of summer and winter. The trees and plants are always -green, and cultivation of the soil is carried on as men please, without -regard to seasons." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: KUMARAJIVA--HSUeAN TSANG] - -Meanwhile, the Indian Kumarajiva, one of the Four Suns of Buddhism, had -been occupied between A.D. 405 and 412 in dictating Chinese -commentaries on the Buddhist Canon to some eight hundred priests. He -also wrote a _shastra_ on Reality and Appearance, and translated the -Diamond Sutra, which has done more to popularise Buddhism with the -educated classes than all the material parts of this religion put -together. Chinese poets and philosophers have drawn inspiration and -instruction from its pages, and the work might now almost be classed as -a national classic. Here are two short extracts:-- - -(1.) "Buddha said, O Subhuti, tell me after thy wit, can a man see the -Buddha in the flesh? - -"He cannot, O World-Honoured, and for this reason: The Buddha has -declared that flesh has no objective existence. - -"Then Buddha told Subhuti, saying, All objective existences are -unsubstantial and unreal. If a man can see clearly that they are so, -then can he see the Buddha." - -(2.) "Buddha said, O Subhuti, if one man were to collect the seven -precious things from countless galaxies of worlds, and bestow all these -in charity, and another virtuous man, or virtuous woman, were to become -filled with the spirit, and held fast by this _sutra_, preaching it -ever so little for the conversion of mankind, I say unto you that the -happiness of this last man would far exceed the happiness of that other -man. - -"Conversion to what? To the disregard of objective existences, and to -absolute quiescence of the individual. And why? Because every external -phenomenon is like a dream, like a vision, like a bubble, like shadow, -like dew, like lightning, and should be regarded as such." - - * * * * * - -In A.D. 520 Bodhidharma came to China, and was received with -honour. He had been the son of a king in Southern India. He taught that -religion was not to be learnt from books, but that man should seek and -find the Buddha in his own heart. Just before his arrival Sung Yuen had -been sent to India to obtain more Buddhist books, and had remained two -years in Kandahar, returning with 175 volumes. - -Then, in 629, HSUeAN TSANG set out for India with the same object, -and also to visit the holy places of Buddhism. He came back in 645, -bringing with him 657 Buddhist books, besides many images and pictures -and 150 relics. He spent the rest of his life translating these books, -and also, like Fa Hsien, wrote a narrative of his travels. - -This brings us down to the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, when -Buddhism had acquired, in spite of much opposition and even -persecution, what has since proved to be a lasting hold upon the masses -of the Chinese people. - - - - -BOOK THE THIRD - -_MINOR DYNASTIES_ (A.D. 200-600) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -POETRY--MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE - - -The centuries which elapsed between A.D. 200 and 600 were not -favourable to the development and growth of a national literature. -During a great part of the time the empire was torn by civil wars; -there was not much leisure for book-learning, and few patrons to -encourage it. Still the work was carried on, and many great names have -come down to us. - -The dark years between A.D. 196 and 221, which witnessed the -downfall of the House of Han, were illumined by the names of seven -writers, now jointly known as the Seven Scholars of the Chien-An -period. They were all poets. There was HSUe KAN, who fell under -the influence of Buddhism and translated into Chinese the _Pranyamula -shastra tika_ of Nagardjuna. The following lines are by him:-- - - "_O floating clouds that swim in heaven above, - Bear on your wings these words to him I love... - Alas! you float along nor heed my pain, - And leave me here to love and long in vain! - I see other dear ones to their homes return, - And for his coming shall not I too yearn? - Since my lord left--ah me, unhappy day!-- - My mirror's dust has not been brushed away; - My heart, like running water, knows no peace. - But bleeds and bleeds forever without cease._" - -[Sidenote: K'UNG JUNG--WANG TS'AN] - -There was K'UNG JUNG, a descendant of Confucius in the twentieth -degree, and a most precocious child. At ten years of age he went with -his father to Lo-yang, where Li Ying, the Dragon statesman, was at the -height of his political reputation. Unable from the press of visitors -to gain admission, he told the doorkeeper to inform Li Ying that he -was a connection, and thus succeeded in getting in. When Li Ying asked -him what the connection was, he replied, "My ancestor Confucius and -your ancestor Lao Tzu were friends engaged in the quest for truth, -so that you and I may be said to be of the same family." Li Ying was -astonished, but Ch'en Wei said, "Cleverness in youth does not mean -brilliancy in later life," upon which K'ung Jung remarked, "You, sir, -must evidently have been very clever as a boy." Entering official life, -he rose to be Governor of Po-hai in Shantung; but he incurred the -displeasure of the great Ts'ao Ts'ao, and was put to death with all his -family. He was an open-hearted man, and fond of good company. "If my -halls are full of guests," he would say, "and my bottles full of wine, -I am happy." - -The following is a specimen of his poetry:-- - - "_The wanderer reaches home with joy - From absence of a year and more: - His eye seeks a beloved boy-- - His wife lies weeping on the floor._ - - "_They whisper he is gone. The glooms - Of evening fall; beyond the gate - A lonely grave in outline looms - To greet the sire who came too late._ - - "_Forth to the little mound he flings, - Where wild-flowers bloom on every side.... - His bones are in the Yellow Springs, - His flesh like dust is scattered wide._ - - "'_O child, who never knew thy sire, - For ever now to be unknown, - Ere long thy wandering ghost shall tire - Of flitting friendless and alone._ - - "'_O son, man's greatest earthly boon, - With thee I bury hopes and fears.' - He bowed his head in grief, and soon - His breast was wet with rolling tears._ - - "_Life's dread uncertainty he knows, - But oh for this untimely close!_" - -There was WANG TS'AN (A.D. 177-217), a learned man who wrote an _Ars -Poetica_, not, however, in verse. A youth of great promise, he excelled -as a poet, although the times were most unfavourable to success. It -has been alleged, with more or less truth, that all Chinese poetry is -pitched in the key of melancholy; that the favourite themes of Chinese -poets are the transitory character of life with its partings and other -ills, and the inevitable approach of death, with substitution of the -unknown for the known. Wang Ts'an had good cause for his lamentations. -He was forced by political disturbances to leave his home at the -capital and seek safety in flight. There, as he tells us, - - "_Wolves and tigers work their own sweet will._" - -On the way he finds - - "_Naught but bleached bones covering the plain ahead,_" - -and he comes across a famine-stricken woman who had thrown among the -bushes a child she was unable to feed. Arriving at the Great River, the -setting sun brings his feelings to a head:-- - - "_Streaks of light still cling to the hill-tops, - While a deeper shade falls upon the steep slopes; - The fox makes his way to his burrow, - Birds fly back to their homes in the wood, - Clear sound the ripples of the rushing waves, - Along the banks the gibbons scream and cry, - My sleeves are fluttered by the whistling gale, - The lapels of my robe are drenched with dew. - The livelong night I cannot close my eyes. - I arise and seize my guitar, - Which, ever in sympathy with man's changing moods, - Now sounds responsive to my grief._" - -But music cannot make him forget his kith and kin-- - - "_Most of them, alas! are prisoners, - And weeping will be my portion to the end. - With all the joyous spots in the empire, - Why must I remain in this place? - Ah, like the grub in smartweed, I am growing insensible to - bitterness._" - -By the last line he means to hint "how much a long communion tends to -make us what we are." - -There was YING YANG, who, when his own political career was -cut short, wrote a poem with a title which may be interpreted as -"Regret that a Bucephalus should stand idle." - -There was LIU CHENG, who was put to death for daring to cast an eye -upon one of the favourites of the great general Ts'ao Ts'ao, virtual -founder of the House of Wei. CH'EN LIN and YUeAN YUe complete the tale. - -[Sidenote: TS'AO TS'AO] - -To these seven names an eighth and a ninth are added by courtesy: -those of TS'AO TS'AO above mentioned, and of his third son, -Ts'ao Chih, the poet. The former played a remarkable part in Chinese -history. His father had been adopted as son by the chief eunuch of the -palace, and he himself was a wild young man much given to coursing and -hawking. He managed, however, to graduate at the age of twenty, and, -after distinguishing himself in a campaign against insurgents, raised -a volunteer force to purge the country of various powerful chieftains -who threatened the integrity of the empire. By degrees the supreme -power passed into his hands, and he caused the weak Emperor to raise -his daughter to the rank of Empress. He is popularly regarded as the -type of a bold bad Minister and of a cunning unscrupulous rebel. His -large armies are proverbial, and at one time he is said to have had so -many as a million of men under arms. As an instance of the discipline -which prevailed in his camp, it is said that he once condemned himself -to death for having allowed his horse to shy into a field of grain, -in accordance with his own severe regulations against any injury to -standing crops. However, in lieu of losing his head, he was persuaded -to satisfy his sense of justice by cutting off his hair. The following -lines are from a song by him, written in an abrupt metre of four words -to the line:-- - - "_Here is wine, let us sing; - For man's life is short, - Like the morning dew, - Its best days gone by. - But though we would rejoice, - Sorrows are hard to forget, - What will make us forget them? - Wine, and only wine._" - -After Ts'ao Ts'ao's death came the epoch of the Three Kingdoms, the -romantic story of which is told in the famous novel to be mentioned -later on. Ts'ao Ts'ao's eldest son became the first Emperor of one of -these, the Wei Kingdom, and TS'AO CHIH, the poet, occupied an -awkward position at court, an object of suspicion and dislike. At ten -years of age he already excelled in composition, so much so that his -father thought he must be a plagiarist; but he settled the question -by producing off-hand poems on any given theme. "If all the talent of -the world," said a contemporary poet, "were represented by ten, Ts'ao -Chih would have eight, I should have one, and the rest of mankind one -between them." There is a story that on one occasion, at the bidding -of his elder brother, probably with mischievous intent, he composed an -impromptu stanza while walking only seven steps. It has been remembered -more for its point than its poetry:-- - - "_A fine dish of beans had been placed in the pot - With a view to a good mess of pottage all hot. - The beanstalks, aflame, a fierce heat were begetting, - The beans in the pot were all fuming and fretting. - Yet the beans and the stalks were not born to be foes; - Oh, why should these hurry to finish off those?_" - -The following extract from a poem of his contains a very well-known -maxim, constantly in use at the present day:-- - - "_The superior man takes precautions, - And avoids giving cause for suspicion. - He will not pull up his shoes in a melon-field, - Nor under a plum-tree straighten his hat. - Brothers- and sisters-in-law may not join hands, - Elders and youngers may not walk abreast; - By toil and humility the handle is grasped; - Moderate your brilliancy, and difficulties disappear._" - -[Sidenote: LIU LING] - -During the third century A.D. another and more mercurial set -of poets, also seven in number, formed themselves into a club, and -became widely famous as the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. Among -these was LIU LING, a hard drinker, who declared that to a -drunken man "the affairs of this world appear but as so much duckweed -on a river." He wished to be always accompanied by a servant with wine, -followed by another with a spade, so that he might be buried where -he fell. On one occasion, yielding to the entreaties of his wife, he -promised to "swear off," and bade her prepare the usual sacrifices of -wine and meat. When all was ready, he prayed, saying, "O God, who didst -give to Liu Ling a reputation through wine, he being able to consume a -gallon at a sitting and requiring a quart to sober him again, listen -not to the words of his wife, for she speaketh not truth." Thereupon -he drank up the sacrificial wine, and was soon as drunk as ever. His -bias was towards the Tao of Lao Tzu, and he was actually plucked for -his degree in consequence of an essay extolling the heterodox doctrine -of Inaction. The following skit exhibits this Taoist strain to a marked -degree:-- - -"An old gentleman, a friend of mine (that is, himself), regards -eternity as but a single day, and whole centuries as but an instant -of time. The sun and moon are the windows of his house; the cardinal -points are the boundaries of his domain. He wanders unrestrained and -free; he dwells within no walls. The canopy of heaven is his roof; his -resting-place is the lap of earth. He follows his fancy in all things. -He is never for a moment without a wine-flask in one hand, a goblet in -the other. His only thought is wine: he knows of naught beyond. - -"Two respectable philanthropists, hearing of my friend's weakness, -proceeded to tax him on the subject; and with many gestures of -disapprobation, fierce scowls, and gnashing of teeth, preached him -quite a sermon on the rules of propriety, and sent his faults buzzing -round his head like a swarm of bees. - -"When they began, the old gentleman filled himself another bumper; -and sitting down, quietly stroked his beard and sipped his wine by -turns, until at length he lapsed into a semi-inebriate state of placid -enjoyment, varied by intervals of absolute unconsciousness or of -partial return to mental lucidity. His ears were beyond the reach of -thunder; he could not have seen a mountain. Heat and cold existed for -him no more. He knew not even the workings of his own mind. To him, -the affairs of this world appeared but as so much duckweed on a river; -while the two philanthropists at his side looked like two wasps trying -to convert a caterpillar" (into a wasp, as the Chinese believe is done). - -Another was HSI K'ANG, a handsome young man, seven feet seven -inches in height, who was married--a doubtful boon--into the Imperial -family. His favourite study was alchemistic research, and he passed his -days sitting under a willow-tree in his courtyard and experimenting -in the transmutation of metals, varying his toil with music and -poetry, and practising the art of breathing with a view to securing -immortality. Happening, however, to offend by his want of ceremony -one of the Imperial princes, who was also a student of alchemy, he -was denounced to the Emperor as a dangerous person and a traitor, and -condemned to death. Three thousand disciples offered each one to take -the place of their beloved master, but their request was not granted. -He met his fate with fortitude, calmly watching the shadows thrown by -the sun and playing upon his lute. - -[Sidenote: HSIANG HSIU--YUeAN CHI] - -The third was HSIANG HSIU, who also tried his hand at alchemy, -and whose commentary on Chuang Tzu was stolen, as has been already -stated, by Kuo Hsiang. - -The fourth was YUeAN HSIEN, a wild harum-scarum fellow, but a -performer on the guitar and a great authority on the theory of music. -He and his uncle, both poverty-stricken, lived on one side of the road, -while a wealthier branch of the family lived on the other side. On the -seventh of the seventh moon the latter put out all their grand fur -robes and fine clothes to air, as is customary on that day; whereupon -Yuean Hsien on his side forked up a pair of the short breeches, called -calf-nose drawers, worn by the common coolies, explaining to a friend -that he was a victim to the tyranny of custom. - -The fifth was YUeAN CHI, another musician, whose harpsichords became -the "Strads" of China. He entered the army and rose to a high command, -and then exchanged his post for one where he had heard there was a -better cook. He was a model of filial piety, and when his mother died -he wept so violently that he brought up several pints of blood. Yet -when Chi Hsi went to condole with him, he showed only the whites of -his eyes (that is, paid no attention to him); while Chi Hsi's brother, -who carried along with him a jar of wine and a guitar, was welcomed -with the pupils. His best-known work is a political and allegorical -poem in thirty-eight stanzas averaging about twelve lines to each. The -allusions in this are so skilfully veiled as to be quite unrecognisable -without a commentary, such concealment being absolutely necessary for -the protection of the author in the troublous times during which he -wrote. - -The sixth was WANG JUNG, who could look at the sun without -being dazzled, and lastly there was SHAN T'AO, a follower of -Taoist teachings, who was spoken of as "uncut jade" and as "gold ore." - -Later on, in the fourth century, comes FU MI, of whom nothing -is known beyond his verses, of which the following is a specimen:-- - - "_Thy chariot and horses - have gone, and I fret - And long for the lover - I ne'er can forget._ - - _O wanderer, bound - in far countries to dwell, - Would I were thy shadow!-- - I'd follow thee well;_ - - _And though clouds and though darkness - my presence should hide, - In the bright light of day - I would stand by thy side!_" - -We now reach a name which is still familiar to all students of poetry -in the Middle Kingdom. T'AO CH'IEN (A.D. 365-427), or T'ao Yuean-ming -as he was called in early life, after a youth of poverty obtained an -appointment as magistrate. But he was unfitted by nature for official -life; all he wanted, to quote his own prayer, was "length of years and -depth of wine." He only held the post for eighty-three days, objecting -to receive a superior officer with the usual ceremonial on the ground -that "he could not crook the hinges of his back for five pecks of rice -a day," such being the regulation pay of a magistrate. He then retired -into private life and occupied himself with poetry, music, and the -culture of flowers, especially chrysanthemums, which are inseparably -associated with his name. In the latter pursuit he was seconded by his -wife, who worked in the back garden while he worked in the front. His -retirement from office is the subject of the following piece, of the -poetical-prose class, which, in point of style, is considered one of -the masterpieces of the language:-- - -"Homewards I bend my steps. My fields, my gardens, are choked with -weeds: should I not go? My soul has led a bondsman's life: why should I -remain to pine? But I will waste no grief upon the past; I will devote -my energies to the future. I have not wandered far astray. I feel that -I am on the right track once again. - -"Lightly, lightly, speeds my boat along, my garments fluttering to the -gentle breeze. I inquire my route as I go. I grudge the slowness of the -dawning day. From afar I descry my old home, and joyfully press onwards -in my haste. The servants rush forth to meet me; my children cluster -at the gate. The place is a wilderness; but there is the old pine-tree -and my chrysanthemums. I take the little ones by the hand, and pass in. -Wine is brought in full jars, and I pour out in brimming cups. I gaze -out at my favourite branches. I loll against the window in my new-found -freedom. I look at the sweet children on my knee. - -"And now I take my pleasure in my garden. There is a gate, but it is -rarely opened. I lean on my staff as I wander about or sit down to -rest. I raise my head and contemplate the lovely scene. Clouds rise, -unwilling, from the bottom of the hills; the weary bird seeks its nest -again. Shadows vanish, but still I linger around my lonely pine. Home -once more! I'll have no friendships to distract me hence. The times are -out of joint for me; and what have I to seek from men? In the pure -enjoyment of the family circle I will pass my days, cheering my idle -hours with lute and book. My husbandmen will tell me when spring-time -is nigh, and when there will be work in the furrowed fields. Thither -I shall repair by cart or by boat, through the deep gorge, over the -dizzy cliff, trees bursting merrily into leaf, the streamlet swelling -from its tiny source. Glad is this renewal of life in due season; but -for me, I rejoice that my journey is over. Ah, how short a time it -is that we are here! Why then not set our hearts at rest, ceasing to -trouble whether we remain or go? What boots it to wear out the soul -with anxious thoughts? I want not wealth; I want not power; heaven is -beyond my hopes. Then let me stroll through the bright hours as they -pass, in my garden among my flowers; or I will mount the hill and sing -my song, or weave my verse beside the limpid brook. Thus will I work -out my allotted span, content with the appointments of Fate, my spirit -free from care." - -The "Peach-blossom Fountain" of Tao Ch'ien is a well-known and charming -allegory, a form of literature much cultivated by Chinese writers. -It tells how a fisherman lost his way among the creeks of a river, -and came upon a dense and lovely grove of peach-trees in full bloom, -through which he pushed his boat, anxious to see how far the grove -extended. - -"He found that the peach-trees ended where the water began, at the -foot of a hill; and there he espied what seemed to be a cave with -light issuing from it. So he made fast his boat, and crept in through -a narrow entrance, which shortly ushered him into a new world of -level country, of fine houses, of rich fields, of fine pools, and of -luxuriance of mulberry and bamboo. Highways of traffic ran north and -south; sounds of crowing cocks and barking dogs were heard around; the -dress of the people who passed along or were at work in the fields was -of a strange cut; while young and old alike appeared to be contented -and happy." - -He is told that the ancestors of these people had taken refuge there -some five centuries before to escape the troublous days of the "First -Emperor," and that there they had remained, cut off completely from -the rest of the human race. On his returning home the story is noised -abroad, and the Governor sends out men to find this strange region, but -the fisherman is never able to find it again. The gods had permitted -the poet to go back for a brief span to the peach-blossom days of his -youth. - -One critic speaks of T'ao Ch'ien as "drunk with the fumes of spring." -Another says, "His heart was fixed upon loyalty and duty, while his -body was content with leisure and repose. His emotions were real, his -scenery was real, his facts were real, and his thoughts were real. His -workmanship was so exceedingly fine as to appear natural; his adze and -chisel (_labor limae_) left no traces behind." - -Much of his poetry is political, and bristles with allusions to events -which are now forgotten, mixed up with thoughts and phrases which are -greatly admired by his countrymen. Thus, when he describes meeting -with an old friend in a far-off land, such a passage as this would be -heavily scored by editor or critic with marks of commendation:-- - - "_Ere words be spoke, the heart is drunk; - What need to call for wine?_" - -The following is one of his occasional poems:-- - - "_A scholar lives on yonder hill, - His clothes are rarely whole to view, - Nine times a month he eats his fill, - Once in ten years his hat is new. - A wretched lot!--and yet the while - He ever wears a sunny smile._ - - _Longing to know what like was he, - At dawn my steps a path unclosed - Where dark firs left the passage free - And on the eaves the white clouds dozed._ - - _But he, as spying my intent, - Seized his guitar and swept the strings; - Up flew a crane towards heaven bent, - And now a startled pheasant springs.... - Oh, let me rest with thee until - The winter winds again blow chill!_" - -PAO CHAO was an official and a poet who perished, A.D. 466, in a -rebellion. Some of his poetry has been preserved:-- - - "_What do these halls of jasper mean, - and shining floor, - Where tapestries of satin screen - window and door? - A lady on a lonely seat, - embroidering - Fair flowers which seem to smell as sweet - as buds in spring. - Swallows flit past, a zephyr shakes - the plum-blooms down; - She draws the blind, a goblet takes - her thoughts to drown. - And now she sits in tears, or hums, - nursing her grief - That in her life joy rarely comes - to bring relief... - Oh, for the humble turtle's flight, - my mate and I; - Not the lone crane far out of sight - beyond the sky!_" - -The original name of a striking character who, in A.D. 502, -placed himself upon the throne as first Emperor of the Liang dynasty, -was HSIAO YEN. He was a devout Buddhist, living upon priestly -fare and taking only one meal a day; and on two occasions, in 527 and -529, he actually adopted the priestly garb. He also wrote a Buddhist -ritual in ten books. Interpreting the Buddhist commandment "Thou shalt -not kill" in its strictest sense, he caused the sacrificial victims to -be made of dough. The following short poem is from his pen:-- - - "_Trees grow, not alike, - by the mound and the moat; - Birds sing in the forest - with varying note; - Of the fish in the river - some dive and some float. - The mountains rise high - and the waters sink low, - But the why and the wherefore - we never can know._" - -Another well-known poet who lived into the seventh century is HSIEH -TAO-HENG. He offended Yang Ti, the second Emperor of the Sui -dynasty, by writing better verses than his Majesty, and an excuse was -found for putting him to death. One of the most admired couplets in the -language is associated with his name though not actually by him, its -author being unknown. To amuse a party of friends Hsieh Tao-heng had -written impromptu, - - "_A week in the spring to the exile appears - Like an absence from home of a couple of years._" - -A "southerner" who was present sneered at the shallowness of the -conceit, and immediately wrote down the following:-- - - "_If home, with the wild geese of autumn, - we're going, - Our hearts will be off ere the spring flowers - are blowing._" - -An official of the Sui dynasty was FU I (A.D. 554-639), who became -Historiographer under the first Emperor of the T'ang dynasty. He -had a strong leaning towards Taoism, and edited the _Tao-Te-Ching_. -At the same time he presented a memorial asking that the Buddhist -religion might be abolished; and when Hsiao Yue, a descendant of Hsiao -Yen (above), questioned him on the subject, he said, "You were not -born in a hollow mulberry-tree; yet you respect a religion which -does not recognise the tie between father and son!" He urged that at -any rate priests and nuns should be compelled to marry and bring up -families, and not escape from contributing their share to the revenue, -adding that Hsiao Yue by defending their doctrines showed himself -no better than they were. At this Hsiao Yue held up his hands, and -declared that hell was made for such men as Fu I. The result was that -severe restrictions were placed for a short time upon the teachers -of Buddhism. The Emperor T'ai Tsung once got hold of a Tartar priest -who could "charm people into unconsciousness, and then charm them -back to life again," and spoke of his powers to Fu I. The latter said -confidently, "He will not be able to charm me;" and when put to the -test, the priest completely failed. He was the originator of epitaphs, -and wrote his own, as follows:-- - - "_Fu I loved the green hills and the white clouds... - Alas! he died of drink._" - -[Sidenote: WANG CHI] - -WANG CHI of the sixth and seventh centuries A.D., was a wild and -unconventional spirit, with a fatal fondness for wine, which caused his -dismissal from office. His capacity for liquor was boundless, and he -was known as the Five-bottle Scholar. In his lucid intervals he wrote -much beautiful prose and verse, which may still be read with pleasure. -The following is from an account of his visit to Drunk-Land, the story -of which is told with all due gravity and in a style modelled upon that -which is found in ordinary accounts of strange outlandish nations:-- - -"This country is many thousand miles from the Middle Kingdom. It is a -vast, boundless plain, without mountains or undulations of any kind. -The climate is equable, there being neither night, nor day, nor cold, -nor heat. The manners and customs are everywhere the same. - -"There are no villages nor congregations of persons. The inhabitants -are ethereal in disposition, and know neither love, hate, joy, nor -anger. They inhale the breeze and sip the dew, eating none of the five -cereals. Calm in repose, slow of gait, they mingle with birds, beasts, -fishes, and scaly creatures, ignorant of boats, chariots, weapons, or -implements in general. - -"The Yellow Emperor went on a visit to the capital of Drunk-Land, and -when he came back, he was quite out of conceit with the empire, the -government of which seemed to him but paltry trifling with knotted -cords. - -"Yuean Chi, T'ao Ch'ien,[11] and some others, about ten in all, made a -trip together to Drunk-Land, and sank, never to rise again. They were -buried where they fell, and now in the Middle Kingdom they are dubbed -Spirits of Wine. - -"Alas, I could not bear that the pure and peaceful domain of Drunk-Land -should come to be regarded as a preserve of the ancients. So I went -there myself." - - * * * * * - -The period closes with the name of the Emperor known as Yang Ti, -already mentioned in connection with the poet Hsieh Tao-heng. The -murderer, first of his elder brother and then of his father, he mounted -the throne in A.D. 605, and gave himself up to extravagance -and debauchery. The trees in his park were supplied in winter with -silken leaves and flowers, and birds were almost exterminated to -provide a sufficient supply of down for his cushions. After reigning -for thirteen years this unlikely patron of literature fell a victim to -assassination. Yet in spite of his otherwise disreputable character, -Yang Ti prided himself upon his literary attainments. He set one -hundred scholars to work editing a collection of classical, medical, -and other treatises; and it was under his reign, in A.D. 606, -that the examination for the second or "master of arts" degree was -instituted. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[11] Here the poet makes a mistake. These two were not contemporaries. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP - - -In the domains of classical and general literature HUANG-FU MI -(A.D. 215-282) occupies an honourable place. Beginning life -at the ploughtail, by perseverance he became a fine scholar, and -adopted literature as a profession. In spite of severe rheumatism he -was never without a book in his hand, and became so absorbed in his -work that he would forget all about meals and bedtime. He was called -the Book-Debauchee, and once when he wished to borrow works from the -Emperor Wu Ti of the Chin dynasty, whose proffers of office he had -refused, his Majesty sent him back a cart-load to go on with. He -produced essays, poetry, and several important biographical works. His -work on the Spring and Autumn Annals had also considerable vogue. - -SUN SHU-JAN, of about the same date, distinguished himself by -his works on the Confucian Canon, and wrote on the _Erh Ya_. - -HSUeN HSUe (_d._ A.D. 289) aided in drawing up a Penal Code for the -newly-established Chin dynasty, took a leading part in editing the -Bamboo Annals, which had just been discovered in Honan, provided a -preface to the _Mu T'ien Tzu Chuan_, and also wrote on music. - -KUO HSIANG (_d._ A.D. 312) occupied himself chiefly with the philosophy -of Lao Tzu and with the writings of Chuang Tzu. It was said of him -that his conversation was like the continuous downflow of a rapid, or -the rush of water from a sluice. - -KUO P'O (_d._ A.D. 324) was a scholar of great repute. Besides editing -various important classical works, he was a brilliant exponent of the -doctrines of Taoism and the reputed founder of the art of geomancy as -applied to graves, universally practised in China at the present day. -He was also learned in astronomy, divination, and natural philosophy. - -FAN YEH, executed for treason in A.D. 445, is chiefly famous for his -history of the Han dynasty from about the date of the Christian era, -when the dynasty was interrupted, as has been stated, by a usurper, -down to the final collapse two hundred years later. - -SHEN YO (A.D. 441-513), another famous scholar, was the son of a -Governor of Huai-nan, whose execution in A.D. 453 caused him to go -for a time into hiding. Poor and studious, he is said to have spent -the night in repeating what he had learnt by day, as his mother, -anxious on account of his health, limited his supply of oil and fuel. -Entering official life, he rose to high office, from which he retired -in ill-health, loaded with honours. Personally, he was remarkable for -having two pupils to his left eye. He was a strict teetotaller, and -lived most austerely. He had a library of twenty thousand volumes. -He was the author of the histories of the Chin, Liu Sung, and Ch'i -dynasties. He is said to have been the first to classify the four -tones. In his autobiography he writes, "The poets of old, during the -past thousand years, never hit upon this plan. I alone discovered its -advantages." The Emperor Wu Ti of the Liang dynasty one day said to -him, "Come, tell me, what are these famous four tones?" "They are -whatever your Majesty pleases to make them," replied Shen Yo, skilfully -selecting for his answer four characters which illustrated, and in the -usual order, the four tones in question. - -[Sidenote: HSIAO T'UNG] - -HSIAO T'UNG (A.D. 501-531) was the eldest son of Hsiao Yen, the -founder of the Liang dynasty, whom he predeceased. Before he was five -years old he was reported to have learned the Classics by heart, and -his later years were marked by great literary ability, notably in -verse-making. Handsome and of charming manners, mild and forbearing, -he was universally loved. In 527 he nursed his mother through her -last illness, and his grief for her death impaired his naturally fine -constitution, for it was only at the earnest solicitation of his father -that he consented either to eat or drink during the period of mourning. -Learned men were sure of his patronage, and his palace contained a -large library. A lover of nature, he delighted to ramble with scholars -about his beautiful park, to which he declined to add the attraction of -singing-girls. When the price of grain rose in consequence of the war -with Wei in 526, he lived on the most frugal fare; and throughout his -life his charities were very large and kept secret, being distributed -by trusty attendants who sought out all cases of distress. He even -emptied his own wardrobe for the benefit of the poor, and spent large -sums in burying the outcast dead. Against forced labour on public works -he vehemently protested. To his father he was most respectful, and -wrote to him when he himself was almost at the last gasp, in the hope -of concealing his danger. But he is remembered now not so much for his -virtues as for his initiation of a new department in literature. A -year before his death he completed the _Wen Hsuean_, the first published -collection of choice works, whole or in part, of a large number of -authors. These were classified under such heads as poetry of various -kinds, essays, inscriptions, memorials, funeral orations, epitaphs, and -prefaces. - -The idea thus started was rapidly developed, and has been continued -down to modern times. Huge collections of works have from time to -time been reprinted in uniform editions, and many books which might -otherwise have perished have been preserved for grateful posterity. -The Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms by Fa Hsien may be quoted as an -example. - - - - -BOOK THE FOURTH - -_THE T'ANG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 600-900) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -POETRY - - -[Sidenote: POETRY] - -The T'ang dynasty is usually associated in Chinese minds with much -romance of love and war, with wealth, culture, and refinement, with -frivolity, extravagance, and dissipation, but most of all with -poetry. China's best efforts in this direction were chiefly produced -within the limits of its three hundred years' duration, and they have -been carefully preserved as finished models for future poets of all -generations. - -"Poetry," says a modern Chinese critic, "came into being with the -Odes, developed with the _Li Sao_, burst forth and reached perfection -under the T'angs. Some good work was indeed done under the Han and -Wei dynasties; the writers of those days seemed to have material in -abundance, but language inadequate to its expression." - -The "Complete Collection of the Poetry of the T'ang Dynasty," published -in 1707, contains 48,900 poems of all kinds, arranged in 900 books, -and filling thirty good-sized volumes. Some Chinese writers divide -the dynasty into three poetical periods, called Early, Glorious, and -Late; and they profess to detect in the works assigned to each the -corresponding characteristics of growth, fulness, and decay. Others -insert a Middle period between the last two, making four periods in -all. For general purposes, however, it is only necessary to state, -that since the age of the Hans the meanings of words had gradually -come to be more definitely fixed, and the structural arrangement more -uniform and more polished. Imagination began to come more freely into -play, and the language to flow more easily and more musically, as -though responsive to the demands of art. A Chinese poem is at best -a hard nut to crack, expressed as it usually is in lines of five or -seven monosyllabic root-ideas, without inflection, agglutination, or -grammatical indication of any kind, the connection between which has -to be inferred by the reader from the logic, from the context, and -least perhaps of all from the syntactical arrangement of the words. -Then, again, the poet is hampered not only by rhyme but also by tone. -For purposes of poetry the characters in the Chinese language are all -ranged under two tones, as _flats_ and _sharps_, and these occupy -fixed positions just as dactyls, spondees, trochees, and anapaests in -the construction of Latin verse. As a consequence, the natural order -of words is often entirely sacrificed to the exigencies of tone, thus -making it more difficult than ever for the reader to grasp the sense. -In a stanza of the ordinary five-character length the following tonal -arrangement would appear:-- - - _Sharp sharp flat flat sharp - Flat flat sharp sharp flat - Flat flat flat sharp sharp - Sharp sharp sharp flat flat._ - -The effect produced by these tones is very marked and pleasing to -the ear, and often makes up for the faultiness of the rhymes, which -are simply the rhymes of the Odes as heard 2500 years ago, many of -them of course being no longer rhymes at all. Thus, there is as much -artificiality about a stanza of Chinese verse as there is about an -Alcaic stanza in Latin. But in the hands of the most gifted this -artificiality is altogether concealed by art, and the very trammels -of tone and rhyme become transfigured, and seem to be necessary -aids and adjuncts to success. Many works have been published to -guide the student in his admittedly difficult task. The first rule -in one of these seems so comprehensive as to make further perusal -quite unnecessary. It runs thus:--"Discard commonplace form; discard -commonplace ideas; discard commonplace phrasing; discard commonplace -words; discard commonplace rhymes." - -A long poem does not appeal to the Chinese mind. There is no such thing -as an epic in the language, though, of course, there are many pieces -extending to several hundred lines. Brevity is indeed the soul of a -Chinese poem, which is valued not so much for what it says as for what -it suggests. As in painting, so in poetry suggestion is the end and aim -of the artist, who in each case may be styled an impressionist. The -ideal length is twelve lines, and this is the limit set to candidates -at the great public examinations at the present day, the Chinese -holding that if a poet cannot say within such compass what he has to -say it may very well be left unsaid. The eight-line poem is also a -favourite, and so, but for its extreme difficulty, is the four-line -epigram, or "stop-short," so called because of its abruptness, though, -as the critics explain, "it is only the words which stop, the sense -goes on," some train of thought having been suggested to the reader. -The latter form of verse was in use so far back as the Han dynasty, but -only reached perfection under the Tangs. Although consisting of only -twenty or twenty-eight words, according to the measure employed, it is -just long enough for the poet to introduce, to develop, to embellish, -and to conclude his theme in accordance with certain established laws -of composition. The third line is considered the most troublesome to -produce, some poets even writing it first; the last line should contain -a "surprise" or _denouement_. We are, in fact, reminded of the old -formula, "Omne epigramma sit instar apis," &c., better known in its -English dress:-- - - "_The qualities rare in a bee that we meet - In an epigram never should fail; - The body should always be little and sweet, - And a sting should be left in the tail._" - -The following is an early specimen, by an anonymous writer, of the -four-line poem:-- - - "_The bright moon shining overhead, - The stream beneath the breeze's touch, - Are pure and perfect joys indeed,-- - But few are they who think them such._" - -Turning now to the almost endless list of poets from which but a scanty -selection can be made, we may begin with WANG PO (A.D. 648-676), a -precocious boy who wrote verses when he was six. He took his degree -at sixteen, and was employed in the Historical Department, but was -dismissed for satirising the cock-fighting propensities of the Imperial -princes. He filled up his leisure by composing many beautiful poems. -He never meditated on these beforehand, but after having prepared a -quantity of ink ready for use, he would drink himself tipsy and lie -down with his face covered up. On waking he would seize his pen and -write off verses, not a word in which needed to be changed; whence -he acquired the sobriquet of Belly-Draft, meaning that his drafts, -or rough copies, were all prepared inside. And he received so many -presents of valuable silks for writing these odes, that it was said "he -spun with his mind." These lines are from his pen:-- - - "_Near these islands a palace - was built by a prince, - But its music and song - have departed long since; - The hill-mists of morning - sweep down on the halls, - At night the red curtains - lie furled on the walls. - The clouds o'er the water - their shadows still cast, - Things change like the stars: - how few autumns have passed - And yet where is that prince? - where is he?--No reply, - Save the plash of the stream - rolling ceaselessly by._" - -[Sidenote: CH'EN TZU-ANG] - -A still more famous contemporary of his was CH'EN TZU-ANG (A.D. -656-698), who adopted somewhat sensational means of bringing himself to -the notice of the public. He purchased a very expensive guitar which -had been for a long time on sale, and then let it be known that on the -following day he would perform upon it in public. This attracted a -large crowd; but when Ch'en arrived he informed his auditors that he -had something in his pocket worth much more than the guitar. Thereupon -he dashed the instrument into a thousand pieces, and forthwith began -handing round copies of his own writings. Here is a sample, directed -against the Buddhist worship of idols, the "Prophet" representing any -divinely-inspired teacher of the Confucian school:-- - - "_On Self the Prophet never rests his eye, - His to relieve the doom of humankind; - No fairy palaces beyond the sky, - Rewards to come, are present to his mind._ - - _And I have heard the faith by Buddha taught - Lauded as pure and free from earthly taint; - Why then these carved and graven idols, fraught - With gold and silver, gems, and jade, and paint?_ - - _The heavens that roof this earth, mountain and dale, - All that is great and grand, shall pass away; - And if the art of gods may not prevail, - Shall man's poor handiwork escape decay?_ - - _Fools that ye are! In this ignoble light - The true faith fades and passes out of sight._" - -As an official, Ch'en Tzu-ang once gained great _kudos_ by a truly -Solomonic decision. A man, having slain the murderer of his father, -was himself indicted for murder. Ch'en Tzu-ang caused him to be put to -death, but at the same time conferred an honorific distinction upon his -village for having produced so filial a son. - -Not much is known of SUNG CHIH-WEN (_d._ A.D. 710), at any rate to his -good. On one occasion the Emperor was so delighted with some of his -verses that he took off the Imperial robe and placed it on the poet's -shoulders. This is one of his poems:-- - - "_The dust of the morn - had been laid by a shower, - And the trees by the bridge - were all covered with flower, - When a white palfrey passed - with a saddle of gold, - And a damsel as fair - as the fairest of old._ - - _But she veiled so discreetly - her charms from my eyes - That the boy who was with her - quite felt for my sighs; - And although not a light-o'-love - reckoned, I deem, - It was hard that this vision - should pass like a dream._" - -[Sidenote: MENG HAO-JAN] - -MENG HAO-JAN (A.D. 689-740) gave no sign in his youth of the genius -that was latent within him. He failed at the public examinations, and -retired to the mountains as a recluse. He then became a poet of the -first rank, and his writings were eagerly sought after. At the age of -forty he went up to the capital, and was one day conversing with his -famous contemporary, Wang Wei, when suddenly the Emperor was announced. -He hid under a couch, but Wang Wei betrayed him, the result being a -pleasant interview with his Majesty. The following is a specimen of his -verse:-- - - "_The sun has set behind the western slope, - The eastern moon lies mirrored in the pool; - With streaming hair my balcony I ope, - And stretch my limbs out to enjoy the cool. - Loaded with lotus-scent the breeze sweeps by, - Clear dripping drops from tall bamboos I hear, - I gaze upon my idle lute and sigh; - Alas, no sympathetic soul is near. - And so I doze, the while before mine eyes - Dear friends of other days in dream-clad forms arise._" - -Equally famous as poet and physician was WANG WEI (A.D. 699-759). After -a short spell of official life, he too retired into seclusion and -occupied himself with poetry and with the consolations of Buddhism, -in which he was a firm believer. His lines on bidding adieu to Meng -Hao-jan, when the latter was seeking refuge on the mountains, are as -follows:-- - - "_Dismounted, o'er wine - we had said our last say; - Then I whisper, 'Dear friend, - tell me, whither away?' - 'Alas!' he replied, - 'I am sick of life's ills, - And I long for repose - on the slumbering hills. - But oh seek not to pierce - where my footsteps may stray: - The white clouds will soothe me - for ever and ay.'_" - -The accompanying "stop-short" by the same writer is generally thought -to contain an effective surprise in the last line:-- - - "_Beneath the bamboo grove, alone, - I seize my lute and sit and croon; - No ear to hear me, save mine own: - No eye to see me--save the moon._" - -Wang Wei has been accused of loose writing and incongruous pictures. A -friendly critic defends him as follows:--"For instance, there is Wang -Wei, who introduces bananas into a snow-storm. When, however, we come -to examine such points by the light of scholarship, we see that his -mind had merely passed into subjective relationship with the things -described. Fools say he did not know heat from cold." - -[Sidenote: TS'UI HAO] - -A skilled poet, and a wine-bibber and gambler to boot, was TS'UI -HAO, who graduated about A.D. 730. - -He wrote a poem on the Yellow-Crane pagoda which until quite recently -stood on the bank of the Yang-tsze near Hankow, and was put up to mark -the spot where Wang Tzu-ch'iao, who had attained immortality, went up -to heaven in broad daylight six centuries before the Christian era. The -great Li Po once thought of writing on the theme, but he gave up the -idea so soon as he had read these lines by Ts'ui Hao:-- - - "_Here a mortal once sailed - up to heaven on a crane, - And the Yellow-Crane Kiosque, - will for ever remain; - But the bird flew away - and will come back no more, - Though the white clouds are there - as the white clouds of yore._ - - _Away to the east - lie fair forests of trees, - From the flowers on the west - comes a scent-laden breeze, - Yet my eyes daily turn - to their far-away home, - Beyond the broad River, - its waves, and its foam._" - -[Sidenote: LI PO] - -By general consent LI PO himself (A.D. 705-762) would probably be -named as China's greatest poet. His wild Bohemian life, his gay and -dissipated career at Court, his exile, and his tragic end, all combine -to form a most effective setting for the splendid flow of verse which -he never ceased to pour forth. At the early age of ten he wrote a -"stop-short" to a firefly:-- - - "_Rain cannot quench thy lantern's light, - Wind makes it shine more brightly bright; - Oh why not fly to heaven afar, - And twinkle near the moon--a star?_" - -Li Po began by wandering about the country, until at length, with five -other tippling poets, he retired to the mountains. For some time these -Six Idlers of the Bamboo Grove drank and wrote verses to their hearts' -content. By and by Li Po reached the capital, and on the strength of -his poetry was introduced to the Emperor as a "banished angel." He -was received with open arms, and soon became the spoilt child of the -palace. On one occasion, when the Emperor sent for him, he was found -lying drunk in the street; and it was only after having his face well -mopped with cold water that he was fit for the Imperial presence. His -talents, however, did not fail him. With a lady of the seraglio to hold -his ink-slab, he dashed off some of his most impassioned lines; at -which the Emperor was so overcome that he made the powerful eunuch Kao -Li-shih go down on his knees and pull off the poet's boots. On another -occasion, the Emperor, who was enjoying himself with his favourite -lady in the palace grounds, called for Li Po to commemorate the scene -in verse. After some delay the poet arrived, supported between two -eunuchs. "Please your Majesty," he said, "I have been drinking with the -Prince and he has made me drunk, but I will do my best." Thereupon two -of the ladies of the harem held up in front of him a pink silk screen, -and in a very short time he had thrown off no less than ten eight-line -stanzas, of which the following, describing the life of a palace -favourite, is one:-- - - "_Oh, the joy of youth spent - in a gold-fretted hall, - In the Crape-flower Pavilion, - the fairest of all, - My tresses for head-dress - with gay garlands girt, - Carnations arranged - o'er my jacket and skirt! - Then to wander away - in the soft-scented air, - And return by the side - of his Majesty's chair ... - But the dance and the song - will be o'er by and by, - And we shall dislimn - like the rack in the sky._" - -As time went on, Li Po fell a victim to intrigue, and left the Court in -disgrace. It was then that he wrote-- - - "_My whitening hair would make a long, long rope, - Yet would not fathom all my depth of woe._" - -After more wanderings and much adventure, he was drowned on a journey, -from leaning one night too far over the edge of a boat in a drunken -effort to embrace the reflection of the moon. Just previously he had -indited the following lines:-- - - "_An arbour of flowers - and a kettle of wine: - Alas! in the bowers - no companion is mine. - Then the moon sheds her rays - on my goblet and me, - And my shadow betrays - we're a party of three._ - - "_Though the moon cannot swallow - her share of the grog, - And my shadow must follow - wherever I jog,-- - Yet their friendship I'll borrow - and gaily carouse, - And laugh away sorrow - while spring-time allows._ - - "_See the moon,--how she glances - response to my song; - See my shadow,--it dances - so lightly along! - While sober I feel - you are both my good friends; - When drunken I reel, - our companionship ends. - But we'll soon have a greeting - without a good-bye, - At our next merry meeting - away in the sky._" - -His control of the "stop-short" is considered to be perfect:-- - - (1.) "_The birds have all flown to their roost in the tree, - The last cloud has just floated lazily by; - But we never tire of each other, not we, - As we sit there together,--the mountains and I._" - - (2.) "_I wake, and moonbeams play around my bed, - Glittering like hoar-frost to my wondering eyes; - Up towards the glorious moon I raise my head, - Then lay me down,--and thoughts of home arise._" - -The following are general extracts:-- - -A PARTING. - - (1.) "_The river rolls crystal as clear as the sky, - To blend far away with the blue waves of ocean; - Man alone, when the hour of departure is nigh, - With the wine-cup can soothe his emotion._ - - "_The birds of the valley sing loud in the sun, - Where the gibbons their vigils will shortly be keeping: - I thought that with tears I had long ago done, - But now I shall never cease weeping._" - - (2.) "_Homeward at dusk the clanging rookery wings its eager flight; - Then, chattering on the branches, all are pairing for the night. - Plying her busy loom, a high-born dame is sitting near, - And through the silken window-screen their voices strike her ear. - She stops, and thinks of the absent spouse she may never see again; - And late in the lonely hours of night her tears flow down like rain._" - - (3.) "_What is life after all but a dream? - And why should such pother be made? - Better far to be tipsy, I deem, - And doze all day long in the shade._ - - "_When I wake and look out on the lawn, - I hear midst the flowers a bird sing; - I ask, 'Is it evening or dawn?' - The mango-bird whistles, ''Tis spring.'_ - - "_Overpower'd with the beautiful sight, - Another full goblet I pour, - And would sing till the moon rises bright-- - But soon I'm as drunk as before._" - - (4.) "_You ask what my soul does away in the sky, - I inwardly smile but I cannot reply; - Like the peach-blossoms carried away by the stream, - I soar to a world of which you cannot dream._" - -One more extract may be given, chiefly to exhibit what is held by -the Chinese to be of the very essence of real poetry,--suggestion. A -poet should not dot his i's. The Chinese reader likes to do that for -himself, each according to his own fancy. Hence such a poem as the -following, often quoted as a model in its own particular line:-- - - "_A tortoise I see on a lotus-flower resting: - A bird 'mid the reeds and the rushes is nesting; - A light skiff propelled by some boatman's fair daughter, - Whose song dies away o'er the fast-flowing water._" - -[Sidenote: TU FU] - -Another poet of the same epoch, of whom his countrymen are also justly -proud, is TU FU (A.D. 712-770). He failed to distinguish himself at -the public examinations, at which verse-making counts so much, but had -nevertheless such a high opinion of his own poetry that he prescribed -it as a cure for malarial fever. He finally obtained a post at Court, -which he was forced to vacate in the rebellion of 755. As he himself -wrote in political allegory-- - - "_Full with the freshets of the spring the torrent rushes on; - The ferry-boat swings idly, for the ferry-man is gone._" - -After further vain attempts to make an official career, he took to a -wandering life, was nearly drowned by an inundation, and was compelled -to live for ten days on roots. Being rescued, he succumbed next day -to the effects of eating roast-beef and drinking white wine to excess -after so long a fast. These are some of his poems:-- - - (1.) "_The setting sun shines low upon my door - Ere dusk enwraps the river fringed with spring; - Sweet perfumes rise from gardens by the shore, - And smoke, where crews their boats to anchor bring._ - - "_Now twittering birds are roosting in the bower, - And flying insects fill the air around.... - O wine, who gave to thee thy subtle power? - A thousand cares in one small goblet drowned!_" - - (2.) "_A petal falls!--the spring begins to fail, - And my heart saddens with the growing gale. - Come then, ere autumn spoils bestrew the ground, - Do not forget to pass the wine-cup round. - Kingfishers build where man once laughed elate, - And now stone dragons guard his graveyard gate! - Who follows pleasure, he alone is wise; - Why waste our life in deeds of high emprise?_" - - (3.) "_My home is girdled by a limpid stream, - And there in summer days life's movements pause, - Save where some swallow flits from beam to beam, - And the wild sea-gull near and nearer draws._ - - "_The goodwife rules a paper board for chess; - The children beat a fish-hook out of wire; - My ailments call for physic more or less, - What else should this poor frame of mine require?_" - - (4.) "_Alone I wandered o'er the hills to seek the hermit's den, - While sounds of chopping rang around the forest's leafy glen. - I passed on ice across the brook, which had not ceased to freeze, - As the slanting rays of afternoon shot sparkling through the trees._ - - "_I found he did not joy to gloat o'er fetid wealth by night, - But, far from taint, to watch the deer in the golden morning light.... - My mind was clear at coming; but now I've lost my guide, - And rudderless my little bark is drifting with the tide!_" - - (5.) "_From the Court every eve to the pawnshop I pass, - To come back from the river the drunkest of men; - As often as not I'm in debt for my glass;-- - Well, few of us live to be threescore and ten._ - - _The butterfly flutters from flower to flower, - The dragon-fly sips and springs lightly away, - Each creature is merry its brief little hour, - So let us enjoy our short life while we may._" - -Here is a specimen of his skill with the "stop-short," based upon a -disease common to all Chinese, poets or otherwise,--nostalgia:-- - - "_White gleam the gulls across the darkling tide, - On the green hills the red flowers seem to burn; - Alas! I see another spring has died.... - When will it come--the day of my return?_" - -Of the poet CHANG CH'IEN not much is known. He graduated in 727, and -entered upon an official career, but ultimately betook himself to the -mountains and lived as a hermit. He is said to have been a devotee of -Taoism. The following poem, however, which deals with _dhyana_, or -the state of mental abstraction in which all desire for existence is -shaken off, would make it seem as if his leanings had been Buddhistic. -It gives a perfect picture, so far as it goes, of the Buddhist retreat -often to be found among mountain peaks all over China, visited by -pilgrims who perform religious exercises or fulfil vows at the feet of -the World-Honoured, and by contemplative students eager to shake off -the "red dust" of mundane affairs:-- - - "_The clear dawn creeps into the convent old, - The rising sun tips its tall trees with gold, - As, darkly, by a winding path I reach - Dhyana's hall, hidden midst fir and beech. - Around these hills sweet birds their pleasure take, - Man's heart as free from shadows as this lake; - Here worldly sounds are hushed, as by a spell, - Save for the booming of the altar bell._" - -There can be little doubt of the influence of Buddhism upon the poet -TS'EN TS'AN, who graduated about 750, as witness his lines on -that faith:-- - - "_A shrine whose eaves in far-off cloudland hide: - I mount, and with the sun stand side by side. - The air is clear; I see wide forests spread - And mist-crowned heights where kings of old lie dead. - Scarce o'er my threshold peeps the Southern Hill; - The Wei shrinks through my window to a rill.... - O thou Pure Faith, had I but known thy scope, - The Golden God[12] had long since been my hope!_" - -[Sidenote: WANG CHIEN] - -WANG CHIEN took the highest degree in 775, and rose to be Governor of a -District. He managed, however, to offend one of the Imperial clansmen, -in consequence of which his official career was abruptly cut short. He -wrote a good deal of verse, and was on terms of intimacy with several -of the great contemporary poets. In the following lines, the metre of -which is irregular, he alludes to the extraordinary case of a soldier's -wife who spent all her time on a hill-top looking down the Yang-tsze, -watching for her husband's return from the wars. At length-- - - "_Where her husband she sought, - By the river's long track, - Into stone she was wrought, - And can never come back; - 'Mid the wind and the rain-storm for ever and ay, - She appeals to each home-comer passing that way._" - -The last line makes the stone figure, into which the unhappy woman was -changed, appear to be asking of every fresh arrival news of the missing -man. That is the skill of the artist, and is inseparably woven into the -original. - -[Sidenote: HAN YUe] - -Passing over many poets equally well known with some of those already -cited, we reach a name undoubtedly the most venerated of all those ever -associated in any way with the great mass of Chinese literature. HAN YUe -(A.D. 768-824), canonised and usually spoken of as Han Wen-kung, was -not merely a poet, but a statesman of the first rank, and philosopher -to boot. He rose from among the humblest of the people to the highest -offices of State. In 803 he presented a memorial protesting against -certain extravagant honours with which the Emperor Hsien Tsung proposed -to receive a bone of Buddha. The monarch was furious, and but for the -intercession of friends it would have fared badly with the bold writer. -As it was, he was banished to Ch'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung, where he -set himself to civilise the rude inhabitants of those wild parts. In -a temple at the summit of the neighbouring range there is to be seen -at this day a huge picture of the Prince of Literature, as he has been -called by foreigners from his canonisation, with the following legend -attached:--"Wherever he passed, he purified." He is even said to have -driven away a huge crocodile which was devastating the watercourses in -the neighbourhood; and the denunciatory ultimatum which he addressed -to the monster and threw into the river, together with a pig and a -goat, is still regarded as a model of Chinese composition. It was -not very long ere he was recalled to the capital and reinstated in -office; but he had been delicate all his life and had grown prematurely -old, and was thus unable to resist a severe illness which came upon -him. His friend and contemporary, Liu Tsung-yuean, said that he never -ventured to open the works of Han Yue without first washing his hands -in rose-water. His writings, especially his essays, are often of the -very highest order, leaving nothing to be desired either in originality -or in style. But it is more than all for his pure and noble character, -his calm and dignified patriotism, that the Chinese still keep his -memory green. The following lines were written by Su Tung-p'o, nearly -300 years after his death, for a shrine which had just been put up in -honour of the dead teacher by the people of Ch'ao-chou Fu:-- - - "_He rode on the dragon to the white cloud domain; - He grasped with his hand the glory of the sky; - Robed with the effulgence of the stars, - The wind bore him delicately to the throne of God. - He swept away the chaff and husks of his generation. - He roamed over the limits of the earth. - He clothed all nature with his bright rays, - The third in the triumvirate of genius.[13] - His rivals panted after him in vain, - Dazed by the brilliancy of the light. - He cursed Buddha; he offended his prince; - He journeyed far away to the distant south; - He passed the grave of Shun, and wept over the daughters of Yao. - The water-god went before him and stilled the waves. - He drove out the fierce monster as it were a lamb. - But above, in heaven, there was no music, and God was sad, - And summoned him to his place beside the Throne. - And now, with these poor offerings, I salute him; - With red lichees and yellow plantain fruit. - Alas! that he did not linger awhile on earth, - But passed so soon, with streaming hair, into the great unknown._" - -Han Yue wrote a large quantity of verse, frequently playful, on an -immense variety of subjects, and under his touch the commonplace was -often transmuted into wit. Among other pieces there is one on his -teeth, which seemed to drop out at regular intervals, so that he could -calculate roughly what span of life remained to him. Altogether, his -poetry cannot be classed with that of the highest order, unlike his -prose writings, extracts from which will be given in the next chapter. -The following poem is a specimen of his lighter vein:-- - - "_To stand upon the river-bank - and snare the purple fish, - My net well cast across the stream, - was all that I could wish. - Or lie concealed and shoot the geese - that scream and pass apace, - And pay my rent and taxes with - the profits of the chase. - Then home to peace and happiness, - with wife and children gay, - Though clothes be coarse and fare be hard, - and earned from day to day. - But now I read and read, scarce knowing - what 'tis all about, - And, eager to improve my mind, - I wear my body out. - I draw a snake and give it legs, - to find I've wasted skill, - And my hair grows daily whiter - as I hurry towards the hill.[14] - I sit amid the sorrows - I have brought on my own head, - And find myself estranged from all, - among the living dead. - I seek to drown my consciousness - in wine, alas! in vain: - Oblivion passes quickly - and my griefs begin again. - Old age comes on, and yet withholds - the summons to depart.... - So I'll take another bumper - just to ease my aching heart._" - - -Humane treatment of the lower animals is not generally supposed to be a -characteristic of the Chinese. They have no Society for the Prevention -of Cruelty to Animals, which may perhaps account for some of their -shortcomings in this direction. Han Yue was above all things of a -kindly, humane nature, and although the following piece cannot be taken -seriously, it affords a useful index to his general feelings:-- - - "_Oh, spare the busy morning fly, - Spare the mosquitos of the night! - And if their wicked trade they ply, - Let a partition stop their flight._ - - "_Their span is brief from birth to death; - Like you, they bite their little day; - And then, with autumn's earliest breath, - Like you, too, they are swept away._" - -The following lines were written on the way to his place of exile in -Kuangtung:-- - - "_Alas! the early season flies, - Behold the remnants of the spring! - My boat in landlocked water lies, - At dawn I hear the wild birds sing._ - - "_Then, through clouds lingering on the slope, - The rising sun breaks on to me, - And thrills me with a fleeting hope,-- - A prisoner longing to be free._ - - "_My flowing tears are long since dried, - Though care clings closer than it did. - But stop! All care we lay aside - When once they close the coffin lid._" - -[Sidenote: PO CHUe-I] - -Another famous poet, worthy to be mentioned even after Han Yue, -was PO CHUe-I (A.D. 772-846). As a child he was most precocious, -knowing a considerable number of the written characters at the -early age of seven months, after having had each one pointed -out only once by his nurse. He graduated at the age of seventeen, and -rose to high office in the State, though at one period of his life -he was banished to a petty post, which somewhat disgusted him with -officialdom. To console himself, he built a retreat at Hsiang-shan, -by which name he is sometimes called; and there, together with eight -congenial companions, he gave himself up to poetry and speculations -upon a future life. To escape recognition and annoyance, all names were -dropped, and the party was generally known as the Nine Old Gentlemen of -Hsiang-shan. This reaching the ears of the Emperor, he was transferred -to be Governor of Chung-chou; and on the accession of Mu Tsung in -821 he was sent as Governor to Hangchow. There he built one of the -great embankments of the beautiful Western Lake, still known as Po's -Embankment. He was subsequently Governor of Soochow, and finally rose -in 841 to be President of the Board of War. His poems were collected -by Imperial command and engraved upon tablets of stone, which were -set up in a garden he had made for himself in imitation of his former -beloved retreat at Hsiang-shan. He disbelieved in the genuineness of -the _Tao-Te-Ching_, and ridiculed its preposterous claims as follows:-- - - "_'Who know, speak not; who speak, know naught,' - Are words from Lao Tzu's lore. - What then becomes of Lao Tzu's own - 'Five thousand words and more'?_" - -Here is a charming poem from his pen, which tells the story of a poor -lute-girl's sorrows. This piece is ranked very high by the commentator -Lin Hsi-chung, who points out how admirably the wording is adapted to -echo the sense, and declares that such workmanship raises the reader -to that state of mental ecstasy known to the Buddhists as _samadhi_, -and can only be produced once in a thousand autumns. The "guest" is the -poet himself, setting out a second time for his place of banishment, as -mentioned above, from a point about half-way thither, where he had been -struck down by illness:-- - -"By night, at the riverside, adieus were spoken: beneath the maple's -flower-like leaves, blooming amid autumnal decay. Host had dismounted -to speed the parting guest, already on board his boat. Then a -stirrup-cup went round, but no flute, no guitar, was heard. And so, ere -the heart was warmed with wine, came words of cold farewell beneath the -bright moon, glittering over the bosom of the broad stream ... when -suddenly across the water a lute broke forth into sound. Host forgot -to go, guest lingered on, wondering whence the music, and asking who -the performer might be. At this, all was hushed, but no answer given. A -boat approached, and the musician was invited to join the party. Cups -were refilled, lamps trimmed again, and preparations for festivity -renewed. At length, after much pressing, she came forth, hiding her -face behind her lute; and twice or thrice sweeping the strings, -betrayed emotion ere her song was sung. Then every note she struck -swelled with pathos deep and strong, as though telling the tale of a -wrecked and hopeless life, while with bent head and rapid finger she -poured forth her soul in melody. Now softly, now slowly, her plectrum -sped to and fro; now this air, now that; loudly, with the crash of -falling rain; softly, as the murmur of whispered words; now loud and -soft together, like the patter of pearls and pearlets dropping upon -a marble dish. Or liquid, like the warbling of the mango-bird in the -bush; trickling, like the streamlet on its downward course. And then, -like the torrent, stilled by the grip of frost, so for a moment was -the music lulled, in a passion too deep for sound. Then, as bursts the -water from the broken vase, as clash the arms upon the mailed horseman, -so fell the plectrum once more upon the strings with a slash like the -rent of silk. - -"Silence on all sides: not a sound stirred the air. The autumn moon -shone silver athwart the tide, as with a sigh the musician thrust her -plectrum beneath the strings and quietly prepared to take leave. 'My -childhood,' said she, 'was spent at the capital, in my home near the -hills. At thirteen, I learnt the guitar, and my name was enrolled -among the _primas_ of the day. The _maestro_ himself acknowledged my -skill: the most beauteous of women envied my lovely face. The youths -of the neighbourhood vied with each other to do me honour: a single -song brought me I know not how many costly bales. Golden ornaments and -silver pins were smashed, blood-red skirts of silk were stained with -wine, in oft-times echoing applause. And so I laughed on from year to -year, while the spring breeze and autumn moon swept over my careless -head. - -"'Then my brother went away to the wars: my mother died. Nights passed -and mornings came; and with them my beauty began to fade. My doors were -no longer thronged; but few cavaliers remained. So I took a husband -and became a trader's wife. He was all for gain, and little recked of -separation from me. Last month he went off to buy tea, and I remained -behind, to wander in my lonely boat on moon-lit nights over the cold -wave, thinking of the happy days gone by, my reddened eyes telling of -tearful dreams.' - -"The sweet melody of the lute had already moved my soul to pity, and -now these words pierced me to the heart again. 'O lady,' I cried, 'we -are companions in misfortune, and need no ceremony to be friends. Last -year I quitted the Imperial city, and fever-stricken reached this spot, -where in its desolation, from year's end to year's end, no flute or -guitar is heard. I live by the marshy river-bank, surrounded by yellow -reeds and stunted bamboos. Day and night no sounds reach my ears save -the blood-stained note of the nightjar, the gibbon's mournful wail. -Hill songs I have, and village pipes with their harsh discordant twang. -But now that I listen to thy lute's discourse, methinks 'tis the music -of the gods. Prithee sit down awhile and sing to us yet again, while I -commit thy story to writing.' - -"Grateful to me (for she had been standing long), the lute-girl -sat down and quickly broke forth into another song, sad and soft, -unlike the song of just now. Then all her hearers melted into tears -unrestrained; and none flowed more freely than mine, until my bosom was -wet with weeping." - -Perhaps the best known of all the works of Po Chue-i is a narrative -poem of some length entitled "The Everlasting Wrong." It refers to the -ignominious downfall of the Emperor known as Ming Huang (A.D. -685-762), who himself deserves a passing notice. At his accession -to the throne in 712, he was called upon to face an attempt on the -part of his aunt, the T'ai-p'ing Princess, to displace him; but this -he succeeded in crushing, and entered upon what promised to be a -glorious reign. He began with economy, closing the silk factories -and forbidding the palace ladies to wear jewels or embroideries, -considerable quantities of which were actually burnt. Until 740 the -country was fairly prosperous. The administration was improved, the -empire was divided into fifteen provinces, and schools were established -in every village. The Emperor was a patron of literature, and himself -a poet of no mean capacity. He published an edition of the Classic of -Filial Piety, and caused the text to be engraved on four tablets of -stone, A.D. 745. His love of war, however, and his growing -extravagance, led to increased taxation. Fond of music, he founded a -college for training youth of both sexes in this art. He surrounded -himself by a brilliant Court, welcoming such men as the poet Li Po, -at first for their talents alone, but afterwards for their readiness -to participate in scenes of revelry and dissipation provided for the -amusement of the Imperial concubine, the ever-famous Yang Kuei-fei. -Eunuchs were appointed to official posts, and the grossest forms of -religious superstition were encouraged. Women ceased to veil themselves -as of old. Gradually the Emperor left off concerning himself with -affairs of State; a serious rebellion broke out, and his Majesty sought -safety in flight to Ssuch'uan, returning only after having abdicated -in favour of his son. The accompanying poem describes the rise of -Yang Kuei-fei, her tragic fate at the hands of the soldiery, and her -subsequent communication with her heart-broken lover from the world of -shadows beyond the grave:-- - - ENNUI.--_His Imperial Majesty, a slave to beauty, - longed for a "subverter of empires;"[15] - For years he had sought in vain - to secure such a treasure for his palace...._ - - BEAUTY.--_From the Yang family came a maiden, - just grown up to womanhood, - Reared in the inner apartments, - altogether unknown to fame. - But nature had amply endowed her - with a beauty hard to conceal, - And one day she was summoned - to a place at the monarch's side. - Her sparkling eye and merry laughter - fascinated every beholder, - And among the powder and paint of the harem - her loveliness reigned supreme. - In the chills of spring, by Imperial mandate, - she bathed in the Hua-ch'ing Pool, - Laving her body in the glassy wavelets - of the fountain perennially warm. - Then, when she came forth, helped by attendants, - her delicate and graceful movements - Finally gained for her gracious favour, - captivating his Majesty's heart._ - - REVELRY.--_Hair like a cloud, face like a flower, - headdress which quivered as she walked, - Amid the delights of the Hibiscus Pavilion - she passed the soft spring nights. - Spring nights, too short alas! for them, - albeit prolonged till dawn,-- - From this time forth no more audiences - in the hours of early morn. - Revels and feasts in quick succession, - ever without a break, - She chosen always for the spring excursion, - chosen for the nightly carouse. - Three thousand peerless beauties adorned - the apartments of the monarch's harem, - Yet always his Majesty reserved - his attentions for her alone. - Passing her life in a "golden house,"[16] - with fair girls to wait on her, - She was daily wafted to ecstasy - on the wine fumes of the banquet-hall. - Her sisters and her brothers, one and all, - were raised to the rank of nobles. - Alas! for the ill-omened glories - which she conferred on her family. - For thus it came about that fathers and mothers - through the length and breadth of the empire - Rejoiced no longer over the birth of sons, - but over the birth of daughters. - In the gorgeous palace - piercing the grey clouds above, - Divine music, borne on the breeze, - is spread around on all sides; - Of song and the dance - to the guitar and flute, - All through the live long day, - his Majesty never tires. - But suddenly comes the roll - of the fish-skin war-drums, - Breaking rudely upon the air - of the "Rainbow Skirt and Feather Jacket."_ - - FLIGHT.--_Clouds of dust envelop - the lofty gates of the capital. - A thousand war-chariots and ten thousand horses - move towards the south-west. - Feathers and jewels among the throng, - onwards and then a halt. - A hundred ~li~ beyond the western gate, - leaving behind them the city walls, - The soldiers refuse to advance; - nothing remains to be done - Until she of the moth-eyebrows - perishes in sight of all. - On the ground lie gold ornaments - with no one to pick them up, - Kingfisher wings, golden birds, - and hairpins of costly jade. - The monarch covers his face, - powerless to save; - And as he turns to look back, - tears and blood flow mingled together._ - - EXILE.--_Across vast stretches of yellow sand - with whistling winds, - Across cloud-capped mountain-tops - they make their way. - Few indeed are the travellers - who reach the heights of Mount Omi; - The bright gleam of the standards - grows fainter day by day. - Dark the Ssuch'uan waters, - dark the Ssuch'uan hills; - Daily and nightly his Majesty - is consumed by bitter grief. - Travelling along, the very brightness - of the moon saddens his heart, - And the sound of a bell through the evening rain - severs his viscera in twain._ - - RETURN.--_Time passes, days go by, and once again - he is there at the well-known spot, - And there he lingers on, unable - to tear himself wholly away. - But from the clods of earth - at the foot of the Ma-wei hill, - No sign of her lovely face appears, - only the place of death. - The eyes of sovereign and minister meet, - and robes are wet with tears, - Eastward they depart and hurry on - to the capital at full speed._ - - HOME.--_There is the pool and there are the flowers, - as of old. - There is the hibiscus of the pavilion, - there are the willows of the palace. - In the hibiscus he sees her face, - in the willow he sees her eyebrows: - How in the presence of these - should tears not flow,-- - In spring amid the flowers - of the peach and plum, - In autumn rains when the leaves - of the ~wu t'ung~ fall? - To the south of the western palace - are many trees, - And when their leaves cover the steps, - no one now sweeps them away. - The hair of the Pear-Garden musicians - is white as though with age; - The guardians of the Pepper Chamber[17] - seem to him no longer young. - Where fireflies flit through the hall, - he sits in silent grief; - Alone, the lamp-wick burnt out, - he is still unable to sleep. - Slowly pass the watches, - for the nights are now too long, - And brightly shine the constellations, - as though dawn would never come. - Cold settles upon the duck-and-drake tiles,[18] - and thick hoar-frost, - The kingfisher coverlet is chill, - with none to share its warmth. - Parted by life and death, - time still goes on, - But never once does her spirit come back - to visit him in dreams._ - - SPIRIT-LAND.--_A Taoist priest of Lin-ch'ung, - of the Hung-tu school, - Was able, by his perfect art, to summon - the spirits of the dead. - Anxious to relieve the fretting mind - of his sovereign, - This magician receives orders - to urge a diligent quest. - Borne on the clouds, charioted upon ether, - he rushes with the speed of lightning - High up to heaven, low down to earth, - seeking everywhere. - Above, he searches the empyrean; - below, the Yellow Springs, - But nowhere in these vast areas - can her place be found. - At length he hears of an Isle of the Blest - away in mid-ocean, - Lying in realms of vacuity, - dimly to be descried. - There gaily decorated buildings - rise up like rainbow clouds, - And there many gentle and beautiful Immortals - pass their days in peace. - Among them is one whose name - sounds upon lips as Eternal, - And by her snow-white skin and flower-like face - he knows that this is she. - Knocking at the jade door - at the western gate of the golden palace, - He bids a fair waiting-maid announce him - to her mistress, fairer still. - She, hearing of this embassy - sent by the Son of Heaven, - Starts up from her dreams - among the tapestry curtains. - Grasping her clothes and pushing away the pillow, - she arises in haste, - And begins to adorn herself - with pearls and jewels. - Her cloud-like coiffure, dishevelled, - shows that she has just risen from sleep, - And with her flowery head-dress awry, - she passes into the hall. - The sleeves of her immortal robes - are filled out by the breeze, - As once more she seems to dance - to the "Rainbow Skirt and Feather Jacket." - Her features are fixed and calm, - though myriad tears fall, - Wetting a spray of pear-bloom, - as it were with the raindrops of spring. - Subduing her emotions, restraining her grief, - she tenders thanks to his Majesty, - Saying how since they parted - she has missed his form and voice; - And how, although their love on earth - has so soon come to an end, - The days and months among the Blest - are still of long duration. - And now she turns and gazes - towards the abode of mortals, - But cannot discern the Imperial city - lost in the dust and haze. - Then she takes out the old keepsakes, - tokens of undying love, - A gold hairpin, an enamel brooch, - and bids the magician carry these back. - One half of the hairpin she keeps, - and one half of the enamel brooch, - Breaking with her hands the yellow gold, - and dividing the enamel in two. - "Tell him," she said, "to be firm of heart, - as this gold and enamel, - And then in heaven or on earth below - we two may meet once more." - At parting, she confided to the magician - many earnest messages of love, - Among the rest recalling a pledge - mutually understood; - How on the seventh day of the seventh moon, - in the Hall of Immortality, - At midnight, when none were near, - he had whispered in her ear, - "I swear that we will ever fly - like the one-winged birds,[19] - Or grow united like the tree - with branches which twine together."[20] - Heaven and Earth, long-lasting as they are, - will some day pass away; - But this great wrong shall stretch out for ever, - endless, for ever and ay._ - -[Sidenote: LI HO] - -A precocious and short-lived poet was LI HO, of the ninth -century. He began to write verses at the age of seven. Twenty years -later he met a strange man riding on a hornless dragon, who said to -him, "God Almighty has finished his Jade Pavilion, and has sent for you -to be his secretary." Shortly after this he died. The following is a -specimen of his poetry:-- - - "_With flowers on the ground like embroidery spread, - At twenty, the soft glow of wine in my head, - My white courser's bit-tassels motionless gleam - While the gold-threaded willow scent sweeps o'er the stream. - Yet until ~she~ has smiled, all these flowers yield no ray; - When her tresses fall down the whole landscape is gay; - My hand on her sleeve as I gaze in her eyes, - A kingfisher hairpin will soon be my prize._" - -CHANG CHI, who also flourished in the ninth century, was -eighty years old when he died. He was on terms of close friendship with -Han Yue, and like him, too, a vigorous opponent of both Buddhism and -Taoism. The following is his most famous poem, the beauty of which, -says a commentator, lies beyond the words:-- - - "_Knowing, fair sir, my matrimonial thrall, - Two pearls thou sentest me, costly withal. - And I, seeing that Love thy heart possessed, - I wrapped them coldly in my silken vest._ - - "_For mine is a household of high degree, - My husband captain in the King's army; - And one with wit like thine should say, - 'The troth of wives is for ever and ay.'_ - - "_With thy two pearls I send thee back two tears: - Tears--that we did not meet in earlier years._" - -Many more poets of varying shades of excellence must here be set aside, -their efforts often brightened by those quaint conceits which are so -dear to the Chinese reader, but which approach so perilously near to -bathos when they appear in foreign garb. A few specimens, torn from -their setting, may perhaps have an interest of their own. Here is a -lady complaining of the leaden-footed flight of time as marked by the -water-clock:-- - - "_It seems that the clepsydra - has been filled up with the sea, - To make the long, long night appear - an endless night to me!_" - -The second line in the next example is peculiarly characteristic:-- - - "_Dusk comes, the east wind blows, and birds - pipe forth a mournful sound; - Petals, like nymphs from balconies, - come tumbling to the ground._" - -The next refers to candles burning in a room where two friends are -having a last talk on the night before parting for a long period:-- - - "_The very wax sheds sympathetic tears, - And gutters sadly down till dawn appears._" - -This last is from a friend to a friend at a distance:-- - - "_Ah, when shall we ever snuff candles again, - And recall the glad hours of that evening of rain?_" - -[Sidenote: LI SHE] - -A popular poet of the ninth century was LI SHE, especially -well known for the story of his capture by highwaymen. The chief knew -him by name and called for a sample of his art, eliciting the following -lines, which immediately secured his release:-- - - "_The rainy mist sweeps gently o'er the village by the stream, - When from the leafy forest glades the brigand daggers gleam.... - And yet there is no need to fear, nor step from out their way, - For more than half the world consists of bigger rogues than they!_" - -A popular physician in great request, as well as a poet, was MA TZU-JAN -(_d._ A.D. 880). He studied Taoism in a hostile sense, as would appear -from the following poem by him; nevertheless, according to tradition, -he was ultimately taken up to heaven alive:-- - - "_In youth I went to study ~TAO~ at its living fountain-head, - And then lay tipsy half the day upon a gilded bed. - 'What oaf is this,' the Master cried, 'content with human lot?' - And bade me to the world get back and call myself a sot. - But wherefore seek immortal life by means of wondrous pills? - Noise is not in the market-place, nor quiet on the hills. - The secret of perpetual youth is already known to me: - Accept with philosophic calm whatever fate may be._" - -HSUe AN-CHEN, of the ninth century, is entitled to a place among the -T'ang poets, if only for the following piece:-- - - "_When the Bear athwart was lying, - And the night was just on dying, - And the moon was all but gone, - How my thoughts did ramble on!_ - - "_Then a sound of music breaks - From a lute that some one wakes, - And I know that it is she, - The sweet maid next door to me._ - - "_And as the strains steal o'er me - Her moth-eyebrows rise before me, - And I feel a gentle thrill - That her fingers must be chill._ - - "_But doors and locks between us - So effectually screen us - That I hasten from the street - And in dreamland pray to meet._" - -The following lines by TU CH'IN-NIANG, a poetess of the ninth century, -are included in a collection of 300 gems of the T'ang dynasty:-- - - "_I would not have thee grudge those robes - which gleam in rich array, - But I would have thee grudge the hours - of youth which glide away. - Go, pluck the blooming flower betimes, - lest when thou com'st again - Alas! upon the withered stem - no blooming flowers remain!_" - -[Sidenote: SSU-K'UNG T'U] - -It is time perhaps to bring to a close the long list, which might be -almost indefinitely lengthened. SSU-K'UNG T'U (A.D. 834-908) was a -secretary in the Board of Rites, but he threw up his post and became -a hermit. Returning to Court in 905, he accidentally dropped part -of his official insignia at an audience,--an unpardonable breach of -Court etiquette,--and was allowed to retire once more to the hills, -where he ultimately starved himself to death through grief at the -murder of the youthful Emperor. He is commonly known as the Last of -the T'angs; his poetry, which is excessively difficult to understand, -ranking correspondingly high in the estimation of Chinese critics. The -following philosophical poem, consisting of twenty-four apparently -unconnected stanzas, is admirably adapted to exhibit the form under -which pure Taoism commends itself to the mind of a cultivated scholar:-- - - -i.--ENERGY--ABSOLUTE. - - "_Expenditure of force leads to outward decay, - Spiritual existence means inward fulness. - Let us revert to Nothing and enter the Absolute, - Hoarding up strength for Energy. - Freighted with eternal principles, - Athwart the mighty void, - Where cloud-masses darken, - And the wind blows ceaseless around, - Beyond the range of conceptions, - Let us gain the Centre, - And there hold fast without violence, - Fed from an inexhaustible supply._" - - -ii.--TRANQUIL REPOSE. - - "_It dwells in quietude, speechless, - Imperceptible in the cosmos, - Watered by the eternal harmonies, - Soaring with the lonely crane. - It is like a gentle breeze in spring, - Softly bellying the flowing robe; - It is like the note of the bamboo flute, - Whose sweetness we would fain make our own. - Meeting by chance, it seems easy of access, - Seeking, we find it hard to secure. - Ever shifting in semblance, - It shifts from the grasp and is gone._" - - -iii.--SLIM--STOUT. - - "_Gathering the water-plants - From the wild luxuriance of spring, - Away in the depth of a wild valley - Anon I see a lovely girl. - With green leaves the peach-trees are loaded, - The breeze blows gently along the stream, - Willows shade the winding path, - Darting orioles collect in groups. - Eagerly I press forward - As the reality grows upon me.... - 'Tis the eternal theme - Which, though old, is ever new._" - - -iv.--CONCENTRATION. - - "_Green pines and a rustic hut, - The sun sinking through pure air, - I take off my cap and stroll alone, - Listening to the song of birds. - No wild geese fly hither, - And she is far away; - But my thoughts make her present - As in the days gone by. - Across the water dark clouds are whirled, - Beneath the moonbeams the eyots stand revealed, - And sweet words are exchanged - Though the great River rolls between._" - - -v.--HEIGHT--ANTIQUITY. - - "_Lo the Immortal, borne by spirituality, - His hand grasping a lotus flower, - Away to Time everlasting, - Trackless through the regions of Space! - With the moon he issues from the Ladle,[21] - Speeding upon a favourable gale; - Below, Mount Hua looms dark, - And from it sounds a clear-toned bell. - Vacantly I gaze after his vanished image, - Now passed beyond the bounds of mortality.... - Ah, the Yellow Emperor and Yao, - They, peerless, are his models._" - - -vi.--REFINEMENT. - - "_A jade kettle with a purchase of spring,[22] - A shower on the thatched hut - Wherein sits a gentle scholar, - With tall bamboos growing right and left, - And white clouds in the newly-clear sky, - And birds flitting in the depths of trees. - Then pillowed on his lute in the green shade, - A waterfall tumbling overhead, - Leaves dropping, not a word spoken, - The man placid, like a chrysanthemum, - Noting down the flower-glory of the season,-- - A book well worthy to be read._" - - -vii.--WASH--SMELT. - - "_As iron from the mines, - As silver from lead, - So purify thy heart, - Loving the limpid and clean. - Like a clear pool in spring, - With its wondrous mirrored shapes, - So make for the spotless and true, - And, riding the moonbeam, revert to the Spiritual. - Let your gaze be upon the stars of heaven,[23] - Let your song be of the hiding hermit;[23] - Like flowing water is our to-day, - Our yesterday, the bright moon._"[24] - - -viii.--STRENGTH. - - "_The mind as though in the void, - The vitality as though of the rainbow, - Among the thousand-ell peaks of Wu, - Flying with the clouds, racing with the wind; - Drink of the spiritual, feed on force, - Store them for daily use, guard them in your heart, - Be like Him in His might,[25] - For this is to preserve your energy; - Be a peer of Heaven and Earth, - A co-worker in Divine transformation.... - Seek to be full of these, - And hold fast to them alway._" - - -ix.--EMBROIDERIES. - - "_If the mind has wealth and rank, - One may make light of yellow gold. - Rich pleasures pall ere long, - Simple joys deepen ever. - A mist-cloud hanging on the river bank, - Pink almond-flowers along the bough, - A flower-girt cottage beneath the moon, - A painted bridge half seen in shadow, - A golden goblet brimming with wine, - A friend with his hand on the lute.... - Take these and be content; - They will swell thy heart beneath thy robe._" - - -x.--THE NATURAL. - - "_Stoop, and there it is; - Seek it not right and left. - All roads lead thither,-- - One touch and you have spring![26] - As though coming upon opening flowers, - As though gazing upon the new year, - Verily I will not snatch it, - Forced, it will dwindle away. - I will be like the hermit on the hill, - Like duckweed gathered on the stream,[27] - And when emotions crowd upon me, - I will leave them to the harmonies of heaven._" - - -xi.--SET FREE. - - "_Joying in flowers without let, - Breathing the empyrean, - Through ~TAO~ reverting to ether, - And there to be wildly free, - Wide-spreading as the wind of heaven, - Lofty as the peaks of ocean, - Filled with a spiritual strength, - All creation by my side, - Before me the sun, moon, and stars, - The phoenix following behind. - In the morning I whip up my leviathans - And wash my feet in Fusang._"[28] - - -xii.--CONSERVATION. - - "_Without a word writ down, - All wit may be attained. - If words do not affect the speaker, - They seem inadequate to sorrow.[29] - Herein is the First Cause, - With which we sink or rise, - As wine in the strainer mounts high, - As cold turns back the season of flowers. - The wide-spreading dust-motes in the air, - The sudden spray-bubbles of ocean, - Shallow, deep, collected, scattered,-- - You grasp ten thousand, and secure one._" - - -xiii.--ANIMAL SPIRITS. - - "_That they might come back unceasingly, - That they might be ever with us!-- - The bright river, unfathomable, - The rare flower just opening, - The parrot of the verdant spring, - The willow-trees, the terrace, - The stranger from the dark hills, - The cup overflowing with clear wine.... - Oh, for life to be extended, - With no dead ashes of writing, - Amid the charms of the Natural,-- - Ah, who can compass it?_" - - -xiv.--CLOSE WOVEN. - - "_In all things there are veritable atoms, - Though the senses cannot perceive them, - Struggling to emerge into shape - From the wondrous workmanship of God. - Water flowing, flowers budding, - The limpid dew evaporating, - An important road, stretching far, - A dark path where progress is slow.... - So words should not shock, - Nor thought be inept. - But be like the green of spring, - Like snow beneath the moon._"[30] - - -xv.--SECLUSION. - - "_Following our own bent, - Enjoying the Natural, free from curb, - Rich with what comes to hand, - Hoping some day to be with God. - To build a hut beneath the pines, - With uncovered head to pore over poetry, - Knowing only morning and eve, - But not what season it may be.... - Then, if happiness is ours, - Why must there be action? - If of our own selves we can reach this point, - Can we not be said to have attained?_" - - -xvi.--FASCINATION. - - "_Lovely is the pine-grove, - With the stream eddying below, - A clear sky and a snow-clad bank, - Fishing-boats in the reach beyond. - And she, like unto jade, - Slowly sauntering, as I follow through the dark wood, - Now moving on, now stopping short, - Far away to the deep valley.... - My mind quits its tenement, and is in the past, - Vague, and not to be recalled, - As though before the glow of the rising moon, - As though before the glory of autumn._" - - -xvii.--IN TORTUOUS WAYS. - - "_I climbed the Tai-hsing mountain - By the green winding path, - Vegetation like a sea of jade, - Flower-scent borne far and wide. - Struggling with effort to advance, - A sound escaped my lips, - Which seemed to be back ere 'twas gone, - As though hidden but not concealed.[31] - The eddying waters rush to and fro, - Overhead the great rukh soars and sails; - ~TAO~ does not limit itself to a shape, - But is round and square by turns._" - - -xviii.--ACTUALITIES. - - "_Choosing plain words - To express simple thoughts, - Suddenly I happened upon a recluse, - And seemed to see the heart of TAO. - Beside the winding brook, - Beneath dark pine-trees' shade, - There was one stranger bearing a faggot, - Another listening to the lute. - And so, where my fancy led me, - Better than if I had sought it, - I heard the music of heaven, - Astounded by its rare strains._" - - -xix.--DESPONDENT - - "_A gale ruffles the stream - And trees in the forest crack; - My thoughts are bitter as death, - For she whom I asked will not come. - A hundred years slip by like water, - Riches and rank are but cold ashes, - ~TAO~ is daily passing away, - To whom shall we turn for salvation? - The brave soldier draws his sword, - And tears flow with endless lamentation; - The wind whistles, leaves fall, - And rain trickles through the old thatch._" - - -xx.--FORM AND FEATURE. - - "_After gazing fixedly upon expression and substance - The mind returns with a spiritual image, - As when seeking the outlines of waves, - As when painting the glory of spring. - The changing shapes of wind-swept clouds, - The energies of flowers and plants, - The rolling breakers of ocean, - The crags and cliffs of mountains, - All these are like mighty ~TAO~, - Skilfully woven into earthly surroundings.... - To obtain likeness without form, - Is not that to possess the man?_" - - -xxi.--THE TRANSCENDENTAL. - - "_Not of the spirituality of the mind, - Nor yet of the atoms of the cosmos, - But as though reached upon white clouds, - Borne thither by pellucid breezes. - Afar, it seems at hand, - Approach, 'tis no longer there; - Sharing the nature of ~TAO~, - It shuns the limits of mortality. - It is in the piled-up hills, in tall trees, - In dark mosses, in sunlight rays.... - Croon over it, think upon it; - Its faint sound eludes the ear._" - - -xxii.--ABSTRACTION. - - "_Without friends, longing to be there, - Alone, away from the common herd, - Like the crane on Mount Hou, - Like the cloud at the peak of Mount Hua. - In the portrait of the hero - The old fire still lingers; - The leaf carried by the wind - Floats on the boundless sea. - It would seem as though not to be grasped, - But always on the point of being disclosed. - Those who recognise this have already attained; - Those who hope, drift daily farther away._" - - -xxiii.--ILLUMINED. - - "_Life stretches to one hundred years, - And yet how brief a span; - Its joys so fleeting, - Its griefs so many! - What has it like a goblet of wine, - And daily visits to the wistaria arbour, - Where flowers cluster around the eaves, - And light showers pass overhead? - Then when the wine-cup is drained, - To stroll about with staff of thorn; - For who of us but will some day be an ancient?... - Ah, there is the South Mountain in its grandeur!_"[32] - - -xxiv.--MOTION. - - "_Like a whirling water-wheel, - Like rolling pearls,-- - Yet how are these worthy to be named? - They are but illustrations for fools. - There is the mighty axis of Earth, - The never-resting pole of Heaven; - Let us grasp their clue, - And with them be blended in One, - Beyond the bounds of thought, - Circling for ever in the great Void, - An orbit of a thousand years,-- - Yes, this is the key to my theme._" - -FOOTNOTES: - -[12] Alluding to the huge gilt images of Buddha to be seen in all -temples. - -[13] The other two were Li Po and Tu Fu. - -[14] Graves are placed by preference on some hillside. - -[15] Referring to a famous beauty of the Han dynasty, one glance from -whom would overthrow a city, two glances an empire. - -[16] Referring to A-chiao, one of the consorts of an Emperor of the -Han dynasty. "Ah," said the latter when a boy, "if I could only get -A-chiao, I would have a golden house to keep her in." - -[17] A fancy name for the women's apartments in the palace. - -[18] The mandarin duck and drake are emblems of conjugal fidelity. The -allusion is to ornaments on the roof. - -[19] Each bird having only one wing, must always fly with a mate. - -[20] Such a tree was believed to exist, and has often been figured by -the Chinese. - -[21] The Great Bear. - -[22] Wine which makes man see spring at all seasons. - -[23] Emblems of purity. - -[24] Our previous state of existence at the eternal Centre to which the -moon belongs. - -[25] The Power who, without loss of force, causes things to be what -they are--God. - -[26] Alluding to the art of the painter. - -[27] A creature of chance, following the doctrine of Inaction. - -[28] Variously identified with Saghalien, Mexico, and Japan. - -[29] - - ...Si vis me flere dolendum est - Primum ipsi tibi.... - - -[30] Each invisible atom of which combines to produce a perfect whole. - -[31] Referring to an echo. - -[32] This remains, while all other things pass away. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -_CLASSICAL AND GENERAL LITERATURE_ - - -The classical scholarship of the Tang dynasty was neither very original -nor very profound. It is true that the second Emperor founded a College -of Learning, but its members were content to continue the traditions -of the Hans, and comparatively little was achieved in the line of -independent research. Foremost among the names in the above College -stands that of LU YUeAN-LANG (550-625). He had been Imperial -Librarian under the preceding dynasty, and later on distinguished -himself by his defence of Confucianism against both Buddhist and Taoist -attacks. He published a valuable work on the explanations of terms and -phrases in the Classics and in Taoist writers. - -Scarcely less eminent as a scholar was WEI CHENG (581-643), -who also gained great reputation as a military commander. He was -appointed President of the Commission for drawing up the history of the -previous dynasty, and he was, in addition, a poet of no mean order. At -his death the Emperor said, "You may use copper as a mirror for the -person; you may use the past as a mirror for politics; and you may use -man as a mirror to guide one's judgment in ordinary affairs. These -three mirrors I have always carefully cherished; but now that Wei Cheng -is gone, I have lost one of them." - -Another well-known scholar is YEN SHIH-KU (579-645). He was -employed upon a recension of the Classics, and also upon a new and -annotated edition of the history of the Han dynasty; but his exegesis -in the former case caused dissatisfaction, and he was ordered to a -provincial post. Although nominally reinstated before this degradation -took effect, his ambition was so far wounded that he ceased to be the -same man. He lived henceforth a retired and simple life. - -LI PO-YAO (565-648) was so sickly a child, and swallowed so -much medicine, that his grandmother insisted on naming him Po-yao -= Pharmacopoeia, while his precocious cleverness earned for him the -sobriquet of the Prodigy. Entering upon a public career, he neglected -his work for gaming and drink, and after a short spell of office he -retired. Later on he rose once more, and completed the History of the -Northern Ch'i Dynasty. - -A descendant of Confucius in the thirty-second degree, and a -distinguished scholar and public functionary, was K'UNG YING-TA -(574-648). He wrote a commentary on the Book of Odes, and is credited -with certain portions of the History of the Sui Dynasty. Besides this, -he is responsible for comments and glosses on the Great Learning and on -the Doctrine of the Mean. - -Lexicography was perhaps the department of pure scholarship in which -the greatest advances were made. Dictionaries on the phonetic system, -based upon the work of Lu Fa-yen of the sixth century, came very much -into vogue, as opposed to those on the radical system initiated by Hsue -Shen. Not that the splendid work of the latter was allowed to suffer -from neglect. LI YANG-PING, of the eighth century, devoted -much time and labour to improving and adding to its pages. The latter -was a Government official, and when filling a post as magistrate in -763, he is said to have obtained rain during a drought by threatening -the City God with the destruction of his temple unless his prayers were -answered within three days. - -[Sidenote: CHANG CHIH-HO] - -CHANG CHIH-HO (eighth century), author of a work on the conservation -of vitality, was of a romantic turn of mind and especially fond of -Taoist speculations. He took office under the Emperor Su Tsung of the -T'ang dynasty, but got into some trouble and was banished. Soon after -this he shared in a general pardon; whereupon he fled to the woods -and mountains and became a wandering recluse, calling himself the Old -Fisherman of the Mists and Waters. He spent his time in angling, but -used no bait, his object not being to catch fish. When asked why he -roamed about, Chang answered and said, "With the empyrean as my home, -the bright moon my constant companion, and the four seas my inseparable -friends,--what mean you by _roaming_?" And when a friend offered him -a comfortable home instead of his poor boat, he replied, "I prefer to -follow the gulls into cloudland, rather than to bury my eternal self -beneath the dust of the world." - -The author of the _T'ung Tien_, an elaborate treatise on the -constitution, still extant, was TU YU (_d._ 812). It is -divided into eight sections under Political Economy, Examinations -and Degrees, Government Offices, Rites, Music, Military Discipline, -Geography, and National Defences. - -[Sidenote: LIU TSUNG-YUeAN] - -Among writers of general prose literature, LIU TSUNG-YUeAN -(773-819) has left behind him much that for purity of style and -felicity of expression has rarely been surpassed. Besides being -poet, essayist, and calligraphist, he was a Secretary in the Board of -Rites. There he became involved in a conspiracy, and was banished to a -distant spot, where he died. His views were deeply tinged with Buddhist -thought, for which he was often severely censured, once in a letter by -his friend and master, Han Yue. These few lines are part of his reply on -the latter occasion:-- - -"The features I admire in Buddhism are those which are coincident with -the principles enunciated in our own sacred books. And I do not think -that, even were the holy sages of old to revisit the earth, they would -fairly be able to denounce these. Now, Han Yue objects to the Buddhist -commandments. He objects to the bald pates of the priests, their dark -robes, their renunciation of domestic ties, their idleness, and life -generally at the expense of others. So do I. But Han Yue misses the -kernel while railing at the husk. He sees the lode, but not the ore. I -see both; hence my partiality for this faith. - -"Again, intercourse with men of this religion does not necessarily -imply conversion. Even if it did, Buddhism admits no envious rivalry -for place or power. The majority of its adherents love only to lead a -simple life of contemplation amid the charms of hill and stream. And -when I turn my gaze towards the hurry-scurry of the age, in its daily -race for the seals and tassels of office, I ask myself if I am to -reject those in order to take my place among the ranks of these. - -"The Buddhist priest, Hao-ch'u, is a man of placid temperament and -of passions subdued. He is a fine scholar. His only joy is to muse -o'er flood and fell, with occasional indulgence in the delights of -composition. His family follow in the same path. He is independent of -all men, and no more to be compared with those heterodox sages of whom -we make so much than with the vulgar herd of the greedy, grasping world -around us." - -On this the commentator remarks, that one must have the genius of Han -Yue to condemn Buddhism, the genius of Liu Tsung-yuean to indulge in it. - -Here is a short study on a great question:-- - -"Over the western hills the road trends away towards the north, and on -the farther side of the pass separates into two. The westerly branch -leads to nowhere in particular; but if you follow the other, which -takes a north-easterly turn, for about a quarter of a mile, you will -find that the path ends abruptly, while the stream forks to enclose -a steep pile of boulders. On the summit of this pile there is what -appears to be an elegantly built look-out tower; below, as it were a -battlemented wall, pierced by a city gate, through which one gazes into -darkness. A stone thrown in here falls with a splash suggestive of -water, and the reverberations of this sound are audible for some time. -There is a way round from behind up to the top, whence nothing is seen -far and wide except groves of fine straight trees, which, strange to -say, are grouped symmetrically, as if by an artist's hand. - -"Now, I have always had my doubts about the existence of a God, but -this scene made me think He really must exist. At the same time, -however, I began to wonder why He did not place it in some worthy -centre of civilisation, rather than in this out-of-the-way barbarous -region, where for centuries there has been no one to enjoy its beauty. -And so, on the other hand, such waste of labour and incongruity of -position disposed me to think that there cannot be a God after all." - -One favourite piece is a letter which Liu Tsung-yuean writes in a -bantering style to congratulate a well-to-do literary man on having -lost everything in a fire, especially, as he explains, if the victim -has been "utterly and irretrievably beggared." It will give such a -rare opportunity, he points out, to show the world that there was no -connection whatever between worldly means and literary reputation. - -A well-known satirical piece by Liu Tsung-yuean is entitled "Catching -Snakes," and is directed against the hardships of over-taxation:-- - -"In the wilds of Hu-kuang there is an extraordinary kind of snake, -having a black body with white rings. Deadly fatal, even to the grass -and trees it may chance to touch; in man, its bite is absolutely -incurable. Yet, if caught and prepared, when dry, in the form of cakes, -the flesh of this snake will soothe excitement, heal leprous sores, -remove sloughing flesh, and expel evil spirits. And so it came about -that the Court physician, acting under Imperial orders, exacted from -each family a return of two of these snakes every year; but as few -persons were able to comply with the demand, it was subsequently made -known that the return of snakes was to be considered in lieu of the -usual taxes. Thereupon there ensued a general stampede among the people -of those parts." - -It turned out, however, that snake-catching was actually less deadly -than paying such taxes as were exacted from those who dared not face -its risks and elected to contribute in the ordinary way. One man, -whose father and grandfather had both perished from snake-bites, -declared that after all he was better off than his neighbours, who were -ground down and beggared by the iniquities of the tax-gatherer. "Harsh -tyrants," he explained, "sweep down upon us, and throw everybody and -everything, even to the brute beasts, into paroxysms of terror and -disorder. But I,--I get up in the morning and look into the jar where -my snakes are kept; and if they are still there, I lie down at night -in peace. At the appointed time, I take care that they are fit to be -handed in; and when that is done, I retire to enjoy the produce of -my farm and complete the allotted span of my existence. Only twice a -year have I to risk my life: the rest is peaceful enough and not to be -compared with the daily round of annoyance which falls to the share of -my fellow-villagers." - -A similar satire on over-government introduces a deformed gardener -called Camel-back. This man was extraordinarily successful as a -nurseryman:-- - -"One day a customer asked him how this was so; to which he replied, -'Old Camel-back cannot make trees live or thrive. He can only let them -follow their natural tendencies. Now in planting trees, be careful to -set the root straight, to smooth the earth around them, to use good -mould, and to ram it down well. Then, don't touch them; don't think -about them; don't go and look at them; but leave them alone to take -care of themselves, and nature will do the rest. I only avoid trying -to make my trees grow. I have no special method of cultivation, no -special means for securing luxuriance of growth. I only don't spoil -the fruit. I have no way of getting it either early or in abundance. -Other gardeners set with bent root and neglect the mould. They heap -up either too much earth or too little. Or if not this, then they -become too fond of and too anxious about their trees, and are for -ever running backwards and forwards to see how they are growing; -sometimes scratching them to make sure they are still alive, or shaking -them about to see if they are sufficiently firm in the ground; thus -constantly interfering with the natural bias of the tree, and turning -their affection and care into an absolute bane and a curse. I only -don't do these things. That's all.' - -"'Can these principles you have just now set forth be applied to -government?' asked his listener. 'Ah!' replied Camel-back, 'I only -understand nursery-gardening: government is not my trade. Still, in -the village where I live, the officials are for ever issuing all kinds -of orders, as if greatly compassionating the people, though really to -their utter injury. Morning and night the underlings come round and -say, 'His Honour bids us urge on your ploughing, hasten your planting, -and superintend your harvest. Do not delay with your spinning and -weaving. Take care of your children. Rear poultry and pigs. Come -together when the drum beats. Be ready at the sound of the rattle.' -Thus are we poor people badgered from morn till eve. We have not a -moment to ourselves. How could any one flourish and develop naturally -under such conditions?'" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: HAN YUe] - -In his prose writings Han Yue showed even more variety of subject than -in his verse. His farewell words to his dead friend Liu Tsung-yuean, -read, according to Chinese custom, by the side of the bier or at the -grave, and then burnt as a means of communicating them to the deceased, -are widely known to his countrymen:-- - -"Alas! Tzu-hou, and hast thou come to this pass?--Fool that I am! is -it not the pass to which mortals have ever come? Man is born into the -world like a dream: what need has he to take note of gain or loss? -While the dream lasts, he may sorrow or may joy; but when the awakening -is at hand, why cling regretfully to the past? - -"'Twere well for all things an they had no worth. The excellence of -its wood is the bane of the tree. And thou, whose early genius knew no -curb, weaver of the jewelled words, thou wilt be remembered when the -imbeciles of fortune and place are forgot. - -"The unskilful bungler hacks his hands and streams with sweat, while -the expert craftsman looks on with folded arms. O my friend, thy work -was not for this age; though I, a bungler, have found employment in the -service of the State. Thou didst know thyself above the common herd; -but when in shame thou didst depart never to return, the Philistines -usurped thy place. - -"Alas! Tzu-hou, now thou art no more. But thy last wish, that I should -care for thy little son, is still ringing sadly in my ears. The -friendships of the day are those of self-interest alone. How can I feel -sure that I shall live to carry out thy behest? I did not arrogate to -myself this duty. Thou thyself hast bidden me to the task; and, by the -Gods above, I will not betray thy trust. - -"Thou hast gone to thy eternal home, and wilt not return. With these -sacrifices by thy coffin's side, I utter an affectionate farewell." - -The following passages are taken from his essay on the Way or Method of -Confucianism:-- - -"Had there been no sages of old, the race of man would have long since -become extinct. Men have not fur and feathers and scales to adjust -the temperature of their bodies; neither have they claws and fangs -to aid them in the struggle for food. Hence their organisation, as -follows:--The sovereign issues commands. The minister carries out these -commands, and makes them known to the people. The people produce grain -and flax and silk, fashion articles of everyday use, and interchange -commodities, in order to fulfil their obligations to their rulers. The -sovereign who fails to issue his commands loses his _raison d'etre_; -the minister who fails to carry out his sovereign's commands, and to -make them known to the people, loses his _raison d'etre_; the people -who fail to produce grain and flax and silk, fashion articles of -everyday use, and interchange commodities, in order to fulfil their -obligations to their rulers, should lose their heads." - - * * * * * - -"And if I am asked what Method is this, I reply that it is what I call -_the_ Method, and not merely a method like those of Lao Tzu and Buddha. -The Emperor Yao handed it down to the Emperor Shun; the Emperor Shun -handed it down to the Great Yue; and so on until it reached Confucius, -and lastly Mencius, who died without transmitting it to any one else. -Then followed the heterodox schools of Hsuen and Yang, wherein much -that was essential was passed over, while the criterion was vaguely -formulated. In the days before Chou Kung, the Sages were themselves -rulers; hence they were able to secure the reception of their Method. -In the days after Chou Kung, the Sages were all high officers of State; -hence its duration through a long period of time. - -"And now, it will be asked, what is the remedy? I answer that unless -these false doctrines are rooted out, the true faith will not prevail. -Let us insist that the followers of Lao Tzu and Buddha behave -themselves like ordinary mortals. Let us burn their books. Let us turn -their temples into dwelling-houses. Let us make manifest the Method -of our ancient kings, in order that men may be led to embrace its -teachings." - -Of the character of Han Yue's famous ultimatum to the crocodile, which -all Chinese writers have regarded as a real creature, though probably -the name is but an allegorical veil, the following extract may -suffice:-- - -"O Crocodile! thou and I cannot rest together here. The Son of Heaven -has confided this district and this people to my charge; and thou, O -goggle-eyed, by disturbing the peace of this river and devouring the -people and their domestic animals, the bears, the boars, and deer -of the neighbourhood, in order to batten thyself and reproduce thy -kind,--thou art challenging me to a struggle of life and death. And -I, though of weakly frame, am I to bow the knee and yield before a -crocodile? No! I am the lawful guardian of this place, and I would -scorn to decline thy challenge, even were it to cost me my life. - -"Still, in virtue of my commission from the Son of Heaven, I am bound -to give fair warning; and thou, O crocodile, if thou art wise, will -pay due heed to my words. There before thee lies the broad ocean, the -domain alike of the whale and the shrimp. Go thither and live in peace. -It is but the journey of a day." - -The death of a dearly loved nephew, comparatively near to him in age, -drew from Han Yue a long and pathetic "In Memoriam," conveyed, as -mentioned above, to the ears of the departed through the medium of fire -and smoke. These are two short extracts:-- - -"The line of my noble-hearted brother has indeed been prematurely -cut off. Thy pure intelligence, hope of the family, survives not to -continue the traditions of his house. Unfathomable are the appointments -of what men call Heaven: inscrutable are the workings of the unseen: -unknowable are the mysteries of eternal truth: unrecognisable those who -are destined to attain to old age! - -"Henceforth my grey hairs will grow white, my strength fail. Physically -and mentally hurrying on to decay, how long before I shall follow thee? -If there is knowledge after death, this separation will be but for -a little while. If there is not knowledge after death, so will this -sorrow be but for a little while, and then no more sorrow for ever." - - * * * * * - -"O ye blue heavens, when shall my sorrow have end? Henceforth the world -has no charms. I will get me a few acres on the banks of the Ying, and -there await the end, teaching my son and thy son, if haply they may -grow up,--my daughter and thy daughter, until their day of marriage -comes. Alas! though words fail, love endureth. Dost thou hear, or dost -thou not hear? Woe is me: Heaven bless thee!" - -Of all Han Yue's writings in prose or in verse, there was not one which -caused anything like the sensation produced by his memorial to the -Emperor on the subject of Buddha's bone. The fact was, Buddhism was -making vast strides in popular esteem, and but for some such bold -stand as was made on this occasion by a leading man, the prestige of -Confucianism would have received a staggering blow. Here is an extract -from this fiery document, which sent its author into exile and nearly -cost him his life:-- - -"Your servant has now heard that instructions have been issued to -the priestly community to proceed to Feng-hsiang and receive a bone -of Buddha, and that from a high tower your Majesty will view its -introduction into the Imperial Palace; also that orders have been sent -to the various temples, commanding that the relic be received with the -proper ceremonies. Now, foolish though your servant may be, he is well -aware that your Majesty does not do this in the vain hope of deriving -advantages therefrom; but that in the fulness of our present plenty, -and in the joy which reigns in the heart of all, there is a desire to -fall in with the wishes of the people in the celebration at the capital -of this delusive mummery. For how could the wisdom of your Majesty -stoop to participate in such ridiculous beliefs? Still the people are -slow of perception and easily beguiled; and should they behold your -Majesty thus earnestly worshipping at the feet of Buddha, they would -cry out, 'See! the Son of Heaven, the All-Wise, is a fervent believer; -who are we, his people, that we should spare our bodies?' Then would -ensue a scorching of heads and burning of fingers; crowds would collect -together, and, tearing off their clothes and scattering their money, -would spend their time from morn to eve in imitation of your Majesty's -example. The result would be that by and by young and old, seized with -the same enthusiasm, would totally neglect the business of their lives; -and should your Majesty not prohibit it, they would be found flocking -to the temples, ready to cut off an arm or slice their bodies as an -offering to the god. Thus would our traditions and customs be seriously -injured, and ourselves become a laughing-stock on the face of the -earth;--truly, no small matter! - -"For Buddha was a barbarian. His language was not the language of -China. His clothes were of an alien cut. He did not utter the -maxims of our ancient rulers, nor conform to the customs which they -have handed down. He did not appreciate the bond between prince and -minister, the tie between father and son. Supposing, indeed, this -Buddha had come to our capital in the flesh, under an appointment from -his own State, then your Majesty might have received him with a few -words of admonition, bestowing on him a banquet and a suit of clothes, -previous to sending him out of the country with an escort of soldiers, -and thereby have avoided any dangerous influence on the minds of the -people. But what are the facts? The bone of a man long since dead and -decomposed is to be admitted, forsooth, within the precincts of the -Imperial Palace! Confucius said, 'Pay all respect to spiritual beings, -but keep them at a distance.' And so, when the princes of old paid -visits of condolence to one another, it was customary for them to send -on a magician in advance, with a peach-wand in his hand, whereby to -expel all noxious influences previous to the arrival of his master. Yet -now your Majesty is about to causelessly introduce a disgusting object, -personally taking part in the proceedings, without the intervention -either of the magician or of his peach-wand. Of the officials, not one -has raised his voice against it; of the censors, not one has pointed -out the enormity of such an act. Therefore your servant, overwhelmed -with shame for the censors, implores your Majesty that these bones -be handed over for destruction by fire or water, whereby the root of -this great evil may be exterminated for all time, and the people know -how much the wisdom of your Majesty surpasses that of ordinary men. -The glory of such a deed will be beyond all praise. And should the -Lord Buddha have power to avenge this insult by the infliction of some -misfortune, then let the vials of his wrath be poured out upon the -person of your servant, who now calls Heaven to witness that he will -not repent him of his oath." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LI HUA] - -A writer named LI HUA, of whom little is known except that -he flourished in the ninth century, has left behind him one very much -admired piece entitled "On an Old Battlefield":-- - -"Vast, vast,--a limitless extent of flat sand, without a human being -in sight, girdled by a stream and dotted with hills, where in the -dismal twilight the wind moans at the setting sun. Shrubs gone: grass -withered: all chill as the hoar-frost of early morn. The birds of the -air fly past: the beasts of the field shun the spot; for it is, as I -was informed by the keeper, the site of an old battlefield. 'Many a -time and oft,' said he, 'has an army been overthrown on this spot; and -the voices of the dead may frequently be heard weeping and wailing in -the darkness of the night.'" - -This is how the writer calls up in imagination the ghastly scene of -long ago:-- - -"And now the cruel spear does its work, the startled sand blinds the -combatants locked fast in the death-struggle; while hill and vale -and stream groan beneath the flash and crash of arms. By and by, the -chill cold shades of night fall upon them, knee-deep in snow, beards -stiff with ice. The hardy vulture seeks its nest: the strength of the -war-horse is broken. Clothes are of no avail; hands frost-bitten, -flesh cracked. Even nature lends her aid to the Tartars, contributing -a deadly blast, the better to complete the work of slaughter begun. -Ambulance waggons block the way: our men succumb to flank attacks. -Their officers have surrendered: their general is dead. The river is -choked with corpses to its topmost banks: the fosses of the Great Wall -are swimming over with blood. All distinctions are obliterated in that -heap of rotting bones.... - -"Faintly and more faintly beats the drum. Strength exhausted, arrows -spent, bow-strings snapped, swords shattered, the two armies fall upon -one another in the supreme struggle for life or death. To yield is to -become the barbarian's slave: to fight is to mingle our bones with the -desert sand.... - -"No sound of bird now breaks from the hushed hillside. All is still -save the wind whistling through the long night. Ghosts of the dead -wander hither and thither in the gloom: spirits from the nether world -collect under the dark clouds. The sun rises and shines coldly over the -trampled grass, while the fading moon still twinkles upon the frost -flakes scattered around. What sight more horrible than this!" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: MEN OF T'ANG] - -The havoc wrought by the dreaded Tartars is indeed the theme of many -a poem in prose as well as in verse. The following lines by CH'EN -T'AO, of about this date, record a patriotic oath of indignant -volunteers and the mournful issue of fruitless valour:-- - - "_They swore the Huns should perish: they would die if needs they - must.... - And now five thousand, sable-clad, have bit the Tartar dust. - Along the river-bank their bones lie scattered where they may, - But still their forms in dreams arise to fair ones far away._" - -Among their other glories, the T'angs may be said to have witnessed the -birth of popular literature, soon to receive, in common with classical -scholarship, an impetus the like of which had never yet been felt. - -But we must now take leave of this dynasty, the name of which has -survived in common parlance to this day. For just as the northerners -are proud to call themselves "sons of Han," so do the Chinese of the -more southern provinces still delight to be known as the "men of -T'ang." - - - - -BOOK THE FIFTH - -_THE SUNG DYNASTY_ (A.D. 900-1200) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE INVENTION OF BLOCK-PRINTING - - -The T'ang dynasty was brought to an end in 907, and during the -succeeding fifty years the empire experienced no fewer than five -separate dynastic changes. It was not a time favourable to literary -effort; still production was not absolutely at a standstill, and some -minor names have come down to us. - -Of CHANG PI, for instance, of the later Chou dynasty, little -is known, except that he once presented a voluminous memorial to his -sovereign in the hope of staving off political collapse. The memorial, -we are told, was much admired, but the advice contained in it was not -acted upon. These few lines of his occur in many a poetical garland:-- - - "_After parting, dreams possessed me, and I wandered you know where, - And we sat in the verandah, and you sang the sweet old air. - Then I woke, with no one near me save the moon, still shining on, - And lighting up dead petals which like you have passed and gone._" - -There is, however, at least one name of absorbing interest to the -foreign student. FENG TAO (881-954) is best known to the -Chinese as a versatile politician who served first and last under no -less than ten Emperors of four different Houses, and gave himself a -sobriquet which finds its best English equivalent in "The Vicar of -Bray." He presented himself at the Court of the second Emperor of -the Liao dynasty and positively asked for a post. He said he had no -home, no money, and very little brains; a statement which appears to -have appealed forcibly to the Tartar monarch, who at once appointed -him grand tutor to the heir-apparent. By foreigners, on the other -hand, he will be chiefly remembered as the inventor of the art of -block-printing. It seems probable, indeed, that some crude form of this -invention had been already known early in the T'ang dynasty, but until -the date of Feng Tao it was certainly not applied to the production -of books. Six years after his death the "fire-led" House of Sung was -finally established upon the throne, and thenceforward the printing of -books from blocks became a familiar handicraft with the Chinese people. - -[Sidenote: GOLDEN TARTARS] - -With the advent of this new line, we pass, as the Chinese fairy-stories -say, to "another heaven and earth." The various departments of history, -classical scholarship, general literature, lexicography, and poetry -were again filled with enthusiastic workers, eagerly encouraged by a -succession of enlightened rulers. And although there was a falling-off -consequent upon the irruption of the Golden Tartars in 1125-1127, when -the ex-Emperor and his newly appointed successor were carried captive -to the north, nevertheless the Sungs managed to create a great epoch, -and are justly placed in the very first rank among the builders of -Chinese literature. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -HISTORY--CLASSICAL AND GENERAL LITERATURE - - -[Sidenote: OU-YANG HSIU] - -The first move made in the department of history was nothing less than -to re-write the whole of the chronicles of the T'ang dynasty. The usual -scheme had already been carried out by Liu Hsue (897-946), a learned -scholar of the later Chin dynasty, but on many grounds the result was -pronounced unsatisfactory, and steps were taken to supersede it. The -execution of this project was entrusted to Ou-yang Hsiu and Sung Ch'i, -both of whom were leading men in the world of letters. OU-YANG -HSIU (1007-1072) had been brought up in poverty, his mother -teaching him to write with a reed. By the time he was fifteen his great -abilities began to attract attention, and later on he came out first on -the list of candidates for the third or highest degree. His public life -was a chequered one, owing to the bold positions he took up in defence -of what he believed to be right, regardless of personal interest. -Besides the dynastic history, he wrote on all kinds of subjects, grave -and gay, including an exposition of the Book of Poetry, a work on -ancient inscriptions, anecdotes of the men of his day, an elaborate -treatise on the peony, poetry and essays without end. The following is -a specimen of his lighter work, greatly admired for the beauty of its -style, and diligently read by all students of composition. The theme, -as the reader will perceive, is the historian himself:-- - -"The district of Ch'u is entirely surrounded by hills, and the peaks to -the south-west are clothed with a dense and beautiful growth of trees, -over which the eye wanders in rapture away to the confines of Shantung. -A walk of two or three miles on those hills brings one within earshot -of the sound of falling water, which gushes forth from a ravine known -as the Wine-Fountain; while hard by in a nook at a bend of the road -stands a kiosque, commonly spoken of as the Old Drunkard's Arbour. It -was built by a Buddhist priest, called Deathless Wisdom, who lived -among these hills, and who received the above name from the Governor. -The latter used to bring his friends hither to take wine; and as he -personally was incapacitated by a very few cups, and was, moreover, -well stricken in years, he gave himself the sobriquet of the Old -Drunkard. But it was not wine that attracted him to this spot. It was -the charming scenery, which wine enabled him to enjoy. - -"The sun's rays peeping at dawn through the trees, by and by to be -obscured behind gathering clouds, leaving naught but gloom around, give -to this spot the alternations of morning and night. The wild-flowers -exhaling their perfume from the darkness of some shady dell, the -luxuriant foliage of the dense forest of beautiful trees, the clear -frosty wind, and the naked boulders of the lessening torrent,--these -are the indications of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Morning -is the time to go thither, returning with the shades of night, and -although the place presents a different aspect with the changes of -the seasons, its charms are subject to no interruption, but continue -alway. Burden-carriers sing their way along the road, travellers rest -awhile under the trees, shouts from one, responses from another, old -people hobbling along, children in arms, children dragged along by -hand, backwards and forwards all day long without a break,--these are -the people of Ch'u. A cast in the stream and a fine fish taken from -some spot where the eddying pools begin to deepen; a draught of cool -wine from the fountain, and a few such dishes of meats and fruits as -the hills are able to provide,--these, nicely spread out beforehand, -constitute the Governor's feast. And in the revelry of the banquet-hour -there is no thought of toil or trouble. Every archer hits his mark, and -every player wins his _partie_; goblets flash from hand to hand, and a -buzz of conversation is heard as the guests move unconstrainedly about. -Among them is an old man with white hair, bald at the top of his head. -This is the drunken Governor, who, when the evening sun kisses the -tips of the hills and the falling shadows are drawn out and blurred, -bends his steps homewards in company with his friends. Then in the -growing darkness are heard sounds above and sounds below; the beasts -of the field and the birds of the air are rejoicing at the departure -of man. They, too, can rejoice in hills and in trees, but they cannot -rejoice as man rejoices. So also the Governor's friends. They rejoice -with him, though they know not at what it is that he rejoices. Drunk, -he can rejoice with them, sober, he can discourse with them,--such is -the Governor. And should you ask who is the Governor, I reply, 'Ou-yang -Hsiu of Lu-ling.'" - -Besides dwelling upon the beauty of this piece as vividly portraying -the spirit of the age in which it was written, the commentator proudly -points out that in it the particle _yeh_, with influences as subtle as -those of the Greek [ge], occurs no fewer than twenty times. - -The next piece is entitled "An Autumn Dirge," and refers to the sudden -collapse of summer, so common a phenomenon in the East:-- - -"One night I had just sat down to my books, when suddenly I heard a -sound far away towards the south-west. Listening intently, I wondered -what it could be. On it came, at first like the sighing of a gentle -zephyr ... gradually deepening into the plash of waves upon a surf-beat -shore ... the roaring of huge breakers in the startled night, amid -howling storm-gusts of wind and rain. It burst upon the hanging bell, -and set every one of its pendants tinkling into tune. It seemed like -the muffled march of soldiers, hurriedly advancing, bit in mouth, to -the attack, when no shouted orders rend the air, but only the tramp of -men and horses meet the ear. - -"'Boy,' said I, 'what noise is that? Go forth and see.' 'Sir,' replied -the boy on his return, 'the moon and stars are brightly shining: the -Silver River spans the sky. No sound of man is heard without: 'tis but -the whispering of the trees.' - -"'Alas!' I cried, 'autumn is upon us. And is it thus, O boy, that -autumn comes?--autumn, the cruel and the cold; autumn, the season of -rack and mist; autumn, the season of cloudless skies; autumn, the -season of piercing blasts; autumn, the season of desolation and blight! -Chill is the sound that heralds its approach, and then it leaps upon -us with a shout. All the rich luxuriance of green is changed, all the -proud foliage of the forest swept down to earth, withered beneath the -icy breath of the destroyer. For autumn is nature's chief executioner, -and its symbol is darkness. It has the temper of steel, and its symbol -is a sharp sword. It is the avenging angel, riding upon an atmosphere -of death. As spring is the epoch of growth, so autumn is the epoch of -maturity. And sad is the hour when maturity is passed, for that which -passes its prime must die. - -"'Still, what is this to plants and trees, which fade away in their due -season?... But stay; there is man, man the divinest of all things. A -hundred cares wreck his heart, countless anxieties trace their wrinkles -on his brow, until his inmost self is bowed beneath the burden of life. -And swifter still he hurries to decay when vainly striving to attain -the unattainable, or grieving over his ignorance of that which can -never be known. Then comes the whitening hair--and why not? Has man an -adamantine frame, that he should outlast the trees of the field? Yet, -after all, who is it, save himself, that steals his strength away? Tell -me, O boy, what right has man to accuse his autumn blast?' - -"My boy made no answer. He was fast asleep. No sound reached me save -that of the cricket chirping its response to my dirge." - - * * * * * - -The other leading historian of this period was SUNG CH'I -(998-1061), who began his career by beating his elder brother at the -graduates' examination. He was, however, placed tenth, instead of -first, by Imperial command, and in accordance with the precedence of -brothers. He rose to high office, and was also a voluminous writer. -A great favourite at Court, it is related that he was once at some -Imperial festivity when he began to feel cold. The Emperor bade one of -the ladies of the seraglio lend him a tippet, whereupon about a dozen -of the girls each offered hers. But Sung Ch'i did not like to seem -to favour any one, and rather than offend the rest, continued to sit -and shiver. The so-called New History of the T'ang Dynasty, which he -produced in co-operation with Ou-yang Hsiu, is generally regarded as -a distinct improvement upon the work of Liu Hsue. It has not, however, -actually superseded the latter work, which is still included among the -recognised dynastic histories, and stands side by side with its rival. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SSU-MA KUANG] - -Meanwhile another star had risen, in magnitude to be compared only -with the effulgent genius of Ssu-ma Ch'ien. SSU-MA KUANG (1019-1086) -entered upon an official career and rose to be Minister of State. But -he opposed the great reformer, Wang An-shih, and in 1070 was compelled -to resign. He devoted the rest of his life to the completion of his -famous work known as the _T'ung Chien_ or Mirror of History, a title -bestowed upon it in 1084 by the Emperor, because "to view antiquity as -it were in a mirror is an aid in the administration of government." The -Mirror of History covers a period from the fifth century B.C. down to -the beginning of the Sung dynasty, A.D. 960, and was supplemented by -several important works from the author's own hand, all bearing upon -the subject. In his youth the latter had been a devoted student, and -used to rest his arm upon a kind of round wooden pillow, which roused -him to wakefulness by its movement every time he began to doze over -his work. On one occasion, in childhood, a small companion fell into a -water-kong, and would have been drowned but for the presence of mind of -Ssu-ma Kuang. He seized a huge stone, and with it cracked the jar so -that the water poured out. As a scholar he had a large library, and was -so particular in the handling of his books that even after many years' -use they were still as good as new. He would not allow his disciples to -turn over leaves by scratching them up with the nails, but made them -use the forefinger and second finger of the right hand. In 1085 he -determined to return to public life, but he had not been many months -in the capital, labouring as usual for his country's good, before he -succumbed to an illness and died, universally honoured and regretted -by his countrymen, to whom he was affectionately known as the Living -Buddha. - -The following extract from his writings refers to a new and dangerous -development in the Censorate, an institution which still plays a -singular part in the administration of China:-- - -"Of old there was no such office as that of Censor. From the highest -statesman down to the artisan and trader, every man was free to -admonish the Throne. From the time of the Han dynasty onwards, this -prerogative was vested in an office, with the weighty responsibility -of discussing the government of the empire, the people within the Four -Seas, successes, failures, advantages, and disadvantages, in order of -importance and of urgency. The sole object in this arrangement was -the benefit of the State, not that of the Censor, from whom all ideas -of fame or gain were indeed far removed. In 1017 an edict was issued -appointing six officers to undertake these Censorial duties, and in -1045 their names were for the first time written out on boards; and -then, in 1062, apparently for better preservation, the names were cut -on stone. Thus posterity can point to such an one and say, 'There was a -loyal man;' to another, 'There was a traitor;' to a third, 'There was -an upright man;' to a fourth, 'There was a scoundrel.' Does not this -give cause for fear?" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CHOU TUN-I] - -Contemporaneously with Ssu-ma Kuang lived CHOU TUN-I (1017-1073), who -combined the duties of a small military command with prolonged and -arduous study. He made himself ill by overwork and strict attention -to the interests of the people at all hazards to himself. His chief -works were written to elucidate the mysteries of the Book of Changes, -and were published after his death by his disciples, with commentaries -by Chu Hsi. The following short satire, veiled under the symbolism of -flowers, being in a style which the educated Chinaman most appreciates, -is very widely known:-- - -"Lovers of flowering plants and shrubs we have had by scores, but T'ao -Ch'ien alone devoted himself to the chrysanthemum. Since the opening -days of the T'ang dynasty, it has been fashionable to admire the peony; -but my favourite is the water-lily. How stainless it rises from its -slimy bed! How modestly it reposes on the clear pool--an emblem of -purity and truth! Symmetrically perfect, its subtle perfume is wafted -far and wide, while there it rests in spotless state, something to be -regarded reverently from a distance, and not to be profaned by familiar -approach. - -"In my opinion the chrysanthemum is the flower of retirement and -culture; the peony the flower of rank and wealth; the water-lily, the -Lady Virtue _sans pareille_. - -"Alas! few have loved the chrysanthemum since T'ao Ch'ien, and none -now love the water-lily like myself, whereas the peony is a general -favourite with all mankind." - -CH'ENG HAO (1032-1085) and CH'ENG I (1033-1107) were two brothers famed -for their scholarship, especially the younger of the two, who published -a valuable commentary upon the Book of Changes. The elder attracted -some attention by boldly suppressing a stone image in a Buddhist temple -which was said to emit rays from its head, and had been the cause of -disorderly gatherings of men and women. A specimen of his verse will -be given in the next chapter. Ch'eng I wrote some interesting chapters -on the art of poetry. In one of these he says, "Asked if a man can -make himself a poet by taking pains, I reply that only by taking pains -can any one hope to be ranked as such, though on the other hand the -very fact of taking pains is likely to be inimical to success. The old -couplet reminds us-- - - _'E'er one pentameter be spoken - How many a human heart is broken!'_ - -There is also another old couplet-- - - _''Twere sad to take this heart of mine - And break it o'er a five-foot line.'_ - -Both of these are very much to the point. Confucius himself did not -make verses, but he did not advise others to abstain from doing so." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: WANG AN-SHIH] - -The great reformer and political economist WANG AN-SHIH -(1021-1086), who lived to see all his policy reversed, was a hard -worker as a youth, and in composition his pen was said to "fly over -the paper." As a man he was distinguished by his frugality and his -obstinacy. He wore dirty clothes and did not even wash his face, for -which Su Hsuen denounced him as a beast. He was so cocksure of all -his own views that he would never admit the possibility of being -wrong, which gained for him the sobriquet of the Obstinate Minister. -He attempted to reform the examination system, requiring from the -candidate not so much graces of style as a wide acquaintance with -practical subjects. "Accordingly," says one Chinese writer, "even the -pupils at village schools threw away their text-books of rhetoric, and -began to study primers of history, geography, and political economy." -He was the author of a work on the written characters, with special -reference to those which are formed by the combination of two or more, -the meanings of which, taken together, determine the meaning of the -compound character. The following is a letter which he wrote to a -friend on the study of false doctrines:-- - -"I have been debarred by illness from writing to you now for some time, -though my thoughts have been with you all the while. - -"In reply to my last letter, wherein I expressed a fear that you were -not progressing with your study of the Canon, I have received several -from you, in all of which you seem to think I meant the Canon of -Buddha, and you are astonished at my recommendation of such pernicious -works. But how could I possibly have intended any other than the Canon -of the sages of China? And for you to have thus missed the point of my -letter is a good illustration of what I meant when I said I feared you -were not progressing with your study of the Canon. - -"Now a thorough knowledge of our Canon has not been attained by any one -for a very long period. Study of the Canon alone does not suffice for -a thorough knowledge of the Canon. Consequently, I have been myself an -omnivorous reader of books of all kinds, even, for example, of ancient -medical and botanical works. I have, moreover, dipped into treatises -on agriculture and on needlework, all of which I have found very -profitable in aiding me to seize the great scheme of the Canon itself. -For learning in these days is a totally different pursuit from what it -was in the olden times; and it is now impossible otherwise to get at -the real meaning of our ancient sages. - -"There was Yang Hsiung. He hated all books that were not orthodox. Yet -he made a wide study of heterodox writers. By force of education he -was enabled to take what of good and to reject what of bad he found -in each. Their pernicious influence was altogether lost on him; while -on the other hand he was prepared the more effectively to elucidate -what we know to be the truth. Now, do you consider that I have been -corrupted by these pernicious influences? If so, you know me not. - -"No! the pernicious influences of the age are not to be sought for in -the Canon of Buddha. They are to be found in the corruption and vice of -those in high places; in the false and shameless conduct which is now -rife among us. Do you not agree with me?" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SU SHIH] - -SU SHIH (1036-1101), better known by his fancy name as Su -Tung-p'o, whose early education was superintended by his mother, -produced such excellent compositions at the examination for his final -degree that the examiner, Ou-yang Hsiu, suspected them to be the work -of a qualified substitute. Ultimately he came out first on the list. -He rose to be a statesman, who made more enemies than friends, and -was perpetually struggling against the machinations of unscrupulous -opponents, which on one occasion resulted in his banishment to the -island of Hainan, then a barbarous and almost unknown region. He was -also a brilliant essayist and poet, and his writings are still the -delight of the Chinese. The following is an account of a midnight -picnic to a spot on the banks of a river at which a great battle had -taken place nearly nine hundred years before, and where one of the -opposing fleets was burnt to the water's edge, reddening a wall, -probably the cliff alongside:-- - -"In the year 1081, the seventh moon just on the wane, I went with a -friend on a boat excursion to the Red Wall. A clear breeze was gently -blowing, scarce enough to ruffle the river, as I filled my friend's cup -and bade him troll a lay to the bright moon, singing the song of the -'Modest Maid.' - -"By and by up rose the moon over the eastern hills, wandering between -the Wain and the Goat, shedding forth her silver beams, and linking the -water with the sky. On a skiff we took our seats, and shot over the -liquid plain, lightly as though travelling through space, riding on -the wind without knowing whither we were bound. We seemed to be moving -in another sphere, sailing through air like the gods. So I poured out -a bumper for joy, and, beating time on the skiff's side, sang the -following verse:-- - - '_With laughing oars, our joyous prow - Shoots swiftly through the glittering wave-- - My heart within grows sadly grave-- - Great heroes dead, where are ye now?_' - -"My friend accompanied these words upon his flageolet, delicately -adjusting its notes to express the varied emotions of pity and regret, -without the slightest break in the thread of sound which seemed to wind -around us like a silken skein. The very monsters of the deep yielded -to the influence of his strains, while the boatwoman, who had lost her -husband, burst into a flood of tears. Overpowered by my own feelings, -I settled myself into a serious mood, and asked my friend for some -explanation of his art. To this he replied, 'Did not Ts'ao Ts'ao say-- - - '_The stars are few, the moon is bright, - The raven southward wings his flight?_' - -"'Westwards to Hsia-k'ou, eastwards to Wu-ch'ang, where hill and -stream in wild luxuriance blend,--was it not there that Ts'ao Ts'ao -was routed by Chou Yue? Ching-chou was at his feet: he was pushing down -stream towards the east. His war-vessels stretched stem to stern for a -thousand _li_: his banners darkened the sky. He poured out a libation -as he neared Chiang-ling; and, sitting in the saddle armed _cap-a-pie_, -he uttered those words, did that hero of his age. Yet where is he -to-day? - -"'Now you and I have fished and gathered fuel together on the river -eyots. We have fraternised with the crayfish; we have made friends -with the deer. We have embarked together in our frail canoe; we have -drawn inspiration together from the wine-flask--a couple of ephemerides -launched on the ocean in a rice-husk! Alas! life is but an instant of -Time. I long to be like the Great River which rolls on its way without -end. Ah, that I might cling to some angel's wing and roam with him for -ever! Ah, that I might clasp the bright moon in my arms and dwell with -her for aye! Alas! it only remains to me to enwrap these regrets in the -tender melody of sound.' - -"'But do you forsooth comprehend,' I inquired, 'the mystery of this -river and of this moon? The water passes by but is never gone: the moon -wanes only to wax once more. Relatively speaking, Time itself is but -an instant of time; absolutely speaking, you and I, in common with all -matter, shall exist to all eternity. Wherefore, then, the longing of -which you speak? - -"'The objects we see around us are one and all the property of -individuals. If a thing does not belong to me, not a particle of it may -be enjoyed by me. But the clear breeze blowing across this stream, the -bright moon streaming over yon hills,--these are sounds and sights to -be enjoyed without let or hindrance by all. They are the eternal gifts -of God to all mankind, and their enjoyment is inexhaustible. Hence it -is that you and I are enjoying them now.' - -"My friend smiled as he threw away the dregs from his wine-cup and -filled it once more to the brim. And then, when our feast was over, -amid the litter of cups and plates, we lay down to rest in the boat: -for streaks of light from the east had stolen upon us unawares." - -The completion of a pavilion which Su Shih had been building, "as a -refuge from the business of life," coinciding with a fall of rain which -put an end to a severe drought, elicited a grateful record of this -divine manifestation towards a suffering people. "The pavilion was -named after rain, to commemorate joy." His record concludes with these -lines:-- - - "_Should Heaven rain pearls, the cold cannot wear them as clothes; - Should Heaven rain jade, the hungry cannot use it as food. - It has rained without cease for three days-- - Whose was the influence at work? - Should you say it was that of your Governor, - The Governor himself refers it to the Son of Heaven. - But the Son of Heaven says 'No! it was God. - And God says 'No! it was Nature.' - And as Nature lies beyond the ken of man, - I christen this arbour instead._" - -Another piece refers to a recluse who-- - -"Kept a couple of cranes, which he had carefully trained; and every -morning he would release them westwards through the gap, to fly away -and alight in the marsh below or soar aloft among the clouds as the -birds' own fancy might direct. At nightfall they would return with the -utmost regularity." - -This piece is also finished off with a few poetical lines:-- - - "_Away! away! my birds, fly westwards now, - To wheel on high and gaze on all below; - To swoop together, pinions closed, to earth; - To soar aloft once more among the clouds; - To wander all day long in sedgy vale; - To gather duckweed in the stony marsh. - Come back! come back! beneath the lengthening shades, - Your serge-clad master stands, guitar in hand. - 'Tis he that feeds you from his slender store: - Come back! come back! nor linger in the west._" - -His account of Sleep-Land is based upon the Drunk-Land of Wang Chi:-- - -"A pure administration and admirable morals prevail there, the whole -being one vast level tract, with no north, south, east, or west. The -inhabitants are quiet and affable; they suffer from no diseases of -any kind, neither are they subject to the influences of the seven -passions. They have no concern with the ordinary affairs of life; they -do not distinguish heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon; they toil not, -neither do they spin; but simply lie down and enjoy themselves. They -have no ships and no carriages; their wanderings, however, are the -boundless flights of the imagination." - - * * * * * - -His younger brother, SU CHE (1039-1112), poet and official, is -chiefly known for his devotion to Taoism. He published an edition, with -commentary, of the _Tao-Te-Ching_. - -[Sidenote: HUANG T'ING-CHIEN] - -One of the Four Scholars of his century is HUANG T'ING-CHIEN -(1050-1110), who was distinguished as a poet and a calligraphist. He -has also been placed among the twenty-four examples of filial piety, -for when his mother was ill he watched by her bedside for a whole year -without ever taking off his clothes. The following is a specimen of his -epistolary style:-- - -"Hsi K'ang's verses are at once vigorous and purely beautiful, without -a vestige of commonplace about them. Every student of the poetic art -should know them thoroughly, and thus bring the author into his mind's -eye. - -"Those who are sunk in the cares and anxieties of this world's strife, -even by a passing glance would gain therefrom enough to clear away some -pecks of the cobwebs of mortality. How much more they who penetrate -further and seize each hidden meaning and enjoy its flavour to the -full? Therefore, my nephew, I send you these poems for family reading, -that you may cleanse your heart and solace a weary hour by their -perusal. - -"As I recently observed to my own young people, the true hero should be -many-sided, but he must not be commonplace. It is impossible to cure -that. Upon which one of them asked by what characteristics this absence -of the commonplace was distinguished. 'It is hard to say,' I replied. -'A man who is not commonplace is, under ordinary circumstances, much -like other people. But he who at moments of great trial does not -flinch, he is not commonplace.'" - - * * * * * - -CHENG CH'IAO (1108-1166) began his literary career in studious -seclusion, cut off from all human intercourse. Then he spent some -time in visiting various places of interest, devoting himself to -searching out marvels, investigating antiquities, and reading (and -remembering) every book that came in his way. In 1149 he was summoned -to an audience, and received an honorary post. He was then sent home -to copy out his History of China, which covered a period from about -B.C. 2800 to A.D. 600. A fine edition of this work, in forty-six large -volumes, was published in 1749 by Imperial command, with a preface by -the Emperor Ch'ien Lung. He also wrote essays and poetry, besides a -treatise in which he showed that the inscriptions on the Stone Drums, -now in Peking, belong rather to the latter half of the third century -B.C. than to the tenth or eleventh century B.C., as usually accepted. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CHU HSI] - -The name of CHU HSI (1130-1200) is a household word throughout -the length and breadth of literary China. He graduated at nineteen, and -entered upon a highly successful official career. He apparently had a -strong leaning towards Buddhism--some say that he actually became a -Buddhist priest; at any rate, he soon saw the error of his ways, and -gave himself up completely to a study of the orthodox doctrine. He was -a most voluminous writer. In addition to his revision of the history -of Ssu-ma Kuang, which, under the title of _T'ung Chien Kang Mu_, is -still regarded as the standard history of China, he placed himself -first in the first rank of all commentators on the Confucian Canon. He -introduced interpretations either wholly or partly at variance with -those which had been put forth by the scholars of the Han dynasty and -hitherto received as infallible, thus modifying to a certain extent the -prevailing standard of political and social morality. His principle -was simply one of consistency. He refused to interpret words in a -given passage in one sense, and the same words occurring elsewhere in -another sense. The result, as a whole, was undoubtedly to quicken with -intelligibility many paragraphs the meaning of which had been obscured -rather than elucidated by the earlier scholars of the Han dynasty. -Occasionally, however, the great commentator o'erleapt himself. Here -are two versions of one passage in the Analects, as interpreted by -the rival schools, of which the older seems unquestionably to be -preferred:-- - - _Han._ - - Meng Wu asked Confucius concerning filial piety. The Master said, - "It consists in giving your parents no cause for anxiety save from - your natural ailments." - - _Chu Hsi._ - - Meng Wu asked Confucius concerning filial piety. The Master - said, "Parents have the sorrow of thinking anxiously about their - children's ailments." - -The latter of these interpretations being obviously incomplete, Chu Hsi -adds a gloss to the effect that children are therefore in duty bound to -take great care of themselves. - -In the preface to his work on the Four Books as explained by Chu -Hsi, published in 1745, Wang Pu-ch'ing (born 1671) has the following -passage:--"Shao Yung tried to explain the Canon of Changes by numbers, -and Ch'eng I by the eternal fitness of things; but Chu Hsi alone -was able to pierce through the meaning, and appropriate the thought -of the prophets who composed it." The other best known works of Chu -Hsi are a metaphysical treatise containing the essence of his later -speculations, and the Little Learning, a handbook for the young. It has -been contended by some that the word "little" in the last title refers -not to youthful learners, but to the lower plane on which the book is -written, as compared with the Great Learning. The following extract, -however, seems to point more towards Learning for the Young as the -correct rendering of the title:-- - -"When mounting the wall of a city, do not point with the finger; when -on the top, do not call out. - -"When at a friend's house, do not persist in asking for anything you -may wish to have. When going upstairs, utter a loud 'Ahem!' If you -see two pairs of shoes outside and hear voices, you may go in; but -if you hear nothing, remain outside. Do not trample on the shoes of -other guests, nor step on the mat spread for food; but pick up your -skirts and pass quickly to your allotted place. Do not be in a hurry to -arrive, nor in haste to get away. - -"Do not bother the gods with too many prayers. Do not make allowances -for your own shortcomings. Do not seek to know what has not yet come to -pass." - -Chu Hsi was lucky enough to fall in with a clever portrait painter, -a _rara avis_ in China at the present day according to Mr. J. B. -Coughtrie, late of Hongkong, who declares that "the style and taste -peculiar to the Chinese combine to render a lifelike resemblance -impossible, and the completed picture unattractive. The artist lays -upon his paper a flat wash of colour to match the complexion of his -sitter, and upon this draws a mere map of the features, making no -attempt to obtain roundness or relief by depicting light and shadows, -and never by any chance conveying the slightest suggestion of animation -or expression." Chu Hsi gave the artist a glowing testimonial, in -which he states that the latter not merely portrays the features, but -"catches the very expression, and reproduces, as it were, the inmost -mind of his model." He then adds the following personal tit-bit:-- - -"I myself sat for two portraits, one large and the other small; and it -was quite a joke to see how accurately he reproduced my coarse ugly -face and my vulgar rustic turn of mind, so that even those who had only -heard of, but had never seen me, knew at once for whom the portraits -were intended." It would be interesting to know if either of these -pictures still survives among the Chu family heirlooms. - -At the death of Chu Hsi, his coffin is said to have taken up a -position, suspended in the air, about three feet from the ground. -Whereupon his son-in-law, falling on his knees beside the bier, -reminded the departed spirit of the great principles of which he had -been such a brilliant exponent in life,--and the coffin descended -gently to the ground. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -POETRY - - -The poetry of the Sungs has not attracted so much attention as that -of the T'angs. This is chiefly due to the fact that although all -the literary men of the Sung dynasty may roughly be said to have -contributed their quota of verse, still there were few, if any, who -could be ranked as professional poets, that is, as writers of verse -and of nothing else, like Li Po, Tu Fu, and many others under the -T'ang dynasty. Poetry now began to be, what it has remained in a -marked degree until the present day, a department of polite education, -irrespective of the particle of the divine gale. More regard was paid -to form, and the license which had been accorded to earlier masters was -sacrificed to conventionality. The Odes collected by Confucius are, as -we have seen, rude ballads of love, and war, and tilth, borne by their -very simplicity direct to the human heart. The poetry of the T'ang -dynasty shows a masterly combination, in which art, unseen, is employed -to enhance, not to fetter and degrade, thoughts drawn from a veritable -communion with nature. With the fall of the T'ang dynasty the poetic -art suffered a lapse from which it has never recovered; and now, in -modern times, although every student "can turn a verse" because he has -been "duly taught," the poems produced disclose a naked artificiality -which leaves the reader disappointed and cold. - -[Sidenote: CH'EN T'UAN] - -The poet CH'EN T'UAN (_d._ A.D. 989) began life under favourable -auspices. He was suckled by a mysterious lady in a green robe, who -found him playing as a tiny child on the bank of a river. He became, in -consequence of this supernatural nourishment, exceedingly clever and -possessed of a prodigious memory, with a happy knack for verse. Yet he -failed to get a degree, and gave himself up "to the joys of hill and -stream." While on the mountains some spiritual beings are said to have -taught him the art of hibernating like an animal, so that he would go -off to sleep for a hundred days at a time. He wrote a treatise on the -elixir of life, and was generally inclined to Taoist notions. At death -his body remained warm for seven days, and for a whole month a "glory" -played around his tomb. He was summoned several times to Court, but to -judge by the following poem, officialdom seems to have had few charms -for him:-- - - "_For ten long years I plodded through - the vale of lust and strife, - Then through my dreams there flashed a ray - of the old sweet peaceful life.... - No scarlet-tasselled hat of state - can vie with soft repose; - Grand mansions do not taste the joys - that the poor man's cabin knows. - I hate the threatening clash of arms - when fierce retainers throng, - I loathe the drunkard's revels and - the sound of fife and song; - But I love to seek a quiet nook, and - some old volume bring - Where I can see the wild flowers bloom - and hear the birds in spring._" - -Another poet, YANG I (974-1030), was unable to speak as a child, until -one day, being taken to the top of a pagoda, he suddenly burst out with -the following lines:-- - - "_Upon this tall pagoda's peak - My hand can nigh the stars enclose; - I dare not raise my voice to speak, - For fear of startling God's repose._" - -Mention has already been made of SHAO YUNG (1011-1077) in -connection with Chu Hsi and classical scholarship. He was a great -traveller, and an enthusiast in the cause of learning. He denied -himself a stove in winter and a fan in summer. For thirty years he did -not use a pillow, nor had he even a mat to sleep on. The following -specimen of his verse seems, however, to belie his character as an -ascetic:-- - - "_Fair flowers from above in my goblet are shining, - And add by reflection an infinite zest; - Through two generations I've lived unrepining, - While four mighty rulers have sunk to their rest._ - - "_My body in health has done nothing to spite me, - And sweet are the moments which pass o'er my head; - But now, with this wine and these flowers to delight me, - How shall I keep sober and get home to bed?_" - -Shao Yung was a great authority on natural phenomena, the explanation -of which he deduced from principles found in the Book of Changes. On -one occasion he was strolling about with some friends when he heard -the goatsucker's cry. He immediately became depressed, and said, "When -good government is about to prevail, the magnetic current flows from -north to south; when bad government is about to prevail, it flows from -south to north, and birds feel its influence first of all things. Now -hitherto this bird has not been seen at Lo-yang; from which I infer -that the magnetic current is flowing from south to north, and that some -southerner is coming into power, with manifold consequences to the -State." The subsequent appearance of Wang An-shih was regarded as a -verification of his skill. - -[Sidenote: WANG AN-SHIH] - -The great reformer here mentioned found time, amid the cares of his -economic revolution, to indulge in poetical composition. Here is his -account of a _nuit blanche_, an excellent example of the difficult -"stop-short:"-- - - "_The incense-stick is burnt to ash, - the water-clock is stilled. - The midnight breeze blows sharply by, - and all around is chilled._ - - "_Yet I am kept from slumber - by the beauty of the spring... - Sweet shapes of flowers across the blind - the quivering moonbeams fling!_" - -Here, too, is a short poem by the classical scholar, Huang T'ing-chien, -written on the annual visit for worship at the tombs of ancestors, in -full view of the hillside cemetery:-- - - "_The peach and plum trees smile with flowers - this famous day of spring, - And country graveyards round about - with lamentations ring. - Thunder has startled insect life - and roused the gnats and bees, - A gentle rain has urged the crops - and soothed the flowers and trees.... - Perhaps on this side lie the bones - of a wretch whom no one knows; - On that, the sacred ashes - of a patriot repose. - But who across the centuries - can hope to mark each spot - Where fool and hero, joined in death, - beneath the brambles rot?_" - -The grave student Ch'eng Hao wrote verses like the rest. Sometimes he -even condescended to jest:-- - - "_I wander north, I wander south, - I rest me where I please.... - See how the river-banks are nipped - beneath the autumn breeze! - Yet what care I if autumn blasts - the river-banks lay bare? - The loss of hue to river-banks - is the river-banks' affair._" - -In the eleventh and twelfth centuries HUNG CHUeEH-FAN made a -name for himself as a poet and calligraphist, but he finally yielded -to the fascination of Buddhism and took orders as a priest. This is -no trifling ordeal. From three to nine pastilles are placed upon the -shaven scalp of the candidate, and are allowed to burn down into the -flesh, leaving an indelible scar. Here is a poem by him, written -probably before monasticism had damped his natural ardour:-- - - "_Two green silk ropes, with painted stand, - from heights aerial swing, - And there outside the house a maid - disports herself in spring. - Along the ground her blood-red skirts - all swiftly swishing fly, - As though to bear her off to be - an angel in the sky. - Strewed thick with fluttering almond-blooms - the painted stand is seen; - The embroidered ropes flit to and fro - amid the willow green. - Then when she stops and out she springs - to stand with downcast eyes, - You think she is some angel - just now banished from the skies._" - -[Sidenote: YEH SHIH--KAO CHUe-NIEN] - -Better known as a statesman than as a poet is YEH SHIH -(1150-1223). The following "stop-short," however, referring to the -entrance-gate to a beautiful park, is ranked among the best of its -kind:-- - - "_'Tis closed!--lest trampling footsteps mar - the glory of the green. - Time after time we knock and knock; - no janitor is seen. - Yet bolts and bars can't quite shut in - the spring-time's beauteous pall: - A pink-flowered almond-spray peeps out - athwart the envious wall!_" - -Of KAO CHUe-NIEN nothing seems to be known. His poem on the -annual spring worship at the tombs of ancestors is to be found in all -collections:-- - - "_The northern and the southern hills - are one large burying-ground, - And all is life and bustle there - when the sacred day comes round. - Burnt paper ~cash~, like butterflies, - fly fluttering far and wide, - While mourners' robes with tears of blood - a crimson hue are dyed. - The sun sets, and the red fox crouches - down beside the tomb; - Night comes, and youths and maidens laugh - where lamps light up the gloom. - Let him whose fortune brings him wine, - get tipsy while he may, - For no man, when the long night comes, - can take one drop away!_" - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -DICTIONARIES--ENCYCLOPAEDIAS--MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE - - -Several dictionaries of importance were issued by various scholars -during the Sung dynasty, not to mention many philological works of -more or less value. The Chinese have always been students of their -own language, partly, no doubt, because they have so far never -condescended to look at any other. They delight in going back to days -when correspondence was carried on by pictures pure and simple; and the -fact that there is little evidence forthcoming that such a system ever -prevailed has only resulted in stimulating invention and forgery. - -A clever courtier, popularly known as "the nine-tailed fox," was CH'EN -P'ENG-NIEN (A.D. 961--1017), who rose to be a Minister of State. He -was employed to revise the _Kuang Yuen_, a phonetic dictionary by some -unknown author, which contained over 26,000 separate characters. This -work was to a great extent superseded by the _Chi Yuen_, on a similar -plan, but containing over 53,000 characters. The latter was produced by -Sung Ch'i, mentioned in chap. iii., in conjunction with several eminent -scholars. - -TAI T'UNG graduated in 1237 and rose to be Governor of -T'ai-chou in Chehkiang. Then the Mongols prevailed, and Tai T'ung, -unwilling to serve them, pleaded ill-health, and in 1275 retired -into private life. There he occupied himself with the composition of -the _Liu Shu Ku_ or Six Scripts, an examination into the origin and -development of writing, which, according to some, was published about -A.D. 1250, but according to others, not until so late as the -year 1319. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: WU SHU--LI FANG] - -From the rise of the Sung dynasty may be dated the first appearance of -the encyclopaedia, destined to occupy later so much space in Chinese -literature. WU SHU (A.D. 947--1002), whose life was a good instance -of "worth by poverty depressed," may fairly be credited with the -production of the earliest work of the kind. His _Shih Lei Fu_ dealt -with celestial and terrestrial phenomena, mineralogy, botany, and -natural history, arranged, for want of an alphabet, under categories. -It is curiously written in the poetical-prose style, and forms the -foundation of a similar book of reference in use at the present day. -Wu Shu was placed upon the commission which produced a much more -extensive work known as the _T'ai P'ing Yue Lan_. At the head of that -commission was LI FANG (A.D. 924--995), a Minister of State and a great -favourite with the Emperor. In the last year of his life he was invited -to witness the Feast of Lanterns from the palace. On that occasion the -Emperor placed Li beside him, and after pouring out for him a goblet -of wine and supplying him with various delicacies, he turned to his -courtiers and said, "Li Fang has twice served us as Minister of State, -yet has he never in any way injured a single fellow-creature. Truly -this must be a virtuous man." The _T'ai P'ing Yue Lan_ was reprinted -in 1812, and is bound up in thirty-two large volumes. It was so -named because the Emperor himself went through all the manuscript, a -task which occupied him nearly a year. A list of about eight hundred -authorities is given, and the Index fills four hundred pages. - -As a pendant to this work Li Fang designed the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, -an encyclopaedia of biographical and other information drawn from -general literature. A list of about three hundred and sixty authorities -is given, and the Index fills two hundred and eighty pages. The edition -of 1566--a rare work--bound up in twelve thick volumes, stands upon the -shelves of the Cambridge University Library. - - * * * * * - -Another encyclopaedist was MA TUAN-LIN, the son of a high -official, in whose steps he prepared to follow. The dates of his birth -and death are not known, but he flourished in the thirteenth century. -Upon the collapse of the Sung dynasty he disappeared from public life, -and taking refuge in his native place, he gave himself up to teaching, -attracting many disciples from far and near, and fascinating all by -his untiring dialectic skill. He left behind him the _Wen Hsien T'ung -K'ao_, a large encyclopaedia based upon the _T'ung Tien_ of Tu Yu, but -much enlarged and supplemented by five additional sections, namely, -Bibliography, Imperial Lineage, Appointments, Uranography, and Natural -Phenomena. This work, which cost its author twenty years of unremitting -labour, has long been known to Europeans, who have drawn largely upon -its ample stores of antiquarian research. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE HSI YUeAN LU] - -At the close of the Sung dynasty there was published a curious book on -Medical Jurisprudence, which is interesting, in spite of its manifold -absurdities, as being the recognised handbook for official use at the -present day. No magistrate ever thinks of proceeding to discharge -the duties of coroner without taking a copy of these instructions -along with him. The present work was compiled by a judge named Sung -Tz'u, from pre-existing works of a similar kind, and we are told in -the preface of a fine edition, dated 1842, that "being subjected for -many generations to practical tests by the officers of the Board of -Punishments, it became daily more and more exact." A few extracts will -be sufficient to determine its real value:-- - -(1.) "Man has three hundred and sixty-five bones, corresponding to the -number of days it takes the heavens to revolve. - -"The skull of a male, from the nape of the neck to the top of the -head, consists of eight pieces--of a Ts'ai-chou man, nine. There is a -horizontal suture across the back of the skull, and a perpendicular -one down the middle. Female skulls are of six pieces, and have the -horizontal but not the perpendicular suture. - -"Teeth are twenty-four, twenty-eight, thirty-two, or thirty-six in -number. There are three long-shaped breast-bones. - -"There is one bone belonging to the heart of the shape and size of a -_cash_. - -"There is one 'shoulder-well' bone and one 'rice-spoon' bone on each -side. - -"Males have twelve ribs on each side, eight long and four short. -Females have fourteen on each side." - -(2.) "Wounds inflicted on the bone leave a red mark and a slight -appearance of saturation, and where the bone is broken there will be -at each end a halo-like trace of blood. Take a bone on which there -are marks of a wound, and hold it up to the light; if these are of a -fresh-looking red, the wound was inflicted before death and penetrated -to the bone; but if there is no trace of saturation from blood, -although there is a wound, it was inflicted after death." - -(3.) "The bones of parents may be identified by their children in the -following manner. Let the experimenter cut himself or herself with -a knife, and cause the blood to drip on to the bones; then if the -relationship is an actual fact, the blood will sink into the bone, -otherwise it will not. _N.B._--Should the bones have been washed with -salt water, even though the relationship exists, yet the blood will not -soak in. This is a trick to be guarded against beforehand. - -"It is also said that if parent and child, or husband and wife, each -cut themselves and let the blood drip into a basin of water, the two -bloods will mix, whereas that of two people not thus related will not -mix. - -"Where two brothers, who may have been separated since childhood, are -desirous of establishing their identity as such, but are unable to -do so by ordinary means, bid each one cut himself and let the blood -drip into a basin. If they are really brothers, the two bloods will -coagulate into one; otherwise not. But because fresh blood will always -coagulate with the aid of a little salt or vinegar, people often smear -the basin over with these to attain their own ends and deceive others; -therefore always wash out the basin you are going to use, or buy a new -one from a shop. Thus the trick will be defeated." - -(4.) "There are some atrocious villains who, when they have murdered -any one, burn the body and throw the ashes away, so that there are no -bones to examine. In such cases you must carefully find out at what -time the murder was committed, and where the body was burnt. Then, -when you know the place, all witnesses agreeing on this point, you -may proceed without further delay to examine the wounds. The mode of -procedure is this. Put up your shed near where the body was burnt, and -make the accused and witnesses point out themselves the exact spot. -Then cut down the grass and weeds growing on this spot, and burn large -quantities of fuel till the place is extremely hot, throwing on several -pecks of hemp-seed. By and by brush the place clean; then, if the body -was actually burnt on this spot, the oil from the seed will be found to -have sunk into the ground in the form of a human figure, and wherever -there were wounds on the dead man, there on this figure the oil will be -found to have collected together, large or small, square, round, long, -short, oblique, or straight, exactly as they were inflicted. The parts -where there were no wounds will be free from any such appearances." - - - - -BOOK THE SIXTH - -_THE MONGOL DYNASTY_ (A.D. 1200-1368) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--POETRY - - -The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries witnessed a remarkable -political revolution. China was conquered by the Mongols, and for the -first time in history the empire passed under the rule of an alien -sovereign. No exact date can be assigned for the transference of the -Imperial power. In 1264 Kublai Khan fixed his capital at Peking, and in -1271 he adopted Yuean as his dynastic style. It was not, however, until -1279 that the patriot statesman, Chao Ping, had his retreat cut off, -and despairing of his country, took upon his back the boy-Emperor, the -last of the Sungs, and jumped from his doomed vessel into the river, -thus bringing the great fire-led dynasty to an end. - -[Sidenote: WEN T'IEN-HSIANG] - -Kublai Khan, who was a confirmed Buddhist, paid great honour to -Confucius, and was a steady patron of literature. In 1269 he caused -Bashpa, a Tibetan priest, to construct an alphabet for the Mongol -language; in 1280 the calendar was revised; and in 1287 the Imperial -Academy was opened. But he could not forgive WEN T'IEN-HSIANG -(1236-1283), the renowned patriot and scholar, who had fought so -bravely but unsuccessfully against him. In 1279 the latter was conveyed -to Peking, on which journey he passed eight days without eating. -Every effort was made to induce him to own allegiance to the Mongol -Emperor, but without success. He was kept in prison for three years. -At length he was summoned into the presence of Kublai Khan, who said -to him, "What is it you want?" "By the grace of the Sung Emperor," Wen -T'ien-hsiang replied, "I became his Majesty's Minister. I cannot serve -two masters. I only ask to die." Accordingly he was executed, meeting -his death with composure, and making a final obeisance southwards, as -though his own sovereign was still reigning in his own capital. The -following poem was written by Wen T'ien-hsiang while in captivity:-- - -"There is in the universe an Aura which permeates all things and makes -them what they are. Below, it shapes forth land and water; above, the -sun and the stars. In man it is called spirit; and there is nowhere -where it is not. - -"In times of national tranquillity this spirit lies _perdu_ in the -harmony which prevails; only at some great crisis is it manifested -widely abroad." - -[Here follow ten historical instances of devotion and heroism.] - -"Such is this grand and glorious spirit which endureth for all -generations, and which, linked with the sun and the moon, knows neither -beginning nor end. The foundation of all that is great and good in -heaven and earth, it is itself born from the everlasting obligations -which are due by man to man. - -"Alas! the fates were against me. I was without resource. Bound with -fetters, hurried away towards the north, death would have been sweet -indeed; but that boon was refused. - -"My dungeon is lighted by the will-o'-the-wisp alone; no breath of -spring cheers the murky solitude in which I dwell. The ox and the barb -herd together in one stall, the rooster and the phoenix feed together -from one dish. Exposed to mist and dew, I had many times thought to -die; and yet, through the seasons of two revolving years, disease -hovered round me in vain. The dank, unhealthy soil to me became -paradise itself. For there was that within me which misfortune could -not steal away. And so I remained firm, gazing at the white clouds -floating over my head, and bearing in my heart a sorrow boundless as -the sky. - -"The sun of those dead heroes has long since set, but their record is -before me still. And, while the wind whistles under the eaves, I open -my books and read; and lo! in their presence my heart glows with a -borrowed fire." - -"I myself," adds the famous commentator, Lin Hsi-chung, of the -seventeenth century, "in consequence of the rebellion in Fuhkien, lay -in prison for two years, while deadly disease raged around. Daily I -recited this poem several times over, and happily escaped; from which -it is clear that the supremest efforts in literature move even the -gods, and that it is not the verses of Tu Fu alone which can prevail -against malarial fever." - -At the final examination for his degree in 1256, Wen T'ien-hsiang had -been placed seventh on the list. However, the then Emperor, on looking -over the papers of the candidates before the result was announced, -was immensely struck by his work, and sent for the grand examiner -to reconsider the order of merit. "This essay," said his Majesty, -"shows us the moral code of the ancients as in a mirror; it betokens -a loyalty enduring as iron and stone." The grand examiner readily -admitted the justice of the Emperor's criticism, and when the list -was published, the name of Wen T'ien-hsiang stood first. The fame of -that examiner, WANG YING-LIN (1223-1296), is likely to last -for a long time to come. Not because of his association with one of -China's greatest patriots, nor because of his voluminous contributions -to classical literature, including an extensive encyclopaedia, a rare -copy of which is to be seen in the University of Leyden, but because -of a small primer for schoolboys, which, by almost universal consent, -is attributed to his pen. For six hundred years this primer has been, -and is still at this moment, the first book put into the hand of every -child throughout the empire. It is an epitome of all knowledge, dealing -with philosophy, classical literature, history, biography, and common -objects. It has been called a sleeve edition of the Mirror of History. -Written in lines of three characters to each, and being in doggerel -rhyme, it is easily committed to memory, and is known by heart by every -Chinaman who has learnt to read. This Three Character Classic, as it -is called, has been imitated by Christian missionaries, Protestant and -Catholic; and even the T'ai-p'ing rebels, alive to its far-reaching -influence, published an imitation of their own. Here are a few specimen -lines, rhymed to match the original:-- - - "_Men, one and all, in infancy - Are virtuous at heart; - Their moral tendencies the same, - Their practice wide apart. - Without instruction's kindly aid - Man's nature grows less fair; - In teaching, thoroughness should be - A never-ceasing care._" - -It may be added that the meaning of the Three Character Classic is not -explained to the child at the time. All that the latter has to do is to -learn the sounds and formation of the 560 different characters of which -the book is composed. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LIU YIN] - -A clever boy, who attracted much attention by the filial piety which -he displayed towards his stepfather, was LIU YIN (1241-1293). -He obtained office, but resigned in order to tend his sick mother; and -when again appointed, his health broke down and he went into seclusion. -The following extract is from his pen:-- - -"When God made man, He gave him powers to cope with the exigencies of -his environment, and resources within himself, so that he need not be -dependent upon external circumstances. - -"Thus, in districts where poisons abound, antidotes abound also; and -in others, where malaria prevails, we find such correctives as ginger, -nutmegs, and dogwood. Again, fish, terrapins, and clams are the most -wholesome articles of diet in excessively damp climates, though -themselves denizens of the water; and musk and deer-horns are excellent -prophylactics in earthy climates, where in fact they are produced. For -if these things were unable to prevail against their surroundings, they -could not possibly thrive where they do, while the fact that they do so -thrive is proof positive that they were ordained as specifics against -those surroundings. - -"Chu Hsi said, 'When God is about to send down calamities upon us, He -first raises up the hero whose genius shall finally prevail against -those calamities.' From this point of view there can be no living man -without his appointed use, nor any state of society which man should be -unable to put right." - -The theory that every man plays his allotted part in the cosmos is a -favourite one with the Chinese; and the process by which the tares are -separated from the wheat, exemplifying the use of adversity, has been -curiously stated by a Buddhist priest of this date:-- - -"If one is a man, the mills of heaven and earth grind him to -perfection; if not, to destruction." - - * * * * * - -A considerable amount of poetry was produced under the Mongol sway, -though not so much proportionately, nor of such a high order, as under -the great native dynasties. The Emperor Ch'ien Lung published in 1787 a -collection of specimens of the poetry of this Yuean dynasty. They fill -eight large volumes, but are not much read. - -[Sidenote: LIU CHI] - -One of the best known poets of this period is LIU CHI (A.D. 1311-1375), -who was also deeply read in the Classics and also a student of -astrology. He lived into the Ming dynasty, which he helped to -establish, and was for some years the trusted adviser of its first -ruler. He lost favour, however, and was poisoned by a rival, it is -said, with the Emperor's connivance. The following lines, referring to -an early visit to a mountain monastery, reveal a certain sympathy with -Buddhism:-- - - "_I mounted when the cock had just begun, - And reached the convent ere the bells were done; - A gentle zephyr whispered o'er the lawn; - Behind the wood the moon gave way to dawn. - And in this pure sweet solitude I lay, - Stretching my limbs out to await the day, - No sound along the willow pathway dim - Save the soft echo of the bonzes' hymn._" - -Here too is an oft-quoted stanza, to be found in any poetry primer:-- - - "_A centenarian 'mongst men - Is rare; and if one comes, what then? - The mightiest heroes of the past - Upon the hillside sleep at last._" - -The prose writings of Liu Chi are much admired for their pure style, -which has been said to "smell of antiquity." One piece tells how a -certain noble who had lost all by the fall of the Ch'in dynasty, -B.C. 206, and was forced to grow melons for a living, had -recourse to divination, and went to consult a famous augur on his -prospects. - -"Alas!" cried the augur, "what is there that Heaven can bestow save -that which virtue can obtain? Where is the efficacy of spiritual beings -beyond that with which man has endowed them? The divining plant is but -a dead stalk; the tortoise-shell a dry bone. They are but matter like -ourselves. And man, the divinest of all things, why does he not seek -wisdom from within, rather than from these grosser stuffs? - -"Besides, sir, why not reflect upon the past--that past which gave -birth to this present? Your cracked roof and crumbling walls of to-day -are but the complement of yesterday's lofty towers and spacious halls. -The straggling bramble is but the complement of the shapely garden -tree. The grasshopper and the cicada are but the complement of organs -and flutes; the will-o'-the-wisp and firefly, of gilded lamps and -painted candles. Your endive and watercresses are but the complement -of the elephant-sinews and camel's hump of days bygone; the maple-leaf -and the rush, of your once rich robes and fine attire. Do not repine -that those who had not such luxuries then enjoy them now. Do not be -dissatisfied that you, who enjoyed them then, have them now no more. In -the space of a day and night the flower blooms and dies. Between spring -and autumn things perish and are renewed. Beneath the roaring cascade a -deep pool is found; dark valleys lie at the foot of high hills. These -things you know; what more can divination teach you?" - -Another piece is entitled "Outsides," and is a light satire on the -corruption of his day:-- - -"At Hangchow there lived a costermonger who understood how to keep -oranges a whole year without letting them spoil. His fruit was always -fresh-looking, firm as jade, and of a beautiful golden hue; but -inside--dry as an old cocoon. - -"One day I asked him, saying, 'Are your oranges for altar or -sacrificial purposes, or for show at banquets? Or do you make this -outside display merely to cheat the foolish? as cheat them you most -outrageously do.' 'Sir,' replied the orangeman, 'I have carried on this -trade now for many years. It is my source of livelihood. I sell; the -world buys. And I have yet to learn that you are the only honest man -about, and that I am the only cheat. Perhaps it never struck you in -this light. The baton-bearers of to-day, seated on their tiger skins, -pose as the martial guardians of the State; but what are they compared -with the captains of old? The broad-brimmed, long-robed Ministers of -to-day pose as pillars of the constitution; but have they the wisdom -of our ancient counsellors? Evil-doers arise, and none can subdue -them. The people are in misery, and none can relieve them. Clerks are -corrupt, and none can restrain them. Laws decay, and none can renew -them. Our officials eat the bread of the State and know no shame. They -sit in lofty halls, ride fine steeds, drink themselves drunk with -wine, and batten on the richest fare. Which of them but puts on an -awe-inspiring look, a dignified mien?--all gold and gems without, but -dry cocoons within. You pay, sir, no heed to these things, while you -are very particular about my oranges.' - -"I had no answer to make. Was he really out of conceit with the age, or -only quizzing me in defence of his fruit?" - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE DRAMA - - -[Sidenote: THE DRAMA] - -If the Mongol dynasty added little of permanent value to the already -vast masses of poetry, of general literature, and of classical -exegesis, it will ever be remembered in connection with two important -departures in the literary history of the nation. Within the century -covered by Mongol rule the Drama and the Novel may be said to have come -into existence. Going back to pre-Confucian or legendary days, we find -that from time immemorial the Chinese have danced set dances in time to -music on solemn or festive occasions of sacrifice or ceremony. Thus we -read in the Odes:-- - - "_Lightly, sprightly, - To the dance I go, - The sun shining brightly - In the court below._" - -The movements of the dancers were methodical, slow, and dignified. Long -feathers and flutes were held in the hand and were waved to and fro as -the performers moved right or left. Words to be sung were added, and -then gradually the music and singing prevailed over the dance, gesture -being substituted. The result was rather an operatic than a dramatic -performance, and the words sung were more of the nature of songs than -of musical plays. In the _Tso Chuan_, under B.C. 545, we read of an -amateur attempt of the kind, organised by stable-boys, which frightened -their horses and caused a stampede. Confucius, too, mentions the -arrogance of a noble who employed in his ancestral temple the number of -singers reserved for the Son of Heaven alone. It is hardly necessary to -allude to the exorcism of evil spirits, carried out three times a year -by officials dressed up in bearskins and armed with spear and shield, -who made a house to house visitation surrounded by a shouting and -excited populace. It is only mentioned here because some writers have -associated this practice with the origin of the drama in China. All we -really know is that in very early ages music and song and dance formed -an ordinary accompaniment to religious and other ceremonies, and that -this continued for many centuries. - -Towards the middle of the eighth century, A.D., the Emperor -Ming Huang of the T'ang dynasty, being exceedingly fond of music, -established a College, known as the Pear-Garden, for training some -three hundred young people of both sexes. There is a legend that -this College was the outcome of a visit paid by his Majesty to the -moon, where he was much impressed by a troup of skilled performers -attached to the Palace of Jade which he found there. It was apparently -an institution to provide instrumentalists, vocalists, and possibly -dancers, for Court entertainments, although some have held that the -"youths of the Pear-Garden" were really actors, and the term is still -applied to the dramatic fraternity. Nothing, however, which can be -truly identified with the actor's art seems to have been known until -the thirteenth century, when suddenly the Drama, as seen in the modern -Chinese stage-play, sprang into being. In the present limited state of -our knowledge on the subject, it is impossible to say how or why this -came about. We cannot trace step by step the development of the drama -in China from a purely choral performance, as in Greece. We are simply -confronted with the accomplished fact. - -At the same time we hear of dramatic performances among the Tartars -at a somewhat earlier date. In 1031 K'ung Tao-fu, a descendant of -Confucius in the forty-fifth degree, was sent as envoy to the Kitans, -and was received at a banquet with much honour. But at a theatrical -entertainment which followed, a piece was played in which his sacred -ancestor, Confucius, was introduced as the low-comedy man; and this so -disgusted him that he got up and withdrew, the Kitans being forced to -apologise. Altogether, it would seem that the drama is not indigenous -to China, but may well have been introduced from Tartar sources. -However this may be, it is certain that the drama as known under the -Mongols is to all intents and purposes the drama of to-day, and a few -general remarks may not be out of place. - -Plays are acted in the large cities of China at public theatres -all the year round, except during one month at the New Year, and -during the period of mourning for a deceased Emperor. There is no -charge for admission, but all visitors must take some refreshment. -The various Trade-Guilds have raised stages upon their premises, -and give periodical performances free to all who will stand in an -open-air courtyard to watch them. Mandarins and wealthy persons often -engage actors to perform in their private houses, generally while a -dinner-party is going on. In the country, performances are provided by -public subscription, and take place at temples or on temporary stages -put up in the roadway. These stages are always essentially the same. -There is no curtain, there are no wings, and no flies. At the back of -the stage are two doors, one for entrance and one for exit. The actors -who are to perform the first piece come in by the entrance door all -together. When the piece is over, and as they are filing out through -the exit door, those who are cast for the second piece pass in through -the other door. There is no interval, and the musicians, who sit on -the stage, make no pause; hence many persons have stated that Chinese -plays are ridiculously long, the fact being that half-an-hour to an -hour would be about an average length for the plays usually performed, -though much longer specimens, such as would last from three to five -hours, are to be found in books. Eight or ten plays are often performed -at an ordinary dinner-party, a list of perhaps forty being handed round -for the chief guests to choose from. - -The actors undergo a very severe physical training, usually between the -ages of nine and fourteen. They have to learn all kinds of acrobatic -feats, these being introduced freely into "military" plays. They also -have to practise walking on feet bound up in imitation of women's -feet, no woman having been allowed on the stage since the days of the -Emperor Ch'ien Lung (A.D. 1736-1796), whose mother had been an -actress. They have further to walk about in the open air for an hour or -so every day, the head thrown back and the mouth wide open in order to -strengthen the voice; and finally, their diet is carefully regulated -according to a fixed system of training. Fifty-six actors make up a -full company, each of whom must know perfectly from 100 to 200 plays, -there being no prompter. These do not include the four- or five-act -plays as found in books, but either acting editions of these, cut -down to suit the requirements of the stage, or short farces specially -written. The actors are ranged under five classes according to their -capabilities, and consequently every one knows what part he is expected -to take in any given play. Far from being an important personage, as -in ancient Greece, the actor is under a social ban; and for three -generations his descendants may not compete at the public examinations. -Yet he must possess considerable ability in a certain line; for -inasmuch as there are no properties and no realism, he is wholly -dependent for success upon his own powers of idealisation. There he is -indeed supreme. He will gallop across the stage on horseback, dismount, -and pass his horse on to a groom. He will wander down a street, and -stop at an open shop-window to flirt with a pretty girl. He will hide -in a forest, or fight from behind a battlemented wall. He conjures up -by histrionic skill the whole paraphernalia of a scene which in Western -countries is grossly laid out by supers before the curtain goes up. The -general absence of properties is made up to some extent by the dresses -of the actors, which are of the most gorgeous character, robes for -Emperors and grandees running into figures which would stagger even a -West-end manager. - -It is obvious that the actor must be a good contortionist, and excel -in gesture. He must have a good voice, his part consisting of song and -"spoken" in about equal proportions. To show how utterly the Chinese -disregard realism, it need only be stated that dead men get up and walk -off the stage; sometimes they will even act the part of bearers and -make movements as though carrying themselves away. Or a servant will -step across to a leading performer and hand him a cup of tea to clear -his voice. - -The merit of the plays performed is not on a level with the skill of -the performer. A Chinese audience does not go to hear the play, but -to see the actor. In 1678, at a certain market-town, there was a play -performed which represented the execution of the patriot, General Yo -Fei (A.D. 1141), brought about by the treachery of a rival, -Ch'in Kuei, who forged an order for that purpose. The actor who played -Ch'in Kuei (a term since used contemptuously for a spittoon) produced a -profound sensation; so much so, that one of the spectators, losing all -self-control, leapt upon the stage and stabbed the unfortunate man to -death. - -Most Chinese plays are simple in construction and weak in plot. They -are divided into "military" and "civil," which terms have often been -wrongly taken in the senses of tragedy and comedy, tragedy proper -being quite unknown in China. The former usually deal with historical -episodes and heroic or filial acts by historical characters; and -Emperors and Generals and small armies rush wildly about the stage, -sometimes engaged in single combat, sometimes in turning head over -heels. Battles are fought and rivals or traitors executed before -the very eyes of the audience. The "civil" plays are concerned with -the entanglements of every-day life, and are usually of a farcical -character. As they stand in classical collections or in acting -editions, Chinese plays are as unobjectionable as Chinese poetry -and general literature. On the stage, however, actors are allowed -great license in gagging, and the direction which their gag takes is -chiefly the reason which keeps respectable women away from the public -play-house. - -It must therefore always be remembered that there is the play as it can -be read in the library, and again as it appears in the acting edition -to be learnt, and finally as it is interpreted by the actor. These -three are often very different one from the other. - -The following abstract will give a fair idea of the pieces to be found -on the play-bill of any Chinese theatre:-- - -THE THREE SUSPICIONS. - -At the close of the Ming dynasty, a certain well-known General was -occupied day and night in camp with preparations for resisting the -advance of the rebel army which ultimately captured Peking. While thus -temporarily absent from home, the tutor engaged for his son fell ill -with severe shivering fits, and the boy, anxious to do something to -relieve the sufferer, went to his mother's room and borrowed a thick -quilt. Late that night, the General unexpectedly returned home, and -heard from a slave-girl in attendance of the tutor's illness and of the -loan of the quilt. Thereupon, he proceeded straight to the sick-room, -to see how the tutor was getting on, but found him fast asleep. As -he was about to retire, he espied on the ground a pair of women's -slippers, which had been accidentally brought in with the quilt, and -at once recognised to whom they belonged. Hastily quitting the still -sleeping tutor, and arming himself with a sharp scimitar, he burst into -his wife's apartment. He seized the terrified woman by the hair, and -told her that she must die; producing, in reply to her protestations, -the fatal pair of slippers. He yielded, however, to the entreaties of -the assembled slave-girls, and deferred his vengeance until he had -put the following test. He sent a slave-girl to the tutor's room, -himself following close behind with his naked weapon ready for use, -bearing a message from her mistress to say she was awaiting him in her -own room; in response to which invitation the voice of the tutor was -heard from within, saying, "What! at this hour of the night? Go away, -you bad girl, or I will tell the master when he comes back!" Still -unconvinced, the jealous General bade his trembling wife go herself -and summon her paramour; resolving that if the latter but put foot -over the threshold, his life should pay the penalty. But there was no -occasion for murderous violence. The tutor again answered from within -the bolted door, "Madam, I may not be a saint, but I would at least -seek to emulate the virtuous Chao Wen-hua (the Joseph of China). Go, -and leave me in peace." The General now changes his tone; and the -injured wife, she too changes hers. She attempts to commit suicide, -and is only dissuaded by an abject apology on the part of her husband; -in the middle of which, as the latter is on his knees, a slave-girl -creates roars of laughter by bringing her master, in mistake for wine, -a brimming goblet of vinegar, the Chinese emblem of connubial jealousy. - - * * * * * - -The following is a translation of the acting edition of a short play, -as commonly performed, illustrating, but not to exaggeration, the -slender and insufficient literary art which satisfies the Chinese -public, the verses of the original being quite as much doggerel as -those of the English version:-- - -THE FLOWERY BALL. - - -DRAMATIS PERSONAE: - - Su Tai-ch'in, _a Suitor_. - Hu Mao-yuean, _a Suitor_. - P'ing Kuei, _a Beggar_. - P'u-sa, _the Beggar's Guardian Angel_. - Lady Wang, _daughter of a high Mandarin_. - Gatekeeper. - -_Suitors, Servants, &c._ - - -SCENE--_Outside the city of Ch'ang-an_. - - Su T'ai-ch'in. _At Ch'ang-an city I reside: - My father is a Mandarin; - Oh! if I get the Flowery Ball, - My cup of joy will overflow. - My humble name is Su T'ai-ch'in. - To-day the Lady Wang will throw - A Flowery Ball to get a spouse; - And if perchance this ball strikes me, - I am a lucky man indeed. - But now I must go on my way._ - -[Walks on towards the city - -_Enter ~Hu Mao-yuean~._ - - Hu Mao-yuean. _My father is a nobleman, - And I'm a jolly roving blade; - To-day the Lady Wang will throw - A Flowery Ball to get a spouse. - It all depends on destiny - Whether or not this Ball strikes me. - My humble name is Hu Mao-yuean; - But as the Ball is thrown to-day - I must be moving on my way. - Why, that looks very like friend Su! - I'll call: "Friend Su, don't go so fast."_ - - Su. _It's Hu Mao-yuean: now where go you?_ - - Hu. _To the Governor's palace to get me a wife._ - - Su. _To the Flowery Ball? Well, I'm going too._ - - [Sings.] _The Lady Wang the Flowery Ball will throw, - That all the world her chosen spouse might see, - Among the noble suitors down below-- - But who knows who the lucky man will be?_ - - Hu [sings.] _I think your luck is sure to take you through._ - - Su [sings.] _Your handsome face should bring the Ball to ~you~._ - - Hu [sings.] _At any rate it lies between us two._ - - Su [sings.] _There's hardly anybody else who'd do._ - - Hu [sings.] _Then come let us go, let us make haste and run._ - - Su [sings.] _Away let us go, but don't be so slow, - Or we shan't be in time for the fun._ - -[Exeunt. - -_Enter ~P'ing Kuei~._ - - P'ing [sings.] _Ah! that day within the garden - When my lady-love divine, - Daughter of a wealthy noble, - Promised that she would be mine. - At the garden gate she pledged me, - Bidding me come here to-day; - From my miserable garret - I have just now crept away. - And as I pass the city gates - I ope my eyes and see - A crowd of noble youths as thick - As leaves upon a tree. - Forward they press, but who knows which - The lucky man will be? - In vain I strain my eager eyes-- - Alas! 'twill break my heart-- - Among the well-dressed butterflies - I find no counterpart. - Let her be faithless or be true - I lose the Ball as sure as fate; - Though, if she spoke me idle words, - Why trifle at the garden gate? - Nevertheless, I'm bound to go - Whether I get the Ball or no: - My bowl and my staff in my hands--just so. - Rank and fortune often come - From matrimonial affairs; - I'll think of it all as I walk along-- - And perhaps I'd better say my prayers. - Why, here I am at the very spot! - I'll just walk in._ - - Gatekeeper. _I say you'll not!_ - - P'ing [sings.] _Oh I dear, he's stopped me! why, Heaven knows! - It must be my hat and tattered clothes. - I'll stay here and raise an infernal din - Until they consent to let me in._ - - Gatekeeper. _I haven't anything to spare, - So come again another day._ - - P'ing. _Oh! let me just go in to look._ - - Gatekeeper. _Among the sons of noblemen - What can there be for you to see? - Begone at once, or I'll soon make you._ - - P'ing. _Alas! alas! what can I do? - If I don't get within the court, - The Lady Wang will tire of waiting._ - -_Enter ~P'u-sa~._ - - Pu-sa [sings.] _By heaven's supreme command I have flown - Through the blue expanse of sky and air; - For a suffering soul has cried out in woe, - And Heaven has heard his prayer. - For the Lady Wang he's nearly broken-hearted, - But cruel fate still keeps the lovers parted. - "Hebbery gibbery snobbery snay!" - On the wings of the wind I'll ride, - And make the old porter clear out of the way - Till I get my poor beggar inside. - The Lady Wang is still within the hall - Waiting till the Emperor sends the Flowery Ball._ - -[Raises the wind. - - Gatekeeper. _Oh dear! how cold the wind is blowing. - I do not see the lady coming, - And so I think I'll step inside._ - -_Enter ~Lady Wang~._ - - Lady Wang [sings.] _In gala dress I leave my boudoir, - Thinking all the time of thee-- - O Heaven, fulfil a mortal's longings, - And link my love to me. - My gorgeous cap is broidered o'er - With flocks of glittering birds: - Here shine the seven stars, and there - A boy is muttering holy words. - My bodice dazzles with its lustrous sheen: - My skirts are worked with many a gaudy scene._ - -[Showing Ball. - - _His Majesty on me bestowed this Ball, - And from a balcony he bid me let it fall, - Then take as husband whomsoe'er it struck, - Prince, merchant, beggar, as might be my luck. - And having left my parents and my home, - Hither to the Painted Tower I've come. - As I slowly mount the stairs, - I ope my eyes and see - A crowd of noble youths as thick - As leaves up on a tree. - But ah! amongst the many forms, - Which meet my eager eye, - The figure of my own true love - I cannot yet descry. - The pledge I gave him at the garden gate - Can he forget? The hour is waxing late. - And the crowds down below - Bewilder me so - That I am in a most desperate state. - Oh! P'ing Kuei, if you really love me, - Hasten quickly to my side: - If the words you spoke were idle, - Why ask me to be your bride? - He perhaps his ease is taking, - While my foolish heart is breaking. - I can't return till I have done - This work in misery begun, - And so I take the Flowery Ball - And with a sigh I let it fall._ - -[Throws down the ball. - - P'u-sa. _'Tis thus I seize the envied prize, - And give it to my protege; - I'll throw it in his earthen bowl._ - -[Throws the ball to P'ing Kuei. - - Lady Wang [sings.] _Stay! I hear the people shouting-- - What, the Ball some beggar struck? - It must be my own true P'ing Kuei-- - I'll go home and tell my luck! - Maidens! through the temple kindle - Incense for my lucky fate; - Now my true love will discover - That I can discriminate._ - -[Exeunt omnes. - -_Enter ~Hu Mao-yuean~ and ~Su Tai-ch'in~._ - - Hu. _The second of the second moon - The Dragon wakes to life and power; - To-day the Lady Wang has thrown - The Ball from out the Painted Tower. - No well-born youth was singled out, - It struck a dirty vagrant lout. - Friend Su, I'm off: we're done for, as you saw, - Though for the little paltry wench I do not care - a straw._ - -[Exeunt. - -_Enter ~Gatekeeper~ and ~Beggar~._ - - Gatekeeper. _Only one poor beggar now remains within the hall, - Who'd have thought that this poor vagrant would have - got the Ball?_ - [To P'ing Kuei.] _Sir, you've come off well this morning: - You must be a lucky man. - Come with me to claim your bride, and - Make the greatest haste you can._ - -[Exeunt. - -Even the longer and more elaborate plays are proportionately wanting in -all that makes the drama piquant to a European, and are very seldom, -if ever, produced as they stand in print. Many collections of these -have been published, not to mention the acting editions of each play, -which can be bought at any bookstall for something like three a penny. -One of the best of such collections is the _Yuean ch'ue hsuean tsa chi_, -or Miscellaneous Selection of Mongol Plays, bound up in eight thick -volumes. It contains one hundred plays in all, with an illustration to -each, according to the edition of 1615. A large proportion of these -cannot be assigned to any author, and are therefore marked "anonymous." -Even when the authors' names are given, they represent men altogether -unknown in what the Chinese call literature, from which the drama is -rigorously excluded. - -[Sidenote: CHI CHUeN-HSIANG] - -The following is a brief outline of a very well known play in five acts -by CHI CHUeN-HSIANG, entitled "The Orphan of the Chao family," -and founded closely upon fact. It is the nearest approach which the -Chinese have made to genuine tragedy:-- - -A wicked Minister of the sixth century B.C. plotted the -destruction of a rival named Chao Tun, and of all his family. He tells -in the prologue how he had vainly trained a fierce dog to kill his -rival, by keeping it for days without food and then setting it at a -dummy, dressed to represent his intended victim, and stuffed with the -heart and lights of a sheep. Ultimately, however, he had managed to -get rid of all the male members of the family, to the number of three -hundred, when he hears--and at this point the play proper begins--that -the wife of the last representative has given birth to a son. He -promptly sends to find the child, which had meanwhile been carried -away to a place of safety. Then a faithful servant of the family hid -himself on the hills with another child, while an accomplice informed -the Minister where the supposed orphan of the house of Chao was lying -hidden. The child was accordingly slain, and by the hand of the -Minister himself; the servant committed suicide. But the real heir -escaped, and when he grew up he avenged the wrongs of his family by -killing the cruel Minister and utterly exterminating his race. - - * * * * * - -From beginning to end of this and similar plays there is apparently no -attempt whatever at passion or pathos in the language--at any rate, -not in the sense in which those terms are understood by us. Nor are -there even rhetorical flowers to disguise the expression of commonplace -thought. The Chinese actor can do a great deal with such a text; the -translator, nothing. There is much, too, of a primitive character in -the setting of the play. Explanatory prologues are common, and actors -usually begin by announcing their own names and further clearing the -way for the benefit of the audience. The following story will give a -faint idea of the license conceded to the play-actor. - -My attention was attracted on one occasion at Amoy by an unusually -large crowd of Chinamen engaged in watching the progress of an open-air -theatrical performance. Roars of laughter resounded on all sides, and -on looking to see what was the moving cause of this extraordinary -explosion of merriment, I beheld to my astonishment a couple of rather -seedy-looking foreigners occupying the stage, and apparently acting -with such spirit as to bring the house down at every other word. A -moment more and it was clear that these men of the West were not -foreigners at all, but Chinamen dressed up for the purposes of the -piece. The get-up, nevertheless, was remarkably good, if somewhat -exaggerated, though doubtless the intention was to caricature or -burlesque rather than to reproduce an exact imitation. There was the -billy-cock hat, and below it a florid face well supplied with red -moustaches and whiskers, the short cut-away coat and light trousers, -a blue neck-tie, and last, but not least, the ever-characteristic -walking-stick. Half the fun, in fact, was got out of this last -accessory; for with it each one of the two was continually threatening -the other, and both united in violent gesticulations directed either -against their brother-actors or sometimes against the audience at their -feet. - -Before going any further it may be as well to give a short outline of -the play itself, which happens to be not uninteresting and is widely -known from one end of China to the other. It is called "Slaying a Son -at the Yamen Gate," and the plot, or rather story, runs as follows:-- - -A certain general of the Sung dynasty named Yang, being in charge of -one of the frontier passes, sent his son to obtain a certain wooden -staff from an outlying barbarian tribe. In this expedition the son not -only failed signally, but was further taken prisoner by a barbarian -lady, who insisted upon his immediately leading her to the altar. -Shortly after these nuptials he returns to his father's camp, and the -latter, in a violent fit of anger, orders him to be taken outside -the Yamen gate and be there executed forthwith. As the soldiers are -leading him away, the young man's mother comes and throws herself at -the general's feet, and implores him to spare her son. This request the -stern father steadily refuses to grant, even though his wife's prayers -are backed up by those of his own mother, of a prince of the Imperial -blood, and finally by the entreaties of the Emperor himself. At this -juncture in rushes the barbarian wife of the general's condemned son, -and as on a previous occasion the general himself had been taken -prisoner by this very lady, and only ransomed on payment of a heavy -sum of money, he is so alarmed that he sits motionless and unable to -utter a word while with a dagger she severs the cords that bind her -husband, sets him free before the assembled party, and dares any one -to lay a hand on him at his peril. The Emperor now loses his temper, -and is enraged to think that General Yang should have been awed into -granting to a barbarian woman a life that he had just before refused to -the entreaties of the Son of Heaven. His Majesty, therefore, at once -deprives the father of his command and bestows it upon the son, and the -play is brought to a conclusion with the departure of young General -Yang and his barbarian wife to subdue the wild tribes that are then -harassing the frontier of China. The two foreigners are the pages or -attendants of the barbarian wife, and accompany her in that capacity -when she follows her husband to his father's camp. - -The trick of dressing these pages up to caricature the foreigner of -the nineteenth century, on the occasion when I saw the piece, was a -mere piece of stage gag, but one which amused the people immensely, and -elicited rounds of applause. But when the barbarian wife had succeeded -in rescuing her husband from the jaws of death, there was considerable -dissatisfaction in the minds of several of the personages on the stage. -The Emperor was angry at the slight that had been passed upon his -Imperial dignity, the wife and mother of the general, not to mention -the prince of the blood, felt themselves similarly slighted, though -in a lesser degree, and the enraged father was still more excited -at having had his commands set aside, and seeing himself bearded in -his own Yamen by a mere barbarian woman. It was consequently felt -by all parties that something in the way of slaughter was wanting to -relieve their own feelings, and to satisfy the unities of the drama -and the cravings of the audience for a sensational finale; and this -desirable end was attained by an order from the Emperor that at any -rate the two foreign attendants might be sacrificed for the benefit of -all concerned. The two wretched foreigners were accordingly made to -kneel on the stage, and their heads were promptly lopped off by the -executioner amid the deafening plaudits of the surrounding spectators. - - * * * * * - -In 1885 a play was performed in a Shanghai theatre which had for its -special attraction a rude imitation of a paddle-steamer crowded with -foreign men and women. It was wheeled across the back of the stage, and -the foreigners and their women, who were supposed to have come with -designs upon the Middle Kingdom, were all taken prisoners and executed. - -[Sidenote: WANG SHIH-FU] - -Of all plays of the Mongol dynasty, the one which will best repay -reading is undoubtedly the _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, or Story of the Western -Pavilion, in sixteen scenes. It is by WANG SHIH-FU, of whom -nothing seems to be known except that he flourished in the thirteenth -century, and wrote thirteen plays, all of which are included in the -collection mentioned above. "The dialogue of this play," says a Chinese -critic, "deals largely with wind, flowers, snow, and moonlight," which -is simply a euphemistic way of stating that the story is one of passion -and intrigue. It is popular with the educated classes, by whom it is -regarded more as a novel than as a play. - -A lady and her daughter are staying at a temple, where, in accordance -with common custom, rooms are let by the priests to ordinary -travellers or to visitors who may wish to perform devotional exercises. -A young and handsome student, who also happens to be living at the -temple, is lucky enough to succeed in saving the two ladies from the -clutches of brigands, for which service he has previously been promised -the hand of the daughter in marriage. The mother, however, soon repents -of her engagement, and the scholar is left disconsolate. At this -juncture the lady's-maid of the daughter manages by a series of skilful -manoeuvres to bring the story to a happy issue. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CHANG KUO-PIN] - -Just as there have always been poetesses in China, so women are to be -found in the ranks of Chinese playwrights. A four-act drama, entitled -"Joining the Shirt," was written by one CHANG KUO-PIN, an -educated courtesan of the day, the chief interest of which play lies -perhaps in the sex of the writer. - -A father and mother, with son and daughter-in-law, are living happily -together, when a poverty-stricken young stranger is first of all -assisted by them, and then, without further inquiry, is actually -adopted into the family. Soon afterwards the new son persuades the -elder brother and his wife secretly to leave home, taking all the -property they can lay their hands on, and to journey to a distant part -of the country, where there is a potent god from whom the wife is to -pray for and obtain a son after what has been already an eighteen -months' gestation. On the way, the new brother pushes the husband -overboard into the Yang-tsze and disappears with the wife, who shortly -gives birth to a boy. Eighteen years pass. The old couple have sunk -into poverty, and set out, begging their way, to seek for their lost -son. Chance--playwright's chance--throws them into the company of their -grandson, who has graduated as Senior Classic, and has also, prompted -by his mother, been on the look-out for them. Recognition is effected -by means of the two halves of a shirt, one of which had always been -kept by the old man and the other by the missing son, and after his -death by his wife. At this juncture the missing son reappears. He had -been rescued from drowning by a boatman, and had become a Buddhist -priest. He now reverts to lay life, and the play is brought to an end -by the execution of the villain. - -It is a curious fact that all the best troupes of actors not only come -from Peking, but perform in their own dialect, which is practically -unintelligible to the masses in many parts of China. These actors are, -of course, very well paid, in order to make it worth their while to -travel so far from home and take the risks to life and property. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE NOVEL - - -Turning now to the second literary achievement of the Mongols, the -introduction of the Novel, we find ourselves face to face with the same -mystery as that which shrouds the birth of the Drama. The origin of -the Chinese novel is unknown. It probably came from Central Asia, the -paradise of story-tellers, in the wake of the Mongol conquest. Three -centuries had then to elapse before the highest point of development -was reached. Fables, anecdotes, and even short stories had already -been familiar to the Chinese for many centuries, but between these -and the novel proper there is a wide gulf which so far had not been -satisfactorily bridged. Some, indeed, have maintained that the novel -was developed from the play, pointing in corroboration of their theory -to the _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, or Story of the Western Pavilion, described in -the preceding chapter. This, however, simply means that the _Hsi Hsiang -Chi_ is more suited for private reading than for public representation, -as is the case with many Western plays. - -The Chinese range their novels under four heads, as dealing (1) -with usurpation and plotting, (2) with love and intrigue, (3) with -superstition, and (4) with brigandage or lawless characters generally. -Examples of each class will be given. - -[Sidenote: LO KUAN-CHUNG] - -The _San kuo chih yen i_, attributed to one LO KUAN-CHUNG, is an -historical novel based upon the wars of the Three Kingdoms which fought -for supremacy at the beginning of the third century A.D. It consists -mainly of stirring scenes of warfare, of cunning plans by skilful -generals, and of doughty deeds by blood-stained warriors. Armies -and fleets of countless myriads are from time to time annihilated -by one side or another,--all this in an easy and fascinating style, -which makes the book an endless joy to old and young alike. If a vote -were taken among the people of China as to the greatest among their -countless novels, the Story of the Three Kingdoms would indubitably -come out first. - -This is how the great commander Chu-ko Liang is said to have -replenished his failing stock of arrows. He sent a force of some twenty -or more ships to feign an attack on the fleet of his powerful rival, -Ts'ao Ts'ao. The decks of the ships were apparently covered with large -numbers of fighting men, but these were in reality nothing more than -straw figures dressed up in soldiers' clothes. On each ship there -were only a few sailors and some real soldiers with gongs and other -noisy instruments. Reaching their destination, as had been carefully -calculated beforehand, in the middle of a dense fog, the soldiers -at once began to beat on their gongs as if about to go into action; -whereupon Ts'ao Ts'ao, who could just make out the outlines of vessels -densely packed with fighting men bearing down upon him, gave orders to -his archers to begin shooting. The latter did so, and kept on for an -hour and more, until Chu-ko Liang was satisfied with what he had got, -and passed the order to retreat. - -Elsewhere we read of an archery competition which recalls the Homeric -games. A target is set up, and the prize, a robe, is hung upon a -twig just above. From a distance of one hundred paces the heroes -begin to shoot. Of course each competitor hits the bull's-eye, one, -Parthian-like, with his back to the target, another shooting over his -own head; and equally of course the favoured hero shoots at the twig, -severs it, and carries off the robe. - -The following extract will perhaps be interesting, dealing as it does -with the use of anaesthetics long before they were dreamt of in this -country. Ts'ao Ts'ao had been struck on the head with a sword by the -spirit of a pear-tree which he had attempted to cut down. He suffered -such agony that one of his staff recommended a certain doctor who was -then very much in vogue:-- - -"'Dr. Hua,' explained the officer, 'is a mighty skilful physician, and -such a one as is not often to be found. His administration of drugs, -and his use of acupuncture and counter-irritants are always followed -by the speedy recovery of the patient. If the sick man is suffering -from some internal complaint and medicines produce no satisfactory -result, then Dr. Hua will administer a dose of hashish, under the -influence of which the patient becomes as it were intoxicated with -wine. He now takes a sharp knife and opens the abdomen, proceeding -to wash the patient's viscera with medicinal liquids, but without -causing him the slightest pain. The washing finished, he sews up the -wound with medicated thread and puts over it a plaster, and by the -end of a month or twenty days the place has healed up. Such is his -extraordinary skill. One day, for instance, as he was walking along a -road, he heard some one groaning deeply, and at once declared that the -cause was indigestion. On inquiry, this turned out to be the case; and -accordingly, Dr. Hua ordered the sufferer to drink three pints of a -decoction of garlic and leeks, which he did, and vomited forth a snake -between two and three feet in length, after which he could digest food -as before. On another occasion, the Governor of Kuang-ling was very -much depressed in his mind, besides being troubled with a flushing of -the face and total loss of appetite. He consulted Dr. Hua, and the -effect of some medicine administered by him was to cause the invalid to -throw up a quantity of red-headed wriggling tadpoles, which the doctor -told him had been generated in his system by too great indulgence in -fish, and which, although temporarily expelled, would reappear after -an interval of three years, when nothing could save him. And sure -enough, he died three years afterwards. In a further instance, a man -had a tumour growing between his eyebrows, the itching of which was -insupportable. When Dr. Hua saw it, he said, 'There is a bird inside,' -at which everybody laughed. However, he took a knife and opened the -tumour, and out flew a canary, the patient beginning to recover from -that hour. Again, another man had had his toes bitten by a dog, the -consequence being that two lumps of flesh grew up from the wound, one -of which was very painful while the other itched unbearably. 'There -are ten needles,' said Dr. Hua, 'in the sore lump, and two black and -white _wei-ch'i_ pips in the other.' No one believed this until Dr. Hua -opened them with a knife and showed that it was so. Truly he is of the -same strain as Pien Ch'iao and Ts'ang Kung of old; and as he is now -living not very far from this, I wonder your Highness does not summon -him.' - -"At this, Ts'ao Ts'ao sent away messengers who were to travel day and -night until they had brought Dr. Hua before him; and when he arrived, -Ts'ao Ts'ao held out his pulse and desired him to diagnose his case. - -"'The pain in your Highness's head' said Dr. Hua, 'arises from wind, -and the seat of the disease is the brain, where the wind is collected, -unable to get out. Drugs are of no avail in your present condition, -for which there is but one remedy. You must first swallow a dose of -hashish, and then with a sharp axe I will split open the back of your -head and let the wind out. Thus the disease will be exterminated.' - -"Ts'ao Ts'ao here flew into a great rage, and declared that it was -a plot aimed at his life; to which Dr. Hua replied, 'Has not your -Highness heard of Kuan Yue's wound in the right shoulder? I scraped the -bone and removed the poison for him without a single sign of fear on -his part. Your Highness's disease is but a trifling affair; why, then, -so much suspicion?' - -"'You may scrape a sore shoulder-bone,' said Ts'ao Ts'ao, 'without much -risk; but to split open my skull is quite another matter. It strikes me -now that you are here simply to avenge your friend Kuan Yue upon this -opportunity.' He thereupon gave orders that the doctor should be seized -and cast into prison." - -There the unfortunate doctor soon afterwards died, and before very long -Ts'ao Ts'ao himself succumbed. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SHIH NAI-AN] - -The _Shui Hu Chuan_ is said to have been written by SHIN -NAI-AN of the thirteenth century; but this name does not appear -in any biographical collection, and nothing seems to be known either -of the man or of his authorship. The story is based upon the doings of -an historical band of brigands, who had actually terrorised a couple -of provinces, until they were finally put down, early in the twelfth -century. Some of it is very laughable, and all of it valuable for the -insight given into Chinese manners and customs. There is a ludicrous -episode of a huge swashbuckler who took refuge in a Buddhist temple -and became a priest. After a while he reverted to less ascetic habits -of life, and returned one day to the temple, in Chinese phraseology, -as drunk as a clod, making a great riot and causing much scandal. He -did this on a second occasion; and when shut out by the gatekeeper, he -tried to burst in, and in his drunken fury knocked to pieces a huge -idol at the entrance for not stepping down to his assistance. Then, -when he succeeded by a threat of fire in getting the monks to open the -gate, "through which no wine or meat may pass," he fell down in the -courtyard, and out of his robe tumbled a half-eaten dog's leg, which -he had carried away with him from the restaurant where he had drunk -himself tipsy. This he amused himself by tearing to pieces and forcing -into the mouth of one of his fellow-priests. - -The graphic and picturesque style in which this book is written, though -approaching the colloquial, has secured for it a position rather beyond -its real merits. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE HSI YU CHI] - -The _Hsi Yu Chi_, or Record of Travels in the West, is a favourite -novel written in a popular and easy style. It is based upon the journey -of Hsuean Tsang to India in search of books, images, and relics to -illustrate the Buddhist religion; but beyond the fact that the chief -personage is called by Hsuean Tsang's posthumous title, and that he -travels in search of Buddhist books, the journey and the novel have -positively nothing in common. The latter is a good sample of the -fiction in which the Chinese people delight, and may be allowed to -detain us awhile. - -A stone monkey is born on a mysterious mountain from a stone egg, and -is soon elected to be king of the monkeys. He then determines to travel -in search of wisdom, and accordingly sets forth. His first step is -to gain a knowledge of the black art from a magician, after which he -becomes Master of the Horse to God, that is, to the supreme deity in -the Taoist Pantheon. Throwing up his post in disgust, he carries on a -series of disturbances in the world generally, until at length God is -obliged to interfere, and sends various heavenly generals to coerce -him. These he easily puts to flight, only returning to his allegiance -on being appointed the Great Holy One of All the Heavens. He is soon -at his old tricks again, stealing the peaches of immortality from a -legendary being known as the Royal Mother in the West, and also some -elixir of life, both of which he consumes. - -All the minor deities now complain to God of his many misdeeds, and -heavenly armies are despatched against him, but in vain. Even God's -nephew cannot prevail against him until Lao Tzu throws a magic ring at -him and knocks him down. He is then carried captive to heaven, but as -he is immortal, no harm can be inflicted on him. - -At this juncture God places the matter in the hands of Buddha, who is -presently informed by the monkey that God must be deposed and that he, -the monkey, must for the future reign in his stead. The text now runs -as follows:-- - -"When Buddha heard these words, he smiled scornfully and said, 'What! -a devil-monkey like you to seize the throne of God, who from his -earliest years has been trained to rule, and has lived 1750 aeons, each -of 129,600 years' duration! Think what ages of apprenticeship he had to -serve before he could reach this state of perfect wisdom. You are only -a brute beast; what mean these boastful words? Be off, and utter no -more such, lest evil befall, and your very existence be imperilled.' - -"'Although he is older than I am,' cried the monkey, 'that is no reason -why he should always have the post. Tell him to get out and give up his -place to me, or I will know the reason why.' - -"'What abilities have you,' asked Buddha, 'that you should claim the -divine palace?' - -"'Plenty,' replied the monkey. 'I can change myself into seventy-two -shapes; I am immortal; and I can turn a somersault to a distance of -18,000 _li_ ( = 6000 miles). Am I not fit to occupy the throne of -heaven?' - -"'Well,' answered Buddha, 'I will make a wager with you. If you can -jump out of my hand, I will request God to depart to the West and leave -heaven to you; but if you fail, you will go down again to earth and be -a devil for another few aeons to come.' - -"The monkey readily agreed to this, pointing out that he could easily -jump 18,000 _li_, and that Buddha's hand was not even a foot long. So -after making Buddha promise to carry out the agreement, he grasped his -sceptre and diminished in size until he could stand in the hand, which -was stretched out for him like a lotus-leaf. 'I'm off!' he cried, and -in a moment he was gone. But Buddha's enlightened gaze was ever upon -him, though he turned with the speed of a whirligig. - -"In a brief space the monkey had reached a place where there were five -red pillars, and there he decided to stop. Reflecting, however, that he -had better leave some trace as a proof of his visit, he plucked out a -hair, and changing it into a pencil, wrote with it on the middle pillar -in large characters, _The Great Holy One of All the Heavens reached -this point_. The next moment he was back again in Buddha's hand, -describing his jump, and claiming his reward. - -"'Ah!' said Buddha, 'I knew you couldn't do it.' - -"'Why,' said the monkey, 'I have been to the very confines of the -universe, and have left a mark there which I challenge you to inspect.' - -"'There is no need to go so far,' replied Buddha. 'Just bend your head -and look here.' - -"The monkey bent down his head, and there, on Buddha's middle finger, -he read the following inscription: _The Great Holy One of All the -Heavens reached this point_." - -Ultimately, the monkey is converted to the true faith, and undertakes -to escort Hsuean Tsang on his journey to the West. In his turn he helps -to convert a pig-bogey, whom he first vanquishes by changing himself -into a pill, which the pig-bogey unwittingly swallows, thereby giving -its adversary a chance of attacking it from inside. These two are -joined by a colourless individual, said to represent the passive side -of man's nature, as the monkey and pig represent the active and animal -sides respectively. The three of them conduct Hsuean Tsang through -manifold dangers and hairbreadth escapes safe, until at length they -receive final directions from an Immortal as to the position of the -palace of Buddha, from which they hope to obtain the coveted books. The -scene which follows almost recalls _The Pilgrims Progress_:-- - -"Hsuean Tsang accordingly bade him farewell and proceeded on his way. -But he had not gone more than a mile or two before he came to a stream -of rushing water about a league in breadth, with not a trace of any -living being in sight. At this he was somewhat startled, and turning -to Wu-k'ung (the name of the monkey) said, 'Our guide must surely -have misdirected us. Look at that broad and boiling river; how shall -we ever get across without a boat?' 'There is a bridge over there,' -cried Wu-k'ung, 'which you must cross over in order to complete -your salvation.' At this Hsuean Tsang and the others advanced in the -direction indicated, and saw by the side of the bridge a notice-board -on which was written, 'The Heavenly Ford.' Now the bridge itself -consisted of a simple plank; on which Hsuean Tsang remarked, 'I am not -going to trust myself to that frail and slippery plank to cross that -wide and rapid stream. Let us try somewhere else.' 'But this is the -true path,' said Wu-k'ung; 'just wait a moment and see me go across.' -Thereupon he jumped on to the bridge, and ran along the shaky vibrating -plank until he reached the other side, where he stood shouting out to -the rest to come on. But Hsuean Tsang waved his hand in the negative, -while his companions stood by biting their fingers and crying out, 'We -can't! we can't! we can't!' So Wu-k'ung ran back, and seizing Pa-chieh -(the pig) by the arm, began dragging him to the bridge, all the time -calling him a fool for his pains. Pa-chieh then threw himself on the -ground, roaring out, 'It's too slippery--it's too slippery. I can't -do it. Spare me! spare me!' 'You must cross by this bridge,' replied -Wu-k'ung, 'if you want to become a Buddha;' at which Pa-chieh said, -'Then I can't be a Buddha, sir. I have done with it: I shall never get -across that bridge.' - -"While these two were in the middle of their dispute, lo and behold a -boat appeared in sight, with a man punting it along, and calling out, -'The ferry! the ferry!' At this Hsuean Tsang was overjoyed, and shouted -to his disciples that they would now be able to get across. By his -fiery pupil and golden iris, Wu-k'ung knew that the ferryman was no -other than Namo Pao-chang-kuang-wang Buddha; but he kept his knowledge -to himself, and hailed the boat to take them on board. In a moment it -was alongside the bank, when, to his unutterable horror, Hsuean Tsang -discovered that the boat had no bottom, and at once asked the ferryman -how he proposed to take them across. 'My boat,' replied the ferryman, -'has been famed since the resolution of chaos into order, and under my -charge has known no change. Steady though storms may rage and seas may -roll, there is no fear so long as the passenger is light. Free from the -dust of mortality, the passage is easy enough. Ten thousand kalpas of -human beings pass over in peace. A bottomless ship can hardly cross the -great ocean; yet for ages past I have ferried over countless hosts of -passengers.' - -"When he heard these words Wu-k'ung cried out, 'Master, make haste on -board. This boat, although bottomless, is safe enough, and no wind or -sea could overset it.' And while Hsuean Tsang was still hesitating, -Wu-k'ung pushed him forwards on to the bridge; but the former could not -keep his feet, and fell head over heels into the water, from which he -was immediately rescued by the ferryman, who dragged him on board the -boat. The rest also managed, with the aid of Wu-k'ung, to scramble on -board; and then, as the ferryman shoved off, lo! they beheld a dead -body floating away down the stream. Hsuean Tsang was greatly alarmed -at this; but Wu-k'ung laughed and said, 'Fear not, Master; that dead -body is your old self!' And all the others joined in the chorus of 'It -is you, sir, it is you;' and even the ferryman said, 'Yes, it is you; -accept my best congratulations.' - -"A few moments more and the stream was crossed, when they all jumped -on shore; but before they could look round the boat and ferryman had -disappeared." - -The story ends with a list of the Buddhist _sutras_ and liturgies -which the travellers were allowed to carry back with them to their own -country. - - - - -BOOK THE SEVENTH - -_THE MING DYNASTY_ (A.D. 1368-1644) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--MATERIA MEDICA--ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF AGRICULTURE - - -[Sidenote: SUNG LIEN] - -The first Emperor of the Ming dynasty, popularly known as the Beggar -King, in allusion to the poverty of his early days, so soon as he -had extinguished the last hopes of the Mongols and had consolidated -his power, turned his attention to literature and education. He -organised the great system of competitive examinations which prevails -at the present day. He also published a Penal Code, abolishing such -punishments as mutilation, and drew up a kind of Domesday Book, under -which taxation was regulated. In 1369 he appointed SUNG LIEN -(A.D. 1310-1381), in conjunction with other scholars, to -produce the History of the Mongol Dynasty. Sung Lien had previously -been tutor to the heir apparent. He had declined office, and was -leading the life of a simple student. He rose to be President of the -Han-lin College, and for many years enjoyed his master's confidence. -A grandson, however, became mixed up in a conspiracy, and only the -Empress's entreaties saved the old man's life. His sentence was -commuted to banishment, and he died on the journey. Apart from the -history above mentioned, and a pronouncing dictionary on which he was -employed, his literary remains fill only three volumes. The following -piece is a satire on the neglect of men of ability, which, according to -him, was a marked feature of the administration of the Mongols:-- - -"Teng Pi, whose cognomen was Po-i, was a man of Ch'in. He was seven -feet high. Both his eyes had crimson corners, and they blinked like -lightning flashes. In feats of strength he was cock of the walk; and -once when his neighbour's bulls were locked in fight, with a blow of -his fist he broke the back of one of them and sent it rolling on the -ground. The stone drums of the town, which ten men could not lift, -he could carry about in his two hands. He was, however, very fond of -liquor, and given to quarrelling in his cups; so that when people saw -him in this mood, they would keep out of his way, saying that it was -safer to be at a distance from such a wild fellow. - -"One day he was drinking by himself in a tea-house when two literati -happened to pass by. Teng Pi tried to make them join him; but they, -having rather a low opinion of the giant, would not accept his -invitation. 'Gentlemen,' cried he in a rage, 'if you do not see fit -to do as I ask, I will make an end of the pair of you, and then seek -safety in flight. I could not brook this treatment at your hands.' - -"So the two had no alternative but to walk in. Teng Pi took the place -of honour himself, and put his guests on each side of him. He called -for more liquor, and began to sing and make a noise. And at last, when -he was well tipsy, he threw off his clothes and began to attitudinise. -He drew a knife, and flung it down with a bang on the table; at which -the two literati, who were aware of his weakness, rose to take leave. - -"'Stop!' shouted Teng Pi, detaining them. 'I too know something about -your books. What do you mean by treating me as the spittle of your -mouth? If you don't hurry up and drink, I fear my temper will get the -better of me. Meanwhile, you shall ask me anything you like in the -whole range of classical literature, and if I can't answer, I will -imbrue this blade in my blood.' - -"To this the two literati agreed, and forthwith gave him a number -of the most difficult allusions they could think of, taken from the -Classics; but Teng Pi was equal to the occasion, and repeated the full -quotation in each case without missing a word. Then they tried him on -history, covering a period of three thousand years; but here again his -answers were distinguished by accuracy and precision. - -"'Ha! ha!' laughed Teng Pi, 'do you give in now?' At which his guests -looked blankly at each other, and hadn't a word to say. So Teng Pi -shouted for wine, and loosed his hair, and jumped about, crying, 'I -have floored you, gentlemen, to-day! Of old, learning made a man of -you; but to-day, all you have to do is to don a scholar's dress and -look consumptive. You care only to excel with pen and ink, and despise -the real heroes of the age. Shall this be so indeed?' - -"Now these two literati were men of some reputation, and on hearing -Teng Pi's words they were greatly shamed, and left the tea-house, -hardly knowing how to put one foot before the other. On arriving home -they made further inquiries, but no one had ever seen Teng Pi at any -time with a book in his hand." - -[Sidenote: FANG HSIAO-JU] - -FANG HSIAO-JU (A.D. 1357-1402) is another scholar, co-worker with Sung -Lien, who adorned this same period. As a child he was precocious, and -by his skill in composition earned for himself the nickname of Little -Han Yue. He became tutor to one of the Imperial princes, and was loaded -with honours by the second Emperor, who through the death of his father -succeeded in 1398 to his grandfather. Then came the rebellion of the -fourth son of the first Emperor; and when Nanking opened its gates to -the conqueror, the defeated nephew vanished. It is supposed that he -fled to Yuennan, in the garb of a monk, left to him, so the story runs, -with full directions by his grandfather. After nearly forty years' -wandering, he is said to have gone to Peking, and lived in seclusion in -the palace until his death. He was recognised by a eunuch from a mole -on his left foot, but the eunuch was afraid to reveal his identity. -Fang Hsiao-ju absolutely refused to place his services at the disposal -of the new Emperor, who ruled under the year-title of Yung Lo. For this -refusal he was cut to pieces in the market-place, his family being as -far as possible exterminated and his philosophical writings burned. -A small collection of his miscellanies was preserved by a faithful -disciple, and afterwards republished. The following is an extract from -an essay on taking too much thought for the morrow:-- - -"Statesmen who forecast the destinies of an empire ofttimes concentrate -their genius upon the difficult and neglect the easy. They provide -against likely evils, and disregard combinations which yield no ground -for suspicion. Yet calamity often issues from neglected quarters, and -sedition springs out of circumstances which have been set aside as -trivial. Must this be regarded as due to an absence of care?--No. It -results because the things that man can provide against are human, -while those that elude his vigilance and overpower his strength are -divine." - -After giving several striking examples from history, the writer -continues:-- - -"All the instances above cited include gifted men whose wisdom and -genius overshadowed their generation. They took counsel and provided -against disruption of the empire with the utmost possible care. Yet -misfortune fell upon every one of them, always issuing from some source -where its existence was least suspected. This, because human wisdom -reaches only to human affairs and cannot touch the divine. Thus, too, -will sickness carry off the children even of the best doctors, and -devils play their pranks in the family of an exorcist. How is it that -these professors, who succeed in grappling with the cases of others, -yet fail in treating their own? It is because in those they confine -themselves to the human; in these they would meddle with the divine. - -"The men of old knew that it was impossible to provide infallibly -against the convulsions of ages to come. There was no plan, no device, -by which they could hope to prevail, and they refrained accordingly -from vain scheming. They simply strove by the force of Truth and Virtue -to win for themselves the approbation of God; that He, in reward for -their virtuous conduct, might watch over them, as a fond mother watches -over her babes, for ever. Thus, although fools were not wanting to -their posterity--fools able to drag an empire to the dust--still, the -evil day was deferred. This was indeed foresight of a far-reaching kind. - -"But he who, regardless of the favour of Heaven, may hope by the light -of his own petty understanding to establish that which shall endure -through all time--he shall be confounded indeed." - - * * * * * - -The third Emperor of this dynasty, whose nephew, the reigning Emperor, -disappeared so mysteriously, mounted the throne in 1403. A worthy son -of his father as regarded his military and political abilities, he -was a still more enthusiastic patron of literature. He caused to be -compiled what is probably the most gigantic encyclopaedia ever known, -the _Yung Lo Ta Tien_, to produce which 2169 scholars laboured for -about three years under the guidance of five chief directors and twenty -sub-directors. Judging from the account published in 1795, it must have -run to over 500,000 pages. It was never printed because of the cost of -the block-cutting; but under a subsequent reign two extra copies were -taken, and one of these, imperfect to the extent of about 20,000 pages, -is still in the Han-lin College at Peking.[33] The others perished by -fire at the fall of the Ming dynasty. Not only did this encyclopaedia -embrace and illustrate the whole range of Chinese literature, but it -included many complete works which would otherwise have been lost. Of -these, no fewer than 66 on the Confucian Canon, 41 on history, 103 -on philosophy, and 175 on poetry were copied out and inserted in the -Imperial Library. - -Many names of illustrious scholars must here, as indeed throughout -this volume, be passed over in silence. Such writers are more than -compensated by the honour they receive from their own countrymen, who -place classical scholarship at the very summit of human ambitions, and -rank the playwright and the novelist as mere parasites of literature. -Between these two extremes there is always to be found a great deal -of general writing, which, while it satisfies the fastidious claim of -the Chinese critic for form in preference even to matter, is also of -sufficient interest for the European reader. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: YANG CHI-SHENG] - -YANG CHI-SHENG (1515-1556) was a statesman and a patriot, who -had been a cowherd in his youth. He first got himself into trouble by -opposing the establishment of a horse-market on the frontier, between -China and Tartary, as menacing the safety of his country. Restored to -favour after temporary degradation, he impeached a colleague, now known -as the worst of the Six Traitorous Ministers of the Ming dynasty. His -adversary was too strong for him. Yang was sent to prison, and three -years later his head fell. His name has no place in literature; nor -would it be mentioned here except as an introduction to an impassioned -memorial which his wife addressed to the Emperor on her husband's -behalf:-- - -"May it please your Majesty,--My husband was chief Minister in the -Cavalry Department of the Board of War. Because he advised your Majesty -against the establishment of a tradal mart, hoping to prevent Ch'ou -Luan from carrying out his design, he was condemned only to a mild -punishment; and then, when the latter suffered defeat, he was restored -to favour and to his former honours. - -"Thereafter, my husband was for ever seeking to make some return for -the Imperial clemency. He would deprive himself of sleep. He would -abstain from food. All this I saw with my own eyes. By and by, however, -he gave ear to some idle rumour of the market-place, and the old habit -came strong upon him. He lost his mental balance. He uttered wild -statements, and again incurred the displeasure of the Throne. Yet he -was not slain forthwith. His punishment was referred to the Board. He -was beaten; he was thrown into prison. Several times he nearly died. -His flesh was hollowed out beneath the scourge; the sinews of his legs -were severed. Blood flowed from him in bowlfuls, splashing him from -head to foot. Confined day and night in a cage, he endured the utmost -misery. - -"Then our crops failed, and daily food was wanting in our -poverty-stricken home. I strove to earn money by spinning, and worked -hard for the space of three years, during which period the Board twice -addressed the Throne, receiving on each occasion an Imperial rescript -that my husband was to await his fate in gaol. But now I hear your -Majesty has determined that my husband shall die, in accordance with -the statutes of the Empire. Die as he may, his eyes will close in peace -with your Majesty, while his soul seeks the realms below. - -"Yet I know that your Majesty has a humane and kindly heart; and -when the creeping things of the earth,--nay, the very trees and -shrubs,--share in the national tranquillity, it is hard to think that -your Majesty would grudge a pitying glance upon our fallen estate. And -should we be fortunate enough to attract the Imperial favour to our -lowly affairs, that would be joy indeed. But if my husband's crime is -of too deep a dye, I humbly beg that my head may pay the penalty, and -that I be permitted to die for him. Then, from the far-off land of -spirits, myself brandishing spear and shield, I will lead forth an army -of fierce hobgoblins to do battle in your Majesty's behalf, and thus -make some return for this act of Imperial grace." - -"The force of language," says the commentator, "can no farther go." -Yet this memorial, "the plaintive tones of which," he adds, "appeal -direct to the heart," was never allowed to reach the Emperor. Twelve -years later, the Minister impeached by Yang Chi-sheng was dismissed for -scandalous abuse of power, and had all his property confiscated. Being -reduced to beggary, he received from the Emperor a handsome silver bowl -in which to collect alms; but so universally hated was he that no one -would either give him anything or venture to buy the bowl, and he died -of starvation while still in the possession of wealth. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: SHEN SU] - -A curiously similar case, with a happier ending, was that of SHEN -SU, who, in the discharge of his duties as Censor, also denounced -the same Minister, before whose name the word "traitorous" is now -always inserted. Shen Su was thrown into prison, and remained there for -fifteen years. He was released in consequence of the following memorial -by his wife, of which the commentator says, "for every drop of ink a -drop of blood":-- - -"May it please your Majesty,--My husband was a Censor attached to the -Board of Rites. For his folly in recklessly advising your Majesty, he -deserved indeed a thousand deaths; yet under the Imperial clemency he -was doomed only to await his sentence in prison. - -"Since then fourteen years have passed away. His aged parents are -still alive, but there are no children in his hall, and the wretched -man has none on whom he can rely. I alone remain--a lodger at an inn, -working day and night at my needle to provide the necessaries of life; -encompassed on all sides by difficulties; to whom every day seems a -year. - -"My father-in-law is eighty-seven years of age. He trembles on the -brink of the grave. He is like a candle in the wind. I have naught -wherewith to nourish him alive or to honour him when dead. I am a -lone woman. If I tend the one, I lose the other. If I return to my -father-in-law, my husband will die of starvation. If I remain to feed -him, my father-in-law may die at any hour. My husband is a criminal -bound in gaol. He dares give no thought to his home. Yet can it be -that when all living things are rejoicing in life under the wise and -generous rule of to-day, we alone should taste the cup of poverty and -distress, and find ourselves beyond the pale of universal peace? - -"Oft, as I think of these things, the desire to die comes upon me; but -I swallow my grief and live on, trusting in Providence for some happy -termination, some moistening with the dew of Imperial grace. And now -that my father-in-law is face to face with death; now that my husband -can hardly expect to live--I venture to offer this body as a hostage, -to be bound in prison, while my husband returns to watch over the last -hours of his father. Then, when all is over, he will resume his place -and await your Majesty's pleasure. Thus my husband will greet his -father once again, and the feelings of father and child will be in some -measure relieved. Thus I shall give to my father-in-law the comfort of -his son, and the duty of a wife towards her husband will be fulfilled." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: TSUNG CH'EN] - -TSUNG CH'EN gained some distinction during this sixteenth -century; in youth, by his great beauty, and especially by his -eyes, which were said to flash fire even at the sides; later on, -by subscribing to the funeral expenses of the above-mentioned Yang -Chi-sheng; and finally, by his successful defence of Foochow against -the Japanese, whose forces he enticed into the city by a feint of -surrender, and then annihilated from the walls. The following piece, -which, in the opinion of the commentator, "verges upon trifling," -is from his correspondence. Several sentences of it have quite a -Juvenalian ring:-- - -"I was very glad at this distance to receive your letter, which quite -set my mind at rest, together with the present you were so kind as to -add. I thank you very much for your good wishes, and especially for -your thoughtful allusion to my father. - -"As to what you are pleased to say in reference to official popularity -and fitness for office, I am much obliged by your remarks. Of my -unfitness I am only too well aware; while as to popularity with my -superiors, I am utterly unqualified to secure that boon. - -"How indeed does an official find favour in the present day with his -chief? Morning and evening he must whip up his horse and go dance -attendance at the great man's door. If the porter refuses to admit him, -then honeyed words, a coaxing air, and money drawn from the sleeve, -may prevail. The porter takes in his card; but the great man does not -come out. So he waits in the stable among grooms, until his clothes -are charged with the smell, in spite of hunger, in spite of cold, in -spite of a blazing heat. At nightfall, the porter who has pocketed the -money comes forth and says his master is tired and begs to be excused, -and will he call again next day. So he is forced to come once more as -requested. He sits all night in his clothes. At cock-crow he jumps up, -performs his toilette, and gallops off and knocks at the entrance gate. -'Who's there?' shouts the porter angrily; and when he explains, the -porter gets still more angry and begins to abuse him, saying, 'You are -in a fine hurry, you are! Do you think my master sees people at this -hour?' Then is the visitor shamed, but has to swallow his wrath and -try to persuade the porter to let him in. And the porter, another fee -to the good, gets up and lets him in; and then he waits again in the -stable as before, until perhaps the great man comes out and summons him -to an audience. - -"Now, with many an obeisance, he cringes timidly towards the foot of -the dais steps; and when the great man says 'Come!' he prostrates -himself twice and remains long without rising. At length he goes up to -offer his present, which the great man refuses. He entreats acceptance; -but in vain. He implores, with many instances; whereupon the great man -bids a servant take it. Then two more prostrations, long drawn out; -after which he arises, and with five or six salutations he takes his -leave. - -"On going forth, he bows to the porter, saying, 'It's all right -with your master. Next time I come you need make no delay.' The -porter returns the bow, well pleased with his share in the business. -Meanwhile, our friend springs on his horse, and when he meets an -acquaintance flourishes his whip and cries out, 'I have just been -with His Excellency. He treated me very kindly, very kindly indeed.' -And then he goes into detail, upon which his friends begin to be more -respectful to him as a _protege_ of His Excellency. The great man -himself says, 'So-and-so is a good fellow, a very good fellow indeed;' -upon which the bystanders of course declare that they think so too. - -"Such is popularity with one's superiors in the present day. Do -you think that I could be as one of these? No! Beyond sending in a -complimentary card at the summer and winter festivals, I do not go -near the great from one year's end to another. Even when I pass their -doors I stuff my ears and cover my eyes, and gallop quickly by, as if -some one was after me. In consequence of this want of breadth, I am of -course no favourite with the authorities; but what care I? There is a -destiny that shapes our ends, and it has shaped mine towards the path -of duty alone. For which, no doubt, you think me an ass." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: WANG TAO-K'UN] - -WANG TAO-K'UN took his third degree in 1547. His instincts -seemed to be all for a soldier's life, and he rose to be a successful -commander. He found ample time, however, for books, and came to occupy -an honourable place among contemporary writers. His works, which, -according to one critic, are "polished in style and lofty in tone," -have been published in a uniform edition, and are still read. The -following is a cynical skit upon the corruption of his day:-- - -"A retainer was complaining to Po Tzu that no one in the district knew -how to get on. - -"'You gentlemen,' said he, 'are like square handles which you would -thrust into the round sockets of your generation. Consequently, there -is not one of you which fits.' - -"'You speak truth,' replied Po Tzu; 'kindly explain how this is so.' - -"'There are five reasons,' said the retainer, 'why you are at -loggerheads with the age, as follows:-- - -"'(1) The path to popularity lies straight before you, but you will not -follow it. - -"'(2) Other men's tongues reach the soft places in the hearts of their -superiors, but your tongues are too short. - -"'(3) Others eschew fur robes, and approach with bent backs as if their -very clothes were too heavy for them; but you remain as stiff-necked as -planks. - -"'(4) Others respond even before they are called, and seek to -anticipate the wishes of their superiors; whose enemies, were they -the saints above, would not escape abuse; whose friends, were they -highwaymen and thieves, would be larded over with praise. But you--you -stick at facts and express opinions adverse to those of your superiors, -whom it is your special interest to conciliate. - -"'(5) Others make for gain as though bent upon shooting a pheasant, -watching in secret and letting fly with care, so that nothing escapes -their aim. But you--you hardly bend your bow, or bend it only to miss -the quarry that lies within your reach. - -"'One of these five failings is like a tumour hanging to you and -impeding your progress in life. How much more all of them!' - -"'It is indeed as you state,' answered Po Tzu. 'But would you bid me -cut these tumours away? A man may have a tumour and live. To cut it -off is to die. And life with a tumour is better than death without. -Besides, beauty is a natural gift; and the woman who tried to look like -Hsi Shih only succeeded in frightening people out of their wits by her -ugliness. Now it is my misfortune to have these tumours, which make me -more loathsome even than that woman. Still, I can always, so to speak, -stick to my needle and my cooking-pots, and strive to make my good -man happy. There is no occasion for me to proclaim my ugliness in the -market-place.' - -"'Ah, sir,' said the retainer, 'now I know why there are so many ugly -people about, and so little beauty in the land.'" - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: HSUe HSIEH] - -HSUe HSIEH graduated as Senior Classic in 1601, and received an -appointment in the Han-lin College, where all kinds of State documents -are prepared under the superintendence of eminent scholars. Dying -young, he left behind him the reputation of a cross-grained man, with -whom it was difficult to get along, ardently devoted to study. He swore -that if it were granted to him to acquire a brilliant style, he would -jump into the sea to circulate his writings. The following piece is -much admired. "It is completed," says a commentator, "with the breath -of a yawn (with a single effort), and is like a heavenly robe, without -seam. The reader looks in vain for paragraphing in this truly inspired -piece":-- - -"For some years I had possessed an old inkstand, left at my house by -a friend. It came into ordinary use as such, I being unaware that -it was an antique. However, one day a connoisseur told me it was at -least a thousand years old, and urged me to preserve it carefully as -a valuable relic. This I did, but never took any further trouble to -ascertain whether such was actually the case or not. For supposing -that this inkstand really dated from the period assigned, its then -owner must have regarded it simply as an inkstand. He could not have -known that it was destined to survive the wreck of time and to come to -be cherished as an antique. And while we prize it now, because it has -descended to us from a distant past, we forget that then, when antiques -were relics of a still earlier period, it could not have been of any -value to antiquarians, themselves the moderns of what is antiquity to -us! The surging crowd around us thinks of naught but the acquisition -of wealth and material enjoyment, occupied only with the struggle for -place and power. Men lift their skirts and hurry through the mire; they -suffer indignity and feel no sense of shame. And if from out this mass -there arises one spirit purer and simpler than the rest, striving to -tread a nobler path than they, and amusing his leisure, for his own -gratification, with guitars, and books, and pictures, and other relics -of olden times,--such a man is indeed a genuine lover of the antique. -He can never be one of the common herd, though the common herd always -affect to admire whatever is admittedly admirable. In the same way, -persons who aim at advancement in their career will spare no endeavour -to collect the choicest rarities, in order, by such gifts, to curry -favour with their superiors, who in their turn will take pleasure in -ostentatious display of their collections of antiquities. Such is but -a specious hankering after antiques, arising simply from a desire -to eclipse one's neighbours. Such men are not genuine lovers of the -antique. Their tastes are those of the common herd after all, though -they make a great show and filch the reputation of true antiquarians, -in the hope of thus distinguishing themselves from their fellows, -ignorant as they are that what they secure is the name alone without -the reality. The man whom I call a genuine antiquarian is he who -studies the writings of the ancients, and strives to form himself upon -their model, though unable to greet them in the flesh; who ever and -anon, in his wanderings up and down the long avenue of the past, lights -upon some choice fragment which brings him in an instant face to face -with the immortal dead. Of such enjoyment there is no satiety. Those -who truly love antiquity, love not the things, but the men of old, -since a relic in the present is much what it was in the past,--a mere -thing. And so if it is not to things, but rather to men, that devotion -is due, then even I may aspire to be some day an antique. Who shall say -that centuries hence an antiquarian of the day may not look up to me as -I have looked up to my predecessors? Should I then neglect myself, and -foolishly devote my energies to trifling with things? - -"Such is popular enthusiasm in these matters. It is shadow without -substance. But the theme is endless, and I shall therefore content -myself with a passing record of my old inkstand." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LI SHIH-CHEN] - -This chapter may close with the names of two remarkable men. LI -SHIH-CHEN completed in 1578, after twenty-six years of unremitting -labour, his great Materia Medica. In 1596 the manuscript was laid -before the Emperor, who ordered it to be printed forthwith. It deals -(1) with Inanimate substances; (2) with Plants; and (3) with Animals, -and is illustrated by over 1100 woodcuts. The introductory chapter -passes in review forty-two previous works of importance on the same -subject, enumerating no fewer than 950 miscellaneous publications on -a variety of subjects. The famous "doctrine of signatures," which -supposes that the uses of plants and substances are indicated to man by -certain appearances peculiar to them, figures largely in this work. - -HSUe KUANG-CH'I (1562-1634) is generally regarded as the only -influential member of the mandarinate who has ever become a convert -to Christianity. After graduating first among the candidates for -the second degree in 1597 and taking his final degree in 1604, he -enrolled himself as a pupil of Matteo Ricci, and studied under his -guidance to such purpose that he was able to produce works on the -new system of astronomy as introduced by the Jesuit Fathers, besides -various treatises on mathematical science. He was also author of an -encyclopaedia of agriculture of considerable value, first published in -1640. This work is illustrated with numerous woodcuts, and treats of -the processes and implements of husbandry, of rearing silkworms, of -breeding animals, of the manufacture of food, and even of precautions -to be taken against famine. The Jesuit Fathers themselves scattered -broadcast over China a large number of propagandist publications, -written in polished book-style, some few of which are still -occasionally to be found in old book-shops. - -FOOTNOTE: - -[33] On the 23rd June 1900, almost while these words were being -written, the Han-lin College was burnt to the ground. The writer's -youngest son, Mr. Lancelot Giles, who went through the siege of Peking, -writes as follows:--"An attempt was made to save the famous _Yung Lo -Ta Tien_, but heaps of volumes had been destroyed, so the attempt was -given up. I secured vol. 13,345 for myself." - - - - -CHAPTER II - -NOVELS AND PLAYS - - -Novels were produced in considerable numbers under the Ming dynasty, -but the names of their writers, except in a very few cases, have -not been handed down. The marvellous work known as the _Ch'in P'ing -Mei_, from the names of three of the chief female characters, has -been attributed to the grave scholar and statesman, Wang Shih-cheng -(1526-1593); but this is more a guess than anything else. So also is -the opinion that it was produced in the seventeenth century, as a -covert satire upon the morals of the Court of the great Emperor K'ang -Hsi. The story itself refers to the early part of the twelfth century, -and is written in a simple, easy style, closely approaching the Peking -colloquial. It possesses one extraordinary characteristic. Many words -and phrases are capable of two interpretations, one of which is of a -class which renders such passages unfit for ears polite. Altogether the -book is objectionable, and would require a translator with the nerve of -a Burton. - - * * * * * - -The _Yue Chiao Li_ is a tale of the fifteenth century which has found -much favour in the eyes of foreigners, partly because it is of an -unusually moderate length. The ordinary Chinaman likes his novels long, -and does not mind plenty of repetitions after the style of Homer, -which latter feature seems to point in the direction of stories told by -word of mouth and written down later on, and may be taken in connection -with the opinion already expressed, that the Chinese novel came -originally from Central Asia. Here, however, in four small volumes, we -have a charming story of a young graduate who falls in love first with -a beautiful and accomplished poetess, and then with the fascinating -sister of a fascinating friend whose acquaintance--the brother's--he -makes casually by the roadside. The friend and the sister turn out to -be one and the same person, a very lively girl, who appears in male -or female dress as occasion may require; and what is more, the latter -young lady turns out to be the much-loved orphan cousin of the first -and still cherished young lady, and also her intellectual equal. The -graduate is madly in love with the two girls, and they are irrevocably -in love with him. This is a far simpler matter than it would be in -Western countries. The hero marries both, and all three live happily -ever afterwards. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE LIEH KUO CHUAN] - -The _Lieh Kuo Chuan_, anonymous as usual, is a historical novel dealing -with the exciting times of the Feudal States, and covering the period -between the eighth century B.C. and the union of China under -the First Emperor. It is introduced to the reader in these words:-- - -"The _Lieh Kuo_ is not like an ordinary novel, which consists mainly of -what is not true. Thus the _Feng Shen_ (a tale of the twelfth century -B.C.), the _Shui Hu_, the _Hsi Yu Chi_, and others, are pure -fabrications. Even the _San Kuo Chih_, which is very near to truth, -contains much that is without foundation. Not so the _Lieh Kuo_. There -every incident is a real incident, every speech a real speech. Besides, -as there is far more to tell than could possibly be told, it is not -likely that the writer would go out of his way to invent. Wherefore the -reader must look upon the _Lieh Kuo_ as a genuine history, and not as a -mere novel." - -The following extract refers to a bogus exhibition, planned by the -scheming State of Ch'in, nominally to make a collection of valuables -and hand them over as respectful tribute to the sovereign House of -Chou, but really with a view to a general massacre of the rival nobles -who stood in the way between the Ch'ins and their treasonable designs:-- - -"Duke Ai of Ch'in now proceeded with his various officers of State to -prepare a place for the proposed exhibition, at the same time setting -a number of armed men in ambuscade, with a view to carry out his -ambitious designs; and when he heard that the other nobles had arrived, -he went out and invited them to come in. The usual ceremonies over, and -the nobles having taken their seats according to precedence, Duke Ai -addressed the meeting as follows:-- - -"'I, having reverently received the commission of the Son of Heaven, -do hereby open this assembly for the exhibition of such valuables as -may be brought together from all parts of the empire, the same to be -subsequently packed together, and forwarded as tribute to our Imperial -master. And since you nobles are now all collected here in this place, -it is fitting that our several exhibits be forthwith produced and -submitted for adjudication.' - -"Sounds of assent from the nobles were heard at the conclusion of this -speech, but the Prime Minister of the Ch'i State, conscious that the -atmosphere was heavily laden with the vapour of death, as if from -treacherous ambush, stepped forward and said:-- - -"'Of old, when the nobles were wont to assemble, it was customary to -appoint one just and upright member to act as arbiter or judge of -the meeting; and now that we have thus met for the purposes of this -exhibition, I propose, in the interest of public harmony, that some one -of us be nominated arbiter in a similar way.' - -"Duke Ai readily agreed to the above proposition, and immediately -demanded of the assembled nobles who among them would venture to accept -the office indicated. These words were scarcely out of his mouth when -up rose Pien Chuang, generalissimo of the forces of Cheng, and declared -that he was ready to undertake the post. Duke Ai then asked him upon -what grounds, as to personal ability, he based his claim; to which Pien -Chuang replied, 'Of ability I have little indeed, but I have slain a -tiger with one blow of my fist, and in martial prowess I am second to -none. Upon this I base my claim.' - -"Accordingly, Duke Ai called for a golden tablet, and was on the point -of investing him as arbiter of the exhibition, when a voice was heard -from among the retainers of the Wu State, loudly urging, 'The slayer of -a tiger need be possessed only of physical courage; but how is that a -sufficient recommendation for this office? Delay awhile, I pray, until -I come and take the tablet myself.' - -"By this time Duke Ai had seen that the speaker was K'uai Hui, son of -the Duke of Wei, and forthwith inquired of him what his particular -claim to the post might be. 'I cut the head off a deadly dragon, and -for that feat I claim this post.' Duke Ai thereupon ordered Pien Chuang -to transfer to him the golden tablet; but this he refused to do, -arguing that the slaughter of a dragon was simply a magician's trick, -and not at all to the present purpose. He added that if the tablet was -to be taken from him, it would necessitate an appeal to force between -himself and his rival. The contest continued thus for some time, -until at length the Prime Minister of Ch'i rose again, and solved the -difficulty in the following terms:-- - -"'The slaughter of a tiger involves physical courage, and the slaughter -of a dragon is a magician's trick; hence, neither of these acts -embraces that combination of mental and physical power which we desire -in the arbiter of this meeting. Now, in front of the palace there -stands a sacrificial vessel which weighs about a thousand pounds. -Let Duke Ai give out a theme; and then let him who replies thereto -with most clearness and accuracy, and who can, moreover, seize the -aforesaid vessel, and carry it round the platform on which the eighteen -representative nobles are seated, be nominated to the post of arbiter -and receive the golden tablet.' - -"To this plan Duke Ai assented; and writing down a theme, bade his -attendants exhibit it among the heroes of the assembled States. The -theme was in rhyme, and contained these eight lines:-- - - '_Say what supports the sky; say what supports the earth; - What is the mystic number which to the universe gave birth? - Whence come the eddying waves of the river's rolling might? - Where shall we seek the primal germ of the mountain's towering height? - By which of the elements five is the work of Nature done? - And of all the ten thousand things that are, say which is the - wondrous ~one~? - Such are the questions seven which I now propound to you; - And he who can answer them straight and well is the trusty man - and true._' - -"The theme had hardly been uttered, when up started Chi Nien, -generalissimo of the Ch'in State, and cried out, 'This is but a -question of natural philosophy; what difficulty is there in it?' He -thereupon advanced to the front, and, having obtained permission to -compete, seized a stylus and wrote down the following reply:-- - - '_Nothing supports the sky; nothing supports the earth; - How can we guess at the number which to the universe gave birth? - From the reaches above come the eddying waves of the river's - rolling might: - How can we tell where to look for the germ of the mountain's towering - height? - By every one of the elements five is the work of Nature done; - And of all the ten thousand things that are there is no particular - ~one~. - There you have my replies to the questions set by you; - And the arbiter's post I hereby claim as the trusty man and true._' - -"Chi Nien, having delivered this answer, proceeded to tuck up his -robe, and, passing to the front of the palace, seized with both hands -the sacrificial vessel, and raised it some two feet from the ground, -his whole face becoming suffused with colour under the effort. At -the same time there arose a great noise of drums and horns, and all -the assembled nobles applauded loudly; whereupon Duke Ai personally -invested him with the golden tablet and proclaimed him arbiter of -the exhibition, for which Chi Nien was just about to return thanks, -when suddenly up jumped Wu Yuean, generalissimo of the Ch'u State, and -coming forward, declared in an angry tone that Chi Nien's answer did -not dispose of the theme in a proper and final manner; that he had not -removed the sacrificial vessel from its place, and that consequently he -had not earned the appointment which Wu Yuean now contended should be -bestowed upon himself. Duke Ai, in view of his scheme for seizing the -persons of the various nobles, was naturally anxious that the post of -arbiter should fall to one of his own officers, and was much displeased -at this attempt on the part of Wu Yuean; however, he replied that if -the latter could dispose of the theme and carry round the sacrificial -vessel, the office of arbiter would be his. Wu Yuean thereupon took a -stylus and indited the following lines:-- - - '_The earth supports the sky; the sky supports the earth. - ~Five~ is the mystic number which to the universe gave birth. - Down from the sky come the eddying waves of the river's rolling might. - In the K'un-lun range we must seek the germ of the mountain's towering - height. - By ~truth~, of the elements five, can most good work be done; - And of all the ten thousand things that are, ~man~ is the wondrous one. - There you have my replies to the questions set this day; - The answers are clear and straight to the point, and given without - delay._' - -"As soon as he had finished writing, he handed his reply to Duke Ai, -who at once saw that he had in every way disposed of the theme with -far greater skill than Chi Nien, and accordingly now bade him show -his strength upon the sacrificial vessel. Wu Yuean immediately stepped -forward, and, holding up his robe with his left hand, seized the vessel -with his right, raising it up and bearing it round the platform before -the assembled nobles, and finally depositing it in its original place, -without so much as changing colour. The nobles gazed at each other in -astonishment at this feat, and with one accord declared him to be the -hero of the day; so that Duke Ai had no alternative but to invest him -with the golden tablet and announce his appointment to the post of -arbiter." - -[Sidenote: THE CHING HUA YUeAN] - -The _Ching Hua Yuean_ is a less pretentious work than the preceding, but -of an infinitely more interesting character. Dealing with the reign -of the Empress Wu, who in A.D. 684 set aside the rightful -heir and placed herself upon the throne, which she occupied for -twenty years, this work describes how a young graduate, named T'ang, -disgusted with the establishment of examinations and degrees for women, -set out with a small party on a voyage of exploration. Among all the -strange places which they visited, the most curious was the Country of -Gentlemen, where they landed and proceeded at once to the capital city. - -"There, over the city gate, T'ang and his companions read the following -legend:-- - - '_Virtue is man's only jewel!_' - -"They then entered the city, which they found to be a busy and -prosperous mart, the inhabitants all talking the Chinese language. -Accordingly, T'ang accosted one of the passers-by, and asked him how it -was his nation had become so famous for politeness and consideration of -others; but, to his great astonishment, the man did not understand the -meaning of his question. T'ang then asked him why this land was called -the 'Country of Gentlemen,' to which he likewise replied that he did -not know. Several other persons of whom they inquired giving similar -answers, the venerable To remarked that the term had undoubtedly been -adopted by the inhabitants of adjacent countries, in consequence of -the polite manners and considerate behaviour of these people. 'For,' -said he, 'the very labourers in the fields and foot-passengers in the -streets step aside to make room for one another. High and low, rich and -poor, mutually respect each other's feelings without reference to the -wealth or social status of either; and this is, after all, the essence -of what constitutes the true gentleman.' - -"'In that case,' cried T'ang, 'let us not hurry on, but rather improve -ourselves by observing the ways and customs of this people.' - -"By and by they arrived at the market-place, where they saw an official -runner standing at a stall engaged in making purchases. He was holding -in his hand the articles he wished to buy, and was saying to the owner -of the stall, 'Just reflect a moment, sir, how impossible it would be -for me to take these excellent goods at the absurdly low price you are -asking. If you will oblige me by doubling the amount, I shall do myself -the honour of accepting them; otherwise, I cannot but feel that you are -unwilling to do business with me to-day.' - -"'How very funny!' whispered T'ang to his friends. 'Here, now, is quite -a different custom from ours, where the buyer invariably tries to beat -down the seller, and the seller to run up the price of his goods as -high as possible. This certainly looks like the 'consideration for -others' of which we spoke just now.' - -"The man at the stall here replied, 'Your wish, sir, should be law to -me, I know; but the fact is, I am already overwhelmed with shame at -the high price I have ventured to name. Besides, I do not profess to -adhere rigidly to 'marked prices,' which is a mere trick of the trade, -and consequently it should be the aim of every purchaser to make me -lower my terms to the very smallest figure; you, on the contrary, -are trying to raise the price to an exorbitant figure; and although -I fully appreciate your kindness in that respect, I must really ask -you to seek what you require at some other establishment. It is quite -impossible for me to execute your commands.' - -"T'ang was again expressing his astonishment at this extraordinary -reversal of the platitudes of trade, when the would-be purchaser -replied, 'For you, sir, to ask such a low sum for these first-class -goods, and then to turn round and accuse me of over-considering your -interests, is indeed a sad breach of etiquette. Trade could not be -carried on at all if all the advantages were on one side and the losses -on the other; neither am I more devoid of brains than the ordinary run -of people that I should fail to understand this principle and let you -catch me in a trap.' - -"So they went on wrangling and jangling, the stall-keeper refusing to -charge any more and the runner insisting on paying his own price, until -the latter made a show of yielding and put down the full sum demanded -on the counter, but took only half the amount of goods. Of course -the stall-keeper would not consent to this, and they would both have -fallen back upon their original positions had not two old gentlemen who -happened to be passing stepped aside and arranged the matter for them, -by deciding that the runner was to pay the full price but to receive -only four-fifths of the goods. - -"T'ang and his companions walked on in silence, meditating upon the -strange scene they had just witnessed; but they had not gone many steps -when they came across a soldier similarly engaged in buying things at -an open shop-window. He was saying, 'When I asked the price of these -goods, you, sir, begged me to take them at my own valuation; but now -that I am willing to do so, you complain of the large sum I offer, -whereas the truth is that it is actually very much below their real -value. Do not treat me thus unfairly.' - -"'It is not for me, sir,' replied the shopkeeper, 'to demand a price -for my own goods; my duty is to leave that entirely to you. But the -fact is, that these goods are old stock, and are not even the best of -their kind; you would do much better at another shop. However, let us -say half what you are good enough to offer; even then I feel I shall be -taking a great deal too much. I could not think, sir, of parting with -my goods at your price.' - -"'What is that you are saying, sir?' cried the soldier. 'Although not -in the trade myself, I can tell superior from inferior articles, and -am not likely to mistake one for the other. And to pay a low price for -a good article is simply another way of taking money out of a man's -pocket.' - -"'Sir,' retorted the shopkeeper, 'if you are such a stickler for -justice as all that, let us say half the price you first mentioned, and -the goods are yours. If you object to that, I must ask you to take your -custom elsewhere. You will then find that I am not imposing on you.' - -"The soldier at first stuck to his text, but seeing that the shopkeeper -was not inclined to give way, he laid down the sum named and began -to take his goods, picking out the very worst he could find. Here, -however, the shopkeeper interposed, saying, 'Excuse me, sir, but you -are taking all the bad ones. It is doubtless very kind of you to leave -the best for me, but if all men were like you there would be a general -collapse of trade.' - -"'Sir,' replied the soldier, 'as you insist on accepting only half -the value of the goods, there is no course open to me but to choose -inferior articles. Besides, as a matter of fact, the best kind will -not answer my purpose so well as the second or third best; and although -I fully recognise your good intentions, I must really ask to be allowed -to please myself.' - -"'There is no objection, sir,' said the shopkeeper, 'to your pleasing -yourself, but low-class goods are sold at a low price, and do not -command the same rates as superior articles.' - -"Thus they went on bandying arguments for a long time without coming to -any definite agreement, until at last the soldier picked up the things -he had chosen and tried to make off with them. The bystanders, however, -all cried shame upon him and said he was a downright cheat, so that he -was ultimately obliged to take some of the best kind and some of the -inferior kind and put an end to the altercation. - -"A little farther on our travellers saw a countryman who had just -paid the price of some purchases he had succeeded in making, and was -hurrying away with them, when the shopkeeper called after him, 'Sir! -sir! you have paid me by mistake in finer silver than we are accustomed -to use here, and I have to allow you a considerable discount in -consequence. Of course this is a mere trifle to a gentleman of your -rank and position, but still for my own sake I must ask leave to make -it all right with you.' - -"'Pray don't mention such a small matter,' replied the countryman, 'but -oblige me by putting the amount to my credit for use at a future date -when I come again to buy some more of your excellent wares.' - -"'No, no,' answered the shopkeeper, 'you don't catch old birds with -chaff. That trick was played upon me last year by another gentleman, -and to this day I have never set eyes upon him again, though I have -made every endeavour to find out his whereabouts. As it is, I can now -only look forward to repaying him in the next life; but if I let you -take me in in the same way, why, when the next life comes and I am -changed, maybe into a horse or a donkey, I shall have quite enough to -do to find him, and your debt will go dragging on till the life after -that. No, no, there is no time like the present; hereafter I might very -likely forget what was the exact sum I owed you.' - -"They continued to argue the point until the countryman consented to -accept a trifle as a set-off against the fineness of his silver, and -went away with his goods, the shopkeeper bawling after him as long -as he was in sight that he had sold him inferior articles at a high -rate, and was positively defrauding him of his money. The countryman, -however, got clear away, and the shopkeeper returned to his grumbling -at the iniquity of the age. Just then a beggar happened to pass, and so -in anger at having been compelled to take more than his due he handed -him the difference. 'Who knows,' said he, 'but that the present misery -of this poor fellow may be retribution for overcharging people in a -former life?' - -"'Ah,' said T'ang, when he had witnessed the finale of this little -drama, 'truly this is the behaviour of gentlemen!' - -"Our travellers then fell into conversation with two -respectable-looking old men who said they were brothers, and accepted -their invitation to go and take a cup of tea together. Their hosts -talked eagerly about China, and wished to hear many particulars of 'the -first nation in the world.' Yet, while expressing their admiration -for the high literary culture of its inhabitants and their unqualified -successes in the arts and sciences, they did not hesitate to stigmatise -as unworthy a great people certain usages which appeared to them -deserving of the utmost censure. They laughed at the superstitions of -Feng-Shui, and wondered how intelligent men could be imposed upon year -after year by the mountebank professors of such baseless nonsense. 'If -it is true,' said one of them, 'that the selection of an auspicious day -and a fitting spot for the burial of one's father or mother is certain -to bring prosperity to the survivors, how can you account for the fact -that the geomancers themselves are always a low, poverty-stricken -lot? Surely they would begin by appropriating the very best positions -themselves, and so secure whatever good fortune might happen to be in -want of an owner.' - -"Then again with regard to bandaging women's feet in order to reduce -their size. 'We can see no beauty,' said they, 'in such monstrosities -as the feet of your ladies. Small noses are usually considered more -attractive than large ones; but what would be said of a man who sliced -a piece off his own nose in order to reduce it within proper limits?' - -"And thus the hours slipped pleasantly away until it was time to bid -adieu to their new friends and regain their ship." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: P'ING SHAN LENG YEN] - -The _Chin Ku Ch'i Kuan_, or Marvellous Tales, Ancient and Modern, is a -great favourite with the romance-reading Chinaman. It is a collection -of forty stories said to have been written towards the close of -the Ming dynasty by the members of a society who held meetings for -that purpose. Translations of many, if not all, of these have been -published. The style is easy, very unlike that of the _P'ing Shan Leng -Yen_, a well-known novel in what would be called a high-class literary -style, being largely made up of stilted dialogue and over-elaborated -verse composed at the slightest provocation by the various characters -in the story. These were P'ing and Yen, two young students in love -with Shan and Leng, two young poetesses who charmed even more by their -literary talent than by their fascinating beauty. On one occasion a -pretended poet, named Sung, who was a suitor for the hand of Miss Leng, -had been entertained by her uncle, and after dinner the party wandered -about in the garden. Miss Leng was summoned, and when writing materials -had been produced, as usual on such occasions, Mr. Sung was asked to -favour the company with a sonnet. "Excuse me," he replied, "but I have -taken rather too much wine for verse-making just now." "Why," rejoined -Miss Leng, "it was after a gallon of wine that Li Po dashed off a -hundred sonnets, and so gained a name which will live for a thousand -generations." "Of course I could compose," said Mr. Sung, "even after -drinking, but I might become coarse. It is better to be fasting, and -to feel quite clear in the head. Then the style is more finished, and -the verse more pleasing." "Ts'ao Chih," retorted Miss Leng, "composed a -sonnet while taking only seven steps, and his fame will be remembered -for ever. Surely occasion has nothing to do with the matter." In the -midst of Mr. Sung's confusion, the uncle proposed that the former -should set a theme for Miss Leng instead, to which he consented, and on -looking about him caught sight through the open window of a paper kite, -which he forthwith suggested, hoping in his heart to completely puzzle -the sarcastic young lady. However, in the time that it takes to drink a -cup of tea, she had thrown off the following lines:-- - - "_Cunningly made to look like a bird, - It cheats fools and little children. - It has a body of bamboo, light and thin, - And flowers painted on it, as though something wonderful. - Blown by the wind it swaggers in the sky, - Bound by a string it is unable to move. - Do not laugh at its sham feet, - If it fell, you would see only a dry and empty frame._" - -All this was intended in ridicule of Mr. Sung himself and of his -personal appearance, and is a fair sample of what the reader may expect -throughout. - - * * * * * - -The _Erh Tou Mei_, or "Twice Flowering Plum-trees," belongs to the -sixteenth or seventeenth century, and is by an unknown author. It is -a novel with a purpose, being apparently designed to illustrate the -beauty of filial piety, the claims of friendship, and duty to one's -neighbour in general. Written in a simple style, with no wealth of -classical allusion to soothe the feelings of the pedant, it contains -several dramatic scenes, and altogether forms a good panorama of -Chinese everyday life. Two heroes are each in love with two heroines, -and just as in the _Yue Chiao Li_, each hero marries both. There is a -slender thread of fact running through the tale, the action of which -is placed in the eighth century, and several of the characters are -actually historical. One of the four lovely heroines, in order to -keep peace between China and the Tartar tribes which are continually -harrying the borders, decides to sacrifice herself on the altar of -patriotism and become the bride of the Khan. The parting at the -frontier is touchingly described; but the climax is reached when, -on arrival at her destination, she flings herself headlong over a -frightful precipice, rather than pass into the power of the hated -barbarian, a waiting-maid being dressed up in her clothes and handed -over to the unsuspecting Khan. She herself does not die. Caught upon -a purple cloud, she is escorted back to her own country by a bevy of -admiring angels. - -There is also an effective scene, from which the title of the book -is derived, when the plum trees, whose flowers had been scattered by -a storm of wind and rain, gave themselves up to fervent prayer. "The -Garden Spirit heard their earnest supplications, and announced them -to the Guardian Angel of the town, who straightway flew up to heaven -and laid them at the feet of God." The trees were then suffered to put -forth new buds, and soon bloomed again, more beautiful than ever. - - * * * * * - -The production of plays was well sustained through the Ming -dynasty, for the simple reason that the Drama, whether an exotic -or a development within the boundaries of the Middle Kingdom, had -emphatically come to stay. It had caught on, and henceforth forms -the ideal pastime of the cultured, reflective scholar, and of the -laughter-loving masses of the Chinese people. - -[Sidenote: KAO TSE-CH'ENG] - -The _P'i Pa Chi_, or "Story of the Guitar," stands easily at the head -of the list, being ranked by some admirers as the very finest of all -Chinese plays. It is variously arranged in various editions under -twenty-four or forty-two scenes; and many liberties have been taken -with the text, long passages having been interpolated and many other -changes made. It was first performed in 1704, and was regarded as a -great advance in the dramatic art upon the early plays of the Mongols. -The author's name was KAO TSE-CH'ENG, and his hero is said to -have been taken from real life in the person of a friend who actually -rose from poverty to rank and affluence. The following is an outline of -the plot. - -A brilliant young graduate and his beautiful wife are living, as is -customary, with the husband's parents. The father urges the son to go -to the capital and take his final degree. "At fifteen," says the old -man, "study; at thirty, act." The mother, however, is opposed to this -plan, and declares that they cannot get along without their son. She -tells a pitiful tale of another youth who went to the capital, and -after infinite suffering was appointed Master of a Workhouse, only to -find that his parents had already preceded him thither in the capacity -of paupers. The young man finally decides to do his duty to the Son of -Heaven, and forthwith sets off, leaving the family to the kind care of -a benevolent friend. He undergoes the examination, which in the play is -turned into ridicule, and comes out in the coveted position of Senior -Classic. The Emperor then instructs one of his Ministers to take the -Senior Classic as a son-in-law; but our hero refuses, on the ground, so -it is whispered, that the lady's feet are too large. The Minister is -then compelled to put on pressure, and the marriage is solemnised, this -part of the play concluding with an effective scene, in which on being -asked by his new wife to sing, our hero suggests such songs as "Far -from his True Love," and others in a similar style. Even when he agrees -to sing "The Wind through the Pines," he drops unwittingly into "Oh for -my home once more;" and then when recalled to his senses, he relapses -again into a song about a deserted wife. - -Meanwhile misfortunes have overtaken the family left behind. There -has been a famine, the public granaries have been discovered to be -empty instead of full, and the parents and wife have been reduced to -starvation. The wife exerts herself to the utmost, selling all her -jewels to buy food; and when at length, after her mother-in-law's -death, her father-in-law dies too, she cuts off her hair and tries -to sell it in order to buy a coffin, being prevented only by the old -friend who has throughout lent what assistance he could. The next thing -is to raise a tumulus over the grave. This she tries to do with her own -hands, but falls asleep from fatigue. The Genius of the Hills sees her -in this state, and touched by her filial devotion, summons the white -monkey of the south and the black tiger of the north, spirits who, with -the aid of their subordinates, complete the tumulus in less than no -time. On awaking, she recognises supernatural intervention, and then -determines to start for the capital in search of her husband, against -whom she entertains very bitter feelings. She first sets to work to -paint the portraits of his deceased parents, and then with these for -exhibition as a means of obtaining alms, and with her guitar, she takes -her departure. Before her arrival the husband has heard by a letter, -forged in order to get a reward, that his father and mother are both -well, and on their way to rejoin him. He therefore goes to a temple -to pray Buddha for a safe conduct, and there picks up the rolled-up -pictures of his father and mother which have been dropped by his wife, -who has also visited the temple to ask for alms. The picture is sent -unopened to his study. And now the wife, in continuing her search, -accidentally gains admission to her husband's house, and is kindly -received by the second wife. After a few misunderstandings the truth -comes out, and the second wife, who is in full sympathy with the first, -recommends her to step into the study and leave a note for the husband. -This note, in the shape of some uncomplimentary verses, is found by the -latter together with the pictures which have been hung up against the -wall; the second wife introduces the first; there is an explanation; -and the curtain, if there was such a thing in a Chinese theatre, would -fall upon the final happiness of the husband and his two wives. - -Of course, in the above sketch of a play, which is about as long as -one of Shakespeare's, a good many side-touches have been left out. Its -chief beauties, according to Chinese critics, are to be found in the -glorification of duty to the sovereign, of filial piety to a husband's -parents, and of accommodating behaviour on the part of the second wife -tending so directly to the preservation of peace under complicated -circumstances. The forged letter is looked upon as a weak spot, as -the hero would know his father's handwriting, and so with other -points which it has been suggested should be cut out. "But because a -stork's neck is too long," says an editor, "you can't very well remedy -the defect by taking a piece off." On the other hand, the pathetic -character of the play gives it a high value with the Chinese; for, as -we are told in the prologue, "it is much easier to make people laugh -than cry." And if we can believe all that is said on this score, every -successive generation has duly paid its tribute of tears to the _P'i Pa -Chi_. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -POETRY - - -[Sidenote: HSIEH CHIN] - -Though the poetry of the Ming dynasty shows little falling off, in -point of mere volume, there are far fewer great poets to be found -than under the famous Houses of T'ang and Sung. The name, however, -which stands first in point of chronological sequence, is one which -is widely known. HSIEH CHIN (1369-1415) was born when the -dynasty was but a year old, and took his final degree before he had -passed the age of twenty. His precocity had already gained for him the -reputation of being an Inspired Boy, and, later on, the Emperor took -such a fancy to him, that while Hsieh Chin was engaged in writing, his -Majesty would often deign to hold the ink-slab. He was President of the -Commission which produced the huge encyclopaedia already described, but -he is now chiefly known as the author of what appears to be a didactic -poem of about 150 lines, which may be picked up at any bookstall. It -is necessary to say "about 150 lines," since no two editions give -identically the same number of lines, or even the same text to each -line. It is also very doubtful if Hsieh Chin actually wrote such a -poem. In many editions, lines are boldly stolen from the early Han -poetry and pitchforked in without rhyme or reason, thus making the -transitions even more awkward than they otherwise would be. All -editors seem to be agreed upon the four opening lines, which state -that the Son of Heaven holds heroes in high esteem, that his Majesty -urges all to study diligently, and that everything in this world is -second-class, with the sole exception of book-learning. It is in fact -the old story that - - "_Learning is better than house or land; - For when house and land are gone and spent, - Then learning is most excellent._" - -Farther on we come to four lines often quoted as enumerating the four -greatest happinesses in life, to wit, - - "_A gentle rain after long drought, - Meeting an old friend in a foreign clime, - The joys of the wedding-day, - One's name on the list of successful candidates._" - -The above lines occur _a propos_ of nothing in particular, and are -closely followed in some editions by more precepts on the subject of -earnest application. Then after reading that the Classics are the best -fields to cultivate, we come upon four lines with a dash of real poetry -in them:-- - - "_Man in his youth-time's rosy glow, - The pink peach flowering in the glade.... - Why, yearly, when spring breezes blow, - Does each one flush a deeper shade?_" - -More injunctions to burn the midnight oil are again strangely followed -by a suggestion that three cups of wine induce serenity of mind, and -that if a man is but dead drunk, all his cares disappear, which is only -another way of saying that - - "_The best of life is but intoxication._" - -Altogether, this poem is clearly a patchwork, of which some parts may -have come from Hsieh Chin's pen. Here is a short poem of his in defence -of official venality, about which there is no doubt:-- - - "_In vain hands bent on sacrifice - or clasped in prayer we see; - The ways of God are not exactly - what those ways should be. - The swindler and the ruffian - lead pleasant lives enough, - While judgments overtake the good - and many a sharp rebuff. - The swaggering bully stalks along - as blithely as you please, - While those who never miss their prayers - are martyrs to disease. - And if great God Almighty fails - to keep the balance true, - What can we hope that paltry - mortal magistrates will do?_" - -The writer came to a tragic end. By supporting the claim of the eldest -prince to be named heir apparent, he made a lasting enemy of another -son, who succeeded in getting him banished on one charge, and then -imprisoned on a further charge. After four years' confinement he was -made drunk, probably without much difficulty, and was buried under a -heap of snow. - - * * * * * - -The Emperor who reigned between 1522 and 1566 as the eleventh of his -line was not a very estimable personage, especially in the latter years -of his life, when he spent vast sums over palaces and temples, and -wasted most of his time in seeking after the elixir of life. In 1539 -he despatched General Mao to put down a rising in Annam, and gave him -an autograph poem as a send-off. The verses are considered spirited -by Chinese critics, and are frequently given in collections, which -certainly would not be the case if Imperial authorship was their only -claim:-- - - "_Southward, in all the panoply - of cruel war arrayed, - See, our heroic general points - and waves his glittering blade! - Across the hills and streams - the lizard-drums terrific roll, - While glint of myriad banners - flashes high from pole to pole.... - Go, scion of the Unicorn, - and prove thy heavenly birth, - And crush to all eternity - these insects of the earth; - And when thou com'st, a conqueror, - from those wild barbarian lands, - WE will unhitch thy war-cloak - with our own Imperial hands!_" - -The courtesans of ancient and mediaeval China formed a class which now -seems no longer to exist. Like the _hetairae_ of Greece, they were often -highly educated, and exercised considerable influence. Biographies of -the most famous of these ladies are in existence, extending back to the -seventh century A.D. The following is an extract from that of -Hsieh Su-su, who flourished in the fourteenth century, and "with whom -but few of the beauties of old could compare":-- - -"Su-su's beauty was of a most refined style, with a captivating -sweetness of voice and grace of movement. She was a skilful artist, -sweeping the paper with a few rapid touches, which produced such -speaking effects that few, even of the first rank, could hope to excel -her work. She was a fine horsewoman, and could shoot from horseback -with a cross-bow. She would fire one pellet, and then a second, which -would catch up the first and smash it to atoms in mid-air. Or she would -throw a pellet on to the ground, and then grasping the cross-bow in her -left hand, with her right hand passed behind her back, she would let -fly and hit it, not missing once in a hundred times. She was also very -particular about her friends, receiving no one unless by his talents he -had made some mark in the world." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CHAO TS'AI-CHI--CHAO LI-HUA] - -The poetical effusions, and even plays, of many of these ladies have -been carefully preserved, and are usually published as a supplement to -any dynastic collection. Here is a specimen by CHAO TS'AI-CHI -(fifteenth century), of whom no biography is extant:-- - - "_The tide in the river beginning to rise, - Near the sad hour of parting, brings tears to our eyes; - Alas! that these furlongs of willow-strings gay - Cannot hold fast the boat that will soon be away!_" - -Another specimen, by a lady named CHAO LI-HUA (sixteenth -century), contains an attempt at a pun, which is rather lamely brought -out in the translation:-- - - "_Your notes on paper; rare to see, - Two flying joy-birds bear;[34] - Be like the birds and fly to me, - Not like the paper, rare!_" - -These examples sufficiently illustrate this small department of -literature, which, if deficient in work of real merit, at any rate -contains nothing of an indelicate character. - -A wild harum-scarum young man was FANG SHU-SHAO, who, like -many other Chinese poets, often took more wine than was good for him. -He was famed for his poetry, and also for his calligraphy, specimens of -his art being highly prized by collectors. In 1642, we are told, "he -was ill with his teeth;" and at length got into his coffin, which all -Chinese like to keep handy, and wrote a farewell to the world, resting -his paper on the edge of the coffin as he wrote. On completion of the -piece he laid himself down and died. Here are the lines:-- - - "_An eternal home awaits me; - shall I hesitate to go? - Or struggle for a few more hours - of fleeting life below? - A home wherein the clash of arms - I can never hear again! - And shall I strive to linger - in this thorny world of pain? - The breeze will soon blow cool o'er me, - and the bright moon shine o'erhead, - When blended with the gems of earth - I lie in my last bed. - My Pen and ink shall go with me - inside my funeral hearse, - So that if I've leisure 'over there' - I may soothe my soul with verse._" - -FOOTNOTE: - -[34] Chinese note-paper is ornamented with all kinds of pictures, which -sometimes cover the whole sheet. - - - - -BOOK THE EIGHTH - -_THE MANCHU DYNASTY_ (A.D. 1644-1900) - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE "LIAO CHAI"--THE "HUNG LOU MENG" - - -By 1644 the glories of the great Ming dynasty had departed. -Misgovernment, referred by Chinese writers to the ascendency of -eunuchs, had resulted in rebellion, and the rebel chief with a large -army was pressing upon the capital. On the 9th April Peking fell. -During the previous night the Emperor, who had refused to flee, slew -the eldest Princess, commanded the Empress to commit suicide, and sent -his three sons into hiding. At dawn the bell was struck for the Court -to assemble; but no one came. His Majesty then ascended the Wan Sui -Hill in the palace grounds, and wrote on the lapel of his robe a last -decree:--"We, poor in virtue and of contemptible personality, have -incurred the wrath of God on high. My Ministers have deceived me. I am -ashamed to meet my ancestors; and therefore I myself take off my crown, -and, with my hair covering my face, await dismemberment at the hands -of the rebels. Do not hurt a single one of my people!" He then hanged -himself, as did one faithful eunuch. At this juncture the Chinese -commander-in-chief made overtures to the Manchu Tartars, who had long -been consolidating their forces, and were already a serious menace to -China. An agreement was hurriedly entered into, and Peking was retaken. -The Manchus took possession definitively of the throne, which they had -openly claimed since 1635, and imposed the "pigtail" upon the Chinese -people. - -Here then was the great empire of China, bounded by the Four Seas, -and stretching to the confines of the habitable earth, except for a -few barbarian islands scattered on its fringe, with its refined and -scholarly people, heirs to a glorious literature more than twenty -centuries old, in the power of a wild race of herdsmen, whose title -had been established by skill in archery and horsemanship. Not much -was to be expected on behalf of the "humanities" from a people whose -own written language had been composed to order so late as 1599, and -whose literary instincts had still to be developed. Yet it may be said -without fear of contradiction that no age ever witnessed anything like -the extensive encouragement of literature and patronage of literary men -exhibited under the reigns of two Emperors of this dynasty. Of this, -however, in the next chapter. - -The literature of this dynasty may be said to begin with a writer who -was after all but a mere storyteller. It has already been stated that -novels and plays are not included by the Chinese in the domain of pure -literature. Such is the rule, to which there is in practice, if not in -theory, one very notable exception. - -[Sidenote: P'U SUNG-LING] - -P'U SUNG-LING, author of the _Liao Chai Chih I_, which may -be conveniently rendered by "Strange Stories," was born in 1622, and -took his first degree in 1641. Though an excellent scholar and a most -polished writer, he failed, as many other good men have done, to take -the higher degrees by which he had hoped to enter upon an official -career. It is generally understood that this failure was due to neglect -of the beaten track of academic study. At any rate, his disappointment -was overwhelming. All else that we have on record of P'u Sung-ling, -besides the fact that he lived in close companionship with several -eminent scholars of the day, is gathered from his own words, written -when, in 1679, he laid down his pen upon the completion of a task -which was to raise him within a short period to a foremost rank in the -Chinese world of letters. The following are extracts from this record:-- - -"Clad in wistaria, girdled with ivy,[35]--thus sang Ch'ue Yuean in -his _Li Sao_. Of ox-headed devils and serpent gods, he of the long -nails[36] never wearied to tell. Each interprets in his own way the -music of heaven; and whether it be discord or not, depends upon -antecedent causes. As for me, I cannot, with my poor autumn firefly's -light, match myself against the hobgoblins of the age.[37] I am but -the dust in the sunbeam, a fit laughing-stock for devils.[38] For my -talents are not those of Yue Pao,[39] elegant explorer of the records of -the gods; I am rather animated by the spirit of Su Tung-p'o, who loved -to hear men speak of the supernatural. I get people to commit what -they tell me to writing, and subsequently I dress it up in the form of -a story; and thus in the lapse of time my friends from all quarters -have supplied me with quantities of material, which, from my habit of -collecting, has grown into a vast pile. - -"When the bow[40] was hung at my father's door, he dreamed that a -sickly-looking Buddhist priest, but half-covered by his stole, entered -the chamber. On one of his breasts was a round piece of plaster like a -_cash_; and my father, waking from sleep, found that I, just born, had -a similar black patch on my body. As a child, I was thin and constantly -ailing, and unable to hold my own in the battle of life. Our home was -chill and desolate as a monastery; and working there for my livelihood -with my pen, I was as poor as a priest with his alms-bowl. Often and -often I put my hand to my head and exclaimed, 'Surely he who sat with -his face to the wall[41] was myself in a previous state of existence;' -and thus I referred my non-success in this life to the influence of a -destiny surviving from the last. I have been tossed hither and thither -in the direction of the ruling wind, like a flower falling in filthy -places; but the six paths[42] of transmigration are inscrutable indeed, -and I have no right to complain. As it is, midnight finds me with an -expiring lamp, while the wind whistles mournfully without; and over my -cheerless table I piece together my tales, vainly hoping to produce -a sequel to the _Infernal Regions_.[43] With a bumper I stimulate my -pen, yet I only succeed thereby in 'venting my excited feelings,' and -as I thus commit my thoughts to writing, truly I am an object worthy -of commiseration. Alas! I am but the bird that, dreading the winter -frost, finds no shelter in the tree, the autumn insect that chirps to -the moon and hugs the door for warmth. For where are they who know me? -They are 'in the bosky grove and at the frontier pass'[44]--wrapped in -an impenetrable gloom!" - -For many years these "Strange Stories" circulated only in manuscript. -P'u Sung-ling, as we are told in a colophon by his grandson to the -first edition, was too poor to meet the heavy expense of block-cutting; -and it was not until so late as 1740, when the author must have been -already for some time a denizen of the dark land he so much loved -to describe, that his aforesaid grandson printed and published the -collection now so universally famous. Since then many editions have -been laid before the Chinese public, the best of which is that by Tan -Ming-lun, a Salt Commissioner, who flourished during the reign of Tao -Kuang, and who in 1842 produced, at his own expense, an excellent -edition in sixteen small octavo volumes of about 160 pages each. - -Any reader of these stories as transferred into another language might -fairly turn round and ask the why and the wherefore of the profound -admiration--to use a mild term--which is universally accorded to them -by the literati of China. The answer is to be found in the incomparable -style in which even the meanest of them is arrayed. All the elements -of form which make for beauty in Chinese composition are there in -overwhelming force. Terseness is pushed to its extreme limits; each -particle that can be safely dispensed with is scrupulously eliminated, -and every here and there some new and original combination invests -perhaps a single word with a force it could never have possessed -except under the hands of a perfect master of his art. Add to the -above copious allusions and adaptations from a course of reading which -would seem to have been co-extensive with the whole range of Chinese -literature, a wealth of metaphor and an artistic use of figures -generally, to which only the writings of Carlyle form an adequate -parallel, and the result is a work which for purity and beauty of style -is now universally accepted in China as among the best and most perfect -models. Sometimes the story runs plainly and smoothly enough, but the -next moment we may be plunged into pages of abstruse text, the meaning -of which is so involved in quotations from and allusions to the poetry -or history of the past three thousand years as to be recoverable only -after diligent perusal of the commentary, and much searching in other -works of reference. - -Premising that, according to one editor, the intention of most -of these stories is to "glorify virtue and to censure vice," the -following story, entitled "The Talking Pupils," may be taken as a fair -illustration of the extent to which this pledge is redeemed:-- - -"At Ch'ang-an there lived a scholar named Fang Tung, who, though by no -means destitute of ability, was a very unprincipled rake, and in the -habit of following and speaking to any woman he might chance to meet. -The day before the spring festival of Clear Weather he was strolling -about outside the city when he saw a small carriage with red curtains -and an embroidered awning, followed by a crowd of waiting-maids on -horseback, one of whom was exceedingly pretty and riding on a small -palfrey. Going closer to get a better view, Mr. Fang noticed that the -carriage curtain was partly open, and inside he beheld a beautifully -dressed girl of about sixteen, lovely beyond anything he had ever -seen. Dazzled by the sight, he could not take his eyes off her, and -now before, now behind, he followed the carriage for many a mile. By -and by he heard the young lady call out to her maid, and, when the -latter came alongside, say to her, 'Let down the screen for me. Who is -this rude fellow that keeps on staring so?' The maid accordingly let -down the screen, and looking angrily at Mr. Fang, said to him, 'This -is the bride of the Seventh Prince in the City of Immortals going -home to see her parents, and no village girl that you should stare -at her thus.' Then taking a handful of dust she threw it at him and -blinded him. He rubbed his eyes and looked round, but the carriage and -horses were gone. This frightened him, and he went off home, feeling -very uncomfortable about the eyes. He sent for a doctor to examine -them, and on the pupils was found a small film, which had increased -by next morning, the eyes watering incessantly all the time. The film -went on growing, and in a few days was as thick as a _cash_. On the -right pupil there came a kind of spiral, and as no medicine was of any -avail, the sufferer gave himself up to grief and wished for death. He -then bethought himself of repenting of his misdeeds, and hearing that -the _Kuang-ming sutra_ could relieve misery, he got a copy and hired -a man to teach it to him. At first it was very tedious work, but by -degrees he became more composed, and spent every evening in a posture -of devotion, telling his beads. At the end of a year he had arrived at -a state of perfect calm, when one day he heard a small voice, about as -loud as a fly's, calling out from his left eye, 'It's horridly dark -in here.' To this he heard a reply from the right eye, saying, 'Let -us go out for a stroll, and cheer ourselves up a bit.' Then he felt -a wriggling in his nose which made it itch, just as if something was -going out of each of his nostrils, and after a while he felt it again -as if going the other way. Afterwards he heard a voice from one eye -say, 'I hadn't seen the garden for a long time; the epidendrums are all -withered and dead.' Now Mr. Fang was very fond of these epidendrums, -of which he had planted a great number, and had been accustomed to -water them himself, but since the loss of his sight he had never even -alluded to them. Hearing, however, these words, he at once asked his -wife why she had let the epidendrums die. She inquired how he knew -they were dead, and when he told her, she went out to see, and found -them actually withered away. They were both very much astonished at -this, and his wife proceeded to conceal herself in the room. She then -observed two tiny people, no bigger than a bean, come down from her -husband's nose and run out of the door, where she lost sight of them. -In a little while they came back and flew up to his face, like bees -or beetles seeking their nests. This went on for some days until Mr. -Fang heard from the left eye, 'This roundabout road is not at all -convenient. It would be as well for us to make a door.' To this the -right eye answered, 'My wall is too thick; it wouldn't be at all an -easy job.' 'I'll try and open mine,' said the left eye, 'and then it -will do for both of us.' Whereupon Mr. Fang felt a pain in his left -eye as if something was being split, and in a moment he found he could -see the tables and chairs in the room. He was delighted at this, and -told his wife, who examined his eye and discovered an opening in the -film, through which she could see the black pupil shining out beneath, -the eyeball itself looking like a cracked peppercorn. By next morning -the film had disappeared, and when his eye was closely examined it was -observed to contain two pupils. The spiral on the right eye remained as -before, and then they knew that the two pupils had taken up their abode -in one eye. Further, although Mr. Fang was still blind of one eye, the -sight of the other was better than that of the two together. From this -time he was more careful of his behaviour, and acquired in his part of -the country the reputation of a virtuous man." - - * * * * * - -To take another specimen, this time with a dash of humour in it. A -certain man, named Wang (_anglice_ Smith), decided to study Tao--in -other words, the black art--at a temple of the Taoist persuasion. The -priest, who seems to have had a touch of Squeers in his composition, -warned Wang that he would probably not be able to stand the training; -but on the latter insisting, the priest allowed him to join the other -novices, and then sent him to chop wood. He was kept at this task so -long that, although he managed to witness several extraordinary feats -of magical skill performed by the priest, he scarcely felt that he was -making progress himself. - -"After a time he could not stand it any longer; and as the priest -taught him no magical arts, he determined not to wait, but went to -him and said, 'Sir, I travelled many long miles for the benefit of -your instruction. If you will not teach me the secret of immortality, -let me, at any rate, learn some trifling trick, and thus soothe my -cravings for a knowledge of your art. I have now been here two or three -months, doing nothing but chop firewood, out in the morning and back -at night, work to which I was never accustomed in my own home.' 'Did I -not tell you,' replied the priest, 'that you would never support the -fatigue? To-morrow I will start you on your way home.' 'Sir,' said -Wang, 'I have worked for you a long time. Teach me some small art, that -my coming here may not have been wholly in vain.' 'What art?' asked -the priest. 'Well,' answered Wang, 'I have noticed that whenever you -walk about anywhere, walls and so on are no obstacle to you. Teach -me this, and I'll be satisfied.' The priest laughingly assented, and -taught Wang a formula which he bade him recite. When he had done so -he told him to walk through the wall; but Wang, seeing the wall in -front of him, didn't like to walk at it. As, however, the priest bade -him try, he walked quietly up to it and was there stopped. The priest -here called out, 'Don't go so slowly. Put your head down and rush at -it.' So Wang stepped back a few paces and went at it full speed; and -the wall yielding to him as he passed, in a moment he found himself -outside. Delighted at this, he went in to thank the priest, who told -him to be careful in the use of his power, or otherwise there would -be no response, handing him at the same time some money for his -expenses on the way. When Wang got home, he went about bragging of his -Taoist friends and his contempt for walls in general; but as his wife -disbelieved his story, he set about going through the performance as -before. Stepping back from the wall, he rushed at it full speed with -his head down; but coming in contact with the hard bricks, finished -up in a heap on the floor. His wife picked him up and found he had a -bump on his forehead as big as a large egg, at which she roared with -laughter; but Wang was overwhelmed with rage and shame, and cursed the -old priest for his base ingratitude." - - * * * * * - -Episodes with a familiar ring about them are often to be found embedded -in this collection. For instance:-- - -"She then became a dense column of smoke curling up from the ground, -when the priest took an uncorked gourd and threw it right into the -midst of the smoke. A sucking noise was heard, and the whole column was -drawn into the gourd; after which the priest corked it up closely and -put it in his pouch." - -Of such points the following story contains another good example:-- - -"A countryman was one day selling his pears in the market. They were -unusually sweet and fine flavoured, and the price he asked was high. -A Taoist priest in rags and tatters stopped at the barrow and begged -one of them. The countryman told him to go away, but as he did not do -so, he began to curse and swear at him. The priest said, 'You have -several hundred pears on your barrow; I ask for a single one, the loss -of which, sir, you would not feel. Why then get angry?' The lookers-on -told the countryman to give him an inferior one and let him go; but -this he obstinately refused to do. Thereupon the beadle of the place, -finding the commotion too great, purchased a pear and handed it to the -priest. The latter received it with a bow, and turning to the crowd -said, 'We who have left our homes and given up all that is dear to us, -are at a loss to understand selfish, niggardly conduct in others. Now -I have some exquisite pears which I shall do myself the honour to put -before you.' Here somebody asked, 'Since you have pears yourself why -don't you eat those?' 'Because,' replied the priest, 'I wanted one of -these pips to grow them from.' So saying he munched up the pear; and -when he had finished took a pip in his hand, unstrapped a pick from -his back, and proceeded to make a hole in the ground several inches -deep, wherein he deposited the pip, filling in the earth as before. He -then asked the bystanders for a little hot water to water it with, and -one among them who loved a joke fetched him some boiling water from a -neighbouring shop. The priest poured this over the place where he had -made the hole, and every eye was fixed upon him when sprouts were seen -shooting up, and gradually growing larger and larger. By and by there -was a tree with branches sparsely covered with leaves; then flowers, -and last of all fine, large, sweet-smelling pears hanging in great -profusion. These the priest picked and handed round to the assembled -crowd until all were gone, when he took his pick and hacked away for -a long time at the tree, finally cutting it down. This he shouldered, -leaves and all, and sauntered quietly away. Now from the very beginning -our friend the countryman had been amongst the crowd, straining his -neck to see what was going on, and forgetting all about his business. -At the departure of the priest he turned round and discovered that -every one of his pears was gone. He then knew that those the old fellow -had been giving away so freely were really his own pears. Looking -more closely at the barrow, he also found that one of the handles was -missing, evidently having been newly cut off. Boiling with rage, he set -out in pursuit of the priest, and just as he turned the corner he saw -the lost barrow-handle lying under the wall, being, in fact, the very -pear-tree that the priest had cut down. But there were no traces of the -priest, much to the amusement of the crowd in the market-place." - - * * * * * - -Here again is a scene, the latter part of which would almost justify -the belief that Mr. W. S. Gilbert was a student of Chinese, and had -borrowed some of his best points in "Sweethearts" from the author of -the _Liao Chai_:-- - -"Next day Wang strolled into the garden, which was of moderate size, -with a well-kept lawn and plenty of trees and flowers. There was also -an arbour consisting of three posts with a thatched roof, quite shut in -on all sides by the luxuriant vegetation. Pushing his way among the -flowers, Wang heard a noise from one of the trees, and looking up saw -Ying-ning, who at once burst out laughing and nearly fell down. 'Don't! -don't!' cried Wang, 'you'll fall!' Then Ying-ning came down, giggling -all the time, until, when she was near the ground, she missed her hold -and tumbled down with a run. This stopped her merriment, and Wang -picked her up, gently squeezing her hand as he did so. Ying-ning began -laughing again, and was obliged to lean against a tree for support, -it being some time before she was able to stop. Wang waited till she -had finished, and then drew the flower out of his sleeve and handed -it to her. 'It's dead,' said she; 'why do you keep it?' 'You dropped -it, cousin, at the Feast of Lanterns,' replied Wang, 'and so I kept -it.' She then asked him what was his object in keeping it, to which he -answered, 'To show my love, and that I have not forgotten you. Since -that day when we met I have been very ill from thinking so much of you, -and am quite changed from what I was. But now that it is my unexpected -good fortune to meet you, I pray you have pity on me.' 'You needn't -make such a fuss about a trifle,' replied she, 'and with your own -relatives too. I'll give orders to supply you with a whole basketful of -flowers when you go away.' Wang told her she did not understand, and -when she asked what it was she didn't understand, he said, 'I didn't -care for the flower itself; it was the person who picked the flower.' -'Of course,' answered she, 'everybody cares for their relations; -you needn't have told me that.' 'I wasn't talking about ordinary -relations,' said Wang, 'but about husbands and wives.' 'What's the -difference?' asked Ying-ning. 'Why,' replied Wang, 'husband and wife -are always together.' 'Just what I shouldn't like,' cried she, 'to be -always with anybody.'" - -The pair were ultimately united, and lived happily ever afterwards, -in spite of the fact that the young lady subsequently confessed that -she was the daughter of a fox, and exhibited supernatural powers. On -one occasion these powers stood her in good stead. Being very fond of -flowers, she went so far as to pick from a neighbour's tree. - -"One day the owner saw her, and gazed at her some time in rapt -astonishment; however, she didn't move, deigning only to laugh. The -gentleman was much smitten with her; and when she smilingly descended -the wall on her own side, pointing all the time with her finger to a -spot hard by, he thought she was making an assignation. So he presented -himself at nightfall at the same place, and sure enough Ying-ning was -there. Seizing her hand to tell his passion, he found that he was -grasping only a log of wood which stood against the wall; and the -next thing he knew was that a scorpion had stung him violently on the -finger. There was an end of his romance, except that he died of the -wound during the night." - - * * * * * - -In one of the stories a visitor at a temple is much struck by a fresco -painting containing the picture of a lovely girl picking flowers, -and stands in rapt admiration before it. Then he feels himself borne -gently into the painted wall, _a la_ "Alice through the Looking-glass," -and in the region beyond plays a part in a domestic drama, finally -marrying the heroine of the picture. But the presence of a mortal being -suspected by "a man in golden armour with a face as black as jet," he -was glad to make his way back again; and when he rejoined a friend who -had been waiting for him, they noticed that the girl in the picture now -wore her hair done up as a married woman. - -There is a Rip van Winkle story, with the pathetic return of the hero -to find, as the Chinese poet says-- - - "_City and suburb as of old, - But hearts that loved us long since cold._" - -There is a sea-serpent story, and a story of a big bird or rukh; also a -story about a Jonah, who, in obedience to an order flashed by lightning -on the sky when their junk was about to be swamped in a storm, was -transferred by his fellow-passengers to a small boat and cut adrift. So -soon as the unfortunate victim had collected his senses and could look -about him, he found that the junk had capsized and that every soul had -been drowned. - - * * * * * - -The following is an extract from a story in which a young student named -Liu falls in love with a girl named Feng-hsien, who was the daughter -of a fox, and therefore possessed of the miraculous powers which the -Chinese associate with that animal:-- - -"'But if you would really like to have something that has belonged to -me,' said she, 'you shall.' Whereupon she took out a mirror and gave -it to him, saying, 'Whenever you want to see me, you must look for -me in your books; otherwise I shall not be visible;' and in a moment -she had vanished. Liu went home very melancholy at heart; but when he -looked in the mirror, there was Feng-hsien standing with her back to -him, gazing, as it were, at some one who was going away, and about a -hundred paces from her. He then bethought himself of her injunctions, -and settled down to his studies, refusing to receive any visitors; and -a few days subsequently, when he happened to look in the mirror, there -was Feng-hsien, with her face turned towards him, and smiling in every -feature. After this, he was always taking out the mirror to look at -her. However, in about a month his good resolutions began to disappear, -and he once more went out to enjoy himself and waste his time as -before. When he returned home and looked in the mirror, Feng-hsien -seemed to be crying bitterly; and the day after, when he looked at her -again, she had her back turned towards him as on the day he received -the mirror. He now knew that it was because he had neglected his -studies, and forthwith set to work again with all diligence, until in -a month's time she had turned round once again. Henceforward, whenever -anything interrupted his progress, Feng-hsien's countenance became -sad; but whenever he was getting on well her sadness was changed to -smiles. Night and morning Liu would look at the mirror, regarding it -quite in the light of a revered preceptor, and in three years' time -he took his degree in triumph. 'Now,' cried he, 'I shall be able to -look Feng-hsien in the face.' And there sure enough she was, with -her delicately-pencilled arched eyebrows, and her teeth just showing -between her lips, as happy-looking as she could be, when, all of a -sudden, she seemed to speak, and Liu heard her say, 'A pretty pair we -make, I must allow,' and the next moment Feng-hsien stood by his side." - - * * * * * - -Here is a story of the nether world, a favourite theme with P'u -Sung-ling. It illustrates the popular belief that at death a man's -soul is summoned to Purgatory by spiritual lictors, who are even liable -to make mistakes. Cataleptic fits or trances give rise to many similar -tales about persons visiting the realms below and being afterwards -restored to life. - -"A man named Chang died suddenly, and was escorted at once by -devil-lictors into the presence of the King of Purgatory. His Majesty -turned to Chang's record of good and evil, and then, in great anger, -told the lictors they had brought the wrong man, and bade them take -him back again. As they left the judgment-hall, Chang persuaded his -escort to let him have a look at Purgatory, and accordingly the devils -conducted him through the nine sections, pointing out to him the Knife -Hill, the Sword Tree, and other objects of interest. By and by they -reached a place where there was a Buddhist priest hanging suspended in -the air, head downwards, by a rope through a hole in his leg. He was -shrieking with pain and longing for death; and when Chang approached, -lo! he saw that it was his own brother. In great distress, he asked -his guides the reason of this punishment, and they informed him that -the priest was suffering thus for collecting subscriptions on behalf -of his order, and then privately squandering the proceeds in gambling -and debauchery. 'Nor,' added they, 'will he escape this torment unless -he repents him of his misdeeds.' When Chang came round, he thought his -brother was already dead, and hurried off to the Hsing-fu monastery, to -which the latter belonged. As he went in at the door he heard a loud -shrieking, and on proceeding to his brother's room, he found him laid -up with a very bad abscess in his leg, the leg itself being tied up -above him to the wall, this being, as his brother informed him, the -only bearable position in which he could lie. Chang now told him what -he had seen in Purgatory, at which the priest was so terrified that he -at once gave up taking wine and meat, and devoted himself entirely to -religious exercises. In a fortnight he was well, and was known ever -afterwards as a most exemplary priest." - -Snatches of verse are to be found scattered about the pages of these -stories, enough to give a taste of the writer's quality without too -much boring the reader. These lines are much admired:-- - - "_With wine and flowers we chase the hours - In one eternal spring; - No moon, no light, to cheer the night-- - Thyself that ray must bring._" - -But we have seen perhaps enough of P'u Sung-ling. "If," as Han -Yue exclaimed, "there is knowledge after death," the profound and -widespread esteem in which this work is held by the literati of China -must indeed prove a soothing balm to the wounded spirit of the Last of -the Immortals. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE HUNG LOU MENG] - -The _Hung Lou Meng_, conveniently but erroneously known as "The Dream -of the Red Chamber," is the work referred to already as touching the -highest point of development reached by the Chinese novel. It was -probably composed during the latter half of the seventeenth century. -The name of its author is unknown. It is usually published in 24 vols. -octavo, containing 120 chapters, which average at the least 30 pages -each, making a grand total of about 4000 pages. No fewer than 400 -personages of more or less importance are introduced first and last -into the story, the plot of which is worked out with a completeness -worthy of Fielding, while the delineation of character--of so many -characters--recalls the best efforts of the greatest novelists of the -West. As a panorama of Chinese social life, in which almost every -imaginable feature is submitted in turn to the reader, the _Hung Lou -Meng_ is altogether without a rival. Reduced to its simplest terms, -it is an original and effective love story, written for the most part -in an easy, almost colloquial, style, full of humorous and pathetic -episodes of everyday human life, and interspersed with short poems of -high literary finish. The opening chapters, which are intended to form -a link between the world of spirits and the world of mortals, belong to -the supernatural; after that the story runs smoothly along upon earthly -lines, always, however, overshadowed by the near presence of spiritual -influences. Some idea of the novel as a whole may perhaps be gathered -from the following abstract. - -Four thousand six hundred and twenty-three years ago the heavens were -out of repair. So the Goddess of Works set to and prepared 36,501 -blocks of precious jade, each 240 feet square by 120 feet in depth. -Of these, however, she only used 36,500, and cast aside the single -remaining block upon one of the celestial peaks. - -This stone, under the process of preparation, had become as it were -spiritualised. It could expand or contract. It could move. It was -conscious of the existence of an external world, and it was hurt at not -having been called upon to accomplish its divine mission. - -One day a Buddhist and a Taoist priest, who happened to be passing -that way, sat down for a while to rest, and forthwith noticed the -disconsolate stone which lay there, no bigger than the pendant of a -lady's fan. "Indeed, my friend, you are not wanting in spirituality," -said the Buddhist priest to the stone, as he picked it up and -laughingly held it forth upon the palm of his hand. "But we cannot be -certain that you will ever prove to be of any real use; and, moreover, -you lack an inscription, without which your destiny must necessarily -remain unfulfilled." Thereupon he put the stone in his sleeve and rose -to proceed on his journey. - -"And what, if I may ask," inquired his companion, "do you intend to do -with the stone you are thus carrying away?" - -"I mean," replied the other, "to send it down to earth, to play its -allotted part in the fortunes of a certain family now anxiously -expecting its arrival. You see, when the Goddess of Works rejected -this stone, it used to fill up its time by roaming about the heavens, -until chance brought it alongside of a lovely crimson flower. Being -struck with the great beauty of this flower, the stone remained there -for some time, tending its _protegee_ with the most loving care, and -daily moistening its roots with the choicest nectar of the sky, until -at length, yielding to the influence of disinterested love, the flower -changed its form and became a most beautiful girl. - -"'Dear stone,' cried the girl, in her new-found ecstasy of life, 'the -moisture thou hast bestowed upon me here I will repay thee in our -future state with my tears!'" - -Ages afterwards, another priest, in search of light, saw this self-same -stone lying in its old place, but with a record inscribed upon it--a -record of how it had not been used to repair the heavens, and how -it subsequently went down into the world of mortals, with a full -description of all it did, and saw, and heard while in that state. - -"Brother Stone," said the priest, "your record is not one that deals -with the deeds of heroes among men. It does not stir us with stories -either of virtuous statesmen or of deathless patriots. It seems to be -but a simple tale of the loves of maidens and youths, hardly important -enough to attract the attention of the great busy world." - -"Sir Priest," replied the stone, "what you say is indeed true; and -what is more, my poor story is adorned by no rhetorical flourish nor -literary art. Still, the world of mortals being what it is, and its -complexion so far determined by the play of human passion, I cannot but -think that the tale here inscribed may be of some use, if only to throw -a further charm around the banquet hour, or to aid in dispelling those -morning clouds which gather over last night's excess." - -Thereupon the priest looked once more at the stone, and saw that it -bore a plain unvarnished tale of-- - - "_Beauty and anguish walking hand in hand - The downward slope to death_," - -telling how a woman's artless love had developed into deep, destroying -passion; and how from the thrall of a lost love one soul had been -raised to a sublimer, if not a purer conception of man's mission upon -earth. He therefore copied it out from beginning to end. Here it is:-- - -Under a dynasty which the author leaves unnamed, two brothers had -greatly distinguished themselves by efficient service to the State. In -return, they had been loaded with marks of Imperial favour. They had -been created nobles of the highest rank. They had amassed wealth. The -palaces assigned to them were near together in Peking, and there their -immediate descendants were enjoying the fruits of ancestral success -when this story opens. The brothers had each a son and heir; but at the -date at which we are now, fathers and sons had all four passed away. -The wife of one of the sons only was still alive, a hale and hearty old -lady of about eighty years of age. Of her children, one was a daughter. -She had married and gone away south, and _her_ daughter, Tai-yue, is the -heroine of this tale. The son of the old lady's second son and first -cousin to Tai-yue is the hero, living with his grandmother. His name is -Pao-yue. - -The two noble families were now at the very zenith of wealth and power. -Their palatial establishments were replete with every luxury. Feasting -and theatricals were the order of the day, and, to crown all, Pao-yue's -sister had been chosen to be one of the seventy-two wives allotted to -the Emperor of China. No one stopped to think that human events are -governed by an inevitable law of change. He who is mighty to-day shall -be lowly to-morrow: the rich shall be made poor, and the poor rich. -Or if any one, more thoughtful than the rest, did pause awhile in -knowledge of the appointments of Heaven, he was fain to hope that the -crash would not come, at any rate, in his own day. - -Things were in this state when Tai-yue's mother died, and her father -decided to place his motherless daughter under the care of her -grandmother at Peking. Accompanied by her governess, the young lady set -out at once for the capital, and reached her destination in safety. It -is not necessary to dwell upon her beauty nor upon her genius, though -both are minutely described in the original text. Suffice it to say -that during the years which have elapsed since she first became known -to the public, many brave men are said to have died for love of this -entrancing heroine of fiction. - -Tai-yue was received most kindly by all. Especially so by her -grandmother, who shed bitter tears of sorrow over the premature death -of Tai-yue's mother, her lost and favourite child. She was introduced -to her aunts and cousins, and cousins and aunts, in such numbers that -the poor girl must have wondered how ever she should remember all -their names. Then they sat down and talked. They asked her all about -her mother, and how she fell ill, and what medicine she took, and how -she died and was buried, until the old grandmother wept again. "And -what medicine do you take, my dear?" asked the old lady, seeing that -Tai-yue herself seemed very delicate, and carried on her clear cheek a -suspicious-looking flush. - -"Oh, I have done nothing ever since I could eat," replied Tai-yue, "but -take medicine of some kind or other. I have also seen all the best -doctors, but they have not done me any particular good. When I was only -three years of age, a nasty old priest came and wanted my parents to -let me be a nun. He said it was the only way to save me." - -"Oh, we will soon cure you here," said her grandmother, smiling. "We -will make you well in no time." - -Tai-yue was then taken to see more of her relatives, including her aunt, -the mother of Pao-yue, who warned her against his peculiar temper, which -she said was very uncertain and variable. "What! the one with the -jade?" asked Tai-yue. "But we shall not be together," she immediately -added, somewhat surprised at this rather unusual warning. "Oh yes, you -will," said her aunt. "He is dreadfully spoilt by his grandmother, who -allows him to have his own way in everything. Instead of being hard at -work, as he ought to be by now, he idles away his time with the girls, -thinking only how he can enjoy himself, without any idea of making a -career or adding fresh lustre to the family name. Beware of him, I tell -you." - -The dinner-hour had now arrived, and after the meal Tai-yue was -questioned as to the progress she had made in her studies. She was -already deep in the mysteries of the Four Books, and it was agreed on -all sides that she was far ahead of her cousins, when suddenly a noise -was heard outside, and in came a most elegantly dressed youth about a -year older than Tai-yue, wearing a cap lavishly adorned with pearls. His -face was like the full autumn moon. His complexion like morning flowers -in spring. Pencilled eyebrows, a well-cut shapely nose, and eyes -like rippling waves were among the details which went to make up an -unquestionably handsome exterior. Around his neck hung a curious piece -of jade; and as soon as Tai-yue became fully conscious of his presence, -a thrill passed through her delicate frame. She felt that somewhere or -other she had looked upon that face before. - -Pao-yue--for it was he--saluted his grandmother with great respect, and -then went off to see his mother; and while he is absent it may be as -well to say a few words about the young gentleman's early days. - -Pao-yue, a name which means Precious Jade, was so called because he was -born, to the great astonishment of everybody, with a small tablet of -jade in his mouth--a beautifully bright mirror-like tablet, bearing a -legend inscribed in the quaint old style of several thousand years ago. -A family consultation resulted in a decision that this stone was some -divine talisman, the purpose of which was not for the moment clear, but -was doubtless to be revealed by and by. One thing was certain. As this -tablet had come into the world with the child, so it should accompany -him through life; and accordingly Pao-yue was accustomed to wear it -suspended around his neck. The news of this singular phenomenon spread -far and wide. Even Tai-yue had heard of it long before she came to take -up her abode with the family. - -And so Pao-yue grew up, a wilful, wayward boy. He was a bright, clever -fellow and full of fun, but very averse to books. He declared, in fact, -that he could not read at all unless he had as fellow-students a young -lady on each side of him, to keep his brain clear! And when his father -beat him, as was frequently the case, he would cry out, "Dear girl! -dear girl!" all the time, in order, as he afterwards explained to his -cousins, to take away the pain. Women, he argued, are made of water, -with pellucid mobile minds, while men are mostly made of mud, mere -lumps of uninformed clay. - -By this time he had returned from seeing his mother and was formally -introduced to Tai-yue. "Ha!" cried he, "I have seen her before -somewhere. What makes her eyes so red? Indeed, cousin Tai-yue, we shall -have to call you Cry-baby if you cry so much." Here some reference was -made to his jade tablet, and this put him into an angry mood at once. -None of his cousins had any, he said, and he was not going to wear his -any more. A family scene ensued, during which Tai-yue went off to bed -and cried herself to sleep. - -Shortly after this, Pao-yue's mother's sister was compelled by -circumstances to seek a residence in the capital. She brought with her -a daughter, Pao-ch'ai, another cousin to Pao-yue, but about a year -older than he was; and besides receiving a warm welcome, the two were -invited to settle themselves comfortably down in the capacious family -mansion of their relatives. Thus it was that destiny brought Pao-yue and -his two cousins together under the same roof. - -The three soon became fast friends. Pao-ch'ai had been carefully -educated by her father, and was able to hold her own even against the -accomplished Tai-yue. Pao-yue loved the society of either or both. He -was always happy so long as he had a pretty girl by his side, and was, -moreover, fascinated by the wit of these two young ladies in particular. - -He had, however, occasional fits of moody depression, varied by -discontent with his superfluous worldly surroundings. "In what am I -better," he would say, "than a wallowing hog? Why was I born and bred -amid this splendid magnificence of wealth, instead of in some coldly -furnished household where I could have enjoyed the pure communion of -friends? These silks and satins, these rich meats and choice wines, of -what avail are they to this perishable body of mine? O wealth! O power! -I curse you both, ye cankerworms of my earthly career." - -All these morbid thoughts, however, were speedily dispelled by the -presence of his fair cousins, with whom, in fact, Pao-yue spent most of -the time he ought to have devoted to his books. He was always running -across to see either one or other of these young ladies, or meeting -both of them in general assembly at his grandmother's. It was at a -_tete-a-tete_ with Pao-ch'ai that she made him show her his marvellous -piece of jade, with the inscription, which she read as follows:-- - - "_Lose me not, forget me not, - Eternal life shall be thy lot._" - -The indiscretion of a slave-girl here let Pao-yue become aware that -Pao-ch'ai herself possessed a wonderful gold amulet, upon which also -were certain words inscribed; and of course Pao-yue insisted on seeing -it at once. On it was written-- - - "_Let not this token wander from thy side, - And youth perennial shall with thee abide._" - -In the middle of this interesting scene, Tai-yue walks in, and seeing -how intimately the two are engaged, "hopes she doesn't intrude." But -even in those early days the ring of her voice betrayed symptoms of -that jealousy to which later on she succumbed. Meanwhile she almost -monopolises the society of Pao-yue, and he, on his side, finds himself -daily more and more attracted by the sprightly mischievous humour of -the beautiful Tai-yue, as compared with the quieter and more orthodox -loveliness of Pao-ch'ai. Pao-ch'ai does not know what jealousy -means. She too loves to bandy words, exchange verses, or puzzle over -conundrums with her mercurial cousin; but she never allows her thoughts -to wander towards him otherwise than is consistent with the strictest -maidenly reserve. - -Not so Tai-yue. She had been already for some time Pao-yue's chief -companion when they were joined by Pao-ch'ai. She had come to regard -the handsome boy almost as a part of herself, though not conscious of -the fact until called upon to share his society with another. And so -it was that although Pao-yue showed an open preference for herself, she -still grudged the lesser attentions he paid to Pao-ch'ai. As often as -not these same attentions originated in an irresistible impulse to -tease. Pao-yue and Tai-yue were already lovers in so far that they were -always quarrelling; the more so, that their quarrels invariably ended, -as they should end, in the renewal of love. As a rule, Tai-yue fell back -upon the _ultima ratio_ of all women--tears; and of course Pao-yue, who -was not by any means wanting in chivalry, had no alternative but to -wipe them away. On one particular occasion, Tai-yue declared that she -would die; upon which Pao-yue said that in that case he would become a -monk and devote his life to Buddha; but in this instance it was he who -shed the tears and she who had to wipe them away. - -All this time Tai-yue and Pao-ch'ai were on terms of scrupulous -courtesy. Tai-yue's father had recently died, and her fortunes now -seemed to be bound up more closely than ever with those of the family -in which she lived. She had a handsome gold ornament given her to -match Pao-ch'ai's amulet, and the three young people spent their days -together, thinking only how to get most enjoyment out of every passing -hour. Sometimes, however, a shade of serious thought would darken -Tai-yue's moments of enforced solitude; and one day Pao-yue surprised her -in a secluded part of the garden, engaged in burying flowers which had -been blown down by the wind, while singing the following lines:-- - - "_Flowers fade and fly, - and flying fill the sky; - Their bloom departs, their perfume gone, - yet who stands pitying by? - And wandering threads of gossamer - on the summer-house are seen, - And falling catkins lightly dew-steeped - strike the embroidered screen. - A girl within the inner rooms, - I mourn that spring is done, - A skein of sorrow binds my heart, - and solace there is none. - I pass into the garden, - and I turn to use my hoe, - Treading o'er fallen glories - as I lightly come and go. - There are willow-sprays and flowers of elm, - and these have scent enow, - I care not if the peach and plum - are stripped from every bough. - The peach-tree and the plum-tree too - next year may bloom again, - But next year, in the inner rooms, - tell me, shall I remain? - By the third moon new fragrant nests - shall see the light of day, - New swallows flit among the beams, - each on its thoughtless way. - Next year once more they'll seek their food - among the painted flowers, - But I may go, and beams may go, - and with them swallow bowers. - Three hundred days and sixty make - a year, and therein lurk - Daggers of wind and swords of frost - to do their cruel work. - How long will last the fair fresh flower - which bright and brighter glows? - One morn its petals float away, - but whither no one knows. - Gay blooming buds attract the eye, - faded they're lost to sight; - Oh, let me sadly bury them - beside these steps to-night! - Alone, unseen, I seize my hoe, - with many a bitter tear; - They fall upon the naked stem - and stains of blood appear. - The night-jar now has ceased to mourn, - the dawn comes on apace, - I seize my hoe and close the gates, - leaving the burying-place; - But not till sunbeams fleck the wall - does slumber soothe my care, - The cold rain pattering on the pane - as I lie shivering there. - You wonder that with flowing tears - my youthful cheek is wet; - They partly rise from angry thoughts, - and partly from regret. - Regret--that spring comes suddenly; - anger--it cannot last, - No sound to herald its approach, - or warn us that 'tis past. - Last night within the garden - sad songs were faintly heard, - Sung, as I knew, by spirits, - spirits of flower and bird. - We cannot keep them here with us, - these much-loved birds and flowers, - They sing but for a season's space, - and bloom a few short hours. - Ah! would that I on feathered wing - might soar aloft and fly, - With flower spirits I would seek - the confines of the sky. - But high in air - What grave is there?[45] - No, give me an embroidered bag - wherein to lay their charms, - And Mother Earth, pure Mother Earth, - shall hide them in her arms. - Thus those sweet forms which spotless came - shall spotless go again, - Nor pass besmirched with mud and filth - along some noisome drain. - Farewell, dear flowers, for ever now, - thus buried as 'twas best, - I have not yet divined when I - with you shall sink to rest. - I who can bury flowers like this - a laughing-stock shall be; - I cannot say in days to come - what hands shall bury me. - See how when spring begins to fail - each opening flow'ret fades; - So too there is a time of age - and death for beauteous maids; - And when the fleeting spring is gone, - and days of beauty o'er, - Flowers fall, and lovely maidens die, - and both are known no more._" - -Meanwhile, Pao-yue's father had received an appointment which took him -away to a distance, the consequence being that life went on at home in -a giddier round than usual. Nothing the old grandmother liked better -than a picnic or a banquet--feasting, in fact, of some kind, with -plenty of wine and mirth. But now, somehow or other, little things -were always going wrong. In every pot of ointment the traditional fly -was sure to make its appearance; in every sparkling goblet a bitter -something would always bubble up. Money was not so plentiful as it -had been, and there seemed to be always occurring some unforeseen -drain upon the family resources. Various members of one or other -of the two grand establishments get into serious trouble with the -authorities. Murder, suicide, and robbery happen upon the premises. -The climax of prosperity had been reached and the hour of decadence -had arrived. Still all went merry as a marriage-bell, and Pao-yue and -Tai-yue continued the agreeable pastime of love-making. In this they -were further favoured by circumstances. Pao-ch'ai's mother gave up -the apartments which had been assigned to her, and went to live in -lodgings in the city, of course taking Pao-ch'ai with her. Some time -previous to this, a slave-girl had casually remarked to Pao-yue that her -young mistress, Tai-yue, was about to leave and go back again to the -south. Pao-yue fainted on the spot, and was straightway carried off and -put to bed. He bore the departure of Pao-ch'ai with composure. He could -not even hear of separation from his beloved Tai-yue. - -And she was already deeply in love with him. Long, long ago her -faithful slave-girl had whispered into her ear the soft possibility -of union with her cousin. Day and night she thought about Pao-yue, and -bitterly regretted that she had now neither father nor mother on whom -she could rely to effect the object that lay nearest to her heart. -One evening, tired out under the ravages of the great passion, she -flung herself down, without undressing, upon a couch to sleep. But -she had hardly closed her eyes ere her grandmother and a whole bevy -of aunts and cousins walked in to offer, as they said, their hearty -congratulations. Tai-yue was astonished, and asked what on earth their -congratulations meant; upon which it was explained to her that her -father had married again, and that her stepmother had arranged for her -a most eligible match, in consequence of which she was to leave for -home immediately. With floods of tears Tai-yue entreated her grandmother -not to send her away. She did not want to marry, and she would rather -become a slave-girl at her grandmother's feet than fall in with the -scheme proposed. She exhausted every argument, and even invoked the -spirit of her dead mother to plead her cause; but the old lady was -obdurate, and finally went away, saying that the arrangement would -have to be carried out. Then Tai-yue saw no escape but the one last -resource of all; when at that moment Pao-yue entered, and with a smile -on his face began to offer her _his_ congratulations too. - -"Thank you, cousin," cried she, starting up and seizing him rudely by -the arm. "Now I know you for the false, fickle creature you are!" - -"What is the matter, dear girl?" inquired Pao-yue in amazement. "I was -only glad for your sake that you had found a lover at last." - -"And what lover do you think I could ever care to find now?" rejoined -Tai-yue. - -"Well," replied Pao-yue, "I should of course wish it to be myself. I -consider you indeed mine already; and if you think of the way I have -always behaved towards you ..." - -"What!" said Tai-yue, partly misunderstanding his words, "can it be you -after all? and do you really wish me to remain with you?" - -"You shall see with your own eyes," answered Pao-yue, "even into the -inmost recesses of my heart, and then perhaps you will believe." - -Thereupon he drew a knife, and plunging it into his body, ripped -himself open so as to expose his heart to view. With a shriek Tai-yue -tried to stay his hand, and felt herself drenched with the flow of -fresh warm blood; when suddenly Pao-yue uttered a loud groan, and crying -out, "Great heaven, my heart is gone!" fell senseless to the ground. -"Help! help!" screamed Tai-yue; "he is dying! he is dying!" "Wake up! -wake up!" said Tai-yue's maid; "whatever has given you nightmare like -this?" - -So Tai-yue waked up and found that she had had a bad dream. But she had -something worse than that. She had a bad illness to follow; and strange -to say, Pao-yue was laid up at the same time. The doctor came and felt -her pulse--both pulses, in fact--and shook his head, and drank a cup of -tea, and said that Tai-yue's vital principle wanted nourishment, which -it would get out of a prescription he then and there wrote down. As to -Pao-yue, he was simply suffering from a fit of temporary indigestion. - -So Tai-yue got better, and Pao-yue recovered his spirits. His father -had returned home, and he was once more obliged to make some show of -work, and consequently had fewer hours to spend in the society of -his cousin. He was now a young man, and the question of his marriage -began to occupy a foremost place in the minds of his parents and -grandmother. Several names were proposed, one especially by his father; -but it was finally agreed that it was unnecessary to go far afield -to secure a fitting bride. It was merely a choice between the two -charming young ladies who had already shared so much in his daily life. -But the difficulty lay precisely there. Where each was perfection it -became invidious to choose. In another famous Chinese novel, already -described, a similar difficulty is got over in this way--the hero -marries both. Here, however, the family elders were distracted by rival -claims. By their gentle, winning manners, Pao-ch'ai and Tai-yue had -made themselves equally beloved by all the inmates of these two noble -houses, from the venerable grandmother down to the meanest slave-girl. -Their beauty was of different styles, but at the bar of man's opinion -each would probably have gained an equal number of votes. Tai-yue was -undoubtedly the cleverer of the two, but Pao-ch'ai had better health; -and in the judgment of those with whom the decision rested, health -carried the day. It was arranged that Pao-yue was to marry Pao-ch'ai. - -This momentous arrangement was naturally made in secret. Various -preliminaries would have to be gone through before a verbal promise -could give place to formal betrothal. And it is a well-ascertained -fact that secrets can only be kept by men, while this one was confided -to at least a dozen women. Consequently, one night when Tai-yue was -ill and alone in her room, yearning for the love that had already -been contracted away to another, she heard two slave-girls outside -whispering confidences, and fancied she caught Pao-yue's name. She -listened again, and this time without doubt, for she heard them say -that Pao-yue was engaged to marry a lady of good family and many -accomplishments. Just then a parrot called out, "Here's your mistress: -pour out the tea!" which frightened the slave-girls horribly; and they -forthwith separated, one of them running inside to attend upon Tai-yue -herself. She finds her young mistress in a very agitated state, but -Tai-yue is always ailing now. - -This time she was seriously ill. She ate nothing. She was racked by a -dreadful cough. Even a Chinese doctor could now hardly fail to see that -she was far advanced in a decline. But none knew that the sickness of -her body had originated in sickness of the heart. - -One night she grew rapidly worse and worse, and lay to all appearances -dying. A slave-girl ran to summon her grandmother, while several others -remained in the room talking about Pao-yue and his intended marriage. -"It was all off," said one of them. "His grandmother would not agree -to the young lady chosen by his father. She had already made her -own choice--of another young lady who lives in the family, and of -whom we are all very fond." The dying girl heard these words, and it -then flashed across her that after all she must herself be the bride -intended for Pao-yue. "For if not I," argued she, "who can it possibly -be?" Thereupon she rallied as it were by a supreme effort of will, and, -to the great astonishment of all, called for a drink of tea. Those who -had come expecting to see her die were now glad to think that her youth -might ultimately prevail. - -So Tai-yue got better once more; but only better, not well. For the -sickness of the soul is not to be cured by drugs. Meanwhile, an event -occurred which for the time being threw everything else into the shade. -_Pao-yue lost his jade tablet._ After changing his clothes, he had -forgotten to put it on, and had left it lying upon his table. But when -he sent to fetch it, it was gone. A search was instituted high and low, -without success. The precious talisman was missing. No one dared tell -his grandmother and face the old lady's wrath. As to Pao-yue himself, -he treated the matter lightly. Gradually, however, a change came over -his demeanour. He was often absent-minded. At other times his tongue -would run away with him, and he talked nonsense. At length he got so -bad that it became imperative to do something. So his grandmother had -to be told. Of course she was dreadfully upset, but she made a move in -the right direction, and offered an enormous reward for its recovery. -The result was that within a few days the reward was claimed. But -in the interval the tablet seemed to have lost much of its striking -brilliancy; and a closer inspection showed it to be in reality nothing -more than a clever imitation. This was a crushing disappointment -to all. Pao-yue's illness was increasing day by day. His father had -received another appointment in the provinces, and it was eminently -desirable that Pao-yue's marriage should take place previous to his -departure. The great objection to hurrying on the ceremony was that -the family were in mourning. Among other calamities which had befallen -of late, the young lady in the palace had died, and her influence at -Court was gone. Still, everything considered, it was deemed advisable -to solemnise the wedding without delay. Pao-yue's father, little as -he cared for the character of his only son, had been greatly shocked -at the change which he now saw. A worn, haggard face, with sunken, -lack-lustre eyes; rambling, inconsequent talk--this was the heir in -whom the family hopes were centred. The old grandmother, finding that -doctors were of little avail, had even called in a fortune-teller, who -said pretty much what he was wanted to say, viz., that Pao-yue should -marry some one with a golden destiny to help him on. - -So the chief actors in the tragedy about to be enacted had to be -consulted at last. They began with Pao-ch'ai, for various reasons; -and she, like a modest, well-bred maiden, received her mother's -commands in submissive silence. Further, from that day she ceased -to mention Pao-yue's name. With Pao-yue, however, it was a different -thing altogether. His love for Tai-yue was a matter of some notoriety, -especially with the slave-girls, one of whom even went so far as to -tell his mother that his heart was set upon marrying her whom the -family had felt obliged to reject. It was therefore hardly doubtful how -he would receive the news of his betrothal to Pao-ch'ai; and as in his -present state of health the consequences could not be ignored, it was -resolved to have recourse to stratagem. So the altar was prepared, and -naught remained but to draw the bright death across the victim's throat. - -In the short time which intervened, the news was broken to Tai-yue in an -exceptionally cruel manner. She heard by accident in conversation with -a slave-girl in the garden that Pao-yue was to marry Pao-ch'ai. The poor -girl felt as if a thunderbolt had pierced her brain. Her whole frame -quivered beneath the shock. She turned to go back to her room, but half -unconsciously followed the path that led to Pao-yue's apartments. Hardly -noticing the servants in attendance, she almost forced her way in, and -stood in the presence of her cousin. He was sitting down, and he looked -up and laughed a foolish laugh when he saw her enter; but he did not -rise, and he did not invite her to be seated. Tai-yue sat down without -being asked, and without a word spoken on either side. And the two -sat there, and stared and leered at each other, until they both broke -out into wild delirious laughter, the senseless crazy laughter of the -madhouse. "What makes you ill, cousin?" asked Tai-yue, when the first -burst of their dreadful merriment had subsided. "I am in love with -Tai-yue," he replied; and then they both went off into louder screams of -laughter than before. - -At this point the slave-girls thought it high time to interfere, and, -after much more laughing and nodding of heads, Tai-yue was persuaded to -go away. She set off to run back to her own room, and sped along with a -newly acquired strength. But just as she was nearing the door, she was -seen to fall, and the terrified slave-girl who rushed to pick her up -found her with her mouth full of blood. - -By this time all formalities have been gone through and the wedding day -is fixed. It is not to be a grand wedding, but of course there must be -a trousseau. Pao-ch'ai sometimes weeps, she scarcely knows why; but -preparations for the great event of her life leave her, fortunately, -very little leisure for reflection. Tai-yue is in bed, and, but for -a faithful slave-girl, alone. Nobody thinks much about her at this -juncture; when the wedding is over she is to receive a double share of -attention. - -One morning she makes the slave-girl bring her all her poems and -various other relics of the happy days gone by. She turns them over -and over between her thin and wasted fingers until finally she -commits them all to the flames. The effort is too much for her, and -the slave-girl in despair hurries across to the grandmother's for -assistance. She finds the whole place deserted, but a moment's thought -reminds her that the old lady is doubtless with Pao-yue. So thither she -makes her way as fast as her feet can carry her, only, however, to be -still further amazed at finding the rooms shut up, and no one there. -Utterly confused, and not knowing what to make of these unlooked-for -circumstances, she is about to run back to Tai-yue's room, when to -her great relief she espies a fellow-servant in the distance, who -straightway informs her that it is Pao-yue's wedding-day, and that he -had moved into another suite of apartments. And so it was. Pao-yue had -joyfully agreed to the proposition that he should marry his cousin, for -he had been skilfully given to understand that the cousin in question -was Tai-yue. And now the much wished-for hour had arrived. The veiled -bride, accompanied by the very slave-girl who had long ago escorted her -from the south, alighted from her sedan-chair at Pao-yue's door. The -wedding march was played, and the young couple proceeded to the final -ceremony of worship, which made them irrevocably man and wife. Then, as -is customary upon such occasions, Pao-yue raised his bride's veil. For -a moment he seemed as though suddenly turned into stone, as he stood -there speechless and motionless, with fixed eyes gazing upon a face he -had little expected to behold. Meanwhile, Pao-ch'ai retired into an -inner apartment; and then, for the first time, Pao-yue found his voice. - -"Am I dreaming?" cried he, looking round upon his assembled relatives -and friends. - -"No, you are married," replied several of those nearest to him. "Take -care; your father is outside. He arranged it all." - -"Who was that?" said Pao-yue, with averted head, pointing in the -direction of the door through which Pao-ch'ai had disappeared. - -"It was Pao-ch'ai, your wife..." - -"Tai-yue, you mean; Tai-yue is my wife," shrieked he, interrupting them; -"I want Tai-yue! I want Tai-yue! Oh, bring us together, and save us -both!" Here he broke down altogether. Thick sobs choked his further -utterance, until relief came in a surging flood of tears. - -All this time Tai-yue was dying, dying beyond hope of recall. She knew -that the hour of release was at hand, and she lay there quietly waiting -for death. Every now and again she swallowed a teaspoonful of broth, -but gradually the light faded out of her eyes, and the slave-girl, -faithful to the last, felt that her young mistress's fingers were -rapidly growing cold. At that moment, Tai-yue's lips were seen to move, -and she was distinctly heard to say, "O Pao-yue, Pao-yue..." Those words -were her last. - -Just then, breaking in upon the hushed moments which succeed -dissolution, sounds of far-off music were borne along upon the breeze. -The slave-girl crept stealthily to the door, and strained her ear to -listen; but she could hear nothing save the soughing of the wind as it -moaned fitfully through the trees. - -But the bridegroom himself had already entered the valley of the dark -shadow. Pao-yue was very ill. He raved and raved about Tai-yue, until -at length Pao-ch'ai, who had heard the news, took upon herself the -painful task of telling him she was already dead. "Dead?" cried Pao-yue, -"dead?" and with a loud groan he fell back upon the bed insensible. A -darkness came before his eyes, and he seemed to be transported into -a region which was unfamiliar to him. Looking about, he saw some one -advancing towards him, and immediately called out to the stranger to be -kind enough to tell him where he was. "You are on the road to the next -world," replied the man; "but your span of life is not yet complete, -and you have no business here." Pao-yue explained that he had come in -search of Tai-yue, who had lately died; to which the man replied that -Tai-yue's soul had already gone back to its home in the pure serene. -"And if you would see her again," added the man, "return to your duties -upon earth. Fulfil your destiny there, chasten your understanding, -nourish the divinity that is within you, and you may yet hope to meet -her once more." The man then flung a stone at him and struck him over -the heart, which so frightened Pao-yue that he turned to retrace his -steps. At that moment he heard himself loudly called by name; and -opening his eyes, saw his mother and grandmother standing by the side -of his bed. - -They had thought that he was gone, and were overjoyed at seeing him -return to life, even though it was the same life as before, clouded -with the great sorrow of unreason. For now they could always hope; and -when they saw him daily grow stronger and stronger in bodily health, -it seemed that ere long even his mental equilibrium might be restored. -The more so that he had ceased to mention Tai-yue's name, and treated -Pao-ch'ai with marked kindness and respect. - -All this time the fortunes of the two grand families are sinking from -bad to worse. Pao-yue's uncle is mixed up in an act of disgraceful -oppression; while his father, at his new post, makes the foolish -endeavour to be an honest incorrupt official. He tries to put his -foot down upon the system of bribery which prevails, but succeeds -only in getting himself recalled and impeached for maladministration -of affairs. The upshot of all this is that an Imperial decree is -issued confiscating the property and depriving the families of their -hereditary rank. Besides this, the lineal representatives are to be -banished; and within the walls which have been so long sacred to mirth -and merrymaking, consternation now reigns supreme. "O high Heaven," -cries Pao-yue's father, as his brother and nephew start for their place -of banishment, "that the fortunes of our family should fall like this!" - -Of all, perhaps the old grandmother felt the blow most severely. -She had lived for eighty-three years in affluence, accustomed to -the devotion of her children and the adulation of friends. But now -money was scarce, and the voice of flattery unheard. The courtiers of -prosperous days forgot to call, and even the servants deserted at their -posts. And so it came about that the old lady fell ill, and within a -few days was lying upon her death-bed. She spoke a kind word to all, -except to Pao-ch'ai. For her she had only a sigh, that fate had linked -her with a husband whose heart was buried in the grave. So she died, -and there was a splendid funeral, paid for out of funds raised at the -pawnshop. Pao-ch'ai appeared in white; and among the flowers which were -gathered around the bier, she was unanimously pronounced to be the -fairest blossom of all. - -Then other members of the family die, and Pao-yue relapses into a -condition as critical as ever. He is in fact at the point of death, -when a startling announcement restores him again to consciousness. A -Buddhist priest is at the outer gate, and he has brought back Pao-yue's -lost tablet of jade. There was, of course, great excitement on all -sides; but the priest refused to part with the jade until he had got -the promised reward. And where now was it possible to raise such a sum -as that, and at a moment's notice? Still it was felt that the tablet -must be recovered at all costs. Pao-yue's life depended on it, and he -was the sole hope of the family. So the priest was promised his reward, -and the jade was conveyed into the sick-room. But when Pao-yue clutched -it in his eager hand, he dropped it with a loud cry and fell back -gasping upon the bed. - -In a few minutes Pao-yue's breathing became more and more distressed, -and a servant ran out to call in the priest, in the hope that something -might yet be done. The priest, however, had disappeared, and by this -time Pao-yue had ceased to breathe. - -Immediately upon the disunion of body and soul which mortals call -death, the spirit of Pao-yue set off on its journey to the Infinite, led -by a Buddhist priest. Just then a voice called out and said that Tai-yue -was awaiting him, and at that moment many familiar faces crowded round -him, but as he gazed at them in recognition, they changed into grinning -goblins. At length he reached a spot where there was a beautiful -crimson flower in an enclosure, so carefully tended that neither bees -nor butterflies were allowed to settle upon it. It was a flower, he was -told, which had been to fulfil a mission upon earth, and had recently -returned to the Infinite. He was now taken to see Tai-yue. A bamboo -screen which hung before the entrance to a room was raised, and there -before him stood his heart's idol, his lost Tai-yue. Stretching forth -his hands, he was about to speak to her, when suddenly the screen was -hastily dropped. The priest gave him a shove, and he fell backwards, -awaking as though from a dream. - -Once more he had regained a new hold upon life; once more he had -emerged from the very jaws of death. This time he was a changed man. -He devoted himself to reading for the great public examination, in -the hope of securing the much coveted degree of Master of Arts. -Nevertheless, he talks little, and seems to care less, about the -honours and glory of this world; and what is stranger than all, he -appears to have very much lost his taste for the once fascinating -society of women. For a time he seems to be under the spell of a -religious craze, and is always arguing with Pao-ch'ai upon the -advantages of devoting one's life to the service of Buddha. But shortly -before the examination he burned all the books he had collected which -treated of immortality and a future state, and concentrated every -thought upon the great object before him. - -At length the day comes, and Pao-yue, accompanied by a nephew who -is also a candidate, prepares to enter the arena. His father was -away from home. He had gone southwards to take the remains of the -grandmother and of Tai-yue back to their ancestral burying-ground. So -Pao-yue first goes to take leave of his mother, and she addresses to -him a few parting words, full of encouragement and hope. Then Pao-yue -falls upon his knees, and implores her pardon for all the trouble -he has caused her. "I can only trust," he added, "that I shall -now be successful, and that you, dear mother, will be happy." And -then amid tears and good wishes, the two young men set out for the -examination-hall, where, with several thousand other candidates, they -are to remain for some time immured. - -The hours and days speed apace, full of arduous effort to those within, -of anxiety to those without. At last the great gates are thrown wide -open, and the vast crowd of worn-out, weary students bursts forth, -to meet the equally vast crowd of eager, expectant friends. In the -crush that ensues, Pao-yue and his nephew lose sight of each other, and -the nephew reaches home first. There the feast of welcome is already -spread, and the wine-kettles are put to the fire. So every now and -again somebody runs out to see if Pao-yue is not yet in sight. But the -time passes and he comes not. Fears as to his personal safety begin -to be aroused, and messengers are sent out in all directions. Pao-yue -is nowhere to be found. The night comes and goes. The next day and -the next day, and still no Pao-yue. He has disappeared without leaving -behind him the faintest clue to his whereabouts. Meanwhile, the list of -successful candidates is published, and Pao-yue's name stands seventh -on the list. His nephew has the 130th place. What a triumph for the -family, and what rapture would have been theirs, but for the mysterious -absence of Pao-yue. - -Thus their joy was shaded by sorrow, until hope, springing eternal, -was unexpectedly revived. Pao-yue's winning essay had attracted the -attention of the Emperor, and his Majesty issued an order for the -writer to appear at Court. An Imperial order may not be lightly -disregarded; and it was fervently hoped by the family that by these -means Pao-yue might be restored to them. This, in fact, was all that was -wanting now to secure the renewed prosperity of the two ancient houses. -The tide of events had set favourably at last. Those who had been -banished to the frontier had greatly distinguished themselves against -the banditti who ravaged the country round about. There was Pao-yue's -success and his nephew's; and above all, the gracious clemency of the -Son of Heaven. Free pardons were granted, confiscated estates were -returned. The two families basked again in the glow of Imperial favour. -Pao-ch'ai was about to become a mother; the ancestral line might be -continued after all. But Pao-yue, where was he? That remained a mystery -still, against which even the Emperor's mandate proved to be of no -avail. - -It was on his return journey that Pao-yue's father heard of the success -and disappearance of his son. Torn by conflicting emotions he hurried -on, in his haste to reach home and aid in unravelling the secret of -Pao-yue's hiding-place. One moonlight night, his boat lay anchored -alongside the shore, which a storm of the previous day had wrapped in -a mantle of snow. He was sitting writing at a table, when suddenly, -through the half-open door, advancing towards him over the bow of the -boat, his silhouette sharply defined against the surrounding snow, he -saw the figure of a shaven-headed Buddhist priest. The priest knelt -down, and struck his head four times upon the ground, and then, -without a word, turned back to join two other priests who were awaiting -him. The three vanished as imperceptibly as they had come; before, -indeed, the astonished father was able to realise that he had been, for -the last time, face to face with Pao-yue! - -FOOTNOTES: - -[35] Said of the bogies of the hills, in allusion to their _clothes_. -Here quoted with reference to the official classes, in ridicule of the -title under which they hold posts which, from a literary point of view, -they are totally unfit to occupy. - -[36] A poet of the T'ang dynasty, whose eyebrows met, whose nails were -very long, and who could write very fast. - -[37] This is another hit at the ruling classes. Hsi K'ang, the -celebrated poet, musician, and alchemist (A.D. 223-262), -was sitting one night alone, playing upon his lute, when suddenly a -man with a tiny face walked in, and began to stare hard at him, the -stranger's face enlarging all the time. "I'm not going to match myself -against a devil!" cried the musician after a few moments, and instantly -blew out the light. - -[38] When Liu Chuean, Governor of Wu-ling, determined to relieve his -poverty by trade, he saw a devil standing by his side, laughing -and rubbing its hands for glee. "Poverty and wealth are matters of -destiny," said Liu Chuean, "but to be laughed at by a devil--," and -accordingly he desisted from his intention. - -[39] A writer who flourished in the early part of the fourth century, -and composed a work in thirty books, entitled "Supernatural Researches." - -[40] The birth of a boy was formerly signalled by hanging a bow at the -door; that of a girl, by displaying a small towel--indicative of the -parts that each would hereafter play in the drama of life. - -[41] Alluding to the priest Dharma-nandi, who came from India to China, -and tried to convert the Emperor Wu Ting of the Liang dynasty; but -failing in his attempt, he retired full of mortification to a temple -at Sung-shan, where he sat for nine years before a rock, until his own -image was imprinted thereon. - -[42] The six _gati_ or conditions of existence, viz., angels, men, -demons, hungry devils, brute beasts, and tortured sinners. - -[43] The work of a well-known writer, named Lin I-ch'ing, who -flourished during the Sung dynasty. - -[44] The great poet Tu Fu dreamt that his greater predecessor, Li -T'ai-po, appeared to him, "coming when the maple-grove was in darkness, -and returning while the frontier pass was still obscured,"--that is, -at night, when no one could see him; the meaning being that he never -came at all, and that those "who know me (P'u Sung-ling)" are equally -non-existent. - -[45] These two lines are short in the original. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE EMPERORS K'ANG HSI AND CH'IEN LUNG - - -The second Emperor of the Manchu dynasty, known to the world by his -year-title K'ANG HSI, succeeded to the throne in 1662 when he -was only eight years of age, and six years later he took up the reins -of government. Fairly tall and well-proportioned, he loved all manly -exercises and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright -eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with small-pox. Contemporary -observers vie in praising his wit, understanding, and liberality of -mind. Indefatigable in government, he kept a careful watch on his -Ministers, his love for the people leading him to prefer economy to -taxation. He was personally frugal, yet on public works he would lavish -large sums. He patronised the Jesuits, whom he employed in surveying -the empire, in astronomy, and in casting cannon; though latterly he -found it necessary to impose restrictions on their propagandism. In -spite of war and rebellion, which must have encroached seriously upon -his time, he found leisure to initiate and carry out, with the aid -of the leading scholars of the day, several of the greatest literary -enterprises the world has ever seen. The chief of these are (1) the -_K'ang Hsi Tzu Tien_, the great standard dictionary of the Chinese -language; (2) the _P'ei Wen Yuen Fu_, a huge concordance to all -literature, bound up in forty-four large closely-printed volumes; -(3) the _P'ien Tzu Lei P'ien_, a similar work, with a different -arrangement, bound up in thirty-six large volumes; (4) the _Yuean Chien -Lei Han_, an encyclopaedia, bound up in forty-four volumes; and (5) -the _T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng_, a profusely illustrated encyclopaedia, in -1628 volumes of about 200 pages to each. To the above must be added -a considerable collection of literary remains, in prose and verse, -which, of course, were actually the Emperor's own work. It cannot be -said that any of these remains are of a high order, or are familiar -to the public at large, with a single and trifling exception. The -so-called Sacred Edict is known from one end of China to the other. It -originally consisted of sixteen moral maxims delivered in 1670 under -the form of an edict by the Emperor K'ang Hsi. His Majesty himself had -just reached the mature age of sixteen. He had then probably discovered -that men's morals were no longer what they had been in the days of -"ancient kings," and with boyish earnestness he made a kindly effort -to do something for the people whose welfare was destined to be for so -many years to come his chief and most absorbing care. The maxims are -commonplace enough, but for the sake of the great Emperor who loved his -"children" more than himself they have been exalted into utterances -almost divine. Here are the first, seventh, and eleventh maxims, as -specimens: - -"Pay great attention to filial piety and to brotherly obedience, in -order to give due weight to human relationships." - -"Discard strange doctrines, in order to glorify the orthodox teaching." - -"Educate your sons and younger brothers, in order to hinder them from -doing what is wrong." - -K'ang Hsi died in 1722, after completing a full cycle of sixty years -as occupant of the Dragon Throne. His son and successor, Yung Cheng, -caused one hundred picked scholars to submit essays enlarging upon the -maxims of his father, and of these the sixteen best were chosen, and in -1724 it was enacted that they should be publicly read to the people on -the 1st and 15th of each month in every city and town in the empire. -This law is still in force. Subsequently, the sixteen essays were -paraphrased into easy colloquial; and now the maxims, the essays, and -the paraphrase, together make up a volume which may be roughly said to -contain the whole duty of man. - -[Sidenote: CH'IEN LUNG] - -In 1735 the Emperor Yung Cheng died, and was succeeded by his fourth -son, who reigned as CH'IEN LUNG. An able ruler, with an -insatiable thirst for knowledge, and an indefatigable administrator, he -rivals his grandfather's fame as a sovereign and a patron of letters. -New editions of important historical works and of encyclopaedias were -issued by Imperial order, and under the superintendence of the Emperor -himself. In 1772 there was a general search for all literary works -worthy of preservation, and ten years later a voluminous collection of -these was published, embracing many rare books taken from the great -encyclopaedia of the Emperor Yung Lo. A descriptive catalogue of the -Imperial Library, containing 3460 works arranged under the four heads -of Classics, History, Philosophy, and General Literature, was drawn -up in 1772-1790. It gives the history of each work, which is also -criticised. The vastness of this catalogue led to the publication of -an abridgment, which omits all works not actually preserved in the -Library. The personal writings of this Emperor are very voluminous. -They consist of a general collection containing a variety of notes on -current or ancient topics, prefaces to books, and the like, and also of -a collection of poems. Of these last, those produced between 1736 and -1783 were published, and reached the almost incredible total of 33,950 -separate pieces. It need hardly be added that nearly all are very -short. Even thus the output must be considered a record, apart from the -fact that during the reign there was a plentiful supply both of war -and rebellion. Burmah and Nepaul were forced to pay tribute; Chinese -supremacy was established in Tibet; and Kuldja and Kashgaria were added -to the empire. In 1795, on completing a cycle of sixty years of power, -the Emperor abdicated in favour of his son, and three years later he -died. - -His Majesty's poetry, though artificially correct, was mediocre enough. -The following stanza, "On Hearing the Cicada," is a good example, -conforming as it does to all the rules of versification, but wanting in -that one feature which makes the "stop-short" what it is, viz., that -"although the words end, the sense still goes on":-- - - "_The season is a month behind - in this land of northern breeze, - When first I hear the harsh cicada - shrieking through the trees. - I look, but cannot mark its form - amid the foliage fair,-- - Naught but a flash of shadow - which goes flitting here and there._" - -Here, instead of being carried away into some suggested train of -thought, the reader is fairly entitled to ask "What then?" - -The following is a somewhat more spirited production. It is a song -written by Ch'ien Lung, to be inserted and sung in a play entitled -"Picking up Gold," by a beggar who is fortunate enough to stumble -across a large nugget:-- - - "_A brimless cap of felt stuck on my head; - No coat,--a myriad-patchwork quilt instead; - In my hand a bamboo staff; - Hempen sandals on my feet; - As I slouch along the street, - 'Pity the poor beggar,' to the passers-by I call, - Hoping to obtain broken food and dregs of wine. - Then when night's dark shadows fall, - Oh merrily, Oh merrily I laugh, - Drinking myself to sleep, sheltered in some old shrine._ - - _Black, black, the clouds close round on every side; - White, white, the gossamer flakes fly far and wide. - Ai-yah! is't jade that sudden decks the eaves? - With silver tiles meseems the streets are laid. - Oh, in what glorious garb Nature's arrayed, - Displaying fairy features on a lovely face! - But stay! the night is drawing on apace; - Nothing remains my homeward track to guide; - See how the feathered snow weighs down the palm-tree leaves!_ - - _I wag my head and clap my hands, ha! ha! - I clap my hands and wag my head, ha! ha! - There in the drift a lump half-sunken lies; - The beggar's luck has turned up trumps at last! - O gold!--for thee dear relatives will part, - Dear friends forget their hours of friendship past, - Husband and wife tear at each other's heart, - Father and son sever life's closest ties; - For thee, the ignoble thief all rule and law defies._ - - _What men of this world most adore is gold; - The devils deep in hell the dross adore; - Where gold is there the gods are in its wake. - Now shall I never more produce the snake; - Stand begging where the cross-roads meet no more; - Or shiver me to sleep in the rush hut, dank and cold; - Or lean against the rich or poor man's door. - Away my yellow bowl, my earthen jar! - See, thus I rend my pouch and hurl my gourd afar!_ - - _An official hat and girdle I shall wear, - And this shrunk shank in boots with pipeclayed soles encase; - On fete and holiday how jovial I shall be, - Joining my friends in the tavern or the tea-shop o'er their tea; - Swagger, swagger, swagger, with such an air and grace. - Sometimes a sleek steed my 'Excellence' will bear; - Or in a sedan I shall ride at ease, - One servant with my hat-box close behind the chair, - While another on his shoulders carries my valise._" - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CLASSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE--POETRY - - -Foremost among the scholars of the present dynasty stands the name of -KU CHIANG (1612-1681). Remaining faithful to the Mings after -their final downfall, he changed his name to Ku Yen-wu, and for a long -time wandered about the country in disguise. He declined to serve under -the Manchus, and supported himself by farming. A profound student, it -is recorded that in his wanderings he always carried about with him -several horse-loads of books to consult whenever his memory might be at -fault. His writings on the Classics, history, topography, and poetry -are still highly esteemed. To foreigners he is best known as the author -of the _Jih Chih Lu_, which contains his notes, chiefly on the Classics -and history, gathered during a course of reading which extended over -thirty years. He also wrote many works upon the ancient sounds and -rhymes. - - * * * * * - -CHU YUNG-SHUN (1617-1689) was delicate as a child, and his mother -made him practise the Taoist art of prolonging life indefinitely, -which seems to be nothing more than a system of regular breathing -with deep inspirations. He was a native of a town in Kiangsu, at the -sack of which, by the conquering Tartars, his father perished rather -than submit to the new dynasty. In consequence of his father's death -he steadily declined to enter upon a public career, and gave up his -life to study and teaching. He was the author of commentaries upon -the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean, and of other works; -but none of these is so famous as his Family Maxims, a little book -which, on account of the author's name, has often been attributed to -the great commentator Chu Hsi. The piquancy of these maxims disappears -in translation, owing as they do much more to literary form than to -subject-matter. Here are two specimens:-- - -"Forget the good deeds you have done; remember the kindnesses you have -received." - -"Mind your own business, follow out your destiny, live in accord with -the age, and leave the rest to God. He who can do this is near indeed." - -His own favourite saying was-- - -"To know what ought to be known, and to do what ought to be done, that -is enough. There is no time for anything else." - -Three days before his death he struggled into the ancestral hall, and -there before the family tablets called the spirits of his forefathers -to witness that he had never injured them by word or deed. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: LAN TING-YUeAN] - -LAN TING-YUeAN (1680-1733), better known as Lan Lu-chou, -devoted himself as a youth to poetry, literature, and political -economy. He accompanied his brother to Formosa as military secretary, -and his account of the expedition attracted public attention. -Recommended to the Emperor, he became magistrate of P'u-lin, and -distinguished himself as much by his just and incorrupt administration -as by his literary abilities. He managed, however, to make enemies -among his superior officers, and within three years he was impeached -for insubordination and thrown into prison. His case was subsequently -laid before the Emperor, who not only set him free, but appointed him -to be Prefect at Canton, bestowing upon him at the same time some -valuable medicine, an autograph copy of verses, a sable robe, some -joss-stick, and other coveted marks of Imperial favour. But all was in -vain. He died of a broken heart one month after taking up his post. -His complete works have been published in twenty small octavo volumes, -of which works perhaps the best known of all is a treatise on the -proper training of women, which fills two of the above volumes. This is -divided under four heads, namely, Virtue, Speech, Personal Appearance, -and Duty, an extended education in the intellectual sense not coming -within the writer's purview. The chapters are short, and many of them -are introduced by some ancient aphorism, forming a convenient peg upon -which to hang a moral lesson, copious extracts being made from the work -of the Lady Pan of the Han dynasty. A few lines from his preface may be -interesting:-- - -"Good government of the empire depends upon morals; correctness of -morals depends upon right ordering of the family; and right ordering -of the family depends upon the wife.... If the curtain which divides -the men from the women is too thin to keep them apart, misfortune will -come to the family and to the State. Purification of morals, from the -time of the creation until now, has always come from women. Women are -not all alike; some are good and some are bad. For bringing them to a -proper uniformity there is nothing like education. In old days both -boys and girls were educated ... but now the books used no longer -exist, and we know not the details of the system.... The education -of a woman is not like that of her husband, which may be said to -continue daily all through life. For he can always take up a classic -or a history, or familiarise himself with the works of miscellaneous -writers; whereas a woman's education does not extend beyond ten years, -after which she takes upon herself the manifold responsibilities of a -household. She is then no longer able to give her undivided attention -to books, and cannot investigate thoroughly, the result being that -her learning is not sufficiently extensive to enable her to grasp -principles. She is, as it were, carried away upon a flood, without hope -of return, and it is difficult for her to make any use of the knowledge -she has acquired. Surely then a work on the education of women is much -to be desired." - -This is how one phase of female virtue is illustrated by anecdote:-- - -"A man having been killed in a brawl, two brothers were arrested for -the murder and brought to trial. Each one swore that he personally -was the murderer, and that the other was innocent. The judge was thus -unable to decide the case, and referred it to the Prince. The Prince -bade him summon their mother, and ask which of them had done the deed. -'Punish the younger,' she replied through a flood of tears. 'People -are usually more fond of the younger,' observed the judge; 'how is it -you wish me to punish him?' 'He is my own child,' answered the woman; -'the elder is the son of my husband's first wife. When my husband died -he begged me to take care of the boy, and I promised I would. If now I -were to let the elder be punished while the younger escaped, I should -be only gratifying my private feelings and wronging the dead. I have -no alternative.' And she wept on until her clothes were drenched with -tears. Meanwhile the judge reported to the Prince, and the latter, -astonished at her magnanimity, pardoned both the accused." - -Two more of the above twenty volumes are devoted to the most remarkable -of the criminal cases tried by him during his short magisterial career. -An extract from the preface (1729) to his complete works, penned by an -ardent admirer, will give an idea of the estimation in which these are -held:-- - -"My master's judicial capacity was of a remarkably high order, as -though the mantle of Pao Hsiao-su[46] had descended upon him. In very -difficult cases he would investigate dispassionately and calmly, -appearing to possess some unusual method for worming out the truth; so -that the most crafty lawyers and the most experienced scoundrels, whom -no logic could entangle and no pains intimidate, upon being brought -before him, found themselves deserted by their former cunning, and -confessed readily without waiting for the application of torture. -I, indeed, have often wondered how it is that torture is brought -into requisition so much in judicial investigations. For, under the -influence of the 'three wooden instruments,' what evidence is there -which cannot be elicited?--to say nothing of the danger of a mistake -and the unutterable injury thus inflicted upon the departed spirits -in the realms below. Now, my master, in investigating and deciding -cases, was fearful only lest his people should not obtain a full and -fair hearing; he, therefore, argued each point with them quietly and -kindly until they were thoroughly committed to a certain position, with -no possibility of backing out, and then he decided the case upon its -merits as thus set forth. By such means, those who were bambooed had no -cause for complaint, while those who were condemned to die died without -resenting their sentence; the people were unable to deceive him, and -they did not even venture to make the attempt. Thus did he carry out -the Confucian doctrine of respecting popular feeling;[47] and were all -judicial officers to decide cases in the same careful and impartial -manner, there would not be a single injured suitor under the canopy of -heaven." - -The following is a specimen case dealing with the evil effects of -superstitious doctrines:-- - -"The people of the Ch'ao-yang district are great on bogies, and love -to talk of spirits and Buddhas. The gentry and their wives devote -themselves to Ta Tien, but the women generally of the neighbourhood -flock in crowds to the temples to burn incense and adore Buddha, -forming an unbroken string along the road. Hence, much ghostly and -supernatural nonsense gets spread about; and hence it was that the -Hou-t'ien sect came to flourish. I know nothing of the origin of this -sect. It was started amongst the Ch'ao-yang people by two men, named -Yen and Chou respectively, who said that they had been instructed by -a white-bearded Immortal, and who, when an attempt to arrest them was -made by a predecessor in office, absconded with their families and -remained in concealment. By and by, however, they came back, calling -themselves the White Lily or the White Aspen sect. I imagine that -White Lily was the real designation, the alteration in name being -simply made to deceive. Their 'goddess' was Yen's own wife, and she -pretended to be able to summon wind and bring down rain, enslave -bogies and exorcise spirits, being assisted in her performances by -her paramour, a man named Hu, who called himself the Immortal of -Pencil Peak. He used to aid in writing out charms, spirting water, -curing diseases, and praying for heirs; and he could enable widows -to hold converse with their departed husbands. The whole district -was taken in by these people, and went quite mad about them, people -travelling from afar to worship them as spiritual guides, and, with -many offerings of money, meats, and wines, enrolling themselves as -their humble disciples, until one would have said it was market-day in -the neighbourhood. I heard of their doings one day as I was returning -from the prefectural city. They had already established themselves -in a large building to the north of the district; they had opened a -preaching-hall, collected several hundred persons together, and for -the two previous days had been availing themselves of the services of -some play-actors to sing and perform at their banquets. I immediately -sent off constables to arrest them; but the constables were afraid -of incurring the displeasure of the spirits and being seized by the -soldiers of the infernal regions, while so much protection was afforded -by various families of wealth and position that the guilty parties -succeeded in preventing the arrest of a single one of their number. -Therefore I proceeded in person to their establishment, knocked at -the door, and seized the goddess, whom I subjected to a searching -examination as to the whereabouts of her accomplices; but the interior -of the place being, as it was, a perfect maze of passages ramifying in -every direction, when I seized a torch and made my way along, even if -I did stumble up against any one, they were gone in a moment before I -had time to see where. It was a veritable nest of secret villany, and -one which I felt ought to be searched to the last corner. Accordingly, -from the goddess's bed in a dark and out-of-the-way chamber I dragged -forth some ten or a dozen men; while out of the Immortal's bedroom I -brought a wooden seal of office belonging to the Lady of the Moon, also -a copy of their magic ritual, a quantity of soporifics, wigs, clothes, -and ornaments, of the uses of which I was then totally ignorant. I -further made a great effort to secure the person of the Immortal -himself; and when his friends and rich supporters saw the game was up, -they surrendered him over to justice. At his examination he comported -himself in a very singular manner, such being indeed the chief means -upon which he relied, besides the soporifics and fine dresses, to -deceive the eyes and ears of the public. As to his credulous dupes, -male and female, when they heard the name of the Lady of the Moon they -would be at first somewhat scared; but by and by, seeing that the -goddess was certainly a woman, they would begin to regain courage, -while the Immortal himself, with his hair dressed out and his face -powdered and his skirts fluttering about, hovered round the goddess, -and assuming all the airs and graces of a supernatural beauty, soon -convinced the spectators that he was really the Lady of the Moon, and -quite put them off the scent as to his real sex. Adjourning now to one -of the more remote apartments, there would follow worship of Maitreya -Buddha, accompanied by the recital of some _sutra_; after which -soporific incense would be lighted, and the victims be thrown into -a deep sleep. This soporific, or 'soul confuser,' as it is otherwise -called, makes people feel tired and sleepy; they are recovered by -means of a charm and a draught of cold water. The promised heirs and -the interviews with deceased husbands are all supposed to be brought -about during the period of trance--for which scandalous impostures -the heads of these villains hung up in the streets were scarcely a -sufficient punishment. However, reflecting that it would be a great -grievance to the people were any of them to find themselves mixed -up in such a case just after a bad harvest, and also that among the -large number who had become affiliated to this society there would be -found many old and respectable families, I determined on a plan which -would put an end to the affair without any troublesome _esclandre_. -I burnt all the depositions in which names were given, and took no -further steps against the persons named. I ordered the goddess and her -paramour to receive their full complement of blows (viz., one hundred), -and to be punished with the heavy _cangue_; and, placing them at the -yamen gate, I let the people rail and curse at them, tear their flesh -and break their heads, until they passed together into their boasted -Paradise. The husband and some ten others of the gang were placed in -the _cangue_, bambooed, or punished in some way; and as for the rest, -they were allowed to escape with this one more chance to turn over -a new leaf. I confiscated the building, destroyed its disgraceful -hiding-places, changed the whole appearance of the place, and made -it into a literary institution to be dedicated to five famous heroes -of literature. I cleansed and purified it from all taint, and on the -1st and 15th of each moon I would, when at leisure, indulge with the -scholars of the district in literary recreations. I formed, in fact, a -literary club; and, leasing a plot of ground for cultivation, devoted -the returns therefrom to the annual Confucian demonstrations and to the -payment of a regular professor. Thus the true doctrine was caused to -flourish, and these supernatural doings to disappear from the scene; -the public tone was elevated, and the morality of the place vastly -improved. - -"When the Brigadier-General and the Lieutenant-Governor heard what had -been done, they very much commended my action, saying: 'Had this sect -not been rooted out, the evil results would have been dire indeed; and -had you reported the case in the usual way, praying for the execution -of these criminals, your merit would undoubtedly have been great; but -now, without selfish regard to your own interests, you have shown -yourself unwilling to hunt down more victims than necessary, or to -expose those doings in such a manner as to lead to the suicide of the -persons implicated. Such care for the fair fame of so many people is -deserving of all praise.'" - -Although not yet of the same national importance as at the present day, -it was still impossible that the foreign question should have escaped -the notice of such an observant man as Lan Ting-yuean. He flourished at -a time when the spread of the Roman Catholic religion was giving just -grounds for apprehension to thoughtful Chinese statesmen. Accordingly, -we find amongst his collected works two short notices devoted to a -consideration of trade and general intercourse with the various nations -of barbarians. They are interesting as the untrammelled views of -the greatest living Chinese scholar of the date at which they were -written, namely, in 1732. The following is one of these notices:-- - -"To allow the barbarians to settle at Canton was a mistake. Ever since -Macao was given over, in the reign of Chia Ching (1522-1567) of the -Ming dynasty, to the red-haired barbarians, all manner of nations -have continued without ceasing to flock thither. They build forts and -fortifications and dense settlements of houses. Their descendants will -overshadow the land, and all the country beyond Hsiang-shan will become -a kingdom of devils. 'Red-haired' is a general term for the barbarians -of the western islands. Amongst them there are the Dutch, French, -Spaniards, Portuguese, English, and Yue-su-la [? Islam], all of which -nations are horribly fierce. Wherever they go they spy around with a -view to seize on other people's territory. There was Singapore, which -was originally a Malay country; the red-haired barbarians went there -to trade, and by and by seized it for an emporium of their own. So -with the Philippines, which were colonised by the Malays; because the -Roman Catholic religion was practised there, the Western foreigners -appropriated it in like manner for their own. The Catholic religion is -now spreading over China. In Hupeh, Hunan, Honan, Kiangsi, Fuhkien, and -Kuangsi, there are very few places whither it has not reached. In the -first year of the Emperor Yung Cheng [1736], the Viceroy of Fuhkien, -Man Pao, complained that the Western foreigners were preaching their -religion and tampering with the people, to the great detriment of the -localities in question; and he petitioned that the Roman Catholic -chapels in the various provinces might be turned into lecture-rooms -and schools, and that all Western foreigners might be sent to Macao, -to wait until an opportunity should present itself of sending them -back to their own countries. However, the Viceroy of Kuangtung, out of -mistaken kindness, memorialised the Throne that such of the barbarians -as were old or sick and unwilling to go away might be permitted to -remain in the Roman Catholic establishment at Canton, on the condition -that if they proselytised, spread their creed, or chaunted their sacred -books, they were at once to be punished and sent away. The scheme was -an excellent one, but what were the results of it? At present more -than 10,000 men have joined the Catholic chapel at Canton, and there -is also a department for women, where they have similarly got together -about 2000. This is a great insult to China, and seriously injures -our national traditions, enough to make every man of feeling grind -his teeth with rage. The case by no means admits of 'teaching before -punishing.' - -"Now these traders come this immense distance with the object of making -money. What then is their idea in paying away vast sums in order to -attract people to their faith? Thousands upon thousands they get to -join them, not being satisfied until they have bought up the whole -province. Is it possible to shut one's eyes and stop one's ears, -pretending to know nothing about it and making no inquiries whatever? -There is an old saying among the people--'Take things in time. A -little stream, if not stopped, may become a great river.' How much -more precaution is needed, then, when there is a general inundation -and men's hearts are restless and disturbed? In Canton the converts to -Catholicism are very numerous; those in Macao are in an inexpugnable -fortress. There is a constant interchange of arms between the two, and -if any trouble like that of the Philippines or Singapore should arise, -I cannot say how we should meet it. At the present moment, with a -pattern of Imperial virtue on the Throne, whose power and majesty have -penetrated into the most distant regions, this foolish design of the -barbarians should on no account be tolerated. Wise men will do well to -be prepared against the day when it may be necessary for us to retire -before them, clearing the country as we go." - -The following extract from a letter to a friend was written by Lan -Ting-yuean in 1724, and proves that if he objected to Christianity, he -was not one whit more inclined to tolerate Buddhism:-- - -"Of all the eighteen provinces, Chehkiang is the one where Buddhist -priests and nuns most abound. In the three prefectures of Hangchow, -Chia-hsing, and Huchow there cannot be fewer than several tens of -thousands of them, of whom, by the way, not more than one-tenth have -willingly taken the vows. The others have been given to the priests -when quite little, either because their parents were too poor to keep -them, or in return for some act of kindness; and when the children grow -up, they are unable to get free. Buddhist nuns are also in most cases -bought up when children as a means of making a more extensive show of -religion, and are carefully prevented from running away. They are not -given in marriage--the desire for which is more or less implanted in -every human breast, and exists even amongst prophets and sages. And -thus to condemn thousands and ten thousands of human beings to the -dull monotony of the cloister, granting that they strictly keep their -religious vows, is more than sufficient to seriously interfere with -the equilibrium of the universe. Hence floods, famines, and the like -catastrophes; to say nothing of the misdeeds of the nuns in question. - - * * * * * - -"When I passed through Soochow and Hangchow I saw many disgraceful -advertisements that quite took my breath away with their barefaced -depravity; and the people there told me that these atrocities were much -practised by the denizens of the cloister, which term is simply another -name for houses of ill-fame. These cloister folk do a great deal of -mischief amongst the populace, wasting the substance of some, and -robbing others of their good name." - - * * * * * - -The _Ming Chi Kang Mu_, or History of the Ming Dynasty, which had been -begun in 1689 by a commission of fifty-eight scholars, was laid before -the Emperor only in 1742 by CHANG T'ING-YUe (1670-1756), a Minister of -State and a most learned writer, joint editor of the Book of Rites, -Ritual of the Chou Dynasty, the Thirteen Classics, the Twenty-four -Histories, Thesaurus of Phraseology, Encyclopaedia of Quotations, the -Concordance to Literature, &c. This work, however, did not meet with -the Imperial approval, and for it was substituted the _T'ung Chien Kang -Mu San Pien_, first published in 1775. Among the chief collaborators -of Chang T'ing-yue should be mentioned O-ERH-T'AI, the Mongol (_d._ -1745), and CHU SHIH (1666-1736), both of whom were also voluminous -contributors to classical literature. - -These were followed by CH'EN HUNG-MOU (1695-1771), who, besides -being the author of brilliant State papers, was a commentator on -the Classics, dealing especially with the Four Books, a writer on -miscellaneous topics, and a most successful administrator. He rose to -high office, and was noted for always having his room hung round with -maps of the province in which he was serving, so that he might become -thoroughly familiar with its geography. He was dismissed, however, from -the important post of Viceroy of the Two Kuang for alleged incapacity -in dealing with a plague of locusts. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: YUeAN MEI] - -YUeAN MEI (1715-1797) is beyond all question the most popular -writer of modern times. At the early age of nine he was inspired with a -deep love for poetry, and soon became an adept at the art. Graduating -in 1739, he was shortly afterwards sent to Kiangnan, and presently -became magistrate at Nanking, where he greatly distinguished himself -by the vigour and justice of his administration. A serious illness -kept him for some time unemployed; and when on recovery he was sent -into Shansi, he managed to quarrel with the Viceroy. At the early age -of forty he retired from the official arena and led a life of lettered -ease in his beautiful garden at Nanking. His letters, which have been -published under the title of _Hsiao Ts'ang Shan Fang Ch'ih Tu_, are -extremely witty and amusing, and at the same time are models of style. -Many of the best are a trifle coarse, sufficiently so to rank them with -some of the eighteenth-century literature on this side of the globe; -the salt of all loses its savour in translation. The following are -specimens:-- - -"I have received your letter congratulating me on my present -prosperity, and am very much obliged for the same. - -"At the end of the letter, however, you mention that you have a -tobacco-pouch for me, which shall be sent on as soon as I forward you -a stanza. Surely this reminds one of the evil days of the Chous and -the Chengs, when each State took pledges from the other. It certainly -is not in keeping with the teaching of the sages, viz., that friends -should be the first to give. Why then do you neglect that teaching for -the custom of a degraded age? - -"If for a tobacco-pouch you insist upon having a stanza, for a hat or a -pair of boots you would want at least a poem; while your brother might -send me a cloak or a coat, and expect to get a whole epic in return! In -this way, the prosperity on which you congratulate me would not count -for much. - -"Shun Yue-t'an of old sacrificed a bowl of rice and a perch to get a -hundred waggons full of grain; he offered little and he wanted much. -And have you not heard how a thousand pieces of silk were given for a -single word? two beautiful girls for a stanza?--compared with which -your tobacco-pouch seems small indeed. It is probably because you are -a military man, accustomed to drill soldiers and to reward them with -a silver medal when they hit the mark, that you have at last come to -regard this as the proper treatment of an old friend. - -"Did not Mencius forbid us to presume upon anything adventitious? And -if friends may not presume upon their worth or position, how much less -upon a tobacco-pouch? For a tobacco-pouch, pretty as it may be, is but -the handiwork of a waiting-maid; while my verses, poor as they may be, -are the outcome of my intellectual powers. So that to exchange the -work of a waiting-maid's fingers for the work of my brain, is a great -compliment to the waiting-maid, but a small one to me. Not so if you -yourself had cast away spear and sword, and grasping the needle and -silk, had turned me out a tobacco-pouch of your own working. Then, had -you asked me even for ten stanzas, I would freely have given them. But -a great general knows his own strength as well as the enemy's, and it -would hardly be proper for me to lure you from men's to women's work, -and place on your head a ribboned cap. How then do you venture to -treat me as Ts'ao Ts'ao [on his death-bed treated his concubines], by -bestowing on me an insignificant tobacco-pouch? - -"Having nothing better to do, I have amused myself with these few lines -at your expense. If you take them ill, of course I shall never get -the pouch. But if you can mend your evil ways, then hurry up with the -tobacco-pouch and trust to your luck for the verse." - -A friend had sent Yuean Mei a letter with the very un-Chinese present -of a crab and a duck. Two ducks and a crab would have been more -conventional, or even two crabs and a duck. And by some mistake or -other, the crab arrived by itself. Hence the following banter in -reply:-- - -"To convey a man to a crab is very pleasant for the man, but to convey -a crab to a man is pleasant for his whole family. And I know that this -night my two sons will often bend their arms like crabs' claws [_i.e._ -in the form of the Chinese salute], wishing you an early success in -life. - -"In rhyme no duplicates [that is, don't rhyme again the same sound], -and don't use two sentences where one will do [in composition]. Besides -which, the fact that the duck has not yet turned up shows that you -understand well how to 'do one thing at a time.' Not to mention -that you cause an old gobbler like myself to stretch out his neck in -anticipation of something else to come. - -"You remember how the poet Shen beat his rival, all because of that one -verse-- - - '_Sigh not for the sinking moon, - The jewel lamp will follow soon._' - -Well, your crab is like the sinking moon, while the duck reminds me of -the jewel lamp; from which we may infer that you will meet with the -same good luck as Shen. - -"Again, a crab, even in the presence of the King of the Ocean, has to -travel aslant; by which same token I trust that by and by your fame -will travel aslant the habitable globe." - -Yuean Mei's poetry is much admired and widely read. He is one of the -few, very few, poets who have flourished under Manchu rule. Here are -some sarcastic lines by him:-- - - "_I've ever thought it passing odd - How all men reverence some God, - And wear their lives out for his sake - And bow their heads until they ache. - 'Tis clear to me the Gods are made - Of the same stuff as wind or shade.... - Ah! if they came to every caller, - I'd be the very loudest bawler!_" - -He could be pathetic enough at times, as he showed in his elegy on a -little five-year-old daughter, recalling her baby efforts with the -paint-brush, and telling how she cut out clothes from paper, or sat -and watched her father engaged in composition. He was also, like all -Chinese poets, an ardent lover of nature, and a winter plum-tree in -flower, or a gust of wind scattering dead leaves, would set all his -poetic fibres thrilling again. It sounds like an anti-climax to add -that this brilliant essayist, letter-writer, and composer of finished -verse owes perhaps the chief part of his fame to a cookery-book. Yet -such is actually the case. Yuean Mei was the Brillat-Savarin of China, -and in the art of cooking China stands next to France. His cookery-book -is a gossipy little work, written, as only such a scholar could write -it, in a style which at once invests the subject with dignity and -interest. - -"Everything," says Yuean Mei, in his opening chapter, "has its -own original constitution, just as each man has certain natural -characteristics. If a man's natural abilities are of a low order, -Confucius and Mencius themselves would teach him to no purpose. And if -an article of food is in itself bad, not even I-ya [the Soyer of China] -could cook a flavour into it. - -"A ham is a ham; but in point of goodness two hams will be as widely -separated as sky and sea. A mackerel is a mackerel; but in point of -excellence two mackerel will differ as much as ice and live coals. -And other things in the same way. So that the credit of a good dinner -should be divided between the cook and the steward forty per cent. to -the steward, and sixty per cent. to the cook. - -"Cookery is like matrimony. Two things served together should match. -Clear should go with clear, thick with thick, hard with hard, and soft -with soft. I have known people mix grated lobster with birds'-nests, -and mint with chicken or pork! - -"The cooks of to-day think nothing of mixing in one soup the meat of -chicken, duck, pig, and goose. But these chickens, ducks, pigs, and -geese have doubtless souls. And these souls will most certainly file -plaints in the next world on the way they have been treated in this. -A good cook will use plenty of different dishes. Each article of food -will be made to exhibit its own characteristics, while each made dish -will be characterised by one dominant flavour. Then the palate of the -gourmand will respond without fail, and the flowers of the soul blossom -forth. - -"Let salt fish come first, and afterwards food of more negative -flavour. Let the heavy precede the light. Let dry dishes precede those -with gravy. No flavour must dominate. If a guest eats his fill of -savouries, his stomach will be fatigued. Salt flavours must be relieved -by bitter or hot tasting foods, in order to restore the palate. Too -much wine will make the stomach dull. Sour or sweet food will be -required to rouse it again into vigour. - -"In winter we should eat beef and mutton. In summer, dried and -preserved meats. As for condiments, mustard belongs specially to -summer, pepper to winter. - -"Don't cut bamboo-shoots [the Chinese equivalent of asparagus] with an -oniony knife.... A good cook frequently wipes his knife, frequently -changes his cloth, frequently scrapes his board, and frequently washes -his hands. If smoke or ashes from his pipe, perspiration-drops from his -head, insects from the wall, or smuts from the saucepan get mixed up -with the food, though he were a very _chef_ among _chefs_, yet would -men hold their noses and decline. - -"Don't make your thick sauces greasy nor your clear ones tasteless. -Those who want grease can eat fat pork, while a drink of water is -better than something which tastes of nothing at all.... Don't -over-salt your soups; for salt can be added to taste, but can never be -taken away. - -"_Don't eat with your ears_; by which I mean do not aim at having -extraordinary out-of-the-way foods, just to astonish your guests; for -that is to eat with your ears, not with the mouth. Bean-curd, if good, -is actually nicer than birds'-nest; and better than sea-slugs, which -are not first-rate, is a dish of bamboo shoots.... - -"The chicken, the pig, the fish, and the duck, these are the four -heroes of the table. Sea-slugs and birds'-nests have no characteristic -flavours of their own. They are but usurpers in the house. I once dined -with a friend who gave us birds'-nest in bowls more like vats, holding -each about four ounces of the plain-boiled article. The other guests -applauded vigorously; but I smiled and said, '_I came here to eat -birds'-nest, not to take delivery of it wholesale._' - -"_Don't eat with your eyes_; by which I mean do not cover the table -with innumerable dishes and multiply courses indefinitely. For this is -to eat with the eyes, and not with the mouth. - -"Just as a calligraphist should not overtire his hand nor a poet his -brain, so a good cook cannot possibly turn out in one day more than -four or five distinct _plats_. I used to dine with a merchant friend -who would put on no less than three removes [sets of eight dishes -served separately], and sixteen kinds of sweets, so that by the time -we had finished we had got through a total of some forty courses. My -host gloried in all this, but when I got home I used to have a bowl of -rice-gruel. I felt so hungry. - -"To know right from wrong, a man must be sober. And only a sober man -can distinguish good flavours from bad. It has been well said that -words are inadequate to describe the _nuances_ of taste. How much less -then must a stuttering sot be able to appreciate them! - -"I have often seen votaries of guess-fingers swallow choice food as -though so much sawdust, their minds being preoccupied with their game. -Now I say eat first and drink afterwards. By these means the result -will be successful in each direction." - -Yuean Mei also protests against the troublesome custom of pressing -guests to eat, and against the more foolish one of piling up choice -pieces on the little saucers used as plates, and even putting them into -the guests' mouths, as if they were children or brides, too shy to help -themselves. - -There was a man in Ch'ang-an, he tells us, who was very fond of giving -dinners; but the food was atrocious. One day a guest threw himself on -his knees in front of this gentleman and said, "Am I not a friend of -yours?" - -"You are indeed," replied his host. - -"Then I must ask of you a favour," said the guest, "and you must grant -it before I rise from my knees." - -"Well, what is it?" inquired his host in astonishment. - -"Never to invite me to dinner any more!" cried the guest; at which the -whole party burst into a loud roar of laughter. - -"Into no department of life," says Yuean Mei, "should indifference be -allowed to creep; into none less than into the domain of cookery. -Cooks are but mean fellows; and if a day is passed without either -rewarding or punishing them, that day is surely marked by negligence -or carelessness on their part. If badly cooked food is swallowed in -silence, such neglect will speedily become a habit. Still, mere rewards -and punishments are of no use. If a dish is good, attention should be -called to the why and the wherefore. If bad, an effort should be made -to discover the cause of the failure. - -"I am not much of a wine-drinker, but this makes me all the more -particular. Wine is like scholarship: it ripens with age; and it is -best from a fresh-opened jar. The top of the wine-jar, the bottom of -the teapot, as the saying has it." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CH'EN HAO-TZU] - -In 1783 CH'EN HAO-TZU, who lived beside the Western Lake at -Hangchow, and called himself the Flower Hermit, published a gossipy -little work on gardening and country pursuits, under the title of "The -Mirror of Flowers." It is the type of a class often to be seen in the -hands of Chinese readers. The preface was written by himself:-- - -"From my youth upwards I have cared for nothing save books and flowers. -Twenty-eight thousand days have passed over my head, the greater part -of which has been spent in poring over old records, and the remainder -in enjoying myself in my garden among plants and birds." - -The Chinese excel in horticulture, and the passionate love of flowers -which prevails among all classes is quite a national characteristic. -A Chinaman, however, has his own particular standpoint. The vulgar -nosegay or the plutocratic bouquet would have no charms for him. He -can see, with satisfaction, only one flower at a time. His best vases -are made to hold a single spray, and large vases usually have covers -perforated so as to isolate each specimen. A primrose by the river's -brim would be to him a complete poem. If condemned to a sedentary -life, he likes to have a flower by his side on the table. He draws -enjoyment, even inspiration, from its petals. He will take a flower out -for a walk, and stop every now and again to consider the loveliness of -its growth. So with birds. It is a common thing on a pleasant evening -to meet a Chinaman carrying his bird-cage suspended from the end of a -short stick. He will stop at some pleasant corner outside the town, and -listen with rapture to the bird's song. But to the preface. Our author -goes on to say that in his hollow bamboo pillow he always keeps some -work on his favourite subject. - -"People laugh at me, and say that I am cracked on flowers and a -bibliomaniac; but surely study is the proper occupation of a literary -man, and as for gardening, that is simply a rest for my brain and a -relaxation in my declining years. What does T'ao Ch'ien say?-- - - '_Riches and rank I do not love, - I have no hopes of heaven above._' ... - -Besides, it is only in hours of leisure that I devote myself to the -cultivation of flowers." - -Ch'en Hao-tzu then runs through the four seasons, showing how each has -its especial charm, contributing to the sum of those pure pleasures -which are the best antidote against the ills of old age. He then -proceeds to deal with times and seasons, showing what to do under -each month, precisely as our own garden-books do. After that come -short chapters on all the chief trees, shrubs, and plants of China, -with hints how to treat them under diverse circumstances, the whole -concluding with a separate section devoted to birds, animals, fishes, -and insects. Among these are to be found the crane, peacock, parrot, -thrush, kite, quail, mainah, swallow, deer, hare, monkey, dog, cat, -squirrel, goldfish--first mentioned by Su Shih, - - "_Upon the bridge the livelong day - I stand and watch the goldfish play_"-- - -bee, butterfly, glowworm, &c. Altogether there is much to be learnt -from this Chinese White of Selborne, and the reader lays down the book -feeling that the writer is not far astray when he says, "If a home has -not a garden and an old tree, I see not whence the everyday joys of -life are to come." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: CHAO I] - -CHAO I (1727-1814) is said to have known several tens of -characters when only three years old,--the age at which John Stuart -Mill believed that he began Greek. It was not, however, until 1761 -that he took his final degree, appearing second on the list. He was -really first, but the Emperor put Wang Chieh over his head, in order to -encourage men from Shensi, to which province the latter belonged. That -Wang Chieh is remembered at all must be set down to the above episode, -and not to the two volumes of essays which he left behind him. Chao I -wrote a history of the wars of the present dynasty, a collection of -notes on the current topics of his day, historical critiques, and other -works. He was also a poet, contributing a large volume of verse, from -which the following sample of his art is taken:-- - - "_Man is indeed of heavenly birth, - Though seeming earthy of the earth; - The sky is but a denser pall - Of the thin air that covers all. - Just as this air, so is that sky; - Why call this low, and call that high?_ - - "_The dewdrop sparkles in the cup-- - Note how the eager flowers spring up; - Confine and crib them in a room, - They fade and find an early doom. - So 'tis that at our very feet - The earth and the empyrean meet._ - - "_The babe at birth points heavenward too, - Enveloped by the eternal blue; - As fishes in the water bide, - So heaven surrounds on every side; - Yet men sin on, because they say - Great God in heaven is far away._" - -The "stop short" was a great favourite with him. His level may be -gauged by the following specimen, written as he was setting out to a -distant post in the north:-- - - "_See where, like specks of spring-cloud in the sky, - On their long northern route the wild geese fly; - Together o'er the River we will roam.... - Ah! they go towards, and I away from home!_" - -Here is another in a more humorous vein:-- - - "_The rain had been raining the whole of the day, - And I had been straining and working away.... - What's the trouble, O cook? You've no millet in store? - Well, I've written a book which will buy us some more._" - -[Sidenote: FANG WEI-I] - -Taken altogether, the poetry of the present dynasty, especially that -of the nineteenth century, must be written down as nothing more -than artificial verse, with the art not even concealed, but grossly -patent to the dullest observer. A collection of extracts from about -2000 representative poets was published in 1857, but it is very dull -reading, any thoughts, save the most commonplace, being few and far -between. As in every similar collection, a place is assigned to -poetesses, of whom FANG WEI-I would perhaps be a favourable -example. She came from a good family, and was but newly married to -a promising young official when the latter died, and left her a -sorrowing and childless widow. Light came to her in the darkness, and -disregarding the entreaties of her father and mother, she decided to -become a nun, and devote the remainder of her life to the service of -Buddha. These are her farewell lines:-- - - "_'Tis common talk how partings sadden life: - There are no partings for us after death. - But let that pass; now no more a wife, - Will face fate's issues to my latest breath._ - - "_The north wind whistles thro' the mulberry grove, - Daily and nightly making moan for me; - I look up to the shifting sky above, - No little prattler smiling on my knee._ - - "_Life's sweetest boon is after all to die.... - My weeping parents still are loth to yield; - Yet east and west the callow fledglings fly, - And autumn's herbage wanders far afield._ - - "_What will life bring to me an I should stay? - What will death bring to me an I should go? - These thoughts surge through me in the light of day, - And make me conscious that at last I know._" - -One of the greatest of the scholars of the present dynasty was YUeAN -YUeAN (1764-1849). He took his third degree in 1789, and at the -final examination the aged Emperor Ch'ien Lung was so struck with -his talents that he exclaimed, "Who would have thought that, after -passing my eightieth year, I should find another such man as this one?" -He then held many high offices in succession, including the post of -Governor of Chehkiang, in which he operated vigorously against the -Annamese pirates and Ts'ai Ch'ien, established the tithing system, -colleges, schools, and soup-kitchens, besides devoting himself to the -preservation of ancient monuments. As Viceroy of the Two Kuang, he -frequently came into collision with British interests, and did his best -to keep a tight hand over the barbarian merchants. He was a voluminous -writer on the Classics, astronomy, archaeology, &c., and various -important collections were produced under his patronage. Among these -may be mentioned the _Huang Ch'ing Ching Chieh_, containing upwards -of 180 separate works, and the _Ch'ou Jen Chuan_, a biographical -dictionary of famous mathematicians of all ages, including Euclid, -Newton, and Ricci, the Jesuit Father. He also published a Topography -of Kuangtung, specimens of the compositions of more than 5000 poets of -Kiangsi, and a large collection of inscriptions on bells and vases. -He also edited the Catalogue of the Imperial Library, the large -encyclopaedia known as the _T'ai P'ing Yue Lan_, and other important -works. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: THE KAN YING P'IEN] - -Two religious works, associated with the Taoism of modern days, which -have long been popular throughout China, may fitly be mentioned -here. They are not to be bought in shops, but can always be obtained -at temples, where large numbers are placed by philanthropists for -distribution gratis. The first is the _Kan Ying P'ien_, or Book of -Rewards and Punishments, attributed by the foolish to Lao Tzu himself. -Its real date is quite unknown; moderate writers place it in the -Sung dynasty, but even that seems far too early. Although nominally -of Taoist origin, this work is usually edited in a very pronounced -Buddhist setting, the fact being that Taoism and Buddhism are now so -mixed up that it is impossible to draw any sharp line of demarcation -between the two. As Chu Hsi says, "Buddhism stole the best features -of Taoism, and Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism; it is as -though the one stole a jewel from the other, and the loser recouped -the loss with a stone." Prefixed to the _Kan Ying P'ien_ will be found -Buddhist formulae for cleansing the mouth and body before beginning -to read the text, and appeals to Maitreya Buddha and Avalokitesvara. -Married women and girls are advised not to frequent temples to be a -spectacle for men. "If you must worship Buddha, worship the two living -Buddhas (parents) you have at home; and if you must burn incense, burn -it at the family altar." We are further told that there is no time -at which this book may not be read; no place in which it may not be -read; and no person by whom it may not be read with profit. We are -advised to study it when fasting, and not necessarily to shout it -aloud, so as to be heard of men, but rather to ponder over it in the -heart. The text consists of a commination said to have been uttered by -Lao Tzu, and directed against evil-doers of all kinds. In the opening -paragraphs attention is drawn to various spiritual beings who note -down the good deeds and crimes of men, and lengthen or shorten their -lives accordingly. Then follows a long list of wicked acts which will -inevitably bring retribution in their train. These include the ordinary -offences recognised by moral codes all over the world, every form of -injustice and oppression, falsehood, and theft, together with not a few -others of a more venial character to Western minds. Among the latter -are birds'-nesting, stepping across food or human beings, cooking -with dirty firewood, spitting at shooting stars and pointing at the -rainbow, or even at the sun, moon, and stars. In all these cases, -periods will be cut off from the life of the offender, and if his life -is exhausted while any guilt still remains unexpiated, the punishment -due will be carried on to the account of his descendants. - -[Sidenote: THE YUe LI CH'AO CHUAN] - -The second of the two works under consideration is the _Yue Li Ch'ao -Chuan_, a description of the Ten Courts of Purgatory in the nether -world, through some or all of which every erring soul must pass before -being allowed to be born again into this world under another form, or -to be permanently transferred to the eternal bliss reserved for the -righteous alone. - -In the Fifth Court, for instance, the sinners are hurried away by -bull-headed, horse-faced demons to a famous terrace, where their -physical punishments are aggravated by a view of their old homes:-- - -"This terrace is curved in front like a bow; it looks east, west, and -south. It is eighty-one _li_ from one extreme to the other. The back -part is like the string of a bow; it is enclosed by a wall of sharp -swords. It is 490 feet high; its sides are knife-blades; and the whole -is in sixty-three storeys. No good shade comes to this terrace; neither -do those whose balance of good and evil is exact. Wicked souls alone -behold their homes close by, and can see and hear what is going on. -They hear old and young talking together; they see their last wishes -disregarded and their instructions disobeyed. Everything seems to -have undergone a change. The property they scraped together with so -much trouble is dissipated and gone. The husband thinks of taking -another wife; the widow meditates second nuptials. Strangers are in -possession of the old estate; there is nothing to divide amongst the -children. Debts long since paid are brought again for settlement, and -the survivors are called upon to acknowledge claims upon the departed. -Debts owed are lost for want of evidence, with endless recriminations, -abuse, and general confusion, all of which falls upon the three -families of the deceased. They in their anger speak ill of him that is -gone. He sees his children become corrupt and his friends fall away. -Some, perhaps, for the sake of bygone times, may stroke the coffin and -let fall a tear, departing quickly with a cold smile. Worse than that, -the wife sees her husband tortured in the yamen; the husband sees his -wife victim to some horrible disease, lands gone, houses destroyed by -flood or fire, and everything in unutterable confusion--the reward of -former sins." - -The Sixth Court "is a vast, noisy Gehenna, many leagues in extent, and -around it are sixteen wards. - -"In the first, the souls are made to kneel for long periods on iron -shot. In the second, they are placed up to their necks in filth. In the -third, they are pounded till the blood runs out. In the fourth, their -mouths are opened with iron pincers and filled full of needles. In the -fifth, they are bitten by rats. In the sixth, they are enclosed in a -net of thorns and nipped by locusts. In the seventh, they are crushed -to a jelly. In the eighth, their skin is lacerated and they are beaten -on the raw. In the ninth, their mouths are filled with fire. In the -tenth, they are licked by flames. In the eleventh, they are subjected -to noisome smells. In the twelfth, they are butted by oxen and trampled -on by horses. In the thirteenth, their hearts are scratched. In the -fourteenth, their heads are rubbed till their skulls come off. In the -fifteenth, they are chopped in two at the waist. In the sixteenth, -their skin is taken off and rolled up into spills. - -"Those discontented ones who rail against heaven and revile earth, who -are always finding fault either with the wind, thunder, heat, cold, -fine weather, or rain; those who let their tears fall towards the -north; who steal the gold from the inside or scrape the gilding from -the outside of images; those who take holy names in vain, who show no -respect for written paper, who throw down dirt and rubbish near pagodas -or temples, who use dirty cook-houses and stoves for preparing the -sacrificial meats, who do not abstain from eating beef and dog-flesh; -those who have in their possession blasphemous or obscene books and -do not destroy them, who obliterate or tear books which teach man to -be good, who carve on common articles of household use the symbol of -the origin of all things, the Sun and Moon and Seven Stars, the Royal -Mother and the God of Longevity on the same article, or representations -of any of the Immortals; those who embroider the Svastika on -fancy-work, or mark characters on silk, satin, or cloth, on banners, -beds, chairs, tables, or any kind of utensil; those who secretly wear -clothes adorned with the dragon and the phoenix only to be trampled -under foot, who buy up grain and hold until the price is exorbitantly -high--all these shall be thrust into the great and noisy Gehenna, there -to be examined as to their misdeeds and passed accordingly into one of -the sixteen wards, whence, at the expiration of their time, they will -be sent for further questioning on to the Seventh Court." - -The Tenth Court deals with the final stage of transmigration previous -to rebirth in the world. It appears that in primeval ages men could -remember their former lives on earth even after having passed through -Purgatory, and that wicked persons often took advantage of such -knowledge. To remedy this, a Terrace of Oblivion was built, and all -shades are now sent thither, and are forced to drink the cup of -forgetfulness before they can be born again. - -"Whether they swallow much or little it matters not; but sometimes -there are perverse devils who altogether refuse to drink. Then beneath -their feet sharp blades start up, and a copper tube is forced down -their throats, by which means they are compelled to swallow some. When -they have drunk, they are raised by the attendants and escorted back by -the same path. They are next pushed on to the Bitter Bamboo floating -bridge, with torrents of rushing red water on either side. Half-way -across they perceive written in large characters on a red cliff on the -opposite side the following lines:-- - - "_To be a man is easy, but to act up to one's responsibilities as such - is hard; - Yet to be a man once again is perhaps harder still._ - - "_For those who would be born again in some happy state there is no - great difficulty; - It is only necessary to keep mouth and heart in harmony._" - -"When the shades have read these words, they try to jump on shore, but -are beaten back into the water by two huge devils. One has on a black -official hat and embroidered clothes; in his hand he holds a paper -pencil, and over his shoulder he carries a sharp sword. Instruments of -torture hang at his waist; fiercely he glares out of his large round -eyes and laughs a horrid laugh. His name is Short-Life. The other has a -dirty face smeared with blood; he has on a white coat, an abacus in his -hand, and a rice-sack over his shoulder. Around his neck hangs a string -of paper money; his brow contracts hideously and he utters long sighs. -His name is They-have-their-Reward, and his duty is to push the shades -into the red water. The wicked and foolish rejoice at the prospect of -being born once more as human beings, but the better shades weep and -mourn that in life they did not lay up a store of virtuous acts, and -thus pass away from the state of mortals for ever. Yet they all rush -on to birth like an infatuated or drunken crowd, and again, in their -new childhood, hanker after forbidden flavours. Then, regardless of -consequences, they begin to destroy life, and thus forfeit all claims -to the mercy and compassion of God. They take no thought as to the end -that must overtake them; and, finally, they bring themselves once more -to the same horrid plight." - -FOOTNOTES: - -[46] A Solomonic judge under the Sung dynasty. - -[47] "In hearing litigations, I am like any other body. What is -necessary is to cause the people to have no litigations" (Legge). - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -WALL LITERATURE--JOURNALISM--WIT AND HUMOUR--PROVERBS AND MAXIMS - - -The death of Yuean Yuean in 1849 brings us down to the period when -China began to find herself for the first time face to face with -the foreigner. The opening of five ports in 1842 to comparatively -unrestricted trade, followed by more ports and right of residence in -Peking from 1860, created points of contact and brought about foreign -complications to which the governors of China had hitherto been unused. -A Chinese Horace might well complain that the audacious brood of -England have by wicked fraud introduced journalism into the Empire, and -that evils worse than consumption and fevers have followed in its train. - -[Sidenote: PROCLAMATIONS] - -From time immemorial wall-literature has been a feature in the life -of a Chinese city surpassing in extent and variety that of any other -nation, and often playing a part fraught with much danger to the -community at large. Generally speaking, the literature of the walls -covers pretty much the same ground as an ordinary English newspaper, -from the "agony" column downwards. For, mixed up with notices of lost -property, consisting sometimes of human beings, and advertisements -of all kinds of articles of trade, such as one would naturally look -for in the handbill literature of any city, there are to be found -announcements of new and startling remedies for various diseases or of -infallible pills for the cure of depraved opium-smokers, long lists -of the names of subscribers to some coming festival or to the pious -restoration of a local temple, sermons without end directed against the -abuse of written paper, and now and then against female infanticide, -or Cumming-like warnings of an approaching millennium, at which the -wicked will receive the reward of their crimes according to the -horrible arrangements of the Buddhist-Taoist purgatory. Occasionally an -objectionable person will be advised through an anonymous placard to -desist from a course which is pointed out as offensive, and similarly, -but more rarely, the action of an official will be sometimes severely -criticised or condemned. Official proclamations on public business can -hardly be classed as wall literature, except perhaps when, as is not -uncommon, they are written in doggerel verse, with a view to appealing -more directly to the illiterate reader. The following proclamation -establishing a registry office for boats at Tientsin will give an idea -of these queer documents, the only parallel to which in the West might -be found in the famous lines issued by the Board of Trade for the use -of sea-captains:-- - - "_Green to green, and red to red, - Perfect safety, go ahead_," _&c._ - -The object of this registry office was ostensibly to save the poor -boatman from being unfairly dealt with when impressed at nominal wages -for Government service, but really to enable the officials to know -exactly where to lay their hands on boats when required:-- - - "_A busy town is Tientsin, - A land and water thoroughfare; - Traders, as thick as clouds, flock in; - Masts rise in forests everywhere._ - - "_The official's chair, the runner's cap, - Flit past like falling rain or snow. - And, musing on the boatman's hap, - His doubtful shares of weal and woe,_ - - "_I note the vagabonds who live - On squeezes from his hard-earned due; - And, boatmen, for your sakes I give - A public register to you._ - - "_Go straightway there, your names inscribe - And on the books a record raise; - None then dare claim the wicked bribe, - Or waste your time in long delays._ - - "_The services your country claims - Shall be performed in turn by all - The muster of the boatmen's names - Be published on the Yamen wall._ - - "_Once your official business done, - Work for yourselves as best you can; - Let out your boats to any one; - I'll give a pass to every man._ - - "_And lest your lot be hard to bear - Official pay shall ample be; - Let all who notice aught unfair - Report the case at once to me._ - - "_The culprit shall be well deterred - In future, if his guilt is clear; - For times are hard, as I have heard, - And food and clothing getting dear._ - - "_Thus, in compassion for your woe, - The scales of Justice in my hand, - I save you from the Yamen foe, - The barrack-soldiers' threat'ning band._ - - "_No longer will they dare to play - Their shameful tricks, of late revealed; - The office only sends away - Boats--and on orders duly sealed._ - - "_One rule will thus be made for all, - And things may not go much amiss; - Ye boatmen, 'tis on you I call - To show your gratitude for this._ - - "_But lest there be who ignorance plead, - I issue this in hope to awe - Such fools as think they will succeed - By trying to evade the law._ - - "_For if I catch them, no light fate - Awaits them that unlucky day; - So from this proclamation's date - Let all in fear and dread obey._" - -It is scarcely necessary to add that wall literature has often been -directed against foreigners, and especially against missionaries. The -penalties, however, for posting anonymous placards are very severe, -and of late years the same end has been more effectually attained by -the circulation of abusive fly-sheets, often pictorial and always -disgusting. - -Journalism has proved to be a terrible thorn in the official side. It -was first introduced into China under the aegis of an Englishman who was -the nominal editor of the _Shen Pao_ or _Shanghai News_, still a very -influential newspaper. For a long time the authorities fought to get -rid of this objectionable daily, which now and again told some awkward -truths, and contained many ably written articles by first-class native -scholars. Eventually an official organ was started in opposition, and -other papers have since appeared. An illustrated Chinese weekly made -a good beginning in Shanghai, but unfortunately it soon drifted into -superstition, intolerance, and vulgarity. - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: TRANSLATIONS] - -Attempts have been made to provide the Chinese with translations -of noted European works, and among those which have been produced -may be mentioned "The Pilgrim's Progress," with illustrations, the -various characters being in Chinese dress; Mr. Herbert Spencer's -"Education," the very first sentence in which is painfully misrendered; -the "Adventures of Baron Munchausen," and others. In every case save -one these efforts have been rejected by the Chinese on the ground of -inferior style. The exception was a translation of AEsop's Fables, -published in 1840 by Robert Thom as rendered into Chinese by an eminent -native scholar. This work attracted much attention among the people -generally; so much so, that the officials took alarm and made strenuous -efforts to suppress it. Recent years have witnessed the publication -in Chinese of "Vathek," in reference to which a literate of standing -offered the following criticism:--"The style in which this work is -written is not so bad, but the subject-matter is of no account." The -fact is, that to satisfy the taste of the educated Chinese reader the -very first requisite is style. As has been seen in the case of the -_Liao Chai_, the Chinese will read almost anything, provided it is set -in a faultless frame. They will not look at anything emanating from -foreign sources in which this greatest desideratum has been neglected. - -The present age has seen the birth of no great original writer in any -department of literature, nor the production of any great original work -worthy to be smeared with cedar-oil for the delectation of posterity. -It is customary after the death, sometimes during the life, of any -leading statesman to publish a collection of his memorials to the -throne, with possibly a few essays and some poems. Such have a brief -_succes d'estime_, and are then used by binders for thickening the -folded leaves of some masterpiece of antiquity. Successful candidates -for the final degree usually print their winning essays, and sometimes -their poems, chiefly for distribution among friends. Several diaries -of Ministers to foreign countries and similar books have appeared -in recent years, recording the astonishment of the writers at the -extraordinary social customs which prevail among the barbarians. But -nowadays a Chinaman who wishes to read a book does not sit down and -write one. He is too much oppressed by the vast dimensions of his -existing literature, and by the hopelessness of rivalling, and still -more by the hopelessness of surpassing, those immortals who have gone -before. - -[Sidenote: WIT AND HUMOUR] - -It would be obviously unfair to describe the Chinese people as wanting -in humour simply because they are tickled by jests which leave us -comparatively unmoved. Few of our own most amusing stories will stand -conversion into Chinese terms. The following are specimens of classical -humour, being such as might be introduced into any serious biographical -notice of the individuals concerned. - -Ch'un-yue K'un (4th cent. B.C.) was the wit already mentioned, -who tried to entangle Mencius in his talk. On one occasion, when -the Ch'u State was about to attack the Ch'i State, he was ordered -by the Prince of Ch'i, who was his father-in-law, to proceed to the -Chao State and ask that an army might be sent to their assistance; -to which end the Prince supplied him with 100 lbs. of silver and ten -chariots as offerings to the ruler of Chao. At this Ch'un-yue laughed -so immoderately that he snapped the lash of his cap; and when the -Prince asked him what was the joke, he said, "As I was coming along -this morning, I saw a husbandman sacrificing a pig's foot and a single -cup of wine; after which he prayed, saying, 'O God, make my upper -terraces fill baskets and my lower terraces fill carts; make my fields -bloom with crops and my barns burst with grain!' And I could not help -laughing at a man who offered so little and wanted so much." The Prince -took the hint, and obtained the assistance he required. - -T'ao Ku (A.D. 902-970) was an eminent official whose name -is popularly known in connection with the following repartee. Having -ordered a newly-purchased waiting-maid to get some snow and make tea in -honour of the Feast of Lanterns, he asked her, somewhat pompously, "Was -that the custom in your former home?" "Oh, no," the girl replied; "they -were a rough lot. They just put up a gold-splashed awning, and had a -little music and some old wine." - -Li Chia-ming (10th cent. A.D.) was a wit at the Court of -the last ruler of the T'ang dynasty. On one occasion the latter drew -attention to some gathering clouds which appeared about to bring -rain. "They may come," said Li Chia-ming, "but they will not venture -to enter the city." "Why not?" asked the Prince. "Because," replied -the wit, "the octroi is so high." Orders were thereupon issued that -the duties should be reduced by one-half. On another occasion the -Prince was fishing with some of his courtiers, all of whom managed to -catch something, whereas he himself, to his great chagrin, had not a -single bite. Thereupon Li Chia-ming took a pen and wrote the following -lines:-- - - "_'Tis rapture in the warm spring days to drop the tempting fly - In the green pool where deep and still the darkling waters lie; - And if the fishes dare not touch the bait your Highness flings, - They know that only dragons are a fitting sport for kings._" - -Liu Chi (11th cent. A.D.) was a youth who had gained some -notoriety by his fondness for strange phraseology, which was much -reprobated by the great Ou-yang Hsiu. When the latter was Grand -Examiner, one of the candidates sent in a doggerel triplet as follows:-- - - "_The universe is in labour, - All things are produced, - And among them the Sage._" - -"This must be Liu Chi," cried Ou-yang, and ran a red-ink pen through -the composition, adding these two lines:-- - - "_The undergraduate jokes, - The examiner ploughs._" - -Later on, about the year 1060, Ou-yang was very much struck by the -essay of a certain candidate, and placed him first on the list. When -the names were read out, he found that the first man was Liu Chi, who -had changed his name to Liu Yuen. - -Chang Hsuean-tsu was a wit of the Han dynasty. When he was only eight -years old, some one laughed at him for having lost several teeth, and -said, "What are those dog-holes in your mouth for?" "They are there," -replied Chang, "to let puppies like you run in and out." - - * * * * * - -Collections of wit and humour of the Joe Miller type are often to -be seen in the hands of Chinese readers, and may be bought at any -bookstall. Like many novels of the cheap and worthless class, not to be -mentioned with the masterpieces of fiction described in this volume, -these collections are largely unfit for translation. All literature in -China is pure. Novels and stories are not classed as literature; the -authors have no desire to attach their names to such works, and the -consequence is a great falling off from what may be regarded as the -national standard. Even the _Hung Lou Meng_ contains episodes which mar -to a considerable extent the beauty of the whole. One excuse is that it -is a novel of real life, and to omit, therefore, the ordinary frailties -of mortals would be to produce an incomplete and inadequate picture. - -[Sidenote: THE HSIAO LIN KUANG CHI] - -The following are a few specimens of humorous anecdotes taken from the -_Hsiao Lin Kuang Chi_, a modern work in four small volumes, in which -the stories are classified under twelve heads, such as Arts, Women, -Priests:-- - -A bridegroom noticing deep wrinkles on the face of his bride, asked -her how old she was, to which she replied, "About forty-five or -forty-six." "Your age is stated on the marriage contract," he rejoined, -"as thirty-eight; but I am sure you are older than that, and you may -as well tell me the truth." "I am really fifty-four," answered the -bride. The bridegroom, however, was not satisfied, and determined to -set a trap for her. Accordingly he said, "Oh, by the by, I must just -go and cover up the salt jar, or the rats will eat every scrap of it." -"Well, I never!" cried the bride, taken off her guard. "Here I've lived -sixty-eight years, and I never before heard of rats stealing salt." - -A woman who was entertaining a paramour during the absence of her -husband, was startled by hearing the latter knock at the house-door. -She hurriedly bundled the man into a rice-sack, which she concealed in -a corner of the room; but when her husband came in he caught sight of -it, and asked in a stern voice, "What have you got in that sack?" His -wife was too terrified to answer; and after an awkward pause a voice -from the sack was heard to say, "Only rice." - -A scoundrel who had a deep grudge against a wealthy man, sought out -a famous magician and asked for his help. "I can send demon soldiers -and secretly cut him off," said the magician. "Yes, but his sons and -grandsons would inherit," replied the other; "that won't do." "I can -draw down fire from heaven," said the magician, "and burn his house and -valuables." "Even then," answered the man, "his landed property would -remain; so that won't do." "Oh," cried the magician, "if your hate is -so deep as all that, I have something precious here which, if you can -persuade him to avail himself of it, will bring him and his to utter -smash." He thereupon gave to his delighted client a tightly closed -package, which, on being opened, was seen to contain a pen. "What -spiritual power is there in this?" asked the man. "Ah!" sighed the -magician, "you evidently do not know how many have been brought to ruin -by the use of this little thing." - -A doctor who had mismanaged a case was seized by the family and tied -up. In the night he managed to free himself, and escaped by swimming -across a river. When he got home, he found his son, who had just begun -to study medicine, and said to him, "Don't be in a hurry with your -books; the first and most important thing is to learn to swim." - -The King of Purgatory sent his lictors to earth to bring back some -skilful physician. "You must look for one," said the King, "at whose -door there are no aggrieved spirits of disembodied patients." The -lictors went off, but at the house of every doctor they visited there -were crowds of wailing ghosts hanging about. At last they found a -doctor at whose door there was only a single shade, and cried out, -"This man is evidently the skilful one we are in search of." On -inquiry, however, they discovered that he had only started practice the -day before. - -A general was hard pressed in battle and on the point of giving way, -when suddenly a spirit soldier came to his rescue and enabled him -to win a great victory. Prostrating himself on the ground, he asked -the spirit's name. "I am the God of the Target," replied the spirit. -"And how have I merited your godship's kind assistance?" inquired the -general. "I am grateful to you," answered the spirit, "because in your -days of practice you never once hit me." - -A portrait-painter, who was doing very little business, was advised by -a friend to paint a picture of himself and his wife, and to hang it out -in the street as an advertisement. This he did, and shortly afterwards -his father-in-law came along. Gazing at the picture for some time, -the latter at length asked, "Who is that woman?" "Why, that is your -daughter," replied the artist. "Whatever is she doing," again inquired -her father, "sitting there with that stranger?" - -A man who had been condemned to wear the _cangue_, or wooden collar, -was seen by some of his friends. "What have you been doing," they -asked, "to deserve this?" "Oh, nothing," he replied; "I only picked up -an old piece of rope." "And are you to be punished thus severely," they -said, "for merely picking up an end of rope?" "Well," answered the -man, "the fact is that there was a bullock tied to the other end." - -A man asked a friend to stay and have tea. Unfortunately there was -no tea in the house, so a servant was sent to borrow some. Before -the latter had returned the water was already boiling, and it became -necessary to pour in more cold water. This happened several times, and -at length the boiler was overflowing but no tea had come. Then the -man's wife said to her husband, "As we don't seem likely to get any -tea, you had better offer your friend a bath!" - -A monkey, brought after death before the King of Purgatory, begged to -be reborn on earth as a man. "In that case," said the King, "all the -hairs must be plucked out of your body," and he ordered the attendant -demons to pull them out forthwith. At the very first hair, however, the -monkey screeched out, and said he could not bear the pain. "You brute!" -roared the King, "how are you to become a man if you cannot even part -with a single hair?" - -A braggart chess-player played three games with a stranger and lost -them all. Next day a friend asked him how he had come off. "Oh," said -he, "I didn't win the first game, and my opponent didn't lose the -second. As for the third, I wanted to draw it, but he wouldn't agree." - - * * * * * - -[Sidenote: PROVERBS] - -The barest sketch of Chinese literature would hardly be complete -without some allusion to its proverbs and maxims. These are not only -to be found largely scattered throughout every branch of writing, -classical and popular, but may also be studied in collections, -generally under a metrical form. Thus the _Ming Hsien Chi_, to take -one example, which can be purchased anywhere for about a penny, -consists of thirty pages of proverbs and the like, arranged in -antithetical couplets of five, six, and seven characters to each line. -Children are made to learn these by heart, and ordinary grown-up -Chinamen may be almost said to think in proverbs. There can be no doubt -that to the foreigner a large store of proverbs, committed to memory -and judiciously introduced, are a great aid to successful conversation. -These are a few taken from an inexhaustible supply, omitting to a great -extent such as find a ready equivalent in English:-- - -Deal with the faults of others as gently as with your own. - -By many words wit is exhausted. - -If you bow at all, bow low. - -If you take an ox, you must give a horse. - -A man thinks he knows, but a woman knows better. - -Words whispered on earth sound like thunder in heaven. - -If fortune smiles--who doesn't? If fortune doesn't--who does? - -Moneyed men are always listened to. - -Nature is better than a middling doctor. - -Stay at home and reverence your parents; why travel afar to worship the -gods? - -A bottle-nosed man may be a teetotaller, but no one will think so. - -It is easier to catch a tiger than to ask a favour. - -With money you can move the gods; without it, you can't move a man. - -Bend your head if the eaves are low. - -Oblige, and you will be obliged. - -Don't put two saddles on one horse. - -Armies are maintained for years, to be used on a single day. - -In misfortune, gold is dull; in happiness, iron is bright. - -More trees are upright than men. - -If you fear that people will know, don't do it. - -Long visits bring short compliments. - -If you are upright and without guile, what god need you pray to for -pardon? - -Some study shows the need for more. - -One kind word will keep you warm for three winters. - -The highest towers begin from the ground. - -No needle is sharp at both ends. - -Straight trees are felled first. - -No image-maker worships the gods. He knows what stuff they are made of. - -Half an orange tastes as sweet as a whole one. - -We love our own compositions, but other men's wives. - -Free sitters at the play always grumble most. - -It is not the wine which makes a man drunk; it is the man himself. - -Better a dog in peace than a man in war. - -Every one gives a shove to the tumbling wall. - -Sweep the snow from your own doorstep. - -He who rides a tiger cannot dismount. - -Politeness before force. - -One dog barks at something, and the rest bark at him. - -You can't clap hands with one palm. - -Draw your bow, but don't shoot. - -One more good man on earth is better than an extra angel in heaven. - -Gold is tested by fire; man, by gold. - -Those who have not tasted the bitterest of life's bitters can never -appreciate the sweetest of life's sweets. - -Money makes a blind man see. - -Man is God upon a small scale. God is man upon a large scale. - -A near neighbour is better than a distant relation. - -Without error there could be no such thing as truth. - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE - - -What foreign students have achieved in the department of Chinese -literature from the sixteenth century down to quite recent times is -well exhibited in the three large volumes which form the _Bibliotheca -Sinica_, or _Dictionnaire Bibliographique des Ouvrages relatifs a -l'Empire chinois_, by Henri Cordier: Paris, Ernest Leroux, 1878; with -Supplement, 1895. This work is carried out with a fulness and accuracy -which leave nothing to be desired, and is essential to all systematic -workers in the Chinese field. - -By far the most important of all books mentioned in the above -collection is a complete translation of the Confucian Canon by the late -Dr. James Legge of Aberdeen, under the general title of _The Chinese -Classics_. The publication of this work, which forms the greatest -existing monument of Anglo-Chinese scholarship, extended from 1861 to -1885. - -The _Cursus Literaturae Sinicae_, by P. Zottoli, S.J., Shanghai, -1879-1882, is an extensive series of translations into Latin from all -branches of Chinese literature, and is designed especially for the use -of Roman Catholic missionaries (_neo-missionariis accommodatus_). - -Another very important work, now rapidly approaching completion, is a -translation by Professor E. Chavannes, College de France, of the famous -history described in Book II. chap, iii., under the title of _Les -Memoires Historiques de Se-ma Ts'ien_, the first volume of which is -dated Paris, 1895. - -_Notes on Chinese Literature_, by A. Wylie, Shanghai, 1867, contains -descriptive notices of about 2000 separate Chinese works, arranged -under Classics, History, Philosophy, and Belles Lettres, as in the -Imperial Catalogue (see p. 387). Considering the date at which it was -written, this book is entitled to rank among the highest efforts of the -kind. It is still of the utmost value to the student, though in need of -careful revision. - -The following Catalogues of Chinese libraries in Europe have been -published in recent years:-- - -_Catalogue of Chinese Printed Books, Manuscripts, and Drawings in the -Library of the British Museum._ By R. K. Douglas, 1877. - -_Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka._ By -Bunyio Nanjio, 1883. - -_Catalogue of the Chinese Books and Manuscripts in the Library of Lord -Crawford, Haigh Hall, Wigan._ By J. P. Edmond, 1895. - -_Catalogue of the Chinese and Manchu Books in the Library of the -University of Cambridge._ By H. A. Giles, 1898. - -_Catalogue des Livres Chinois, Coreens, Japonais, etc._, in the -Bibliotheque Nationale. By Maurice Courant, Paris, 1900. (Fasc. i. pp. -vii., 148, has already appeared.) - - * * * * * - -The chief periodicals especially devoted to studies in Chinese -literature are as follows:-- - -_The Chinese Repository_, published monthly at Canton from May 1832 to -December 1851. - -_The Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, -published annually at Shanghai from 1858 to 1884, and since that date -issued in fascicules at irregular intervals during each year. - -_The China Review_, published every two months at Hong-Kong from June -1872 to the present date. - -There is also the _Chinese Recorder_, which has existed since 1868, -and is now published every two months at Shanghai. This is, strictly -speaking, a missionary journal, but it often contains valuable papers -on Chinese literature and cognate subjects. - -_Varietes Sinologiques_ is the title of a series of monographs on -various Chinese topics, written and published at irregular intervals -by the Jesuit Fathers at Shanghai since 1892, and distinguished by the -erudition and accuracy of all its contributors. - - - - -INDEX - - - Anaesthetics, 278 - - Analects, 32-35 - - Art of War, 43, 44 - - - Bamboo Annals, 137 - - Barbarians, 400, 418, 428 - - Bashpa, 247 - - Beggar King, 291 - - Bibliography, 441 - - Biographies of Eminent Women, 92 - - Bodhidharma, 115 - - Book of Changes, 9, 21-23 - - Book of History, 7, 9, 10, 12 - - Book of Odes, 12-21, 256 - - Book of Rewards and Punishments, 418 - - Book of Rites, 23, 24, 41 - - Buddhism, 110-116, 403, 419 - - - Catalogue of the Imperial Library, 387, 418 - - _Chan Kuo Ts'e_, 92 - - CHANG CHI, 175, 176 - - CHANG CHIH-HO, 191 - - Chang Hsuean-tsu, 432 - - CHANG KUO-PIN, 274 - - CHANG PI, 209 - - CHANG T'ING-YUe, 404 - - CH'ANG CH'IEN, 158 - - Chao Ch'i, 36 - - CHAO I, 415 - - CHAO LI-HUA, 333 - - Chao Ping, 247 - - CHAO TS'AI-CHI, 333 - - CH'AO TS'O, 80 - - CH'EN HAO-TZU, 413 - - CH'EN HUNG-MOU, 404 - - CH'EN LIN, 122 - - CH'EN P'ENG-NIEN, 238 - - CH'EN T'AO, 204 - - CH'EN T'UAN, 233 - - CH'EN TZU-ANG, 147, 148 - - CHENG CH'IAO, 228 - - CHENG HSUeAN, 23, 95 - - CH'ENG HAO, 220, 236 - - CH'ENG I, 220 - - Chi Hsi, 127 - - CHI CHUeN-HSIANG, 269 - - _Chi Yuen_, 238 - - Chia I, 54, 97 - - _Chia Yue_, 48 - - CH'IEN LUNG, 14, 228, 252, 387, 417 - - _Chin Ku Ch'i Kuan_, 322 - - Ch'in Kuei, 261 - - _Ch'in P'ing Mei_, 309 - - _Ching Hua Yuean_, 316-322 - - _Chou Li_, 24 - - CHOU TUN-I, 219 - - _Ch'ou Jen Chuan_, 418 - - CHU HSI, 228-231 - - Chu-ko Liang, 277 - - CHU SHIH, 404 - - CHU YUNG-SHUN, 391 - - CH'Ue YUeAN, 50-53 - - CHUANG TZU, 60-68 - - _Ch'un Ch'iu_, 25 - - Ch'un-yue K'un, 430 - - _Chung Yung_, 41 - - Classic of Filial Piety, 48 - - Complete collection of the poetry of the T'ang dynasty, 143 - - Concordances, 385, 386 - - CONFUCIUS, 7, 12, 13, 22, 24, 25, 28, 32-35, 41, 48 - - Cookery-book, 409 - - Criminal cases of Lan Ting-yuean, 395 - - - Dictionaries, 109, 238, 385 - - Doctrine of the Mean, 41 - - Drama, 256-262, 325 - - Dream of the Red Chamber, 355 - - - Encyclopaedias, 239, 240, 386, 418 - - _Erh Tou Mei_, 324 - - _Erh Ya_, 44, 137 - - European works in Chinese, 429 - - - FA HSIEN, 111-114 - - _Fa Yen_, 93 - - Family maxims, 392 - - Family sayings of Confucius, 48 - - FAN YEH, 138 - - FANG HSIAO-JU, 294-296 - - FANG SHU-SHAO, 333, 334 - - FANG WEI-I, 417 - - _Fang Yen_, 94 - - _Feng Shen_, 310 - - FENG TAO, 210 - - First Emperor, 48, 77-79, 107, 108 - - Five Classics, 7-31 - - Flowery Ball, The, 264-268 - - Foreigners. See Barbarians - - Four Books, 32-42 - - Fu Hsi, 21 - - FU I, 134 - - FU MI, 128 - - - Gardening, 413 - - Gobharana, 110 - - Great Learning, 41 - - - HAN FEI TZU, 70-72 - - Han Wen-Kung, 160 - - HAN YUe, 160-163, 196-203, 355 - - Historical Record, 102 - - History, 102 - - History of the Ming Dynasty, 404 - - History of the Mongol Dynasty, 291 - - Ho Shang Kung, 95 - - _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, 273, 276 - - Hsi K'ang, 126 - - _Hsi Yu Chi_, 281-287, 310 - - _Hsi Yuean Lu_, 241-243 - - HSIANG HSIU, 61, 127 - - _Hsiao Ching_, 48 - - _Hsiao Lin Kuang Chi_, 433-436 - - _Hsiao Ts'ang Shan Fang Ch'ih Tu_, 405 - - HSIAO T'UNG, 139 - - HSIAO YEN, 133 - - Hsiao Yue, 134 - - HSIEH CHIN, 329-331 - - Hsieh Su-su, 332 - - HSIEH TAO-HENG, 133 - - HSUe AN-CHEN, 178 - - HSUe HSIEH, 305-307 - - HSUe KAN, 119 - - HSUe KUANG-CH'I, 308 - - HSUe SHEN, 109 - - Hsuean Tsang, 115, 281, 284-287 - - HSUeN HSUe, 137 - - HSUeN TZU, 47 - - Hua, Dr., 278-280 - - HUAI-NAN TZU, 72-74 - - HUANG-FU MI, 137 - - _Huang Ch'ing Ching Chieh_, 418 - - HUANG T'ING-CHIEN, 227, 228, 235, 236 - - Humour, Classical, 430 - - HUNG CHUeEH-FAN, 236 - - _Hung Lou Meng_, 355, 433 - - Hung Mai, 83, 94 - - - _I Ching_, 21 - - _I Li_, 25 - - - Jesuit Fathers, 308 - - _Jih Chih Lu_, 391 - - Joining the Shirt, 274 - - Journalism, 428 - - - _Kan Ying P'ien_, 418 - - K'ANG HSI, 385 - - _K'ang Hsi Tzu Tien_, 385 - - KAO CHUe-NIEN, 237 - - KAO TSE-CH'ENG, 326 - - Kao Tzu, 37-39 - - Kashiapmadanga, 110 - - KU CHIANG, 391 - - KU-LIANG, 29, 30 - - Ku Yen-wu, 391 - - Kuan Tzu, 44 - - _Kuang Yuen_, 238 - - Kublai Khan, 247, 248 - - Kumarajiva, 114 - - KUNG-YANG, 29-31 - - K'UNG AN-KUO, 80 - - K'UNG CHI, 36, 41 - - K'UNG JUNG, 120 - - K'ung Tao-fu, 258 - - K'UNG YING-TA, 190 - - KUO HSIANG, 61, 137 - - KUO P'O, 45, 138 - - _Kuo Yue_, 26 - - - LAN TING-YUeAN, 392 - - Lao Tan, 24 - - LAO TZU, 56-60 - - Lexicography, 190 - - Li Chi, 23, 25 - - Li Chia-ming, 431 - - LI FANG, 239, 240 - - LI HO, 175 - - LI HUA, 203, 204 - - LI LING, 81-89 - - LI PO, 151-156 - - LI PO-YAO, 190 - - _Li Sao_, 51 - - LI SHE, 177 - - LI SHIH-CHEN, 307 - - LI SSU, 78, 79 - - LI YANG-PING, 190, 191 - - Li Ying, 120 - - _Liao Chai Chih I_, 338-355 - - _Lieh Kuo Chuan_, 310-315 - - LIEH TZU, 68-70 - - Lin Hsi-chung, 60, 83, 165 - - Little Learning, 230 - - Liu An, 72 - - LIU CH'E, 99-101 - - LIU CHENG, 122 - - LIU CHI, 252, 432 - - LIU HENG, 98 - - LIU HSIANG, 92, 97 - - LIU HSIN, 92 - - Liu Hsue, 212, 217 - - LIU LING, 125, 126 - - _Liu Shu Ku_, 239 - - LIU TSUNG-YUeAN, 160, 191-196 - - LIU YIN, 251, 252 - - Liu Yuen, 432 - - LO KUAN-CHUNG, 277 - - LU WEN-SHU, 89-92 - - LU YUeAN-LANG, 189 - - LUe PU-WEI, 48 - - _Lue Shih Ch'un Ch'iu_, 48 - - _Lun Heng_, 94 - - _Lun Yue_, 32-35 - - - MA JUNG, 23, 94 - - MA TUAN-LIN, 240 - - MA TZU-JAN, 177 - - Materia Medica, 307 - - Mathematicians, Biographies of, 418 - - Matteo Ricci, 308, 418 - - Medical Jurisprudence, 240-243 - - MEI SHENG, 97 - - MENCIUS, 25, 35-40 - - MENG HAO-JAN, 149 - - Meng T'ien, 80 - - _Ming Chi Kang Mu_, 404 - - _Ming Hsien Chi_, 436 - - Ming Huang, Emperor, 257 - - "Mirror of Flowers," 413 - - Mirror of History, 217 - - Mongol Plays, 268 - - Mo Ti, 37, 40, 41 - - _Mu T'ien Tzu Chuan_, 49 - - - Nearing the Standard, 44, 45 - - New History of the T'ang Dynasty, 217 - - Nine Old Gentlemen of Hsiang-shan, 164 - - Novel, The Chinese, 276 - - - O-ERH-T'AI, 404 - - Odes. See Book of Odes - - Orphan of the Chao Family, 269 - - OU-YANG HSIU, 212-216, 217, 222, 432 - - - PAN, the Lady, 101, 393 - - PAN CHAO, 108 - - PAN KU, 108 - - Pan Piao, 108 - - PAO CHAO, 132 - - Pear-Garden, The, 257 - - _P'ei Wen Yuen Fu_, 385 - - _P'i Pa Chi_, 325-328 - - "Picking up Gold," 389 - - _P'ien Tzu Lei P'ien_, 386 - - _Ping Fa_, 43 - - _P'ing Shan Leng Yen_, 323, 324 - - PO CHUe-I, 163-175 - - Poetesses, 101, 332, 333 - - Poetry, 143-146 - - Printing, Invention of, 209 - - Proverbs and Maxims, 437-439 - - P'U SUNG-LING, 338-355 - - - Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms, 111-114 - - Record of Travels in the West, 281-287 - - Rites of the Chou dynasty, 24 - - Roman Catholic missionaries, 401 - - - Sacred Edict, 386 - - _San Kuo Chih Yen I_, 277-280, 310 - - _San Tzu Ching_, 89, 250, 251 - - Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, 61, 125 - - Seven Scholars of the Chien-An Period, 119 - - SHAN T'AO, 128 - - _Shanghai News_, 428 - - SHAO YUNG, 234 - - _Shen Pao_, 428 - - Shen Su, 299 - - SHEN YO, 138 - - _Shih Ching_, 12 - - _Shih Lei Fu_, 239 - - _Shu Ching_, 7 - - SHIH NAI-AN, 280 - - _Shui Hu Chuan_, 280, 281, 310 - - Shun, Emperor, 7, 8 - - _Shuo Wen_, 109 - - Six Idlers of the Bamboo Grove, 152 - - Six Scripts, 239 - - Six Traitorous Ministers of the Ming dynasty, 297, 299 - - Slaying a Son at the Yamen Gate, 271-273 - - Spring and Autumn Annals, 25-31 - - SSU-K'UNG T'U, 179-188 - - SSU-MA CH'IEN, 57, 102-108 - - Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju, 97 - - SSU-MA KUANG, 217-219 - - Story of the Guitar, 325 - - Story of the Three Kingdoms, 277-280 - - Story of the Western Pavilion, 273 - - "Strange Stories," 338-355 - - SU CHE, 227 - - SU SHIH, 83, 222-227 - - Su Tai, 77 - - Su Tung-p'o, 161, 222 - - SU WU, 82, 83 - - SUN SHU-JAN, 137 - - SUN TZU, 43, 44 - - SUNG CH'I, 212, 216, 238 - - SUNG CHIH-WEN, 148, 149 - - SUNG LIEN, 291-293 - - Sung Tz'u, 241 - - SUNG YUe, 53 - - Sung Yuen, 115 - - - _Ta Hsueeh_, 41 - - TAI, the Elder, 23 - - ---- the Younger, 23 - - TAI T'UNG, 238, 239 - - _T'ai Hsuean Ching_, 93 - - _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, 240 - - _T'ai P'ing Yue Lan_, 239, 418 - - Tan Ming-lun, 342 - - T'AN KUNG, 45-47 - - T'ang the Completer, 9 - - Taoism, 56-74, 419 - - _Tao Te Ching_, 56-60, 227 - - T'AO CH'IEN, 128-132 - - T'ao Ku, 431 - - T'ao Yuean-ming, 128 - - Ten Courts of Purgatory, 420 - - Three Character Classic, 250, 251 - - Three Suspicions, The, 262, 263 - - Topography of Kuangtung, 418 - - Ts'ai Ch'ien, 418 - - TS'AI YUNG, 95 - - Ts'ang Chieh, 6 - - TS'AO CHIH, 123, 124 - - TS'AO TS'AO, 120, 123, 277, 278-280 - - TS'EN TS'AN, 159 - - TSENG TS'AN, 41, 48 - - _Tso Chuan_, 8, 26-29, 256 - - TS'UI HAO, 150, 151 - - TSUNG CH'EN, 301-303 - - TU CH'IN-NIANG, 178 - - TU FU, 156-158 - - TU YU, 191, 240 - - _T'u Shu Chi Ch'eng_, 386 - - Tung-fang So, 54, 97 - - _T'ung Chien_, 217 - - _T'ung Chien Kang Mu_, 228 - - _T'ung Chien Kang Mu San Pien_, 404 - - _T'ung Tien_, 191, 240 - - Twenty-four Dynastic Histories, 103 - - Twice Flowering Plum-trees, 324 - - - Wall Literature, 425, 426 - - WANG AN-SHIH, 217, 220-222, 235 - - WANG CHI, 135 - - Wang Chieh, 415 - - WANG CHIEN, 159 - - WANG CH'UNG, 94 - - WANG JUNG, 128 - - WANG PO, 146, 147 - - Wang Pu-ch'ing, 229 - - Wang Shih-cheng, 309 - - WANG SHIH-FU, 273 - - Wang Su, 48 - - WANG TAO-K'UN, 303-305 - - WANG TS'AN, 121 - - Wang Tzu-ch'iao, 151 - - WANG WEI, 149, 150 - - WANG YING-LIN, 250 - - WEI CHENG, 189 - - _Wen Hsien T'ung K'ao_, 240 - - _Wen Hsuean_, 140 - - WEN T'IEN-HSIANG, 248-250 - - Wen Tzu, 44 - - Wen Wang, 9, 21 - - Wit and Humour, 432 - - Women, Biographies of, 92 - - Women as Writers, 417 - - Women, Proper Training of, 393 - - Women's Degrees, 316 - - WU SHU, 239 - - Wu Tzu, 44 - - Wu Wang, 10, 21 - - - YANG Chi-sheng, 297, 301 - - Yang Chu, 37, 40 - - YANG HSIUNG, 93 - - YANG I, 234 - - Yang Kuei-fei, 168-175 - - Yang Ti, 136 - - Yao, Emperor, 7, 8 - - YEH SHIH, 237 - - YEN SHIH-KU, 190 - - YING YANG, 122 - - Yo Fei, 261 - - Yue, The Great, 8, 12, 26 - - _Yue Chiao Li_, 309 - - _Yue Li Ch'ao Chuan_, 420 - - YUeAN CHI, 127 - - _Yuean Chien Lei Han_, 386 - - _Yuean Ch'ue Hsuean Tsa Chi_, 268 - - YUeAN HSIEN, 127 - - YUeAN MEI, 405 - - Yuean Shao, 95 - - YUeAN YUe, 122 - - YUeAN YUeAN, 417 - - Yung Cheng, 387 - - Yung Lo, 296 - - _Yung Lo Ta Tien_, 296 - - -THE END - - - * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's Note - - -Duplicate title pages before each book have been removed. Page headers -have been placed as sidenotes before the text which they relate to. - -The following apparent printing errors have been corrected: - -p. 15 "_You seemed_" changed to ""_You seemed_" - -p. 22 "[HEXAGRAM FOR SMALL TAMING]" changed to "[HEXAGRAM FOR TREADING]" - -p. 123 "TS'AO TSAO" changed to "TS'AO TS'AO" - -P. 170 "_Feather Jacket_" changed to "_Feather Jacket."_" - -p. 171 "Ssuchuan" changed to "Ssuch'uan" - -p. 173 "SPIRIT-LAND." changed to "SPIRIT-LAND." - -p. 179 "Tu" changed to "T'u" - -p. 184 "SECLUSION" changed to "SECLUSION." - -p. 212 "C'hi" changed to "Ch'i" - -p. 222 "Tung-po" changed to "Tung-p'o" - -p. 233 "CH'EN TUAN" changed to "CH'EN T'UAN" - -p. 249 "Tien-hsiang" changed "T'ien-hsiang" - -p. 275 "villain" changed to "villain." - -p. 283 "aswered" changed to "answered" - -p. 338 "P'u Sung-lang" changed to "P'u Sung-ling" - -p. 366 "of elm." changed to "of elm," - -p. 444 "386, 41" changed to "386, 418" - -p. 445 "Meng T'ien" changed to "Meng T'ien" - -p. 446 "_Shiu Hu Chuan_" changed to "_Shui Hu Chuan_" - -p. 447 "TSENG TS'AN" changed to "TSENG TS'AN" - - -The text and commentaries on p. 29 were printed with no closing quotes. - -In the index, small capitals are used inconsistently for the whole name -or for the family name only. The following are also used inconsistently -in the text: - -every-day and everyday - -ferry-man and ferryman - -glow-worm and glowworm - -head-dress and headdress - -night-jar and nightjar - -oft-times and ofttimes - -TAO-K'UN and TAO-K'UN - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of Chinese Literature, by -Herbert A. 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