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diff --git a/43713-0.txt b/43713-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ad8430e --- /dev/null +++ b/43713-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8385 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43713 *** + + UNIQUE AND POPULAR WORKS FOR ALL + NATURE LOVERS. + + _Uniform with this Volume._ + + * * * * * + + Wayside and Woodland + Blossoms + + A Pocket Guide to British Wild Flowers + for the Country Rambler. + + (_First and Second Series._) + + With Clear Descriptions of 760 Species. + + BY + + EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. + + And Coloured Figures of 257 Species by + MABEL E. STEP. + + * * * * * + + Wayside and Woodland + Trees + + A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva. + + BY + + EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. + + With 127 Plates from Original Photographs by + HENRY IRVING, + + And 57 Illustrations of the Leaves, Flowers and Fruit by + MABEL E. STEP. + + * * * * * + + AT ALL BOOKSELLERS. + + _Full Prospectuses on application to the Publishers_-- + + FREDERICK WARNE AND CO. + + LONDON: 15, Bedford Street, Strand. + NEW YORK: 36, East 22nd Street. + + + + + THE WAYSIDE + AND WOODLAND + SERIES + + + THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE + BRITISH ISLES + + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 1. _Frontispiece._ Swallow-tail Butterfly. _Male +and female, with caterpillars and chrysalids._] + + + + + THE BUTTERFLIES + + OF THE + + BRITISH ISLES + + + BY + + + RICHARD SOUTH, F.E.S. + + + EDITOR OF + + "THE ENTOMOLOGIST," ETC. + + WITH + + ACCURATELY COLOURED FIGURES + OF EVERY SPECIES AND MANY VARIETIES + ALSO DRAWINGS OF EGG, CATERPILLAR + CHRYSALIS, AND FOOD-PLANT + + LONDON + FREDERICK WARNE & CO. + AND NEW YORK + 1906 + + (_All rights reserved_) + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Few things add more enjoyment to a country ramble than a knowledge of +the many and varied forms belonging to the animal and vegetable kingdoms +that present themselves to the notice of the observing wayfarer on every +side. + +Almost every one admires the wild flowers that Nature produces so +lavishly, and in such charming variety of form and colour; but, in +addition to their own proper florescence, the plants of woodland, +meadow, moor, or down have other "blossoms" that arise from them, +although they are not of them. These are the beautiful winged creatures +called butterflies, which as crawling caterpillars obtain their +nourishment from plant leafage, and in the perfect state help the bees +to rifle the flowers of their sweets, and at the same time assist in the +work of fertilization. + +It is the story of these aërial flowers that we wish to tell, and hope +that in the telling we may win from the reader a loving interest in some +of the most attractively interesting of Nature's children. + +There are many people, no doubt, who take an intelligent interest in +the various forms of animal life, and yet do not care to collect +specimens because, as in the case of butterflies for instance, the +necessity arises for killing their captives. Such lovers of Nature are +quite satisfied to know the names of the species, and to learn something +of their life-histories and habits. Still, however, there are others, +and possibly a larger number, who will desire to capture a few specimens +of each kind of butterfly for closer examination and study. It is +believed that this little volume will be found useful to both sections +of naturalists alike. + +The author in preparing the book has been largely guided by a +recollection of the kind of information he sought when he himself was a +beginner, now some forty odd years ago. + +In conclusion, he desires to tender his most sincere thanks to the +undermentioned gentlemen, who so kindly furnished him with eggs, +caterpillars, and chrysalids; or favoured him with the loan of some of +their choicest varieties of butterflies for figuring; without their +valued assistance many of the illustrations could not have been +prepared:--Rev. Gilbert Raynor, Major Robertson, Messrs. F. Noad Clark, +T. Dewhurst, C.H. Forsythe, F.W. Frohawk, A.H. Hamm, A. Harrison, H. +Main, A.M. Montgomery, E.D. Morgan, G.B. Oliver, J. Ovenden, G. Randell, +A.L. Rayward, E.J. Salisbury, A.H. Shepherd, F.A. Small, L.D. Symington, +A.E. Tonge, B. Weddell, F.G. Whittle, and H. Wood. + +_Varieties_--Messrs. R. Adkin, J.A. Clark, F.W. Frohawk, and E. Sabine. + +With kind permission of the Ray Society, figures of the following larvæ +and pupæ have been reproduced from Buckler's "Larvæ of British +Butterflies":--_P. daplidice_, _C. edusa_, _M. athalia_, _P. c-album_, +_S. semele_, _A. hyperanthus_, _C. typhon_, _C. pamphilus_, _C. rubi_, +_C. argiolus_, _A. thaumas_, _A. actæon_. Larva only--_L. sinapis_, _A. +selene_, _A. aurinia_, and _T. pruni_. + +Figures of _A. cratægi_, _A. lineola_, and _C. palæmon_ have been made +from preserved skins. + +For coloured plates, 1, 30, 42, 48, 58, 66, 98, 100, 112, 116, 118, and +the accurately drawn black-and-white figures, including enlargements, +the author is greatly indebted to Mr. Horace Knight. + + + + +INTRODUCTORY. + + +Butterflies belong to the great Order of insects called Lepidoptera +(Greek _lepis_, a scale, and _pteron_, a wing), that is, insects whose +wings are covered with minute structures termed scales. Moths +(Heterocera) also belong to the same order, and the first point to deal +with is how may butterflies be distinguished from moths? In a broad kind +of way they may be recognized by their horns (_antennæ_), which are +slender as regards the shaft, but are gradually or abruptly clubbed at +the extremity. For this reason they were designated Rhopalocera, or +"club horned," the Heterocera being supposed to have horns of various +kinds other than clubbed. As a matter of fact this method of separating +moths and butterflies does not hold good in dealing with the Lepidoptera +of the world, and it is from a study of these, as a whole, that +systematists have arrived at the conclusion that there is no actual line +of division between moths and butterflies. In modern classification, +then, butterflies are reduced from the rank of a sub-order, which they +formerly held, and are now dovetailed into the various newer systems of +arrangement between certain families of moths. + +As regards British butterflies, however, it will be found that these +may be known, as such, by their clubbed horns. Only the Burnets among +British moths have horns in any way similar, and these are thickened +gradually towards the extremity rather than clubbed. Day-flying moths, +especially the bright-coloured ones, might be mistaken for butterflies +by the uninitiated, but in all these the horns will be found not at all +butterfly-like. + +Although varieties of the species will be referred to in the descriptive +portion of the book, a few general remarks on variation in butterflies +may here be made. All kinds are liable to vary in tint or in the +markings, sometimes in both. Such variation, in the more or less +constant species especially, is perhaps only trivial and therefore +hardly attracts attention. In a good many kinds variation is often of a +very pronounced character, and is then almost certain to obtain notice. +Except in a few instances, where the aberration is of an unusual kind, +it is possible to obtain all the intermediate stages, or gradations, +between the ordinary form of a species and its most extreme variety. A +series of such connecting links in the variation of a species is of +greater interest, and higher educational value, than one in which the +extremes alone have a place. + +In those kinds of butterflies that attain the perfect state twice in the +year, the individuals composing the first flight are somewhat different +in marking from those of the second flight. Such species as the large +and small whites exhibit this kind of variation, which is termed +seasonal dimorphism. The males of some species, as for example the +Common Blue and the Orange-tip, differ from the females in colour; this +is known as sexual dimorphism. The Silver-Washed Fritillary, which has +two forms of the female, one brown like the male, the other green or +greenish in colour, is a good example of dimorphism confined to one sex. +Gynandrous specimens, sometimes called "Hermaphrodites," are those which +exhibit both male and female coloration, or other wing characters; when +one side is entirely male and the other side entirely female, the +gynandromorphism would be described as complete. + +The ornamentation on the under side of a butterfly differs from that of +the upper side, and is found to assimilate or harmonize in a remarkable +manner with the usual resting-place. It is therefore of service to the +insect when settled with wings erect over the back, in the manner of all +butterflies, except some few kinds of Skippers. + +The number of known species of butterflies throughout the world has been +put at about thirteen thousand, and it has been suggested by Dr. Sharp +that there may be nearly twice as many still awaiting discovery. Dr. +Staudinger in his "Catalog" gives a list of over seven hundred kinds of +butterflies as occurring in the whole of the Palæarctic Region. This +zoological region embraces Europe, including the British Islands, Africa +north of the Atlas range of mountains, and temperate Asia, including +Japan. The entire number of species that can by any means be regarded as +British does not exceed sixty-eight. Even this limited total comprises +sundry migratory butterflies, such as the Clouded Yellows, the Painted +Lady, the Red Admiral, the Camberwell Beauty, and the Milkweed +Butterfly; and also the still less frequent, or perhaps more accidental +visitors, the Long-tailed Blue and the Bath White. Again, the Large +Copper is now extinct in England, and the Mazarine Blue does not seem to +have been observed in any of its old haunts in the country for over +forty years. The Black-veined White is also scarce and exceedingly +local. + +The majority of the remaining fifty-seven butterflies may be considered +natives, and of these about half are so widely distributed that the +young collector should, if fairly energetic, secure nearly all of them +during his first campaign. The other species will have to be looked for +in their special localities, but a few kinds are so strictly attached to +particular spots, that a good deal of patience will have to be exercised +before a chance may occur of obtaining them. + +A few remarks may here be made in reference to the names and arrangement +adopted in the present volume. + +As will be adverted to in the descriptive section, the English names of +our butterflies have not always been quite the same as those now in +general use. There has, however, been far less stability in scientific +nomenclature, and very many changes in both generic and specific names +have been made during the past twenty years, more especially perhaps +within the last decade. + +Genera are now founded by some specialists on characters which formerly +served to distinguish one species from another, whilst other authorities +merge several genera in one upon certain details of structure that are +common to them all. + +Patient research into the entomological antiquities has revealed much +important material, some of which may furnish a new interpretation of +the Linnean classification of Lepidoptera. + +The discovery of the earliest Latin specific name bestowed upon an +insect, is a labour which entails a large expenditure of time and +requires fine judgment. Great credit is therefore due to those who +undertake such investigations, the result of which may tend to the +establishment of a fixed nomenclature in the, probably not remote, +future, although it sadly hampers and perplexes students in the +meanwhile. + +All things considered then, it has been deemed advisable not to make +many changes in specific names, and to retain the old genera as far as +possible. The arrangement of families, genera, etc., will be found to +accord with that most generally accepted both in England and on the +continent. + + + + +THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES. + + + + +PART I. + +THE LIFE CYCLE OF A BUTTERFLY. + + +As is the case with all other Lepidoptera, butterflies pass through +three very distinct stages before they attain the perfect form. These +stages are:--1. The egg (_ovum_, plural _ova_). 2. The caterpillar +(_larva_, _larvæ_). 3. The chrysalis (_pupa_, _pupæ_). The perfect +insect is called the _imago_ (plural _imagines_). + + +The Egg. + +Butterfly eggs are of various forms, and whilst in some kinds the +egg-shell (_chorion_) is elaborately ribbed or fluted, others are simply +pitted or covered with a kind of network or reticulation; others, again, +are almost or quite smooth. If the top of an egg, such as that of the +Purple Emperor (Plate 28), is examined under a good lens a depression +will be noted, and in this will be seen a neat and starlike kind of +ornamentation. In the middle of this "rosette" are, present in all eggs, +minute apertures known as micropyles (little doors), and it is through +these that the spermatozoa of the male finds entry to the interior of +the egg and fertilization is effected. The changes that occur in the egg +after it is laid are of a very complex nature, and readers who may +desire information on this subject are referred to Sharp's "Insects," +Part I., in the "Cambridge Natural History," where also will be found +much interesting and instructive matter connected with the caterpillar +and chrysalis, to which stages only brief reference can here be made. + + +The Caterpillar. + +The second stage is that of the caterpillar, and in some species, such +as the Red Admiral, this is of very short duration, a few weeks only, +whilst in others, as for example the Small Blue, it usually lasts for +many months. There is considerable diversity both in the shape and, +where it is present, in the hairy or spiny clothing (_armature_) of +caterpillars. All, however, are alike in one respect, that is the body +is divided into thirteen more or less well-defined rings (_segments_), +which together with the head make up fourteen divisions. In referring to +these body-rings, the first three nearest the head, each of which is +furnished with a pair of true legs (_thoracic legs_), are called the +thoracic segments, as they correspond to the thorax of the perfect +butterfly. The remaining ten rings are the abdominal segments; the last +two are not always easily separable one from the other, and so for all +practical purposes they may be considered only nine in number. These +nine rings, then, correspond to the abdomen of the future butterfly. The +third to sixth of this series have each a pair of false legs +(_prolegs_), and there is also a pair on the last ring; the latter are +the anal claspers. + +The warts (_tubercles_) are the bases of hairs and spines, and are to be +seen in most butterfly caterpillars, but they generally require a lens +to bring them clearly into view. These warts are usually arranged in two +rows on the back (_dorsal series_) and three rows on each side (_lateral +series_). + +All the various parts referred to, or to be presently mentioned, may be +seen in Fig. 1, which also shows a peculiarity that is found in very +young caterpillars of the Orange-tip, and in some others of the "Whites" +(_Pieridæ_). The odd thing about this baby caterpillar is that the fine +hair arising from each wart is forked at the tip (Fig. 1, _a_), and +holds thereon a minute globule of fluid. When the caterpillars become +about half grown these special hairs are lost in a general clothing of +fine hair. Fig. 1, _b_, represents a magnified single ring of the +caterpillar, and this shows a spiracle and the folds of the skin +(_subsegments_). The manner in which such folding occurs is to be +observed in the higher study of larval morphology. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + +Young caterpillar of Orange-tip highly magnified. + +(_After Sharp._)] + +On each ring, except the second (including now the three thoracic with +the nine abdominal; and so making twelve rings), the third, and the +last, there is an oval or roundish mark which indicates the position of +the breathing hole (_spiracle_). Through these minute openings air +enters to the breathing tubes (_tracheæ_), which are spread throughout +the interior of the caterpillar in a seemingly complicated kind of +network of main branches and finer twigs; air is thus conveyed to every +part of the body. In the event of one or two air-holes becoming in any +way obstructed, the caterpillar would possibly be none the worse; but if +all the openings were closed up effectually, it would almost certainly +die. Total immersion in water, even for some hours, is not always fatal. + +Turning again to the "feet" of the caterpillar, it will be seen from +the figure that the true legs (_a_) differ from the false legs (_b_) in +structure. The former are horny, jointed, and have terminal claws; the +latter are fleshy, with sliding joints, and the foot is furnished with a +series of minute hooks which enable the caterpillar to obtain a secure +hold when feeding, etc. The false legs are also the chief means of +locomotion, as the true legs are of little service for this purpose. The +true legs, however, appear to be of use when the caterpillar is feeding, +as the leaf is held between them so as to keep it steady whilst the jaws +are doing their work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + +(_a_) True and (_b_) false legs.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. + +_a_, labrum; _b_, mandible; _c_, antenna; _d_, ocelli; _e_, maxilla; +_f_, labium; _g_, spinneret; _h_, labial palp.] + +In the accompanying figure of the head of a caterpillar the mouth parts +are clearly shown. The biting jaws (_mandibles_) are slightly apart, +above them is seen the upper lip (_labrum_), and below them is the under +lip (_labium_ or _lingua_). The _maxillæ_ are very tiny affairs, but +they should be noted because in the butterfly they become the basal +portions of the two tubes which, when united together, form the sucking +organs (_proboscis_). The eyes, or ocelli as they are termed, are +minute, and are said to be of slight use to the caterpillar as organs of +sight, so that it probably has to depend on its little feelers +(_antennæ_) for guidance to the right plants for its nourishment. +Attention should also be given to the spinneret, as it is by means of +this that the silken threads, etc., for its various requirements are +provided; the substance itself being secreted in glands placed in the +body of the caterpillar. The palpi are organs of touch, and seem to be +of use to the caterpillar when moving about. + +Immediately after hatching, many caterpillars eat the egg-shell for +their first meal; they then settle down to the business of feeding and +growing. It should be remembered that it is entirely on growth made +whilst in the caterpillar stage that the size of a butterfly depends. In +the course of a day or two the necessity arises for fasting, as +moulting, an important event, is about to take place. Having spun a +slender carpet of silk on a leaf or twig, the caterpillar secures itself +thereto, and then awaits the moment when all is ready for the +transformation to commence. After a series of twistings from side to +side and other contortions, the skin yields along the back near the +head, the head is drawn away from its old covering and thrust through +the slit in the back, the old skin then peels downwards whilst the +caterpillar draws itself upwards until it is free. The new skin, +together with any hairs or spines with which it may be clothed, is at +first very soft. In the course of a short time all is perfected, and the +caterpillar is ready to enter upon its second stage of growth. At the +end of the second stage the skin-changing operation is again performed, +and the whole business is repeated two or more times afterwards. +Finally, however, when the caterpillar has shed its skin for the last +time, the chrysalis is revealed, but with the future wings seemingly +free. These, together with the other organs, are soon fixed down to the +body by the shell, which results from a varnish-like ooze which covers +all the parts and then hardens. + +Generally speaking, newly hatched caterpillars, though of different +kinds, are in certain respects somewhat alike, but the special +characters of each begin to appear, as a rule, after the first change of +skin (_ecdysis_), and these go on developing with each successive stage +(_stadium_) until the caterpillar is full grown. The form assumed in +each stage is termed the _instar_, therefore a caterpillar just from the +egg would be referred to as in the first instar; between the first and +second changes of skin, as in the second instar, and so on to the +chrysalis, which in the case of a caterpillar that moulted, or changed +its skin, four times before attaining full growth, would be the sixth +instar, and the butterfly would then be the seventh instar. In practice, +however, it is usually the stages of the caterpillar alone that are +indicated in this way. + + +The Chrysalis. + +The term _chrysalis_ more especially applies to such of them as are +spotted or splashed with metallic colour, as, for example, the +chrysalids of some of the Fritillaries. The scientific term for the +chrysalis is _pupa_, which in the Latin tongue means "a doll or puppet." + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. + +Caterpillar of Small White, about to change to chrysalis.] + +In passing to the chrysalis stage the caterpillars have sometimes to +make rather more preparations than in previous skin-changing provisions. +Those of the Swallow-tail, Whites, Orange-tip, and similar kinds have to +provide a silken girdle for the waist as well as a pad for the tail. +Chrysalids that hang suspended, head downwards, such as the Vanessids, +Fritillaries, etc., are attached by the cremaster--a hooked arrangement +on the tail (Fig. 5)--to a pad of silk; others, such as the Blues and +the Coppers, appear to be held in position on a leaf, or some other +object, by means of a fine girdle of silk, or sometimes a few silken +threads spread net-like above and below them--rudiments of a cocoon in +fact. Chrysalids of the Skippers are enclosed in a more or less complete +cocoon placed within a chamber, formed of a leaf or leaves of the +food-plant, drawn together by silken cables. Some of these chrysalids +are furnished with hooks on the tail as well as with a girdle for +suspension; but others have hooks only. + +As almost all the chrysalids here considered are figured in the +illustrations, it will be unnecessary to refer in detail to their great +diversity in form, but a few general remarks on the structure of a +chrysalis may be made. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. + +Enlarged view of cremaster, and a hook still more enlarged. + +(_After Sharp._)] + +If the upper (_dorsal_) surface of a chrysalis is examined, the thorax +and the body divisions will easily be made out, while, by looking at the +sides and the under (_ventral_) surface, the various organs, such as the +wings, legs, antennæ, etc., will be found neatly laid along each side of +the "tongue," or proboscis, which latter extends down the centre. All +these are separately encased, but by reason of the shell mentioned in +the remarks on the caterpillar, they appear to be welded together. When, +however, the butterfly is ready to emerge, the shell of the chrysalis is +split along the thorax and at the lower edge of the wing-cases, and the +insect is then able to release itself from the pupal trappings. This +breaking open of the chrysalis shell is termed dehiscence (_dehisco_, +"to split open"), and the manner in which it is effected varies in +different species. The emergence of a butterfly from the chrysalis is +always an interesting operation to observe, and every one should make a +point of watching the process, so that he may obtain practical knowledge +of how the thing is done. A photograph of it will be found in the +description of the Wall Butterfly. + + +The Butterfly. + +Having safely cleared itself free of the chrysalis shell, the butterfly +makes its way to some suitable twig, spray, or other object, from which +it can hang, sometimes in an inverted position, whilst a very important +function takes place. This is the distention and drying of the wings, +which at first are very weak and somewhat baggy affairs, although the +colour and markings appear upon them in miniature. All other parts of +the butterfly seem fully formed, but the helpless condition of the wings +alone prevent it as yet from floating off into the air. In a remarkably +short time, after the insect has settled to the business, the fluids +from the body commence to flow and circulate through the wings, and +these are seen gradually expanding and filling out until they attain +their proper size. Occasionally there is some obstruction to the equal +distribution of the fluids, and when this occurs a greater or lesser +amount of distortion, or cockle, in the wing affected is the result. +When the inflation is completed the wings are kept straight out for a +time; they are then motionless, but all their surfaces are well apart. +The wings being now fully developed, the further flow of fluid appears +to be arrested. It has been stated by some authorities that this fluid +is fibrin held in solution, and that when the work of expansion has been +accomplished, the watery medium evaporates, leaving the fibrin to +harden, and so fasten together the upper and lower membranes of the wing +and to fix the veins, or nerves, in their proper position. Mayer, a +specialist on these matters, referring to the expansion of the wings, +remarks that the blood [the fluid previously mentioned] forced into the +freshly emerged wing would cause it to become a balloon-shaped bag if it +were not for fibres that hold the upper and lower walls closely +together. The fibres referred to, he states, are derived from those +hypodermic cells which do not contribute to the formation of scales, but +are stretched out from one wall of the wing to the other. + +It may be well now to briefly consider some of the structural details +of the perfect butterfly, so a beginning will be made with the head +(Fig. 6). When looking at the head of a butterfly, the first thing to +attract the attention is the very large size of the compound eye (_a_), +which seems to take up the largest share of the whole affair. Although +so bulky and so complex in the matter of divisions, or facets, as they +are termed (the facets are not shown in figure), the power of sight is +not really very keen. A butterfly can see things in a general way +readily enough, but it seems unable to clearly distinguish one object +from another. When engaged in egg-laying, the female butterfly rarely +fails to place her eggs on a leaf or spray of the plant that the future +caterpillar will feed upon, and it has been suggested that in making +this unerring selection the insect is guided more by the sense of smell +than by that of sight. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. + +=Head of Butterfly.= + +_a_, compound eye; _b_, palp; _c_, antenna; _d_, proboscis.] + +The horns (_c_) (_antennæ_), or feelers, as they are sometimes called, +which adorn the head, are now considered to be organs of smell. These +are composed of a number of rings or segments, which vary in the +different kinds of butterfly, as also does the shape of the terminal +rings forming what is known as the club. In Fig. 7, _e_ (Purple Emperor) +and _f_ (Marbled White) represent the gradually thickened club; in _g_ +(Brimstone) and _h_ (Dark-green Fritillary) the clubs are more or less +abruptly formed. Our Skippers have well-developed clubs; these may be +hooked at the tip as in _i_ (Large Skipper), or blunt at the tip as in +_j_ (Chequered Skipper); at the base of the Skipper's antenna, that is +at the point where it is inserted in the head, there is a tuft of rather +long hairs. + +Of the various mouth parts it will only be necessary to refer to the +suction-tube, Fig. 6, _d_ (_proboscis_), often called the "tongue," +which is perhaps the most important, at least to the butterfly itself, +as this organ is, in a way, as useful to it in the perfect state as were +the very differently constructed strong biting jaws (_mandibles_) of its +caterpillar existence. These latter in the butterfly are only +microscopically represented, and the suction-tube of the perfect insect +is an extension of the maxillæ, which in the caterpillar are not +conspicuous. When not engaged in probing the nectaries of flowers for +the sweets they contain, the suction-tube is neatly coiled up between +the palpi (Fig. 6, _b_). Its great flexibility is due to the many rings +of which it is composed. Although seemingly entire, it is really made up +of two tubes, each being grooved on its inner side, and forming, when +the edges are brought together, an additional central canal, through +which the sweets from the flowers and other liquids are drawn up into a +bulb-like receptacle in the head, whence it passes into the stomach. +When it is remembered that the passage of sweet, and no doubt sticky, +fluid through the central tube would most probably result in its walls +becoming clogged, there is reason to suppose that the method of +construction permits of the canal being cleansed from time to time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. + +=Antennæ of Butterflies.=] + +The important divisions of the body are the thorax and the abdomen. The +former is made up of three segments (named the pro-, meso-, and +meta-thorax), each of which, as in the caterpillar state, is furnished +with a pair of legs; the second and third, which are closely united, +each bear a pair of wings also. The legs, which in the butterfly are +adapted for walking at a leisurely pace, are made up of four main parts; +these are (a) the basal joint (_coxa_, _coxæ_), (_b_) the thigh +(_femur_, _femora_), (_c_) the shank (_tibia_, _tibiæ_), and (_d_) the +foot (_tarsus_, _tarsi_). The small joint uniting the coxa with the +femur is the trochanter (_tr._). The foot usually has five joints, the +last of which is provided with claws (_e_). The abdomen really consists +of ten rings or segments according to some specialists. Examined from +above, the female butterfly appears to have only seven rings and the +male butterfly eight. This discrepancy arises from the fact that in the +former sex two rings and in the latter one ring are withdrawn into the +body, and so are tucked away out of sight. The organs of reproduction +are placed in the terminal ring. The breathing arrangements are pretty +much as in the caterpillar, but the external openings are not so +apparent owing to the dense clothing of the body. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8. + +=Leg of Butterfly.=] + +The beauty of a butterfly's wings is intimately connected with the form +and colour of the scales with which they are covered, as with a kind of +mosaic; but before the scales and their method of attachment, etc., are +referred to, something should be said about the wings themselves. The +various shapes of these organs of flight will be seen on turning to the +plates, where will be found accurate portraits of every species that +will be dealt with in the descriptive section later on. + +A butterfly's wing consists of an upper and a lower membrane, with a +framework of hollow tubes, acting as ribs, between the two layers. Fig. +9, A, shows a fore and a hind wing of the Swallow-tail butterfly. The +point of attachment with the thorax is the base of the wing, and the +edge farthest from the base is the outer margin (_termen_); the upper +edge, or front margin, is the costa; and the lower edge is the inner +margin (_dorsum_). The point where the upper margin meets the outer +margin on the fore wing is the apex, but on the hind wing it is called +the outer angle; the angle formed by the junction of outer and inner +margins is the inner angle of the fore wing, but the anal angle of the +hind wing. The term _tornus_ is sometimes used for this angle on either +wing. Dividing the wings transversely into three portions, we have three +areas, termed respectively basal, central or discal, and outer. These +are terms used in descriptions of butterflies, and it will be useful to +remember them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. + +=Butterflies' Wings.=] + +The ribs of a butterfly's wings are by some authors described as veins, +whilst others style the main ones nervures, and the branches nervules. +Fig. 9, B, represents the venation, or neuration of the Black-veined +White, and the numeral system of indicating the veins has been adopted, +as it is the most simple. In another method of referring to the +venation, and one that has been much in use, vein 12 of the fore wing +would be styled the costal nervure, or vein; veins 11, 10, 9 (absent in +figure), 8, and 7 would be the subcostal nervules 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; 6 +would become the upper radial, and 5 the lower radial; 2, 3, and 4 would +be the median nervules 1, 2, and 3; vein 1 would be the submedian +nervure, or vein. On the hind wing, vein 1_a_ would be the internal +vein; 1 the submedian; 2, 3, and 4 the median nervules; 5 the lower and +6 the upper radials; 7 the subcostal, and 8 the costal nervures. Just +near the base of the hind wing will be noted a short recurved vein +(p.c.); this is the precostal vein, and so named because it comes before +the costal. It is always absent in some species. Comparing the venation +of A and B, it will be seen that in A the fore wing has 12 veins and the +hind wing 8 veins, whilst in B there are only 11 veins on the fore wing, +but the hind wing has one vein more than that of A. In the Black-veined +White, vein 9 is absent on the fore wing, and on the hind wing there is +one internal vein. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10. + +=Arrangement of Scales.= + +(_After Holland._)] + +Dust-like as they appear to the naked eye, the scales from a +butterfly's wing seen under the microscope are found to be exceedingly +interesting structures and very varied in shape. Dr. Sharp describes +them as "delicate chitinous bags." Chitin, it may be mentioned, is the +horny substance of which the chrysalis shell is formed, and this was +adverted to when discussing the chrysalis stage as a varnish-like ooze. +As seen on the wings, the scales are flattened and the upper and under +sides are then almost, or quite, brought together. They are attached in +lines on the membrane or covering of the wing by short stalks which fit +into sockets in the membrane. The arrangement of the scales, which has +often been stated to resemble that of the slates on a roof, is shown in +Fig. 10. + +Colour is chiefly due to pigment contained in the scale or adhering to +the interior of its upper side. Pigments, according to Mayer, are +derived, by various chemical processes, from the blood while the +butterfly is still in the chrysalis. Some scales have minute parallel +lines (_striæ_) on their upper sides, and rays of light falling on these +are turned aside or broken up, and so produce changes in the colouring +of a wing, according to the angle from which it is looked at. + +The males of many kinds of butterfly have special scales, which are +known as androconia, or plumules. It is believed that these are scent +organs. Whatever their particular use may be to the possessor, these +androconia enable the entomologist to distinguish male specimens from +females with great certainty. In the Fritillaries they are placed on one +or more of the median nervules (veins 2, 3, and 4) of the fore wing. In +the Meadow Brown and its kindred they form brands on the disc of the +fore wing. In the Skippers they are placed in a fold of the costa in +some species, and in other species they are clustered together, into +more or less bar-like marks, about the middle of the fore wings. Some of +these various shaped "plumules" are shown in the illustrations. + +In the foregoing sketch of the life cycle of a butterfly, the object +has been to condense as much necessary information as possible into a +limited space. Many matters of importance to the student have not been +touched on, but it was considered that, as these were more especially +connected with a higher scientific phase of the subject than would here +be found helpful, they might be omitted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11. + + =Butterfly Plumules.= + + _a._ Tufted Plumule (Satyrs); + _b._ Bristle Plumule (Grizzled Skipper); + _c._ Hair Plumule (Dingy Skipper); + _d._ Jointed Plumule (Silver-studded Skipper); + _e._ Bladder Plumule (Common Blue); + _f._ Dotted Plumule (White-letter Hairstreak). + +(_After Aurivillius._)] + + +Collecting. + +Naturally the first matter for consideration, when the formation of a +collection of butterflies has been decided upon, is how to set about it. +Well, there are two methods of effecting our purpose. The specimens may +be purchased from a dealer in such things, or we may acquire an outfit +comprising net, boxes, and pins, and go in search of the insects +ourselves. Apart from its healthful and entertaining possibilities, the +latter method has very much to recommend it. In the first place, those +who are at all observant--and no true lover of Nature can be suspected +of being otherwise--will become acquainted with the objects under +natural conditions, and so be enabled to appreciate them more highly +than could be the case if they were obtained in any other way. The chief +purpose in making a collection of Natural History specimens should be +study of some kind rather than mere accumulation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12. + +=Y-piece.=] + +[Sidenote: Nets.] + +The net may be a simple cane ring one of home construction, or the more +elaborate, but not necessarily more efficient, fabrication of +steel-jointed ring with grenadine bag and telescopic handle. A good +serviceable butterfly-net may be fitted up as follows. Procure a light +flexible cane, about 3 feet or so in length. Next, a Y-shaped holder +(Fig. 12) for the two ends of the cane will have to be made, and either +tin or brass may be used for the purpose. The latter is the better +metal, and the parts should be brazed and not soldered together. (If +difficulty is experienced in the manufacture of this article, it may be +obtained from any dealer in entomological requisites for a few pence.) +The bag may be made of leno, tarletan, or fine mosquito netting; the +latter is the most serviceable, and should be used wherever it can be +obtained. The size of the bag at the top, where it has a wide band to +take the cane, should not exceed the circumference of the cane ring when +fitted in the two arms of the Y-piece; the depth should be just a little +less than the length of one's arm, and the bottom should be rounded off +so that no corners are available for the butterflies to get into and +damage their wings. An opening about 3 inches in length is left in the +seam of the bag just under the Y-piece, so that the cane may be removed +and rolled up when the net is put out of action. The ring band should be +covered with some stouter material to prevent it from fraying, thin +leather is sometimes used for this purpose; the slit in the seam also +requires protecting on each side, and strengthening at the lower end by +a crosspiece. An ordinary walking-stick, with the ferrule end thrust +into the longer tube of the Y, will serve as a handle to the complete +net. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13. + +=Kite or Balloon Net.=] + +The dealers adverted to above generally stock a variety of nets ready +fitted for use. Among these is a very useful pattern known as the kite +or balloon net (Fig. 13). This is made in two sizes, and as the writer +has used this kind of net for at least twenty years, he is able to speak +well of its merits. It does not need a stick for ordinary work, and the +long end of the socket should be about 9 inches in length. + +The "ring" being made of four separate rods, in addition to the Y-piece, +some care will have to be taken when a balloon net is unshipped. It will +be found a good plan to leave the two short curved canes in the hem or +band of the bag, remove the two straight arms from the Y-piece and the +band, place these on top of the bag when folded, and then roll all up +together. A canvas or linen pouch or pocket, opening at one end, may be +made to contain the whole affair. + +The umbrella-net, when in its case, looks very like the familiar "gamp." +Its chief merit is that it is quickly put up for use, and its principal +defect is that the stick, which crosses the mouth of the bag, frequently +damages the quarry. + +Another implement of the chase known as the "Ortner" net is used pretty +extensively on the Continent. English entomologists who have used it +speak of it most favourably. Its great advantage over other nets is +found in the simple and rapid method of its adjustment for use. + +In connection with nets it may be well to advise the wielder to remember +that carrying a threaded needle is a useful practice. Tears and rents +are apt to occur, and it is well to have the means of repair handy. + +[Sidenote: Killing.] + +Some collectors seem to be expert at killing butterflies by pressing the +sides of the thorax together. The method is not, however, as +satisfactory as one could wish, and so no more need be said about it. +For the happy despatch of insects, the cyanide bottle is frequently +used. All that has to be done is to clap the open bottle over the +captive while still in the net, then draw the gauze or what-not over the +mouth of the bottle until the bung can be inserted, and the whole affair +withdrawn from the net. + +Cyanide of potassium is a deadly poison, and no inexperienced person +should attempt to charge a cyanide bottle himself. In fact, chemists are +not permitted to supply the poison to unknown customers. Under certain +conditions, however, a chemist might consent to make up a killing +bottle, and the following instructions may help him in doing this. A +fairly strong, clear glass bottle, holding about 4 to 6 ounces; the +mouth must be pretty wide, and closed with a well-fitting bung that has +been dipped in melted wax; if the bung is of fine grained cork, the wax +will not be needed. At the bottom of the bottle place a thick layer of +the cyanide, and over this pour plaster of Paris which has been mixed +with water and converted into a cream-like paste: one-third of the depth +of the bottle to be occupied by the poison and plaster, but only a thin +layer of the latter should cover the former. + +Dealers who supply cyanide bottles (uncharged) also have in stock a +brass bottle for chloroform, which some people prefer as a killing agent +because it does not change the colour of insects as cyanide is +occasionally apt to do. In using this, the insect should be boxed, then +a drop of the chloroform may be allowed to run from the bottle over the +perforated lid or bottom of the box, and a finger put over the hole or +holes for a short time. + +The majority of butterflies, if transferred to pill boxes from the net, +settle down quietly. In this way they may be taken to one's home and +there placed, boxes and all, into the ammonia jar, a simple but very +effective contrivance. To start one of these lethal chambers, procure a +good sized pickle jar, one of the brown earthenware kind, holding about +2 gallons. At the bottom put in several layers of stout blotting-paper, +and have ready a covering for the mouth of the jar. This covering may be +of skin, waterproof-apron material, or even thick brown paper. Before +turning the boxes into the jar, lift up the blotting-paper, drop in +about half a teaspoonful of strong liquid ammonia (·880) and replace +blotting-paper. Directly the boxes are in the jar, put on cover and tie +it down securely. If brown paper is used, a piece of pasteboard should +be put over it and a weight on top of that. Suffocation takes place +directly the gas reaches the insect, but it often happens that one or +more of the boxes exclude the gas longer than others. At the end of half +an hour all may be removed, but the insects will not hurt in any way if +left in all night. + +The best kind of boxes for field work are those known as "glass +bottomed," as in these the captives can be examined and, if not wanted, +may be set free. It is always better to retain only those specimens that +we know are really useful, rather than to incur the necessity of +throwing away insects after we have deprived them of life. + +[Sidenote: Pinning.] + +If butterflies are pinned on the spot, a collecting box will be +required, and the most useful and convenient is one of an oval shape. +This should be made of zinc, and lined with cork that is held in place +by zinc clips. The cork should be kept damp when in use, and the water +used for damping should have a few drops of carbolic acid mixed with it +so as to prevent the formation of mould. Insects may remain in such a +box for several days without injury. This box will also be useful for +relaxing specimens that have been badly set, or have been simply pinned +during the busy season. + +In the matter of pins, it is not altogether easy to make suggestions. +There are, perhaps, only two makers in this country of entomological +pins, and each of these supplies a large number of sizes. The selection +of suitable pins will largely depend on the method of setting adopted. +Black pins are, however, the best for butterflies, and are now used +almost exclusively. + +In pinning a specimen care should be taken that the pin passes in a +direct line through the centre of the thorax. Insects that are properly +pinned set better, and have a neat appearance when arranged in the +collection. For regulating the height of specimens on the pin, a handy +graduated stage has been devised by Dr. Scarancke (see Fig. 14). Each of +the little rests are hollowed to receive the body of the insect, so +suppose we wish a quarter of an inch of the pin to show below the body +of a specimen, the pin is pushed through a perforation in the centre of +the rest groove marked "3/16" until the point touches the wooden base, +and we have the required length. + +Beginners would, perhaps, find three sizes of pins quite sufficient for +almost every purpose--say, Nos. 10, 8, and 5 of one maker; or Nos. 9, +17, and 5 of the other. In each case the first size pin would be +suitable for small butterflies, the second size for all other +butterflies except quite the largest, for which No. 5 would remain. +English pins are sold by the ounce. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14. + +=Pinning Stage.=] + +[Sidenote: Setting.] + +Setting, as it is called, that is, spreading out and fixing the wings +so that all their parts are displayed, arranging the horns, etc., is +perhaps the most tedious work that the collector will be called upon to +perform. The various methods will be referred to, and he must then +decide as to which he will adopt. Each style may possibly be found to +have its difficulties at first; but time and patience will overcome +these, therefore he must be prepared for a good deal of troublesome +practice before he quite gets "the hang of the thing," and can set out +his specimens without removing a greater or lesser number of the scales. + +First, as to the flat and high setting as practised by almost every +lepidopterist abroad and by some in our own country. Boards of the +pattern, shown in the illustration, will be required; also some tracing +cloth, and a pair of entomological forceps, bead-headed pins, etc. In +these boards, it will be noticed, the sides tilt outwards; this is to +allow for drooping of the wings, which generally occurs after insects +are removed from the "sets." In this case the wings would settle dead +flat, which is considered to be the acme of perfection in this style of +setting. Carlsbad or other foreign pins would be used for this kind of +work. They are of a uniform length, about one inch and a half, but vary +in thickness, and are usually sold by the 100 or 1000. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. + +=Board for Flat-setting.=] + +Manipulation of the specimen on these boards is as follows. Having +carefully pinned it, leaving the greater length of pin below the insect, +guide the pin carefully through the narrow opening (_a_ Fig. 15) and the +cork (Fig. 16) below to a suitable depth, so that the body of the insect +rests in the groove and the wings lie easily on the board. Then take two +strips of tracing cloth, glazed side downwards, and pin them on at the +end of each side of the setting-board (Fig. 17). The strip should be +just wide enough to cover all but the basal part of the wings. Now pass +the strips over the wings, press one side lightly with the fingers of +the left hand while the wings are moved into position with the setting +needle (a fine needle with eye end fixed into the stick of a small +penholder will do for this) from the uncovered base, a pin being +inserted below the fore wing while the hind wing is brought into +position, but when this has been done and another pin inserted to keep +it in place, as shown in the diagram, the first pin may be removed; +repeat the same operation on the other side. Other pins will be required +to keep the horns, etc., in place. In dealing with the next specimen the +strips will have to be turned back while it is fixed into position, then +proceed as before. An imaginary line following the inner margin of the +fore wings and passing through the pin on the thorax is an excellent +guide to uniformity in setting. The groove will prevent the pin leaning +to either side, but care should be taken that it does not incline either +forwards or backwards. The strip of tracing cloth may be used more than +once, but the roughness of the pin holes should be removed by drawing +the strip across the back of a knife. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16. + +=Longitudinal Section of Setting-board.=] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17. + +=Setting-board in use.=] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18. + +="Saddle" Setting-board.=] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. + +=Setting-bristle.=] + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. + +=Brace and Band Modes of setting.=] + +The setting-boards most frequently used in this country have sloping +sides, and are known as saddles (Fig. 18). Where tracing cloth is used, +the _modus operandi_ is exactly similar to that just described, but +small pins will do for pinning down the strips, as the saddles are made +of cork, or cork carpet, instead of wood. + +The following method of setting butterflies on the English kind of +"board" or saddle is frequently adopted. Select a suitable saddle, that +is one that has the groove wide enough to take the body, and rather +wider than the wings when expanded. A setting bristle will then be +required. This is made, as shown in Fig. 19, by fixing a fairly long and +stout bristle, or a very fine needle, or a thin length of quill, in a +cube of cork; the cork cube has a stoutish and sharp-pointed pin pushed +through it as indicated. Having placed the first insect on the saddle +with its body comfortably resting in the groove and the wings flush with +the surface, the setting bristle is then brought into action. The point +of the pin is rested on the saddle directly in the rear of the hind +wing, and the top of the bristle touching the saddle in advance of the +front wing. Tilt the pin slightly forward until the bristle presses +lightly on the central area of the wings, then with the setting needle +push the wings into the required position, and at the same time drive +pin of bristle into the saddle. After the wings have been secured by +means of braces (triangular pieces of thin card or stout paper, with a +pin through the base of the triangle), proceed in the same way with the +other side. Finally, fix a brace to the tip and angle of each fore wing +to keep them from turning up in drying, and a pin or two may be required +for the horns if these are not in a good position. Instead of using +braces, a strip of transparent paper may be pinned over the wings beyond +the bristle, but in this case the bristle must be pressed across the +wings at a point nearer their base than in the previous method (see +lower figure in Fig. 20). In lieu of a setting bristle a length of +sewing cotton may be used. Tie a double knot at one end, and through +this pass the point of a pin in such a way that the cotton lies flush on +the saddle when in use. Insert the pin firmly in the saddle a little in +advance of the fore wing, then draw the cotton downwards across the +wings and hold it taut, with the fore finger of the left hand placed on +it just in rear of the hind wing. Whilst so held the wings can be got +into pose with the setting needle, and braces may then be applied as +previously directed. + +Fig. 21 shows a specimen set by a method that is in vogue in the north. +Blocks of soft pine, grooved and bevelled as in the cork saddle, are +easily made. Down the centre of the groove there is a saw cut for the +point of the pin to enter, and nicks are cut along the bottom edge at +each end. One end of a length of cotton is knotted and fixed in a nick, +then a turn is taken over the wings on one side; these are placed in +position and secured by other turns of the cotton. The other side is +then treated in the same manner, and the end of the cotton fastened off +in one of the nicks. This is a quick and, in skilled hands, a very neat +method. + +As specimens after being set will have to remain on the setting boards +or saddles for at least a fortnight, it will be necessary to protect +them not only from dust, but from possible attack by ants, cockroaches, +mice, etc. This is best ensured by placing the sets into a receptacle +called a setting or drying house. Dealers supply these, but the young +collector may have a knowledge of carpentry and could make one for +himself. The height and depth of such a construction would depend upon +the number and the width of the boards or saddles that would be put +therein. The width would be that of the length of the boards, which is +usually 14 inches. About a quarter of an inch of cork is cut off each +end of the saddles, and grooves are cut in the sides of the house for +these to run in. The back and the door should have a square of fine +perforated zinc inserted in them for ventilation. As an example of +holding capacity it may be well to note that a house with a height of 12 +inches, and a depth of 6 inches, inside measurement, would take eighteen +2-inch boards if the grooves were cut at 2 inches apart, or twenty-four +boards of same width if 1-1/2 inch only were allowed between the +grooves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21. + +=Cotton Method of setting.=] + +In taking insects off the sets, the braces or strips should be removed +from the wings, and the pins from the horns, with care, as a good deal +of damage can be done in the performance of this operation, simple as it +seems to be. A little twist of a brace and away goes a patch of scales, +a side slip of a pin and off comes a horn. + +Pending the arrival of that twelve or twenty drawer cabinet, the +beginner will probably be content to arrange his specimens in boxes. A +handy sized box is one measuring 14 inches by 10 when closed, and it +should have a cell for naphthaline. + +Before putting the specimens away into boxes or drawers they should be +labelled with the date of capture, the locality, the name of the captor, +and any other detail of interest in connection with it. All these +particulars may be written on small squares of paper and put on the pins +under the specimens. + +Cabinets or boxes containing insects should always stand where they are +free from damp, otherwise mould may make its appearance on the +specimens. Mouldy insects may be cleaned, but they never look nice +afterwards; so it will be well to bear in mind that prevention is better +than cure. Where drawers and boxes are not properly attended to in the +matter of naphthaline, mites are apt to enter and cause injury to the +specimens. If these pests should effect a lodgment, a little benzine +poured on the bottom of box or drawer will quickly kill them. The +benzine, if pure, will not make the least stain, and of course the +drawer or box must be closed directly the benzine is put in. Do this +only in the daytime. + +Rearing butterflies from the egg is much practised, and is a very +excellent way. One not only obtains specimens in fine condition, but +gains knowledge of the early stages at the same time. The eggs of most +of the Whites, the Orange-tip, the Brimstone, and some others are not +difficult to obtain, but searching the food-plants for the eggs of many +of the butterflies is tiresome work, and not altogether remunerative. +Females may be watched when engaged in egg-laying, and having marked the +spot, step in when she has left and rob the "nest." The best plan is to +capture a few females and enclose them in roomy, wide-mouthed bottles, +or a gauze cage, putting in with them a sprig or two of the food-plant +placed in a holder containing water. The mouth of the bottle should be +covered with gauze or leno, and a bit of moistened sugar put on the top +outside. Either bottle or cage must be stood in the sunshine, but it +must be remembered that the butterflies require plenty of air as well as +sunshine, and that they can have too much of the latter. + + + + +PART II. + +DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES. + + +The Swallow-tail (_Papilio machaon_). + +The Swallow-tail butterfly is the only British member of the extensive +and universally distributed sub-family Papilioninæ, which includes some +of the largest as well as the most handsome kinds of butterfly. Our +species has yellow wings ornamented with black, blue, and red, and is an +exceedingly attractive insect. The black markings are chiefly a large +patch at the base of the fore wings, this is powdered with yellow +scales; a band, also powdered with yellow, runs along the outer or hind +portion of all the wings. There are also three black spots on the front +or costal margin, and the veins are black. The bands vary in width, and +that on the hind wings is usually clouded more or less with blue. At the +lower angle of the hind wings there is a somewhat round patch of red, +and occasionally there are splashes of red on the yellow crescents +beyond the band. The male and female are shown on Plate 2. + +The eggs are laid on leaflets of the milk parsley (_Peucedanum +palustre_), which in the fenny home of the butterfly is perhaps the +chief food-plant of the caterpillar. This is one of the few eggs of +British butterflies that I have not seen. Buckler says that it is +globular in shape, of good size, greenish yellow in colour when first +laid, quickly turning to green, and afterwards becoming purplish. + +The caterpillar when full grown, as figured on Plate 1, is bright green +with an orange-spotted black band on each ring of the body, and blackish +tinged with bluish between the rings. The head is yellow striped with +black. When it first leaves the egg-shell, which it eats, the +caterpillar is black with a noticeable white patch about the middle of +the body. After the third change of skin it assumes the green colour, +and at the same time a remarkable =V=-shaped fleshy structure of a +pinkish or orange colour is developed. This is the _osmaterium_, and is +said to emit a strong smell, which has been compared to that of a +decaying pine-apple. The organ, which is extended in the figure of the +full-grown caterpillar, is not always in evidence, but when the +caterpillar is annoyed the forked arrangement makes its appearance from +a fold in the forepart of the ring nearest the head. Other food-plants +besides milk parsley are angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_), fennel +(_Foeniculum vulgare_), wild carrot (_Daucus carota_), etc. From eggs +laid in May or June caterpillars hatch in from ten to twelve days, and +these attain the chrysalis state in about six or seven weeks. If the +season is a favourable one, that is fine and warm, some of the +butterflies should appear in August, the others remaining in the +chrysalids until May or June of the following year; a few may even pass +a second winter in the chrysalis. Caterpillars from eggs laid by the +August females may be found in September, nearly or quite full grown, +and chrysalids from October onwards throughout the winter. They are most +frequently seen on the stems of reeds, but they may also be found on +stems or sprays of the food-plants, as well as on bits of stick, etc. It +would, however, be practically useless to search for the late chrysalids +as the reeds are usually cut down in October, when the fenmen keep a +sharp look-out for them, and few are likely to escape detection in any +place that would be accessible to the entomologist. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 2. + +=Swallow-tail Butterfly.= + +1 _male_; 2 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 3. + +=Black-veined White Butterfly.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +On Plate 1 three forms of the chrysalis are shown. The figures are drawn +from specimens collected in Wicken Fen in October, 1905. Occasionally a +much darker, nearly black, form is found. + +This butterfly was known to Petiver and other early eighteenth-century +entomologists as the Royal William. There is every reason to believe +that at one time it was far more widely distributed in England than it +now is. Stephens, writing in 1827, states that it was formerly abundant +at Westerham, and gives several other localities, some very near to +London. + +During the last twenty-five years or so, the butterfly has been seen on +the wing, from time to time, in various parts of the Southern and +Midland counties. Caterpillars have also been found at large in Kent. +Possibly attempts may have been made to establish the species in certain +parts of England, and the presence of odd specimens in strange places +may thus be accounted for. Or such butterflies may have escaped from +some one who had reared them. + +On the Continent the butterfly is common in woods as well as in meadows, +and even on mountains up to an elevation of 5000 feet. It occurs also, +but less commonly, at much higher altitudes. It therefore seems strange +that in England it should be confined to the low-lying fens of Norfolk +and Cambridgeshire. Such is the case, however, and a journey to one or +other of its localities will have to be made by those who wish to see +this beautiful creature in its English home. + +It may be added that the geographical range of the butterfly extends +eastwards through Asia as far as Japan. A form, known as the Alaskan +Swallow-tail, is found in Alaska. + + * * * * * + +The following ten species belong to the Pierinæ, another sub-family of +Papilionidæ. + + +The Black-veined White (_Aporia cratægi_). + +The Black-veined White (Plate 4) may be at once recognized by its +roundish white wings and their conspicuous veins, which latter are black +in the male butterfly, and in the female brownish on the main ones +(nervures) and black on the branches (nervules). As the scales on the +wings are denser in the male than in the female, the former always +appears to be the whiter insect. On the outer margin of the fore wings +there are more or less triangular patches of dusky scales, and these in +occasional specimens are so large that their edges almost or quite meet, +and so form an irregular, dusky border to the fore wings. These patches +are also present on the hind wings, but are not so well defined. +Sometimes the patches are absent from all the wings. The fringes of the +wings are so short that they appear to be wanting altogether. The early +stages are figured on Plate 3. + +The egg is upright and ribbed from about the middle to the curiously +ornamented top, which appears to be furnished with a sort of coronet. +The colour is at first honey-yellow, then darker yellow, and just before +the caterpillar hatches, greyish. The eggs are laid in a cluster on the +upper side of a leaf of sloe, hawthorn, or plum, etc., in the month of +July. + +The caterpillar when full grown is tawny brown with paler hairs +arising from white warts; the stripes along the sides and back are +black. The under parts are greyish. The head, legs, and spiracles are +blackish. Caterpillars hatch from the egg in August, and then live +together in a common habitation which is formed of silk and whitish in +colour. They come out in the morning and again in the evening to feed, +but a few leaves are generally enclosed in their tenement. In October +they seem to retire for the winter and reappear in the spring. During +May they become full grown and then enter the chrysalis state. The +butterflies are on the wing at the end of June and in July. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 4. + +=Black-veined White Butterfly.= + +1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 5. + +=Large White Butterfly.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] + +The chrysalis is creamy white, sometimes tinged with greenish, and +dotted with black. + +This butterfly was mentioned as English by Merret in 1667, and by Ray in +1710. Albin in 1731, who wrote of it as the White Butterfly with black +veins, figures the caterpillar and the chrysalis, and states that +caterpillars found by him in April turned to chrysalids early in May and +to butterflies in June. Moses Harris in 1775 gave a more extended +account of the butterfly's life-history, and what he then wrote seems to +tally almost exactly with what is known of its habits to-day. This +species has seemingly always been somewhat uncertain in its appearance +in England. Authors from Haworth (1803) to Stephens (1827) mention +Chelsea, Coombe Wood in Surrey, and Muswell Hill in Middlesex, among +other localities for the butterfly. It has also been recorded at one +time or another, between 1844 and 1872, from many of the Midland and +Southern counties. In 1867 it was found in large numbers, about +mid-summer, in hay fields in Monmouthshire. The latest information +concerning the appearance of the species in South Wales relates to the +year 1893, when several caterpillars and four butterflies were noted on +May 22 in the Newport district. At one time it was not uncommon in the +New Forest, but no captures of the butterfly in Hampshire have been +recorded during the last quarter of a century. At the present time it is +probably most regularly obtained in a Kentish locality, presumably in +the Isle of Thanet, which is only known to a few collectors. It may be +mentioned that some thirty years ago caterpillars of the Black-veined +White could be obtained from a Canterbury dealer at a few shillings per +gross. + +The species is widely distributed, and often abundant, on the +Continent, and its range extends through Western and Northern Asia to +Yesso, Northern Japan. + + +The Large White (_Pieris brassicæ_). + +This butterfly is probably almost as familiar to those who dwell in +towns as it must be to those who live in the country. It is perhaps +unnecessary to describe it in any detail, and it may therefore suffice +to say that it is white with rather broad black tips to the fore wings; +there are some black scales along the front margin of these wings, and +on the basal area of all the wings. The male has a black spot on the +front margin of the hind wings, and the female has, in addition, two +roundish black spots on the fore wings, with a black dash from the lower +one along the inner margin. + +As there is a rather important difference between the specimens of the +spring (_vernal_) and the summer (_æstival_) broods, figures of a male +and a female of each brood, and showing the upper and under sides, are +given. Those on Plate 6 represent the spring form, which was at one time +considered to be a distinct species, and named _chariclea_ by Stephens. +Plate 9 shows the summer form. The chief point of difference is to be +noted in the tips of the fore wings, which in the spring butterflies are +usually, but not invariably, greyish; in the summer butterflies the tips +are black, as a rule, but not in every case. + +Occasionally the black on tip of the fore wing in the female is +increased in width, and from it streaks project inwards towards the +upper discal spot. In some examples of the male there is a more or less +distinct blackish spot on the disc of the fore wings. Very rarely the +ground colour is creamy or sulphur tinted. + +The greenish tinge about the veins, sometimes seen in these butterflies, +is due to some accidental cause, probably injury to the veins. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 6. + +=Large White Butterfly (Spring Brood)= + +1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 7. + +=Small White Butterfly= + +_Resting._] + +The egg is yellowish in colour, somewhat skittle-shaped, and very +prettily ribbed and reticulated. On Plate 5 there are two figures of the +egg from enlarged drawings by Herr Max Gillmer, to whom I am greatly +indebted for the loan of them. In the figure on the right, the dark spot +at the shoulder of the egg represents the head of the young caterpillar, +and in that on the left is seen the caterpillar about to come out of the +egg. The head is already out, and the jaws have left their mark on the +egg-shell. Most caterpillars of the Whites, as well as those of other +butterflies, devour their egg-shells. + +The eggs are laid in batches of from six to over one hundred in each +batch. They are placed on end, and on either side of a leaf, chiefly +cabbage. Herr Gillmer writes that he watched a female depositing her +eggs on a leaf of white cabbage in the hot sunshine, and found that she +laid twenty-seven in about nine minutes. A previous observer had timed a +female, and noted that she produced eggs at the rate of about four in +the minute. Caterpillars hatch from the egg in about seven days in the +summer. The caterpillar (Plate 5) when full grown is green tinged with +blue or grey above, and greenish beneath. There are numerous short +whitish hairs arising from little warts on the back and sides; the lines +are yellow. The caterpillars feed in July, and sometimes again in +September and October, on all plants of the cabbage tribe, and also on +tropæolum and mignonette. A number of these caterpillars may often be +seen crowded together on a cabbage leaf, and they sometimes abound to +such an extent that much loss is sustained by growers of this most +useful vegetable. A peculiarity of these caterpillars is that even when +not numerous, their presence is indicated by an evil smell that proceeds +from them. The unpleasantness of the odour is greatly intensified if the +caterpillars are trodden upon. + +The chrysalis (Plate 5) is of a grey colour, more or less spotted with +black and streaked with yellow. It is often to be seen fixed +horizontally under the copings of walls, the top bar of a fence, or a +window-sill; but it sometimes affects the upright position when fastened +in the angle formed by two pales. A position that affords some measure +of protection from weather is generally selected. + +Although this butterfly is almost annually to be seen, in greater or +lesser numbers, throughout the country, it is occasionally scarce, +either generally or in some parts of the British Islands. For example, +during the past year (1905) it was abnormally plentiful in Ireland, but +at the same time comparatively rare in England. It is a migratory +species, and no doubt its abundance in any year in these islands is +dependent on the arrival of a large number of immigrants. Possibly in +some years none of the migrant butterflies reach our shores, and that it +is largely to this failure the rarity of the species in such years is to +be attributed. Caterpillars resulting from alien butterflies may +absolutely swarm in the autumn of one year, but the eccentricities of an +English winter may be too much for the vitality of such of them as +escape their enemies, _Apanteles glomeratus_, and other so-called +"ichneumons," and reach the chrysalis state. So, with immigration on the +one hand and destructive agencies on the other, it may be understood how +it comes about that the Large White is sometimes abundant and sometimes +scarce. + +This species seems to range over the whole of the British Islands, with +the exception, perhaps, of the Shetlands. Abroad, it has been found in +all parts of the Palæarctic Region, except the extreme north, and +Eastern Asia. + + +The Small White (_Pieris rapæ_). + +The Small White butterfly (Plate 11) is, perhaps, more often in +evidence then its larger kinsman just referred to. It also is a migrant, +and although it never seems to be absent from these islands, in its +proper season, its great increase in numbers in some years is almost +certainly due to the arrival of immigrants. + +The spring form of this butterfly, named _metra_ by Stephens, who, +together with others, considered it a good species, has the tips of the +fore wings only slightly clouded with black; and the black spots near +the centre of the wings are always more or less faint in the male. +Sometimes the central spot and also the blackish clouding of the tip are +entirely absent. The summer brood, on the other hand, has fairly +blackish tips and distinct black spots--one in the male and three in the +female, the lower one lying on the inner margin. Occasionally examples +of this flight bear a strong resemblance to the Green-veined White, the +next species. The wings are sometimes, chiefly in Ireland, of a creamy +colour, more especially in the female, or, more rarely, of a yellowish +tint. In North America, where this species was accidentally or +intentionally introduced some years ago, bright yellow forms are not +uncommon in some localities, and the variety is there known as +_novangliæ_. + +In certain favourable years a partial third brood has occurred, but such +specimens are often small in size. + +The egg (Plate 8) is at first pale greenish, but later on it turns +yellowish, and this tint it retains until just before the caterpillar +hatches out. + +The caterpillar when full-grown has a brownish head and a green body; +the latter is sprinkled with black and clothed with short blackish hairs +emitted from pale warts. There is a yellowish line on the back, and a +line formed of yellow spots on the side. It feeds on most plants of the +cabbage tribe, and in flower gardens on mignonette and nasturtiums. It +is often attacked by parasites, and especially by the _Apanteles_, +referred to as destructive to caterpillars of the Large White. + +The chrysalis may be of various tints, ranging from pale brown, through +grey to greenish; the markings are black, but these are sometimes only +faint. It is to be found in similar situations to those chosen by the +caterpillar of the last species, but often under the lower rail of a +fence or board of a wooden building. Where caterpillars have been +feeding in a garden, they often enter greenhouses, among other places, +to pupate; and where these structures are heated during the winter, the +butterflies sometimes emerge quite early in the year. Distributed +throughout the British Islands, except the Hebrides and Shetlands. It is +common over the whole of Europe, and extends through Asia to China and +Japan. In America, where it was introduced into the United States some +forty-five years ago, it has now spread northwards into Canada, and also +southwards. + + +The Green-veined White (_Pieris napi_). + +This butterfly is not often seen away from its favourite haunts in the +country; these are woods, especially the sunny sides, leafy lanes, and +even marsh land. As in the case of the two Whites previously noticed, +there are always two broods in the year. The first flight of the +butterflies is in May and June, occasionally as early as April in a +forward season. These specimens have the veins tinged with grey and +rather distinct, but are not so strongly marked with black as those +belonging to the second flight, which occurs in late July and throughout +August. This seasonal variation, as it is called, is also most clearly +exhibited on the under side. In the May and June butterfly (Plate 13, +left side) the veins below are greenish-grey, and those of the hind +wings are broadly bordered also with this colour. In the bulk of the +July and August specimens (Plate 13, right side) only the nervures are +shaded with greenish-grey, and the nervules are only faintly, or not at +all, marked with this colour. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 8. + +=Small White Butterfly.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 9. + +=Large White Butterfly (Summer Brood).= + +1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] + +Now and then a specimen of the first brood may assume the characters +properly belonging to the specimens of the second brood; and, on the +other hand, a butterfly of the second brood may closely resemble one of +the first brood. As a rule, however, the seasonal differences referred +to are fairly constant. By rearing this species from the egg it has been +ascertained that part (sometimes the smaller) of a brood from eggs laid +in June attains the butterfly stage the same year, and the other part +remains in the chrysalis until the following spring, the butterflies in +each set being of the form proper to the time of emergence. + +The strongly-marked specimens (Plate 14) are from Ireland, and are of +the first or spring brood. The seasonal variation in this species is not +so well defined in Ireland as in England. + +A form of variation in the female, and most frequent perhaps in Irish +specimens, is a tendency of the spots on the upper side of the fore +wings to spread and run together, and so form an interrupted band. + +Specimens with a distinct creamy tint on the wings are sometimes met +with, but such varieties, as well as yellow ones (var. _flava_, Kane), +are probably more often obtained in Ireland and Scotland than in +England. Occasionally male specimens of the second brood have two black +spots on the disc of the wing. Some forms of this butterfly have been +named, and these will now be referred to. + +_Sabellicæ_ (Petiver), Stephens, has been considered as a species +distinct from _P. napi_, L. Stephens ("Brit. Entom. Haust.," I. Pl. +iii., Figs. 3, 4) figured a male and a female as _sabellicæ_, which he +states differs from _napi_ in having shorter and more rounded +yellowish-white wings. No locality or date is given in the text (p. 21) +for the specimens figured; but referring to another example which he +took at Highgate on June 4, he says that it agrees with his Fig. 2. +Probably, however, it was his second figure that he intended, the Fig. 4 +of the plate, which is a female. This is rather more heavily marked with +dusky scales than is usual in specimens of the first brood, at least in +England, although it agrees in this respect with some Irish June +examples. Fig. 3 represents a male which certainly seems to be referable +to the spring form. Most authors give _sabellicæ_ as belonging to the +summer flight, but this does not seem to be correct. + +Var. _napææ_ is a large form of the summer brood, occurring commonly on +the Continent, in which the veins on the under side of the hind wings +are only faintly shaded with greenish-grey. Occasionally specimens are +taken in this country in August, which both from their size and faint +markings on the under side seem to be referable to this form. + +Var. _bryoniæ_ is an Alpine form of the female, and in colour is dingy +yellow or ochreous, with the veins broadly suffused with blackish grey, +sometimes so broadly as to hide the greater part of the ground colour. +This form does not occur in any part of the British Islands, but some +specimens from Ireland and from the north of Scotland somewhat approach +it. + +All the early stages are shown on Plate 10. + +The egg is of a pale straw colour when first laid, but it soon turns to +greenish, and as the caterpillar within matures, the shell of the egg +becomes paler. The ribs seem to be fourteen in number. + +The eggs are laid singly on hedge garlic (_Sisymbrium alliaria_) and +other kinds of plants belonging to the Cruciferæ. The egg in the +illustration was laid on a seed-pod of hedge garlic, but the caterpillar +that hatched from it was reared on leaves of garden "nasturtium" and +wallflower. + +The caterpillar when full grown is green above, with black warts, +from which arise whitish and blackish hairs. There is a darker line +along the back, and a yellow line low down on the sides. Underneath the +colour is whitish-grey. The spiracular line is dusky, but not +conspicuous, and the spiracles are blackish surrounded with yellow. It +has been stated that caterpillars fed upon hedge garlic and horseradish +produce light butterflies, and that those reared on mignonette and +watercress produce dark butterflies. Barrett mentions having reared a +brood of the caterpillars upon a bunch of watercress placed in water and +stood in a sunny window, but he does not refer to anything peculiar +about the butterflies resulting therefrom. He states, however, that from +eggs laid in June the earliest butterfly appeared within a month, and +the remainder by the middle of August, only one remaining in the +chrysalis until the following June. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 10. + +=Green-veined White Butterfly.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 11. + +=Small White Butterfly.= + +1, 2, 4 _male (spring)_, 3 _do. (summer)_; 5, 7, 8 _female (spring)_, +6, 9, _do. (summer)_.] + +Caterpillars may be found in June and July and in August and September. + +The chrysalis is green in colour, and the raised parts are yellowish and +brown. This is the most frequent form, but it varies through yellowish +to buff or greyish, and is sometimes without markings. + +Generally distributed throughout the British Islands, but its range +northwards does not seem to extend beyond Ross. + +In Europe it is generally common, and extends through Western and +Central Asia to Siberia, and, according to Leech, is found in North +Japan. In Amurland and Corea it is represented by the form _orientis_, +Oberth. It occurs in North-West Africa, the Canary Isles, and the +Azores. In America it is found in the Northern States and in California. + + +The Bath White (_Pieris daplidice_). + +The Bath White (Plate 14) is such a rare visitor to this country, that +any one who captures a specimen may congratulate himself on the event. +During the whole of the last century not more than sixty specimens seem +to have been recorded as taken in England, and ten of these were +captured between 1895 and the present time. Nearly all of these were +netted on the south or south-eastern coast, and in the months of July or +August, but chiefly the latter. The occurrence of specimens in May or +June appears to be quite exceptional. + +Although it might be passed over for a Green-veined White, or other +common butterfly, when seen on the wing, it is very different from any +of our other species when seen at close quarters. In the greenish +mottling of the under side of the hind wings, the male has some likeness +to the female Orange-tip, but on the Bath White the green is heavier and +less broken up. On the upper side of the fore wings the black markings +comprise a spot, sometimes divided, at the end of the cell, and a patch +on the tips of the wings; the latter enclose spots of the ground colour. +The markings of the under side show through blackish on the upper side +of the hind wings. The female differs from the male in having a black +spot between veins 1 and 2 of the fore wings, and the markings of the +hind wings are blacker, especially on the outer area. + +The egg is stated by Buckler to be of a bright pinkish-red colour, +agreeing in this respect, as well as in size, with the anthers of the +flowers of mignonette, upon which plant it is laid in an upright +position. The shape is compared to that of an acorn without the cup, and +it has twelve or fourteen rather prominent ribs. + +The full-grown caterpillar is bluish-grey, dotted with glossy black +warts, from each of which there is a short blackish hair. The lines +along the back and sides are yellow, or white spotted with yellow. Head +yellowish, dotted with black, and hairy. August and September. It feeds +on garden as well as wild mignonette (_Reseda_). + +The chrysalis is at first similar in colour to the caterpillar, but it +afterwards becomes whitish. It has numerous black dots, and is marked +with yellow along the sides and on the back of the thorax. + +The above descriptions are abridged from Buckler's more detailed +account of the life-history of this species. Of the caterpillars +resulting from thirty-three eggs, only two attained the chrysalis state, +in September. One of these turned black and died in November, and from +the other a butterfly emerged in the following June. The figures of +caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 12 are from Buckler's "Larvæ." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 12. + +=Bath White Butterfly.= + +_Caterpillar and chrysalis (after Buckler)._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 13. + +=Green-veined White Butterfly.= + +1, 2 _male (spring)_, 5, 6, _do. (summer)_; 3, 4 _female (spring)_, +7, 8 _do. (summer)_.] + +It has been suggested that specimens taken in July and August are the +offspring of immigrants that arrive here in May, but there is no +conclusive evidence of this. It has, however, been proved that our +climate is not suitable for the permanent establishment of the species +here. + +The earliest writers on English insects called this butterfly "Vernon's +Half Mourner," or "The Greenish Half Mourner." It was first mentioned by +Petiver, some two hundred years ago, and about that time only two +British specimens were known. One of these was taken in Cambridgeshire, +and one at Hampstead. According to Lewin, who wrote about it in 1795, +the name "Bath White" was given to the butterfly "from a piece of +needlework executed at Bath by a young lady, from a specimen of this +insect, said to have been taken near that place." In 1796 Donovan only +knew of the Bath specimen; and in 1803 Haworth mentions a faded specimen +taken in June at Gamlingay in Cambridgeshire. + +The species is more or less common in many parts of Europe, but it seems +to be most at home and abundant in the south. Its range extends to North +Africa, Madeira, the Canary Isles, and the temperate parts of Asia, +including Northern China and Corea. + + +The Orange-tip (_Euchloë cardamines_). + +This butterfly (Plate 17), as its name suggests, has a large patch of +orange colour on the outer third of its white, or creamy white, fore +wings, and the extreme tip is blackish; at least, this is so in the +male. The female is without the orange patch, and this is replaced by a +smaller one of blackish-grey. The lower portion of this patch is broken +up by the ground colour, and by white spots on the outer margin and +around the tips of the wings. The hind wings, in both sexes, appear to +be dappled with greyish-green, and this is caused by the green marking +on the under surface of the wings showing through. Some specimens, +chiefly from Ireland, have all the wings in the male, and the hind wings +in the female, distinctly tinged with yellow. The discal black spot +varies in size and in shape; often it is roundish, and sometimes it is +crescent-like. It is always larger in the female than in the male, and +may be entirely absent in the latter sex; but this probably occurs very +rarely. Usually the orange patch of the male extends very near to the +inner angle of the wing, but sometimes it is continued through to this +point. It ranges in colour from deep to pale orange, and occasionally to +almost yellow. Small specimens, some not more than one inch and a +quarter in expanse, occur from time to time. In these dwarfs the orange +patch does not reach beyond the black discal spot, which in normal +specimens it usually does. This small form has been considered a +distinct species, and the name _hesperidis_ has been proposed for it. +Female specimens with splashes or streaks of the male colour on the +upper or the under sides have been noted not infrequently; and more +rarely specimens with one side entirely male and the other entirely +female have been taken. + +The egg (Plate 15), when freshly laid, is whitish, faintly tinged with +greenish; it soon changes to yellow, and, later on, turns orange and +then dark violet. When the latter colour appears, the little caterpillar +may be expected to hatch out very shortly. The eggs are placed upright +on the foot-stalks of the flowers, and may be readily found in June by +searching the blossom-clusters of hedge-mustard or cuckoo-flower. + +The caterpillar, when mature, is dull bluish-green, with raised dots +and warts; from the former arise whitish hairs, and from the latter +longer blackish hairs. There is a white line, or stripe, along the +sides, and the underparts of the body are greener than the back. Both in +colour and marking the caterpillar agrees so closely with the seed-pods +of its food-plant that its detection is not always easy. A peculiarity +in very young caterpillars of this species, and also those of some of +the "Whites," is, that the hairs are forked at the tips, and bear +globules of moisture thereon (see figure and remarks on p. 3). + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 14. + +=Green-veined White (Irish).= + +1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. + +=Bath White.= + +4, 5 _male_; 6 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 15. + +=Orange-tip Butterfly.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +The caterpillars feed in June and July on lady's smock or cuckoo-flower +(_Cardamine pratensis_), charlock (_Brassica sinapistrum_), +hedge-mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), garlic mustard (_S. alliaria_), +rock-cress (_Arabis_), horseradish (_Cochlearia armoracia_), dame's +violet (_Hesperis matronalis_), watercress (_Nasturtium officinale_), +etc. + +The chrysalis, as will be seen from the figure (Plate 15), is curiously +elongated, and tapers towards each end; the outline of the back is +curved, and the wing-cases bulge out into an angle about the middle of +the under side. The colour is pale grey or whitey-brown, sometimes with +a strong rosy tinge; the back is speckled with brownish, and has an +olive-grey dorsal line, and the veins of the wings are well defined. +This stage lasts, as a rule, from August of one year until May of the +following year. When the chrysalis is first formed, it is green, with +the wing-cases brighter, and this colour is sometimes retained. It has +been stated that the chrysalids assume the colour of their immediate +surroundings, and this may be so; but all that I have had under +observation were of the colours described above, although some were +fastened to green stem, others to muslin, and others, again, to glass. + +Towards the end of May and in June is the usual time for this butterfly +to be on the wing. It has, however, been noticed as early as about the +middle of April, and as late as the middle of July, and rarely in August +and September. The specimens, seen in the last-mentioned months, may +have represented a second brood, and, if so, a very unusual event. +Possibly, however, they may have been specimens whose emergence had for +some reason not understood, been retarded. There is at least one record +of the insect remaining in the chrysalis for two winters. + +Although generally distributed throughout England, Wales, and Ireland, +and occurring in Scotland as far north as the Caledonian Canal, it seems +to be more common in some districts than in others. Abroad, its range +extends over Europe, and through Asia as far east as Amurland and China. + + +The Wood White (_Leucophasia sinapis_). + +The graceful little butterfly figured on Plate 19 is creamy white, with +a rather square black or blackish spot on the tip of the fore wings of +the male. In the female the spot is reduced to some blackish scales on +and between the veins. Occasionally there is a second brood in the year, +and the specimens of this flight have smaller and rounder black spots in +the males, and almost none at all in the females. Specimens of the +female sex entirely devoid of black marking are referable to var. +_erysimi_ (see fourth figure in second row, Plate 16). Series of each +brood are shown on Plate 16, which is reproduced from a photograph by +Mr. Hamm. The lower specimen in each series has been reversed to show +the seasonal variation of the under side. The row of specimens on the +left are of the first brood, and the second and last examples in this +series show the characters of var. _lathyri_--black tips to the fore +wings, and dusky band-like shades on the hind wings; the under sides of +the hind wings dull greenish--to which form a good many of our spring +specimens belong. The specimens of the second generation are referable +to var. _diniensis_. The species is sometimes referred to _Leptosia_, +Hüb. + +The egg, which is figured on Plate 18, is yellowish-white in colour; it +is ribbed, and rather glassy in appearance. The caterpillars have been +known to hatch out about a week after the eggs were laid. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 16. + +=Wood White Butterfly.=] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 17. + +=Orange-tip Butterfly.= + +1, 5 _male_; 2 _do. (Irish)_; 3, 6 _female_; 4 _do. (Irish)_.] + +The caterpillar when full grown is, according to Hellins, "a beautiful +green, the front segments minutely dotted with black; dorsal line darker +green, edged with yellowish-green; spiracular line distinct, of a +fine clear yellow, edged above with darker green; spiracles +indistinguishable." The chrysalis in shape is something like that of the +last species, but the back is not curved, and the ends are less tapered. +The colour is a "lovely delicate green; the abdomen rather yellowish; +just in the spiracular region there runs all round the body a stout pink +rib, enclosing the greenish spiracles; from this a strong pink line +branches off, bordering the outer edge of the wing-case, and the +nervures of the wings themselves are delicately outlined in pink" +(Hellins). Sometimes the chrysalids are green without marking. + +Mr. A.M. Montgomery, who on one occasion had four batches of eggs, and +the subsequent caterpillars, under observation, states that the +caterpillars hatched about June 2 from eggs laid about May 22. Pupation +took place about July 3, and, except from one batch that remained for +the winter in the chrysalids, the butterflies emerged between July 16 +and 22. The food-plant in this case was bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus +corniculatus_). The yellow pea (_Lathyrus pratensis_) is a favourite +pabulum, but the caterpillar will also eat a vetch (_Vicia cracca_), and +probably many other plants belonging to the order Leguminosæ. +Caterpillars from the July butterflies would feed in August and +September. + +This fragile-looking little species is somewhat local, but is not +altogether uncommon in some of its particular haunts. As its English +name implies, the butterfly is fond of the woods, or, perhaps, is rather +more partial to their shady rides and margins. On dull or wet days, it +settles on the under side of a leaf. The first brood is on the wing in +May, and the second--when this occurs, which is not every year--in July +and August. In Ireland, where it is abundant in the south and west, +there seems to be only one flight, and this is in June. It may be well +to remember that this butterfly does not like the pill-box, and will not +settle down quietly therein. + +Possibly the Wood White had a much more general distribution in England +at one time than it now seems to have. It was not uncommon in parts of +Sussex some years ago, but there appears to be no record of its +occurrence there now. It is certainly much scarcer in the New Forest +than it used to be. However, it is still to be found, no doubt, in many +parts of England and Wales, but chiefly perhaps in the counties of +Berkshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, +Lancashire, and Cumberland. Also in the south and west of Ireland. It +occurs throughout Europe, Western and Central Asia, and its range +extends eastwards through Siberia, Amurland, China, and Corea to Japan. + + +The Pale Clouded Yellow (_Colias hyale_). + +This usually scarce butterfly (Plate 21) is of a primrose-yellow +colour in the male, and, as a rule, almost white in the female; +sometimes the latter sex is of the yellow male colour. The outer margin +of the fore wings is broadly black in both sexes, but there are some +more or less united spots of the ground colour in the black towards the +tips of the wings, and below vein 3 the black is usually confined to the +outer margin. There is a black spot near the middle of the wing, and +some blackish dusting quite near the base of the wing. The hind wings +have a pale orange central spot, sometimes two spots, and the blackish +border on the outer margin is generally narrow, and often interrupted or +broken up into spots. The fringes of all the wings are pinkish, as also +are the antennæ. The egg is pearly yellowish-white when first laid; a +few days later the top becomes transparent, white, and glassy, shading +downwards into yellow, and then clear rosy orange; the base is pale, but +less transparent than the top. It has a number of transverse ribs, +ranging from nineteen to twenty-two. Before the caterpillar hatches out, +the egg changes to a purplish leaden colour. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 18. + +=Wood White Butterfly.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler) + and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 19. + +=Wood White Butterfly.= + +1, 4, 6 _male_; 3 _do. (var.)_; 2, 5, 7 _female_.] + +The caterpillar in October, before hibernation, is about a quarter of an +inch long, and deep clover-green in colour; it has a number of pale, +shining warts along the back, from each of which there is a moderately +long black bristle, and there is a pale yellowish-white stripe above the +black spiracles. The head is pale ochreous green, with warts and +bristles as on the body. It rests upon a pad of silk spun on the centre +of a leaflet. When full grown the colour is clear light green, but has a +darkish velvety appearance, due to the entire surface being densely +sprinkled with black warts, the bristles from the warts on the back are +black, and those on the lower surface are white, the line above the +spiracles, which are white outlined with black, is made up of +lemon-yellow, orange-vermilion, and orange with an upper border of +white. The head, claspers, and legs are green. It feeds in June, and +again in August, on clover, trefoil, etc. The figure on Plate 20 is +after Hübner. + +The chrysalis is very similar to that of the Clouded Yellow, the chief +differences are that the head-beak of the present species is straight +instead of being slightly upturned, and the tip of the wing-case extends +further down the body. + +The above particulars of the early stages of the Pale Clouded Yellow are +adapted from Mr. Frohawk's account of the life-history of the species +(_Entomologist_, 1892 and 1893). + +From eggs laid in September by a captured female, Mr. Williams reared +two butterflies in November of the same year. Other caterpillars from +the same batch of eggs hibernated and recommenced feeding in the spring, +but failed to attain the chrysalis state. Young caterpillars from eggs +obtained in August were successfully hibernated by Mr. Carpenter, and +many of these produced butterflies in the following May. + +In rearing this species from eggs laid in the autumn, a fairly dry +treatment appears to be the best. Protect the young caterpillars from +frost, and do not water the plants during the winter. When they become +active again, about February, transfer them to other growing plants, +which should be kept ready for the change. Do not water the plants much, +or wet the foliage at all, and keep a sharp look-out for earwigs. + +It seems pretty clear that this species passes the winter as a +caterpillar, and from the evidence available it appears equally certain +that the caterpillars would not survive an ordinary winter in this +country. Possibly, however, in very mild winters, or in certain warm +nooks on the south coast, some may be able to exist until the spring, +and then complete their growth and reach the butterfly state. In such +native-born butterflies the ancestral migratory habit may be lost, owing +to climate, and they would not, therefore, wander far from the spot +where they emerged from the chrysalis, but found a colony, which +probably would be cleared off sooner or later by the severity of an +English winter. + +The Pale Clouded Yellow was not mentioned as an English butterfly +until Lewin wrote about it in 1795. He states that he only met with it +"in the Isle of Sheppey and on a hilly pasture-field near Ospringe in +Kent." He seems to have noted it in different years at both places. +Stephens, in 1827, referred to it as a rare British species, and from +that date until 1867 it seems to have been common only in 1835, 1842, +1857, and 1858. In 1868 it was abundant in the southern and eastern +counties, and was observed as far north as Lancashire and Yorkshire, +also in Ireland. It was common on the south coast in 1872, and rather +more so in 1875, when it spread into Essex and Suffolk, and also inland. +Until 1875 the butterflies seem only to have been noticed in the +autumnal months, but in that year specimens had been seen in May and +June. In 1876 the species was pretty plentiful, but after that date it +did not again occur in numbers until 1892, when it was recorded from +most of the southern and eastern counties. In 1893 one or two specimens +were reported as seen in April or May, but less than a dozen were +recorded as captured during the autumn of that year. Not much was seen +of the butterfly again until 1899, when a score or so were recorded from +Kent. Two or three specimens were seen on the south coast in June, 1900, +and the species was plentiful in the autumn of that year in many parts +of the country. Single specimens were seen in June, 1901, and in the +autumn the butterfly was again fairly common in several southern +counties, and abundant in parts of Essex. In 1902 a male was taken near +Dartford in March, and one example in May in a locality where two +specimens had been captured on October 20 of the previous year; six +males and one female were obtained between June 27 and July 12 at +Sheerness. The summer of 1902 was a cold one, and, with the exception of +four specimens at Folkestone in August, the species was not again seen +during that year or the following one; but in 1904 a good many specimens +were secured at Chatham in September, and one or two at Margate in +August. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 20. + +=Pale Clouded Yellow Caterpillar.= + +(_After Hübner._)] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 21. + +=Pale Clouded Yellow.= + +1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] + +When it occurs in this country the butterfly should be looked for in +clover and lucerne fields. + +Common throughout the Palæarctic Region. It is probably a species of +Eastern origin, but with a tendency to spread westward. + + +The Clouded Yellow (_Colias edusa_). + +In its typical colouring--orange with broad black borders--this +butterfly (Plate 22) will be recognized the first time it is seen. Both +sexes have a black spot about the centre of the fore wings, and a deep +orange spot near the middle of the hind wings--the latter is subject to +variation in size and shape. The female usually has the black borders +spotted with yellow, but in some examples these spots are almost (Plate +24, Fig. 1) or quite absent. Another form of the female, known as var. +_helice_ (Plate 24, Fig. 2), has the orange colour replaced by +yellowish-white, and in some years is not altogether uncommon. Between +this yellowish-white at one end of the colour range and the typical +orange at the other, specimens showing all the intermediate shades have +been obtained, chiefly by rearing the butterflies from eggs laid by a +female _helice_. One of these intergrades will be seen on Plate 24, Fig. +3. The males vary, especially bred ones, from "deep rich orange to the +palest chrome yellow; the marginal bands also vary in width; in many +examples the yellow nervules run through the borders of all the wings. A +large proportion of the males have the hind wings shot with a beautiful +amethystine blue" (Frohawk). + +The egg (Plate 23) is oval, tapering towards each end, very pale +yellowish in colour at first, but afterwards becoming darker yellow, and +then pink. The eggs are laid, as shown in the figure, on the upper side +of a leaf of clover or lucerne, sometimes singly, but often in small +batches. + +The caterpillar when full grown is deep green with minute black dots, +from which fine hairs arise, and a pink-marked yellow, or whitish, +spiracular line. The head is also green, rather downy, and small in +size. When first hatched the caterpillar is brownish, but soon changes +to greenish. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium_), trefoil (_Lotus_), +melilot (_Melilotus_), etc., in June and again in September or October. + +The chrysalis is yellowish-green above, somewhat paler below; the +wing-cases are rather deeper in tint than the thorax and back, and have +a central black speck and a row of slender marks at the edges. The body +is marked with a splash of reddish and tiny black dots on the under +side. The beak-like projection from the head is dark green above and +yellow beneath. + +The figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis are taken from +Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies," and the descriptions of these +stages by the same author have been followed. + +The Clouded Yellow has a great fancy for clover or lucerne fields, and +should be looked for in such places in August and September. It is not +very difficult to rear from the egg, so that if a female is captured in +August (the spring ones should not be taken), it would be a good plan to +try to induce her to lay some eggs. The best method to succeed in this +is to pot up a growing plant of clover, and over this place a glass +cylinder with a muslin cover. (See further directions in the +Introduction, page 28.) + +This butterfly, which was known, to the earliest English authors as the +"Saffron" or "Spotted Saffron," has always, no doubt, been erratic and +uncertain in its appearance in this country, sometimes becoming +increasingly abundant for three, four, or even five years in succession, +and then scarce or entirely absent for similar periods. The most recent +years of plenty, or when it was fairly common, were 1877, "the great +Edusa year," 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1899, 1900, and 1902. In some of +these years the Pale Clouded Yellow was also common. + +In some of the warmer countries that this butterfly inhabits it has +certainly three, and possibly four, broods in the year. It is therefore +conceivable that at times its increase in numbers may become very great +in some particular area. At such times swarms of the surplus butterfly +population set out to seek fresh fields and pastures new. Some portion +of these flights reach our country from time to time, and this probably +always occurs in the spring of the year. The weather conditions being +favourable, the offspring of the visitors put in a welcome appearance in +the autumn, and not only gladden the heart of the entomologist, but add +a charm to the countryside which every one can appreciate. + +The butterfly has probably occurred, at some time or other, in almost +every county in England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland, extending even +to the Orkney Islands (1877). + +Its home appears to be in North Africa and South Europe, whence it +spreads over the greater part of Europe and Western Asia. + +NOTE.--According to Kirby, this butterfly should be called _Eurymus +hyale_, Linn., and the Pale Clouded Yellow be known as _Eurymus kirbyi_, +Lewis. + + +The Brimstone (_Gonepteryx rhamni_). + +This butterfly (Plate 26) has the tips of the fore wings sharply +pointed, and there is a rather acute angle about the middle of the outer +margin of the hind wings. The colour of the male is bright sulphur +yellow, with a central orange spot on each wing, that on the hind wings +usually the largest; there is also a rusty dot at the outer end of the +upper veins and along the front margin of the fore wings towards the +tip. The female is greenish yellow, and is marked similarly to the male. +In both sexes the horns (_antennæ_) are reddish, and the long silky hair +on the thorax is a noticeable character. It is probably this insect to +which the name "butter-coloured fly," contracted into butterfly, was +first given; anyway, it is the only species to which the name applies so +well. + +The egg. If the under sides of the leaves of buckthorn (_Rhamnus +catharticus_) or of the berry-bearing alder (_R. frangula_) are examined +in May or June, the eggs of this butterfly may be found thereon. They +are often placed on a rib of the leaf, but sometimes they are laid as +shown in the illustration (Plate 25). At first the colour is pale +greenish and rather glossy, but it soon changes to yellowish, and later +on, when the caterpillar has formed inside, to a dull purplish-grey. + +The caterpillar when full grown is green, merging into bluish-green +on the sides, thickly powdered with shining black specks. There is a +pale line on each side below the spiracles. It feeds in June and July on +both kinds of buckthorn, and will generally be found resting along the +main rib of a leaf. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 22. + +=Clouded Yellow.= + +1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 23. + +=Clouded Yellow.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +The chrysalis is bluish-green in colour and of a curious shape. The +sharp yellowish and brown beak-like projection in front and raised +brownish bases of the wing-covers, together with the humped thorax, +somewhat resemble a bird's head when seen from the front. Then, again, +the enlarged wing-cases, which are rather greener than the other parts, +in conjunction with the general outline, give a very good imitation of a +curled leaf. + +The butterfly is very constant as regards colour and marking, but +occasionally the fore wings may be more or less suffused with orange, +and in this respect assumes the coloration of the South European species +known as _G. cleopatra_. The attempt has been made to establish the +last-named butterfly in Ireland, but the experiment seems to have been +only partially successful. Sometimes female specimens are found to have +splashes of the male colour on their wings. Occasionally their colour is +intermediate between their own proper tint and that of the male, and +more rarely the wings on one side may be yellow, as in the male, while +those on the other side are greenish, as in the female. Such specimens +are termed gynandrous examples, and sometimes hermaphrodites. The +latter, however, is not correct. + +An unusual variation of the butterfly is shown on Plate 27. This has +large oval pale brownish-orange marks on the under side of the wings. It +was taken in the New Forest. + +The Brimstone butterfly enjoys a longer existence in the perfect state +than any of the other British species, with the exception, perhaps, of +the Tortoiseshells and their allies. It leaves the chrysalis at the end +of July or beginning of August, and is usually quite common during the +latter month. After this it takes up its winter quarters, from which, +however, it may be tempted to come out whenever the day is sufficiently +warm and sunny for it to indulge in a few hours' flight. The fine +condition of some of the specimens that are seen in May or June has +suggested the possibility of such specimens having remained in the +chrysalis during the winter, but it is not at all probable that they do +so. It may be seen any sunny day from March, or even February, to June +in almost every English and Welsh county where its food-plant grows, and +locally in Ireland. The best time to take specimens is in the autumn, +when they are often to be seen in numbers flying along the rides in or +on the outskirts of woods, and also in clover fields. + +Distributed over the whole of temperate Europe, and extending through +Asia to the far east and to North Africa. + + * * * * * + +The thirty butterflies now to be considered belong to the Nymphalidæ, +which has a larger membership than any other family of butterflies. It +is divided into several sub-families, but only four of these concern us; +these are Apaturinæ (1 species), Nymphalinæ (17 species), Danainæ (1 +species), and Satyrinæ (11 species). The next butterfly is our only +representative of Apaturinæ. + + +The Purple Emperor (_Apatura iris_). + +On account of its large size and the beautiful purple sheen over its +brownish-black velvety wings, this butterfly (Plate 29) is always +counted a prize by the collector. It is, however, only the male that +dons the purple, and he only when seen from the proper angle. The female +is without the purple reflection and her wings are browner, but the +white spots on the fore wings and the white bands on the hind wings are +rather wider than those of the male. Above the anal angle of the hind +wings, in both sexes, there is a black spot, ringed with tawny and +sometimes centred with white, and a tawny mark on veins 1 and 2. As will +be seen on turning to the figures on Plate 31, the under side of this +butterfly is exceedingly pretty. On the same plate there is a figure of +the rare variety known as _iole_ (for the loan of which I am indebted to +Mr. Sabine), in which most of the white spots are absent or obscured. +Intermediates between this extreme form and the type also occur, but all +such aberrations are uncommon. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 24. + +=Clouded Yellow.= + +1 _Female aberration;_ 2, 3, 4 _var. helice_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 25. + +=Brimstone Butterfly.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +The egg (Plate 28) may be looked for in August on the upper surface of a +leaf of the sallow (_Salix caprea_). According to Buckler, it is pale +olive green in colour, and cylindrical in shape; the height from base to +top being about equal to the width through from side to side. It has +about fourteen ribs. + +The caterpillar in October, just before hibernation, is dingy green +roughened with numerous whitish warts from which arise short bristles, +some of the latter appearing to be tinged with reddish, and those along +the sides longer than those on the upper part of the body; the straight +lines along the back and the oblique ones on the sides are yellowish. +The head and the two horn-like projections, reminding one of the horns +of a slug, are reddish-grey and covered with warts and bristles. The +anal points (tails), which lie close together, are tipped with reddish. +It should be mentioned here that on emerging from the egg the young +caterpillar is without horns; these are not developed until the first +skin is thrown off, which event happens from eight to twelve days after +hatching. + +The full-grown caterpillar is green, merging into yellowish towards the +anal points (tails); the oblique stripes on the sides are yellowish, +edged with reddish. The individual depicted on the plate took up a +position for change to the chrysalis on June 6. It spun a mat of silk to +the under side of a sallow leaf, and the next day it was found suspended +by the claspers, which were grasping the silken mat. On the fourth day +the chrysalis was fully developed, and from this a male butterfly +emerged on June 24, an unusually early date. + +The chrysalis is whitish, more or less tinged with green, but having the +oblique lines on the sides whitish; the veins of the wings also show up +whitish. + +The caterpillar was well known to entomologists in this country as far +back as 1758, when, in May, four were obtained from sallow at Brentwood +in Essex. It usually occurs on sallow, but an instance is recorded of it +refusing to eat this plant; it would probably have starved if willow, +upon which it fed up, had not been substituted. A full-grown caterpillar +was on one occasion found at Raindene in Sussex on poplar, which is a +well-known food of the species on the Continent. Now and then a +full-grown caterpillar has been met with in October, and Buckler reared +two in the autumn from the egg almost to the chrysalis stage, but they +died before the change was effected. + +As befits his rank, the Emperor has lofty habits, and after quitting +the clump of sallow bushes, among which its transformations from egg to +the perfect insect were effected, it resorts to the oak trees, around +which it flies in July, and, when not so engaged, rests on a leaf of the +higher branches. To capture the butterfly, when seen at such times, is +not altogether an easy matter, as for the purpose the net must be +affixed to the end of a pole about 14 or 15 feet in length. The insect's +rather depraved taste for the juices of animal matter, in a somewhat +advanced stage of decay, is a fact well known to the professional +collector and others who have taken advantage of it to the monarch's +destruction. This method of attracting a butterfly for the purpose of +capture is, however, not exactly to be commended. It surely is a greater +pleasure to show one's friends a single specimen that has been captured +by dexterity with the net, than to exhibit fifty that were secured by a +device which is not only unsavoury, but unsportsmanlike. The female, +however, is not to be allured; she must be sought among the sallows, and +when seen is not easy to net, as she skims away over the tops of the +bushes and is difficult to follow. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 26. + +=Brimstone Butterfly.= + +1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 27. + +=Brimstone Butterfly.= _Underside (aberration)_. + +=Common Blue.= _At rest_.] + +Although most certainly not so common or so generally distributed as in +former times, the butterfly still occurs in the larger oak woods in most +of the midland, western, and southern counties of England, but is, +perhaps, most frequent in Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire. In Wales it +is found in Monmouthshire. It has not been recorded from Scotland, and +only doubtfully from Ireland. + +In Central Europe it is often abundant, and its range extends eastward +into Amurland, Central and Western China. + + * * * * * + +Now follow seventeen butterflies of the sub-family Nymphalinæ. + + +The White Admiral (_Limenitis sibylla_). + +The "White Admirable Butterfly," as it was called by some of the older +English entomologists, needs only to be seen to be at once recognized +(Plate 33). The white markings on its blackish wings are somewhat +similar to those of the Purple Emperor. As in that butterfly, so, too, +in this, the most beautiful ornamentation is found on the under side. +The shape of the wing is, however, very different in the two +butterflies, and there is no probability of confusing one with the +other. A somewhat uncommon form is shown on Plate 31 (also kindly loaned +by Mr. Sabine); this is var. _nigrina_. Intermediates also occur, but +these, too, are also rather rare. The eggs, which I have not seen, are +stated to hatch in about fourteen days, and are laid in July. They have +been described as pale green in colour, and of the shape of an orange, +but flatter at the base and top. + +The caterpillar (Plate 30) when full grown is dark green on the back +and lighter on the sides, roughened with yellow dots, and with a +yellow-marked white line above the feet. The bristly spines are reddish +with pinkish tips, and those on the second, third, fifth, tenth, and +eleventh rings are longer than the others. The first ring seems to be +without spines, but the brownish head is set with short ones, two on the +crown being rather longer and blacker than the others, and are inclined +backwards. + +In the autumn, when still quite tiny, it constructs a winter retreat +(_hibernaculum_) (Plate 30) by fastening a growing leaf of sallow to a +twig with silken threads, and then, using more silk, it draws the edges +of the leaf together, and so forms a secure chamber wherein it can rest +until the following spring, when it quits the domicile and sets to work +on the tender foliage around it. At this time the caterpillar is +brownish in colour. The chrysalis is of the remarkable shape shown on +the plate. It is brownish, with purplish or olive tinge; behind the +rounded hump there is a patch of bright green, and above the wing-cases +a beautiful golden sheen. There are also other metallic spots and dots +on various parts. Altogether, it is one of the prettiest of British +butterfly chrysalids. + +I am tempted here to quote Buckler's excellent description of the +pupation of this species, as it will serve to show the remarkable method +by which caterpillars are able to perform a seemingly impossible feat; +that is, to get absolutely free of the old skin whilst hanging head +downwards from the silken pad or button to which they attach themselves +by the anal claspers when preparing to pupate. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 28. + +=Purple Emperor.= + +_Egg enlarged; young and full-grown caterpillars; chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 29. + +=Purple Emperor.= + +1 _male_; 2 _female_.] + +"When full fed the larva becomes rapidly paler, and then suspends +itself by the anal prolegs to a stem of the honeysuckle or other +surface, and hangs with its body downwards in a sinuous curve, with its +head bent a little upwards, facing the abdomen; it then remains +motionless for three days, becoming whitish on the abdomen, and +remaining very pale green on the thoracic segments. In the course of the +third day the creature seems to wake up, unbends its head, swings itself +to and fro a few times, then stretches itself downwards in a long +attenuated line, which causes a rupture of the skin close to the head; +the skin then is seen slowly to ascend, exposing the bare and soft +shining parts below, from which a flat and forked pair of horns grow out +perceptibly as one beholds this wonderful process; the skin continues to +glide slowly upwards, and as the soft parts become exposed, they are +seen to swell out laterally, and to assume the very singular projections +so characteristic of this chrysalis, the skin of the old head gliding up +the belly marks the progress of the disclosure, as the colour of the old +and new surfaces is at this time alike, the new being, however, rather +more shining and transparent. Occasionally during the bulging out of the +soft parts, a kind of convulsive heave or two occurs, but otherwise it +remains still until the creature is uncovered as far as the ninth or +tenth segment; it then curves its anal extremity by a sudden twist +laterally, and in a moment dexterously withdraws the tip of the anal +segment from the larval prolegs by an opening on the back of the skin at +that part. At this critical moment one has time to see that the naked +shining point is furnished with black hooks, and to apprehend a fall; +but in another moment the pupa has forcibly pressed the curved tip with +its hooks against the stem close to the previous attachment of the anal +prolegs, and now it is strongly and firmly fixed. The creature now seems +endowed with wonderful power and vigour; it swings boldly to and fro, +and undulates itself as if to gain longer swings, when presently the old +skin that remains is seen to burst away and fall off, the chrysalis +gradually becoming quiescent, the entire metamorphosis, from the first +waking to the last movement, occupying nearly seven minutes. In sixteen +days the perfect insect emerged." + +Linnæus in 1767 wrote of the sexes of this butterfly as _sibylla_, or +rather _sibilla_, and _camilla_, but, as Kirby points out, three years +earlier the same author had given the butterfly the name _camilla_. It +is probable, therefore, that the latter name will have to be adopted for +our butterfly. Certain it is that the older British authors--Donovan, +Haworth, Stephens, etc., knew our species as _camilla_. The species +known on the Continent as _camilla_, and which, owing to the confusion +of names has been supposed to be British, will have to be called +_drusilla_, according to Kirby. + +This species seems to be pretty much restricted to the southern and +eastern counties of England. In the New Forest, Hampshire, it is often +exceedingly abundant in July. So long ago as 1695 the butterfly was +known to occur in Essex, and the species is found in some woods in that +county at the present time. It has, however, quite disappeared from +several woodland localities in Kent and Sussex, where it formerly +occurred. It has been recorded from Shropshire and also from +Worcestershire, but both these counties appear to be beyond the normal +range of the species. + +Almost all writers on our butterflies, from Haworth downwards, have +commented on the graceful flight of the White Admiral as it skims aloft +and alow through the woodland glades. This elegance of motion is still +retained even when the wings become sadly torn and frayed, probably by +contact with twigs and thorns. + +Widely distributed throughout Central Europe. It is also found in +Amurland, Corea, and Japan. + + +The Comma (_Polygonia c-album_). + +The peculiar shape of the wings of this butterfly (Plate 35) might +cause it to be mistaken for a very tattered example of one of the +Tortoiseshells. The irregular contour of the outer edges of the wings +is, however, quite natural, and is subject to some variation in its +jaggedness. Their colour is deep tawny or fulvous, with brownish borders +on their outer margin. On the fore wings there are three black spots on +the front or costal area, and below the first, which is often divided, +there is a roundish black spot (sometimes double) just above the inner +margin; two, sometimes three, other spots lie between this and the third +costal spot. On the hind wings there are three black spots on the basal +half, and a series of pale fulvous spots before the brownish border; +these are inwardly edged with brownish, and sometimes this edging is +united with the marginal border. Similar spots are, in some specimens, +present in a like position on the fore wings also. On the under side the +wings are of various shades of brown, sometimes variegated with whitish, +or yellowish, and greenish, the latter often conspicuous; other +specimens are paler on the outer half than on the basal half, and, +except occasionally having a series of greenish or dusky spots on the +outer area, are without marking. These differences occur in both sexes. +The white comma or c mark, placed about the middle of the under side of +the hind wings, is rather stronger in the variegated specimens; but it +varies, generally, in shape as well as in size. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 30. + +=White Admiral.= + +_Young caterpillar with hibernaculum (h); caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 31. + + 1, 2 Purple Emperor; 3 var. _iole_. + 4, 5 White Admiral, var. _nigrina_.] + +Var. _hutchinsoni_, Robson, which has been renamed _pallida_ and +_lutescens_, differs from the typical form in having the ground colour +much lighter and brighter on the upper side and ochreous on the under +side. It is shown on Plate 35. The outline of the wings of this form, +which occurs in June and July, is said to be less jagged, and this may +be so as a rule, but it certainly is not always the case. Possibly this +is "The Pale Comma" of Petiver. + +There are two broods of this species in the year, but the first or +summer flight of butterflies seems to depend upon a favourable season, +as also does the second or autumnal brood, at least as regards the +number of butterflies representing it. The late butterflies hibernate +and reappear in April, or even March, of the following year. It has been +stated that all the specimens appearing in the spring are of the form +with plain under sides. + +From eggs laid between April 27 and May 6, Miss E. Hutchinson, writing +in 1887, says caterpillars hatched between May 5 and 11. They were "fed" +on currant and nettle mixed, and were full grown from June 17th till the +23rd. The first butterfly emerged on June 26, and the last on July 3, +and all were very fine and of the pale summer variety. Two of the +insects paired on June 30, and the female commenced laying on July 1, +and continued doing so till the 10th, when there were 120 ova. +Unfortunately, a very cold spell of weather began on July 12, and more +than half the eggs perished. The butterflies resulting from the +remainder appeared during August, from the 17th to the 27th, but they +would not pair, probably because, although they had emerged at an early +date, they properly belonged to the autumnal flight. + +In 1894 Mr. Frohawk reared 200 of these butterflies from 275 eggs laid +by a female between April 17 and June 1 of that year. The caterpillars +were supplied with nettle only. The first butterfly emerged on June 30, +and the last on August 2. Of the whole number forty-one were of the +light fulvous form, var. _hutchinsoni_, and all the others of the dark +or typical form. With few exceptions, the light-coloured butterflies +were the first to emerge, and the major portion of these during early +July, and before any examples of the dark form had come out. + +The egg is at first green in colour with ribs whiter, but changes before +the caterpillar hatches out to yellowish. In confinement the female +butterflies deposit their eggs singly or in chains of three or four; +probably the latter is the usual method of laying the eggs under natural +conditions. + +The caterpillar when full grown is black, netted with greyish; the +spines on the second to fifth rings inclusive are yellowish, and those +on the back of the other rings are white; the back from ring 6 to ring +10 inclusive is broadly white, marked with black, and the upper surface +of the other rings is more or less yellowish. The head is black, marked +with ochreous; the crown is lobed, and on each lobe is a short club-like +knob. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 32. + +=Comma Butterfly.= + +_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 33. + +=White Admiral.= + +1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] + +The chrysalis is brownish tinged with pink; the wing-cases and the rings +of the body are edged with blackish; there is a greyish line along the +back of the body and a brownish stripe along the spiracles; at the point +where the body joins the thorax there are some silvery or golden spots. +The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 32 are after Buckler. + +This butterfly seems to have disappeared from many localities in England +where it formerly flourished. About seventy or eighty years ago, for +example, it was plentiful in Epping Forest, in Herts, and in Dorset. +During the last half-century or so it has been common in certain parts +of many of the counties from Somerset to Durham and Cumberland, but +seems to have occurred only sparingly or singly in Norfolk, Suffolk, +Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Wilts, and Devon. It still occurs now and +then in the Dover district, the most recent record being of one taken in +October, 1894; and it was reported from North Staffordshire in 1893. +Probably it is now almost entirely confined to favoured districts +embraced within the area represented by the counties of Herefordshire, +Worcestershire, and Monmouthshire, whence it may occasionally stray into +the adjoining counties, or even further afield. + +This butterfly is often associated with hop gardens, but it is by no +means restricted to such places. The usual food-plants of the +caterpillars are hop (_Humulus lupulus_), nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and +currant (_Ribes_), but it is reported to eat gooseberry (_R. +grossularia_) and elm (_Ulmus_). + +Abroad it has a very wide distribution in Europe, and extends through +Asia to Japan. + + +The Large Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa polychloros_). + +Apart from its larger size, and somewhat different outline, this +butterfly may be known from the Small Tortoiseshell by its duller +colour, which is brownish-orange; on the fore wing there are, as a rule, +no blue crescents in the hind marginal border, but there is an extra +black spot placed between veins 1 and 2; on the hind wings a black spot +on the front area represents the black basal area seen on the Small +Tortoiseshell; and this is an important point of difference, although +the two species are not likely to be confused when both are well known. +The blue spots referred to as not usually present on the fore wings are +stated to occur in specimens emerging from chrysalids that have been +kept in a rather cold temperature for a certain length of time. + +An aberration known as _testudo_ has the black spots of the fore wings +united, and forming blotches on the front and inner areas; the ground +colour of the fore wings is lighter, and the hind wings are blacker. +This form occurs at large on the Continent, but it is rare; it has also +been produced in the course of temperature experiments. + +The only eggs of this butterfly that I have been able to obtain are the +batch figured on Plate 34. These were purplish with whitish ribs, but no +caterpillars hatched from them. Hellins, who squeezed a few eggs from a +freshly killed female, states that the colour apparently is a dull +green. The ribs vary from seven to nine in number. + +The caterpillar in the adult stage is black, with a speckled dark +ochreous band traversed by a black central line on the back; the sides +are dappled with ochreous grey; the under parts are brown dappled with +darker, and merging into the black. The spines are dark ochreous tipped +with black, and the head is shiny black and bristly. (The figure is +after Buckler.) + +These caterpillars live in large companies, often at the top of a +high elm tree, from which they may be dislodged by a well-aimed stick, +if this happens to be heavy enough to jar the branch when it reaches the +mark. Besides elm trees (_Ulmus_), they also may be found on willow and +sallow (_Salix_), aspen and poplar (_Populus_), white-beam (_Pyrus +aria_), and various fruit trees, especially cherry. Occasionally they +have been found on nettle, but the butterflies from these were small in +size. June is the best month for them. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 34. + +=Large Tortoiseshell.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 35. + +=Comma Butterfly.= + +1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 _male_; 7 _female (var. hutchinsoni)_.] + +The chrysalis (Plate 34) is greyish, tinged with pink or reddish, +sprinkled with greenish, and shaded with brown and black; the back of +the body nearest the thorax is adorned with golden spots. I once +obtained a number of these chrysalids in July at Mill Hill; they were +found suspended by the tail from the edges of boards that formed a +rickety old cart-shed standing at one end of a field and beneath an elm +tree. + +Although this butterfly is often common in the caterpillar state, the +perfect insect, which emerges in July and August, is more frequently +seen in the spring after hibernation than before that event. It probably +establishes itself in suitable quarters, in old trees, faggot stacks, +barns, etc., for its long rest during the winter, at an early period +after emerging from the chrysalis. + +No doubt large numbers are destroyed by their great enemies, the +parasitic flies, chiefly perhaps the Hymenopterous _Apanteles_. An +observer states that from fifty chrysalids only one butterfly resulted, +all the others were found to be filled with parasites. In another case +of one hundred caterpillars, some collected when quite small, only one +was not "ichneumoned." + +These butterflies, in common with most other Vanessids, do not pair +until the spring, but Barrett cites an instance of caterpillars, from +eggs laid by a female in early September, being reared until about 1/2 +inch in length, when they apparently laid up for hibernation. + +Lanes margined with trees, especially elms, or the verges of woods, are +the most likely places in which to find the butterfly. At one time and +another it has been observed in nearly every county of England and +Wales, and also in some parts of Scotland, but not in Ireland. It +appears to be more or less common in all counties around London, +extending to Somerset in the west; to Cambs, Norfolk, and Suffolk in the +east; and to Northampton and Warwick in the Midlands. + +Abroad it is found throughout the greater part of Europe, Asia Minor, +and eastward to the Himalayas. + + +The Small Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa urticæ_). + +This butterfly is one of the most ubiquitous as well as prettiest that +we have in this country. Its reddish-orange colour, marked with yellow +patches, black spots, and blue crescents, gives it a charming appearance +as it sits on a flower, or even on the ground, with wings fully expanded +to the sunlight. When the wings are closed up, however, the butterfly +seems to disappear, as the under side of the wings is quite sombre in +colour. The only bright spot on the under side is the yellowish central +area of the fore wing, and when the wings are held erect over the +insect's back this is not seen, but only the tips of these wings, which +are of the same dull colour as the hind wings. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.] + +The ground colour is subject to modification as regards the shade of +red in the orange, and this may be intense or reduced to just a mere +tinge. Specimens have been taken on the wing in which the colour was +some shade of buff, and the same kind of colour change will sometimes +result from an over-long exposure to the action of ammonia. The black +markings vary in size, and sometimes those on the costal area are more +or less connected or even confluent (Fig. 22); a greater or lesser +amount of blackish suffusion on the hind wings (Fig. 23) generally +accompanies confluence of the costal spots on fore wings. The two black +spots between veins 2 and 4 occasionally enlarge and unite, or, on the +other hand, they decrease in size to vanishing point. Some specimens +have black scales between the second costal spot and the black spot on +the inner margin, and the space between these two spots may be entirely +covered with black and so form a central transverse band (var. +_polaris_). A modification of this form is shown on Plate 38, lower +figure. The yellow patch between the second and third costal black spots +is sometimes continued right across the wings to the yellow spot on the +inner margin, and in this respect resembles an Indian form of the +species named _ladakensis_. Dwarf specimens result, in most cases, when +the caterpillars have fed on hop (_Humulus_); at least, this is so in +confinement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.] + +The egg is at first green, but after a time becomes tinted with yellow +and the ribs stand out clear and transparent. The eggs are laid in a +cluster on the under side of a terminal leaf of a nettle plant in May +and again in July. + +The adult caterpillar is yellowish, closely covered with black speckling +and short hairs; there is a black line down the centre of the back, and +this is bordered on each side by the clear ground colour. The spiracles +are black ringed with yellow, and there is a yellowish line above them. +The yellowish spines have black tips. Head black, hairy, and speckled +with yellow. Individuals of another company were almost entirely black, +the spines alone being tinged with yellow. These caterpillars are +gregarious from the time they hatch from the egg until about the last +stage. + +The chrysalis is most often of some shade of grey and sometimes tinged +with pinkish. The points on the upper parts of the body are in some +examples metallic at the base, and occasionally the metallic lustre +spreads over the thorax and other parts as well. + +There are two broods in the year, one in June, the other in August and +September. The latter brood, or at least some of the butterflies, +hibernate and reappear in the earliest sunny days of spring. They have +been seen on the wing as early as January and February (1896), and as +late as December. + +The geographical range of this species extends through Europe and Asia +to Japan. + + +The Peacock (_Vanessa io_). + +Unlike the last species referred to, this handsome butterfly is more +frequently seen in the autumn than after hibernation. It is not likely +to be mistaken for any other kind, for on its brownish-red velvety wings +it bears its own particular badge, the "peacock eyes." The marks on the +hind wings are more like the "eyes" on the tail feathers of the peacock +than are those on the fore wings, and the brownish-red on these wings is +confined to a large patch below the eye-mark, the remainder being +blackish, powdered with yellow scales on the basal area. Some specimens +have a blue spot below the "eye" on the hind wings, and the name +_cyanosticta_ has been proposed for this form by Raynor. The under side +is blackish, with a steely sheen, and crossed by irregular black lines; +the fore wings are tinged with brown on the inner area, and the central +dot and a series of dots beyond are ochreous; the hind wings have an +ochreous central dot. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 36. + +=Large Tortoiseshell.= + +1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 37. + +=Small Tortoiseshell.= + +_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +In a state of nature the butterfly seems little given to variation. In +rearing from the caterpillar, however, some curious aberrations +occasionally crop up. In my early days of collecting I raised a number +of specimens from caterpillars selected from a large brood; every one of +these butterflies was of a dull brownish colour and had a greasy +semi-transparent appearance. I regret to add that I set them all at +liberty as they did not come up to my, then, standard of what a Peacock +butterfly should be. Now and then specimens are bred from collected +caterpillars, in which the eye spots are represented by a broad white +cloud-like suffusion on the fore wings, and by a pale roundish patch on +the hind wings; in conjunction with this the black costal spots of the +fore wings are all more or less united (see Plate 41). This extreme +variety is known in the vernacular as the "Blind Peacock," and as _ab. +belisaria_ in science; between it and the typical form there are all +kinds of intermediate modifications, and one of these is also shown on +the plate referred to. It may be interesting to remark that similar +varieties have been produced by subjecting the chrysalids at a +particular period to a very low temperature. Readers who may wish to +know more about "Temperature Experiments" are referred to a pamphlet on +the subject by Dr. Max Standfuss. + +The egg, an enlarged figure of which will be found on Plate 39, is +olive green in colour, and has eight ribs, which start just above the +base and turn over the top. The eggs are laid in April or May in batches +on the upper part of nettle plants and under the young leaves. + +The mature caterpillar is velvety black with white dots, and the +divisions between the rings of the body are well marked. The spines are +black and rather glossy, and besides this clothing, the body is also +provided with short hair which gives the velvety appearance. The head +and a plate on the next ring, also the legs, are shining black; the +prolegs are blackish, tipped with yellowish. When quite young they are +greenish-grey, and although hairy are without spines. The caterpillars +usually feed in companies in June and July on the common stinging +nettle. They have also been found on hop. Once or twice I have reared +caterpillars of this butterfly, and also those of the Small +Tortoiseshell and the Red Admiral, on hop, but the result has been +disappointing, as the specimens produced were always small in size. The +individuals for these experiments were obtained from nettle, and were +generally about half grown at the time they were put on the hop diet. + +The chrysalis is figured on Plate 39. Its colour may be pale greenish, +greyish, pale brown, or brownish-grey, but is usually stippled with +blackish, especially the antennæ and the outline of the wing-cases. Some +of the points on the thorax and the ring, or rings, next to it have a +metallic lustre. Two chrysalids among those resulting from my hop-fed +caterpillars were more or less suffused with the metallic sheen. It does +not seem to be very clearly known where the caterpillars retire to for +pupation. Those that I have found have been under a tent-like +arrangement of the lower nettle leaves. In confinement, however, I have +noted that in a roomy cage they all go to one end of it and suspend +themselves from the roof; in a large flower-pot they crowd together in +much the same way. + +The butterfly is on the wing in August and September, and frequents +all and every kind of ground where flowering plants, especially the +taller kinds, are available; clover fields are attractive, and so also +are orchards. It passes the winter in some hollow tree trunk, wood +stack, or possibly buildings of some kind, and in the spring it again +comes forth. March and April are the usual months for its reappearance, +but in 1900 it was seen flying over the snow on February 17. The time +last mentioned is probably an unusual one, but it is interesting to note +that a very similar observation was made by Harris, who in 1778 wrote in +his remarks on this butterfly, "I have seen them flying in February, +when the snow has been on the ground." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 38. + +=Small Tortoiseshell.= + +1, 2 _female_; 3, 5 _male_; 4 _var._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 39. + +=Peacock Butterfly.= + +_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +Usually the Peacock butterfly assumes the perfect state but once in the +year. There is, however, a record of half-grown caterpillars being found +in September, and that these produced butterflies in due course. + +Although not always abundant, the butterfly is to be, or has been, found +in almost every part of the kingdom, excepting perhaps north of the +Caledonian Canal in Scotland. Around Bishop Auckland and in other parts +of the county of Durham, and also in Northumberland, it was common some +forty years ago, but it seems to be hardly ever seen there now. The same +applies to other northern localities where it was once plentiful. Its +distribution includes the whole of Europe, Asia Minor, Siberia, +Amurland, Corea, and Japan. + + +The Camberwell Beauty (_Vanessa antiopa_). + +This is a large and handsome insect; its chocolate-brown wings are +bordered with ochreous speckled with black scales. The border is +variable in width, and this is occasionally so wide that it partly or +completely hides the blue spots, which in the ordinary form are placed +on a dark band just before the ochreous border. Such specimens are known +as var. _hygiæa_ or var. _lintneri_ (Plate 41); but in the former form +the yellow spots on the front edge of the fore wing are absent, and in +the latter variety these spots are sometimes united and form a blotch. +One authority states that the proportion of these extreme variations in +nature is about 1 in 500. The same form may be produced by subjecting +summer chrysalids to a temperature of about 110 deg. Fahr. during three +to five consecutive days, the chrysalids being placed in this heat four +times a day, and for a period of one hour each time. Dr. Max Standfuss, +who has made many experiments with this and other butterflies, states +that the result of such treatment as that adverted to, and as regards +this species, has been the production of as many as seven of the +varieties among forty specimens. It would seem probable, then, that the +varieties occurring in the open are from chrysalids that received a +greater amount of heat than those that produce the ordinary butterfly. + +It has been stated that the borders are ochreous, but this only applies +to the specimens seen in the summer or early autumn. The butterflies +hibernate, and when they leave their winter retreats in the spring, the +colour of the border is considerably paler and often even white. For +some time it was considered that white borders were a peculiarity of the +British Camberwell Beauty and stamped it a genuine native. Probably +there are some who may still hold this opinion. An example of each form +is represented on Plate 43, the upper one was taken in the spring, and +the other in the autumn. Both belong to Mr. J.A. Clark, to whom I am +indebted for their loan. + +The egg is at first deep ochreous yellow, changing through olive brown +to red brown, and a day or two before the larva hatches out becoming +leaden grey. The ribs, which are eight or nine in number, are most +prominent below the top, and disappear before the base is reached. The +eggs are laid on twigs or stems in small batches of 30 or 40 up to large +ones of 150 to 250. + +The caterpillar has been described by Mr. Frohawk, who gives a full +account of the life-history of this species in the _Entomologist_ for +1902 and 1903. The following is an abridgement of his description. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 40. + +=Peacock Butterfly.= + +1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 41. + +1, 3 =Peacock vars.=; 2 =Camberwell Beauty var.=] + +The head is bilobed, having a deep notch on the crown, and of a dull +black colour, covered with black warts, each emitting a white hair. The +ground colour of the body is deep velvety black, and densely sprinkled +with pearl-white warts, each emitting a fine white hair, some being of +considerable length, and the majority slightly curved. Down the centre +of the back is a series of rich deep rust-red shield-like markings, +which commences on the third segment and terminates on the eleventh +segment. In the centre of the anal segment is a shining black dorsal +disc, much resembling the head; the legs are black and shining, and the +four pairs of prolegs are rust colour, with a polished band above the +feet, and the anal pair are black with pale reddish feet. + +The caterpillars feed on sallow, willow, birch, and elm. They cover the +leaves of their food-plant with a silken web and live thereon in +companies, and do not separate until about to prepare for the chrysalis +state. + +The chrysalis. The dorsal half of the head and wing points are black, +and the ventral half orange. Some of the points on the body are tipped +with orange. The whole surface is finely and irregularly furrowed and +granulated. The ground colour is pale buff, covered with fine fuscous +reticulations. The entire surface is clothed with a whitish-powdery +substance, giving a pale lilac or pinkish bloom to the chrysalis, which, +however, is easily rubbed off, the chrysalis then assuming a brownish +hue. Our figure of the chrysalis is after Holland. + +Mr. Frohawk, who had female butterflies living under observation for +about three months, states that eggs were laid in April, May, and June. +Caterpillars from the first batch of 192 eggs hatched early in May, +nineteen days after they were laid. These were full grown by June 20, +and entered the chrysalis state soon after. The butterflies from these +commenced to emerge about the middle of July. + +He says: "Both sallow and willow are equally suitable food for the +larvæ, and birch is readily eaten, even when willow has formed the sole +food until the last stage; they will feed on elm. Nettle was not +appreciated, and not touched by them during the last two or three +stages." + +This butterfly appears to have first attracted the attention of the +earlier British entomologists about the middle of the eighteenth +century. Stephens, writing in 1827, remarks that "about sixty years +since it appeared in such prodigious numbers throughout the kingdom, +that the entomologists of that day gave it the appellation of the Grand +Surprise." Harris figured the butterfly under the name mentioned by +Stephens, and it has also been referred to by others as the "Willow +Beauty" and the "White Petticoat." Newman called it the +"White-bordered;" and from this, as well as from his description of the +butterfly, it would seem that he had not seen any specimen, caught in +Britain, with ochreous borders. Such specimens have most certainly been +captured in these islands, and occasionally in some numbers, as, for +example, in the autumns of 1872 and 1880. In the former year the +butterflies were seen or taken in a great many parts of the kingdom. The +single specimens that are taken now and then in the spring have +hibernated, and possibly they may have just come over from the +Continent. It is, however, equally possible that they may have arrived +in the country the previous autumn and passed the winter here. After the +invasion in the autumn of 1872, specimens were observed in January, +March, and April, 1873, at places widely apart. In 1881 single specimens +were taken in April in Surrey, Kent, and Brecknockshire; and in Essex +and at Hampstead in August. One or two specimens were taken in the +summer or autumn of the years 1884 to 1887 inclusive. In 1888 two were +captured in Essex in May; and in August, three in Kent, one each Surrey, +Hants, and Isle of Wight; and one in Kent in September. In 1889 a +specimen was taken in Surrey in April, one in Kent, and one in Cambs in +May; a few also in the autumn of that year. In 1891 a specimen was seen +at Balham in September. In 1893 one was taken in Epping Forest in April, +and one in South Devon in August. Single specimens were noted in +Oxfordshire, Lincolnshire, Berwick, and the Isle of Skye, in September, +1896, and one at Epsom in December of that year. In 1897 one was +recorded from Yorks (August), and one from Norfolk (September); and in +May, 1898, one was taken at Norwich. One or two were observed in August +or September, 1898 and 1899; and in 1900 there seems to have been an +invasion, on a small scale, of this butterfly in August into some of the +eastern and southern counties of England. It extended westward to +Somersetshire, and northward to Roxburghshire. A few were taken in +various southern localities, including south-east and north London, in +August and September of 1901. A specimen occurred in the Isle of Wight +in September, 1903, and one in September, 1904; and in the latter year +one was captured in August at Raynes Park in Surrey. In 1905 one +butterfly was taken at Harrow, Middlesex, on July 27; one at Norwich on +August 26, and one in Suffolk on September 29. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 42. + +=Camberwell Beauty.= + +_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 43. + +=Camberwell Beauty.=] + +A full record of this fine butterfly in the British Islands would occupy +too much space, but the details given above will show something of its +erratic occurrence since 1880. It visits Ireland occasionally, but there +are no recent reports of its having been seen there. + +Kane, in his _Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland_, mentions a +specimen taken in Co. Kerry, July 21, 1865; one from near Belfast [in +1875?]; and a third example seen by a friend "many years ago" near +Trillick, Co. Tyrone. The latter was "settled on the roadside, but not +captured, it being Sunday." + +Distributed throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, +it is common in the Scandinavian Peninsula, whence probably our +specimens came; also in Germany. In some parts of the Continent it is, +however, almost as uncertain in its occurrence as in England. + + +The Painted Lady (_Pyrameis cardui_). + +The usual colour of this butterfly is tawny-orange, but in some +specimens, especially fresh ones, there is a tinge of pink, or a rosy +flush; the markings are black, and there are some white spots towards +the tips of the fore wings. The black markings on the hind wings are +subject to variation in size, and sometimes they run one into the other. +Occasionally this union of the spots is accompanied by blackish +suffusion spreading more or less over the entire surface of the wings, +so that they appear blackish with tawny-orange patches or clouds. A +somewhat peculiar variety of the species, kindly lent by Mr. J.A. Clark, +is shown on Plate 49. Specimens of this form, or some modification of +it, have been obtained in England, but very rarely. Similar examples +have also been found in other parts of the globe. Fig. 24 represents +another interesting aberration of this butterfly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 44. + +=Painted Lady.= + +_Caterpillar, chrysalis and protection-web._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 45. + +=Painted Lady.= + +1, 3, 4 _male_; 2, 5 _female_.] + +The egg is at first green, and gradually becomes darker. It is +strongly ribbed from the base to the top, where the ribs become finer +and turn over towards the central hollow, at the bottom of which is the +micropyle. The fine cross-ribs form slight bosses at their junction with +the upright ribs. The eggs are laid on the leaves of the thistle, but +usually only one on a leaf. + +The caterpillar is rather stout for its length. It has a dark greyish +head, which is covered with short bristles. The ground colour of the +body varies from greyish-green and ochreous-grey to blackish, and in the +darker colour is generally freckled with paler, sometimes yellowish. +There is a black line along the back, often edged with yellowish, and +sometimes much broken up; the lines on the sides are yellowish, but not +always distinct; the line below the yellow-ringed black spiracles, +however, is generally broad and yellowish in colour. Although thistles +(_Carduus_) appear to be the plants most frequently eaten by these +caterpillars, they have sometimes been found feeding upon mallow +(_Malva_), burdock (_Arctium_), viper's bugloss (_Echium_), and even +nettle (_Urtica_). They commence life by fixing up the edges of a leaf +so as to form a sort of pocket in which to conceal themselves, but as +they eat away the fleshy part of the leaf their retreat is easily +detected. The hiding-place, or dining-room, of a full-grown caterpillar +is shown on the plate; change to the chrysalis is often effected in a +somewhat similar structure. + +The chrysalis is grey, ochreous-grey, or greenish; shaded or striped +with brownish. The raised points are burnished, and according to the way +light falls on them appear golden or silvery. This metallic effect is +also seen on other parts of the chrysalis, but chiefly on the back. + +This butterfly is a notorious migrant. Its proper home is probably in +Northern Africa, and there it, at times, becomes so exceedingly numerous +that emigration is possibly a necessity in the interests of future +generations of the species. Whatever the cause of their leaving may be, +there is no doubt about the fact that the butterflies do quit the land +of their birth in great swarms. Almost any part of the world may become +the dumping-ground of this surplus stock. Our own islands are frequently +favoured in this way, and it is most likely that if this were not so, +this pretty butterfly would not be so common throughout Great Britain as +it is in some years. The natural habit of the species is to go on +reproducing its kind throughout the year, and those individuals that +arrive here most certainly endeavour to do this in their new home. +Unfortunately our climate is not, as a rule, a suitable one for those +caterpillars which hatch from the egg late in the season, and although +some may complete their growth, and even attain the perfect state, the +butterfly, so far as is known, does not hibernate as do the +Tortoiseshells and the Peacock. It may therefore be assumed that the +specimens seen in May or June of any year are not native born, but early +immigrants, and that it is from such aliens that the caterpillars and +butterflies observed later in the year are descended. + +A curious habit of the Painted Lady, and also of the Red Admiral, is +that of continuing on the wing long after other kinds of butterfly have +retired to their resting-places for the night. Both have been seen +flying about at dusk, and have been recorded as attracted by light on +more than one occasion. + +It has been noted that these butterflies, in early summer, usually occur +singly, and seem to become attached to some short stretch of ground, +over which they career to and fro with almost mechanical regularity. +They may be struck at with the net again and again, but do not desert +their beat. Even if caught and released again they appear to be +undismayed, and resume their interrupted patrol either at once or very +shortly afterwards. The later butterflies also are not afraid of the +net, and will repeatedly return to some favourite perch after being +struck at and missed. + +Although the butterfly has been observed, sometimes in abundance, in +every part of the British Islands, even to the Shetlands, its occurrence +in any given locality is always uncertain. In some years it may be +fairly common in the early part of the year and very scarce later on. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 46. + +=Red Admiral.= + +_Eggs enlarged; young and adult caterpillars; chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 47. + +=Red Admiral.= + +1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] + +A North American species, _Pyrameis virginiensis_ (_huntera_), has been +once or twice, since 1828, reported as captured in England, but its +occurrence in this country can only be regarded as accidental. + + +The Red Admiral (_Pyrameis atalanta_). + +The vivid contrast of black and scarlet in this butterfly will certainly +arrest the attention of even the least observant. But Nature, ever +excellent in her colour schemes, has toned down the glare of the scarlet +bands by the addition of some splashes and dots of white above them on +the fore wings, and some dots of black on those of the hind wings. Then, +by way of a finish, there is a delicate tracing of blue along the outer +margin of the fore wings, and a touch of the same colour at the angle of +the hind wings, the scalloped margins of all the wings being white +relieved by black points. On the under side the combination of colour on +the fore wings is much the same as above, but there is also some blue +tracing on the central area, and the tips harmonize with the hind wings, +which are mottled with various shades of brown, traversed by wavy black +lines, and have a more or less square pale spot on their front edges. + +The ordinary variation in this butterfly consists of slight differences +in the tone of the red markings, which ranges from the normal scarlet in +one direction to almost crimson, and in the other to orange-yellow. The +bands on the fore wings may be broken up into two, or sometimes three, +distinct parts; and a specimen with the bands of hind wings marked with +yellow has been noted. There is often a white dot in the bands of the +fore wings, and this occurs in both sexes. + +A somewhat rare variety is represented on Plate 49. It was reared from +one of three caterpillars casually picked up at Erith, and is now in Mr. +Sabine's collection. Somewhat similar specimens have been figured +elsewhere. One of these was bred from a caterpillar found at Ashton in +1867, and another was captured in Jersey in 1893. All these varieties +seem to be modifications of the form named _klemensiewiczi_ by Schille, +and which was figured by Esper as a variety of _atalanta_ in 1777. This +form has also resulted from temperature experiments on the chrysalis, of +the kind previously adverted to. + +The egg when first laid is green in colour, but as the caterpillar +matures within the colour changes to greenish-black, with the ten ribs +showing up more or less transparent. The egg is laid in an upright +position on nettle leaves and young shoots, but not in batches like +those of the Tortoiseshell, etc. + +The caterpillar varies in colour. Some are blackish freckled with white, +with two yellow stripes, sometimes broken up, on the sides; and the rows +of branched spines yellow, except those nearest the head, which are +black or tipped with black. Others are greyish, or grey marked with +yellowish-green. Others, again, are dark brownish, with the spines on +the back pale, and those on the sides black; or all the spines may be +shining black (Hellins). + +The chrysalis is greyish, prettily ornamented with gold along the centre +of the back and on the thorax and head. The projections are also tinged +with metallic gloss. It is generally suspended under a canopy of nettle +leaves. + +The caterpillars do not live in companies like those of the Peacock +and Tortoiseshells, but each individual constructs for itself a kind of +tent (see Plate 48) by spinning together the leaves of its food-plant, +the common stinging-nettle. Although the caterpillar is well concealed +in such hiding-places when newly made, it "gives itself away" when it +has partly consumed its home. It has been found on pellitory +(_Parietaria officinalis_), and also on hop (_Humulus_); but I have +found that caterpillars fed on hop alone always produce small +butterflies. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 48. + +=Red Admiral.= + +_Caterpillar's shelter-tent, and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 49. + + 1, 2 _Red Admiral var._ + 3, 4 _Painted Lady var._] + +The caterpillars, which in a state of Nature are often badly +"ichneumoned," have been noted in England as early as the end of June +and as late as October. In the South of Europe they have been seen in +February. + +The butterflies seen in spring and early summer, up to, say, the +beginning of July, are supposed to have wintered in this country, but +there is no positive evidence, that I can find, that the butterfly does +hibernate here. It is, however, most probable that they are arrivals +from abroad. The species is found throughout Europe and North Africa, +Northern Asia, and North America, and it may be suspected of migration, +although there is, perhaps, not such conclusive evidence on this point +as in the case of its cousin, the Painted Lady. + +Anyway, unless we admit immigration, it seems difficult to understand +why this butterfly should suddenly become common in some British +localities from which it has been almost or quite absent for several +years. Again, we rarely hear of butterflies moving about at night, but +the Red Admiral, as well as the Painted Lady, are known to do this. If +it does hibernate in this country it is very late in taking up winter +quarters, as it is seen on the wing at the end of October, and sometimes +even in November; it has also been known to emerge from the chrysalis in +the latter month. It does not appear in the spring with other +hibernating species, and is rarely seen before the end of May, but June +seems to be about the normal time. + +In the autumn it is fond of making excursions into the flower garden +and the orchard, where it takes toll from flower and fruit, an over-ripe +pear or plum being its special weakness. The blossoms of ivy, hop, +thistle, teazle, etc., are attractive, but a tree-stem that has been +bored by the caterpillar of the goat moth will be visited by nearly +every Red Admiral in the district. One observer mentions that he once +saw quite thirty of these butterflies gathered around one wounded birch +tree on Wimbledon Common. There was not room for all to imbibe at the +same time, but those unable to satisfy their desire at the moment were +content to sit around and await a favourable opportunity of joining in +the feast. The seductive fluid obtained from such trees is evidently +more potent than the nectar from flowers, as under its influence the +insect is so listless that it may be taken up between the finger and +thumb. + +Its range extends throughout the British Islands, and seems to be very +similar to that of the Painted Lady. + + +The Silver-washed Fritillary (_Argynnis paphia_). + +The wings of this fine butterfly are fulvous, with the veins and spots +black; the spots on the hind wings are band-like, and the central spots +on the fore wings are sometimes connected. The female is paler than the +male, and is without the heavy black scales (_androconia_) on veins 1, +2, and 3; the basal third of the fore wing, and a larger area of the +hind wing, tinged with greenish. The form of the female with all the +wings greenish is the var. _valesina_ (Plate 52), and between this and +the type there are various intergrades, one of which is shown on the +plate. Specimens with white spots on the fore wings, and chiefly in the +males, are sometimes not uncommon in the New Forest, as, for instance, +in the year 1893, when quite a large number were secured. Very much more +rarely white spots occur on all the wings (Plate 57, Fig. 1). In a very +remarkable male specimen, taken in the New Forest in 1881, the central +area of all four wings is black, and the veins beyond are broadly edged +with the same colour. A curious female aberration has the central black +spots much reduced or absent, whilst those on the outer margin are +united, and form elongate blotches between the veins, the upper one +being wedge-shaped. Aberrations of the _valesina_ form, similar to that +figured on Plate 57, Fig. 2, and Fig. 25 on next page, are not often met +with; the ground colour is greenish, but much suffused and clouded with +black. Now and then gynandrous specimens are obtained, the one side +normal male and the other side typical female, or var. _valesina_. + +The egg when newly laid, in July, is whitish tinged with green, ribbed, +and cross-furrowed, the alternate ribs not extending to the top. As the +caterpillar matures, the egg-shell appears blackish and the ribs hoary. + +The caterpillar when full grown is velvety black with two bright yellow +lines along the back; the spines are of a reddish-ochreous colour with +the extreme tips and branches black. There are only two on the first +ring, and these are inclined forward over the head. The chrysalis is of +a pale ochreous colour, streaked and mottled with brownish; the hollow +part of the back has a brilliant golden sheen, and the points on the +rest of the body are gold tipped. Suspended by the anal hooks to a +silken pad spun on a twig, rock, or other object in the vicinity of its +feeding-place, it is capable of much activity in the way of wriggling +when touched, and displays the beauty of its metallic adornment to the +greatest advantage when so engaged. + +The caterpillar hatches in August, and after eating its egg-shell and +nibbling a leaf or two of dog-violet (_Viola canina_), goes into winter +quarters whilst in its second skin, and consequently very small; the +spines, which are such an imposing feature of the adult caterpillar, +have not yet appeared. In April, after feeding again, it moults the +second time, and the spines are then disclosed. + +Sometimes caterpillars continue to feed in the autumn instead of +hibernating. This, at least, has happened to Mr. Frohawk on two +occasions, notably in 1893, when he had several individuals of a brood, +from eggs laid by a female of the _valesina_ form, that departed from +the usual custom of their kind by feeding and growing until they +eventually passed through all the stages and emerged perfect butterflies +in September and October of that year. Something similar occurred in a +brood that he was rearing in the autumn of 1895, but on this occasion +only one caterpillar continued to feed beyond the normal time. + +The English name by which we now know this, the largest of the six +British Argynnids, seems to have been given to it by Moses Harris in +1778. Sixty years or so before that date it was called the "Greater +Silver-streaked Fritillary." Fortunately, in this case, as in others +where the vulgar tongue is entomologically concerned, the law of +priority does not apply, so that the name Silver-washed, which so well +expresses the underside ornamentation, may be retained. + +[Illustration: FIG. 25. + +=Aberration of var. valesina.=] + +The butterfly is probably to be found in most of the Southern English +and Welsh counties, especially where there are extensive woods. In North +Devon, however, it occurs in places where there is not much in the way +of woodland. It is abundant in the New Forest, and also in some parts of +Ireland. Although it has been observed as far north as the Clyde, it is +scarce in North England and Scotland. The _valesina_ form is to be seen, +in July and August, in the New Forest every year, and sometimes in +numbers. This variety has been reported from Kent, Sussex, Devon, and +Dorset; also from "near Reading" and "the border of Hertfordshire." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 50. + +=Silver-washed Fritillary.= + +1, 3 _male_; 2, 4, 5 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 51. + +=Silver-washed Fritillary.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +Abroad, the typical form is distributed through Europe and Asia to +China, Corea, and Japan. The _valesina_ variety is uncommon in Northern +Europe, but in some parts of China it seems to be the dominant form. + + +The High Brown Fritillary (_Argynnis adippe_). + +Bright fulvous with black spots and veins. The female is not so bright +in tint as the male, and is without the thick patch of scales on veins 2 +and 3. The series of black spots parallel with the outer margin of the +fore wing are normally six in number, but the third is usually small and +sometimes absent, whilst the fourth and fifth are often much larger than +others of the series. In the corresponding row on the hind wing the +first and third spots are sometimes wanting. On the under side the +silvery spots are generally as seen in Plate 54, but they are subject to +modification, and not infrequently are absent from the tips of the fore +wings, and sometimes from the outer margin of the hind wings also. A +very rare aberration has the central area of the fore wings black on the +upper and under sides; the hind wings are black above with fulvous +lunules on the outer margin, and the silvery spots on the under side are +reduced to five, and these are confined to the basal area. In another +remarkable form the hind wings above are similar to the last-mentioned +variety, but on the under side the silvery spots on the basal half are +united and form a large patch, which is divided by the nervures, and +there are no silvery spots on the outer margin. The variety shown on +Plate 57 has the under side of the hind wings buff in colour, the +markings on the outer margin are reddish-brown with a few silvery scales +towards the anal angle, and the basal silvery spots are confluent, +agreeing in the latter character with the preceding variety, and also +with var. _charlotta_ of the next species. In var. _cleodoxa_ the spots +on the under side are yellowish instead of silvery, but the red spots on +the outer area are sometimes silver centred; this form is only rarely +found in Britain. Possibly some of the reputed British examples of _A. +niobe_ may have been referable to _cleodoxa_, but what appears to be +more certain is that the actual occurrence of _niobe_ in England is +exceedingly doubtful. + +The egg when newly laid is yellowish-green; it afterwards turns pink, +and then rosy red; during the winter it changes to greyish or +bluish-green. As a rule, the eggs are laid at the end of July, and the +caterpillars do not hatch until the following March or early in April. +In 1893, however, Mr. Frohawk had a few caterpillars hatch out between +the middle of August and September 20, from a number of eggs laid at the +end of June. One of these, fed up, pupated on October 13, and the +butterfly emerged on November 21. The majority of the eggs remained over +to the following spring. According to an observation made by Mr. W.H.B. +Fletcher, the caterpillar is fully formed soon after the egg is laid, +but remains within the shell all the winter. + +The caterpillar, which feeds upon dog-violet, and also the sweet violet, +is figured on Plate 53. The head is pinkish-brown, covered with short +greyish bristles. Body black, incrusted with ochreous grey on the sides, +and on the back marked with ochreous grey on the hinder half of each +ring; dorsal line white. The branched spines are pinkish-brown. + +The chrysalis is deep brown, freckled with paler; points along the +back of the body brilliant greenish-golden, as also are the four points +on the thorax. The wing-cases are rather paler. The foregoing brief +description was taken on July 10, and the butterfly emerged five days +afterwards. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 52. + +=Greenish Silver-washed Fritillary.= + +_Var. valesina, female._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 53. + +=High Brown Fritillary.= + +_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +Barrett says, "Apparently found in most of the larger woods of the +southern counties, from Kent, Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk on the east, +to Devonshire, Glamorganshire, and Merionethshire on the west; also in +similar situations through the north-western counties and the more +sheltered woods of the Midlands to Herefordshire, Shropshire, +Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire. Found in several localities in Yorkshire, +in the favoured Grange and Silverdale districts of Lancashire, and near +Lake Windermere in Westmoreland, its extreme northern boundary being +reached in Cumberland." + +It is widely distributed over Europe, and its range extends into Asia +Minor and Amurland. In China and Japan it is represented by various +forms, the commonest of which is var. _locuples_. + + +The Dark Green Fritillary (_Argynnis aglaia_). + +This butterfly is bright fulvous in the male, paler in the female; the +latter sex is blackish towards the base, and has paler spots on the +outer margin. The black marking is pretty much as in the previous +species, but the male has the black scales (_androconia_) on veins 1 and +2, and these are less conspicuous. The basal two-thirds of the hind +wings is greenish on the under side. The silvery spots are arranged in +fairly regular series, and there are no silvery centred red spots +between the two outer series. The blackish crescents on the outer margin +of the fore wings are edged with silver, but this is chiefly towards the +tips of the wings. + +There is some variation in the tone of the ground colour, lighter or +darker than normal in both sexes; the female seems to be the most +variable in this respect, and sometimes, especially in the north, +examples of this sex are much suffused with blackish or greenish-black. +Occasionally the colour is quite pale, as shown in the middle figure on +Plate 61, and sometimes it is clouded with greyish. The black spots are +apt to run together, and so form bands and blotches. An example of this +kind of aberration is shown on the plate. + +Var. _charlotta_ differs very little from the type on the upper side, +but on the under side of the hind wings the basal silvery spots are +united, as shown in the upper reverse side figure on the plate. This +variety was known to the entomologist of Haworth's time as the "Queen of +England Fritillary," and there is a figure of it in Sowerby's "British +Miscellany," which was published in 1806. + +The egg is yellowish when first laid, and a day or two afterwards +violet-brown rings appear above the base and the apical half. It is +ribbed and finely cross-ribbed, and some of the ribs are continued to +the truncate and slightly depressed top. + +When full grown the caterpillar is shining purplish-grey, thickly mixed +with velvety black; the grey is most in evidence between the rings and +along the lower part of the sides. There is a yellow stripe along the +middle of the back, and this has a central black line of irregular +width; along the lower part of the sides there is a row of reddish +spots, and these are connected by a fine yellowish line. The black +spines are branched, and, except on the first three rings, which have +only two rows, arranged in three rows on each side of the yellow stripe. +The head is glossy black, and, like the body, hairy. (_Adapted from +Buckler._) + +It feeds in May and June on dog-violet, and has been reared on garden +pansy. The chrysalis has the head, thorax, and wing-cases black, very +glossy, and marked with pale brownish; the body is pale brownish, and +the points black. Suspended in a tent-like arrangement of leaves. + +Moorlands, downs, sea-cliffs, and flowery slopes are the kind of +situations most to the fancy of this agile butterfly. It is on the wing +in July and August, and is much more easily seen than caught. However, +it is rather fond of perching on the taller kinds of thistles, and is +then not difficult to capture, if quietly approached. It is common +locally in most of the English and Welsh counties. In Ireland it seems +to be chiefly attached to the coast, and is plentiful in some of its +localities. In Scotland it occurs in many suitable districts, but Skye +is the only one of the isles from which it has been reported. Its +distribution extends through Europe and Asia to Amurland, China, and +Japan. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 54. + +=High Brown Fritillary.= + +1, 4, 5 _male_; 2, 3 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 55. + +=Dark Green Fritillary.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + + +The Queen of Spain Fritillary (_Argynnis lathonia_). + +In shape and in general appearance this butterfly is not unlike a small +example of the Silver-washed Fritillary; the large silvery, or sometimes +pearly, blotches on the under side of the hind wings at once reveal its +higher British rank. When flying it has a curious resemblance to the +Wall, and sometimes it has been taken when the captor supposed that he +was netting a specimen of that plebeian butterfly. The black markings on +the upper side vary somewhat in size, and occasionally those on the +front area, or those on the inner area of the fore wings, are more or +less confluent; very rarely the wings are suffused with a steely-blue or +bronze colour. The specimens occurring in this country do not, however, +exhibit so much variation as has been observed in this butterfly abroad. + +I have not seen any of the early stages. The figures of the caterpillar +and the chrysalis (Plate 58) are after Hübner, and the following +descriptions of the egg and other stages are adapted from the detailed +life-history of the species by Mr. Frohawk, published in the +_Entomologist_ for 1903:-- + +"The egg is one-fortieth of an inch high, of a rather straight-sided +conical form, widest at the base, where it is smooth and rounded off at +the edge. There are about forty longitudinal keels, irregularly formed +and of different lengths, some not reaching halfway up the side, and +others running the entire length from base to crown, where they +terminate abruptly, and form a series of triangular peaks round the +summit surrounding the granulated micropyle; the spaces between the +keels are finely ribbed transversely. When first laid it is of a very +pale lemon-yellow colour, inclining to ochreous, appearing almost white +in certain lights; the colour gradually deepens, becoming yellower with +a greenish tinge. On the fifth day the crown of the egg assumes a dull +grey, finally changing to a lilac-grey." + +The female butterfly, when placed in the sunshine, laid about a hundred +eggs during the day--August 7. These were mostly placed singly on the +leaves or other parts of a plant of heart's-ease (_Viola tricolor_), but +some were laid on the gauze cover of the cage. All the caterpillars +hatched out on August 14. + +The caterpillar when full grown is velvety black, densely sprinkled with +tiny white dots, each bearing a black bristle; there are six rows of +spines, which are of various shades of brown with yellowish bases and +shining black bristles; along the back there are two white streaks on +the fore part of each ring, and white warts emitting black bristles on +the hind part. The head is amber-coloured above, but black below, and is +covered with bristles like the body. + +The chrysalis has the head, thorax, and wing-cases shining olive-brown; +the body chequered and speckled with olive-brown, ochreous, black, and +white. The spiracles are black and conspicuous, and the points on the +body are amber-coloured. The thorax and first two body rings have +brilliant burnished silver-gilt ornamentation. + +The butterflies commenced to emerge on September 25, and between that +date and the 28th ten came out. Although he succeeded in rearing almost +all the caterpillars to the chrysalis, no less than eighty died in this +stage, and he states that "there is no doubt that the late autumn +English climate is quite unsuited for the existence of this species," as +well as for others that come to us from abroad. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 56. + + 1, 2, 3 _Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ + 4, 5 _Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ + 6, 7 _Heath Fritillary vars._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 57. + + 1, 2 _Silver-washed Fritillary vars._ + 3 _High Brown Fritillary var._] + +Moses Harris, in 1775, gave this butterfly the name "Queen of Spain;" it +had been known to English entomologists from 1710 until then as the +"Lesser Silver-spotted Fritillary." Gamlingay in Cambridgeshire seems to +have been the only British locality in which it had been observed until +1795, when Lewin mentions a specimen taken in a Borough (London) garden +in August. All the Cambridge specimens had been captured in the month of +May. Stephens, writing in 1828 ("Ill. Brit. Ent. Haust.," i. 37), says-- + +"Previously to the year 1818, few cabinets possessed even a single +specimen; and from the very few known instances of its capture (six +only, according to Mr. Haworth), there is reason to believe that some of +the specimens at that time [1803] placed in collections were foreign; +but in the above remarkable year for the appearance of certain +papilionaceous insects, this species occurred simultaneously in several, +and very distant, parts, having been taken in August by Mr. Haworth at +Halvergate, in Norfolk; by Mr. Vigors in Battersea-fields; by myself at +Dover, and, during that and the following month, near Colchester; +Birchwood, Kent; and Hertford in plenty by others. At the latter place I +saw several specimens, but was not fortunate enough to secure any." + +The butterfly has been taken, chiefly odd specimens, in many of the +eastern and southern counties, from Norfolk to Dover, and almost always +in the autumn. It has also occurred at Scarborough (1868), and at least +once in Ireland (1864). + +The neighbourhood of Dover seems to have always been the most favoured +locality, and no less than twenty-five specimens were captured there in +1882. Several examples were also obtained at Dover in 1883, and a single +specimen in other parts of Kent in 1884 and 1885. The most recent +records are--Brighton, one example in 1892; Clifton, one in July, 1898; +Christchurch, one in August, 1899; Poole, one in 1901. There does not +seem to be any authentic record of the caterpillar having been observed +in Kent or any other British locality in which the butterfly has been +noted. This may possibly be due to its love of concealment. + +There are two flights of the butterfly in the year, one in the spring +and the other in the autumn. + +Females from the Continent may arrive on our east or south coasts in +May, and deposit eggs from which the autumn butterflies are developed. +Some of these might wander farther inland, but eggs would almost +certainly be laid on the spot. The fate of the caterpillars from +autumnal eggs would depend on the winter; if mild they, or at least some +of them, might manage to get through and attain the butterfly state +about May, but their doing so is rather doubtful. + +The species is widely distributed and often common on the Continent, and +its range extends to Persia, Northern Asia, and North Africa. In Eastern +Asia it is represented by var. _isoea_. + + +The Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Argynnis euphrosyne_). + +Some authors consider the smaller Fritillaries to be generically +separable from the larger kinds, and place this and the next species in +the genus _Brenthis_, whilst the Queen of Spain is referred to the genus +_Issoria_, Hübner. Here, however, they are retained in _Argynnis_. + +In colour and in the marking of the upper side the Pearl-bordered is +very like the High Brown, but, as will be seen from the figures, it is +much smaller in size, and the ornamentation on the under side is +different. There is one silvery spot at the base of the hind wings, a +larger one about the middle of the wings, and a row of spots on the +outer margin. The female is rather larger than the male, and darker at +the bases of the wings. + +[Illustration: _Pl. 58._ + +=Queen of Spain Fritillary.= + +_Caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 59. + +=Dark Green Fritillary.= + +1, 4 _male_; 2, 3, 5 _female_.] + +Variation on the upper side consists of more or less black suffusion on +the basal or general area of the wings, and an increase in the size of +the black spots, resulting in the formation of bands or patches; or the +black spots may be much reduced in size, and some of them entirely +absent. Some of the more striking kinds of aberration, both above and +below, are represented on Plate 56, Figs. 1-3, and Plate 65, Figs. 1-4. +The usual colour is sometimes replaced by buff, and this may be +yellowish or whitish in tint; occasionally white spots appear on the +wings. The life-history of this butterfly is depicted on Plate 60. + +The egg, which is laid in May or June, is whitish-green at first, and +afterwards turns brownish. It is distinctly ribbed, and the top is +somewhat rounded and hollowed in the centre. + +The full-grown caterpillar is black, and the numerous minute hairs with +which it is clothed give it a velvety appearance. There is a +greyish-edged black line down the middle of the back, and the spines on +each side of this are whitish or yellowish, with the tips and the +branches black; all the other spines are black. A greyish stripe runs +along the lower part of the sides, and this is traversed from the fourth +to the last ring by a blackish line. Head black, shining, downy, and +slightly notched on the crown. The natural food-plant is dog-violet +(_Viola canina_), but the caterpillar will also eat garden pansy, and +has been known to nibble a leaf of primrose. It retires for hibernation +when quite small, and recommences to feed in March. + +The chrysalis is brownish, with the raised parts of the thorax and head +greyish; the body is paler brown, and the points thereon are blackish. + +This butterfly seems to be fairly common in woods throughout England +and Wales, and it is often abundant in some of the more extensive +woodlands, especially in the southern counties. It used to be plentiful +in Northumberland and Durham, but has become scarcer in those counties, +and in some others in the north of England. It occurs in Scotland, and +is not uncommon in Sutherlandshire, but Kane does not include it in his +Irish catalogue. + +Clearings in woods are generally the best places in which to find this +pretty little Fritillary; but it also seems to have a fondness for the +margins of brooks and rills, where these run through or by the sides of +woods. Usually it is on the wing in May or June, but sometimes, in early +seasons, it puts in an appearance at the end of April. To entomologists +of a bygone age it was known as the "April Fritillary," but this name +would hardly be a suitable one for it in the present day. Very rarely a +few specimens have been taken in August; and there is at least one +record of caterpillars that had ceased feeding in July, in the usual +way, and were apparently settled down for hibernation, suddenly arousing +from their slumbers, and completing their growth in August. + +Abroad, the species is distributed throughout Europe, except the extreme +south, and extends into Armenia, Northern Asia Minor, the Altai, and +Amurland. It is stated to be double-brooded on the Continent. + + +The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Argynnis selene_). + +This butterfly differs from the last one referred to in having a rather +deeper colour on the upper side, and heavier black markings on the outer +margin of the hind wings. The female is slightly more orange in tint, +and has a series of pale spots on the outer margin of each wing. On the +under side the red markings are browner in tint, and there are more +silvery spots on the hind wings. Variation in colour and marking is +similar to that mentioned under the Pearl-bordered. On Plate 66 a white +spotted female and a specimen with the hind wings clouded with black are +represented. These are rather uncommon aberrations. The life-history of +this species is figured on Plate 62. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 60. + +=Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; partly grown caterpillar; chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 61. + +=Dark Green Fritillary vars.= + +1, 2, 4, 5 _male_; 3 _female_.] + +The egg is at first greenish, then yellowish, and afterwards greyish, +and then becoming blackish towards the hollowed top. The ribs seem to be +eighteen or twenty in number; laid in June or July on plants of +dog-violet. On emerging from the egg the young caterpillar devours most +of the shell. It is then of a pale olive colour with brownish warts, +from each of which there is a pale and rather long jointed bristle; the +head is black. The full-grown caterpillar is smoky pink and +velvety-looking. There is a brownish line along the middle of the back. +The spines are "ochreous in colour, tinged with pink, and beset with +fine pointed black bristles." The upper ones are rather stouter than the +others, and the pair on the first ring, the only spines on this ring, +are rather more than twice the length of the others, and are directed +forward over the head, thus giving the appearance of a pair of horns; +the second and third rings have each four spines, which are rather finer +than those on the rest of the body, which are arranged in six rows. A +pale pinkish stripe runs along the lower part of the body; just above +the feet. Head black and notched on the crown (Buckler). The chrysalis +is brown on the thorax and the body; the wing-cases are more ochreous +and marked with black near the edge. There is a black V-mark on the +thorax, with a silvery spot on each side, one silvery spot on each side +of the head, and other metallic spots on the body near the thorax +(Buckler). + +On the Continent there are two broods of the butterfly, and specimens +are occasionally seen in August in this country; one of these late +examples, taken by Mr. Barker in 1881, is shown on the plate (Fig. 6). +Sometimes one or two caterpillars of a brood in confinement will feed up +and attain the perfect state in August instead of settling down with +their companions for hibernation. + +The butterfly in June and July frequents similar places to those +favoured by the Pearl-bordered, and its distribution in Britain is +somewhat similar, although it is a more local species. It seems, +however, to be commoner in Scotland than the Pearl-bordered, and has +been recorded at least once from Ireland. + +Its range abroad extends farther east, as it is found in Corea. + + +The Heath Fritillary (_Melitæa athalia_). + +The ground colour of this butterfly, sometimes called the +"Pearl-bordered Likeness" or "May Fritillary," is brownish-orange, and +the markings are black or blackish; the bases of the wings are clouded +with blackish, and the fringes are white checkered with black. + +The ground colour varies in tint, and may be pale tawny or deep reddish. +The black markings are subject to modification in two directions; in one +leading up to almost complete disappearance from the central area, and +in the other they are much intensified and greatly obscure the ground +colour. Sometimes the whole of the wings, with the exception of a series +of orange spots on the outer area, are blackish. This form is known as +var. _navarina_. The left-hand figure at the bottom of Plate 68 shows an +aberration approaching this form, whilst the right-hand figure comes +close to var. _corythalia_. Specimens with all the wings thinly marked +with black, as in the fore wing of the variety last referred to, would +be referable to var. _obsoleta_. + +According to Barrett, specimens from Essex have the ground colour on +the under side of the hind wing much yellower than are the same parts in +specimens from Sussex. I have not noticed this, but some Essex examples +that I have seen were much darker and more heavily marked with black on +the upper side, and especially on the hind wings, than any that I have +seen from other parts of England, except, perhaps, a few individuals +from North Devonshire. These Essex specimens reminded me very much of +_M. dictynna_, a Continental species, with which, it appears, the Heath +Fritillary was confounded by some of the old authors. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 62. + +=Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler), +and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 63. + +=Queen of Spain Fritillary.= + +1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] + +There is a good deal of variation on the under side, but chiefly of a +minor character, and most often unconnected with variation on the upper +side. The following are more important varieties. + +Var. _tessellata_, the Straw May Fritillary of Petiver, and figured by +him in 1717 and by Stephens in 1827, has the under side of the hind +wings entirely straw-coloured with black veins. There are three large +squarish yellow spots on the basal area, outlined in black; a yellow +central band, margined and traversed by black lines. On the outer margin +there is a series of yellow crescents, outlined in black. + +Var. _eos_ of Haworth (the Dark Underwing Fritillary) is the _pyronia_ +of Hübner and Stephens, and a modification of var. _corythalia_, Hübn. +On the under side the fore wings are fulvous, and have two black spots +in the discal cell, and a black band, intersected by the veins, on the +central area. On the hind wings the basal third is fulvous with eight +black spots; the central area is whitish intersected by the black veins. +On the yellow-tinged whitish outer area there is a series of +black-margined orange crescents; a row of black lunules precedes a thin +black line on the outer margin. + +The egg is upright, ribbed, and pale whitish-green in colour. As the +caterpillar matures the shell becomes greyish. The eggs were laid in a +cluster on a leaf of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_) as shown in the +figure, but failed to hatch. + +The full-grown caterpillar is black on the back, becoming olive tinged +on the sides and olive-brown underneath; the divisions between the rings +are olive. The whole of the upper surface, except a line along the +middle of the back, is dotted with white, and there are eleven +white-tipped orange or yellowish spines on each ring, except the last +two and the three nearest the head; the first and the last each have +four spines, the third has eight, and the second and the eleventh have +each ten spines. The head is black marked with white, and is clothed +with short, stiff, black hair or bristles (Buckler). The chrysalis is +pale whitish-ochreous, the markings on the wing-cases are black, and +those on the other parts are orange and black. + +Cow-wheat appears to be the chief food of the caterpillar, but it will +also eat, and has been found on, foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_) and +woodsage (_Teucrium scorodonia_). Plantain is also said to be a +food-plant, but Buckler says that his caterpillars would not eat this. +The caterpillars are rather shy in their habits, and, except when the +sun is shining brightly, require to be carefully looked for among their +food-plant and the dead leaves, etc., around. They hatch from the egg in +July, feed for a few weeks, and then hibernate in companies under a web. +In April and May they become active again, feed up quickly, and appear +as butterflies in June and early July. + +The species is, unfortunately, becoming scarcer in England than it used +to be. It seems quite to have disappeared from some of the districts in +which it was formerly common. No doubt in one or two of its old and +well-known localities the butterflies, and perhaps the caterpillars +also, have been too freely taken, and its natural enemies have probably +completed the business. Clearings in woods or heathy borders of woods +are the kind of places this species appear to prefer. Its headquarters +in any given locality seems to be changed from time to time, so that the +exact spot where it will occur next year cannot be predicted from this +year's observations. + +The butterfly seems to be unknown in Scotland, and has only been +recorded from Killarney in Ireland. In England it is to be found in the +counties of Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Devonshire. + +Its geographical distribution extends through Europe into Asia Minor, +East Siberia, and Northern Amurland. In Corea and Japan it is +represented by a larger form known as var. _niphona_. + + +The Glanville Fritillary (_Melitæa cinxia_). + +This butterfly is bright brownish-orange with black markings, as shown +on Plate 71. The under side of the hind wings and the tips of the fore +wings are very pale yellowish; the former with two black-margined +brownish-orange bands, and lines of black dots; the tip of the fore wing +is also dotted and marked with black. The female is slightly paler, and +the markings are often blurred. + +There is variation in the black markings on the upper side. Sometimes +these are enlarged, but more often they are much reduced, and the +central one may be completely absent from all the wings. Connected with +the suppression of the middle black line above there is usually +aberration on the under side of the hind wings also, where the central +area is clear of black dots, and the basal area is fulvous, edged and +marked with black. Two very remarkable aberrations are represented on +Plate 65, Figs. 7, 8. + +The eggs, which are yellowish-white, and sometimes tinged with green, +are laid in a cluster on the under side of the tip of a leaf of the +narrow-leafed plantain (_Plantago lanceolata_). The caterpillars hatch +in July and August, and hibernate in companies under a web. The mature +caterpillar is black with white dots, and black bristles arising from +greenish warts. The red head, which is notched on the crown, and the red +fore legs distinguish this at once from the caterpillars of the Heath, +or the Marsh Fritillary. It feeds in early spring on plantain, but seems +to prefer _Plantago maritima_ to _P. lanceolata_ when both are present. + +The chrysalis is brownish in colour, and is ornamented with orange on +the thorax, and with orange points and black marks on the body. It may +be found in April and early May suspended from the lower parts of the +stems of the plantain or other plants around. Newman states that he +found "dozens of the chrysalids in company," but I have only +occasionally met with them, and always singly. + +Quite early in the eighteenth century this butterfly had only been +observed in England in Lincolnshire, where, according to Ray, it was +common, and in a wood at Dulwich. Petiver, who mentioned the last-named +locality, calls it the "Dullidge Fritillary." Wilkes in 1773 wrote of it +as the "Plantain Fritillary," although he gives clover and grass, as +well as plantain, as the food of the caterpillar. Moses Harris in the +Aurelian (1779) calls the butterfly the "Glanville Fritillary," and +states that it was named after Lady Glanville, who was interested in +butterflies, and whose will was disputed on that ground. This fact will +serve to show that entomology as a pursuit was not much in vogue at that +time, and that those who collected butterflies, etc., were apt to be +regarded by their friends as being--well, just a "wee bit daft." + +Both Wilkes and Harris, it may be remarked, seem to have been acquainted +with the caterpillar of this species as well as with that of the Marsh +Fritillary, and there seems little reason, therefore, to suspect that +they confused the two species. The localities given by the earlier +authors appear, however, to suggest that the butterfly they wrote about +may have been the Marsh Fritillary; but there is no direct evidence of +this. + +Stephens in 1827 ("Illustrations of British Entomology," Haustellata, +vol. i. p. 34) wrote-- + +"This is a very local species, and is found in meadows by the sides of +woods; in Wilkes' time it was not uncommon in Tottenham wood; recently +the places where it has been chiefly observed have been near Ryde and +the Sandrock Hotel, Isle of Wight; in the latter place in plenty: also +at Birchwood, and near Dartford and Dover, and in a wood near Bedford. I +believe that it has been found in Yorkshire." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 64. + +=Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= + +1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 65. + + 1, 2, 3, 4 _Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ + 5, 6 _Marsh Fritillary vars._ + 7, 8 _Glanville Fritillary vars._] + +There is no doubt that between 1858 and 1863 the butterfly was more +or less common on parts of the Kentish coast between Folkestone and +Sandgate, but it seems to be equally certain that the species has long +been absent from that part of England as well as from other localities +that have been mentioned, except the Isle of Wight, where it is still to +be found. It flies in May and June, and seems to have a preference for +the rougher parts of the undercliff; but I have seen butterflies and +caterpillars too on the higher slopes of St. Boniface. Whenever the +caterpillars are met with, it will be well to remember that only the +full-grown ones should be taken, as the smaller ones do not thrive very +well in confinement. A little self-denial in this matter will bring its +own reward in the shape of fine specimens for the cabinet, and the +pleasant reflection that the useless sacrifice of a number of +caterpillars has been avoided. + +The butterfly is widely spread and generally common on the Continent, +and in the Channel Islands it is plentiful in Alderney and Guernsey. Its +range extends into Asia Minor, Central Asia, and Siberia. + + +The Marsh Fritillary (_Melitæa aurinia_). + +This species, of which several forms are represented on Plate 73, is +subject to considerable variation in depth of colour, and also in size +and intensity of the markings, in all localities. The varieties here +referred to are more or less characteristic of the countries in which +they occur. To mention all the forms, or even those to which varietal +names have been given, would occupy more space than is available for the +purpose. + +Reddish-orange or bright tawny, veins black, breaking up the yellow or +yellowish transverse bands; there are three or four transverse black +lines, the first and second, counting from the base of the wing, not +always distinct; basal area more or less suffused with black. On the +under side the fore wings are fulvous, with faint traces of the +upper-side markings; the hind wings are rather redder, especially on the +outer half, and have yellowish markings, comprising some spots towards +the base of the wings, a band beyond the middle, a series of black +centred spots, and crescents on the outer margin. The above applies more +particularly to the form of the butterfly occurring in England and +Wales. + +The Irish form known as _præclara_ has the transverse band +straw-coloured, the red colour is more vivid, and the black veins and +cross-lines heavier; the area nearest the base of the wings is often +blacker. + +In a form occurring in Scotland, and known as var. _scotica_, the black +is still more intense, and the straw-coloured markings are dull in +colour. + +The egg is pale brownish and very glossy. It appears smooth towards the +rounded base, but is ribbed from just before the middle to the top. The +eggs are laid in batches on leaves of scabious, chiefly the Devil's bit +(_Scabiosa succisa_). + +The full-grown caterpillar is black, with a number of tiny whitish +dots, each bearing a short black hair; short black spines are arranged +in nine rows from ring four, the first ring is only hairy, the second +and third have each two spines. The head is black, with a groove down +the front and short hairs on the sides. The true legs are black, and the +false legs and the under parts of the body are dull rust-coloured. The +caterpillars hatch from the egg in June or July, and towards the end of +August they construct silken webs, in which they establish themselves +for hibernation. Early in March they recommence feeding, and under the +influence of much sunshine feed up quickly. Besides wild scabious, they +will eat honeysuckle and the garden kinds of _Scabiosa_. The chrysalis +is pale buff, with orange points on the body; the wing-cases are marked +with black and orange. The chrysalids are suspended from a silken web, +which is attached to a leaf or drawn-together leaves. The early stages +are figured on Plate 70. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 66. + +=Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= + +1, 3, 4 _male_; 6 _do. (second brood)_; 7 _do. var._; 2, 5 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 67. + +=Heath Fritillary.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler), +and chrysalis._] + +Kane (_Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland_), referring to this +species, remarks: "This butterfly has been known to increase so +prodigiously that whole fields and roads became blackened by the moving +myriads of larvæ. An instance of this was observed by the Rev. S.L. +Brakey, near Ennis, Co. Clare, where he drove out to see a reported +'shower of worms,' and found as above described, the larvæ being so +multitudinous in some fields that the black layer of insects seemed to +roll in corrugations as the migrating hosts swarmed over each other in +search of food. The imagines that resulted from the starved survivors +were extremely small and faded in colour." + +These caterpillars are destroyed in great numbers by Hymenopterous +parasites, chiefly _Apanteles_, and it is almost certain that a large +percentage of those collected will prove to have been stung. + +The butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and seems to affect damp +meadows, marshy ground on the sides of hills, and such kind of places. +It does not necessarily occur wherever its food-plant is abundant, but +scabious is always found to be present in the haunts of the butterfly; +so if we know that the insect occurs in a particular district we should +probably get a clue to its exact whereabouts by noting the likely places +in that district where the food-plant flourishes. + +Although it has seemingly disappeared from various English localities +where it was formerly common, the butterfly may be found in many parts +of the British Islands, but it is local and does not occur northwards +much beyond the Caledonian Canal. + +Abroad it spreads over Europe to Northern Africa, and its range extends +eastward through Asia to Amurland and Corea. + + * * * * * + +The fine butterfly next in order is regarded as a member of the Danainæ +by most authors. Although its generic position seems to be established, +its proper place in the classification of butterflies is still unfixed; +and even the question of its trivial or specific name is not finally +settled. According to Kirby, this butterfly is _Anosia menippe_, Hübner, +and not the true _Papilio plexippus_ of Linnæus, nor the _P. archippus_ +of Cramer. American authors, however, consider it to be the Linnean +_plexippus_, and give _menippe_ Hb. as a synonym. The species is here +retained in Danainæ, but Holland places it in Euploeinæ and Skinner in +the Family Lymnadidæ. + + +The Milkweed Butterfly (_Anosia plexippus_). + +The butterfly figured on Plate 120 is brownish-orange, with black veins +and margins on all the wings. White spots are arranged in double rows on +the black outer margin of each wing, and there are seven other rather +larger white spots on the black apical patch of the fore wings. The male +has a patch of black scales, covering the scent pouch, close to vein 2 +on the hind wings. + +The egg is long, oval in shape, with over twenty low upright ridges and +many cross-lines; is of a pale green colour; and is laid singly on the +food-plant of the caterpillar (various kinds of milkweed, especially the +commonest kind, _Asclepias cornuti_), and usually upon the under surface +of the upturned apical leaves near the middle. The egg state lasts only +about four days (Scudder). The caterpillar has the head smooth and +rounded, yellow, conspicuously banded with black. Body cylindrical, +tapering a little in front, naked, but with two pairs of long and very +slender black thread-like filaments, one pair, the longer, on the second +thoracic, the other on the eighth abdominal segment. The body is white, +with numerous slender black and yellow, and especially black, transverse +stripes, repeated with considerable regularity on each of the segments, +so that there are nowhere any broad patches of colour (Scudder). + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 68. + +=Heath Fritillary.= + +1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 69. + +=Glanville Fritillary.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +The chrysalis is stout and not elongated, largest in the middle of the +abdomen; where it is transversely ridged; elsewhere it is smooth and +rounded, with no striking prominences, but with little conical +projections at most of the elevated points, like those which half +encircle the body at the abdominal ridge, all of a golden colour except +the latter, which are situated in a tri-coloured band, black in front, +nacreous in the middle, and gilt behind (Scudder). + +According to Dr. Holland, "the butterfly is considered to be +polygoneutic, that is to say, many broods are produced annually; and it +is believed by writers, that with the advent of cold weather these +butterflies migrate to the South [in America], the chrysalids and +caterpillars which may be undeveloped at the time of the frosts are +destroyed, and that when these insects reappear, as they do every summer +in North America, they represent a wave of immigration coming northward +from the warmer regions of the Gulf States. It is not believed that any +of them hibernate in any stage of their existence. This insect sometimes +appears in great swarms on the eastern and southern coasts of New Jersey +in late autumn. The swarms pressing southward are arrested by the +ocean." Within quite recent years it seems to have effected a settlement +in Australia, "and has thence spread northward and westward, until in +its migrations it has reached Java and Sumatra, and long ago took +possession of the Philippines. Moving eastward on the lines of travel, +it has established a more or less precarious foothold for itself in +Southern England.... It is well established at the Cape Verde Islands, +and in a short time we may expect to hear of it as having taken +possession of the continent of Africa, in which the family of plants +upon which the caterpillars feed is well represented." + +So far as is shown by the published records, the actual number of +specimens of the Milkweed, or, as it is sometimes called, Monarch +butterfly, seen or caught in England between 1876, in which year it was +first observed in this country, and the present time, does not much +exceed thirty, and about one-third of these were obtained in September, +1885. In 1876 single specimens were captured at Neath, S. Wales; +Hayward's Heath and Keymer, Sussex; and Poole, Dorset. In 1896 single +specimens were reported as seen at Lymington, Hants, in May; Newlands +Corner, Surrey, in July; and the Lizard, Cornwall, in September. The +years in which the butterfly has been noticed in Britain are 1876, 1881, +1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1890, and 1896. It was first observed on the +Continent in 1877, when, according to Barrett, a specimen was taken in +La Vendée, France. In 1886, when half a dozen were recorded from +England, single specimens were obtained in Guernsey, and at Oporto and +Gibraltar. "More recently," Barrett states, "Mr. H.W. Vivian found it, I +believe not uncommonly, in the Canaries, and very kindly brought me a +specimen." + +There seems to be no question that the species is migratory in its +habits, but exactly how it reaches this country is not definitely known. +Neither is it known whether the species, having arrived, is able to +reproduce its kind here. From the fact of its recurrence in England for +four years in succession, the possibility of its breeding in this +country might be assumed. One objection to any such inference, however, +is that it is a many-brooded species, but, with the exception of two +records in 1896, all British specimens were captured or seen in August, +September, or October, and none seem to have been observed in the +earlier months of those years in which the autumnal butterflies were +obtained. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 70. + +=Marsh Fritillary.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler) +and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 71. + +=Glanville Fritillary.= + +1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5, 6, 7 _female_.] + +The Milkweeds (_Asclepias_) are not indigenous plants, but, as +pointed out by the late Mr. J. Jenner Weir, _A. purpurescens_ and _A. +tuberosa_ are hardy in this country. He endeavoured to ascertain whether +these plants, or either of them, were grown in any of the gardens in the +Cornish locality where four fresh specimens were captured in September, +1885. I do not find that the desired information was furnished. Recently +I have ascertained that _A. cornuti_, which grows to a height of four +feet, is used as a border plant in some parts of England. It is commonly +known as Swallow-wort, and is esteemed for its fragrant pale purple +flowers. + + * * * * * + +We now come to the Satyrinæ, which, as regards the number of species +belonging to it, is a very large sub-family. In Great Britain, however, +there are but eleven species, and although some of these are rather +local, none are really scarce, and most are common. + + +The Marbled White (_Melanargia galatea_). + +Older English names for the butterfly figured on Plate 75 are "Our +Half-mourner" (Petiver, 1717), "The Marmoris" (Wilkes), and "The +Marmoress" (Harris). The ground colour is white or creamy white, and the +markings are black. On the under side the markings are similar in design +to those on the upper side, but much fainter: the eye spots, which are +not always in evidence above, are well defined below, and especially so +on the hind wings. The female is generally whiter and larger than the +male, and has the basal half of the costa, or front margin of the fore +wing ochreous brown, and the markings on the under side of the hind +wings are tinged with the same colour. + +Variation consists chiefly of increase or decrease in the size of the +black markings. At least one specimen is known in which all the wings +are uniform smoky black. This is in the collection of Mr. A.B. Farn, and +was captured near Rochester, Kent, in 1871. Between this extreme and +specimens with the black markings of typical proportions there are +various modifications; but striking aberrations are rare in this +country. Sometimes there is entire or partial absence of black pigment. +A remarkable example of this kind of aberration, taken on the cliffs +between Dover and Walmer some years ago, is described as of a clear +milky-white colour, and has not, either on the upper or under side of +the wings, the smallest speck of black. The ground colour is sometimes +decidedly yellow, and very occasionally brownish. + +The life-history of this butterfly is figured on Plate 74. + +The egg is whitish, opaque, with a dark speck on the apex; base +flattened and slightly hollowed; finely reticulated, but without +distinct striations or anything resembling ribs. The eggs are laid in +July, and are not attached to anything. + +The caterpillar when full grown, is whity-brown in colour with brownish +lines. The head is brown, tinged with pink, and the tail-like points on +the last ring are pink. The head, as well as the body, is clothed with +short hair. + +The chrysalis is also whity-brown with a pinkish tinge, browner +speckling on the wing cases, and the body is marked down the back with +yellow. + +Hellins says, "It hibernates when very small, becomes full fed in June, +and changes to a pupa without suspending itself in any way, or making a +cocoon; I think it would hide itself, as my examples did; I found they +had got among the thick moss with which I had furnished the bottom of +their cage, and apparently made little hollows for themselves by turning +round." + +Cock's-foot grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) and cat's-tail grass (_Phleum +pratense_) are given as food-plants, but the caterpillars in confinement +seem to eat any kind of grass that is supplied. + +The butterfly is found in most of the Midland counties and in nearly +all of the Southern ones, but is especially common on the chalk downs of +the South-west. It does not occur in Ireland or Scotland, and seems to +be absent from the Northern counties of England except Yorkshire. In the +last-named county it was supposed to be extinct, but during the past ten +years it has been observed at Sledmere, and near Scarborough and +Helmsley. It is also reported to be not uncommon in three localities not +far from York. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 72. + +=Milkweed Butterfly.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis +(after Smith)._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 73. + +=Marsh Fritillary.= + + 1, 3, 5, 9, 10 _male_; 2, 4, 6, 7, 11 _female_. + 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9 _English_; 8 _Welsh_; 3, 5, 10, 11 _Irish_.] + +The butterflies usually affect broken ground, rough fields, grassy +slopes near woods, or even sunny banks on the edges of cornfields. +Occasionally an odd specimen or two may be met with here and there, but +as a rule they seem to keep pretty much together, so that when one comes +upon a colony of these butterflies, the selection of a series on the +spot is quite an easy matter, and can be effected without destroying a +single specimen over and above the required number. + +Abroad, this species is abundant in Central and Southern Europe, and its +range extends to Northern Asia Minor and Armenia. + + +The Small Mountain Ringlet (_Erebia epiphron_). + +The typical form of this butterfly, _epiphron_, Knock, has the tawny +bands unbroken on the fore wings, and almost so on the hind wings; the +black dots on the hind wings of the female are often pupilled with +white, and more rarely this is so in the male also. It has been stated +that specimens occur in Perthshire which exhibit these characters. All +the British examples of the Small Mountain Ringlet that I have seen are +referable to the form known as _cassiope_, Fab. (Plate 77). The tawny, +or orange, bands are rarely so entire on the fore wings as in +_epiphron_, and are generally rather narrower; and that on the hind wing +is broken up into three or four rings. The black dots are usually +smaller and without white pupils. The female is somewhat larger and the +bands or rings paler. + +Variation in the markings is extensive. The bands on the fore wings +become less and less complete, until they are reduced to a series of +mere rings around the black dots. The black dots decrease in size and in +number until they, together with the tawny marking, entirely disappear, +and a plain blackish-brown insect only remains. This extreme form has +been named _obsoleta_, Tutt. The earliest rings to vanish seem to be the +third on the fore wings and the first on the hind wings. Similar +modifications occur on the under side also, but there may be aberration +on the upper side of a specimen, and not, or at least not in the same +way, on the under side. + +The egg, when first laid, is yellow, changing afterwards to fawn colour +with darker markings, especially towards the top. It is laid in July on +blades of grass. The larva hatches in about sixteen days. + +The young caterpillar, before hibernation in October, is greenish, with +darker green and yellow lines. Head brownish. Feeds in July and after +hibernation on various grasses, among which _Poa annua_, _Festuca +ovina_, _Aira præcox_, and _A. cæspitosa_ have been specified as eaten +by caterpillars in confinement. A distinct preference, however, has been +shown for mat grass (_Nardus stricta_), and it has been suggested that +this may be the natural food. The full-grown caterpillar appears to be +undescribed. + +The chrysalis is described by Buckler as being "little more than +three-eighths of an inch in length, rather thick in proportion, being +less dumpy in form than _hyperanthus_, but more so than _blandina_. The +colour of the back of the thorax and wing cases is a light green, rather +glaucous; the abdomen a pale drab or dirty whitish; a dark brown dorsal +streak is conspicuous on the thorax, and there is the faintest possible +indication of its being continued as a stripe along the abdomen. The +eye-, trunk-, antenna-, and leg-cases are margined with dark brown, and +the wing nervures are indicated by the same colours." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 74. + +=Marbled White.= + +_Eggs enlarged, caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 75. + +=Marbled White.= + +1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5, 6 _female_.] + +As is indicated by its English name, this interesting little +butterfly only frequents high ground, and is rarely found below about +1500 feet. All its English localities are in the lake district of +Cumberland and Westmoreland. It seems to like boggy ground, and in such +places on Gable Hill, Red Skrees, and at Langdale Pikes, among others, +it is not uncommon. Previous to 1809 the species was unknown to occur in +Britain, but in June of that year specimens were captured by Mr. T. +Stothard on the mountains at Ambleside. Haworth, in 1812, referred to +these specimens as from Scotland, but the butterfly was not taken in +that country until 1844, when it was discovered by Mr. R. Weaver in +Perthshire. It is now known to occur, sometimes in abundance, on Ben +Nevis and other adjacent hills, also in suitable spots and the proper +elevation around Lochs Rannoch and Vennachar, as well as in the Tay +district and Argyleshire. + +In Ireland it was taken by Mr. E. Birchall, in June, 1854, in a grassy +hollow about halfway up the Westport side of Croagh Patrick. About five +years ago Mr. W.F. de Vismes Kane met with the butterfly on Nephin, +Mayo, and he mentioned a specimen believed to have been taken on the +hilly slopes on the eastern shores of Lake Gill, Sligo. + +Abroad the species is found in mountainous parts of South Germany, +Switzerland, France, North and Central Italy. The typical form, +_epiphron_, is more especially obtained in the Hartz and Alsatian +Mountains, Silesia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. + + +The Scotch Argus (_Erebia æthiops_ = _blandina_). + +The butterfly figured on Plate 77 is deep velvety brown, appearing +almost black in very fresh male specimens. There is a broad fulvous band +on the outer area, but not reaching either the costa or the inner +margin; it is contracted about the middle, the upper part encloses two +white pupilled black spots, and the lower part has one such spot. The +hind wings have a narrow fulvous band, usually enclosing three white +pupilled black spots. The under side is more distinctly brown and not +velvety, band of fore wings similar to above; the hind wings have a +greyish band beyond the middle, with three small white pupilled black +spots on its outer edge; the basal area is often greyish also. The +female is generally less dark and velvety, the bands are rather wider, +more orange in colour, and the white pupils of the spots are more +conspicuous; on the under side the alternate dark and pale bands are +more striking, and sometimes the grey colour is replaced by ochreous, +which seems to constitute the aberration named _ochracea_, Tutt. The +spots on the fore wings, upper side, are often increased to four by the +addition of a small one between those previously mentioned. More rarely +there is an extra spot above the upper pair, and still less frequently, +and in the female sex, an additional pair is found below the usual lower +spot, thus making six in all. On the other hand, the only spots in +evidence may be the pair in the upper part of the band. The spots on the +hind wings range in number from two to five, but occasionally all are +absent. The fulvous bands on the fore wings may be reduced to rings +around the upper and lower spots respectively, and altogether wanting on +the hind wings. Such an aberration would be referable to _obsoleta_, +Tutt, which is considered to be very rare. There are many other +modifications, but these mentioned will serve to show the variable +character of this local butterfly. + +The egg is ochreous white, or bone colour, finely freckled with pale +brown or pinkish-brown; it has a number of ribs, and is also +reticulated. + +The caterpillar in its last skin is pale drab, the warts pale +whitish-brown, emitting short tapering bristles; dorsal stripe +blackish-brown, enclosed by two paler drab lines; subdorsal stripe paler +drab, becoming narrow towards the anal point, edged above with a +greenish-brown thread, and below with blackish or brownish dashes, that +almost form a continuous line; below this come two thin pale lines, +above the lower of which are the circular black spiracles; the under +parts and the legs are of a somewhat warmer tint of the ground colour of +the back. It changed on June 22nd to a pupa, unattached, but placed in +an upright position amongst the grass near the ground. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 76. + +=Small Mountain Ringlet.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; young caterpillar._ + +=Scotch Argus.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 77. + +=Small Mountain Ringlet.= + +1, 4 _male_; 3 _female (English)_; 2, 5, 6, 7 _male (Scotch)_. + +=Scotch Argus.= + +8, 11 _male (Scotch)_; 9 _do. (English)_; 10, 12 _female (Scotch)_.] + +The chrysalis has the body ochreous, with a darker stripe down the back, +and other lines; the eye covers are black, and the thorax, antennæ +cases, and wing covers are dingy, dark purplish-brown. + +The above descriptions of caterpillar and chrysalis are adapted from +Buckler, whose figures of these stages are also reproduced on the plate. + +_Aira præcox_, _A. cæspitosa_, and _Poa_ are the grasses that seem to be +the food of the caterpillar. + +Mr. Haggart, of Galashiels, who had exceptional opportunities for +observing the habits of this butterfly in its natural home, gives a most +interesting account of it in the _Entomologist_ for November, 1895. He +writes-- + +"The haunt of this species is, almost without exception, the margin of a +plantation or wood where the different species of _Poa_ grow abundantly, +and always situated in such a position as to receive the first rays of +the rising sun. This last-mentioned fact is so plainly evident, that the +least observant cannot fail to notice it. The insect is truly sun +loving, and no collector need go in search of it with any thought of +success if the day be dull. + +"It is most interesting to observe the extreme sensibility of the insect +to shine and shade. A very good day to illustrate this is one when heavy +clouds at intervals obscure the sun; the moment it disappears so also +does the butterfly, and no sooner does it shine forth again than, as if +by magic, scores of the insect are on the wing. + +"The under side of the insect bears a marked resemblance to that of a +dead leaf, and I have often watched the males being deceived by withered +leaves lying among the moss. They would flutter down quite close to the +leaf, immediately rise with a disappointed air and fly a little further, +only to be deceived again and again. + +"The ova are deposited amongst the _Poa_ grass, and hatch in September. +Towards the end of October the larvæ go down and hibernate throughout +the winter and spring, coming up to feed again in May; they are +generally full-fed about the end of June; and the insect appears in July +or August. The larvæ are nocturnal feeders, coming up to feed on the +grass just about dusk. The method of procuring the larvæ is by no means +enviable, even to the most ardent entomologist, as in the uncertain +light it necessitates crawling on one's hands and knees amongst the +grass, and there is always the risk of grasping those little brown slugs +in mistake, which resemble the larvæ very much in shape and colour. No +artificial light can be used, as the larvæ immediately drop down amongst +the grass if this is done. The only alternative, therefore, is to use +one's eyes to the best advantage until the darkness makes that +impossible. + +"They are not difficult to rear in confinement if the larvæ are kept +properly supplied with food." + +This butterfly, which as a British species was discovered in the Isle of +Arran in 1804, only occurs in the north of England and in Scotland. Its +localities in the latter country are Glen Tilt and other valleys in the +Perthshire highlands, Strathglass in Inverness, Altyre woods at Forres; +Selkirk, Roxburgh, and various parts of Argyleshire; around the Lowther +Hills, Dumfrieshire; also in Arran and the Isle of Skye. In most of the +places it is plentiful. In England it occurs in the counties of Durham, +Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancashire, and Yorkshire. It is common in +Castle Eden Dene, Durham; at Grassington, in Yorkshire; at Witherslack +and Arnside, in Westmoreland; and at Grange and Silverdale, in +Lancashire. + +Abroad, it is distributed through Central and Southern Europe, and its +range extends into Northern Asia Minor, Kurdistan, and Armenia; the +Altai and South Siberia. + +It may be noted here that _E. ligea_ was supposed to have been taken in +Arran at the same time as _E. blandina_, that is in 1804. If this were +so, it would seem that the captor must have exterminated the species, +for, although the island has often been closely explored, no one has +been able to detect the "Arran Brown" again. + + +The Grayling (_Satyrus semele_). + +On the upper side, this butterfly (Plate 78) is brown, more or less +suffused with black, and this is especially noticeable on the outer area +of the wings in the male, where it obscures the ochreous or +rust-coloured bands, which in the female are almost free from the +suffusion. The fore wings have two black spots, the upper one generally, +and the lower often, pupilled with white. On the hind wings the bands +are clear of blackish suffusion to a greater or lesser extent, and there +is one black spot towards the anal angle which may be pupilled with +white. Apart from its larger size and brighter bands, the female may be +distinguished from the male by the absence of the blackish brand on the +disc of the fore wings. On the under side, the fore wings are ochreous, +tinged with orange on the basal half or two-thirds; hind wings are +greyish, with darker markings, and an irregular white or whitish band +beyond the middle. + +Variation is largely confined to the under side of the hind wings, and +these wings, as well as the costal edge and the tips of the fore wings, +are coloured and marked, in various localities that the butterfly +affects, so that the insects may be protected from their enemies when +resting. + +On the upper side of the fore wings an additional spot is sometimes +present below one or other of the usual ones. The bands of the wings are +pale ochreous in some examples, and rust-coloured in others; but it is +not unusual for a specimen with ochreous bands on the fore wings to have +rust-coloured bands on the hind wings, or ochreous bands with +rust-coloured patches on the outer portion; these patches are most +frequently triangular in shape, and placed between the veins. Gynandrous +specimens also occur, but very rarely. + +The egg is of a dull creamy tint, ribbed, and with a slight depression +on the top. The eggs were laid early in August, on blades and stems of a +kind of grass; also on the leno covering, and the sides of the glass jar +in which the female butterfly was enclosed. + +The caterpillar when full grown "is drab, delicately mottled, with +longitudinal stripes broadest along the middle segments, viz. a dorsal +stripe of olive-brown, very dark at the beginning of each segment, with +a thin edging of brownish-white. Along the subdorsal region are three +stripes, of which the first is composed of a double narrow line of +yellowish-brown, the second wider of the mottled ground colour, edged +with paler above and with white below; the third of similar width is of +a dark grey-brown, edged above with black. The spiracular stripe is +broader and of nearly equal width, pale ochreous-brown, edged with +brownish-white both above and below; the spiracles are black. The head +is brown, and the principal stripes of the body are delicately marked +with darker brown" (Buckler). + +The chrysalis is described as "obtuse, rounded, tumid, and smooth, the +abdominal rings scarcely visible, and wholly of a deep red mahogany +colour." It was "in a hollow space a quarter of an inch below the +surface, the particles of sand and earth very slightly cohering +together, and close to the roots of the grass, yet free from them." The +figures of caterpillar and chrysalis are drawn from those in Buckler's +"Larvæ of British Butterflies." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 78. + +=Grayling Butterfly.= + +_Males_, 1, 3 _(Chalk)_, 2 _(Heath); females_, 4 _(Heath)_; 5, 6 +_(Chalk)_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 79. + +=Grayling Butterfly.= + +_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis (both after Buckler)._] + +The caterpillars hatch in August, hibernate when quite small, and feed +up in the spring and early summer. They live upon grasses, such as +_Triticum repens_, _Aira cæspitosa_, and _A. præcox_. + +The butterfly delights in sitting rather than flying about cliffs and +sand-hills, heaths and downs, stony hillsides, dry fields, and even open +woodlands. It is fond of sunning itself on rocks, and by some of the old +Aurelians it was called the "Rock Underwing," no doubt in reference to +the pattern and colour of the under side. It was also known as the +"Tunbridge Grayling" some two hundred years ago, when it was said to be +"very rare about London." It has long since been ascertained to occur in +almost every county in England and Wales, as far north as +Sutherlandshire in Scotland, and is widely distributed in Ireland. + +On the chalk downs and cliffs the butterfly has the under side of its +hind wings so admirably agreeing in colour and marking with the soil, +etc., that although one may watch it settle a few yards ahead, it is not +to be seen when one reaches the spot. Whilst we are intent on the search +the insect starts up, flies a short distance, and there repeats the +disappearing butterfly trick. The same remarks apply to those Graylings +that affect peaty or sandy heaths, etc. When the butterfly alights on +the ground--and it rarely gets on the wing unless disturbed--it +immediately closes its wings, and then allows them to fall more or less +on one side, so that the whole of one hind wing is presented to view. It +is said to have a fancy for the resinous sap that oozes from pine trees, +and has also been observed to visit the trunks that have been "sugared." + +Abroad, it is found commonly throughout the temperate parts of Europe, +North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia. + + +The Speckled Wood (_Pararge egeria_). + +Quite early in the eighteenth century Petiver met with the butterfly +shown on Plate 80 at Enfield, so he figured it as the "Enfield Eye" in +that curious old book entitled "Papiliorium Britanniæ Icones." Later on, +Wilkes named the butterfly the "Wood Argus," thus indicating its +favourite haunts, as well as a prominent character in its ornamentation. +Harris changed the name to the "Speckled Wood Butterfly," which seems +even more suitable. + +The general colour is blackish-brown, and the spots are yellowish. The +fore wings have one white-pupilled black eye spot towards their tips, +and the hind wings have three such eye spots on the outer area. The male +has a long oblique patch of blackish scales on the middle of the fore +wings, which is, perhaps, more easily detected if the insect is held up +to the light. The female is usually slightly larger than the male, the +wings rather rounder, and the yellowish spots, are, as a rule, +distinctly larger. The typical or southern form of this butterfly has +the spots of a tawny colour, but it does not occur in Britain. Our form, +in all its modifications, belongs to _egerides_, Staudinger. +Occasionally, in the south of England, specimens are found in which the +spots are tinged with fulvous; others have almost white spots. The spots +are sometimes much reduced in size in the male, or greatly enlarged in +the female. + +The egg is pale greenish, finely reticulated; as the caterpillar matures +within, the shell becomes less glossy than at first, and the upper part +is blackish. + +The caterpillar has a green head, which is larger than the first ring +of the body (1st thoracic), covered with short fine whitish hairs, with +which are mixed a few dark hairs. The body is rather brighter green, +with darker lines, edged with yellowish, along the back and sides; the +skin is transversely wrinkled, the rings being subdivided, and the whole +of the body is clothed with fine whitish hair and a few dark hairs +arising from warts; the anal points are whitish and also hairy. It feeds +on various grasses, among which are _Triticum repens_ and _Dactylis +glomerata_. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 80. + +=Speckled Wood.= + + _Spring Brood:_ 1, 2 _male_; 3, 5 _female_. + _Summer brood:_ 4, 6 _male_; 7 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 81. + +=Speckled Wood.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +The chrysalis is pale green, tinged with yellowish or whitish; the edges +of the wing covers are brown, and there are whitish dots on the body. +According to Hellins the colour varies, and green chrysalids may be +covered all over with very fine smoky freckles. Barrett states that they +are occasionally brownish with darker brown lines. Suspended by the +cremaster from a silken pad. + +From eggs laid in early May butterflies were reared at the end of June; +and from eggs laid at the end of June butterflies resulted during middle +August. Early July eggs produced perfect insects in early September, and +from caterpillars fed up in October butterflies were obtained in +November. These observations were not all made in the same year. + +Barrett writes, "In the south of Surrey in 1862, the first emergence +took place in April in abundance, these specimens became worn and +disappeared, and a second emergence took place at the end of May, a +third at the end of July, and a fourth in September; the next year the +first emergence was in the third week in March, and again four broods +were observed, but this is not the case every year, three emergences +being probably the rule." + +Mr. Joy has recorded that of caterpillars, resulting from a pairing +induced in captivity, in August, eighty per cent. hibernated as pupæ, +twenty per cent. as half-fed caterpillars. Butterflies from the winter +pupæ emerged in May, but the caterpillars that had gone through the +winter in that state did not produce butterflies until June. Possibly +something of this sort occurs in the open, and we may suppose that the +early and late spring butterflies are not separate broods, but early and +late emergences of one brood. Butterflies seen on the wing in November +may be a few individuals that, owing to favourable weather, have emerged +from chrysalids which under ordinary conditions would have remained as +such during the winter. + +Shady lanes, rides in woods, as well as the borders of the same, are its +favourite haunts. It is not a sun-loving butterfly, but is generally +found to frequent places where the sun's rays are more or less +intercepted by a leafy screen. It seems to be more abundant in wet +seasons than in dry ones. It is generally distributed throughout England +and Wales, but more plentiful in southern and western counties than in +the eastern and northern. In Ireland, Kane says, it is "everywhere +abundant and double brooded." It is local in Scotland, and rare north of +the Caledonian Canal. + +Abroad our form of the butterfly _egerides_ is found commonly in Central +and Northern Europe, except in the extreme north, and in Northern Asia +Minor and Armenia. The typical form, _egeria_ proper, occurs in +South-Western Europe, North Africa, and Syria. + + +The Wall Butterfly (_Pararge megæra_). + +The butterfly now under consideration is figured on Plate 82. It is +bright fulvous in colour, with blackish-brown veins, margins, and +transverse lines. There is one white pupilled black spot on the fore +wings, and four of such spots on the outer area of the hind wings; the +fourth, which is generally blind, is placed at the end of the series +near the anal angle. The male has a very conspicuous sexual brand on the +central area. The under side of the fore wings is paler than above, but +the markings are similar, except that the brand is absent and the +margins are greyer; the hind wings on the under side are greyish marked +with brown and traversed by dark lines; there is a row of six eyed spots +on the outer area; that nearest the anal angle is double. The female has +more ample wings, and as the brand is absent on the fore wings in this +sex, the central black transverse lines are more distinct. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 82. + +=Wall Butterfly.= + +1, 2, 5 _male_; 3, 4, 6 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 83. + +=Wall Butterfly.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26. + +The Wall Butterfly just emerged from the Chrysalis, and with wings +distended.] + +Variation is chiefly in the size of the eyed spots; sometimes the +apical one of the fore wings has a smaller one attached to its lower +margin, or in the interspace (_i.e._ between the veins) above it or +below it; or both extra spots, which are usually without white pupils, +may be present. Very rarely the apical spot may be almost absent on one +fore wing, but well defined on the other. The central transverse lines +on the fore wings of the female are sometimes broad, and very +occasionally the space between the lines is blackish; blackish-banded +male specimens are also found in some localities, such as the slopes of +Dartmoor, Devon, as mentioned by Barrett. + +The ground colour varies in tint, darker or lighter than normal, but +specimens of a bright golden yellow-brown, straw colour, or whitish are +known to occur, although such extreme aberrations are exceptional. + +The egg is pale green when first laid, and in shape it is almost +spherical, but rather higher than broad; it is finely ribbed and +reticulated, but unless examined through a lens it appears to be quite +smooth. + +The caterpillar when full grown is whitish-green, dotted with white. +From the larger of these dots on the back arise greyish bristles; the +three lines on the back (dorsal and subdorsal) are whitish, edged with +dark green; the line on the sides (spiracular) is white, fringed with +greyish hairs; anal points green, hairy, extreme tips white. Head larger +than the first ring (1st thoracic segment), green dotted with white and +hairy, jaws marked with brownish. It feeds on grasses. + +The chrysalis is green, with yellow-tinted white markings on the edge of +the wing covers and ridges; the spots on the body are yellowish, or +sometimes white. Occasionally the chrysalids are blackish, with white or +yellow points on the body. + +There are certainly two broods of this butterfly in the season, and in +favourable years there may be three broods. In an ordinary way the first +flight is in May and June, and the second flight in July and August. The +caterpillars feed on _Poa annua_, _Dactylis glomerata_, etc. Those +hatched in autumn hibernate more or less completely, and become full +grown in early or late spring according to the season. Sometimes, +however, they seem to feed during the winter, and assume the chrysalis +in March. Probably it is from such precocious caterpillars that the +butterflies sometimes seen in April result. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 84. + +=Meadow Brown.= + +1, 2, 3, 4 _male_; 5, 6, 7 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 85. + +=Meadow Brown.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] + +The Speckled Wood, it was noted, prefers shady places; the present +butterfly is more partial to sunshine and plenty of it. As its English +name suggests, it is fond of basking on walls, but it does this also on +dry hedge banks, sides of gravel pits, tree-trunks--in fact, wherever it +can enjoy the full sunshine. It is not at all shy, and will be pretty +sure to introduce itself to the notice of the collector as soon as he +enters its domain. Although it now seems to be absent from certain +districts in which it was once abundant, it may still be regarded as a +generally common species in England and Wales, and even plentiful, in +some years, in the southern, eastern, and western counties; it appears +to be more local in North England. In Scotland it seems fairly +distributed, and not scarce in the south; its range extends to +Aberdeenshire. Kane states that it is everywhere abundant throughout +Ireland. Abroad it is common throughout Europe, except the extreme +north, and extends into North Africa, Asia Minor, and Armenia. + + +The Meadow Brown (_Epinephele ianira_). + +The female is the _jurtina_ of Linnæus, and as he described this sex +before the male, under the impression that they were distinct species, +the law of priority, we are told, must be observed and the earlier name +be adopted. + +This fuscous-brown butterfly of the meadows is marked, especially in +the female, with dull orange. The male, of which sex three specimens are +shown (Plate 84, Figs. 1-3), has a broad black sexual brand on the +central area of the fore wings, and a white pupilled black spot towards +the tips of the wings; this spot is usually encircled with orange, and +there is often more or less of this orange colour below it (Fig. 2 +typical). The under side of the fore wings is orange with the costa +narrowly, and the outer margin broadly, greyish-brown to match with the +colour of the under side of the hind wings. The female is without the +black brand, and is more ornamented with orange, which generally forms a +broad patch on the outer area of the fore wings (Fig. 6), but it is +sometimes continued inwards, so that almost the whole of the discal +area--that is, nearly all but the margins, appears to be orange (Fig. +7); the hind wings have an indistinct paler band on the outer area, and +this is sometimes suffused or clouded with orange. On the under side the +pale band is more defined (Fig. 5). The apical spot of fore wings is +sometimes double, and a tendency to this variation is shown in Fig. 6, +but in the complete form there are two white dots (bi-pupillated). At +the other extreme, and generally in the male, the apical spot is +entirely absent (var. _anommata_), or is greatly reduced in size, and is +without the white pupil. Spots on the under side are as often absent as +present. They may be from one to five in number, and either simply black +dots or ringed with orange, as in Fig. 4. Occasionally the orange on the +upper side of the female gives place to a pale straw or even whitish +colour; and on the under side to whitish-grey. + +Not infrequently a greater or lesser area of the wings is "bleached," +and this seems to be due to absence of pigment in the scales on such +parts. This bleaching may affect the whole or a portion of one wing +only, or it may take the form of symmetrical blotches on each wing. All +such abnormal specimens of this, and of other species similarly +affected, are certainly of value to those who are interested in +teratology, but they seem to be out of place in a collection of +butterflies where the aim should be to show the true variation of +species rather than "freaks," which are the result of accident or +disease. + +The egg, laid on a blade of grass as shown (Plate 85), is upright and +ribbed; the top is flattened, with an impressed ring thereon. Colour, +whitish-green inclining to brownish-yellow as it matures, and marked +with purplish-brown. + +The caterpillar is bright green, clothed with short whitish hairs; +there is a darker line down the back, and a diffused white stripe on +each side above the reddish spiracles; the anal points are white. Head +rather darker green, hairy. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 86. + +=Gatekeeper.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 87. + +=Gatekeeper.= + +1, 2, 6, 7 _male_; 3, 4, 5 _female_.] + +The chrysalis is pale green, marked with brownish on the wing-covers, +the thorax is spotted with blackish, and the points on the body are +brownish. Suspended, and with the old skin attached, as shown in the +figure. + +From its wide distribution and general abundance, this may be said to be +our commonest butterfly. It appears to be always on the wing, in dull +weather as well as in sunshine, and, except for a short interval in +early August, it is to be seen in hayfields, open places in woods, on +grassy slopes, or borders of highways and byways from June to September. + +Although quite fresh specimens are fuscous-brown, the butterfly, after a +short time on the wing, loses the dusky tinge and becomes brown. It is, +therefore, always desirable to rear specimens for the cabinet from +caterpillars. These feed on grasses of various kinds in May, are easily +managed, and may be found in most hay meadows at night, when, of course, +a lantern will be needed to throw a light on the business of collecting +them. + +The not infrequent occurrence of fresh specimens in the autumn is strong +presumptive evidence of at least an occasional second brood. Perhaps, as +has been suggested by Mr. R. Adkin, "a late emergence of _Epinephele +ianira_ is the rule rather than the exception," especially in the warmer +parts of the country. + +The butterfly is found throughout England and Wales, Ireland, and +Scotland, including Isles of Lewis and Orkney. Abroad it occurs in all +parts of Europe except the most northern, Asia Minor, Armenia, North +Africa, and the Canary Isles. + + +The Gatekeeper (_Epinephele tithonus_). + +Other English names in use at the present time for this butterfly +(Plate 87) are "Small Meadow Brown," "Hedge Brown," and "Large Heath," +but the latter is more often applied to another species which will be +referred to later. Petiver called it the "Hedge Eye." + +The general colour is brownish-orange, and the margins are +fuscous-brown; there is a black spot towards the tips of the fore wings, +and this, as a rule, encloses two white dots; one or both of these dots +sometimes absent in the male. The male differs from the female in its +rather smaller size, and in having a fuscous band on the central area; +the latter is broadest towards the inner margin, and in this part are +some patches of blackish androconial scales or plumules; at the upper +end of the band there is sometimes a fuscous cloud. Occasionally, one or +more small black spots, some with white pupils, are present below the +apical one. Four such spots are rare, but specimens with one or with two +are not uncommon. There is usually a white-pupilled black spot towards +the anal angle of the hind wing, but I have several males and females +that are without this spot. Sometimes there are as many as four spots on +the hind wings, but this is perhaps exceptional (Plate 113, Fig. 5). On +the under side of the hind wings there are often two white dots, +sometimes ringed with black, towards the costa, and two or three other +similar dots towards the anal angle; but the number of dots may be +reduced to two, one of which is near the costa, or be increased to six. +Colour changes, similar to those in the last species, occur, and the +orange colour, in both sexes, may be replaced by yellow (var. _mincki_, +Seebold), or by white (var. _albida_, Russell, Plate 119, Figs. 6, 7). +Such aberrations are very local and rare; a few have been obtained on +chalk hills in South Hampshire. + +In an extraordinary aberration, taken in Sussex in 1897, the whole of +the dark brown colour of margins and band is replaced by pale +pinkish-ochreous, but the normal brownish orange remains. Other somewhat +similar specimens have been recorded. + +The egg (Plate 86) is pale yellowish when first laid, becoming lighter +and irregularly blotched with reddish-brown, the upper blotches forming +a sort of band round the egg; as the caterpillar matures the shell +assumes a darker tinge, inclining to slaty, and the markings are less +distinct. + +The caterpillar, when full grown, is pale ochreous, clothed with short +pale hair, and freckled with brownish; the line down the back is darker, +one on each side is paler, and that above the feet is yellowish. The +head is rather darker than the body, marked with brownish, and bristly. + +According to Hellins, the newly hatched caterpillar is whitish-grey, +with rusty yellow lines on the back. In October, after the first moult, +it becomes green with a brownish head. In April the body is +greenish-grey, and the head pale greenish-brown. At the end of April it +moults for the last time, and is then pale ochreous generally, but some +caterpillars are darker than this, and some paler with a greenish-grey +tinge. + +The chrysalis is whitish-ochreous, with dark brown streaks on the +wing-covers and some brownish spots and clouds on the back and sides. +Suspended from stem or blade of grass; the old skin remains attached. + +The caterpillars feed at night on grasses, such as _Poa annua_, +_Triticum repens_, and _Dactylis glomerata_, from September to June. The +butterfly is on the wing in July and August. Although these butterflies +may be seen, sometimes in considerable numbers, where the rides are +grassy, in woods, they are perhaps more attached to hedgerows. Bramble +flowers are their special attraction, but they are not indifferent to +the blossoms of the wood sage (_Teucrium scorodonia_) or of marjoram +(_Origanum vulgare_). + +Pretty generally distributed throughout England, it is often +exceedingly plentiful in the south and also in South Wales. In Scotland +the butterfly seems to be common in Kircudbrightshire, but not common in +other southern counties up to Argyle and Fife. Kane says that in Ireland +it is almost confined to the southern counties. + +Abroad it is found throughout Europe, except the North-East, and its +range extends into Northern Asia Minor. + + +The Ringlet (_Aphantopus hyperanthus_). + +The sombre-looking butterfly, of which several figures will be found on +Plate 89, has been known by its present English name since 1778, the +year in which Moses Harris published "The Aurelian." The Latin specific +name was written _hyperantus_ by Linnæus, but Esper corrected this to +_hyperanthus_. It has, however, been supposed that Linnæus really +intended to have written _hyperanthes_ (a son of Darius), and this form +of the name has been used, but Esper's emendation is here adopted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 27. + +=Var. lanceolata.=] + +All the wings are sooty-brown, the male when quite fresh appearing +almost black, and the sexual brand is then difficult to see; there are +one or more black spots with pale rings, and sometimes white pupils, on +the fore wings, but these are always more prominent in the female than +in the male; in the latter sex they may be entirely absent. On the under +side there are generally two, sometimes three, ocellated spots on the +fore wings, and there are five such spots on the hind wings, the two +nearest the costa being double, and not very infrequently there is a +smaller spot near or attached to the lower edge of the double one. In +the matter of size of the spots on the under side there is a wide range +of variation, and at one end of this is var. _lanceolata_, Shipp, and at +the other var. _obsoleta_, Tutt, in which not a trace of any of the +spots remains. Specimens with a varying number of white dots, with or +without yellow rings, are usually referred to var. _arete_, but Fig. 6 +on the Plate represents a modification of this variety, known as +_coeca_. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 88. + +=Ringlet.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 89. + +=Ringlet.= + +1, 2, 3, 7 _male_; 4, 5, 8 _female_; 6 _var. cæca_, _male_.] + +Occasionally, on the under side, there are transverse lines on the outer +half of all the wings, and the space between these lines is suffused +with whitish. The specimen showing these lines faintly (Fig. 3 on the +Plate) is from North Cumberland. + +The early stages are figured on Plate 88. + +The egg is yellowish-white at first, but soon turns to a pale brown. As +will be seen on comparing the enlarged figure of this egg with those of +the two previous species, it is quite different in shape, and is pitted +rather than ribbed. The eggs are not attached to anything, but are +allowed to fall down among the roots of the grass over which they are +deposited. + +The caterpillar is described by Newman as pale wainscot brown in colour, +with a darker line down the back, and the head has three broad, slightly +darker but faint, stripes on each cheek. According to others it is +ochreous or brownish-grey, with a dark brown line on the back, a pale +one with darker edge on the sides, and a whitish stripe above the feet. + +The chrysalis is ochreous-brown sprinkled with reddish-brown, and marked +with brown on the wing-covers. It lies low down among the tufts of +grass. The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis are from Buckler's +"Larvæ of British Butterflies." + +The caterpillars feed upon various grasses, including _Poa annua_ and +_Dactylis glomerata_, growing about damp places in woodland districts. +They emerge from the egg in August, feed leisurely until October, when +they appear to hibernate. In March they resume feeding, but do not +attain full growth until June. The butterflies are on the wing in July +and August, and frequent lanes and the outskirts of woods. They usually +fly along the shady side, but they are not averse to the nectar of the +bramble blossom, and I have seen them taking a sip here and there +although they were fully exposed to sunshine all the time. + +Wherever there are suitable haunts the butterfly may be found throughout +the greater part of England and Wales. It seems, however, to have +disappeared from some districts in Lancashire and Yorkshire where it was +formerly common. It is fairly plentiful in most of the southern counties +of Scotland, and its range extends north to Aberdeen. In Ireland it is +abundant in the south and the west, and seems to occur in most suitable +places; also common in certain localities in Donegal and Antrim. Abroad +it is distributed through Europe and Northern Asia eastward to Japan. + + +The Large Heath (_Coenonympha typhon_). + +The butterfly now to be considered is a most variable one, both as +regards colour and marking. Several of the varieties have been named, +and in the time of Haworth down to Stephens, and even much later, at +least three of these were regarded as distinct species. In the present +day, however, it is generally accepted that all the varieties are forms +of one species, although two local races are recognized. + +The typical form is _typhon_, Rottemburg, and _polydama_ (The Marsh +Ringlet) of Haworth (Plate 90, Figs. 1, 2, 5, 7-11). The colour ranges +from darkish-brown to a pale tawny; there is an ochreous ringed black +spot towards the tips of the fore wings, sometimes another similar spot +above the inner angle, and occasionally when both spots are present +there is an ochreous spot between them; the hind wings have from one to +three of these spots, but a larger number than three is exceptional. The +under side of the fore wings is either bright or dull fulvous, and the +spots are pretty much as above, but with white pupils, and there is a +whitish band before them; the under side of the hind wings is olive +brown on the basal two-thirds, covered with pale hair, and the outer +third is brownish merging into greyish on the outer margin; an irregular +white or whitish band limits the two areas; there are six ochreous +ringed black spots, with white pupils, but they are always rather small +in size. The female is much paler than the male. + +This is the usual form in Northumberland, Cumberland, Yorkshire, and +Ireland; it also occurs in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and the South of +Scotland. + +Var. _philoxenus_, Esper. This is _davus_ (Small Ringlet), Haworth, and +_rothliebii_, Newman (Plate 90, Figs. 3, 4, 6). + +On the upper side the colour is dark brown in the male and rather paler +in the female; the spots are very distinct, ringed with fulvous; those +on the hind wings are generally three in number, and often five or six; +on the under side, the bands are whiter, and often broader, and the +spots are very black, large, and conspicuous. + +This form is found on some of the mosses in Lancashire and Westmoreland, +in Delamere Forest, Cheshire, and in North Shropshire; but the most +characteristic examples of the form are chiefly obtained in the +first-named county, from which it was first made known, in 1795, as the +"Manchester Argus," or "Manchester Ringlet." + +Var. _scotica_, Staudinger (_laidion_, Staud., but not of Borkhausen), +Pl. 90, Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5 male, 3 female, is the _typhon_ of Haworth, as +stated by Newman; the latter author, however, figures it as _davus_, +Fabricius, which is doubtful. + +The ground colour is pale tawny, sometimes suffused with brownish, +greyish on the margin, and broadly so on the outer area of the hind +wings; the spots are often absent, and when present are rarely very +distinct. The female is much paler than the male. The under side of the +hind wings is somewhat similar to that of the typical form, but +sometimes the whole area is a uniform greyish; the spots are only rarely +at all distinct, and then only one, or perhaps two, on a wing, and not +infrequently they are entirely absent. This form occurs in Scotland, +especially in Aberdeenshire and Sutherlandshire, also in the Isle of +Arran, in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, and in the Outer Hebrides. Kane +states that he has met with single specimens at "Killarney, Westmeath, +Galway, and Sligo." + +In some localities, such as Carlisle, Rotherham, and others in +Yorkshire, forms intermediate between the type and var. _philoxenus_ are +found; modifications of the type form in the direction of var. _scotica_ +occur in Cumberland, Northumberland, and Co. Leitrim, in Ireland; and +forms approaching the type more nearly than var. _scotica_ are met with +in the Glasgow district, and at Pitcaple in Aberdeenshire. + +The egg is very pale greenish-yellow at first, but the green fades, +brownish blotches appear, and some dark markings appear around the upper +part a short while before the caterpillar hatches out. It is finely +scored almost from the base to the top, which is depressed, and has a +raised boss in the centre, as in the egg of the Small Heath. + +From some eggs sent to me in July, caterpillars hatched in August. They +fed on ordinary meadow grass, and in September were figured, when they +were about half an inch in length. Head shallowly notched in front, +green, roughened with whitish dots, eyes and jaws brownish. Body green, +roughened with white dots, with darker line down the back, and paler, +almost white lines along the sides, anal projections reddish (these were +greenish when younger). + +The figure of the full-grown caterpillar is after Buckler, who +describes it as "of a bright green, with dark bluish-green dorsal line, +edged with pale lemon-yellow, the subdorsal and spiracular lines are of +the same pale yellow, but the subdorsal is edged above with dark +bluish-green, and between these two lines is an interrupted streak of a +darker colour, posteriorly with a slight tinge of reddish or pink, and +the caudal fork is tipped with pink." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 90. + +=Large Heath.= + + 1, 3, 4, 6 _male_, 2 _female (Delamere)_; 7, 9 _male_, + 5 _female (Arran)_; 8 _male (N. Salop)_; 10 _do. (Ireland)_; + 11 _do. (Carlisle)_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 91. + +=Large Heath.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] + +The chrysalis is bright green, with brown streaks on the edges and +centre of the wing-covers, and at the tip of the tail, turning dark +brown just before the butterfly emerges. (Figure and description after +Buckler.) + +The eggs are laid in July on blades of grass, and the caterpillars hatch +out in that month and August. The food of the caterpillars is said to be +the beaked-rush (_Rhynchospora alba_); those that I had from Witherslack +eggs fed well upon ordinary grass until October, but they died during +the winter. After hibernation they recommence feeding, and are full +grown in May and June, when they pupate, and the butterflies appear at +the end of June and in July. + +Barrett, writing of the butterfly in all its forms, says, "Its most +southern known locality in England is Chartley Park, Derbyshire, and it +is common in all 'mosses' of Lancashire and Cheshire--all moors about +Grange, and in Chat Moss, Risley Moss, Rixton Moss, Simondswood, Lindon +Moss, and Carrington Moss, as well as at Delamere Forest. In Yorkshire +abundant in Thorne Waste, not scarce in Wensleydale, and found on +Cottingham Moor, Hatfield Moors, and elsewhere. Northward it is found in +all suitable mosses and moors in Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, +but seems to have been exterminated in Northumberland." + +In Scotland it appears to be pretty generally distributed, and occurs +up to an elevation of some 2000 feet. Kane states that in Ireland it is +widely spread throughout, on the bogs and mountains. It is stated to +have occurred in North Wales a long time ago, but there are no recent +records from that country. Abroad it is found in Central and Northern +Europe, extending to Lapland, and through Northern Asia to Amurland. In +North America it is represented by two forms, which are not quite like +any of those occurring elsewhere. + + +The Small Heath (_Coenonympha pamphilus_). + +To the ancient fathers the male of the butterfly on Plate 92 was known +as the "Selvedged Heath Eye," and the female was called the "Golden +Heath Eye." Harris figured it as "The Small Heath," or "Gatekeeper;" the +latter name being now associated with another species, it may be allowed +to drop out in the present connection. + +The wings are pale tawny, with a brownish or greyish-brown border, of +variable width, on all the wings, and stronger in the male than the +female; there is a black spot towards the tip of the fore wing. The +under side resembles that of the last species in some degree, but the +eyed spots of the hind wings are not always prominent, often only white +dots, and may be absent altogether (Fig. 9). + +Variation in this species is extensive, but not striking. The tint of +the ground colour may be reddish or yellowish; occasionally brownish or +greyish-brown specimens of the male occur, and more rarely +purplish-brown examples of the same sex have been found. Females, in all +cases paler, and generally larger than the male, are sometimes +whitish-ochreous in colour, and, very rarely, yellowish-white. The brown +border is also a variable character, and may be very dark and broad +(var. _lyllus_), or reduced to linear proportions. The apical spot on +the fore wings may be of fair size and very black, very pale and +indistinct (Figs. 8, 12), or entirely absent; it does not seem to be +pupilled with white (as it is on the under side), but sometimes there is +a pale speck in the centre. On the under side of the hind wings there is +variation in the width of the central whitish band-like patch, in some +specimens with unusually dark ground colour this patch is very broad; in +other examples, of normal coloration, the band is complete, and extends +to the inner margin. The white dots that normally do duty as ocelli are +not infrequently set in reddish-brown spots, and then become rather more +noticable (Fig. 14). This form is var. _ocellata_, Tutt. + +The egg is green at first, afterwards becoming whitish or bone-colour; +later on a brownish irregular ring appears a little above the middle, +and there are various brownish freckles. It is finely ribbed, and the +top is depressed, forming a hollow with a central boss. Laid in a +cluster of four on a blade of grass, but this may have been accidental. +Others were deposited singly on muslin and on fine grass, all in +mid-June. The caterpillar is of a clear green colour, "with darker green +dorsal stripe, and a spiracular stripe not so dark; the anal points +pink" (Hellins). + +The chrysalis is of "a delicate pale rather yellowish-green, with a +faintly darker green dorsal stripe, the edge of the projecting +wing-covers on each side whitish, outlined with a streak of +reddish-brown; the abdomen freckled very delicately with paler green; +the tip of the anal point, with a short streak of brownish-red on each +side; the wing-cases faintly marked with darker green nervures" +(Buckler). + +The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 93 are from Buckler's +"Larvæ of British Butterflies." + +Some caterpillars, from eggs laid in May or June, become full-grown in +four or five weeks, and appear as butterflies in August, but others do +not complete their growth until the following spring. Just exactly what +happens in the case of eggs from autumn females does not seem to be very +definitely ascertained. It has, however, been stated that caterpillars +hatching from eggs laid in August, attain the size of the slow-growing +contingent from May eggs, and then hibernate. Probably, therefore, it is +these that produce the July butterflies, and if so, the succession of +emergences may be something in this way: May and June butterflies from +May and June eggs (twelve months' cycle), July butterflies from August +eggs (eleven months cycle), August and September butterflies (partial +second brood) from May and June eggs (four months' cycle). + +This interesting little butterfly is to be seen almost everywhere, but +it is perhaps most frequently to be found in grassy places in lanes, on +heaths and downs, railway banks, in rough meadows, etc. It occurs on +mountains even up to an elevation of 2000 feet. When flying in company +with the blues and coppers, all frolicking together over some patch of +long grass, the colour combination has an exceedingly pleasing effect. +They rest by day, and sleep at night on grass or rushes. + +A common species throughout England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland, as +far north as Nairn, also in the Outer Hebrides. Abroad its distribution +extends over Europe to South-West Siberia, Central and North-East Asia, +Asia Minor, and North Africa. + + * * * * * + +We now arrive at the Hairstreaks, Coppers, and Blues. These belong to +the Lycænidæ, a very large family of butterflies which is represented in +all parts of the globe. There are eighteen species in Britain, but at +least one of these is extinct and another is supposed to be so; two are +very rare, and the chances of meeting with either are probably about +equal. + + +The Brown Hairstreak (_Zephyrus betulæ_). + +The butterfly is represented on Plate 94, Figs. 1-3. The male is +blackish-brown with a faint greyish tinge, and there is a conspicuous +black bar at the end of the discal cell of the fore wing, followed by a +pale cloud; there are two orange marks at the anal angle of the hind +wings. The female is blackish-brown, and has the black bar at end of the +cell, and an orange band beyond; there are usually three orange marks on +the hind wings at the anal angle, but sometimes there are only two. The +under side of the male is ochreous, but that of the female is more +orange; the fore wings have the black bar edged on each side with white, +and there is a white-edged, brownish triangular streak beyond, the outer +margin is tinged with reddish; on the hind wings there are two white +irregular lines and the space between them is brownish, the outer margin +is reddish, becoming broadly so towards the anal angle, where there is a +black spot. Variation is not of a very striking character. The shade +following the black bar at end of the discal cell on the fore wings in +the male is sometimes yellowish tinged, not infrequently fairly large, +and with two smaller spots below it. More rarely all three spots are +distinctly ochreous-yellow (var. _spinosæ_, Gerhard). A similar +aberration, but with the marks white instead of yellow, has been named +_pallida_, Tutt. The orange band in the female varies in width and in +length; occasionally it extends well below vein 2, and into the discal +cell within the black bar. I have one specimen in which the band is +broken up into three parts, and the upper one of these is but little +wider than the same spot in var. _spinosæ_, the other two being almost +exactly of the same size as in that variety. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 92. + +=Scotch Large Heath.= 1, 2, 5 _male_; 3, 4 _female_. + +=Small Heath.= 6, 9, 10, 14 _male_; 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 93. + +=Small Heath.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +The life-history is figured on Plate 95--the lower set of figures. + +The egg is described by Newman "as a depressed sphere and white," and he +states, "it is attached to the twigs of blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in +the autumn, often as late as the end of September or beginning of +October; it is not hatched until the spring." + +The caterpillar is bright pale green, and the lines on the back and +sides are yellowish, as also are the oblique streaks on the sides and +the border of the ridge above the feet. There are some bristles along +the ridge on the back and also on that above the feet. It feeds on +blackthorn in May and June, and will eat the foliage of almost any kind +of plum. I have reared fine specimens from caterpillars which fed on +greengage. + +The chrysalis is pale reddish-brown with a dark line down the middle of +the back and some pale oblique streaks on each side; the wing-cases are +freckled with darker brown. Barrett, quoting Fenn, says, "Suspended by +the tail and a silken girth to the stem of the food-plant close to the +ground." Those that I have seen pupated on or under leaves, and so far +as I could observe without any girth, and certainly not suspended. + +Nearly two hundred years ago the male of this butterfly was known as the +Brown Hairstreak, whilst the female was called the Golden Hairstreak. +The caterpillar seems to have been observed in quite early times. It has +always been a local species, and although it appears to frequent +hedgerows occasionally, its haunts generally are open grounds in the +neighbourhood of woods, where blackthorn or sloe is plentiful. August +and September are the months for the butterfly, but it does not seem to +be very often observed on the wing, even in places where the +caterpillars are known to occur. When seen it is generally high up on, +or around, some oak tree. Occasionally, however, it visits the bramble +blossoms, and at such times becomes a fairly easy prey. The caterpillar +is obtained by beating sloe bushes. + +Barrett, who seems to have worked out its distribution in England and +Wales pretty closely, remarks, "In the eastern counties it has been +taken occasionally in Norfolk and Suffolk, more frequently in Essex, +where, in Epping Forest, it has been fairly common; also in +Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northamptonshire, in some plenty. +In very few localities in Kent, Sussex, Hants, and Dorset; rarely in +Gloucestershire, and possibly Somerset; but found in many Devonshire +localities, especially in the sheltered valleys around the Dartmoor +range, and in the charmingly wooded districts about Axminster and +Sidmouth; becoming common towards Dartmouth. It has also been found +commonly near Marlborough, Wilts, and plentifully in some parts of North +Wales; apparently rare in South Wales, but certainly existing in some +parts of the wooded districts skirting Milford Haven. Also recorded from +Worcestershire, and Cannock Chase in Staffordshire; and northward in the +favoured districts of Grange and Silverdale in North Lancashire, and +Witherslack in Westmoreland." As Surrey is not quoted in the foregoing, +it may be mentioned as one of the counties in which the species is +found. In Ireland Kane says that it is "abundant in certain localities +in Munster; and in Co. Galway at Claring Bridge, and Oranmore; Cork; +Killoghrum Wood, Enniscorthy; Blarney, Killarney." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 94. + +=Brown Hairstreak.= 1, _male_; 2, 3 _female_. + +=White-letter Hairstreak.= 4, 6 _male_; 5, 7 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 95. + +=White-letter Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ + +=Brown Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +It is distributed throughout Central and Northern Europe, except the +Polar region, and its range extends through Northern Asia to Amurland, +Ussuri, and China. + + +The Purple Hairstreak (_Zephyrus quercus_). + +The butterfly (figured on Plate 96) has the sexes differently +ornamented, as in the last species. The male is strongly tinged with +purplish-blue, the veins are blackish; the outer margin of the fore +wings are narrowly, and the costa and outer margin of the hind wings are +broadly, bordered with black. The female is purplish-black, with two +patches of bluish-purple in the discal cell and space below; often there +is a smaller patch of the same colour between them, the whole forming a +large blotch interrupted by the blackish veins. Under side greyish with +blackish shaded white lines; two or three blackish clouds on the outer +margin of fore wings above the inner angle; these are sometimes edged +with orange; a black spot on anal angle of the hind wings, with an +orange one above it, and a black-centred orange spot between veins 2 and +3. + +Variation in this species is exceptional. An aberration known as +_bella_, Gerhard, has a yellowish mark at end of the cell on the upper +side of the fore wings, and at least one such variety has been taken in +England. Sometimes the blotch on the female is rather blue than purple; +a male specimen with blue streaks on the costa of the fore wings has +been recorded, and Barrett mentions a gynandrous specimen in which the +right side was that of the male. + +The egg is pale brown tinged with pink, and over this is a whitish +network. The caterpillar is reddish-brown and downy; a black line along +the back has a whitish edge, and there are whitish oblique stripes, with +blackish edge, on each side of the central line; the segmental divisions +are well marked, and the spiracles are blackish with pale rings. The +head, which, when the caterpillar is resting, is hidden within the first +body ring, is brownish and glossy, and there is a greyish shield-like +mark on the second ring. The chrysalis is red-brown, with darker +freckles; the body is downy, and there are traces of oblique marks +thereon. It does not appear to be fastened by the tail, but the cast +larval skin remains attached; there are a few strands of silk around and +about the chrysalis, but these are very flimsy, although they hold it in +position on the ground or under a leaf. + +The eggs are laid in July or August on twigs of oak, but the +caterpillars, it is said, do not hatch out until the following spring. +In May and early June the caterpillars are full grown, and may be +obtained by beating or jarring the branches of oak trees in places where +the butterfly is known to occur. They have also been found on sallow. + +This species frequents oak woods, or the borders thereof, in July and +August, and is often more easy to see than to capture, as it has a +tantalizing trick of flying around the upper branches of the trees. +Occasionally it resorts to lower growing aspens, probably to feast on +the honey dew, the secretions of Aphides, with which the leaves are +often covered in hot summers. It seems to be pretty generally +distributed in all parts of England and Wales, and in Scotland as far +north as Ross. In Ireland it appears to be more local, and has only been +recorded from the east and south. + +It is found in all parts of Europe, except the northern. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 96. + +=Purple Hairstreak.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. + +=Black Hairstreak.= 4, 6 _male_; 5 _female_. + +=Green Hairstreak.= 7 _male_; 8, 9 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 97. + +=Black Hairstreak.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and +enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ + +=Purple Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ + +=Green Hairstreak.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and +enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + + +The Black Hairstreak (_Thecla pruni_). + +This butterfly is figured on Plate 96. In colour it is dark brown or, +when quite fresh, brownish-black; there are some orange marks on the +outer margin of the hind wings, and these are most distinct in the +female, in which sex there are orange spots on the fore wings also. The +male has a pale sexual mark at the end of the cell of the fore wings, +but this is less distinct than in the following species. The under side +is brown, with a bluish-white interrupted transverse line on each wing, +that on the hind wings angled before reaching the inner margin. All the +wings have an orange band on the outer margin, but on the fore wings of +the male this is often indistinct; there are some white-edged black +spots before it, and, on the hind wings, beyond it also. + +The eggs are laid in July on the twigs of blackthorn, but the +caterpillars do not hatch until the following spring. The egg figured on +Plate 97 was reddish-brown and appeared rather shiny. The caterpillar is +described as yellowish-green, with a darker green furrow and purplish +ridges along the back; the latter are edged with whitish and the +divisions between the rings are yellowish. The head is pale brown. The +chrysalis, which is attached by the tail and has a silken thread around +it, is black, marked on the head and body with yellowish-white. + +The caterpillars feed on blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in a state of +nature, but will eat the leaves of damson in confinement. They may be +obtained in May, in their particular haunts, by beating sloe bushes with +a beating tray, or an inverted open umbrella, held under to intercept +the evicted caterpillars, etc. + +This butterfly was not known as British until 1828, when a number of +specimens were captured at Monkswood in Huntingdonshire. These were sold +by the captor as _T. w-album_, which was then called the Black +Hairstreak. As soon as the mistake was detected, it was given out that +the specimens had been taken in Yorkshire, but this was only a ruse, as +_T. pruni_ has never occurred in that county. It is confined, so far as +Britain is concerned, to three or four of the midland counties. "Mr. +Herbert Goss, who has found it at Barnwell Wold, and in other wooded +districts of Northamptonshire, at intervals, for more than twenty years +past, says that it is fond of sitting on the flowers of privet +(_Ligustrum_), and of _Viburnum lantana_, in the woods, and sometimes is +to be found in numbers. Its time of emergence is very variable, +apparently regulated by the lateness of the spring--from June 17th to +the first week in July. Reared specimens made their appearance from June +13th to 27th. He writes, 'It was the greatest possible pleasure to see +them walking about the table while I was at breakfast.' In 1858 it was +found commonly at Kettering, and in 1859 at Oundle, and has been +recorded at Warboys Wood, Huntingdonshire, and in Buckinghamshire. One +specimen was taken at Brandeston, Suffolk, by the Rev. Joseph Green; and +Mr. Allis found it commonly in the Overton Woods and about St. Ives. +There is also a record in Monmouthshire, which may require confirmation. +This butterfly does not appear to be losing ground in this country, its +fondness for trees and lofty bushes rendering it difficult to capture" +(Barrett). + +A writer in the _Entomologist_ for 1874 mentions Linford Woods, in +Bucks, as a locality where he had observed several specimens, mostly +females, on flowers of privet. + +It is found throughout the greater part of Europe and also in Amurland +and Corea. + + +The White Letter Hairstreak (_Thecla w-album_). + +The male of this butterfly (Plate 94) is blackish, with a small whitish +sex mark at end of the discal cell of the fore wing; there is a small +orange spot at the anal angle of the hind wings. The female agrees in +colour with the male, but the tails are longer, and there is no sex mark +on the fore wings. The under side is brownish, with a white line on each +wing, that on the hind wings forming a =W= before the inner margin; the +hind wings have a black-edged orange band on the outer margin which is +finely tapered towards the costa. Captured specimens are usually browner +than those that are reared from caterpillars. + +The species does not exhibit much tendency to variation. The white lines +on the under side may be rather broad or very narrow, and that on the +hind wings is sometimes so broken up towards the inner margin that the +=W= character disappears; when absence of the anal orange spots on the +upper side is associated with the broken line, the form is known as +_butlerowi_. I have several males without the =W=, and some of these +have the orange spot above, whilst others are without it. Barrett refers +to a specimen in which there is "on the under side an extension of white +colour from the white line towards the margin, in the fore wings forming +a broad wedge-shaped band, but in the hind wings occupying the whole +space from the white line to the orange band." + +The egg has been described as whitish in colour, and in shape something +like an orange with a depression on the top. The eggs are laid on twigs +of elm in July, and, according to some writers, remain thereon +throughout the winter. The caterpillar when full grown is +yellowish-green and covered with short hairs; the ridges on the back are +yellowish, and there are oblique whitish streaks on each side of the +darker dorsal line. The head is black. When about ready to assume the +chrysalis state, the whole body becomes purplish-brown. The chrysalis is +brownish, sometimes tinged with purple; covered with tiny bristles +except on the blackish wing cases, and there are two purplish lines on +the back. It is attached by the tail, and has a strand or two of silk +around it, generally on the under side of a leaf. + +In a state of nature the caterpillar feeds on wych-elm (_Ulmus +montana_), but it will eat the leaves of the common elm (_Ulmus +campestris_). It is to be obtained in May and June by beating wych-elms +in localities where the butterfly is known to occur. + +The butterfly is on the wing in July, and usually disports itself +around the elm trees, but it is fond of bramble blossoms, and may often +be netted when feasting on those flowers. It is a local species, but, as +a rule, plentiful enough in its localities. It is rare in Hampshire and +Dorsetshire, scarce in Sussex, and not found in many parts of Kent. +Ripley, in Surrey, was a well-known locality for it in the early part of +the last century, and the caterpillars were found there commonly quite +recently. In Essex it is generally common near Maldon. And, according to +Barrett, it is "plentiful in various parts of Suffolk; very scarce in +Norfolk; found more or less plentifully in Herts, Hants., Cambs., and +Northamptonshire; very rare in Nottinghamshire; but again to be found in +North Lincolnshire; and common in several localities near Doncaster, +Barnsley, and elsewhere in Yorkshire. This appears to be its northern +limit, and in this respect it contrasts curiously with _Thecla betulæ_ +[The Brown Hairstreak], since it extends farther north in the east than +that species; yet in the west is recorded no farther than Cheshire and +Shropshire, where I found it thirty-five years ago upon Benthall Edge. +In Herefordshire it is recorded but rarely; more commonly in +Worcestershire; also in Derbyshire and Needwood Forest, Staffordshire; +common around Burton-on-Trent and elsewhere in Leicestershire; and in +Oxfordshire, Bucks, and Berks. But its metropolis seems to be Wiltshire, +where Mr. Perkins has found it around Marlborough and Savernake in +thousands, as well as in Gloucestershire." It has also been obtained in +Monmouthshire, but its extreme western limit seems to be +Weston-super-Mare, Somersetshire. Abroad it is widely distributed in +Europe, except the extreme north and south-west; its range extends into +Asia Minor, and to Amurland and Japan. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 98. + +=Large Copper.= + +1, 4, _male_; 2, 3, 5 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 99. + +=Large Copper.= + +_Caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +_Thecla spini_ and _T. ilicis_, two species of Hairstreak butterflies +belonging to Central and Southern Europe, have been mentioned as +occurring in Britain by some of the earlier authors. There is not, +however, the slightest reason to suppose that either of them ever +occurred naturally in this country. + + +The Green Hairstreak (_Callophrys rubi_). + +Both sexes of this butterfly (Plate 96) are brown with a faint golden +tinge above, and green on the under side. The male has a dark, or, when +the plumules are dislodged, pale sexual mark, which is oval in shape, +and placed at the upper corner of the discal cell in the fore wings. +Occasionally there are some orange scales at the anal angle of the hind +wings, and more rarely, and in the female, at the extremities of veins +two and three also. On the under side of some specimens, chiefly from +Northern localities, there is a transverse series of white dots across +all the wings; more often these are confined to the hind wings, and +sometimes they are almost or quite absent from all the wings. Now and +then the under side of the hind wings is found to be brown in colour, +and this change in colour has been ascribed to the action of moisture. +The life-history is figured on Plate 97. + +The egg is greenish, reticulated with paler or with whitish-green; the +reticulation is somewhat rough on the side, but becomes finer towards +and on the top, which has the centre hollowed. Laid on the petals of the +common furze (_Ulex europæus_), and on leaves of rock-rose +(_Helianthemum chamæcistus_). + +The caterpillar feeds in June and July. It is pale green, with a darker +line along the back, and yellow oblique stripes on the sides. Among the +plants that it has been found upon, or is known to eat, are dyer's +greenweed (_Genista tinctoria_), needle furze (_G. anglica_), broom +(_Cytisus scoparius_), dwarf furze (_Ulex nanus_), whortleberry +(_Vaccinium myrtillus_); also the berries of buckthorn (_Rhamnus_), +making holes through which the contents of the berry is extracted; buds +of bramble (_Rubus_), and of dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), are also +attacked in a similar way. + +The chrysalis is clothed with tiny hairs, and when freshly formed is +green in colour, but becomes purplish-brown after a time. It appears to +be unattached to anything. I think, however, that there are generally a +few strands of silk around or about it, but these are so easily broken +when the chrysalids are removed that they escape observation. May and +June are the months for the butterfly, which occurs in various kinds of +situations, such as the outskirts of woods, high hedgerows, hill slopes, +and boggy heaths. I once saw it in abundance about the entrance from +Lynton to the Valley of Rocks. Its resemblance on the under side to the +leaves on which it perches is as baffling to the collector as is the +resting habit of the Grayling butterfly previously referred to. It seems +to be pretty generally distributed throughout the kingdom, but is rather +more local in Ireland than elsewhere, and it has not yet been recorded +from the Orkney or Shetland Isles. Its range extends throughout the +Palæarctic Region. + + +The Large Copper (_Chrysophanus dispar_). + +The brilliant butterfly, figured on Plate 99, is of a coppery orange +colour. In the male the fore wings have two black dots in the discal +cell, the outer one linear, and the outer margin is narrowly blackish; +the hind wings have a linear black mark in the cell, and the outer +margin is narrowly edged with blackish and dotted with black. The female +is more conspicuously marked with black; there are two, sometimes three, +spots in the cell of the fore wings, and a transverse series of seven or +eight beyond; the outer margin is broadly bordered with black, and there +are generally two spots above the inner angle; the hind wings have a +black spot in the cell, and a series of black spots beyond, but the +whole basal three-fourths of these wings is often deeply suffused with +blackish; the outer margin is bordered and spotted with black. The sexes +are much alike on the under side, and have reddish-orange fore wings +with bluish grey outer margins, and black spots as on the upper side of +the female; the hind wings are bluish-grey, powdered with bluish towards +the base, and with whitish ringed black spots; five of these spots are +before the linear discal mark, and a series of nine or ten beyond; an +orange band on the outer margin has black dots on each edge. + +Except as regards the size and the shape of the spots, especially in the +female, there appears to have been but little variation noted in this +species in England. + +The two fine female specimens figured on the plate have a more or less +distinct wedge-shaped black spot in the basal end of the discal cell of +the fore wings. Dale mentions that he has an "almost entirely black" +example of the female in his collection. + +The var. _rutilus_, which is the continental form of our butterfly, is +smaller in size, as a rule, the spots are not so large, and the orange +band is always narrower on the under side of the hind wings. It has been +averred that some of the British specimens are referable to this form. + +Newman, writing about 1870, gave the following life-history +details:--"The egg is laid on the leaves of the great water-dock (_Rumex +hydrolapathum_) during the month of August, and the young caterpillars +(never, to the best of my belief, observed) probably emerge during the +following month, and hibernate very early at the base of the petioles. + +"The caterpillar is full fed in June, and then lies flat on the +dock-leaf, rarely moving from place to place, and, when it does so, +gliding with a slug-like motion, the legs and claspers being entirely +concealed. The head is extremely small, and can be completely withdrawn +into the second segment: the body has the dorsal surface convex, the +ventral surface flat; the divisions of the segments are distinctly +marked, the posterior margin of each slightly overlapping the anterior +margin of the next, and the entire caterpillar having very much the +appearance of a _Chiton_; the sides are slightly dilated, the legs and +claspers are seated in closely approximate pairs, nearly on a +medio-ventral line. The colour is green, scarcely distinguishable from +that of the dock-leaf; there is an obscure medio-dorsal stripe, slightly +darker than the disk, and in all probability due to the presence of food +in the alimentary canal. The chrysalis is obese, blunt at both +extremities, attached by minute hooks at the caudal extremities, and +also by a belt round the waist." Newman adds, "My acquaintance with the +caterpillar and chrysalis was made very many years ago in Mr. +Doubleday's garden at Epping, where the very plant of _Rumex +hydrolapathum_, on which the caterpillars fed, is still in existence." + +The caterpillar was described by Stephens, in 1828, as somewhat hairy, +bright green, with innumerable white dots. The same author states that +the chrysalis was "first green, then pale ash-coloured, with a dark +dorsal line and two abbreviated white ones on each side, and, lastly, +sometimes deep brown." + +The figure of the caterpillar on Plate 98 is after Westwood, and that of +the chrysalis after Newman ("Grammar of Entomology"). + +Although he refers to it as "_hippothoë_," the Large Copper seems to +have been known to Lewin (1795), as he states that specimens had been +taken in Huntingdonshire. Haworth (1803) mentions its occurrence in the +fens of Cambridgeshire, and Stephens, twenty-five years later, +wrote:--"This splendid insect appears to be confined to the fenny +counties of Cambridge and Huntingdon, with the neighbouring ones of +Suffolk and Norfolk, unless the account of its capture in Wales by +Hudson be admitted; but this may probably be the following species +[_hippothoë_], which may, moreover, eventually prove synonymous with +_Ly. dispar_. In the first two localities it appears to occur in great +profusion, as several hundred specimens have been captured within these +last ten years by the London collectors, who have visited Whittlesea and +Yaxley Meres, during the month of July, for the sole purpose of +obtaining specimens of this insect." + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 100. + +=Small Copper.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 101. + +=Small Copper.= + +1, 2 _Typical male_; 3 _typical female_; 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 +_varieties_; 7 _var. schmidtii_.] + +Dale states that "the latest capture, consisting of five specimens, +appears to have been made in Holme Fen, by Mr. Stretton either in 1847 +or 1848." + +There is evidence that floods, which were not uncommon in the home of +the Large Copper, were not really injurious to the butterfly, and +therefore the occasional submergence of its feeding grounds can hardly +have been the cause of its almost sudden destruction. It seems more +probable that its disappearance was due to the draining of the fens, and +at least it is significant that the two events were almost coincident. + +There are records of the butterfly having been taken in various odd +localities since it was last seen in fenland, but the latest of those +dates back to the year 1865. There seems to be no question that the +butterfly is now extinct in England, and, lamentable to relate, the +chief locality where we can hope to secure a specimen or two for our +collection is in the neighbourhood of Covent Garden, where the only +requirement for the capture will be a well-lined purse. + +The continental form _rutilus_ is found in Germany, France, Northern +Italy, South-Eastern Europe (except Greece), Northern Asia Minor, +Armenia, and the Altai. The Asian form _auratus_ occurs in South-Eastern +Siberia, Amurland, Corea, Northern China, and Amdo. + + * * * * * + +Four other kinds of "Coppers" have been reported as occurring in +England: these are _Chrysophanus hippothoë_ and _C. virgaureæ_, both of +which have even had English names bestowed upon them, to wit, the +Purple-edged Copper and the Scarce Copper; _C. gordius_, and _C. circe_ +(_dorilis_). These are only mentioned to afford an opportunity for +saying that there does not appear to be the least reason for considering +either of them to be a British butterfly. Kirby, Barrett, and others, +however, think it possible that the first two may have inhabited England +in ancient times. + + +The Small Copper (_Chrysophanus phlæas_). + +This little butterfly is very smart, in activity as well as appearance. +In colour it is very similar to the last species, but both sexes are +spotted with black on the fore wings, the outer series of six spots +forming a very irregular row; the hind wings are black, with a wavy +orange-red band on the outer margin. + +There is considerable variation, and it is, therefore, deemed advisable +to give a number of figures representing some of the more striking +aberrations. The three figures at the top of Plate 101 depict the normal +male and female; the latter sex is Fig. 3. For the loan of the other +specimens (Figs. 4-12) my thanks are due to Mr. E. Sabine, who has a +very fine and extensive series of varieties of this butterfly. Other +examples of aberration on the under side are shown on Plate 119. Blue +spots are sometimes found on the hind wings; these are placed near the +orange-red band, and occasionally they attain a good size. Specimens +much suffused with blackish sometimes occur; these are referable to var. +_eleus_, which is the usual summer form in some of the warmer countries +abroad. A very rare form is that known as _schmidtii_ (Fig. 7), in which +the ground colour of the fore wings and the band on the hind wings are +silvery white instead of orange or coppery-red. A modification of this +form which is hardly less rare has a creamy tint. Straw-coloured or pale +golden specimens are rather more frequently met with. The colour of the +hind wings in fresh specimens is sometimes steely-grey, but blackish is +the more usual hue; the band on the outer area, which as a rule agrees +in colour with the fore wings, varies in width a good deal, and +occasionally is more or less obscured by the blackish ground colour. The +arrangement, size, and shape of the black spots, both above and below, +are subject to much vagary, sometimes of a very striking kind, as, for +example, when the spots of the outer series on the fore wings are united +with the discal pair and form a large irregular blotch. A remarkable +specimen taken some years ago in the Isle of Wight had a small patch of +copper with a black spot in it on the under side. This gave one the idea +of a clumsy attempt at patching, but as I happened to take that +particular specimen, I know that it had not been tampered with. +Gynandrous specimens of this butterfly sometimes occur, but these are +very rare. + +The egg is of a yellowish-white colour at first, and afterwards becomes +greyish; the pattern on the shell, which resembles network, is always +whiter. + +The caterpillar is green and similar in tint to the leaf of dock or +sorrel upon which it feeds. It is clothed with short greyish hair which +arises from white dots; the dorsal line is brownish-olive, and the ring +divisions, especially along the back, are well defined. Head very small, +pale brownish, marked with blackish, drawn into the first ring of the +body when resting. The legs and prolegs are tinged with pink, and +sometimes the body is marked with pink. + +The chrysalis is pale brown, sometimes tinged with greenish, and +freckled with darker brown; there is a dark line along the middle of the +thorax and body, the wing cases are streaked with blackish, and the body +is dotted with black. Attached by the tail and loose silken threads +around the body to a leaf or stem. + +There seem to be three broods of this species in most years: the first +is on the wing in May, sometimes in April; the second in July or early +August; and the third in early October. It is not a difficult species to +rear from the egg, and as varieties appear to be most frequent in the +third brood, the eggs should be obtained from females of the second +brood. Dock and sorrel (_Rumex_) are the food-plants of the caterpillar, +and these are most useful in a growing condition. + +The butterfly frequents all kinds of open situations, and is fond of +basking upon flowers, more particularly those of the Compositæ, from +which vantage ground it dashes with great alertness at any other small +butterfly that may happen to fly that way. Whether these seeming attacks +are really due to pugnacity, as has been stated by some writers, or are +merely of a sportive character, is not altogether clear. As, however, +the meeting of the two butterflies usually results, when both are Small +Coppers, in a series of aërial evolutions by the pair, it would seem +that there is a good deal of playfulness in the business. After the +gambol is over, one butterfly may dart off with the other in hot +pursuit, and then both move so rapidly that their course is difficult to +follow. If the butterfly intercepted happens to be a Blue or a Small +Heath, the Copper returns to the flower from which it started, and +prepares for another raid when the opportunity offers. It occurs +throughout the United Kingdom, but in Scotland it does not extend +northwards beyond the Caledonian Canal. + +Abroad it is found throughout the Palæarctic Region, and is represented +in North America by the form _hypophlæas_. + + +The Long-tailed Blue (_Lampides boeticus_). + +The male is purplish-blue suffused with fuscous, especially on all +margins except the inner one; there are two velvety black spots +encircled with pale blue at the anal angle of the hind wings, and a +slender black tail, tipped with white, appears to be a continuation of +vein 2. The under side is grey-brown, with numerous white wavy lines and +broader streaks; there is a whitish band on each wing before the outer +margin, and black spots as above, but these are ringed with metallic +blue. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 102. + +=Short-tailed Blue.= _Eggs enlarged._ + +=Long-tailed Blue.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis (after Millière)._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 103. + +=Long-tailed Blue.= + +1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. + +=Short-tailed Blue.= + +4, 6 _male_; 5, 7 _female_.] + +I have not seen any of the early stages of this butterfly. The +caterpillar, which feeds upon the green seeds in pods of the Leguminosæ, +including the garden pea and the lupine, is figured on Plate 102. It is +described as being green or reddish-brown in colour, with a dark stripe +on the back, double oblique lines on the sides, and a white line below +the yellow spiracles; head black. The chrysalis is of a red or yellowish +colour, and dotted with brown. It has a silken girdle and is said to be +attached to a stem, as shown in the figure, but probably it is more +often fixed up among the withered leaves of the food-plant. Two of the +earliest known British specimens of this butterfly were taken by the +late Mr. Neil McArthur on August 4th and 5th, 1859, on the Downs at +Brighton; the third example was captured by Captain de Latour at +Christchurch, where it was flying about a plant of the everlasting pea +in his garden on August 4th of the same year. Newman has noted that in +that particular year the butterfly was very abundant in the Channel +Islands and on the coast of France. No other specimen seems to have been +observed in England until 1879, in which year one was taken at +Freshwater in the Isle of Wight on August 23rd. In 1880 a specimen was +captured in a garden near Bognor, Sussex, on September 12th. On October +2nd, 1882, one was obtained at West Bournemouth. Three were netted in +1893, one of these in late August, and one in the third week of +September, both in Sussex; the third was taken in Kent (inland) in +September. In 1899 a specimen was found at Winchester on September 1st, +and one at Deal on the 16th of the same month; each of these, curiously, +was sitting on a window. On August 2nd, 1904, one example was taken in a +garden near Truro, Cornwall. In addition to the above, single specimens +have been reported as taken at Brighton, July, 1890, and at Heswell, +Cheshire, in 1886 or 1887. + +It will thus be seen that the occurrence of this butterfly in England is +exceedingly infrequent. The species is common in Africa and in Southern +Europe; thence it extends eastward through Asia to China and Japan, and +southwards to Australia. It is also found in the Sandwich Islands. It is +believed to be migratory in its habits, and it is supposed that the +occasional specimens that arrive in this country come to us _viâ_ the +west coast of Europe. + +In its proper home there is a succession of broods of the butterfly, and +if by chance a few females were to visit this country in the early +summer, they most probably would lay eggs, and the caterpillars +resulting from these would almost certainly be able to feed up and +attain the perfect state here. So far there is no reason to suppose that +the caterpillar has ever occurred in England. + + +The Short-tailed or Bloxworth Blue (_Cupido argiades_). + +The interesting little butterfly represented on Plate 103 was not +known to occur in Britain until 1885, when the Rev. O. Pickard Cambridge +made the startling announcement that his sons had captured two +specimens, a female on August 18th, and a male on August 20th of that +year, the scene of capture being Bloxworth Heath, Dorset. Shortly after +this fact was made public the Rev. J.S. St. John added a record of two +males that he had discovered in a small collection of Lepidoptera made +by Dr. Marsh, who stated that he had taken the specimens of _C. +argiades_ in 1874, close to a small quarry near Frome. In addition to +these a specimen, also recorded by Mr. Cambridge, was taken at +Bournemouth in August, 1885; one is reported to have been captured at +Blackpool, about 1860; and one at Wrington, about twelve miles north of +Bristol, in 1895 or 1896. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 104. + +=Brown Argus.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis; + +(a) Egg of "Scotch Argus" enlarged._ + +=Silver-studded Blue.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] + +[Illustration: Pl. 105. + +=Silver-studded Blue.= 1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_. + +=Brown Argus.= 10, 12 _male_; 7, 8, 9 _female_; 11, 13, 14 +_male (Durham)_; 15 _male_, 16, 17 _female (Scotland)_.] + +The following details of the early stages are obtained from Mr. +Frohawk's life-history of the species published in the _Entomologist_ +for October, 1904. The egg (Plate 102, figured from a photomicrograph by +Mr. Tonge) is of a pale greenish-blue, but varies both in the extent of +the ground colour and in the structure of the reticulations, which are +white, resembling frosted glass. + +The full-grown caterpillar (August 23rd) measures 3/8 inch in length. It +is of the usual wood-louse shape, with only a very shallow furrow on the +back, bordered on each side by a fringe of spinous bristles, which vary +in length; the whole surface is densely studded with shorter but +similarly formed whitish or brownish bristles. The ground colour is pale +green, with a darker green stripe along the centre of the back, and +fainter green oblique stripes on the sides. The head is black and +shining, and is hidden under the first ring when the caterpillar is not +feeding or moving about. + +The caterpillars hatched on July 30th, from eggs that were laid in the +South of France on July 24th, and were reared on bird's-foot trefoil +(_Lotus corniculatus_), of which they ate the flowers, seeds, and +leaves. + +The chrysalis, which is attached to the food-plant by a silk pad at the +tail and a thread round the body, is pale green and very finely +reticulated; the wing-cases are rather whiter green, sprinkled with +minute black specks, and the veins are white; there is a blackish line +along the centre of the back, but this is only well defined on the head +and thorax. The whole surface, except the wings, is sprinkled with +slightly curved and moderately long white hairs. + +The butterfly emerges in about ten to fourteen days, according to +temperature. + +The male is violet-blue with the veins rather darker; the outer margin +is narrowly bordered with blackish, and there are some black dots on the +outer margin of the hind wings; the fringes are white, and there is a +slender tail on the hind wings. The female is brownish, tinged with +violet towards the base; the hind wings have black spots on the outer +margin, and some of these are inwardly edged with orange; the tails are +slightly longer than those of the male. + +All the available information concerning the occurrence of this species +in England has already been given. No doubt the localities from which +specimens were recorded have been closely investigated during the past +twenty years, but no further captures of this butterfly have been +recorded. This seems to indicate that it is not really indigenous, but +that its presence here may possibly have been due to accidental +introduction. + +The spring form, _polysperchon_, is smaller than the specimens occurring +in the summer, but so far that form has not been seen in England. + +The species is widely distributed over Central and Southern Europe, and +its range extends through Northern Asia to Amurland, Corea, and Japan. +It is also represented in Northern and Central America by var. +_comyntas_, and has been recorded from Australia. + + +The Silver-studded Blue (_Lycæna argus_ = _ægon_). + +The male of this butterfly (Plate 105) is purplish-blue with a black +border on the outer margins, and sometimes black dots on that of the +hind wings. The female is sooty-brown, powdered to a greater or lesser +extent with blue scales on the basal area; there is generally a series +of orange marks forming a more or less complete band on the outer margin +of the hind wings, and sometimes on the fore wings also. The under side +is bluish-grey in the male, and brownish-grey in the female; the black +spots are ringed with white, and on the fore wings there is one at the +end of the discal cell and a series of seven beyond; the hind wings have +from three to five spots before the discal spot, and a curved series of +seven beyond; there is a black-edged orange band on all the wings, and +beyond this on the hind wings there is a series of metallic blue centred +spots; hence the English name of the butterfly, given to it by Moses +Harris, which is certainly more suitable than Petiver's "Lead Argus." + +In a general way the male is rather larger than the female, but this is +not invariably the case. The colour of the male varies in shade, and +very occasionally, perhaps, is of a lilac tint; the border varies in +width, and is sometimes reduced to a mere line. In the female the orange +marks may be of a brownish or yellowish tint, and now and then there may +be a series of wedge-shaped blue spots above these marks on the hind +wings. On the under side there is a good deal of modification of the +black spots as regards size and shape, and occasionally there is at +least one extra spot on the fore wings placed between the discal spot +and the base of the wing; white markings sometimes appear on the fore +wings between the outer series of black spots and the orange band, and +with this there is generally a white band in a similar position on the +hind wings. Female specimens with splashes of the male colour on one or +more of the wings have been obtained, and, more rarely, examples +entirely male on one side and female on the other have been recorded. + +Frohawk states that the egg both in colour and texture, resembles white +porcelain; "all the depths produce a deep purplish-grey shade. The ova +are deposited singly, and adhere firmly to the receptacle." + +Caterpillars hatched out from eggs, laid the previous summer, on April +1st to 3rd. They were reared on gorse (_Ulex europæus_), pupated towards +the end of June, and the first butterfly, a male, appeared on July 10th. + +The caterpillar figured on Plate 104, when full grown, was +reddish-brown, finely dotted with white, and from each dot a tiny hair +arose; the stripe on the back and line on the side were black edged with +white, head black and shining. This caterpillar was found on the last +day of May, crawling on the ground under heather at Oxshott. It was then +about half-grown, and was reared on heather, pupated in due course, and +produced a female butterfly on July 11th. + +The chrysalis, of which two figures are given, had a pale brownish and +rather shining head; the body was brown with a darker line on the back; +the thorax and wing-cases dull yellowish-green, the former rather +glossy. It was placed in an angle formed by a side and the floor of the +cage, lying quite flat and secured by silken threads, which, owing to +position, I was unable to examine. Some of the caterpillars that Mr. +Frohawk reared were pale green with a dark purplish stripe on the back. +Another food-plant is bird's-foot vetch (_Ornithopus perpusillus_). + +The butterfly is on the wing in July and August, and seems to be more +often found on sandy heaths than elsewhere. It is especially common, in +some years, in the heather-clad districts of Surrey and Hampshire, as +well as other counties in England. In Norfolk and Suffolk it is said to +be common, but scarce in Gloucestershire and Somersetshire. Its range +extends through the greater part of England and Wales, and into Scotland +as far as Perthshire. Specimens from the northwest coast of Wales are +said to be larger than those from inland localities. + +As regards Ireland, there is only Birchall's record, "The Murrough of +Wicklow, and near Rostrevor," in evidence of the butterfly occurring in +that country at all. + +Abroad, it appears to range pretty well over the whole of Europe, and +through Asia eastward to Siberia, Corea, and Japan. + + +The Brown Argus (_Lycæna astrarche_). + +Fore wings blackish or sooty-brown with a black discal spot, and a row +of reddish-orange spots on the outer margin of all the wings; the +fringes are white, sometimes with blackish interruptions. The under side +is greyish or greyish-brown, and the black spots are distinctly ringed +with white. On the fore wing there are seven of these spots, one at the +end of the cell, and the others in an irregular series beyond; the last +in this series is sometimes double, or it may be absent. On the hind +wings the spots comprise a series of four preceding the white discal +mark, and a series of seven beyond; the second spot in this series is +placed directly under the first, forming a colon-like mark, and this +character will help to distinguish the Brown Argus from the blackish or +brown females of the next species. + +The female has larger orange markings, and the outline of the fore wings +is rather rounder on the outer margin, otherwise the sexes are very +similar. + +The orange spots referred to in the male are sometimes absent towards +the tips of the fore wings, and in this respect lead up to the form +known as the Durham Argus (var. _salmacis_, Stephens), which is blackish +above and ochreous-brown below; the black spots on the under side are +much smaller then in typical specimens, and some may be absent +altogether. The male has a black discal spot, and the female a white +one, on the upper side of the fore wings; the hind wings have a red or +orange band on both surfaces. Sometimes the male also has a white spot +on the fore wings. Specimens with the orange spots on upper side almost +entirely absent are referable to var. _allous_. + +_Artaxerxes_ is the form occurring in Scotland, and is known as the +"Scotch White Spot." Both sexes have a conspicuous white discal spot on +the fore wings, and the spots on the under side are white, and rarely +centred with black. In var. _quadripuncta_, Tutt, all four wings have a +white discal spot above. Occasionally an odd specimen with white discal +spots is found in the south. + +Figures of the butterfly will be found on Plate 105, and of its life +history on Plate 104; the upper egg is that from a typical female, and +the lower one was laid by a female _artaxerxes_. + +The egg, which is whitish, with a faint greyish tinge, is laid on the +upper side of a young leaf of the rock-rose (_Helianthemum +chamæcistus_). The caterpillar has a black shining head; the body is +green with whitish hairs, a pinkish line along the back, a whitish one +bordered with pinkish along the sides; the green colour becomes dingy as +the caterpillar matures. The chrysalis is obscure yellowish-green, the +front of the thorax is edged with pinkish, and there are bands of the +same colour on the back and sides of the body; the thorax and the +wing-cases are rather glossy. Held in position by a few silken threads +between leaves of the food-plant. + +The ordinary form of the butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and +again in August. It is widely distributed throughout the southern half +of England, and also in Wales. + +Although chiefly associated with rock-rose, especially in chalky +districts, it occurs too among stork's-bill (_Erodium cicutarium_), upon +which plant the caterpillar also feeds, in sandy places inland as well +as on the coast. + +Caterpillars from the first flight of butterflies may be found in July, +and those from the second flight hibernate and feed up in April. + +The butterfly has a marked liking for roosting on the flower stems of +long grasses, and quite a number may often be found resting together +towards sundown, or on dull days, in sheltered hollows. Sometimes +several specimens of this species and of the Common Blue may be found on +the same perch. It is rather less frequently seen in the Midland +counties, but it is more or less common in some parts of Derbyshire, +Yorkshire, and Lancashire. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 106. + +=Common Blue.= + +1, 2, 7, 10, 12 _male_; 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 107. + +=Common Blue.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._] + +The intermediate form, _salmacis_ and its modifications, is found in the +neighbourhood of Richmond, Yorks, and thence northward to the Scottish +border. + +Var. _artaxerxes_ occurs in Scotland from Roxburgh to Aberdeenshire on +the east, and from Dumfries to the Clyde on the west. Kane records four +specimens from Co. Galway, and these are all that are known of the +species from Ireland. This form, together with the var. _salmacis_, are +not found anywhere outside the United Kingdom, and, it may be added, the +latter appears to be getting scarce--at least, in some of its old haunts +in Durham. + +The species is distributed throughout the Palæarctic Region, except the +Polar parts. + + +The Common Blue (_Lycæna icarus_). + +The male is blue, with either a tinge of violet or mauve in its +composition. Sometimes, though rarely, it assumes the brighter shade of +the Adonis Blue. All the wings are very narrowly edged with black on the +outer margins; the veins are generally pale, shining blue, sometimes +becoming blackish towards the outer margins, and occasionally continued +into the fringes, but not to their tips. The female is most often brown, +with some blue scales on the basal area of all the wings; there is a +black discal spot on the fore wings, and a series of orange crescents +before a row of black spots on the outer margin; the hind wings have an +outer marginal row of black spots, edged outwardly with white and +inwardly with orange. + +On Plate 106, Fig. 1 represents a typical male, and Fig. 3 a typical +female, whilst the normal under sides of the sexes are shown in Figs. 10 +and 11. The size of this butterfly ranges from one inch and a half to +three-quarters of an inch. The large specimens at the bottom of the +plate are from Scotland. + +Scotch and Irish males often have some black spots on the outer margin +of the hind wings, as in Fig. 2, but this is from Ventnor in the Isle of +Wight. The female is sometimes of a uniform brown coloration, devoid of +blue scales, and, with the exception of slight traces of orange on the +outer margin of the hind wings, entirely without marking. On the other +hand, this sex is sometimes almost as blue as the male in colour (var. +_cærulea_), but the discal spot, outer marginal borders, and orange +markings are present. Occasionally the orange spots give place to yellow +ones. The discal spot on the fore wings may be encircled with +bluish-white scales, and now and then this spot on all the wings is +surrounded very distinctly with bluish-white. I have seen the latter +form from Durham and Ireland only, but it probably occurs in other parts +of the kingdom. + +Quite a number of gynandrous specimens of this species have been +recorded, some of them being male on the right side and female on the +left, in others the reverse was the case. + +On the under side the male is greyish and the female brownish, +consequently the white rings around the black spots show up more +distinctly in the latter sex. A not uncommon aberration is without spots +between the discal spot and the base of the fore wing; this is known as +_icarinus_. Another form that occurs fairly often has the lower basal +spot united with the last spot of the outer series, as in Fig. 9, this +is ab. _arcua_, and a modification, with the junction bar-like instead +of arched, has been named _melanotoxa_. Very rarely the whole of the +under side, except the outer margins, is free of spots (Plate 119). A +specimen exhibiting aberration in this direction is shown on Plate 118, +Fig. 6, whilst Figs. 1 and 3 show modifications of what is known as the +streaked form. + +I am indebted to Mr. E. Sabine, of Erith, for the loan of all the fine +aberrations of the Blues figured on Plate 118. + +On Plate 107 will be found figures of the early stages. + +The egg, which is usually laid on the upper side of a terminal leaf of +bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_) or on rest-harrow (_Ononis +spinosa_), is whitish-green in colour, netted with glossy white. + +The caterpillar is green, covered with short brownish hairs, with which +are mixed some longer ones; it is wrinkled on the side, ridged on the +back, and the line along the middle of the back is darker. Head black +and glossy. + +The chrysalis is green, with the head, wing-cases, and sometimes the +hinder parts of the body, tinged with buff; thorax brighter green, +rather shiny; a darker line down the centre of the body. + +The plants mentioned, and especially rest-harrow, are known to be the +food of the caterpillar, but eggs have also been found, in Scotland, on +red clover, plantain, burnet saxifrage, and yarrow. The caterpillars are +to be found, after hibernation, in April, and a second brood in June and +July. Those feeding on rest-harrow seem to prefer the blossom. + +This caterpillar is stated to form a cocoon, but the only approach to +any such structure made by the seven individuals I had under observation +was in the case of two caterpillars that pupated among leaves of +_Lotus_, which were drawn together by the slenderest of threads. Four +effected the change at the bottom of the cage and seemed to be quite +free, one had climbed to the leno top of the cage and there spun a +silken carpet under itself, which drew the leno together, and so formed +a shallow cave in which the chrysalis rested. In every case the cast +skin was attached to the tail, and so remained after the butterflies +emerged. + +The butterfly is to be found almost everywhere in the country, and its +distribution extends throughout the United Kingdom, except, perhaps, the +Shetland Isles. There appears to be only one flight in the north of +Scotland and Ireland, and this occurs in June and July. In England there +are two broods, and in some years probably three in the southern +counties. It may be seen on the wing, in greater or lesser numbers, all +through the season from May to September. + +Abroad, the range extends over the whole of Europe to North Africa, and +through Western and Northern Asia to Amurland and China. + +The Common Blue, as well as the Chalk Hill and the Adonis Blues, are to +be found, often commonly and sometimes in large numbers, in their +favourite haunts. Each of them is subject to a considerable range of +variation on the under side, and this seems to be of a similar character +in all. Very striking aberrations are, perhaps, not often obtained, but +still many modifications are to be found, and the possibility of a +really good thing turning up, induces one to give attention to the +business of overhauling these butterflies. A very good method of +conducting this kind of work is to first ascertain the places where they +chiefly congregate, and then to visit there on dull days or late in the +afternoon, when the butterflies are asleep or, at all events, resting. +They can then be easily examined as they sit on the long grass stems, +etc. (Plate 27), but only the under sides can be viewed in this way. So +to avoid passing over a good upper-side variety, it will be needful to +take each specimen between the finger and thumb of the right hand, +seizing the closed wings gently, but firmly, near their base, and then +quickly secure the thorax from underneath with thumb and index finger of +the left hand, when the upper as well as the under side becomes +available for inspection. There is no reason whatever to damage the +insects in any way, and those that are not required may be set free +again none the worse for their short detention. Work against the wind, +and to avoid a second interview, turn rejected specimens to the rear. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 108. + +=Chalkhill Blue.= + +_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 109. + +=Chalkhill Blue.= + +1, 2, 8, 10 _male_; 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 _female_.] + + +The Chalk Hill Blue (_Lycæna corydon_). + +Although this butterfly (Plate 109) is, in England, fairly constant in +the matter of colour, and, as regards the male especially, differences +in tint are noticeable when series from various localities are ranged +side by side. Silvery-blue perhaps best expresses the general colour of +the male on the upper surface, sometimes very pale, and sometimes +faintly tinged with greenish. The blackish border on the outer margin of +the fore wings varies in width and in intensity; often there are +indications of eyed spots on this margin, and occasionally these spots +are quite distinct, although the whitish rings are not always clearly +outlined. The black border on the outer margin of the hind wings is +often narrow and external to a series of white-edged black spots, but +sometimes it is broad and obscures the spots; orange markings rarely +appear on this margin, but such aberrations have been taken on the +Dorset coast. The fringes are white chequered with blackish on the fore +wings, but with seeming continuation of the veins through those of the +hind wings. The female is sooty-brown above, with a black discal spot on +the fore wings, and sometimes on the hind wings also, and these spots +may be ringed with blue or bluish-white; the outer marginal borders are +hardly darker, and those on the fore wings are limited by a wavy pale +line, which may be faintly or strongly marked with orange, but orange +marking on these wings is rather the exception than the rule; on the +outer margin of the hind wings there are some black spots, edged +outwardly with white and inwardly with orange. The fringes are white +chequered with brown, and those of the fore wings are tinged with brown. +There are generally some blue scales at the base of the fore wings and +over a larger portion of the basal area of the hind wings, but +occasionally the whole discal area of the hind wings (Fig. 7, Plate +117), or of all the wings, var. _syngrapha_ (Fig. 8, Plate 117), is of +the male colour. The former is from Eastbourne and the latter from +Wiltshire. They are rather uncommon varieties, but intermediate forms +are more often met with in the same localities as well as in other parts +of England where the species occurs. + +On the coast of Dorsetshire a very unusual form occurs. The border of +the outer margin is white instead of the usual black or blackish; the +inner limit of this border is, on the fore wings, defined by a dusky +shade, and the black nervules break up the border into six spots; on the +hind wings four or five of the white spots are centred with black dots. +The female has a similar border, but on the hind wings it is inwardly +edged with orange. It has been named var. _fowleri_, and I have seen one +example of this form without black dots in the marginal white spots of +the hind wings. On the under side variation is on somewhat similar lines +to that adverted to in the last species. On Plate 109, Fig. 8 represents +the typical under side of the male, and Fig. 7 that of the female. It +will be noticed that the male is greyer than the female. Some of the +ordinary aberrations are shown on the same plate, and some rarer ones +will be found on Plate 118, and of these Fig. 12, if without the basal +spot on the fore wings, would represent var. _lucretia_. + +For figures of the early stages see Plate 108; that of the caterpillar +is after Buckler. The egg is flat on the top, with a slightly darker pit +in the centre (the micropyle); the sides are rounded, netted, and +studded, and the colour whitish-green. The above short description was +taken from one of a few eggs of this butterfly sent me in August last by +Mr. Ovenden, and the same egg has been figured. + +Mr. Frohawk has described the egg more fully in the _Entomologist_ for +1900. With reference to the egg-laying of the butterfly he writes: "On +August 13th, 1900, I watched several females in the act of depositing, +on various stems of the usual stunted herbage to be found growing on +chalk downs. They frequently crawled among the plants for a distance of +about a couple of feet, occasionally curving the abdomen downwards among +the small plant-stems and grasses, and here and there depositing an egg. +I therefore dug up portions of the turf, potted it, and placed a couple +of females on each lot; they deposited ova on the 14th and 15th, on the +stems of various plants; a few were laid upon the brown dead trefoil +leaves, as well as on the living leaves; but the site generally chosen +is the intermingled stems of both plants and grasses. Another female, +placed upon a similar pot of plants, deposited about fifty ova on +September 10th, nearly all being placed upon the stems, and a few upon +the under side of the leaves of rock-rose; in all cases the eggs are +deposited singly." + +The caterpillars do not hatch out until the following spring. According +to Buckler and Hellins, the only difference between the caterpillar of +this butterfly and that of the next species, _Adonis_, is that the +latter "has its ground colour deeper green, with the hairs or bristles +black, while _Corydon_ has the ground colour of a lighter, brighter +green (a green with more yellow in its composition), and the hairs light +brown." + +The butterfly is common and often abundant in July and August, chiefly +the latter month, on chalk downs in Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, +Berkshire, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex; it is also found in the Newmarket +district of Cambridgeshire and on one chalk hill in Norfolk, according +to Barrett, who adds: "on the oolite as well as the chalk in Wilts, +Dorset, Gloucestershire, and Somerset; and on limestone at Grange and +Silverdale in North Lancashire, in Lincolnshire, Westmoreland, and +Cumberland. It has also been taken in Essex, Hants, Cornwall, and in one +locality in Glamorganshire." + +Mr. Sydney Webb has stated that a dwarf form occurs pretty regularly in +a valley about two miles east of Dover, but that it only appears to be +found at odd times in other parts of England. + +Abroad, the species is found in Central Europe, also in the Pyrenees, +Aragonia, and the Balkan Peninsula. + + +The Adonis Blue (_Lycæna bellargus_). + +The butterfly on Plate 110 is the Clifden Blue of Moses Harris (1775), +so named because it was said to have been first observed at Clifden in +Bucks. The male is of a beautiful bright blue colour, but as in the same +sex of the previous two species, it is not quite constant in tint. In +some specimens we find a distinct mauve shade, and in others, but more +rarely, the blue colour is tinged with greenish (Plate 118, Fig. 11): +the veins become distinctly black on the outer margins, and appear to +run through the white fringes on all the wings. Often there are black +dots on the outer margin of the hind wings. The female is dark brown, +sometimes slaty-black, with orange spots or crescents on the outer +margins; these are often only faintly in evidence on the fore wings, and +sometimes this is the case on the hind wings also; there is a black +discal spot on the fore wings, and the fringes of all the wings are +white chequered with black. The bases of the wings are powdered with +blue, but this is more noticeable on the hind wings. On the under side +the fore wings of the male are greyish, and the hind wings +greyish-brown; all the wings of the female are brownish, with a faint +grey tinge in some specimens; the ornamentation is very similar to that +of the Common Blue. The two figures on Plate 110, showing specimens with +the wings closed, represent typical male and female, and the other +figures of under sides on this plate exhibit minor aberrations from +typical lines; examples of the more extreme variations will be found on +Plate 118, where also are figured some uncommon aberrations in the +colour of the male on the upper side. + +There is often a tendency in the female to assume the colour of the +male, and this is usually seen on the hind wings, but occasionally on +the fore wings also. In the extreme form of this phase of variation, +var. _ceronus_, the whole of the upper surface, with the exception of +the orange-spotted borders, is almost as blue as that of the male. This +is a parallel aberration to that of the Chalk Hill Blue known as +_syngrapha_, but it seems to be somewhat rarer in this country. + +Figures of the early stages will be found on Plate 111. + +The egg is greenish-white, becoming rather greener in tint towards the +top, which is depressed; the netting is whitish and shining, and +somewhat rougher on the sides than towards and on the top. + +Buckler describes the full-grown caterpillar as deep, full green in +colour, covered with tiny black speckles, bearing little black bristles, +which are longest on the dorsal humps and on the yellow-edged ridge +above the spiracles; on the top of each of the eight pairs of dorsal +humps is a deep bright yellow longitudinal dash, somewhat wider behind +than in front; these dashes form in effect two yellow stripes +interrupted by the deeply sunk segmental divisions; the line along the +back is darker than the ground colour, and the spiracles are black. The +head is dark brown, and there are two yellow dots on the first ring of +the body near the head. + +The chrysalis, when first formed, is greenish-brown with the wing-cases +greenish, the whole afterwards becomes ochreous; the thorax and +wing-cases are rather glossy, and the body is slightly hairy. Buckler +states that some of his caterpillars buried themselves about half an +inch deep in the loose soil, and formed a weak sort of cocoon; others, +not having been supplied with soil that could be so easily penetrated, +retired under the stems of their food-plants, and in angles formed by +the branching stems spun a few weak threads to keep themselves in place. + +The food-plant is the horseshoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_). From eggs +laid in August, the caterpillars appear to hatch towards the end of +September, but do not feed up until the spring. Butterflies from these +caterpillars are on the wing between the middle of May and the middle of +June, thus occupying about nine months in passing through the various +stages from egg to perfect insect. From eggs laid in May and June the +butterflies appear in August and September. Although it is found in +similar kinds of situations to those affected by the last species, and +sometimes on the same grounds, it is more local, and almost confined to +the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. It is, however, rather common +at Ventnor and in some other parts of the Isle of Wight, and is found +near Winchester. Barrett states that it is abundant at Corfe Castle, +Dorset, and gives as localities for the butterfly Wotton-under-Edge, and +near Bristol, near Torquay, Sidmouth, and Seaton. Its range abroad +extends through Central and Southern Europe, to Armenia, Northern Asia +Minor, and Western Kurdistan. It is also found in North-West Africa, +where the males are greenish-blue with conspicuous black spots on the +outer margins of the hind wings; this is the var. _punctifera_. + + +The Holly Blue (_Cyaniris argiolus_). + +About the beginning of the eighteenth century this butterfly (Plate +113) was known as the "Blue Speckt," but Harris, in 1775, changed the +name to the "Azure Blue." The male is a pretty lilac-tinged blue, with a +narrow black edging on the outer margin of the fore wings, often only in +evidence towards the tip, and a narrow black line on the outer margin of +the hind wings. The white fringes of the fore wings are distinctly +marked with black at the ends of the veins. The female is of the same +shade of blue, or sometimes much paler (var. _clara_, Tutt), with a +broad blackish border on the outer margin of the fore wings extending +along the front margin to about the middle; this border varies in width +and seems to be wider in summer specimens than in those of the earlier +flight; the discal mark on the fore wings is black, but this is +sometimes very faint; there is a series of black dots on the outer +margin of the wings. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 110 + +=Adonis Blue.= + +1, 2, 4, 5, 9 _male_; 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 111 + +=Adonis Blue.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] + +Although the colour of the upper side is somewhat like that of the +Common Blue, it should not be confused with that species, as the under +side is very different both as regards the colour, which is +bluish-white, and the arrangement of the black spots. On the outer +margins of the wings in some specimens there are more or less distinct +traces of blackish crescents. + +There is no considerable variation in this species, but the spots on the +under side are subject to slight modification in the matters of size and +shape; the borders also vary in width, and in the female the blue area +is thus sometimes much restricted. A gynandrous specimen has been +recorded, in which the right side is male. + +The egg (Plate 112) is described as whitish or bluish-green in colour. + +The full-grown caterpillar has a blackish head, the body is bright +yellowish-green with paler lines; eight rings from and including the +second are crested with two ridges of humps, between which lies the sunk +dorsal space; the whole skin of the body is velvety, with its surface +thickly covered with yellowish warty granules, each bearing a minute +bristly white hair. Sometimes the humps and the middle of the back are +marked with rose-pink. + +The chrysalis is pale brownish-ochreous with a thin blackish-brown line +on the back of the brown freckled thorax; the body is marked with rather +blotchy arrow-head dashes, and some larger dark brown blotches; the +wing-cases are pale greyish freckled and outlined with brown, their +surface is smooth and rather more glistening than the other parts, which +are thickly studded with fine, short, brownish bristles. (Adapted from +Buckler.) + +The following is a brief summary of a paper by Mr. R. Adkin (_Proc. S. +Lond. Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc._ for 1896), in which he gives a most +interesting account of the earlier stages of the second brood of this +species. + +At the time when the butterflies of the second brood are on the wing, +the flower-buds of the ivy (_Hedera helix_) are still young, and form +compact heads. The butterfly, having selected one of these heads, +settles upon its top, closes her wings over her back, and bending her +abdomen down and round underneath the buds, affixes an egg to the under +side of one of the slender single bud-stalks. In about a week the eggs +hatch. The young larva which in colour matches the buds very closely, +rests on the bud-stalk with its anterior segments, which completely +cover its head, pressed closely against the bud, and looks so exactly +like a slight swelling of the upper part of the stalk as to make +detection a matter of great difficulty, even with the aid of a fairly +powerful lens. The larva is very sluggish in its habits, seldom leaving +the head of the buds on which it is hatched, so long as sufficient food +remains for its nourishment, or occasionally when about to change its +skin. It appears to feed only at night, and its manner of feeding, which +is the same throughout its life, is to eat a round hole through the +outer shell of a bud, and pressing its head forward through it to clear +out the soft inside of the bud. In from four to six weeks it is +full-fed; it then quits the buds, and attaches itself by slender threads +to a leaf, and in a few days becomes a pupa, in which state it passes +the winter. + +Normally the eggs of the spring butterflies are laid on the under side +of the calyces of flower-buds of holly (_Ilex_). The caterpillars feed +on the flower-buds and also on the young green berries. They are full +grown in about a month, change to chrysalids, and the butterflies emerge +in July and August. Among other pabula that have been mentioned are the +flowers of dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), berry-bearing alder (_Rhamnus +frangula_), and spindle (_Euonymus europæus_). + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 112. + +=Holly Blue.= + +_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 113. + +=Holly Blue.= + +1, 2, 6 _male_; 3, 4, 7 _female (spring)_; 5 _male_; 8, 9 _female +(summer)_.] + +In confinement the caterpillars will eat young leaves of holly and +probably of ivy also, but where flower-buds are available they prefer +them and ignore the tender leaves. + +The Rev. Gilbert Raynor, on May 18, 1901, observed a female deposit an +egg on an unopened flower-bud of rhododendron in his garden; and he also +mentions that he beat a number of the caterpillars of all sizes from +holly during the first week of July in the same year. + +Mr. Dennis reported that on October 9, 1902, all stages of the species +were to be found at Earl's Colne, Essex. + +Butterflies of the first flight are usually to be seen in April and May, +and of the second, which is perhaps only partial and may not be +represented at all, in July and August. Specimens have been observed as +early as the last week of March, and, as adverted to above, as late as +October. For a few years in succession the species may become +increasingly numerous, and then suddenly become quite scarce for a year +or two. Most probably this is the result of favourable or unfavourable +weather conditions. + +The taller hollies, where these grow in gardens, open woody places, on +hillsides, or even in hedgerows, are frequented by these butterflies in +the spring; and the ivy-clad walls, etc., are their haunts in the +summer. + +The species is widely distributed, and often common, over the whole of +the south of England and Wales. North of the Midlands, as well as in +Ireland, it is more local, and occurs, I believe, only in the first +brood. Possibly in the South of Ireland there may be a second brood. +Barrett states that there is no reliable record for Scotland. + +Abroad, its range extends throughout Europe and Northern Asia, except +the Polar Regions, to China and Japan. It also occurs in North Africa. + + +The Small Blue (_Zizera minima_). + +The butterfly on Plate 115 is sometimes referred to as the "Bedford +Blue" and also as the "Little Blue." + +Both sexes are blackish, or sooty-brown; the male is powdered, more or +less, with silvery-blue scales. The under side is greyish-white with a +tinge of blue at the base of each wing, but chiefly on the hind pair; +the spots are black encircled with white. As will be seen on turning to +the plate, there is variation in size. Fig. 5 represents a giant race +occurring in some localities, and the particular specimen depicted was +taken, with many others, on the coast near Lymington, Hants; it seems to +be referable to var. _alsoides_, Gerhard. Variation on the under side is +usually in the direction of complete absence of spots, but Mr. Joy has +recorded a specimen with the spots on the hind wings extended into +streaks of considerable but varying length. + +Figures of the early stages will be found on Plate 114. + +The egg is pale greenish in colour, netted with whitish; it is laid in +June on the calyx of a flower-bud, generally low down, of the +kidney-vetch (_Anthyllis vulneraria_). + +According to Buckler, caterpillars hatched on June 21 from eggs laid +between the 16th and 18th of that month, and at once commenced to feed +on the flowers of the kidney-vetch, and made their way to the seed, for +which they evinced a marked preference. When full grown, the caterpillar +is brownish, sometimes tinged with pink. The fine bristles are dark +brown; there is a darker line along the middle of the back, and a line +of dark marks on each side. The head is black and shining. + +The chrysalis is described by Buckler as "dirty whitish-grey, +approaching to drab, palest on the back of the abdomen, greyish on the +head and thorax, both of which are marked with a black dorsal stripe, +which is a little interrupted; on either side is a subdorsal row of +short slanting black dashes. The pale ground colour is sprinkled with +some very minute black specks. The head, thorax, and abdomen are hairy +with bristly whitish hairs." Although the caterpillars feed up rather +quickly and are full grown and apparently ready to assume the chrysalis +state, they do not effect the change until the following May or June. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 114. + +=Small Blue.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 115. + +=Small Blue.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_; 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 _male vars_. + +=Mazarine Blue.= 9, 11 _male_; 10, 12 _female_.] + +The butterfly emerges in about three weeks, so it will be seen that this +species continues the caterpillar existence for something over ten +months. + +On the Continent there are two broods of the butterfly, and in England +there appears to be a partial second flight in some years, as, for +instance, in 1901, when captures in August were reported from Herts, +Kent, Surrey, and Wilts. Its haunts are warm and sunny grassy hollows +and slopes, and it is often common in such places on the chalk hills in +the south, from the end of May to the end of June. According to Barrett +it is scarce in the Eastern Counties; widely distributed but local in +the Midland and Western Counties, even to Devon, and in Wales, where +chalk or limestone is found; also in extremely restricted localities in +Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Durham, and in various places in +Scotland, extending as far north as Aberdeen. In Ireland it is much more +plentiful, especially on the limestone of the west and on the coast +hills near Belfast, and even frequents the sand-hills of the Dublin +coast. + +It is widely spread over Europe, except the Polar parts, and, +apparently, the south of Portugal and Spain; its range extends eastward +to Amurland, Mongolia, and China. + + +The Mazarine Blue (_Nomiades semiargus_). + +The male is dull purplish-blue, narrowly bordered with blackish on the +outer margin; the female is dark brown. On the underside both sexes are +pale greyish-brown, with a bluish tinge at the base; there is a black +discal spot and a series of black spots beyond, all ringed with white. + +The egg is described as being white in colour and small, and round in +shape. + +The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish-green, with darker lines on the +back and sides; there are fine hairs on the body, and the head and +spiracles are dark brown (Rühl). + +It feeds in July and August on the flowers and seeds of thrift (_Armeria +vulgaris_), kidney-vetch (_Anthyllis vulneraria_), and melilot +(_Melilotus officinalis_). + +The chrysalis is rather oval in shape, pale olive-green in colour when +first formed, in September, but olive-brown later; it is attached by the +tail to a stalk of the food-plant and has a silken girdle (Rühl). + +This butterfly (Plate 115) is the _cymon_ of Lewin, who, writing in +1795, considered it very rare. In 1828 Stephens refers to it as scarce +and local, "found in chalky districts in Norfolk, Cambridge, Yorkshire, +and Dorsetshire; also near Brockenhurst and Amesbury, Hants; and on +Windlesham Heath, Surrey, towards the end of May and of July." Newman +(1871) adds Warwickshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire, Monmouthshire, +Glamorganshire, Somersetshire, and Lincolnshire. Curtis gives +Leicestershire and Worcestershire. It seems to have been fairly common, +and even plentiful in some years around Glanville's Wotton, Dorset, but +has not been seen in that district since 1841; at Wotton-under-Edge, +Gloucester, it was not uncommon up to 1858; as late as 1864 it occurred +at Epworth, North Lincolnshire. Probably the latest captures in Britain +were the specimens taken in Glamorganshire in the years 1874-77. Tutt +mentions that the butterfly was taken near Cuxton in Kent, some +thirty-five years ago, but it has not since been seen in that locality. + +Occurs in May and June and again in July and August over the greater +part of Europe; its range extends to Asia Minor, and eastward to +Siberia, Mongolia, and Amurland. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 116. + +=Large Blue.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 117. + +=Large Blue.= 1, 5 _male_; 2, 3, 4, 6 _female_. + +=Chalkhill Blue vars.= 7 _female_; 8 _do. var. syngrapha_.] + + +The Large Blue (_Nomiades arion_). + +The butterfly on Plate 117, Figs. 1-6, is the largest "Blue" found in +this country. All the wings on the upper side are deep blue, and their +outer margins are bordered with blackish; the discal spot, and a row of +spots beyond, are black; the hind wings have a row of black dots on the +outer margin, and sometimes, and especially in the female, there is a +series of black dots just beyond the central area; the fringes are +white. The under side is greyish tinged with blue towards the base of +each wing, but covering nearly the whole of the basal third of the hind +pair; the spots are black ringed or edged with white; on the fore wings +there are two in the discal cell and a row of six beyond; on the hind +wings there are four or five before the discal spot, and a series of +seven beyond; all the wings have a double marginal series, and some +black dots at the ends of the nervules. Sometimes the wings have a +purplish tinge, and this is more usually so in Gloucestershire +specimens. The chief variation is in the number and the size of the +spots; these are occasionally only faintly in evidence, but more rarely +perhaps those beyond the discal spot on the fore wings are of large size +and bar or wedge-like in shape; the smaller cell-spot is often absent. A +dwarf form is stated to occur at times in all localities. + +The complete life-history of this species has yet to be ascertained; no +one seems to be acquainted with the caterpillar after hibernation. +Pretty much all that is known of the early stages has been worked out by +Mr. Frohawk, who has published some very interesting accounts of his +observations in the _Entomologist_ for 1899 and 1903, and from these the +following details have been obtained. + +The egg (Plate 116) is bluish-white in colour, and is laid singly among +the buds of wild thyme (_Thymus serpyllum_). + +Caterpillars hatched on July 10 from eggs received the previous day; +they were placed upon thyme blossoms and soon commenced to feed, one +being observed to eat its way into the base of the calyx so that the +forepart of the caterpillar was hidden. In its colouring and downy +covering the caterpillar so closely resembles the flower-buds of the +thyme that it is very difficult to detect. After the third moult (July +26) the colour is a uniform, dull, ochreous-pink; there are four rows of +long curved hairs, each row composed of a single hair on each ring from +the fourth to the ninth inclusive; the first three rings have each a set +of three subdorsal hairs, those on the first ring curving forwards; the +bases of the hairs resemble glass-like pedestals with fluted sides. The +head is ochreous with dark brown markings in front. The caterpillar at +this stage develops an aversion to thyme or any other plant offered to +it, and seems to be anxious to hide itself in the ground. + +The chrysalis, which is figured on Plate 116 (after Frohawk), is +ochreous when first formed, but becomes darker gradually; the +wing-cases, however, remain of the original colour, but their hind +margins darken. From a chrysalis found on July 12 the butterfly emerged +on July 16. + +There is some evidence in favour of the supposition that this +caterpillar is in some way dependent upon ants for nourishment after the +third moult, if not before, but what the exact requirement may be is not +known. Probably the circumstances connected with the discovery of the +chrysalis in 1905 by Messrs. Frohawk & Rayward may afford a valuable +clue to the direction in which their future investigation will have to +be conducted. We may hope, therefore, that the mystery that has so long +hung over the last stages of the caterpillar will be solved before very +long. + +Lewin (1795) and Donovan (1796) both refer to this as a rare English +butterfly. The former states that it is on the wing in July, and is +found on high chalky lands in different parts of the kingdom, having +been taken on the cliffs in the neighbourhood of Dover, Marlborough +Downs, the hills near Bath, and near Clifden in Bucks. + +Stephens, in 1828, wrote of it as "an insect of great rarity." He +mentioned the localities given by the older authors, and added that it +had been taken in the Mouse's Pasture, near Bedford, in rocky situations +in North Wales, and had been plentiful near Winchester. + +Newman (1871) wrote, "Its 'metropolis,' if I may borrow an expression +from the revered fathers of British entomology, is in South Devon; it +has occurred in some abundance in Somersetshire, and on the Cotswold +Hills in Gloucestershire; from Gloucestershire we ascend to a Midland +county, Northamptonshire, in which county (at Barnwell Wold) a +considerable number have been taken." One specimen was reported from +Charmouth in Dorsetshire, and the butterfly has also been recorded from +Herefordshire, but these are matters of ancient history. At the present +time the species is only to be found in limited numbers in the +Cotswolds; it seems to have become much rarer than formerly in its South +Devon locality, _i.e._ Bolthead, near Plymouth; one never hears of it +now from Clovelly, in North Devon, where, according to Dale, it was once +reported to be abundant. In 1891 Messrs. Waterhouse obtained a fine +series of specimens in West Cornwall, and since that time the district +has been annually visited by an increasing number of entomologists. +Judging from the "big bags" that are made each year it would seem that +the butterfly has a very strong and widely distributed settlement in +those parts. + +Abroad it is distributed throughout Europe, except the Polar and the +south-western parts, and is also found in Armenia, Bithynia, and South +Siberia. + + * * * * * + +Our next species belongs to the Nemeobiinæ, a sub-family of Lemoniidæ = +Erycinidæ. Only one member of the family is known to occur in Europe; +this is _Nemeobius lucina_. + +As the fore legs of the male butterfly are aborted, and are therefore +useless for walking, the species would seem to come near the Nymphalidæ, +in which the fore legs of the butterflies, in both sexes, are reduced. +In its early stages, however, the species seems to be most nearly +related to the Lycænidæ. + + +The Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (_Nemeobius lucina_). + +This butterfly is figured on Plate 120. The male is black, with three +transverse tawny bands on the fore wings; these are crossed by the black +veins, and so form series of irregular spots. Those on the outer margin +have black centres; on the hind wings there are three or four tawny +spots on the disc, and a series of black centred tawny spots on the +outer area. The female is similar to the male, but the tawny markings +are wider, so that the fore wings appear to be of this colour, with a +black patch at the base, two black irregular lines, and a series of +black spots on the outer margin. On the under side of the hind wings +there are two transverse series of whitish spots, and a series of black +spots on the outer margin. The wings of this sex are always broader than +those of the male, and the apex of the fore wings is not so distinctly +pointed. Variation is not usually of a very pronounced character, and in +a general way it consists mainly in a greater or lesser amount of black +in the male, and this more particularly on the hind wings, and an +increase in the tawny colour in the female; in the latter sex, outer +marginal black spots are sometimes absent from all the wings. Barrett +mentions two extreme aberrations. In one, a female, the usually dark +spaces, bands, and veins are of an exceedingly pale brown, suffused with +fulvous, so as to be comparatively indistinct; another example, a male, +has the basal area of the fore wings pale, and the first transverse dark +band absent. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 118. + + 1, 3 =Common Blue vars.=, _male_; 6 _do. female_. + 2, 5, 8, 11 =Adonis Blue vars.=, _male_; 4, 7, _do. female_. + 9, 10 =Chalkhill Blue vars.=, _female_; 12 _do. male_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 119. + + 1, 2, 3 =Small Copper vars.=; 4 =Adonis Blue var.= + 5 =Common Blue var.=; 6, 7, 8 =Gatekeeper vars.=] + +The eggs of this species are to be found at the end of May on the +under sides of the leaves of the cowslip (_Primula veris_), sometimes as +many as ten on one leaf, but as a rule there will only be one or two on +a plant. When laid, the egg is very glassy in appearance, but it +gradually turns to a pinkish-grey; and when the caterpillar is formed +inside, the shell becomes transparent, and its occupant can be clearly +seen. It eats a considerable portion of the shell in making its exit +therefrom, and afterwards consumes the remainder of the shell. When in +its last skin the caterpillar is brown, covered with short whitish hair, +among which are some longer dark brown or blackish hairs; the lines on +the back and sides are blackish, and there are black dots on the front +part of each segment or ring. Head, honey brown, notched on the crown; +eyes and jaws, brownish. It feeds from June to August on cowslip, but +will also eat primrose (_Primula vulgaris_), and hides among dead and +withered leaves beneath the food-plant (Plate 121). + +The chrysalis is pale whity-brown, hairy above, with black dots; head +and the upper edge of the wing-cases streaked with black. + +Occasionally a few butterflies emerge in August, but they usually remain +in the chrysalis until May or June. + +This is a woodland species, and prefers the sunny but sheltered nooks +and glades, but also resorts to the broader rides and pathways. Flowers +do not seem to have any strong attraction for it, but it may often be +seen sitting on the foliage of a bush or sapling tree. It appears to be +pretty widely distributed, although to a certain extent local, +throughout the southern half of England, but seems to have almost or +quite disappeared from the counties of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and +Essex. Dumfries is the only locality in Scotland from which it has been +reported. + +Its distribution abroad is limited to Central Europe, Denmark, Livonia, +Southern Sweden, Central Spain, North Italy, and the Balkans. + +Now follow the Skippers (Hesperiidæ), of which kind of butterfly we have +eight species in England. Of these the first two belong to the +Hesperiinæ and the others to the Pamphilinæ. + + +The Grizzled Skipper (_Hesperia malvæ_). + +The wings of the butterfly figured on Plate 122 are blackish, ornamented +with numerous white spots, which are more or less square in shape, on +the fore wings. The fringes are chequered black and white. + +The male differs from the female in having the front edge of the fore +wings folded towards the base, and these wings have scattered greyish +scales on the basal area; the central series of spots on the hind wings +are also more in evidence, and not infrequently unite and become +band-like. Variation consists in modification of the markings, chiefly +in a tendency of the spots to run together, culminating in var. _taras_, +Bergstr., in which the white spots of the fore wings are confluent and +form a large blotch. This variety was figured by Petiver in 1717, but +was not named by Bergsträsser until 1780. Haworth described it as +_lavateræ_, and Newman figured it under the same name. + +On a small plant of Alpine strawberry, sent by the Rev. Gilbert Raynor, +were three eggs of this butterfly. These were pale green in colour, +ribbed, and delicately netted with cross-lines. On June 26, three +caterpillars were noticed on the upper side of the leaves, each on a +separate leaf, and under cover of a few coarse silken threads. They were +pale steely-grey, with black heads, and plates on the first and last +segments of the body. + +As the supply of strawberry foliage was failing, the caterpillars +were given bramble on July 21, and the next day each was found enclosed +in a sort of envelope formed of a bramble leaf. They were then seemingly +in their last skin, whitish-green in colour, and covered with short +whitish hair; a whitish edged dark olive-brown line along the back, and +similar lines on the sides; between the rings the colour was pale +ochreous. The date of pupation was not noted, but on September 9, one of +the spun-together bramble leaves was opened, and a chrysalis found +within. This was pale brown, with dark brown or blackish marks along the +back and sides; the head and back were covered with dense pale +reddish-brown bristles; the wing, leg, and antennæ cases were greenish, +smooth, and shaded with brownish. Between the head and first ring of the +body above there was a deep furrow, with a black-centred white spot on +each side of it (Plate 123). + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 120. + +=Duke of Burgundy Fritillary.= 1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5 _female_. + +=Milkweed Butterfly.= 6 _male_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 121. + +=Duke of Burgundy Fritillary.= + +_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +Besides the plants adverted to above, the caterpillars will eat +raspberry (_Rubus idæus_) and cinquefoil (_Potentilla fragariastrum_ and +P. _reptans_). + +The butterfly is pretty generally distributed in Great Britain, but does +not seem to be common in Ireland, as Kane only mentions two examples, +from Killarney. It is found in May and June on chalk downs and other +hillsides, especially in the hollows and sheltered nooks, also in and +around woods, and in rough fields. On dull days and at night it may be +found sitting, with the wings erect over the back, on various +seed-heads, etc. + +The species is double brooded on the Continent, and occasionally a few +butterflies will appear in August, but such emergences depend on a +combination of favourable circumstances. In very forward seasons it has +been seen on the wing during the last week in April. + +Its range extends over Europe and into Northern Asia. + + * * * * * + +As Barrett refers to the capture in Norfolk (May or June, 1860) of +several specimens of the Central and South European species, _H. +alveus_, Hüb., it maybe well to mention it here, if only for the purpose +of quoting his remarks thereon. After detailing the facts connected with +the occurrence, he states, "It seems undesirable now to introduce the +species to a place in the British list, but rather to record the +captures in question as specimens accidentally introduced with plants, +or else the result of a very exceptional act of migration." + + +The Dingy Skipper (_Thanaos tages_). + +The wings are fuscous, with darker fuscous transverse bands on the +middle third of the fore wings; the space between these is sometimes, +and in both sexes, whitish; there are some whitish spots on the outer +band, usually towards the costa, but occasionally on the middle also, +and a series of white points on the outer margin of all the wings. The +hind wings have a whitish discal dot and a band beyond the middle, which +is almost parallel with the outer margin. The male has a well-marked +fold on the costa (Plate 122). + +The egg is whitish-green when freshly laid; it afterwards changes in +colour to orange. The caterpillar is yellowish-green with a darker line +along the back and a paler line on each side; the spiracles are red and +edged with whitish. The head is pale brown, striped and marked with +purplish-black. The body, together with the head, is covered with a +short whitish pile. It feeds on bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus +corniculatus_) from June until August, when it hibernates. I have not +seen the chrysalis, but it has been described as dark green with the +body tinged with rosy red. + +The butterfly is on the wing in May and June; in some seasons it has +been seen as early as the end of April. Very occasionally, perhaps, +there is a partial second flight in August. It has been reported as +plentiful at Lyme Regis in August. + +I took one or two specimens about the middle of August, 1903, in the +New Forest district, and in the same month of 1905 one of two +caterpillars sent to me by Dr. Chapman pupated in August, and the +butterfly emerged some time in the autumn, as I found it dead in the box +early in October. Both the caterpillars had spun together sprays of the +food-plant as shown in the figure, Plate 123. One was removed for its +portrait to be taken, and it was supposed that the other bundle +contained a caterpillar also, and was not examined. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 122. + +=Grizzled Skipper.= + +1, 2, 7 _male_; 4, 5, 8 _female_; 3 _var. male_; 6 _do. female_. + +=Dingy Skipper.= + +9, 10, 12 _male_; 11, 13, 14 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 123. + +=Dingy Skipper.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and its shelter._ + +=Grizzled Skipper.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and shelter; chrysalis +in cocoon._] + +The butterfly affects open places in, or the edges of, woods in chalky +districts, also the slopes of chalk downs and other hillsides, as well +as railway banks and even rough fields. It evidently delights in +sunshine, and may often be seen basking on a stone or the bare earth. +When at rest at night or on dull days it sits on a dead seed-head or +grass glume, with the wings closed down over its back like a noctuid +moth, and is then difficult to detect until the eye becomes accustomed +to its appearance. It is widely distributed in Great Britain, but it is +more at home on chalk and limestone than elsewhere. In such localities +as the fens of Norfolk and Cambridge it is scarce, and seems to have a +rather limited distribution in Ireland, in which country Galway is its +headquarters, according to Kane. + +Abroad, it is found throughout Europe, and its range extends to Western +Asia. + + +The Small Skipper (_Adopæa thaumas_). + +All the wings are brownish-orange, with the veins darker and becoming +black towards the outer margins, especially on the fore wings. The male +has a black sexual mark (Plate 125). + +Except that the colour varies in the direction of a pale golden tint +there is little in the way of aberration in this butterfly. At least one +gynandrous specimen has been recorded. + +The following descriptions of the early stages (Plate 124), as well as +the figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis, are from Buckler's +"Larvæ of British Butterflies":-- + +The egg "is of a long oval figure, half as long again as wide, the +shell glistening, devoid of ribs or reticulation; at first white, then +turning dull yellowish, and at last paler again, with the dark head of +the caterpillar showing through. The young caterpillar eats part of the +empty egg-shell." + +The full-grown caterpillar is of a delicate light green, the stripe +along the back is rather bluish-green, with paler green central and side +lines; the spiracles are flesh-coloured, and below these there is a +somewhat creamy-white stripe. The head is deeper green than the body, +and roughened with minute points. It feeds in June on _Holcus lanatus_, +_Brachypodium sylvaticum_, and probably other kinds of soft grasses, and +its assimilation, both in colour and texture, with the blades of grass +is remarkable. Before changing to the chrysalis it encloses itself +within two or sometimes three leaves of the grass, joined together +longitudinally by lacing or spinning with white silk, the edges more or +less close to each other, and becomes completely hidden. + +The chrysalis is secured in the silken chamber, head upward, by an +oblique cincture behind the thorax, and the anal tip fastened by a +fan-like spread of fine hooks at the extremity fixed in the silk. The +colour is similar to that of the caterpillar, and the lines are fairly +in evidence. Caterpillars that spun up on June 18 to 23 produced +butterflies on July 15 and 16. + +Hellins states that eggs were laid in a row in a folded blade of grass +about July 29, and that the caterpillars hatched out on August 12. + +According to Hawes, the caterpillar of this species does not hatch from +the egg until the following spring. + +Although it does not seem to be very plentiful in fenlands, this +butterfly certainly has a partiality for damp places, whether in the +rides, or on the sides of woods, on hill slopes, or waste ground. +Wherever there is a fairly large growth of the taller soft grasses that +the caterpillars feed upon, there the butterfly may be found in July and +August throughout the greater part of England and Wales. Reported from +the Edinburgh district in Scotland; and in Ireland from Powerscourt and +near Cork. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 124. + +=Small Skipper.= + +_Caterpillar and chrysalis._ + +=Essex Skipper.= + +_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar._ + +=Lulworth Skipper.= + +_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 125. + + =Small Skipper.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_. + =Essex Skipper.= 5, 7 _male_; 6, 8 _female_. + =Lulworth Skipper.= 9, 11 _male_; 10, 12 _female_.] + + +The Essex Skipper (_Adopæa lineola_). + +This butterfly is very like the Small Skipper, but may be separated from +it, in both sexes, by the black under sides of the knobs of the antennæ. +The black sexual mark in the male is finer, shorter, and much less +oblique (Plate 125). + +The egg (Plate 124) is pale greenish-yellow, oval in shape, flattened +above and below; the top is slightly depressed. The eggs are deposited +in July or August, in dried grass seed-heads and inside the sheath of a +leaf, and the caterpillars, according to Hawes, do not hatch until +April. + +The caterpillar is green, with the incisions between the rings +yellowish; there is a darker green stripe on the back, and the lines on +the sides are yellow. The head is pale brown and striped with darker +brown. It feeds from April to June on coarse grasses, such as _Triticum +repens_. When full grown "it spins together the stems of the grass low +down, with a network of white silk for pupation" (Hawes). The chrysalis +is described as being long, yellowish-green in colour, and retaining the +dark dorsal stripe seen in the caterpillar. + +No doubt this butterfly has been with us all the time, but it appears +to have escaped detection until the year 1888, when Mr. Hawes, in July +of that year, met with it in Essex. He, however, did not then consider +the three specimens that he had taken with _A. thaumas_ anything more +than queer varieties of that species, and it was not until January, +1890, that the fact of _A. lineola_ being British was published. Since +that time this Skipper has been found in a great many parts of Essex, +but chiefly along the coast, and in such localities as Benfleet, Canvey, +Dovercourt, Shoeburyness, Southend, etc. At Hadleigh it is often very +abundant. Other localities are Sheerness, Cliffe, and Gravesend, in +Kent. It has also been reported from near Sudbury, and from Harwich, and +Chappel in Suffolk; from Ashton Wold in Northamptonshire. In 1898 five +specimens, identified by the Rev. Gilbert Raynor, were taken near +Bedford. Barrett, who mentions Wicken Fen and Burwell among other +localities, says that it has a "partiality for the embankments which +protect the cultivated land from the inroad of the high tides which +flood the salt marshes. Here it flits about, or sits on the coarse +seaside grasses or on blossoms of thistle, or _Lotus corniculatus_, +indicating rather sluggish habits, yet flying swiftly when disturbed. +Further inland it seems to frequent chalky hillsides and marshes." It is +on the wing in July and August. + +The species is found in all parts of the Palæarctic Region except the +most northern and the Canary Isles. + + +The Lulworth Skipper (_Adopæa actæon_). + +Compared with the other two species on Plate 125, the coloration of this +butterfly is somewhat dingy; it is, however, enlivened, especially in +the female, by a short dash and a curved series of orange spots in the +upper half of the fore wings. The male has a black sexual mark which is +very similar to that of the Small Skipper. There seems to be very little +to note in variation, except that the orange markings referred to are +subject to modification, and in the male may be altogether absent. An +example taken at Swanage, in 1903, had the wings on the left side male, +and those on the right side female. + +The egg, figured, from a photograph, on Plate 124, is whitish, faintly +tinged with yellowish. + +The mature caterpillar is pale greyish, or yellowish, green, with the +dorsal vessel darker, and edged with a slender pale yellow line on +either side, and enclosing a pale longitudinal line along its middle. A +narrow yellowish line runs above on the side and a broader one below. +The two dorsal lines are prolonged as far as the middle of the head, and +run to the end of the flat anal shield, which is narrowly edged with +pale yellow. The head is greenish with two yellowish lines. The two +snow-white patches on the under side of the ninth and tenth rings of the +body are conspicuous as in _lineola_, _sylvanus_, and _comma_. This +white substance is spread out at the tail end of the caterpillar of +_actæon_, when it has formed its chrysalis case (Zeller). + +Buckler, referring to four caterpillars found on _Brachypodium +sylvaticum_, June 11, states that they completed their growth on a diet +of _Triticum repens_. They ate out wedge-shaped portions from the sides +of the grass blades, and when they had finished their repast, they +crawled down to the middle of the blade, and there spun a coating of +white silk from one side to the other, causing the two edges of the +blade to draw together a little, and then in the silk-lined hollow they +rested until hunger obliged them to ascend the blade again for another +meal. About June 23 they had ceased to feed, and were beginning to +fasten themselves within more closely constructed retreats, formed where +two blades of grass obliquely crossed each other. The colour of the +chrysalis is similar to that of the caterpillar, and the lines are +faintly traceable. The butterflies appeared July 14 to 18, emerging at +night, and ready for flight in the morning. + +This insect received its English name in 1832, when it was first +discovered in this country at Lulworth Cove, in Dorsetshire. It has +since been found to occur at Durdle Cove, and the Burning Cliff, +Weymouth, and the latter locality appears to be its most eastern limit. +Its range extends westward along the coast of Dorsetshire and Devonshire +to Sidmouth, Seaton, and Torquay; and there are records of its having +been observed in Cornwall. According to Mr. E.R. Bankes, as quoted by +Barrett, this butterfly is not confined to the coast line in Dorset, but +is to be found in two or three spots along the chalk range of the +Purbeck Hills, at a distance of four or five miles from the sea. He also +states that the species is only single brooded, that the best time for +it is from the beginning of July to the middle of August, and that the +food-plant of the caterpillar is _Brachypodium pinnatum_. + +The blossoms of rest-harrow (_Ononis arvensis_) are said to be the +particular vanity of the butterfly, and it is seldom found visiting any +other flower. Abroad the species is not especially attached to the +sea-coast, but occurs inland throughout Central and Southern Europe, its +range extending to Asia Minor and Syria, and also to North-West Africa. + + +The Large Skipper (_Augiades sylvanus_). + +The male has the discal area of the fore wings bright fulvous, and the +outer area broadly brown; the sexual mark is black; the hind wings are +tinged with fulvous on the disc, and have brighter fulvous spots. The +female is brown with a fulvous discal wedge on the fore wings, and an +angulate series of fulvous spots beyond; hind wings as in the male, but +spots rather more defined. In some examples of this sex the spots on the +fore wings are confluent, and the discal area is then fulvous as in the +male (Plate 126). + +The egg is whitish or greenish-white, and is laid on a blade of grass. +Hellins states that from eggs laid about July 1 the caterpillars hatched +on July 13; they chose cocks-foot grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) for food, +and rested in the middle of a blade, fastening its edges across with +five or six distinct little ropes of white silk. + +The young caterpillar figured on Plate 127 was on September 11 about +half an inch in length, and had been removed from the grass tube, also +shown, to be figured; the head was then pale brown, bordered and lined +with purplish brown; the body was darkish green, paler on the last ring, +and with darker lines on the back and sides. After hibernation (the +figure of this stage of the caterpillar is from Buckler), in May, the +caterpillar is about one inch long, pale green in colour; the skin is +thickly covered with very short dark brown bristles, "the head dirty +white with a dark brown stripe down the outer edge of each lobe, the +neck whitish-green" (Hellins). + +The chrysalis was formed in the grass cocoon shown with it. The general +colour was brown with the wing-cases darker, and a darker suffusion on +the back. + +The egg-laying of this butterfly has been observed by Mr. Ullyett, who +states that the female, having selected a suitable grass-stem, deposits +eggs in a line in a sheath formed by the leaf round the stem. The +caterpillars hibernate in tubes of grass, and feed up in the spring. + +This butterfly has been supposed to be double brooded, but there does +not seem to be any direct evidence that this is so. It is on the wing in +grassy places on the slopes of downs and other hillsides, also in rides, +and on the margins of woods, from early June until well into July, and +sometimes even later in the year. It is found in most of our English +counties, and also in Scotland, south of the Forth. In Ireland it is not +uncommon in a meadow in Lord Kenmare's demesne, Killarney, and has been +recorded from the Morrough of Wicklow. + +Abroad its distribution extends through Europe and Northern Asia to +China and Japan, and also to North Africa. + + +The Silver-spotted Skipper (_Augiades comma_). + +This butterfly is very similar on the upper side to the Large Skipper, +but the spots, especially those nearest the front edge of the fore +wings, are yellower. On the under side the greenish tinge of the ground +colour, and the silvery spots, make the identification quite easy. The +black sex mark in the male is very similar to that of the last species +(Plate 126). + +The males vary a little in the width of the marginal border, and in some +females there is almost as much fulvous on the discal area of the wings +as in the male; in the darkest females the spots always appear paler +than in fulvous specimens. On the under side the ground colour is +sometimes olive-brown rather than green. + +The following account of the life-history of this butterfly is adapted +from Mr. Frohawk's article on the subject published in the +_Entomologist_ for 1901:-- + +In August, whilst watching some of the butterflies on the wing over a +patch of chalky ground covered with a short dense growth of various +grasses, etc., he noted a female hovering close over the plants. +Presently it settled on a tuft of hair grass (_Aira cæspitosa_), and +after walking over and among it a little time, she curved her abdomen +down, and deposited a single egg on one of the fine hair-like blades, +or, rather, spines, and close by, within an inch, another egg was found. +Afterwards some plants of this grass were potted up, and some females +placed on them. These deposited a large number of eggs upon the +grass-stems and blades. + +The egg when newly laid is pearl white with the slightest +yellowish-green tinge, which very gradually turns deeper in colour, +assuming a pale straw-yellow on the sixth day, and so it remains until +January, when it becomes paler. + +The caterpillar hatches out at the end of March or early in April. It +does not eat the empty egg-shell, but directly after leaving the egg it +starts spinning the fine grass together into a somewhat dense cluster an +inch or two above the ground. In this compact shelter the larva lives +and feeds upon the grass surrounding it, remaining almost always +completely hidden. Sometimes as many as three or four live together. +When full grown and about one hundred days old, the caterpillar is of a +dull olive-green colour, with a black collar on the first ring, and the +entire surface densely sprinkled with minute shining black warts, each +emitting a tiny amber-coloured spine with a cleft knobbed apex. The head +is blackish marked with ochreous lines. It still resides in a tube of +grass spun closely together, and feeds on any other kind of grass that +happens to be interwoven with the _Aira_. Just before pupation the +caterpillar often crawls restlessly about, but in some instances it does +not leave its place of feeding, and spins a strong, coarse network +cocoon among the grass close to the ground, weaving the gnawed loose +pieces of grass with the fine stems and blades, and therein pupates +during the latter part of July. + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 126. + + =Large Skipper.= 1, 3, _male_; 2, 4 _female_. + =Silver-Spotted Skipper.= 5, 7 _male_; 6, 8 _female_. + =Chequered Skipper.= 9, 10 _male_; 11 _female_.] + +[Illustration: _Pl._ 127. + +=Large Skipper.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars, chrysalis and cocoon._ + +=Silver-spotted Skipper.= + +_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar._ + +=Chequered Skipper.= + +_Egg enlarged and caterpillar._] + +The chrysalis is secured in the cocoon by hooks at the tail and by +hooked bristles on the head; the head and thorax are pale olive mottled +with blackish; the body olive, spotted with dark olive, and inclining to +yellow on the ventral surface; below each spiracle is a short +longitudinal mark; the spiracles are amber-brown. + +The butterfly is to be found in August on most of our chalk hills, but +has not been recorded from either Scotland or Ireland. + +It is a very quick flyer and difficult to capture when on the wing, but +it is fond of sitting on low-growing thistles, and is then sometimes +easy to take. Abroad it occurs throughout Europe and Northern Asia to +China and Japan. + + +The Chequered Skipper (_Carterocephalus palæmon_). + +The well-defined yellow or orange spots on the blackish-brown ground +colour distinguish this butterfly from all other British Skippers. + +The variation is only of a minor kind, and chiefly in the direction of +an increase or a decrease in the number and the size of the spots. +Occasionally those on the central area of the fore wings are much +enlarged and more or less confluent; and the spots on the outer margin +of the hind wings are sometimes very small or entirely absent. + +The following particulars of the early stages are abstracted from Mr. +Frohawk's life-history of the species (_Entomologist_, 1892):-- + +Living females received in June were placed on a growing plant of brome +grass (_Bromus asper_), and a few eggs were deposited, some upon the +blades of grass, others upon the gauze-covered glass jar in which the +plant was placed; they were laid singly, firmly adhering to whatever +laid upon. The first lot of eggs were deposited on June 14. The egg has +a pearly appearance, being whitish or yellowish-white in colour. Ten +days after the egg is deposited the young caterpillar emerges by eating +away the crown. Soon after hatching out the young caterpillar makes a +little tubular dwelling, drawing together the edges of the grass-blade +by spinning about three or four stout cords of silk, which quickly +contract, causing the edges to draw together, and sometimes to overlap, +forming a compact short tube; generally before spinning it nibbles off +the extreme edge of the blade where the silk is afterwards attached. It +feeds upon the blade both above and below its abode, devouring so much +that frequently only the midrib of the blade remains, and the tube only +just long enough to conceal it; it then shifts its quarters, and +prepares a new home. + +On October 3, when one hundred and one days old, the caterpillar was +pale primrose-yellow, and the stripes of a slightly darker hue, the +white lateral line showing clearly, and spiracles brownish; the head +pale buff with a faint lilac tinge, with a black patch above the mouth +and brownish at the sides. In the previous stage the caterpillar was +whitish-green with a rather dark green line along the middle of the +back, this line bordered on each side by an almost white, very fine +line, followed by alternate darker and lighter lines, the lightest being +extremely fine; "then a subdorsal darker green line, bordered laterally +by a conspicuous whitish line, which is again bordered below by a paler +and indistinct green line, and a very faint spiracular whitish stripe, +on which the spiracles are placed; they are white, outlined by a dark +but indistinct ring; the under surface is whitish-green." + +About the middle of October the hibernaculum was formed by spinning two +blades of grass together at the edges, so making a tube, in which the +caterpillar remained during the winter. On March 21 it left its retreat, +but did not seem to feed, and generally remained quiet, lying along a +grass-blade. On April 3 "it had drawn together with silk six blades of +grass at the ends, forming a tent-like structure, and along the surface +of one of the broadest a little carpet of silk was spun, upon which it +rested with its head uppermost; a silk cord also encircled its body +round the fourth segment." It assumed the chrysalis state on April 8, +and had then passed two hundred and eighty-nine days in the caterpillar +condition. The chrysalis measures five-eighths of an inch in length, is +fairly cylindrical, but tapering to the tail. "Dorsal view: the head is +pointed in front in the form of a short conical beak; the eyes are +rather prominent; the thorax is swollen in the middle, the widest part, +and then gradually tapers towards the last segment, which is elongated +and flattened. Lateral view: the beak is slightly upturned, the thorax +convexed, and the segment next to the thorax is rather swollen in the +middle, so forming a rather decided depression at the base of the +thorax, where the silken cord passes round; the body gradually tapering +to the last segment, which terminates in a long compressed curved +process furnished with long hooks; the wing-cases extend down two-thirds +its length, and only very little, if at all, swollen; the antennæ and +legs are but feebly modelled; the tongue is well defined, it is dusky at +the base, blending into black at the apex; the colour is of a very pale +primrose-yellow, shading into pearly grey, and semi-transparent on the +head, wings, and flap; a dark medio-dorsal line commences at the base of +the beak, and passes down the entire length, gradually fading off in the +anal extremity; it is blackest on the head and first abdominal segment, +and palest on the thorax, where it is light brown; there are two +rust-red subdorsal lines, which run parallel from the base of the +antennæ to the last segment; another similar line, united along the +inner margin of the wing, passes over two spiracles, and then runs +parallel with the subdorsal lines.... The antennæ and wings are faintly +outlined with dusky brown. In general appearance and colouring the pupa +closely resembles a piece of dead withered grass." + +A female butterfly emerged on May 20, the transformation from egg to +perfect insect thus occupying about eleven months. This local butterfly +is on the wing in June; sometimes it is seen in the latter part of May, +and, more rarely perhaps, in July. + +This species appears to have been first noticed as an inhabitant of +Britain in 1798, in which year specimens were taken in Clapham Park +Wood, Bedfordshire, by Dr. Abbott, who, four years later, also reported +the butterfly from White Wood, Gamlingay, Cambridgeshire. In 1823 it was +found to occur at Castor Hanglands, near Peterborough; and in 1841 +Doubleday met with it, in large numbers, in Monk's Wood, +Huntingdonshire. Among other localities from which it has been reported +are Ropsley Wood, near Grantham, Notts, and Wychwood Forest, +Oxfordshire. + +In its special localities, which, at the present time, are chiefly the +larger woods in Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Buckinghamshire, it +frequents the flowers of ground ivy (_Nepeta glechoma_) and of the bugle +(_Ajuga reptans_). + +Abroad it is locally common in various parts of Central Europe; also +occurs in Finland, Central and Northern Russia, Dalmatia, Piedmont, and +in Labrador, and other parts of North America. + + + + +A CLASSIFIED LIST OF THE BRITISH BUTTERFLIES + + + =Papilionidæ.= + + PAPILIONINÆ + + Papilio machaon + + PIERINÆ + + Aporia cratægi + + Pieris brassicæ + " rapæ + " napi + " daplidice + _Pontia daplidice_ + + Euchloë cardamines + + Leucophasia sinapis + _Leptidia sinapis_ + + Colias hyale + _Eurymus kirbyi_ + + Colias edusa + _Eurymus hyale_ + + Gonepteryx rhamni + _Colias rhamni_ + + + =Nymphalidæ.= + + APATURINÆ + + Apatura iris + + NYMPHALINÆ + + Limenitis sibylla + _Limenitis camilla_ + + Polygonia c-album + _Grapta c-album_ + + Vanessa polychloros + _Eugonia polychloros_ + + Vanessa urticæ + _Aglais urticæ_ + + Vanessa io + " antiopa + _Euvanessa antiopa_ + + Pyrameis cardui + " atalanta + + Argynnis paphia + " adippe + " aglaia + " lathonia + " euphrosyne + _Brenthis euphrosyne_ + + Argynnis selene + _Brenthis selene_ + + Melitæa athalia + " cinxia + " aurinia + + DANAINÆ + + Anosia plexippus + + SATYRINÆ + + Melanargia galatea + + Erebia epiphron + _Melampias epiphron_ + + Erebia æthiops + + Satyrus semele + _Hipparchia semele_ + + Pararge egeria + " megæra + _Satyrus megæra_ + + Epinephele ianira + _Epinephele jurtina_ + + Epinephele tithonus + + Aphantopus hyperanthus + _Hipparchia hyperanthus_ + _Enodia hyperanthus_ + + Coenonympha typhon + _Coenonympha tiphon_ + + Coenonympha pamphilus + + + =Lycænidæ.= + + LYCÆNINÆ + + Zephyrus betulæ + _Thecla betulæ_ + + Zephyrus quercus + _Thecla quercus_ + + Thecla pruni + " w-album + + Callophrys rubi + _Thecla rubi_ + + Chrysophanus dispar + _Polyommatus dispar_ + _Lycæna dispar_ + + Chrysophanus phlæas + _Polyommatus phlæas_ + _Lycæna phlæas_ + + Lampides boeticus + _Lycæna boeticus_ + + Cupido argiades + _Lycæna argiades_ + + Lycæna argus + _Lycæna ægon_ + _Plebeius argus_ + + Lycæna astrarche + _Lycæna agestis_ + + Lycæna icarus + _Plebeius alexis_ + _Polyommatus icarus_ + + Lycæna corydon + _Polyommatus corydon_ + + Lycæna bellargus + _Lycæna adonis_ + _Polyommatus thetis_ + + Cyaniris argiolus + + Zizera minima + _Lycæna minima_ + + Nomiades semiargus + _Lycæna acis_ + _ " semiargus_ + + Nomiades arion + _Polyommatus arion_ + _Lycæna arion_ + + + =Lemoniidæ.= + + NEMEOBIINÆ + + Nemeobius lucina + + + =Hesperiidæ.= + + HESPERIINÆ + + Hesperia malvæ + + Thanaos tages + _Nisoniades tages_ + + PAMPHILINÆ + + Adopæa thaumas + " lineola + " actæon + + Augiades comma + _Erynnis comma_ + + Augiades sylvanus + + Carterocephalus palæmon + _Pamphila palæmon_ + + + + +INDEX. + +* Species so marked in this Index are _reputed_ British. + + + Adonis Blue, 170. _Plates_ 110, 111, 119 + + _Adopæa actæon_, 190, _Plates_ 124, 125; + _lineola_, 189, _Plates_ 124, 125; + _thaumas_, 187, _Plates_ 124, 125 + + Ammonia jar, 19 + + Androconia, 14 + + Angles of wings, 12. Fig. 9 + + _Anosia menippe_, 106; + _plexippus_, 106, _Plates_ 72, 120 + + Antennæ, 4, 9 + + _Apatura iris_, 56, _Plates_ 28, 29, 31; + var. _iole_, 57, _Plate_ 31 + + _Aphantopus hyperanthus_, 130, _Plates_ 88, 89; + var. _arete_, 131; + var. _cæca_, 131, _Plate_ 89; + var. _lanceolata_, 131; + var. _obsoleta_, 131 + + _Aporia cratægi_, 32. _Plates_ 4, 5 + + _Argynnis adippe_, 87, _Plates_ 53, 54, 57; + var. _cleodoxa_, 88; + var. _locuples_, 89; + _aglaia_, 89, _Plates_ 55, 59, 61; + var. _charlotta_, 90; + _euphrosyne_, 94, _Plates_ 56, 64, 65; + _lathonia_, 91, _Plates_, 58, 63; + _niobe_,* 88; _paphia_, 84, _Plates_ 50, 51, 52, 57; + var. _valesina_, 84, Plates 52, 57; + _selene_, 96, _Plates_ 56, 62, 66 + + Armature, 2 + + "Arran Brown," 117 + + _Augiades comma_, 193, _Plates_ 126, 127; + _sylvanus_, 192, _Plates_ 126, 127 + + + Bath White, 41. _Plates_ 12, 14 + + Benzine, 28 + + Black Hairstreak, 143. _Plates_ 96, 97 + + Black-veined White, 32. _Plates_ 3, 4 + + Bloxworth Blue, 156, _Plates_ 102, 103 + + Board for Flat-setting, 22. Figs. 15-17 + + Brace and Band Modes of Setting, 24. Fig. 20 + + Brimstone, 54. _Plates_ 25, 26 + + Brown Argus, 161. _Plates_ 104, 105 + + " Hairstreak, 138. _Plates_ 94, 95 + + + _Callophrys rubi_, 147. _Plates_ 96, 97 + + Camberwell Beauty, 73. _Plates_ 41, 42, 43 + + _Carterocephalus palæmon_, 195. _Plates_ 126, 127 + + Caterpillar stage, 2 + + Chalk Hill Blue, 127. _Plates_ 108, 109, 117 + + Chequered Skipper, 195. _Plates_ 126, 127 + + Chloroform Bottle, 19 + + Chorion, 1 + + Chrysalis, 6 + + _Chrysophanus dispar_, 148, _Plates_ 98, 99; + var. _rutilus_, 149; + _circe_,* 152; + _dorilis_,* 152; + _gordius_,* 152; + _hippothoë_,* 152; + _phlæas_, 152, _Plates_ 100, 101, 119; + var. _eleus_, 152; + var. _schmidtii_, 152, _Plate_ 101; + var. _hypophlæus_, 154; + _virgaureæ_,* 152 + + Classification, x + + Clouded Yellow, 51. _Plates_ 22, 23, 24 + + Clubs of Antennæ, 9. Fig. 7 + + _Cænonympha pamphilus_, 136, _Plates_ 92, 93, var. _lyllus_, 136; + var. _ocellata_, 137, Plate 92; + _typhon_, 132, _Plates_ 90, 91, 92; + var. _davus_, 133; + var. _laidion_, 133; + var. _philoxenus_, 133; + var. _rothliebii_, 133; + var. _scotica_, 133 + + _Colias edusa_, 51, _Plates_ 22, 23, 24; + var. _helice_, 52, _Plate_ 24; + _hyale_, 48, _Plates_ 20, 21 + + Collecting, 16 + + Comma, the, 62. _Plates_ 32, 35 + + Common Blue, 163. _Plates_ 106, 107, 118, 119 + + Compound Eye, 9 + + Cremaster, 6. Fig. 5. + + _Cupido argiades_, 156, _Plates_ 102, 103; + var. _comyntas_, 158; + var. _polysperchon_, 158 + + Cyanide Bottle, 19 + + _Cyaniris argiolus_, 172. _Plates_ 112, 113 + + + Dark Green Fritillary, 89. _Plates_ 55, 59, 61 + + Dehiscence, 7 + + Dimorphism, viii + + Dingy Skipper, 186. _Plates_ 122, 123 + + Drying House, 26 + + Duke of Burgundy, 182. _Plates_ 120, 121 + + + Ecdysis, 5 + + Egg-stage, 1 + + Emergence of a Butterfly, 7 + + _Epinephele ianira_, 125, _Plates_ 84, 85; + _jurtina_, 125; + _tithonus_, 127, _Plates_ 86, 87, 119; + var. _albida_, 128, _Plate_ 119; + var. _mincki_, 128 + + _Erebia æthiops_, 113, _Plates_ 76, 77; + var. _obsoleta_, 114; + var. _ochracea_, 114; + _blandina_, 113; + _epiphron_, 111; + var. _cassiope_, 111, _Plates_ 76, 77; + var. _obsoleta_, 112; _ligea_,* 117 + + Essex Skipper, 189. _Plates_ 124, 125 + + _Euchloë cardamines_, 43, _Plates_ 15, 17; + var. _hesperidis_, 44 + + Eyes or Ocelli, 4 + + + False legs of caterpillar, 4. Fig. 2A + + Feelers, 4, 9 + + Feet, 3 + + + Gatekeeper, 127. _Plates_ 86, 87, 119 + + Glanville Fritillary, 101. _Plates_ 65, 69, 71 + + + _Gonepteryx rhamni_, 54. _Plates_ 25-27 + + Grayling, 117. _Plates_ 78, 79 + + Green Hairstreak, 147. _Plates_ 96, 97 + + Green-veined White, 38. _Plates_ 10, 13, 14 + + Grizzled Skipper, 184. _Plates_ 122, 123 + + Gynandromorphism, viii + + + Head of Butterfly, 8, Fig. 6; + of Caterpillar, 4, Fig. 3 + + Heath Fritillary, 98. _Plates_ 67, 68 + + Hermaphrodite, viii + + _Hesperia alveus_, 185; + _malvæ_, 184, _Plates_ 122, 123; + var. _lavateræ_, 184; + var. _taras_, 184 + + Heterocera, vii + + High Brown Fritillary, 87. _Plates_ 53, 54, 57 + + Holly Blue, 172. _Plates_ 112, 113 + + Horns, 9 + + + Instar, 5 + + + Killing, 18 + + Kite net, 7. Fig. 13 + + + Labium, 4 + + Labrum, 4 + + _Lampides boeticus_, 154. _Plates_ 102, 103 + + Large Blue, 179. _Plates_ 116, 117 + + " Copper, 148. _Plates_ 98, 99 + + " Heath, 132. _Plates_ 90, 91, 92 + + " Skipper, 192. _Plates_ 126, 127 + + Large Tortoiseshell, 65. _Plates_ 34, 36 + + " White, 34. _Plates_ 5, 6, 9 + + _Leucophasia sinapis_, 46, _Plates_ 16, 18, 19; + var. _diniensis_, 46; + var. _erysimi_, 46; + var. _lathyri_, 46 + + _Limenitis sibylla_, 59, _Plates_ 30, 31, 33; + var. _nigrina_, 59, _Plate_ 31 + + Lingua, 4 + + Long-tailed Blue, 154. _Plates_ 102, 103 + + Lulworth Skipper, 190. _Plates_ 124, 125 + + _Lycæna adonis_, 170; + _ægon_, 158; + _argus_, 158, _Plates_, 104, 105; + _astrarche_, 161, _Plates_ 104, 105; + var. _artaxerxes_, 161; + var. _salmacis_, 161; + var. _quadripuncta_, 162; + _bellargus_, 170, _Plates_ 110, 111, 119; + var. _ceronus_, 170; + _corydon_, 167, _Plates_ 108, 109, 117, 118; + var. _fowleri_, 168; + var. _lucretia_, 168; + var. _syngrapha_, 168, _Plate_ 118; + _icarus_, 163, _Plates_ 106, 107, 118, 119; + var. _arcua_, 164; + var. _coerulea_, 164; + var. _icarinus_, 164; + var. _melanotoxa_, 164 + + Mandibles, 4, 10 + + Marbled White, 109. _Plates_ 74, 75 + + Margins of Wings, 12. Fig. 9 + + Marsh Fritillary, 103. _Plates_ 65, 70, 73 + + Marsh Ringlet, 132 + + Maxillæ, 4, 10 + + Mazarine Blue, 177. _Plate_ 115 + + Meadow Brown, 125. _Plates_ 84, 85 + + _Melanargia galatea_, 109. _Plates_ 74, 75 + + _Melitæa athalia_, 98; _Plates_ 67, 68; + var. _corythalia_, 98; + var. _eos_, 99; + var. _navarina_, 98; + var. _niphon_, 100; + var. _obsoleta_, 98; + var. _pyronia_, 99; + var. _tessellata_, 99; + _aurinia_, 103; _Plates_, 65, 70, 73; + var. _præclara_, 104; + var. _scotica_, 104; + _cinxia_, 101, _Plates_ 65, 69, 71 + + Micropyles, 1 + + Milkweed Butterfly, 106. _Plates_ 72, 120 + + Monarch Butterfly, 107 + + Mould and Mites, 28 + + Moulting, 5 + + Naphthaline, 27, 28 + + _Nemeobius lucina_, 182. _Plates_ 120, 121 + + Nervures and Nervules, 13 + + Nets, 16 + + Nomenclature, x + + _Nomiades arion_, 179, _Plates_ 116, 117; + _semiargus_, 177, _Plate_ 115 + + + Ocelli, 4 + + Orange-tip, 43. _Plates_ 15, 17 + + + Painted Lady, 78. _Plates_ 44, 45, 49 + + Pale Clouded Yellow, 48. _Plates_ 20, 21 + + Palpi, 5, 10 + + _Papilio machaon_, 29. _Plates_ 1, 2 + + _Pararge egeria_, 120; + var. _egerides_, 120, _Plates_ 80, 81; + _megæra_, 122, _Plates_ 82, 83 + + Peacock, 70. _Plates_ 39, 40, 41 + + Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 94. _Plates_ 60, 64, 65 + + _Pieris brassicæ_, 34, _Plates_ 5, 6, 9; + var. _chariclea_, 34, _Plate_ 6; + _daplidice_, 41, _Plates_ 12, 14; + _napi_, 38; _Plates_ 10, 13, 14; + var. _bryoniæ_, 40; + var. _flava_, 39; + var. _napææ_, 40; + var. _orientis_, 41; + var. _sabellicæ_, 39; + var. _rapæ_, 36, _Plates_ 7, 8, 11; + var. _metra_, 37; + var. _novangliæ_, 37 + + Pinning, 20; + Pinning stage, 21, Fig. 14 + + Pins, 21 + + Plumules, 14 + + _Polygonia c-album_, 62, _Plates_ 32, 35; + var. _hutchinsoni_, 63, _Plate_ 35 + + Proboscis, 4, 9 + + Prolegs, 2 + + Purple Emperor, 56. _Plates_ 28, 29, 31 + + Purple Hairstreak, 141. _Plates_ 96, 97 + + _Pyrameis atalanta_, 81, _Plates_ 46-49; + var. _klemensiewiczi_, 82; + _cardui_, 78, _Plates_ 44, 45, 49; + _huntera_,* 81; + _virginiensis_,* 81 + + + Queen of Spain, 91. _Plates_ 58, 63 + + + Rearing from the Egg, 28 + + Red Admiral, 81. _Plates_ 46-49 + + Rhopalocera, vii + + Ringlet, 130. _Plates_ 88, 89 + + + Saddles, 24. Fig. 18 + + _Satyrus semele_, 117. _Plates_ 78, 79 + + Scales, 13. Fig. 10 + + Scotch Argus, 113. _Plates_ 76, 77 + + Seasonable Dimorphism, viii + + Segments, 2 + + Setting, Methods of, 22-24 + + Sexual Dimorphism, viii + + Silver-studded Blue, 158. _Plates_ 104, 105 + + Silver-washed Fritillary, 84, _Plates_ 50, 51 + + Small Blue, 176. _Plates_ 114, 115 + + " Copper, 152. _Plates_ 100, 101, 119 + + " Heath, 136. _Plates_ 92, 93 + + " Mountain Ringlet, 111. _Plates_ 76, 77 + + " Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 96. _Plates_ 56, 62, 66 + + " Skipper, 187. _Plates_ 124, 125 + + " Tortoiseshell, 68. _Plates_ 37, 38 + + " White, 36. _Plates_ 7, 8, 11 + + Speckled Wood, 120. _Plates_ 80, 81 + + Spinnerets, 4 + + Spiracle, 3 + + Stadium, 5 + + Subsegments, 3 + + Swallow-tail, 29. _Plates_ 1, 2 + + + Thanaos tages, 186. _Plates_ 122, 123 + + _Thecla ilicis, spini_,* 147; + _pruni_, 143, _Plates_ 96, 97; + _w-album_, 144, _Plates_ 94, 95; + var. _butlerowi_, 145 + + Thoracic legs, 2 + + Tracheæ, 3 + + Tubercles, 2 + + + Vanessa _antiopa_, 73, _Plates_ 41, 42, 43; + var. _hygiæa_, 73; + var. _lintneri_, 73; + _io_, 70, _Plates_ 39, 40, 41; + var. _belisaria_, 71, _Plate_, 41; + var. _cyanosticta_, 71; + _polychloros_, 65, _Plates_ 34, 36; + var. _testudo_, 66; + _urticæ_, 68, _Plates_ 37, 38; + var. _ladakensis_, 69; + var. _polaris_, 69 + + Venation, 12. Fig. 9 + + + Wall, The, 122. _Plates_ 82, 83 + + White Admiral, 59. _Plates_ 30, 31, 33 + + White-letter Hairstreak, 144. _Plates_ 94, 95 + + Wings, 11. Fig. 9 + + Wood White, 46. _Plates_ 16, 18, 19 + + + _Zephyrus betulæ_, 138. _Plates_ 94, 95; + var. _pallida_, 139; + var. _spinosa_, 139; + _quercus_, 141, _Plates_ 96, 97; + var. _bella_, 141 + + _Zizera minima_, 176. _Plates_ 114, 115 + + +THE END. + + * * * * * + + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's notes: | + | | + | Fixed various punctuation. | + | P. 71. 'wing' changed to 'wings'. | + | P. 137. 'emergencies' changed to 'emergences'. | + | P. 168. 'localties' changed to 'localities'. | + | P. 197. 'next to the thorax'. Added 'to'. | + | Emphasis Notation: _Italic_ and =Bold=; | + | Mathematical Notation: Whole and Fractional Part: 3-5/8. | + +--------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Butterflies of the British Isles, by +Richard South + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43713 *** |