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diff --git a/43713-8.txt b/43713-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 6429dca..0000000 --- a/43713-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8774 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's The Butterflies of the British Isles, by Richard South - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Butterflies of the British Isles - -Author: Richard South - -Release Date: September 13, 2013 [EBook #43713] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Jane Robins, Anna Whitehead and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - - - UNIQUE AND POPULAR WORKS FOR ALL - NATURE LOVERS. - - _Uniform with this Volume._ - - * * * * * - - Wayside and Woodland - Blossoms - - A Pocket Guide to British Wild Flowers - for the Country Rambler. - - (_First and Second Series._) - - With Clear Descriptions of 760 Species. - - BY - - EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. - - And Coloured Figures of 257 Species by - MABEL E. STEP. - - * * * * * - - Wayside and Woodland - Trees - - A Pocket Guide to the British Sylva. - - BY - - EDWARD STEP, F.L.S. - - With 127 Plates from Original Photographs by - HENRY IRVING, - - And 57 Illustrations of the Leaves, Flowers and Fruit by - MABEL E. STEP. - - * * * * * - - AT ALL BOOKSELLERS. - - _Full Prospectuses on application to the Publishers_-- - - FREDERICK WARNE AND CO. - - LONDON: 15, Bedford Street, Strand. - NEW YORK: 36, East 22nd Street. - - - - - THE WAYSIDE - AND WOODLAND - SERIES - - - THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE - BRITISH ISLES - - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 1. _Frontispiece._ Swallow-tail Butterfly. _Male -and female, with caterpillars and chrysalids._] - - - - - THE BUTTERFLIES - - OF THE - - BRITISH ISLES - - - BY - - - RICHARD SOUTH, F.E.S. - - - EDITOR OF - - "THE ENTOMOLOGIST," ETC. - - WITH - - ACCURATELY COLOURED FIGURES - OF EVERY SPECIES AND MANY VARIETIES - ALSO DRAWINGS OF EGG, CATERPILLAR - CHRYSALIS, AND FOOD-PLANT - - LONDON - FREDERICK WARNE & CO. - AND NEW YORK - 1906 - - (_All rights reserved_) - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Few things add more enjoyment to a country ramble than a knowledge of -the many and varied forms belonging to the animal and vegetable kingdoms -that present themselves to the notice of the observing wayfarer on every -side. - -Almost every one admires the wild flowers that Nature produces so -lavishly, and in such charming variety of form and colour; but, in -addition to their own proper florescence, the plants of woodland, -meadow, moor, or down have other "blossoms" that arise from them, -although they are not of them. These are the beautiful winged creatures -called butterflies, which as crawling caterpillars obtain their -nourishment from plant leafage, and in the perfect state help the bees -to rifle the flowers of their sweets, and at the same time assist in the -work of fertilization. - -It is the story of these aërial flowers that we wish to tell, and hope -that in the telling we may win from the reader a loving interest in some -of the most attractively interesting of Nature's children. - -There are many people, no doubt, who take an intelligent interest in -the various forms of animal life, and yet do not care to collect -specimens because, as in the case of butterflies for instance, the -necessity arises for killing their captives. Such lovers of Nature are -quite satisfied to know the names of the species, and to learn something -of their life-histories and habits. Still, however, there are others, -and possibly a larger number, who will desire to capture a few specimens -of each kind of butterfly for closer examination and study. It is -believed that this little volume will be found useful to both sections -of naturalists alike. - -The author in preparing the book has been largely guided by a -recollection of the kind of information he sought when he himself was a -beginner, now some forty odd years ago. - -In conclusion, he desires to tender his most sincere thanks to the -undermentioned gentlemen, who so kindly furnished him with eggs, -caterpillars, and chrysalids; or favoured him with the loan of some of -their choicest varieties of butterflies for figuring; without their -valued assistance many of the illustrations could not have been -prepared:--Rev. Gilbert Raynor, Major Robertson, Messrs. F. Noad Clark, -T. Dewhurst, C.H. Forsythe, F.W. Frohawk, A.H. Hamm, A. Harrison, H. -Main, A.M. Montgomery, E.D. Morgan, G.B. Oliver, J. Ovenden, G. Randell, -A.L. Rayward, E.J. Salisbury, A.H. Shepherd, F.A. Small, L.D. Symington, -A.E. Tonge, B. Weddell, F.G. Whittle, and H. Wood. - -_Varieties_--Messrs. R. Adkin, J.A. Clark, F.W. Frohawk, and E. Sabine. - -With kind permission of the Ray Society, figures of the following larvæ -and pupæ have been reproduced from Buckler's "Larvæ of British -Butterflies":--_P. daplidice_, _C. edusa_, _M. athalia_, _P. c-album_, -_S. semele_, _A. hyperanthus_, _C. typhon_, _C. pamphilus_, _C. rubi_, -_C. argiolus_, _A. thaumas_, _A. actæon_. Larva only--_L. sinapis_, _A. -selene_, _A. aurinia_, and _T. pruni_. - -Figures of _A. cratægi_, _A. lineola_, and _C. palæmon_ have been made -from preserved skins. - -For coloured plates, 1, 30, 42, 48, 58, 66, 98, 100, 112, 116, 118, and -the accurately drawn black-and-white figures, including enlargements, -the author is greatly indebted to Mr. Horace Knight. - - - - -INTRODUCTORY. - - -Butterflies belong to the great Order of insects called Lepidoptera -(Greek _lepis_, a scale, and _pteron_, a wing), that is, insects whose -wings are covered with minute structures termed scales. Moths -(Heterocera) also belong to the same order, and the first point to deal -with is how may butterflies be distinguished from moths? In a broad kind -of way they may be recognized by their horns (_antennæ_), which are -slender as regards the shaft, but are gradually or abruptly clubbed at -the extremity. For this reason they were designated Rhopalocera, or -"club horned," the Heterocera being supposed to have horns of various -kinds other than clubbed. As a matter of fact this method of separating -moths and butterflies does not hold good in dealing with the Lepidoptera -of the world, and it is from a study of these, as a whole, that -systematists have arrived at the conclusion that there is no actual line -of division between moths and butterflies. In modern classification, -then, butterflies are reduced from the rank of a sub-order, which they -formerly held, and are now dovetailed into the various newer systems of -arrangement between certain families of moths. - -As regards British butterflies, however, it will be found that these -may be known, as such, by their clubbed horns. Only the Burnets among -British moths have horns in any way similar, and these are thickened -gradually towards the extremity rather than clubbed. Day-flying moths, -especially the bright-coloured ones, might be mistaken for butterflies -by the uninitiated, but in all these the horns will be found not at all -butterfly-like. - -Although varieties of the species will be referred to in the descriptive -portion of the book, a few general remarks on variation in butterflies -may here be made. All kinds are liable to vary in tint or in the -markings, sometimes in both. Such variation, in the more or less -constant species especially, is perhaps only trivial and therefore -hardly attracts attention. In a good many kinds variation is often of a -very pronounced character, and is then almost certain to obtain notice. -Except in a few instances, where the aberration is of an unusual kind, -it is possible to obtain all the intermediate stages, or gradations, -between the ordinary form of a species and its most extreme variety. A -series of such connecting links in the variation of a species is of -greater interest, and higher educational value, than one in which the -extremes alone have a place. - -In those kinds of butterflies that attain the perfect state twice in the -year, the individuals composing the first flight are somewhat different -in marking from those of the second flight. Such species as the large -and small whites exhibit this kind of variation, which is termed -seasonal dimorphism. The males of some species, as for example the -Common Blue and the Orange-tip, differ from the females in colour; this -is known as sexual dimorphism. The Silver-Washed Fritillary, which has -two forms of the female, one brown like the male, the other green or -greenish in colour, is a good example of dimorphism confined to one sex. -Gynandrous specimens, sometimes called "Hermaphrodites," are those which -exhibit both male and female coloration, or other wing characters; when -one side is entirely male and the other side entirely female, the -gynandromorphism would be described as complete. - -The ornamentation on the under side of a butterfly differs from that of -the upper side, and is found to assimilate or harmonize in a remarkable -manner with the usual resting-place. It is therefore of service to the -insect when settled with wings erect over the back, in the manner of all -butterflies, except some few kinds of Skippers. - -The number of known species of butterflies throughout the world has been -put at about thirteen thousand, and it has been suggested by Dr. Sharp -that there may be nearly twice as many still awaiting discovery. Dr. -Staudinger in his "Catalog" gives a list of over seven hundred kinds of -butterflies as occurring in the whole of the Palæarctic Region. This -zoological region embraces Europe, including the British Islands, Africa -north of the Atlas range of mountains, and temperate Asia, including -Japan. The entire number of species that can by any means be regarded as -British does not exceed sixty-eight. Even this limited total comprises -sundry migratory butterflies, such as the Clouded Yellows, the Painted -Lady, the Red Admiral, the Camberwell Beauty, and the Milkweed -Butterfly; and also the still less frequent, or perhaps more accidental -visitors, the Long-tailed Blue and the Bath White. Again, the Large -Copper is now extinct in England, and the Mazarine Blue does not seem to -have been observed in any of its old haunts in the country for over -forty years. The Black-veined White is also scarce and exceedingly -local. - -The majority of the remaining fifty-seven butterflies may be considered -natives, and of these about half are so widely distributed that the -young collector should, if fairly energetic, secure nearly all of them -during his first campaign. The other species will have to be looked for -in their special localities, but a few kinds are so strictly attached to -particular spots, that a good deal of patience will have to be exercised -before a chance may occur of obtaining them. - -A few remarks may here be made in reference to the names and arrangement -adopted in the present volume. - -As will be adverted to in the descriptive section, the English names of -our butterflies have not always been quite the same as those now in -general use. There has, however, been far less stability in scientific -nomenclature, and very many changes in both generic and specific names -have been made during the past twenty years, more especially perhaps -within the last decade. - -Genera are now founded by some specialists on characters which formerly -served to distinguish one species from another, whilst other authorities -merge several genera in one upon certain details of structure that are -common to them all. - -Patient research into the entomological antiquities has revealed much -important material, some of which may furnish a new interpretation of -the Linnean classification of Lepidoptera. - -The discovery of the earliest Latin specific name bestowed upon an -insect, is a labour which entails a large expenditure of time and -requires fine judgment. Great credit is therefore due to those who -undertake such investigations, the result of which may tend to the -establishment of a fixed nomenclature in the, probably not remote, -future, although it sadly hampers and perplexes students in the -meanwhile. - -All things considered then, it has been deemed advisable not to make -many changes in specific names, and to retain the old genera as far as -possible. The arrangement of families, genera, etc., will be found to -accord with that most generally accepted both in England and on the -continent. - - - - -THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES. - - - - -PART I. - -THE LIFE CYCLE OF A BUTTERFLY. - - -As is the case with all other Lepidoptera, butterflies pass through -three very distinct stages before they attain the perfect form. These -stages are:--1. The egg (_ovum_, plural _ova_). 2. The caterpillar -(_larva_, _larvæ_). 3. The chrysalis (_pupa_, _pupæ_). The perfect -insect is called the _imago_ (plural _imagines_). - - -The Egg. - -Butterfly eggs are of various forms, and whilst in some kinds the -egg-shell (_chorion_) is elaborately ribbed or fluted, others are simply -pitted or covered with a kind of network or reticulation; others, again, -are almost or quite smooth. If the top of an egg, such as that of the -Purple Emperor (Plate 28), is examined under a good lens a depression -will be noted, and in this will be seen a neat and starlike kind of -ornamentation. In the middle of this "rosette" are, present in all eggs, -minute apertures known as micropyles (little doors), and it is through -these that the spermatozoa of the male finds entry to the interior of -the egg and fertilization is effected. The changes that occur in the egg -after it is laid are of a very complex nature, and readers who may -desire information on this subject are referred to Sharp's "Insects," -Part I., in the "Cambridge Natural History," where also will be found -much interesting and instructive matter connected with the caterpillar -and chrysalis, to which stages only brief reference can here be made. - - -The Caterpillar. - -The second stage is that of the caterpillar, and in some species, such -as the Red Admiral, this is of very short duration, a few weeks only, -whilst in others, as for example the Small Blue, it usually lasts for -many months. There is considerable diversity both in the shape and, -where it is present, in the hairy or spiny clothing (_armature_) of -caterpillars. All, however, are alike in one respect, that is the body -is divided into thirteen more or less well-defined rings (_segments_), -which together with the head make up fourteen divisions. In referring to -these body-rings, the first three nearest the head, each of which is -furnished with a pair of true legs (_thoracic legs_), are called the -thoracic segments, as they correspond to the thorax of the perfect -butterfly. The remaining ten rings are the abdominal segments; the last -two are not always easily separable one from the other, and so for all -practical purposes they may be considered only nine in number. These -nine rings, then, correspond to the abdomen of the future butterfly. The -third to sixth of this series have each a pair of false legs -(_prolegs_), and there is also a pair on the last ring; the latter are -the anal claspers. - -The warts (_tubercles_) are the bases of hairs and spines, and are to be -seen in most butterfly caterpillars, but they generally require a lens -to bring them clearly into view. These warts are usually arranged in two -rows on the back (_dorsal series_) and three rows on each side (_lateral -series_). - -All the various parts referred to, or to be presently mentioned, may be -seen in Fig. 1, which also shows a peculiarity that is found in very -young caterpillars of the Orange-tip, and in some others of the "Whites" -(_Pieridæ_). The odd thing about this baby caterpillar is that the fine -hair arising from each wart is forked at the tip (Fig. 1, _a_), and -holds thereon a minute globule of fluid. When the caterpillars become -about half grown these special hairs are lost in a general clothing of -fine hair. Fig. 1, _b_, represents a magnified single ring of the -caterpillar, and this shows a spiracle and the folds of the skin -(_subsegments_). The manner in which such folding occurs is to be -observed in the higher study of larval morphology. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. - -Young caterpillar of Orange-tip highly magnified. - -(_After Sharp._)] - -On each ring, except the second (including now the three thoracic with -the nine abdominal; and so making twelve rings), the third, and the -last, there is an oval or roundish mark which indicates the position of -the breathing hole (_spiracle_). Through these minute openings air -enters to the breathing tubes (_tracheæ_), which are spread throughout -the interior of the caterpillar in a seemingly complicated kind of -network of main branches and finer twigs; air is thus conveyed to every -part of the body. In the event of one or two air-holes becoming in any -way obstructed, the caterpillar would possibly be none the worse; but if -all the openings were closed up effectually, it would almost certainly -die. Total immersion in water, even for some hours, is not always fatal. - -Turning again to the "feet" of the caterpillar, it will be seen from -the figure that the true legs (_a_) differ from the false legs (_b_) in -structure. The former are horny, jointed, and have terminal claws; the -latter are fleshy, with sliding joints, and the foot is furnished with a -series of minute hooks which enable the caterpillar to obtain a secure -hold when feeding, etc. The false legs are also the chief means of -locomotion, as the true legs are of little service for this purpose. The -true legs, however, appear to be of use when the caterpillar is feeding, -as the leaf is held between them so as to keep it steady whilst the jaws -are doing their work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. - -(_a_) True and (_b_) false legs.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. - -_a_, labrum; _b_, mandible; _c_, antenna; _d_, ocelli; _e_, maxilla; -_f_, labium; _g_, spinneret; _h_, labial palp.] - -In the accompanying figure of the head of a caterpillar the mouth parts -are clearly shown. The biting jaws (_mandibles_) are slightly apart, -above them is seen the upper lip (_labrum_), and below them is the under -lip (_labium_ or _lingua_). The _maxillæ_ are very tiny affairs, but -they should be noted because in the butterfly they become the basal -portions of the two tubes which, when united together, form the sucking -organs (_proboscis_). The eyes, or ocelli as they are termed, are -minute, and are said to be of slight use to the caterpillar as organs of -sight, so that it probably has to depend on its little feelers -(_antennæ_) for guidance to the right plants for its nourishment. -Attention should also be given to the spinneret, as it is by means of -this that the silken threads, etc., for its various requirements are -provided; the substance itself being secreted in glands placed in the -body of the caterpillar. The palpi are organs of touch, and seem to be -of use to the caterpillar when moving about. - -Immediately after hatching, many caterpillars eat the egg-shell for -their first meal; they then settle down to the business of feeding and -growing. It should be remembered that it is entirely on growth made -whilst in the caterpillar stage that the size of a butterfly depends. In -the course of a day or two the necessity arises for fasting, as -moulting, an important event, is about to take place. Having spun a -slender carpet of silk on a leaf or twig, the caterpillar secures itself -thereto, and then awaits the moment when all is ready for the -transformation to commence. After a series of twistings from side to -side and other contortions, the skin yields along the back near the -head, the head is drawn away from its old covering and thrust through -the slit in the back, the old skin then peels downwards whilst the -caterpillar draws itself upwards until it is free. The new skin, -together with any hairs or spines with which it may be clothed, is at -first very soft. In the course of a short time all is perfected, and the -caterpillar is ready to enter upon its second stage of growth. At the -end of the second stage the skin-changing operation is again performed, -and the whole business is repeated two or more times afterwards. -Finally, however, when the caterpillar has shed its skin for the last -time, the chrysalis is revealed, but with the future wings seemingly -free. These, together with the other organs, are soon fixed down to the -body by the shell, which results from a varnish-like ooze which covers -all the parts and then hardens. - -Generally speaking, newly hatched caterpillars, though of different -kinds, are in certain respects somewhat alike, but the special -characters of each begin to appear, as a rule, after the first change of -skin (_ecdysis_), and these go on developing with each successive stage -(_stadium_) until the caterpillar is full grown. The form assumed in -each stage is termed the _instar_, therefore a caterpillar just from the -egg would be referred to as in the first instar; between the first and -second changes of skin, as in the second instar, and so on to the -chrysalis, which in the case of a caterpillar that moulted, or changed -its skin, four times before attaining full growth, would be the sixth -instar, and the butterfly would then be the seventh instar. In practice, -however, it is usually the stages of the caterpillar alone that are -indicated in this way. - - -The Chrysalis. - -The term _chrysalis_ more especially applies to such of them as are -spotted or splashed with metallic colour, as, for example, the -chrysalids of some of the Fritillaries. The scientific term for the -chrysalis is _pupa_, which in the Latin tongue means "a doll or puppet." - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. - -Caterpillar of Small White, about to change to chrysalis.] - -In passing to the chrysalis stage the caterpillars have sometimes to -make rather more preparations than in previous skin-changing provisions. -Those of the Swallow-tail, Whites, Orange-tip, and similar kinds have to -provide a silken girdle for the waist as well as a pad for the tail. -Chrysalids that hang suspended, head downwards, such as the Vanessids, -Fritillaries, etc., are attached by the cremaster--a hooked arrangement -on the tail (Fig. 5)--to a pad of silk; others, such as the Blues and -the Coppers, appear to be held in position on a leaf, or some other -object, by means of a fine girdle of silk, or sometimes a few silken -threads spread net-like above and below them--rudiments of a cocoon in -fact. Chrysalids of the Skippers are enclosed in a more or less complete -cocoon placed within a chamber, formed of a leaf or leaves of the -food-plant, drawn together by silken cables. Some of these chrysalids -are furnished with hooks on the tail as well as with a girdle for -suspension; but others have hooks only. - -As almost all the chrysalids here considered are figured in the -illustrations, it will be unnecessary to refer in detail to their great -diversity in form, but a few general remarks on the structure of a -chrysalis may be made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. - -Enlarged view of cremaster, and a hook still more enlarged. - -(_After Sharp._)] - -If the upper (_dorsal_) surface of a chrysalis is examined, the thorax -and the body divisions will easily be made out, while, by looking at the -sides and the under (_ventral_) surface, the various organs, such as the -wings, legs, antennæ, etc., will be found neatly laid along each side of -the "tongue," or proboscis, which latter extends down the centre. All -these are separately encased, but by reason of the shell mentioned in -the remarks on the caterpillar, they appear to be welded together. When, -however, the butterfly is ready to emerge, the shell of the chrysalis is -split along the thorax and at the lower edge of the wing-cases, and the -insect is then able to release itself from the pupal trappings. This -breaking open of the chrysalis shell is termed dehiscence (_dehisco_, -"to split open"), and the manner in which it is effected varies in -different species. The emergence of a butterfly from the chrysalis is -always an interesting operation to observe, and every one should make a -point of watching the process, so that he may obtain practical knowledge -of how the thing is done. A photograph of it will be found in the -description of the Wall Butterfly. - - -The Butterfly. - -Having safely cleared itself free of the chrysalis shell, the butterfly -makes its way to some suitable twig, spray, or other object, from which -it can hang, sometimes in an inverted position, whilst a very important -function takes place. This is the distention and drying of the wings, -which at first are very weak and somewhat baggy affairs, although the -colour and markings appear upon them in miniature. All other parts of -the butterfly seem fully formed, but the helpless condition of the wings -alone prevent it as yet from floating off into the air. In a remarkably -short time, after the insect has settled to the business, the fluids -from the body commence to flow and circulate through the wings, and -these are seen gradually expanding and filling out until they attain -their proper size. Occasionally there is some obstruction to the equal -distribution of the fluids, and when this occurs a greater or lesser -amount of distortion, or cockle, in the wing affected is the result. -When the inflation is completed the wings are kept straight out for a -time; they are then motionless, but all their surfaces are well apart. -The wings being now fully developed, the further flow of fluid appears -to be arrested. It has been stated by some authorities that this fluid -is fibrin held in solution, and that when the work of expansion has been -accomplished, the watery medium evaporates, leaving the fibrin to -harden, and so fasten together the upper and lower membranes of the wing -and to fix the veins, or nerves, in their proper position. Mayer, a -specialist on these matters, referring to the expansion of the wings, -remarks that the blood [the fluid previously mentioned] forced into the -freshly emerged wing would cause it to become a balloon-shaped bag if it -were not for fibres that hold the upper and lower walls closely -together. The fibres referred to, he states, are derived from those -hypodermic cells which do not contribute to the formation of scales, but -are stretched out from one wall of the wing to the other. - -It may be well now to briefly consider some of the structural details -of the perfect butterfly, so a beginning will be made with the head -(Fig. 6). When looking at the head of a butterfly, the first thing to -attract the attention is the very large size of the compound eye (_a_), -which seems to take up the largest share of the whole affair. Although -so bulky and so complex in the matter of divisions, or facets, as they -are termed (the facets are not shown in figure), the power of sight is -not really very keen. A butterfly can see things in a general way -readily enough, but it seems unable to clearly distinguish one object -from another. When engaged in egg-laying, the female butterfly rarely -fails to place her eggs on a leaf or spray of the plant that the future -caterpillar will feed upon, and it has been suggested that in making -this unerring selection the insect is guided more by the sense of smell -than by that of sight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. - -=Head of Butterfly.= - -_a_, compound eye; _b_, palp; _c_, antenna; _d_, proboscis.] - -The horns (_c_) (_antennæ_), or feelers, as they are sometimes called, -which adorn the head, are now considered to be organs of smell. These -are composed of a number of rings or segments, which vary in the -different kinds of butterfly, as also does the shape of the terminal -rings forming what is known as the club. In Fig. 7, _e_ (Purple Emperor) -and _f_ (Marbled White) represent the gradually thickened club; in _g_ -(Brimstone) and _h_ (Dark-green Fritillary) the clubs are more or less -abruptly formed. Our Skippers have well-developed clubs; these may be -hooked at the tip as in _i_ (Large Skipper), or blunt at the tip as in -_j_ (Chequered Skipper); at the base of the Skipper's antenna, that is -at the point where it is inserted in the head, there is a tuft of rather -long hairs. - -Of the various mouth parts it will only be necessary to refer to the -suction-tube, Fig. 6, _d_ (_proboscis_), often called the "tongue," -which is perhaps the most important, at least to the butterfly itself, -as this organ is, in a way, as useful to it in the perfect state as were -the very differently constructed strong biting jaws (_mandibles_) of its -caterpillar existence. These latter in the butterfly are only -microscopically represented, and the suction-tube of the perfect insect -is an extension of the maxillæ, which in the caterpillar are not -conspicuous. When not engaged in probing the nectaries of flowers for -the sweets they contain, the suction-tube is neatly coiled up between -the palpi (Fig. 6, _b_). Its great flexibility is due to the many rings -of which it is composed. Although seemingly entire, it is really made up -of two tubes, each being grooved on its inner side, and forming, when -the edges are brought together, an additional central canal, through -which the sweets from the flowers and other liquids are drawn up into a -bulb-like receptacle in the head, whence it passes into the stomach. -When it is remembered that the passage of sweet, and no doubt sticky, -fluid through the central tube would most probably result in its walls -becoming clogged, there is reason to suppose that the method of -construction permits of the canal being cleansed from time to time. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. - -=Antennæ of Butterflies.=] - -The important divisions of the body are the thorax and the abdomen. The -former is made up of three segments (named the pro-, meso-, and -meta-thorax), each of which, as in the caterpillar state, is furnished -with a pair of legs; the second and third, which are closely united, -each bear a pair of wings also. The legs, which in the butterfly are -adapted for walking at a leisurely pace, are made up of four main parts; -these are (a) the basal joint (_coxa_, _coxæ_), (_b_) the thigh -(_femur_, _femora_), (_c_) the shank (_tibia_, _tibiæ_), and (_d_) the -foot (_tarsus_, _tarsi_). The small joint uniting the coxa with the -femur is the trochanter (_tr._). The foot usually has five joints, the -last of which is provided with claws (_e_). The abdomen really consists -of ten rings or segments according to some specialists. Examined from -above, the female butterfly appears to have only seven rings and the -male butterfly eight. This discrepancy arises from the fact that in the -former sex two rings and in the latter one ring are withdrawn into the -body, and so are tucked away out of sight. The organs of reproduction -are placed in the terminal ring. The breathing arrangements are pretty -much as in the caterpillar, but the external openings are not so -apparent owing to the dense clothing of the body. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. - -=Leg of Butterfly.=] - -The beauty of a butterfly's wings is intimately connected with the form -and colour of the scales with which they are covered, as with a kind of -mosaic; but before the scales and their method of attachment, etc., are -referred to, something should be said about the wings themselves. The -various shapes of these organs of flight will be seen on turning to the -plates, where will be found accurate portraits of every species that -will be dealt with in the descriptive section later on. - -A butterfly's wing consists of an upper and a lower membrane, with a -framework of hollow tubes, acting as ribs, between the two layers. Fig. -9, A, shows a fore and a hind wing of the Swallow-tail butterfly. The -point of attachment with the thorax is the base of the wing, and the -edge farthest from the base is the outer margin (_termen_); the upper -edge, or front margin, is the costa; and the lower edge is the inner -margin (_dorsum_). The point where the upper margin meets the outer -margin on the fore wing is the apex, but on the hind wing it is called -the outer angle; the angle formed by the junction of outer and inner -margins is the inner angle of the fore wing, but the anal angle of the -hind wing. The term _tornus_ is sometimes used for this angle on either -wing. Dividing the wings transversely into three portions, we have three -areas, termed respectively basal, central or discal, and outer. These -are terms used in descriptions of butterflies, and it will be useful to -remember them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. - -=Butterflies' Wings.=] - -The ribs of a butterfly's wings are by some authors described as veins, -whilst others style the main ones nervures, and the branches nervules. -Fig. 9, B, represents the venation, or neuration of the Black-veined -White, and the numeral system of indicating the veins has been adopted, -as it is the most simple. In another method of referring to the -venation, and one that has been much in use, vein 12 of the fore wing -would be styled the costal nervure, or vein; veins 11, 10, 9 (absent in -figure), 8, and 7 would be the subcostal nervules 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; 6 -would become the upper radial, and 5 the lower radial; 2, 3, and 4 would -be the median nervules 1, 2, and 3; vein 1 would be the submedian -nervure, or vein. On the hind wing, vein 1_a_ would be the internal -vein; 1 the submedian; 2, 3, and 4 the median nervules; 5 the lower and -6 the upper radials; 7 the subcostal, and 8 the costal nervures. Just -near the base of the hind wing will be noted a short recurved vein -(p.c.); this is the precostal vein, and so named because it comes before -the costal. It is always absent in some species. Comparing the venation -of A and B, it will be seen that in A the fore wing has 12 veins and the -hind wing 8 veins, whilst in B there are only 11 veins on the fore wing, -but the hind wing has one vein more than that of A. In the Black-veined -White, vein 9 is absent on the fore wing, and on the hind wing there is -one internal vein. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. - -=Arrangement of Scales.= - -(_After Holland._)] - -Dust-like as they appear to the naked eye, the scales from a -butterfly's wing seen under the microscope are found to be exceedingly -interesting structures and very varied in shape. Dr. Sharp describes -them as "delicate chitinous bags." Chitin, it may be mentioned, is the -horny substance of which the chrysalis shell is formed, and this was -adverted to when discussing the chrysalis stage as a varnish-like ooze. -As seen on the wings, the scales are flattened and the upper and under -sides are then almost, or quite, brought together. They are attached in -lines on the membrane or covering of the wing by short stalks which fit -into sockets in the membrane. The arrangement of the scales, which has -often been stated to resemble that of the slates on a roof, is shown in -Fig. 10. - -Colour is chiefly due to pigment contained in the scale or adhering to -the interior of its upper side. Pigments, according to Mayer, are -derived, by various chemical processes, from the blood while the -butterfly is still in the chrysalis. Some scales have minute parallel -lines (_striæ_) on their upper sides, and rays of light falling on these -are turned aside or broken up, and so produce changes in the colouring -of a wing, according to the angle from which it is looked at. - -The males of many kinds of butterfly have special scales, which are -known as androconia, or plumules. It is believed that these are scent -organs. Whatever their particular use may be to the possessor, these -androconia enable the entomologist to distinguish male specimens from -females with great certainty. In the Fritillaries they are placed on one -or more of the median nervules (veins 2, 3, and 4) of the fore wing. In -the Meadow Brown and its kindred they form brands on the disc of the -fore wing. In the Skippers they are placed in a fold of the costa in -some species, and in other species they are clustered together, into -more or less bar-like marks, about the middle of the fore wings. Some of -these various shaped "plumules" are shown in the illustrations. - -In the foregoing sketch of the life cycle of a butterfly, the object -has been to condense as much necessary information as possible into a -limited space. Many matters of importance to the student have not been -touched on, but it was considered that, as these were more especially -connected with a higher scientific phase of the subject than would here -be found helpful, they might be omitted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11. - - =Butterfly Plumules.= - - _a._ Tufted Plumule (Satyrs); - _b._ Bristle Plumule (Grizzled Skipper); - _c._ Hair Plumule (Dingy Skipper); - _d._ Jointed Plumule (Silver-studded Skipper); - _e._ Bladder Plumule (Common Blue); - _f._ Dotted Plumule (White-letter Hairstreak). - -(_After Aurivillius._)] - - -Collecting. - -Naturally the first matter for consideration, when the formation of a -collection of butterflies has been decided upon, is how to set about it. -Well, there are two methods of effecting our purpose. The specimens may -be purchased from a dealer in such things, or we may acquire an outfit -comprising net, boxes, and pins, and go in search of the insects -ourselves. Apart from its healthful and entertaining possibilities, the -latter method has very much to recommend it. In the first place, those -who are at all observant--and no true lover of Nature can be suspected -of being otherwise--will become acquainted with the objects under -natural conditions, and so be enabled to appreciate them more highly -than could be the case if they were obtained in any other way. The chief -purpose in making a collection of Natural History specimens should be -study of some kind rather than mere accumulation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12. - -=Y-piece.=] - -[Sidenote: Nets.] - -The net may be a simple cane ring one of home construction, or the more -elaborate, but not necessarily more efficient, fabrication of -steel-jointed ring with grenadine bag and telescopic handle. A good -serviceable butterfly-net may be fitted up as follows. Procure a light -flexible cane, about 3 feet or so in length. Next, a Y-shaped holder -(Fig. 12) for the two ends of the cane will have to be made, and either -tin or brass may be used for the purpose. The latter is the better -metal, and the parts should be brazed and not soldered together. (If -difficulty is experienced in the manufacture of this article, it may be -obtained from any dealer in entomological requisites for a few pence.) -The bag may be made of leno, tarletan, or fine mosquito netting; the -latter is the most serviceable, and should be used wherever it can be -obtained. The size of the bag at the top, where it has a wide band to -take the cane, should not exceed the circumference of the cane ring when -fitted in the two arms of the Y-piece; the depth should be just a little -less than the length of one's arm, and the bottom should be rounded off -so that no corners are available for the butterflies to get into and -damage their wings. An opening about 3 inches in length is left in the -seam of the bag just under the Y-piece, so that the cane may be removed -and rolled up when the net is put out of action. The ring band should be -covered with some stouter material to prevent it from fraying, thin -leather is sometimes used for this purpose; the slit in the seam also -requires protecting on each side, and strengthening at the lower end by -a crosspiece. An ordinary walking-stick, with the ferrule end thrust -into the longer tube of the Y, will serve as a handle to the complete -net. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. - -=Kite or Balloon Net.=] - -The dealers adverted to above generally stock a variety of nets ready -fitted for use. Among these is a very useful pattern known as the kite -or balloon net (Fig. 13). This is made in two sizes, and as the writer -has used this kind of net for at least twenty years, he is able to speak -well of its merits. It does not need a stick for ordinary work, and the -long end of the socket should be about 9 inches in length. - -The "ring" being made of four separate rods, in addition to the Y-piece, -some care will have to be taken when a balloon net is unshipped. It will -be found a good plan to leave the two short curved canes in the hem or -band of the bag, remove the two straight arms from the Y-piece and the -band, place these on top of the bag when folded, and then roll all up -together. A canvas or linen pouch or pocket, opening at one end, may be -made to contain the whole affair. - -The umbrella-net, when in its case, looks very like the familiar "gamp." -Its chief merit is that it is quickly put up for use, and its principal -defect is that the stick, which crosses the mouth of the bag, frequently -damages the quarry. - -Another implement of the chase known as the "Ortner" net is used pretty -extensively on the Continent. English entomologists who have used it -speak of it most favourably. Its great advantage over other nets is -found in the simple and rapid method of its adjustment for use. - -In connection with nets it may be well to advise the wielder to remember -that carrying a threaded needle is a useful practice. Tears and rents -are apt to occur, and it is well to have the means of repair handy. - -[Sidenote: Killing.] - -Some collectors seem to be expert at killing butterflies by pressing the -sides of the thorax together. The method is not, however, as -satisfactory as one could wish, and so no more need be said about it. -For the happy despatch of insects, the cyanide bottle is frequently -used. All that has to be done is to clap the open bottle over the -captive while still in the net, then draw the gauze or what-not over the -mouth of the bottle until the bung can be inserted, and the whole affair -withdrawn from the net. - -Cyanide of potassium is a deadly poison, and no inexperienced person -should attempt to charge a cyanide bottle himself. In fact, chemists are -not permitted to supply the poison to unknown customers. Under certain -conditions, however, a chemist might consent to make up a killing -bottle, and the following instructions may help him in doing this. A -fairly strong, clear glass bottle, holding about 4 to 6 ounces; the -mouth must be pretty wide, and closed with a well-fitting bung that has -been dipped in melted wax; if the bung is of fine grained cork, the wax -will not be needed. At the bottom of the bottle place a thick layer of -the cyanide, and over this pour plaster of Paris which has been mixed -with water and converted into a cream-like paste: one-third of the depth -of the bottle to be occupied by the poison and plaster, but only a thin -layer of the latter should cover the former. - -Dealers who supply cyanide bottles (uncharged) also have in stock a -brass bottle for chloroform, which some people prefer as a killing agent -because it does not change the colour of insects as cyanide is -occasionally apt to do. In using this, the insect should be boxed, then -a drop of the chloroform may be allowed to run from the bottle over the -perforated lid or bottom of the box, and a finger put over the hole or -holes for a short time. - -The majority of butterflies, if transferred to pill boxes from the net, -settle down quietly. In this way they may be taken to one's home and -there placed, boxes and all, into the ammonia jar, a simple but very -effective contrivance. To start one of these lethal chambers, procure a -good sized pickle jar, one of the brown earthenware kind, holding about -2 gallons. At the bottom put in several layers of stout blotting-paper, -and have ready a covering for the mouth of the jar. This covering may be -of skin, waterproof-apron material, or even thick brown paper. Before -turning the boxes into the jar, lift up the blotting-paper, drop in -about half a teaspoonful of strong liquid ammonia (·880) and replace -blotting-paper. Directly the boxes are in the jar, put on cover and tie -it down securely. If brown paper is used, a piece of pasteboard should -be put over it and a weight on top of that. Suffocation takes place -directly the gas reaches the insect, but it often happens that one or -more of the boxes exclude the gas longer than others. At the end of half -an hour all may be removed, but the insects will not hurt in any way if -left in all night. - -The best kind of boxes for field work are those known as "glass -bottomed," as in these the captives can be examined and, if not wanted, -may be set free. It is always better to retain only those specimens that -we know are really useful, rather than to incur the necessity of -throwing away insects after we have deprived them of life. - -[Sidenote: Pinning.] - -If butterflies are pinned on the spot, a collecting box will be -required, and the most useful and convenient is one of an oval shape. -This should be made of zinc, and lined with cork that is held in place -by zinc clips. The cork should be kept damp when in use, and the water -used for damping should have a few drops of carbolic acid mixed with it -so as to prevent the formation of mould. Insects may remain in such a -box for several days without injury. This box will also be useful for -relaxing specimens that have been badly set, or have been simply pinned -during the busy season. - -In the matter of pins, it is not altogether easy to make suggestions. -There are, perhaps, only two makers in this country of entomological -pins, and each of these supplies a large number of sizes. The selection -of suitable pins will largely depend on the method of setting adopted. -Black pins are, however, the best for butterflies, and are now used -almost exclusively. - -In pinning a specimen care should be taken that the pin passes in a -direct line through the centre of the thorax. Insects that are properly -pinned set better, and have a neat appearance when arranged in the -collection. For regulating the height of specimens on the pin, a handy -graduated stage has been devised by Dr. Scarancke (see Fig. 14). Each of -the little rests are hollowed to receive the body of the insect, so -suppose we wish a quarter of an inch of the pin to show below the body -of a specimen, the pin is pushed through a perforation in the centre of -the rest groove marked "3/16" until the point touches the wooden base, -and we have the required length. - -Beginners would, perhaps, find three sizes of pins quite sufficient for -almost every purpose--say, Nos. 10, 8, and 5 of one maker; or Nos. 9, -17, and 5 of the other. In each case the first size pin would be -suitable for small butterflies, the second size for all other -butterflies except quite the largest, for which No. 5 would remain. -English pins are sold by the ounce. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. - -=Pinning Stage.=] - -[Sidenote: Setting.] - -Setting, as it is called, that is, spreading out and fixing the wings -so that all their parts are displayed, arranging the horns, etc., is -perhaps the most tedious work that the collector will be called upon to -perform. The various methods will be referred to, and he must then -decide as to which he will adopt. Each style may possibly be found to -have its difficulties at first; but time and patience will overcome -these, therefore he must be prepared for a good deal of troublesome -practice before he quite gets "the hang of the thing," and can set out -his specimens without removing a greater or lesser number of the scales. - -First, as to the flat and high setting as practised by almost every -lepidopterist abroad and by some in our own country. Boards of the -pattern, shown in the illustration, will be required; also some tracing -cloth, and a pair of entomological forceps, bead-headed pins, etc. In -these boards, it will be noticed, the sides tilt outwards; this is to -allow for drooping of the wings, which generally occurs after insects -are removed from the "sets." In this case the wings would settle dead -flat, which is considered to be the acme of perfection in this style of -setting. Carlsbad or other foreign pins would be used for this kind of -work. They are of a uniform length, about one inch and a half, but vary -in thickness, and are usually sold by the 100 or 1000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. - -=Board for Flat-setting.=] - -Manipulation of the specimen on these boards is as follows. Having -carefully pinned it, leaving the greater length of pin below the insect, -guide the pin carefully through the narrow opening (_a_ Fig. 15) and the -cork (Fig. 16) below to a suitable depth, so that the body of the insect -rests in the groove and the wings lie easily on the board. Then take two -strips of tracing cloth, glazed side downwards, and pin them on at the -end of each side of the setting-board (Fig. 17). The strip should be -just wide enough to cover all but the basal part of the wings. Now pass -the strips over the wings, press one side lightly with the fingers of -the left hand while the wings are moved into position with the setting -needle (a fine needle with eye end fixed into the stick of a small -penholder will do for this) from the uncovered base, a pin being -inserted below the fore wing while the hind wing is brought into -position, but when this has been done and another pin inserted to keep -it in place, as shown in the diagram, the first pin may be removed; -repeat the same operation on the other side. Other pins will be required -to keep the horns, etc., in place. In dealing with the next specimen the -strips will have to be turned back while it is fixed into position, then -proceed as before. An imaginary line following the inner margin of the -fore wings and passing through the pin on the thorax is an excellent -guide to uniformity in setting. The groove will prevent the pin leaning -to either side, but care should be taken that it does not incline either -forwards or backwards. The strip of tracing cloth may be used more than -once, but the roughness of the pin holes should be removed by drawing -the strip across the back of a knife. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16. - -=Longitudinal Section of Setting-board.=] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. - -=Setting-board in use.=] - -[Illustration: FIG. 18. - -="Saddle" Setting-board.=] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. - -=Setting-bristle.=] - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. - -=Brace and Band Modes of setting.=] - -The setting-boards most frequently used in this country have sloping -sides, and are known as saddles (Fig. 18). Where tracing cloth is used, -the _modus operandi_ is exactly similar to that just described, but -small pins will do for pinning down the strips, as the saddles are made -of cork, or cork carpet, instead of wood. - -The following method of setting butterflies on the English kind of -"board" or saddle is frequently adopted. Select a suitable saddle, that -is one that has the groove wide enough to take the body, and rather -wider than the wings when expanded. A setting bristle will then be -required. This is made, as shown in Fig. 19, by fixing a fairly long and -stout bristle, or a very fine needle, or a thin length of quill, in a -cube of cork; the cork cube has a stoutish and sharp-pointed pin pushed -through it as indicated. Having placed the first insect on the saddle -with its body comfortably resting in the groove and the wings flush with -the surface, the setting bristle is then brought into action. The point -of the pin is rested on the saddle directly in the rear of the hind -wing, and the top of the bristle touching the saddle in advance of the -front wing. Tilt the pin slightly forward until the bristle presses -lightly on the central area of the wings, then with the setting needle -push the wings into the required position, and at the same time drive -pin of bristle into the saddle. After the wings have been secured by -means of braces (triangular pieces of thin card or stout paper, with a -pin through the base of the triangle), proceed in the same way with the -other side. Finally, fix a brace to the tip and angle of each fore wing -to keep them from turning up in drying, and a pin or two may be required -for the horns if these are not in a good position. Instead of using -braces, a strip of transparent paper may be pinned over the wings beyond -the bristle, but in this case the bristle must be pressed across the -wings at a point nearer their base than in the previous method (see -lower figure in Fig. 20). In lieu of a setting bristle a length of -sewing cotton may be used. Tie a double knot at one end, and through -this pass the point of a pin in such a way that the cotton lies flush on -the saddle when in use. Insert the pin firmly in the saddle a little in -advance of the fore wing, then draw the cotton downwards across the -wings and hold it taut, with the fore finger of the left hand placed on -it just in rear of the hind wing. Whilst so held the wings can be got -into pose with the setting needle, and braces may then be applied as -previously directed. - -Fig. 21 shows a specimen set by a method that is in vogue in the north. -Blocks of soft pine, grooved and bevelled as in the cork saddle, are -easily made. Down the centre of the groove there is a saw cut for the -point of the pin to enter, and nicks are cut along the bottom edge at -each end. One end of a length of cotton is knotted and fixed in a nick, -then a turn is taken over the wings on one side; these are placed in -position and secured by other turns of the cotton. The other side is -then treated in the same manner, and the end of the cotton fastened off -in one of the nicks. This is a quick and, in skilled hands, a very neat -method. - -As specimens after being set will have to remain on the setting boards -or saddles for at least a fortnight, it will be necessary to protect -them not only from dust, but from possible attack by ants, cockroaches, -mice, etc. This is best ensured by placing the sets into a receptacle -called a setting or drying house. Dealers supply these, but the young -collector may have a knowledge of carpentry and could make one for -himself. The height and depth of such a construction would depend upon -the number and the width of the boards or saddles that would be put -therein. The width would be that of the length of the boards, which is -usually 14 inches. About a quarter of an inch of cork is cut off each -end of the saddles, and grooves are cut in the sides of the house for -these to run in. The back and the door should have a square of fine -perforated zinc inserted in them for ventilation. As an example of -holding capacity it may be well to note that a house with a height of 12 -inches, and a depth of 6 inches, inside measurement, would take eighteen -2-inch boards if the grooves were cut at 2 inches apart, or twenty-four -boards of same width if 1-1/2 inch only were allowed between the -grooves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21. - -=Cotton Method of setting.=] - -In taking insects off the sets, the braces or strips should be removed -from the wings, and the pins from the horns, with care, as a good deal -of damage can be done in the performance of this operation, simple as it -seems to be. A little twist of a brace and away goes a patch of scales, -a side slip of a pin and off comes a horn. - -Pending the arrival of that twelve or twenty drawer cabinet, the -beginner will probably be content to arrange his specimens in boxes. A -handy sized box is one measuring 14 inches by 10 when closed, and it -should have a cell for naphthaline. - -Before putting the specimens away into boxes or drawers they should be -labelled with the date of capture, the locality, the name of the captor, -and any other detail of interest in connection with it. All these -particulars may be written on small squares of paper and put on the pins -under the specimens. - -Cabinets or boxes containing insects should always stand where they are -free from damp, otherwise mould may make its appearance on the -specimens. Mouldy insects may be cleaned, but they never look nice -afterwards; so it will be well to bear in mind that prevention is better -than cure. Where drawers and boxes are not properly attended to in the -matter of naphthaline, mites are apt to enter and cause injury to the -specimens. If these pests should effect a lodgment, a little benzine -poured on the bottom of box or drawer will quickly kill them. The -benzine, if pure, will not make the least stain, and of course the -drawer or box must be closed directly the benzine is put in. Do this -only in the daytime. - -Rearing butterflies from the egg is much practised, and is a very -excellent way. One not only obtains specimens in fine condition, but -gains knowledge of the early stages at the same time. The eggs of most -of the Whites, the Orange-tip, the Brimstone, and some others are not -difficult to obtain, but searching the food-plants for the eggs of many -of the butterflies is tiresome work, and not altogether remunerative. -Females may be watched when engaged in egg-laying, and having marked the -spot, step in when she has left and rob the "nest." The best plan is to -capture a few females and enclose them in roomy, wide-mouthed bottles, -or a gauze cage, putting in with them a sprig or two of the food-plant -placed in a holder containing water. The mouth of the bottle should be -covered with gauze or leno, and a bit of moistened sugar put on the top -outside. Either bottle or cage must be stood in the sunshine, but it -must be remembered that the butterflies require plenty of air as well as -sunshine, and that they can have too much of the latter. - - - - -PART II. - -DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIES. - - -The Swallow-tail (_Papilio machaon_). - -The Swallow-tail butterfly is the only British member of the extensive -and universally distributed sub-family Papilioninæ, which includes some -of the largest as well as the most handsome kinds of butterfly. Our -species has yellow wings ornamented with black, blue, and red, and is an -exceedingly attractive insect. The black markings are chiefly a large -patch at the base of the fore wings, this is powdered with yellow -scales; a band, also powdered with yellow, runs along the outer or hind -portion of all the wings. There are also three black spots on the front -or costal margin, and the veins are black. The bands vary in width, and -that on the hind wings is usually clouded more or less with blue. At the -lower angle of the hind wings there is a somewhat round patch of red, -and occasionally there are splashes of red on the yellow crescents -beyond the band. The male and female are shown on Plate 2. - -The eggs are laid on leaflets of the milk parsley (_Peucedanum -palustre_), which in the fenny home of the butterfly is perhaps the -chief food-plant of the caterpillar. This is one of the few eggs of -British butterflies that I have not seen. Buckler says that it is -globular in shape, of good size, greenish yellow in colour when first -laid, quickly turning to green, and afterwards becoming purplish. - -The caterpillar when full grown, as figured on Plate 1, is bright green -with an orange-spotted black band on each ring of the body, and blackish -tinged with bluish between the rings. The head is yellow striped with -black. When it first leaves the egg-shell, which it eats, the -caterpillar is black with a noticeable white patch about the middle of -the body. After the third change of skin it assumes the green colour, -and at the same time a remarkable =V=-shaped fleshy structure of a -pinkish or orange colour is developed. This is the _osmaterium_, and is -said to emit a strong smell, which has been compared to that of a -decaying pine-apple. The organ, which is extended in the figure of the -full-grown caterpillar, is not always in evidence, but when the -caterpillar is annoyed the forked arrangement makes its appearance from -a fold in the forepart of the ring nearest the head. Other food-plants -besides milk parsley are angelica (_Angelica sylvestris_), fennel -(_Foeniculum vulgare_), wild carrot (_Daucus carota_), etc. From eggs -laid in May or June caterpillars hatch in from ten to twelve days, and -these attain the chrysalis state in about six or seven weeks. If the -season is a favourable one, that is fine and warm, some of the -butterflies should appear in August, the others remaining in the -chrysalids until May or June of the following year; a few may even pass -a second winter in the chrysalis. Caterpillars from eggs laid by the -August females may be found in September, nearly or quite full grown, -and chrysalids from October onwards throughout the winter. They are most -frequently seen on the stems of reeds, but they may also be found on -stems or sprays of the food-plants, as well as on bits of stick, etc. It -would, however, be practically useless to search for the late chrysalids -as the reeds are usually cut down in October, when the fenmen keep a -sharp look-out for them, and few are likely to escape detection in any -place that would be accessible to the entomologist. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 2. - -=Swallow-tail Butterfly.= - -1 _male_; 2 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 3. - -=Black-veined White Butterfly.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -On Plate 1 three forms of the chrysalis are shown. The figures are drawn -from specimens collected in Wicken Fen in October, 1905. Occasionally a -much darker, nearly black, form is found. - -This butterfly was known to Petiver and other early eighteenth-century -entomologists as the Royal William. There is every reason to believe -that at one time it was far more widely distributed in England than it -now is. Stephens, writing in 1827, states that it was formerly abundant -at Westerham, and gives several other localities, some very near to -London. - -During the last twenty-five years or so, the butterfly has been seen on -the wing, from time to time, in various parts of the Southern and -Midland counties. Caterpillars have also been found at large in Kent. -Possibly attempts may have been made to establish the species in certain -parts of England, and the presence of odd specimens in strange places -may thus be accounted for. Or such butterflies may have escaped from -some one who had reared them. - -On the Continent the butterfly is common in woods as well as in meadows, -and even on mountains up to an elevation of 5000 feet. It occurs also, -but less commonly, at much higher altitudes. It therefore seems strange -that in England it should be confined to the low-lying fens of Norfolk -and Cambridgeshire. Such is the case, however, and a journey to one or -other of its localities will have to be made by those who wish to see -this beautiful creature in its English home. - -It may be added that the geographical range of the butterfly extends -eastwards through Asia as far as Japan. A form, known as the Alaskan -Swallow-tail, is found in Alaska. - - * * * * * - -The following ten species belong to the Pierinæ, another sub-family of -Papilionidæ. - - -The Black-veined White (_Aporia cratægi_). - -The Black-veined White (Plate 4) may be at once recognized by its -roundish white wings and their conspicuous veins, which latter are black -in the male butterfly, and in the female brownish on the main ones -(nervures) and black on the branches (nervules). As the scales on the -wings are denser in the male than in the female, the former always -appears to be the whiter insect. On the outer margin of the fore wings -there are more or less triangular patches of dusky scales, and these in -occasional specimens are so large that their edges almost or quite meet, -and so form an irregular, dusky border to the fore wings. These patches -are also present on the hind wings, but are not so well defined. -Sometimes the patches are absent from all the wings. The fringes of the -wings are so short that they appear to be wanting altogether. The early -stages are figured on Plate 3. - -The egg is upright and ribbed from about the middle to the curiously -ornamented top, which appears to be furnished with a sort of coronet. -The colour is at first honey-yellow, then darker yellow, and just before -the caterpillar hatches, greyish. The eggs are laid in a cluster on the -upper side of a leaf of sloe, hawthorn, or plum, etc., in the month of -July. - -The caterpillar when full grown is tawny brown with paler hairs -arising from white warts; the stripes along the sides and back are -black. The under parts are greyish. The head, legs, and spiracles are -blackish. Caterpillars hatch from the egg in August, and then live -together in a common habitation which is formed of silk and whitish in -colour. They come out in the morning and again in the evening to feed, -but a few leaves are generally enclosed in their tenement. In October -they seem to retire for the winter and reappear in the spring. During -May they become full grown and then enter the chrysalis state. The -butterflies are on the wing at the end of June and in July. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 4. - -=Black-veined White Butterfly.= - -1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 5. - -=Large White Butterfly.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] - -The chrysalis is creamy white, sometimes tinged with greenish, and -dotted with black. - -This butterfly was mentioned as English by Merret in 1667, and by Ray in -1710. Albin in 1731, who wrote of it as the White Butterfly with black -veins, figures the caterpillar and the chrysalis, and states that -caterpillars found by him in April turned to chrysalids early in May and -to butterflies in June. Moses Harris in 1775 gave a more extended -account of the butterfly's life-history, and what he then wrote seems to -tally almost exactly with what is known of its habits to-day. This -species has seemingly always been somewhat uncertain in its appearance -in England. Authors from Haworth (1803) to Stephens (1827) mention -Chelsea, Coombe Wood in Surrey, and Muswell Hill in Middlesex, among -other localities for the butterfly. It has also been recorded at one -time or another, between 1844 and 1872, from many of the Midland and -Southern counties. In 1867 it was found in large numbers, about -mid-summer, in hay fields in Monmouthshire. The latest information -concerning the appearance of the species in South Wales relates to the -year 1893, when several caterpillars and four butterflies were noted on -May 22 in the Newport district. At one time it was not uncommon in the -New Forest, but no captures of the butterfly in Hampshire have been -recorded during the last quarter of a century. At the present time it is -probably most regularly obtained in a Kentish locality, presumably in -the Isle of Thanet, which is only known to a few collectors. It may be -mentioned that some thirty years ago caterpillars of the Black-veined -White could be obtained from a Canterbury dealer at a few shillings per -gross. - -The species is widely distributed, and often abundant, on the -Continent, and its range extends through Western and Northern Asia to -Yesso, Northern Japan. - - -The Large White (_Pieris brassicæ_). - -This butterfly is probably almost as familiar to those who dwell in -towns as it must be to those who live in the country. It is perhaps -unnecessary to describe it in any detail, and it may therefore suffice -to say that it is white with rather broad black tips to the fore wings; -there are some black scales along the front margin of these wings, and -on the basal area of all the wings. The male has a black spot on the -front margin of the hind wings, and the female has, in addition, two -roundish black spots on the fore wings, with a black dash from the lower -one along the inner margin. - -As there is a rather important difference between the specimens of the -spring (_vernal_) and the summer (_æstival_) broods, figures of a male -and a female of each brood, and showing the upper and under sides, are -given. Those on Plate 6 represent the spring form, which was at one time -considered to be a distinct species, and named _chariclea_ by Stephens. -Plate 9 shows the summer form. The chief point of difference is to be -noted in the tips of the fore wings, which in the spring butterflies are -usually, but not invariably, greyish; in the summer butterflies the tips -are black, as a rule, but not in every case. - -Occasionally the black on tip of the fore wing in the female is -increased in width, and from it streaks project inwards towards the -upper discal spot. In some examples of the male there is a more or less -distinct blackish spot on the disc of the fore wings. Very rarely the -ground colour is creamy or sulphur tinted. - -The greenish tinge about the veins, sometimes seen in these butterflies, -is due to some accidental cause, probably injury to the veins. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 6. - -=Large White Butterfly (Spring Brood)= - -1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 7. - -=Small White Butterfly= - -_Resting._] - -The egg is yellowish in colour, somewhat skittle-shaped, and very -prettily ribbed and reticulated. On Plate 5 there are two figures of the -egg from enlarged drawings by Herr Max Gillmer, to whom I am greatly -indebted for the loan of them. In the figure on the right, the dark spot -at the shoulder of the egg represents the head of the young caterpillar, -and in that on the left is seen the caterpillar about to come out of the -egg. The head is already out, and the jaws have left their mark on the -egg-shell. Most caterpillars of the Whites, as well as those of other -butterflies, devour their egg-shells. - -The eggs are laid in batches of from six to over one hundred in each -batch. They are placed on end, and on either side of a leaf, chiefly -cabbage. Herr Gillmer writes that he watched a female depositing her -eggs on a leaf of white cabbage in the hot sunshine, and found that she -laid twenty-seven in about nine minutes. A previous observer had timed a -female, and noted that she produced eggs at the rate of about four in -the minute. Caterpillars hatch from the egg in about seven days in the -summer. The caterpillar (Plate 5) when full grown is green tinged with -blue or grey above, and greenish beneath. There are numerous short -whitish hairs arising from little warts on the back and sides; the lines -are yellow. The caterpillars feed in July, and sometimes again in -September and October, on all plants of the cabbage tribe, and also on -tropæolum and mignonette. A number of these caterpillars may often be -seen crowded together on a cabbage leaf, and they sometimes abound to -such an extent that much loss is sustained by growers of this most -useful vegetable. A peculiarity of these caterpillars is that even when -not numerous, their presence is indicated by an evil smell that proceeds -from them. The unpleasantness of the odour is greatly intensified if the -caterpillars are trodden upon. - -The chrysalis (Plate 5) is of a grey colour, more or less spotted with -black and streaked with yellow. It is often to be seen fixed -horizontally under the copings of walls, the top bar of a fence, or a -window-sill; but it sometimes affects the upright position when fastened -in the angle formed by two pales. A position that affords some measure -of protection from weather is generally selected. - -Although this butterfly is almost annually to be seen, in greater or -lesser numbers, throughout the country, it is occasionally scarce, -either generally or in some parts of the British Islands. For example, -during the past year (1905) it was abnormally plentiful in Ireland, but -at the same time comparatively rare in England. It is a migratory -species, and no doubt its abundance in any year in these islands is -dependent on the arrival of a large number of immigrants. Possibly in -some years none of the migrant butterflies reach our shores, and that it -is largely to this failure the rarity of the species in such years is to -be attributed. Caterpillars resulting from alien butterflies may -absolutely swarm in the autumn of one year, but the eccentricities of an -English winter may be too much for the vitality of such of them as -escape their enemies, _Apanteles glomeratus_, and other so-called -"ichneumons," and reach the chrysalis state. So, with immigration on the -one hand and destructive agencies on the other, it may be understood how -it comes about that the Large White is sometimes abundant and sometimes -scarce. - -This species seems to range over the whole of the British Islands, with -the exception, perhaps, of the Shetlands. Abroad, it has been found in -all parts of the Palæarctic Region, except the extreme north, and -Eastern Asia. - - -The Small White (_Pieris rapæ_). - -The Small White butterfly (Plate 11) is, perhaps, more often in -evidence then its larger kinsman just referred to. It also is a migrant, -and although it never seems to be absent from these islands, in its -proper season, its great increase in numbers in some years is almost -certainly due to the arrival of immigrants. - -The spring form of this butterfly, named _metra_ by Stephens, who, -together with others, considered it a good species, has the tips of the -fore wings only slightly clouded with black; and the black spots near -the centre of the wings are always more or less faint in the male. -Sometimes the central spot and also the blackish clouding of the tip are -entirely absent. The summer brood, on the other hand, has fairly -blackish tips and distinct black spots--one in the male and three in the -female, the lower one lying on the inner margin. Occasionally examples -of this flight bear a strong resemblance to the Green-veined White, the -next species. The wings are sometimes, chiefly in Ireland, of a creamy -colour, more especially in the female, or, more rarely, of a yellowish -tint. In North America, where this species was accidentally or -intentionally introduced some years ago, bright yellow forms are not -uncommon in some localities, and the variety is there known as -_novangliæ_. - -In certain favourable years a partial third brood has occurred, but such -specimens are often small in size. - -The egg (Plate 8) is at first pale greenish, but later on it turns -yellowish, and this tint it retains until just before the caterpillar -hatches out. - -The caterpillar when full-grown has a brownish head and a green body; -the latter is sprinkled with black and clothed with short blackish hairs -emitted from pale warts. There is a yellowish line on the back, and a -line formed of yellow spots on the side. It feeds on most plants of the -cabbage tribe, and in flower gardens on mignonette and nasturtiums. It -is often attacked by parasites, and especially by the _Apanteles_, -referred to as destructive to caterpillars of the Large White. - -The chrysalis may be of various tints, ranging from pale brown, through -grey to greenish; the markings are black, but these are sometimes only -faint. It is to be found in similar situations to those chosen by the -caterpillar of the last species, but often under the lower rail of a -fence or board of a wooden building. Where caterpillars have been -feeding in a garden, they often enter greenhouses, among other places, -to pupate; and where these structures are heated during the winter, the -butterflies sometimes emerge quite early in the year. Distributed -throughout the British Islands, except the Hebrides and Shetlands. It is -common over the whole of Europe, and extends through Asia to China and -Japan. In America, where it was introduced into the United States some -forty-five years ago, it has now spread northwards into Canada, and also -southwards. - - -The Green-veined White (_Pieris napi_). - -This butterfly is not often seen away from its favourite haunts in the -country; these are woods, especially the sunny sides, leafy lanes, and -even marsh land. As in the case of the two Whites previously noticed, -there are always two broods in the year. The first flight of the -butterflies is in May and June, occasionally as early as April in a -forward season. These specimens have the veins tinged with grey and -rather distinct, but are not so strongly marked with black as those -belonging to the second flight, which occurs in late July and throughout -August. This seasonal variation, as it is called, is also most clearly -exhibited on the under side. In the May and June butterfly (Plate 13, -left side) the veins below are greenish-grey, and those of the hind -wings are broadly bordered also with this colour. In the bulk of the -July and August specimens (Plate 13, right side) only the nervures are -shaded with greenish-grey, and the nervules are only faintly, or not at -all, marked with this colour. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 8. - -=Small White Butterfly.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 9. - -=Large White Butterfly (Summer Brood).= - -1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] - -Now and then a specimen of the first brood may assume the characters -properly belonging to the specimens of the second brood; and, on the -other hand, a butterfly of the second brood may closely resemble one of -the first brood. As a rule, however, the seasonal differences referred -to are fairly constant. By rearing this species from the egg it has been -ascertained that part (sometimes the smaller) of a brood from eggs laid -in June attains the butterfly stage the same year, and the other part -remains in the chrysalis until the following spring, the butterflies in -each set being of the form proper to the time of emergence. - -The strongly-marked specimens (Plate 14) are from Ireland, and are of -the first or spring brood. The seasonal variation in this species is not -so well defined in Ireland as in England. - -A form of variation in the female, and most frequent perhaps in Irish -specimens, is a tendency of the spots on the upper side of the fore -wings to spread and run together, and so form an interrupted band. - -Specimens with a distinct creamy tint on the wings are sometimes met -with, but such varieties, as well as yellow ones (var. _flava_, Kane), -are probably more often obtained in Ireland and Scotland than in -England. Occasionally male specimens of the second brood have two black -spots on the disc of the wing. Some forms of this butterfly have been -named, and these will now be referred to. - -_Sabellicæ_ (Petiver), Stephens, has been considered as a species -distinct from _P. napi_, L. Stephens ("Brit. Entom. Haust.," I. Pl. -iii., Figs. 3, 4) figured a male and a female as _sabellicæ_, which he -states differs from _napi_ in having shorter and more rounded -yellowish-white wings. No locality or date is given in the text (p. 21) -for the specimens figured; but referring to another example which he -took at Highgate on June 4, he says that it agrees with his Fig. 2. -Probably, however, it was his second figure that he intended, the Fig. 4 -of the plate, which is a female. This is rather more heavily marked with -dusky scales than is usual in specimens of the first brood, at least in -England, although it agrees in this respect with some Irish June -examples. Fig. 3 represents a male which certainly seems to be referable -to the spring form. Most authors give _sabellicæ_ as belonging to the -summer flight, but this does not seem to be correct. - -Var. _napææ_ is a large form of the summer brood, occurring commonly on -the Continent, in which the veins on the under side of the hind wings -are only faintly shaded with greenish-grey. Occasionally specimens are -taken in this country in August, which both from their size and faint -markings on the under side seem to be referable to this form. - -Var. _bryoniæ_ is an Alpine form of the female, and in colour is dingy -yellow or ochreous, with the veins broadly suffused with blackish grey, -sometimes so broadly as to hide the greater part of the ground colour. -This form does not occur in any part of the British Islands, but some -specimens from Ireland and from the north of Scotland somewhat approach -it. - -All the early stages are shown on Plate 10. - -The egg is of a pale straw colour when first laid, but it soon turns to -greenish, and as the caterpillar within matures, the shell of the egg -becomes paler. The ribs seem to be fourteen in number. - -The eggs are laid singly on hedge garlic (_Sisymbrium alliaria_) and -other kinds of plants belonging to the Cruciferæ. The egg in the -illustration was laid on a seed-pod of hedge garlic, but the caterpillar -that hatched from it was reared on leaves of garden "nasturtium" and -wallflower. - -The caterpillar when full grown is green above, with black warts, -from which arise whitish and blackish hairs. There is a darker line -along the back, and a yellow line low down on the sides. Underneath the -colour is whitish-grey. The spiracular line is dusky, but not -conspicuous, and the spiracles are blackish surrounded with yellow. It -has been stated that caterpillars fed upon hedge garlic and horseradish -produce light butterflies, and that those reared on mignonette and -watercress produce dark butterflies. Barrett mentions having reared a -brood of the caterpillars upon a bunch of watercress placed in water and -stood in a sunny window, but he does not refer to anything peculiar -about the butterflies resulting therefrom. He states, however, that from -eggs laid in June the earliest butterfly appeared within a month, and -the remainder by the middle of August, only one remaining in the -chrysalis until the following June. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 10. - -=Green-veined White Butterfly.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 11. - -=Small White Butterfly.= - -1, 2, 4 _male (spring)_, 3 _do. (summer)_; 5, 7, 8 _female (spring)_, -6, 9, _do. (summer)_.] - -Caterpillars may be found in June and July and in August and September. - -The chrysalis is green in colour, and the raised parts are yellowish and -brown. This is the most frequent form, but it varies through yellowish -to buff or greyish, and is sometimes without markings. - -Generally distributed throughout the British Islands, but its range -northwards does not seem to extend beyond Ross. - -In Europe it is generally common, and extends through Western and -Central Asia to Siberia, and, according to Leech, is found in North -Japan. In Amurland and Corea it is represented by the form _orientis_, -Oberth. It occurs in North-West Africa, the Canary Isles, and the -Azores. In America it is found in the Northern States and in California. - - -The Bath White (_Pieris daplidice_). - -The Bath White (Plate 14) is such a rare visitor to this country, that -any one who captures a specimen may congratulate himself on the event. -During the whole of the last century not more than sixty specimens seem -to have been recorded as taken in England, and ten of these were -captured between 1895 and the present time. Nearly all of these were -netted on the south or south-eastern coast, and in the months of July or -August, but chiefly the latter. The occurrence of specimens in May or -June appears to be quite exceptional. - -Although it might be passed over for a Green-veined White, or other -common butterfly, when seen on the wing, it is very different from any -of our other species when seen at close quarters. In the greenish -mottling of the under side of the hind wings, the male has some likeness -to the female Orange-tip, but on the Bath White the green is heavier and -less broken up. On the upper side of the fore wings the black markings -comprise a spot, sometimes divided, at the end of the cell, and a patch -on the tips of the wings; the latter enclose spots of the ground colour. -The markings of the under side show through blackish on the upper side -of the hind wings. The female differs from the male in having a black -spot between veins 1 and 2 of the fore wings, and the markings of the -hind wings are blacker, especially on the outer area. - -The egg is stated by Buckler to be of a bright pinkish-red colour, -agreeing in this respect, as well as in size, with the anthers of the -flowers of mignonette, upon which plant it is laid in an upright -position. The shape is compared to that of an acorn without the cup, and -it has twelve or fourteen rather prominent ribs. - -The full-grown caterpillar is bluish-grey, dotted with glossy black -warts, from each of which there is a short blackish hair. The lines -along the back and sides are yellow, or white spotted with yellow. Head -yellowish, dotted with black, and hairy. August and September. It feeds -on garden as well as wild mignonette (_Reseda_). - -The chrysalis is at first similar in colour to the caterpillar, but it -afterwards becomes whitish. It has numerous black dots, and is marked -with yellow along the sides and on the back of the thorax. - -The above descriptions are abridged from Buckler's more detailed -account of the life-history of this species. Of the caterpillars -resulting from thirty-three eggs, only two attained the chrysalis state, -in September. One of these turned black and died in November, and from -the other a butterfly emerged in the following June. The figures of -caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 12 are from Buckler's "Larvæ." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 12. - -=Bath White Butterfly.= - -_Caterpillar and chrysalis (after Buckler)._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 13. - -=Green-veined White Butterfly.= - -1, 2 _male (spring)_, 5, 6, _do. (summer)_; 3, 4 _female (spring)_, -7, 8 _do. (summer)_.] - -It has been suggested that specimens taken in July and August are the -offspring of immigrants that arrive here in May, but there is no -conclusive evidence of this. It has, however, been proved that our -climate is not suitable for the permanent establishment of the species -here. - -The earliest writers on English insects called this butterfly "Vernon's -Half Mourner," or "The Greenish Half Mourner." It was first mentioned by -Petiver, some two hundred years ago, and about that time only two -British specimens were known. One of these was taken in Cambridgeshire, -and one at Hampstead. According to Lewin, who wrote about it in 1795, -the name "Bath White" was given to the butterfly "from a piece of -needlework executed at Bath by a young lady, from a specimen of this -insect, said to have been taken near that place." In 1796 Donovan only -knew of the Bath specimen; and in 1803 Haworth mentions a faded specimen -taken in June at Gamlingay in Cambridgeshire. - -The species is more or less common in many parts of Europe, but it seems -to be most at home and abundant in the south. Its range extends to North -Africa, Madeira, the Canary Isles, and the temperate parts of Asia, -including Northern China and Corea. - - -The Orange-tip (_Euchloë cardamines_). - -This butterfly (Plate 17), as its name suggests, has a large patch of -orange colour on the outer third of its white, or creamy white, fore -wings, and the extreme tip is blackish; at least, this is so in the -male. The female is without the orange patch, and this is replaced by a -smaller one of blackish-grey. The lower portion of this patch is broken -up by the ground colour, and by white spots on the outer margin and -around the tips of the wings. The hind wings, in both sexes, appear to -be dappled with greyish-green, and this is caused by the green marking -on the under surface of the wings showing through. Some specimens, -chiefly from Ireland, have all the wings in the male, and the hind wings -in the female, distinctly tinged with yellow. The discal black spot -varies in size and in shape; often it is roundish, and sometimes it is -crescent-like. It is always larger in the female than in the male, and -may be entirely absent in the latter sex; but this probably occurs very -rarely. Usually the orange patch of the male extends very near to the -inner angle of the wing, but sometimes it is continued through to this -point. It ranges in colour from deep to pale orange, and occasionally to -almost yellow. Small specimens, some not more than one inch and a -quarter in expanse, occur from time to time. In these dwarfs the orange -patch does not reach beyond the black discal spot, which in normal -specimens it usually does. This small form has been considered a -distinct species, and the name _hesperidis_ has been proposed for it. -Female specimens with splashes or streaks of the male colour on the -upper or the under sides have been noted not infrequently; and more -rarely specimens with one side entirely male and the other entirely -female have been taken. - -The egg (Plate 15), when freshly laid, is whitish, faintly tinged with -greenish; it soon changes to yellow, and, later on, turns orange and -then dark violet. When the latter colour appears, the little caterpillar -may be expected to hatch out very shortly. The eggs are placed upright -on the foot-stalks of the flowers, and may be readily found in June by -searching the blossom-clusters of hedge-mustard or cuckoo-flower. - -The caterpillar, when mature, is dull bluish-green, with raised dots -and warts; from the former arise whitish hairs, and from the latter -longer blackish hairs. There is a white line, or stripe, along the -sides, and the underparts of the body are greener than the back. Both in -colour and marking the caterpillar agrees so closely with the seed-pods -of its food-plant that its detection is not always easy. A peculiarity -in very young caterpillars of this species, and also those of some of -the "Whites," is, that the hairs are forked at the tips, and bear -globules of moisture thereon (see figure and remarks on p. 3). - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 14. - -=Green-veined White (Irish).= - -1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. - -=Bath White.= - -4, 5 _male_; 6 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 15. - -=Orange-tip Butterfly.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -The caterpillars feed in June and July on lady's smock or cuckoo-flower -(_Cardamine pratensis_), charlock (_Brassica sinapistrum_), -hedge-mustard (_Sisymbrium officinale_), garlic mustard (_S. alliaria_), -rock-cress (_Arabis_), horseradish (_Cochlearia armoracia_), dame's -violet (_Hesperis matronalis_), watercress (_Nasturtium officinale_), -etc. - -The chrysalis, as will be seen from the figure (Plate 15), is curiously -elongated, and tapers towards each end; the outline of the back is -curved, and the wing-cases bulge out into an angle about the middle of -the under side. The colour is pale grey or whitey-brown, sometimes with -a strong rosy tinge; the back is speckled with brownish, and has an -olive-grey dorsal line, and the veins of the wings are well defined. -This stage lasts, as a rule, from August of one year until May of the -following year. When the chrysalis is first formed, it is green, with -the wing-cases brighter, and this colour is sometimes retained. It has -been stated that the chrysalids assume the colour of their immediate -surroundings, and this may be so; but all that I have had under -observation were of the colours described above, although some were -fastened to green stem, others to muslin, and others, again, to glass. - -Towards the end of May and in June is the usual time for this butterfly -to be on the wing. It has, however, been noticed as early as about the -middle of April, and as late as the middle of July, and rarely in August -and September. The specimens, seen in the last-mentioned months, may -have represented a second brood, and, if so, a very unusual event. -Possibly, however, they may have been specimens whose emergence had for -some reason not understood, been retarded. There is at least one record -of the insect remaining in the chrysalis for two winters. - -Although generally distributed throughout England, Wales, and Ireland, -and occurring in Scotland as far north as the Caledonian Canal, it seems -to be more common in some districts than in others. Abroad, its range -extends over Europe, and through Asia as far east as Amurland and China. - - -The Wood White (_Leucophasia sinapis_). - -The graceful little butterfly figured on Plate 19 is creamy white, with -a rather square black or blackish spot on the tip of the fore wings of -the male. In the female the spot is reduced to some blackish scales on -and between the veins. Occasionally there is a second brood in the year, -and the specimens of this flight have smaller and rounder black spots in -the males, and almost none at all in the females. Specimens of the -female sex entirely devoid of black marking are referable to var. -_erysimi_ (see fourth figure in second row, Plate 16). Series of each -brood are shown on Plate 16, which is reproduced from a photograph by -Mr. Hamm. The lower specimen in each series has been reversed to show -the seasonal variation of the under side. The row of specimens on the -left are of the first brood, and the second and last examples in this -series show the characters of var. _lathyri_--black tips to the fore -wings, and dusky band-like shades on the hind wings; the under sides of -the hind wings dull greenish--to which form a good many of our spring -specimens belong. The specimens of the second generation are referable -to var. _diniensis_. The species is sometimes referred to _Leptosia_, -Hüb. - -The egg, which is figured on Plate 18, is yellowish-white in colour; it -is ribbed, and rather glassy in appearance. The caterpillars have been -known to hatch out about a week after the eggs were laid. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 16. - -=Wood White Butterfly.=] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 17. - -=Orange-tip Butterfly.= - -1, 5 _male_; 2 _do. (Irish)_; 3, 6 _female_; 4 _do. (Irish)_.] - -The caterpillar when full grown is, according to Hellins, "a beautiful -green, the front segments minutely dotted with black; dorsal line darker -green, edged with yellowish-green; spiracular line distinct, of a -fine clear yellow, edged above with darker green; spiracles -indistinguishable." The chrysalis in shape is something like that of the -last species, but the back is not curved, and the ends are less tapered. -The colour is a "lovely delicate green; the abdomen rather yellowish; -just in the spiracular region there runs all round the body a stout pink -rib, enclosing the greenish spiracles; from this a strong pink line -branches off, bordering the outer edge of the wing-case, and the -nervures of the wings themselves are delicately outlined in pink" -(Hellins). Sometimes the chrysalids are green without marking. - -Mr. A.M. Montgomery, who on one occasion had four batches of eggs, and -the subsequent caterpillars, under observation, states that the -caterpillars hatched about June 2 from eggs laid about May 22. Pupation -took place about July 3, and, except from one batch that remained for -the winter in the chrysalids, the butterflies emerged between July 16 -and 22. The food-plant in this case was bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus -corniculatus_). The yellow pea (_Lathyrus pratensis_) is a favourite -pabulum, but the caterpillar will also eat a vetch (_Vicia cracca_), and -probably many other plants belonging to the order Leguminosæ. -Caterpillars from the July butterflies would feed in August and -September. - -This fragile-looking little species is somewhat local, but is not -altogether uncommon in some of its particular haunts. As its English -name implies, the butterfly is fond of the woods, or, perhaps, is rather -more partial to their shady rides and margins. On dull or wet days, it -settles on the under side of a leaf. The first brood is on the wing in -May, and the second--when this occurs, which is not every year--in July -and August. In Ireland, where it is abundant in the south and west, -there seems to be only one flight, and this is in June. It may be well -to remember that this butterfly does not like the pill-box, and will not -settle down quietly therein. - -Possibly the Wood White had a much more general distribution in England -at one time than it now seems to have. It was not uncommon in parts of -Sussex some years ago, but there appears to be no record of its -occurrence there now. It is certainly much scarcer in the New Forest -than it used to be. However, it is still to be found, no doubt, in many -parts of England and Wales, but chiefly perhaps in the counties of -Berkshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, -Lancashire, and Cumberland. Also in the south and west of Ireland. It -occurs throughout Europe, Western and Central Asia, and its range -extends eastwards through Siberia, Amurland, China, and Corea to Japan. - - -The Pale Clouded Yellow (_Colias hyale_). - -This usually scarce butterfly (Plate 21) is of a primrose-yellow -colour in the male, and, as a rule, almost white in the female; -sometimes the latter sex is of the yellow male colour. The outer margin -of the fore wings is broadly black in both sexes, but there are some -more or less united spots of the ground colour in the black towards the -tips of the wings, and below vein 3 the black is usually confined to the -outer margin. There is a black spot near the middle of the wing, and -some blackish dusting quite near the base of the wing. The hind wings -have a pale orange central spot, sometimes two spots, and the blackish -border on the outer margin is generally narrow, and often interrupted or -broken up into spots. The fringes of all the wings are pinkish, as also -are the antennæ. The egg is pearly yellowish-white when first laid; a -few days later the top becomes transparent, white, and glassy, shading -downwards into yellow, and then clear rosy orange; the base is pale, but -less transparent than the top. It has a number of transverse ribs, -ranging from nineteen to twenty-two. Before the caterpillar hatches out, -the egg changes to a purplish leaden colour. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 18. - -=Wood White Butterfly.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler) - and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 19. - -=Wood White Butterfly.= - -1, 4, 6 _male_; 3 _do. (var.)_; 2, 5, 7 _female_.] - -The caterpillar in October, before hibernation, is about a quarter of an -inch long, and deep clover-green in colour; it has a number of pale, -shining warts along the back, from each of which there is a moderately -long black bristle, and there is a pale yellowish-white stripe above the -black spiracles. The head is pale ochreous green, with warts and -bristles as on the body. It rests upon a pad of silk spun on the centre -of a leaflet. When full grown the colour is clear light green, but has a -darkish velvety appearance, due to the entire surface being densely -sprinkled with black warts, the bristles from the warts on the back are -black, and those on the lower surface are white, the line above the -spiracles, which are white outlined with black, is made up of -lemon-yellow, orange-vermilion, and orange with an upper border of -white. The head, claspers, and legs are green. It feeds in June, and -again in August, on clover, trefoil, etc. The figure on Plate 20 is -after Hübner. - -The chrysalis is very similar to that of the Clouded Yellow, the chief -differences are that the head-beak of the present species is straight -instead of being slightly upturned, and the tip of the wing-case extends -further down the body. - -The above particulars of the early stages of the Pale Clouded Yellow are -adapted from Mr. Frohawk's account of the life-history of the species -(_Entomologist_, 1892 and 1893). - -From eggs laid in September by a captured female, Mr. Williams reared -two butterflies in November of the same year. Other caterpillars from -the same batch of eggs hibernated and recommenced feeding in the spring, -but failed to attain the chrysalis state. Young caterpillars from eggs -obtained in August were successfully hibernated by Mr. Carpenter, and -many of these produced butterflies in the following May. - -In rearing this species from eggs laid in the autumn, a fairly dry -treatment appears to be the best. Protect the young caterpillars from -frost, and do not water the plants during the winter. When they become -active again, about February, transfer them to other growing plants, -which should be kept ready for the change. Do not water the plants much, -or wet the foliage at all, and keep a sharp look-out for earwigs. - -It seems pretty clear that this species passes the winter as a -caterpillar, and from the evidence available it appears equally certain -that the caterpillars would not survive an ordinary winter in this -country. Possibly, however, in very mild winters, or in certain warm -nooks on the south coast, some may be able to exist until the spring, -and then complete their growth and reach the butterfly state. In such -native-born butterflies the ancestral migratory habit may be lost, owing -to climate, and they would not, therefore, wander far from the spot -where they emerged from the chrysalis, but found a colony, which -probably would be cleared off sooner or later by the severity of an -English winter. - -The Pale Clouded Yellow was not mentioned as an English butterfly -until Lewin wrote about it in 1795. He states that he only met with it -"in the Isle of Sheppey and on a hilly pasture-field near Ospringe in -Kent." He seems to have noted it in different years at both places. -Stephens, in 1827, referred to it as a rare British species, and from -that date until 1867 it seems to have been common only in 1835, 1842, -1857, and 1858. In 1868 it was abundant in the southern and eastern -counties, and was observed as far north as Lancashire and Yorkshire, -also in Ireland. It was common on the south coast in 1872, and rather -more so in 1875, when it spread into Essex and Suffolk, and also inland. -Until 1875 the butterflies seem only to have been noticed in the -autumnal months, but in that year specimens had been seen in May and -June. In 1876 the species was pretty plentiful, but after that date it -did not again occur in numbers until 1892, when it was recorded from -most of the southern and eastern counties. In 1893 one or two specimens -were reported as seen in April or May, but less than a dozen were -recorded as captured during the autumn of that year. Not much was seen -of the butterfly again until 1899, when a score or so were recorded from -Kent. Two or three specimens were seen on the south coast in June, 1900, -and the species was plentiful in the autumn of that year in many parts -of the country. Single specimens were seen in June, 1901, and in the -autumn the butterfly was again fairly common in several southern -counties, and abundant in parts of Essex. In 1902 a male was taken near -Dartford in March, and one example in May in a locality where two -specimens had been captured on October 20 of the previous year; six -males and one female were obtained between June 27 and July 12 at -Sheerness. The summer of 1902 was a cold one, and, with the exception of -four specimens at Folkestone in August, the species was not again seen -during that year or the following one; but in 1904 a good many specimens -were secured at Chatham in September, and one or two at Margate in -August. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 20. - -=Pale Clouded Yellow Caterpillar.= - -(_After Hübner._)] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 21. - -=Pale Clouded Yellow.= - -1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] - -When it occurs in this country the butterfly should be looked for in -clover and lucerne fields. - -Common throughout the Palæarctic Region. It is probably a species of -Eastern origin, but with a tendency to spread westward. - - -The Clouded Yellow (_Colias edusa_). - -In its typical colouring--orange with broad black borders--this -butterfly (Plate 22) will be recognized the first time it is seen. Both -sexes have a black spot about the centre of the fore wings, and a deep -orange spot near the middle of the hind wings--the latter is subject to -variation in size and shape. The female usually has the black borders -spotted with yellow, but in some examples these spots are almost (Plate -24, Fig. 1) or quite absent. Another form of the female, known as var. -_helice_ (Plate 24, Fig. 2), has the orange colour replaced by -yellowish-white, and in some years is not altogether uncommon. Between -this yellowish-white at one end of the colour range and the typical -orange at the other, specimens showing all the intermediate shades have -been obtained, chiefly by rearing the butterflies from eggs laid by a -female _helice_. One of these intergrades will be seen on Plate 24, Fig. -3. The males vary, especially bred ones, from "deep rich orange to the -palest chrome yellow; the marginal bands also vary in width; in many -examples the yellow nervules run through the borders of all the wings. A -large proportion of the males have the hind wings shot with a beautiful -amethystine blue" (Frohawk). - -The egg (Plate 23) is oval, tapering towards each end, very pale -yellowish in colour at first, but afterwards becoming darker yellow, and -then pink. The eggs are laid, as shown in the figure, on the upper side -of a leaf of clover or lucerne, sometimes singly, but often in small -batches. - -The caterpillar when full grown is deep green with minute black dots, -from which fine hairs arise, and a pink-marked yellow, or whitish, -spiracular line. The head is also green, rather downy, and small in -size. When first hatched the caterpillar is brownish, but soon changes -to greenish. It feeds on clover (_Trifolium_), trefoil (_Lotus_), -melilot (_Melilotus_), etc., in June and again in September or October. - -The chrysalis is yellowish-green above, somewhat paler below; the -wing-cases are rather deeper in tint than the thorax and back, and have -a central black speck and a row of slender marks at the edges. The body -is marked with a splash of reddish and tiny black dots on the under -side. The beak-like projection from the head is dark green above and -yellow beneath. - -The figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis are taken from -Buckler's "Larvæ of British Butterflies," and the descriptions of these -stages by the same author have been followed. - -The Clouded Yellow has a great fancy for clover or lucerne fields, and -should be looked for in such places in August and September. It is not -very difficult to rear from the egg, so that if a female is captured in -August (the spring ones should not be taken), it would be a good plan to -try to induce her to lay some eggs. The best method to succeed in this -is to pot up a growing plant of clover, and over this place a glass -cylinder with a muslin cover. (See further directions in the -Introduction, page 28.) - -This butterfly, which was known, to the earliest English authors as the -"Saffron" or "Spotted Saffron," has always, no doubt, been erratic and -uncertain in its appearance in this country, sometimes becoming -increasingly abundant for three, four, or even five years in succession, -and then scarce or entirely absent for similar periods. The most recent -years of plenty, or when it was fairly common, were 1877, "the great -Edusa year," 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1899, 1900, and 1902. In some of -these years the Pale Clouded Yellow was also common. - -In some of the warmer countries that this butterfly inhabits it has -certainly three, and possibly four, broods in the year. It is therefore -conceivable that at times its increase in numbers may become very great -in some particular area. At such times swarms of the surplus butterfly -population set out to seek fresh fields and pastures new. Some portion -of these flights reach our country from time to time, and this probably -always occurs in the spring of the year. The weather conditions being -favourable, the offspring of the visitors put in a welcome appearance in -the autumn, and not only gladden the heart of the entomologist, but add -a charm to the countryside which every one can appreciate. - -The butterfly has probably occurred, at some time or other, in almost -every county in England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland, extending even -to the Orkney Islands (1877). - -Its home appears to be in North Africa and South Europe, whence it -spreads over the greater part of Europe and Western Asia. - -NOTE.--According to Kirby, this butterfly should be called _Eurymus -hyale_, Linn., and the Pale Clouded Yellow be known as _Eurymus kirbyi_, -Lewis. - - -The Brimstone (_Gonepteryx rhamni_). - -This butterfly (Plate 26) has the tips of the fore wings sharply -pointed, and there is a rather acute angle about the middle of the outer -margin of the hind wings. The colour of the male is bright sulphur -yellow, with a central orange spot on each wing, that on the hind wings -usually the largest; there is also a rusty dot at the outer end of the -upper veins and along the front margin of the fore wings towards the -tip. The female is greenish yellow, and is marked similarly to the male. -In both sexes the horns (_antennæ_) are reddish, and the long silky hair -on the thorax is a noticeable character. It is probably this insect to -which the name "butter-coloured fly," contracted into butterfly, was -first given; anyway, it is the only species to which the name applies so -well. - -The egg. If the under sides of the leaves of buckthorn (_Rhamnus -catharticus_) or of the berry-bearing alder (_R. frangula_) are examined -in May or June, the eggs of this butterfly may be found thereon. They -are often placed on a rib of the leaf, but sometimes they are laid as -shown in the illustration (Plate 25). At first the colour is pale -greenish and rather glossy, but it soon changes to yellowish, and later -on, when the caterpillar has formed inside, to a dull purplish-grey. - -The caterpillar when full grown is green, merging into bluish-green -on the sides, thickly powdered with shining black specks. There is a -pale line on each side below the spiracles. It feeds in June and July on -both kinds of buckthorn, and will generally be found resting along the -main rib of a leaf. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 22. - -=Clouded Yellow.= - -1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 23. - -=Clouded Yellow.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -The chrysalis is bluish-green in colour and of a curious shape. The -sharp yellowish and brown beak-like projection in front and raised -brownish bases of the wing-covers, together with the humped thorax, -somewhat resemble a bird's head when seen from the front. Then, again, -the enlarged wing-cases, which are rather greener than the other parts, -in conjunction with the general outline, give a very good imitation of a -curled leaf. - -The butterfly is very constant as regards colour and marking, but -occasionally the fore wings may be more or less suffused with orange, -and in this respect assumes the coloration of the South European species -known as _G. cleopatra_. The attempt has been made to establish the -last-named butterfly in Ireland, but the experiment seems to have been -only partially successful. Sometimes female specimens are found to have -splashes of the male colour on their wings. Occasionally their colour is -intermediate between their own proper tint and that of the male, and -more rarely the wings on one side may be yellow, as in the male, while -those on the other side are greenish, as in the female. Such specimens -are termed gynandrous examples, and sometimes hermaphrodites. The -latter, however, is not correct. - -An unusual variation of the butterfly is shown on Plate 27. This has -large oval pale brownish-orange marks on the under side of the wings. It -was taken in the New Forest. - -The Brimstone butterfly enjoys a longer existence in the perfect state -than any of the other British species, with the exception, perhaps, of -the Tortoiseshells and their allies. It leaves the chrysalis at the end -of July or beginning of August, and is usually quite common during the -latter month. After this it takes up its winter quarters, from which, -however, it may be tempted to come out whenever the day is sufficiently -warm and sunny for it to indulge in a few hours' flight. The fine -condition of some of the specimens that are seen in May or June has -suggested the possibility of such specimens having remained in the -chrysalis during the winter, but it is not at all probable that they do -so. It may be seen any sunny day from March, or even February, to June -in almost every English and Welsh county where its food-plant grows, and -locally in Ireland. The best time to take specimens is in the autumn, -when they are often to be seen in numbers flying along the rides in or -on the outskirts of woods, and also in clover fields. - -Distributed over the whole of temperate Europe, and extending through -Asia to the far east and to North Africa. - - * * * * * - -The thirty butterflies now to be considered belong to the Nymphalidæ, -which has a larger membership than any other family of butterflies. It -is divided into several sub-families, but only four of these concern us; -these are Apaturinæ (1 species), Nymphalinæ (17 species), Danainæ (1 -species), and Satyrinæ (11 species). The next butterfly is our only -representative of Apaturinæ. - - -The Purple Emperor (_Apatura iris_). - -On account of its large size and the beautiful purple sheen over its -brownish-black velvety wings, this butterfly (Plate 29) is always -counted a prize by the collector. It is, however, only the male that -dons the purple, and he only when seen from the proper angle. The female -is without the purple reflection and her wings are browner, but the -white spots on the fore wings and the white bands on the hind wings are -rather wider than those of the male. Above the anal angle of the hind -wings, in both sexes, there is a black spot, ringed with tawny and -sometimes centred with white, and a tawny mark on veins 1 and 2. As will -be seen on turning to the figures on Plate 31, the under side of this -butterfly is exceedingly pretty. On the same plate there is a figure of -the rare variety known as _iole_ (for the loan of which I am indebted to -Mr. Sabine), in which most of the white spots are absent or obscured. -Intermediates between this extreme form and the type also occur, but all -such aberrations are uncommon. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 24. - -=Clouded Yellow.= - -1 _Female aberration;_ 2, 3, 4 _var. helice_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 25. - -=Brimstone Butterfly.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -The egg (Plate 28) may be looked for in August on the upper surface of a -leaf of the sallow (_Salix caprea_). According to Buckler, it is pale -olive green in colour, and cylindrical in shape; the height from base to -top being about equal to the width through from side to side. It has -about fourteen ribs. - -The caterpillar in October, just before hibernation, is dingy green -roughened with numerous whitish warts from which arise short bristles, -some of the latter appearing to be tinged with reddish, and those along -the sides longer than those on the upper part of the body; the straight -lines along the back and the oblique ones on the sides are yellowish. -The head and the two horn-like projections, reminding one of the horns -of a slug, are reddish-grey and covered with warts and bristles. The -anal points (tails), which lie close together, are tipped with reddish. -It should be mentioned here that on emerging from the egg the young -caterpillar is without horns; these are not developed until the first -skin is thrown off, which event happens from eight to twelve days after -hatching. - -The full-grown caterpillar is green, merging into yellowish towards the -anal points (tails); the oblique stripes on the sides are yellowish, -edged with reddish. The individual depicted on the plate took up a -position for change to the chrysalis on June 6. It spun a mat of silk to -the under side of a sallow leaf, and the next day it was found suspended -by the claspers, which were grasping the silken mat. On the fourth day -the chrysalis was fully developed, and from this a male butterfly -emerged on June 24, an unusually early date. - -The chrysalis is whitish, more or less tinged with green, but having the -oblique lines on the sides whitish; the veins of the wings also show up -whitish. - -The caterpillar was well known to entomologists in this country as far -back as 1758, when, in May, four were obtained from sallow at Brentwood -in Essex. It usually occurs on sallow, but an instance is recorded of it -refusing to eat this plant; it would probably have starved if willow, -upon which it fed up, had not been substituted. A full-grown caterpillar -was on one occasion found at Raindene in Sussex on poplar, which is a -well-known food of the species on the Continent. Now and then a -full-grown caterpillar has been met with in October, and Buckler reared -two in the autumn from the egg almost to the chrysalis stage, but they -died before the change was effected. - -As befits his rank, the Emperor has lofty habits, and after quitting -the clump of sallow bushes, among which its transformations from egg to -the perfect insect were effected, it resorts to the oak trees, around -which it flies in July, and, when not so engaged, rests on a leaf of the -higher branches. To capture the butterfly, when seen at such times, is -not altogether an easy matter, as for the purpose the net must be -affixed to the end of a pole about 14 or 15 feet in length. The insect's -rather depraved taste for the juices of animal matter, in a somewhat -advanced stage of decay, is a fact well known to the professional -collector and others who have taken advantage of it to the monarch's -destruction. This method of attracting a butterfly for the purpose of -capture is, however, not exactly to be commended. It surely is a greater -pleasure to show one's friends a single specimen that has been captured -by dexterity with the net, than to exhibit fifty that were secured by a -device which is not only unsavoury, but unsportsmanlike. The female, -however, is not to be allured; she must be sought among the sallows, and -when seen is not easy to net, as she skims away over the tops of the -bushes and is difficult to follow. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 26. - -=Brimstone Butterfly.= - -1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 27. - -=Brimstone Butterfly.= _Underside (aberration)_. - -=Common Blue.= _At rest_.] - -Although most certainly not so common or so generally distributed as in -former times, the butterfly still occurs in the larger oak woods in most -of the midland, western, and southern counties of England, but is, -perhaps, most frequent in Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire. In Wales it -is found in Monmouthshire. It has not been recorded from Scotland, and -only doubtfully from Ireland. - -In Central Europe it is often abundant, and its range extends eastward -into Amurland, Central and Western China. - - * * * * * - -Now follow seventeen butterflies of the sub-family Nymphalinæ. - - -The White Admiral (_Limenitis sibylla_). - -The "White Admirable Butterfly," as it was called by some of the older -English entomologists, needs only to be seen to be at once recognized -(Plate 33). The white markings on its blackish wings are somewhat -similar to those of the Purple Emperor. As in that butterfly, so, too, -in this, the most beautiful ornamentation is found on the under side. -The shape of the wing is, however, very different in the two -butterflies, and there is no probability of confusing one with the -other. A somewhat uncommon form is shown on Plate 31 (also kindly loaned -by Mr. Sabine); this is var. _nigrina_. Intermediates also occur, but -these, too, are also rather rare. The eggs, which I have not seen, are -stated to hatch in about fourteen days, and are laid in July. They have -been described as pale green in colour, and of the shape of an orange, -but flatter at the base and top. - -The caterpillar (Plate 30) when full grown is dark green on the back -and lighter on the sides, roughened with yellow dots, and with a -yellow-marked white line above the feet. The bristly spines are reddish -with pinkish tips, and those on the second, third, fifth, tenth, and -eleventh rings are longer than the others. The first ring seems to be -without spines, but the brownish head is set with short ones, two on the -crown being rather longer and blacker than the others, and are inclined -backwards. - -In the autumn, when still quite tiny, it constructs a winter retreat -(_hibernaculum_) (Plate 30) by fastening a growing leaf of sallow to a -twig with silken threads, and then, using more silk, it draws the edges -of the leaf together, and so forms a secure chamber wherein it can rest -until the following spring, when it quits the domicile and sets to work -on the tender foliage around it. At this time the caterpillar is -brownish in colour. The chrysalis is of the remarkable shape shown on -the plate. It is brownish, with purplish or olive tinge; behind the -rounded hump there is a patch of bright green, and above the wing-cases -a beautiful golden sheen. There are also other metallic spots and dots -on various parts. Altogether, it is one of the prettiest of British -butterfly chrysalids. - -I am tempted here to quote Buckler's excellent description of the -pupation of this species, as it will serve to show the remarkable method -by which caterpillars are able to perform a seemingly impossible feat; -that is, to get absolutely free of the old skin whilst hanging head -downwards from the silken pad or button to which they attach themselves -by the anal claspers when preparing to pupate. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 28. - -=Purple Emperor.= - -_Egg enlarged; young and full-grown caterpillars; chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 29. - -=Purple Emperor.= - -1 _male_; 2 _female_.] - -"When full fed the larva becomes rapidly paler, and then suspends -itself by the anal prolegs to a stem of the honeysuckle or other -surface, and hangs with its body downwards in a sinuous curve, with its -head bent a little upwards, facing the abdomen; it then remains -motionless for three days, becoming whitish on the abdomen, and -remaining very pale green on the thoracic segments. In the course of the -third day the creature seems to wake up, unbends its head, swings itself -to and fro a few times, then stretches itself downwards in a long -attenuated line, which causes a rupture of the skin close to the head; -the skin then is seen slowly to ascend, exposing the bare and soft -shining parts below, from which a flat and forked pair of horns grow out -perceptibly as one beholds this wonderful process; the skin continues to -glide slowly upwards, and as the soft parts become exposed, they are -seen to swell out laterally, and to assume the very singular projections -so characteristic of this chrysalis, the skin of the old head gliding up -the belly marks the progress of the disclosure, as the colour of the old -and new surfaces is at this time alike, the new being, however, rather -more shining and transparent. Occasionally during the bulging out of the -soft parts, a kind of convulsive heave or two occurs, but otherwise it -remains still until the creature is uncovered as far as the ninth or -tenth segment; it then curves its anal extremity by a sudden twist -laterally, and in a moment dexterously withdraws the tip of the anal -segment from the larval prolegs by an opening on the back of the skin at -that part. At this critical moment one has time to see that the naked -shining point is furnished with black hooks, and to apprehend a fall; -but in another moment the pupa has forcibly pressed the curved tip with -its hooks against the stem close to the previous attachment of the anal -prolegs, and now it is strongly and firmly fixed. The creature now seems -endowed with wonderful power and vigour; it swings boldly to and fro, -and undulates itself as if to gain longer swings, when presently the old -skin that remains is seen to burst away and fall off, the chrysalis -gradually becoming quiescent, the entire metamorphosis, from the first -waking to the last movement, occupying nearly seven minutes. In sixteen -days the perfect insect emerged." - -Linnæus in 1767 wrote of the sexes of this butterfly as _sibylla_, or -rather _sibilla_, and _camilla_, but, as Kirby points out, three years -earlier the same author had given the butterfly the name _camilla_. It -is probable, therefore, that the latter name will have to be adopted for -our butterfly. Certain it is that the older British authors--Donovan, -Haworth, Stephens, etc., knew our species as _camilla_. The species -known on the Continent as _camilla_, and which, owing to the confusion -of names has been supposed to be British, will have to be called -_drusilla_, according to Kirby. - -This species seems to be pretty much restricted to the southern and -eastern counties of England. In the New Forest, Hampshire, it is often -exceedingly abundant in July. So long ago as 1695 the butterfly was -known to occur in Essex, and the species is found in some woods in that -county at the present time. It has, however, quite disappeared from -several woodland localities in Kent and Sussex, where it formerly -occurred. It has been recorded from Shropshire and also from -Worcestershire, but both these counties appear to be beyond the normal -range of the species. - -Almost all writers on our butterflies, from Haworth downwards, have -commented on the graceful flight of the White Admiral as it skims aloft -and alow through the woodland glades. This elegance of motion is still -retained even when the wings become sadly torn and frayed, probably by -contact with twigs and thorns. - -Widely distributed throughout Central Europe. It is also found in -Amurland, Corea, and Japan. - - -The Comma (_Polygonia c-album_). - -The peculiar shape of the wings of this butterfly (Plate 35) might -cause it to be mistaken for a very tattered example of one of the -Tortoiseshells. The irregular contour of the outer edges of the wings -is, however, quite natural, and is subject to some variation in its -jaggedness. Their colour is deep tawny or fulvous, with brownish borders -on their outer margin. On the fore wings there are three black spots on -the front or costal area, and below the first, which is often divided, -there is a roundish black spot (sometimes double) just above the inner -margin; two, sometimes three, other spots lie between this and the third -costal spot. On the hind wings there are three black spots on the basal -half, and a series of pale fulvous spots before the brownish border; -these are inwardly edged with brownish, and sometimes this edging is -united with the marginal border. Similar spots are, in some specimens, -present in a like position on the fore wings also. On the under side the -wings are of various shades of brown, sometimes variegated with whitish, -or yellowish, and greenish, the latter often conspicuous; other -specimens are paler on the outer half than on the basal half, and, -except occasionally having a series of greenish or dusky spots on the -outer area, are without marking. These differences occur in both sexes. -The white comma or c mark, placed about the middle of the under side of -the hind wings, is rather stronger in the variegated specimens; but it -varies, generally, in shape as well as in size. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 30. - -=White Admiral.= - -_Young caterpillar with hibernaculum (h); caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 31. - - 1, 2 Purple Emperor; 3 var. _iole_. - 4, 5 White Admiral, var. _nigrina_.] - -Var. _hutchinsoni_, Robson, which has been renamed _pallida_ and -_lutescens_, differs from the typical form in having the ground colour -much lighter and brighter on the upper side and ochreous on the under -side. It is shown on Plate 35. The outline of the wings of this form, -which occurs in June and July, is said to be less jagged, and this may -be so as a rule, but it certainly is not always the case. Possibly this -is "The Pale Comma" of Petiver. - -There are two broods of this species in the year, but the first or -summer flight of butterflies seems to depend upon a favourable season, -as also does the second or autumnal brood, at least as regards the -number of butterflies representing it. The late butterflies hibernate -and reappear in April, or even March, of the following year. It has been -stated that all the specimens appearing in the spring are of the form -with plain under sides. - -From eggs laid between April 27 and May 6, Miss E. Hutchinson, writing -in 1887, says caterpillars hatched between May 5 and 11. They were "fed" -on currant and nettle mixed, and were full grown from June 17th till the -23rd. The first butterfly emerged on June 26, and the last on July 3, -and all were very fine and of the pale summer variety. Two of the -insects paired on June 30, and the female commenced laying on July 1, -and continued doing so till the 10th, when there were 120 ova. -Unfortunately, a very cold spell of weather began on July 12, and more -than half the eggs perished. The butterflies resulting from the -remainder appeared during August, from the 17th to the 27th, but they -would not pair, probably because, although they had emerged at an early -date, they properly belonged to the autumnal flight. - -In 1894 Mr. Frohawk reared 200 of these butterflies from 275 eggs laid -by a female between April 17 and June 1 of that year. The caterpillars -were supplied with nettle only. The first butterfly emerged on June 30, -and the last on August 2. Of the whole number forty-one were of the -light fulvous form, var. _hutchinsoni_, and all the others of the dark -or typical form. With few exceptions, the light-coloured butterflies -were the first to emerge, and the major portion of these during early -July, and before any examples of the dark form had come out. - -The egg is at first green in colour with ribs whiter, but changes before -the caterpillar hatches out to yellowish. In confinement the female -butterflies deposit their eggs singly or in chains of three or four; -probably the latter is the usual method of laying the eggs under natural -conditions. - -The caterpillar when full grown is black, netted with greyish; the -spines on the second to fifth rings inclusive are yellowish, and those -on the back of the other rings are white; the back from ring 6 to ring -10 inclusive is broadly white, marked with black, and the upper surface -of the other rings is more or less yellowish. The head is black, marked -with ochreous; the crown is lobed, and on each lobe is a short club-like -knob. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 32. - -=Comma Butterfly.= - -_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 33. - -=White Admiral.= - -1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] - -The chrysalis is brownish tinged with pink; the wing-cases and the rings -of the body are edged with blackish; there is a greyish line along the -back of the body and a brownish stripe along the spiracles; at the point -where the body joins the thorax there are some silvery or golden spots. -The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 32 are after Buckler. - -This butterfly seems to have disappeared from many localities in England -where it formerly flourished. About seventy or eighty years ago, for -example, it was plentiful in Epping Forest, in Herts, and in Dorset. -During the last half-century or so it has been common in certain parts -of many of the counties from Somerset to Durham and Cumberland, but -seems to have occurred only sparingly or singly in Norfolk, Suffolk, -Essex, Kent, Sussex, Hants, Wilts, and Devon. It still occurs now and -then in the Dover district, the most recent record being of one taken in -October, 1894; and it was reported from North Staffordshire in 1893. -Probably it is now almost entirely confined to favoured districts -embraced within the area represented by the counties of Herefordshire, -Worcestershire, and Monmouthshire, whence it may occasionally stray into -the adjoining counties, or even further afield. - -This butterfly is often associated with hop gardens, but it is by no -means restricted to such places. The usual food-plants of the -caterpillars are hop (_Humulus lupulus_), nettle (_Urtica dioica_), and -currant (_Ribes_), but it is reported to eat gooseberry (_R. -grossularia_) and elm (_Ulmus_). - -Abroad it has a very wide distribution in Europe, and extends through -Asia to Japan. - - -The Large Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa polychloros_). - -Apart from its larger size, and somewhat different outline, this -butterfly may be known from the Small Tortoiseshell by its duller -colour, which is brownish-orange; on the fore wing there are, as a rule, -no blue crescents in the hind marginal border, but there is an extra -black spot placed between veins 1 and 2; on the hind wings a black spot -on the front area represents the black basal area seen on the Small -Tortoiseshell; and this is an important point of difference, although -the two species are not likely to be confused when both are well known. -The blue spots referred to as not usually present on the fore wings are -stated to occur in specimens emerging from chrysalids that have been -kept in a rather cold temperature for a certain length of time. - -An aberration known as _testudo_ has the black spots of the fore wings -united, and forming blotches on the front and inner areas; the ground -colour of the fore wings is lighter, and the hind wings are blacker. -This form occurs at large on the Continent, but it is rare; it has also -been produced in the course of temperature experiments. - -The only eggs of this butterfly that I have been able to obtain are the -batch figured on Plate 34. These were purplish with whitish ribs, but no -caterpillars hatched from them. Hellins, who squeezed a few eggs from a -freshly killed female, states that the colour apparently is a dull -green. The ribs vary from seven to nine in number. - -The caterpillar in the adult stage is black, with a speckled dark -ochreous band traversed by a black central line on the back; the sides -are dappled with ochreous grey; the under parts are brown dappled with -darker, and merging into the black. The spines are dark ochreous tipped -with black, and the head is shiny black and bristly. (The figure is -after Buckler.) - -These caterpillars live in large companies, often at the top of a -high elm tree, from which they may be dislodged by a well-aimed stick, -if this happens to be heavy enough to jar the branch when it reaches the -mark. Besides elm trees (_Ulmus_), they also may be found on willow and -sallow (_Salix_), aspen and poplar (_Populus_), white-beam (_Pyrus -aria_), and various fruit trees, especially cherry. Occasionally they -have been found on nettle, but the butterflies from these were small in -size. June is the best month for them. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 34. - -=Large Tortoiseshell.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 35. - -=Comma Butterfly.= - -1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 _male_; 7 _female (var. hutchinsoni)_.] - -The chrysalis (Plate 34) is greyish, tinged with pink or reddish, -sprinkled with greenish, and shaded with brown and black; the back of -the body nearest the thorax is adorned with golden spots. I once -obtained a number of these chrysalids in July at Mill Hill; they were -found suspended by the tail from the edges of boards that formed a -rickety old cart-shed standing at one end of a field and beneath an elm -tree. - -Although this butterfly is often common in the caterpillar state, the -perfect insect, which emerges in July and August, is more frequently -seen in the spring after hibernation than before that event. It probably -establishes itself in suitable quarters, in old trees, faggot stacks, -barns, etc., for its long rest during the winter, at an early period -after emerging from the chrysalis. - -No doubt large numbers are destroyed by their great enemies, the -parasitic flies, chiefly perhaps the Hymenopterous _Apanteles_. An -observer states that from fifty chrysalids only one butterfly resulted, -all the others were found to be filled with parasites. In another case -of one hundred caterpillars, some collected when quite small, only one -was not "ichneumoned." - -These butterflies, in common with most other Vanessids, do not pair -until the spring, but Barrett cites an instance of caterpillars, from -eggs laid by a female in early September, being reared until about 1/2 -inch in length, when they apparently laid up for hibernation. - -Lanes margined with trees, especially elms, or the verges of woods, are -the most likely places in which to find the butterfly. At one time and -another it has been observed in nearly every county of England and -Wales, and also in some parts of Scotland, but not in Ireland. It -appears to be more or less common in all counties around London, -extending to Somerset in the west; to Cambs, Norfolk, and Suffolk in the -east; and to Northampton and Warwick in the Midlands. - -Abroad it is found throughout the greater part of Europe, Asia Minor, -and eastward to the Himalayas. - - -The Small Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa urticæ_). - -This butterfly is one of the most ubiquitous as well as prettiest that -we have in this country. Its reddish-orange colour, marked with yellow -patches, black spots, and blue crescents, gives it a charming appearance -as it sits on a flower, or even on the ground, with wings fully expanded -to the sunlight. When the wings are closed up, however, the butterfly -seems to disappear, as the under side of the wings is quite sombre in -colour. The only bright spot on the under side is the yellowish central -area of the fore wing, and when the wings are held erect over the -insect's back this is not seen, but only the tips of these wings, which -are of the same dull colour as the hind wings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.] - -The ground colour is subject to modification as regards the shade of -red in the orange, and this may be intense or reduced to just a mere -tinge. Specimens have been taken on the wing in which the colour was -some shade of buff, and the same kind of colour change will sometimes -result from an over-long exposure to the action of ammonia. The black -markings vary in size, and sometimes those on the costal area are more -or less connected or even confluent (Fig. 22); a greater or lesser -amount of blackish suffusion on the hind wings (Fig. 23) generally -accompanies confluence of the costal spots on fore wings. The two black -spots between veins 2 and 4 occasionally enlarge and unite, or, on the -other hand, they decrease in size to vanishing point. Some specimens -have black scales between the second costal spot and the black spot on -the inner margin, and the space between these two spots may be entirely -covered with black and so form a central transverse band (var. -_polaris_). A modification of this form is shown on Plate 38, lower -figure. The yellow patch between the second and third costal black spots -is sometimes continued right across the wings to the yellow spot on the -inner margin, and in this respect resembles an Indian form of the -species named _ladakensis_. Dwarf specimens result, in most cases, when -the caterpillars have fed on hop (_Humulus_); at least, this is so in -confinement. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.] - -The egg is at first green, but after a time becomes tinted with yellow -and the ribs stand out clear and transparent. The eggs are laid in a -cluster on the under side of a terminal leaf of a nettle plant in May -and again in July. - -The adult caterpillar is yellowish, closely covered with black speckling -and short hairs; there is a black line down the centre of the back, and -this is bordered on each side by the clear ground colour. The spiracles -are black ringed with yellow, and there is a yellowish line above them. -The yellowish spines have black tips. Head black, hairy, and speckled -with yellow. Individuals of another company were almost entirely black, -the spines alone being tinged with yellow. These caterpillars are -gregarious from the time they hatch from the egg until about the last -stage. - -The chrysalis is most often of some shade of grey and sometimes tinged -with pinkish. The points on the upper parts of the body are in some -examples metallic at the base, and occasionally the metallic lustre -spreads over the thorax and other parts as well. - -There are two broods in the year, one in June, the other in August and -September. The latter brood, or at least some of the butterflies, -hibernate and reappear in the earliest sunny days of spring. They have -been seen on the wing as early as January and February (1896), and as -late as December. - -The geographical range of this species extends through Europe and Asia -to Japan. - - -The Peacock (_Vanessa io_). - -Unlike the last species referred to, this handsome butterfly is more -frequently seen in the autumn than after hibernation. It is not likely -to be mistaken for any other kind, for on its brownish-red velvety wings -it bears its own particular badge, the "peacock eyes." The marks on the -hind wings are more like the "eyes" on the tail feathers of the peacock -than are those on the fore wings, and the brownish-red on these wings is -confined to a large patch below the eye-mark, the remainder being -blackish, powdered with yellow scales on the basal area. Some specimens -have a blue spot below the "eye" on the hind wings, and the name -_cyanosticta_ has been proposed for this form by Raynor. The under side -is blackish, with a steely sheen, and crossed by irregular black lines; -the fore wings are tinged with brown on the inner area, and the central -dot and a series of dots beyond are ochreous; the hind wings have an -ochreous central dot. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 36. - -=Large Tortoiseshell.= - -1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 37. - -=Small Tortoiseshell.= - -_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -In a state of nature the butterfly seems little given to variation. In -rearing from the caterpillar, however, some curious aberrations -occasionally crop up. In my early days of collecting I raised a number -of specimens from caterpillars selected from a large brood; every one of -these butterflies was of a dull brownish colour and had a greasy -semi-transparent appearance. I regret to add that I set them all at -liberty as they did not come up to my, then, standard of what a Peacock -butterfly should be. Now and then specimens are bred from collected -caterpillars, in which the eye spots are represented by a broad white -cloud-like suffusion on the fore wings, and by a pale roundish patch on -the hind wings; in conjunction with this the black costal spots of the -fore wings are all more or less united (see Plate 41). This extreme -variety is known in the vernacular as the "Blind Peacock," and as _ab. -belisaria_ in science; between it and the typical form there are all -kinds of intermediate modifications, and one of these is also shown on -the plate referred to. It may be interesting to remark that similar -varieties have been produced by subjecting the chrysalids at a -particular period to a very low temperature. Readers who may wish to -know more about "Temperature Experiments" are referred to a pamphlet on -the subject by Dr. Max Standfuss. - -The egg, an enlarged figure of which will be found on Plate 39, is -olive green in colour, and has eight ribs, which start just above the -base and turn over the top. The eggs are laid in April or May in batches -on the upper part of nettle plants and under the young leaves. - -The mature caterpillar is velvety black with white dots, and the -divisions between the rings of the body are well marked. The spines are -black and rather glossy, and besides this clothing, the body is also -provided with short hair which gives the velvety appearance. The head -and a plate on the next ring, also the legs, are shining black; the -prolegs are blackish, tipped with yellowish. When quite young they are -greenish-grey, and although hairy are without spines. The caterpillars -usually feed in companies in June and July on the common stinging -nettle. They have also been found on hop. Once or twice I have reared -caterpillars of this butterfly, and also those of the Small -Tortoiseshell and the Red Admiral, on hop, but the result has been -disappointing, as the specimens produced were always small in size. The -individuals for these experiments were obtained from nettle, and were -generally about half grown at the time they were put on the hop diet. - -The chrysalis is figured on Plate 39. Its colour may be pale greenish, -greyish, pale brown, or brownish-grey, but is usually stippled with -blackish, especially the antennæ and the outline of the wing-cases. Some -of the points on the thorax and the ring, or rings, next to it have a -metallic lustre. Two chrysalids among those resulting from my hop-fed -caterpillars were more or less suffused with the metallic sheen. It does -not seem to be very clearly known where the caterpillars retire to for -pupation. Those that I have found have been under a tent-like -arrangement of the lower nettle leaves. In confinement, however, I have -noted that in a roomy cage they all go to one end of it and suspend -themselves from the roof; in a large flower-pot they crowd together in -much the same way. - -The butterfly is on the wing in August and September, and frequents -all and every kind of ground where flowering plants, especially the -taller kinds, are available; clover fields are attractive, and so also -are orchards. It passes the winter in some hollow tree trunk, wood -stack, or possibly buildings of some kind, and in the spring it again -comes forth. March and April are the usual months for its reappearance, -but in 1900 it was seen flying over the snow on February 17. The time -last mentioned is probably an unusual one, but it is interesting to note -that a very similar observation was made by Harris, who in 1778 wrote in -his remarks on this butterfly, "I have seen them flying in February, -when the snow has been on the ground." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 38. - -=Small Tortoiseshell.= - -1, 2 _female_; 3, 5 _male_; 4 _var._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 39. - -=Peacock Butterfly.= - -_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -Usually the Peacock butterfly assumes the perfect state but once in the -year. There is, however, a record of half-grown caterpillars being found -in September, and that these produced butterflies in due course. - -Although not always abundant, the butterfly is to be, or has been, found -in almost every part of the kingdom, excepting perhaps north of the -Caledonian Canal in Scotland. Around Bishop Auckland and in other parts -of the county of Durham, and also in Northumberland, it was common some -forty years ago, but it seems to be hardly ever seen there now. The same -applies to other northern localities where it was once plentiful. Its -distribution includes the whole of Europe, Asia Minor, Siberia, -Amurland, Corea, and Japan. - - -The Camberwell Beauty (_Vanessa antiopa_). - -This is a large and handsome insect; its chocolate-brown wings are -bordered with ochreous speckled with black scales. The border is -variable in width, and this is occasionally so wide that it partly or -completely hides the blue spots, which in the ordinary form are placed -on a dark band just before the ochreous border. Such specimens are known -as var. _hygiæa_ or var. _lintneri_ (Plate 41); but in the former form -the yellow spots on the front edge of the fore wing are absent, and in -the latter variety these spots are sometimes united and form a blotch. -One authority states that the proportion of these extreme variations in -nature is about 1 in 500. The same form may be produced by subjecting -summer chrysalids to a temperature of about 110 deg. Fahr. during three -to five consecutive days, the chrysalids being placed in this heat four -times a day, and for a period of one hour each time. Dr. Max Standfuss, -who has made many experiments with this and other butterflies, states -that the result of such treatment as that adverted to, and as regards -this species, has been the production of as many as seven of the -varieties among forty specimens. It would seem probable, then, that the -varieties occurring in the open are from chrysalids that received a -greater amount of heat than those that produce the ordinary butterfly. - -It has been stated that the borders are ochreous, but this only applies -to the specimens seen in the summer or early autumn. The butterflies -hibernate, and when they leave their winter retreats in the spring, the -colour of the border is considerably paler and often even white. For -some time it was considered that white borders were a peculiarity of the -British Camberwell Beauty and stamped it a genuine native. Probably -there are some who may still hold this opinion. An example of each form -is represented on Plate 43, the upper one was taken in the spring, and -the other in the autumn. Both belong to Mr. J.A. Clark, to whom I am -indebted for their loan. - -The egg is at first deep ochreous yellow, changing through olive brown -to red brown, and a day or two before the larva hatches out becoming -leaden grey. The ribs, which are eight or nine in number, are most -prominent below the top, and disappear before the base is reached. The -eggs are laid on twigs or stems in small batches of 30 or 40 up to large -ones of 150 to 250. - -The caterpillar has been described by Mr. Frohawk, who gives a full -account of the life-history of this species in the _Entomologist_ for -1902 and 1903. The following is an abridgement of his description. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 40. - -=Peacock Butterfly.= - -1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 41. - -1, 3 =Peacock vars.=; 2 =Camberwell Beauty var.=] - -The head is bilobed, having a deep notch on the crown, and of a dull -black colour, covered with black warts, each emitting a white hair. The -ground colour of the body is deep velvety black, and densely sprinkled -with pearl-white warts, each emitting a fine white hair, some being of -considerable length, and the majority slightly curved. Down the centre -of the back is a series of rich deep rust-red shield-like markings, -which commences on the third segment and terminates on the eleventh -segment. In the centre of the anal segment is a shining black dorsal -disc, much resembling the head; the legs are black and shining, and the -four pairs of prolegs are rust colour, with a polished band above the -feet, and the anal pair are black with pale reddish feet. - -The caterpillars feed on sallow, willow, birch, and elm. They cover the -leaves of their food-plant with a silken web and live thereon in -companies, and do not separate until about to prepare for the chrysalis -state. - -The chrysalis. The dorsal half of the head and wing points are black, -and the ventral half orange. Some of the points on the body are tipped -with orange. The whole surface is finely and irregularly furrowed and -granulated. The ground colour is pale buff, covered with fine fuscous -reticulations. The entire surface is clothed with a whitish-powdery -substance, giving a pale lilac or pinkish bloom to the chrysalis, which, -however, is easily rubbed off, the chrysalis then assuming a brownish -hue. Our figure of the chrysalis is after Holland. - -Mr. Frohawk, who had female butterflies living under observation for -about three months, states that eggs were laid in April, May, and June. -Caterpillars from the first batch of 192 eggs hatched early in May, -nineteen days after they were laid. These were full grown by June 20, -and entered the chrysalis state soon after. The butterflies from these -commenced to emerge about the middle of July. - -He says: "Both sallow and willow are equally suitable food for the -larvæ, and birch is readily eaten, even when willow has formed the sole -food until the last stage; they will feed on elm. Nettle was not -appreciated, and not touched by them during the last two or three -stages." - -This butterfly appears to have first attracted the attention of the -earlier British entomologists about the middle of the eighteenth -century. Stephens, writing in 1827, remarks that "about sixty years -since it appeared in such prodigious numbers throughout the kingdom, -that the entomologists of that day gave it the appellation of the Grand -Surprise." Harris figured the butterfly under the name mentioned by -Stephens, and it has also been referred to by others as the "Willow -Beauty" and the "White Petticoat." Newman called it the -"White-bordered;" and from this, as well as from his description of the -butterfly, it would seem that he had not seen any specimen, caught in -Britain, with ochreous borders. Such specimens have most certainly been -captured in these islands, and occasionally in some numbers, as, for -example, in the autumns of 1872 and 1880. In the former year the -butterflies were seen or taken in a great many parts of the kingdom. The -single specimens that are taken now and then in the spring have -hibernated, and possibly they may have just come over from the -Continent. It is, however, equally possible that they may have arrived -in the country the previous autumn and passed the winter here. After the -invasion in the autumn of 1872, specimens were observed in January, -March, and April, 1873, at places widely apart. In 1881 single specimens -were taken in April in Surrey, Kent, and Brecknockshire; and in Essex -and at Hampstead in August. One or two specimens were taken in the -summer or autumn of the years 1884 to 1887 inclusive. In 1888 two were -captured in Essex in May; and in August, three in Kent, one each Surrey, -Hants, and Isle of Wight; and one in Kent in September. In 1889 a -specimen was taken in Surrey in April, one in Kent, and one in Cambs in -May; a few also in the autumn of that year. In 1891 a specimen was seen -at Balham in September. In 1893 one was taken in Epping Forest in April, -and one in South Devon in August. Single specimens were noted in -Oxfordshire, Lincolnshire, Berwick, and the Isle of Skye, in September, -1896, and one at Epsom in December of that year. In 1897 one was -recorded from Yorks (August), and one from Norfolk (September); and in -May, 1898, one was taken at Norwich. One or two were observed in August -or September, 1898 and 1899; and in 1900 there seems to have been an -invasion, on a small scale, of this butterfly in August into some of the -eastern and southern counties of England. It extended westward to -Somersetshire, and northward to Roxburghshire. A few were taken in -various southern localities, including south-east and north London, in -August and September of 1901. A specimen occurred in the Isle of Wight -in September, 1903, and one in September, 1904; and in the latter year -one was captured in August at Raynes Park in Surrey. In 1905 one -butterfly was taken at Harrow, Middlesex, on July 27; one at Norwich on -August 26, and one in Suffolk on September 29. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 42. - -=Camberwell Beauty.= - -_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 43. - -=Camberwell Beauty.=] - -A full record of this fine butterfly in the British Islands would occupy -too much space, but the details given above will show something of its -erratic occurrence since 1880. It visits Ireland occasionally, but there -are no recent reports of its having been seen there. - -Kane, in his _Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland_, mentions a -specimen taken in Co. Kerry, July 21, 1865; one from near Belfast [in -1875?]; and a third example seen by a friend "many years ago" near -Trillick, Co. Tyrone. The latter was "settled on the roadside, but not -captured, it being Sunday." - -Distributed throughout the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, -it is common in the Scandinavian Peninsula, whence probably our -specimens came; also in Germany. In some parts of the Continent it is, -however, almost as uncertain in its occurrence as in England. - - -The Painted Lady (_Pyrameis cardui_). - -The usual colour of this butterfly is tawny-orange, but in some -specimens, especially fresh ones, there is a tinge of pink, or a rosy -flush; the markings are black, and there are some white spots towards -the tips of the fore wings. The black markings on the hind wings are -subject to variation in size, and sometimes they run one into the other. -Occasionally this union of the spots is accompanied by blackish -suffusion spreading more or less over the entire surface of the wings, -so that they appear blackish with tawny-orange patches or clouds. A -somewhat peculiar variety of the species, kindly lent by Mr. J.A. Clark, -is shown on Plate 49. Specimens of this form, or some modification of -it, have been obtained in England, but very rarely. Similar examples -have also been found in other parts of the globe. Fig. 24 represents -another interesting aberration of this butterfly. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 44. - -=Painted Lady.= - -_Caterpillar, chrysalis and protection-web._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 45. - -=Painted Lady.= - -1, 3, 4 _male_; 2, 5 _female_.] - -The egg is at first green, and gradually becomes darker. It is -strongly ribbed from the base to the top, where the ribs become finer -and turn over towards the central hollow, at the bottom of which is the -micropyle. The fine cross-ribs form slight bosses at their junction with -the upright ribs. The eggs are laid on the leaves of the thistle, but -usually only one on a leaf. - -The caterpillar is rather stout for its length. It has a dark greyish -head, which is covered with short bristles. The ground colour of the -body varies from greyish-green and ochreous-grey to blackish, and in the -darker colour is generally freckled with paler, sometimes yellowish. -There is a black line along the back, often edged with yellowish, and -sometimes much broken up; the lines on the sides are yellowish, but not -always distinct; the line below the yellow-ringed black spiracles, -however, is generally broad and yellowish in colour. Although thistles -(_Carduus_) appear to be the plants most frequently eaten by these -caterpillars, they have sometimes been found feeding upon mallow -(_Malva_), burdock (_Arctium_), viper's bugloss (_Echium_), and even -nettle (_Urtica_). They commence life by fixing up the edges of a leaf -so as to form a sort of pocket in which to conceal themselves, but as -they eat away the fleshy part of the leaf their retreat is easily -detected. The hiding-place, or dining-room, of a full-grown caterpillar -is shown on the plate; change to the chrysalis is often effected in a -somewhat similar structure. - -The chrysalis is grey, ochreous-grey, or greenish; shaded or striped -with brownish. The raised points are burnished, and according to the way -light falls on them appear golden or silvery. This metallic effect is -also seen on other parts of the chrysalis, but chiefly on the back. - -This butterfly is a notorious migrant. Its proper home is probably in -Northern Africa, and there it, at times, becomes so exceedingly numerous -that emigration is possibly a necessity in the interests of future -generations of the species. Whatever the cause of their leaving may be, -there is no doubt about the fact that the butterflies do quit the land -of their birth in great swarms. Almost any part of the world may become -the dumping-ground of this surplus stock. Our own islands are frequently -favoured in this way, and it is most likely that if this were not so, -this pretty butterfly would not be so common throughout Great Britain as -it is in some years. The natural habit of the species is to go on -reproducing its kind throughout the year, and those individuals that -arrive here most certainly endeavour to do this in their new home. -Unfortunately our climate is not, as a rule, a suitable one for those -caterpillars which hatch from the egg late in the season, and although -some may complete their growth, and even attain the perfect state, the -butterfly, so far as is known, does not hibernate as do the -Tortoiseshells and the Peacock. It may therefore be assumed that the -specimens seen in May or June of any year are not native born, but early -immigrants, and that it is from such aliens that the caterpillars and -butterflies observed later in the year are descended. - -A curious habit of the Painted Lady, and also of the Red Admiral, is -that of continuing on the wing long after other kinds of butterfly have -retired to their resting-places for the night. Both have been seen -flying about at dusk, and have been recorded as attracted by light on -more than one occasion. - -It has been noted that these butterflies, in early summer, usually occur -singly, and seem to become attached to some short stretch of ground, -over which they career to and fro with almost mechanical regularity. -They may be struck at with the net again and again, but do not desert -their beat. Even if caught and released again they appear to be -undismayed, and resume their interrupted patrol either at once or very -shortly afterwards. The later butterflies also are not afraid of the -net, and will repeatedly return to some favourite perch after being -struck at and missed. - -Although the butterfly has been observed, sometimes in abundance, in -every part of the British Islands, even to the Shetlands, its occurrence -in any given locality is always uncertain. In some years it may be -fairly common in the early part of the year and very scarce later on. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 46. - -=Red Admiral.= - -_Eggs enlarged; young and adult caterpillars; chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 47. - -=Red Admiral.= - -1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] - -A North American species, _Pyrameis virginiensis_ (_huntera_), has been -once or twice, since 1828, reported as captured in England, but its -occurrence in this country can only be regarded as accidental. - - -The Red Admiral (_Pyrameis atalanta_). - -The vivid contrast of black and scarlet in this butterfly will certainly -arrest the attention of even the least observant. But Nature, ever -excellent in her colour schemes, has toned down the glare of the scarlet -bands by the addition of some splashes and dots of white above them on -the fore wings, and some dots of black on those of the hind wings. Then, -by way of a finish, there is a delicate tracing of blue along the outer -margin of the fore wings, and a touch of the same colour at the angle of -the hind wings, the scalloped margins of all the wings being white -relieved by black points. On the under side the combination of colour on -the fore wings is much the same as above, but there is also some blue -tracing on the central area, and the tips harmonize with the hind wings, -which are mottled with various shades of brown, traversed by wavy black -lines, and have a more or less square pale spot on their front edges. - -The ordinary variation in this butterfly consists of slight differences -in the tone of the red markings, which ranges from the normal scarlet in -one direction to almost crimson, and in the other to orange-yellow. The -bands on the fore wings may be broken up into two, or sometimes three, -distinct parts; and a specimen with the bands of hind wings marked with -yellow has been noted. There is often a white dot in the bands of the -fore wings, and this occurs in both sexes. - -A somewhat rare variety is represented on Plate 49. It was reared from -one of three caterpillars casually picked up at Erith, and is now in Mr. -Sabine's collection. Somewhat similar specimens have been figured -elsewhere. One of these was bred from a caterpillar found at Ashton in -1867, and another was captured in Jersey in 1893. All these varieties -seem to be modifications of the form named _klemensiewiczi_ by Schille, -and which was figured by Esper as a variety of _atalanta_ in 1777. This -form has also resulted from temperature experiments on the chrysalis, of -the kind previously adverted to. - -The egg when first laid is green in colour, but as the caterpillar -matures within the colour changes to greenish-black, with the ten ribs -showing up more or less transparent. The egg is laid in an upright -position on nettle leaves and young shoots, but not in batches like -those of the Tortoiseshell, etc. - -The caterpillar varies in colour. Some are blackish freckled with white, -with two yellow stripes, sometimes broken up, on the sides; and the rows -of branched spines yellow, except those nearest the head, which are -black or tipped with black. Others are greyish, or grey marked with -yellowish-green. Others, again, are dark brownish, with the spines on -the back pale, and those on the sides black; or all the spines may be -shining black (Hellins). - -The chrysalis is greyish, prettily ornamented with gold along the centre -of the back and on the thorax and head. The projections are also tinged -with metallic gloss. It is generally suspended under a canopy of nettle -leaves. - -The caterpillars do not live in companies like those of the Peacock -and Tortoiseshells, but each individual constructs for itself a kind of -tent (see Plate 48) by spinning together the leaves of its food-plant, -the common stinging-nettle. Although the caterpillar is well concealed -in such hiding-places when newly made, it "gives itself away" when it -has partly consumed its home. It has been found on pellitory -(_Parietaria officinalis_), and also on hop (_Humulus_); but I have -found that caterpillars fed on hop alone always produce small -butterflies. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 48. - -=Red Admiral.= - -_Caterpillar's shelter-tent, and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 49. - - 1, 2 _Red Admiral var._ - 3, 4 _Painted Lady var._] - -The caterpillars, which in a state of Nature are often badly -"ichneumoned," have been noted in England as early as the end of June -and as late as October. In the South of Europe they have been seen in -February. - -The butterflies seen in spring and early summer, up to, say, the -beginning of July, are supposed to have wintered in this country, but -there is no positive evidence, that I can find, that the butterfly does -hibernate here. It is, however, most probable that they are arrivals -from abroad. The species is found throughout Europe and North Africa, -Northern Asia, and North America, and it may be suspected of migration, -although there is, perhaps, not such conclusive evidence on this point -as in the case of its cousin, the Painted Lady. - -Anyway, unless we admit immigration, it seems difficult to understand -why this butterfly should suddenly become common in some British -localities from which it has been almost or quite absent for several -years. Again, we rarely hear of butterflies moving about at night, but -the Red Admiral, as well as the Painted Lady, are known to do this. If -it does hibernate in this country it is very late in taking up winter -quarters, as it is seen on the wing at the end of October, and sometimes -even in November; it has also been known to emerge from the chrysalis in -the latter month. It does not appear in the spring with other -hibernating species, and is rarely seen before the end of May, but June -seems to be about the normal time. - -In the autumn it is fond of making excursions into the flower garden -and the orchard, where it takes toll from flower and fruit, an over-ripe -pear or plum being its special weakness. The blossoms of ivy, hop, -thistle, teazle, etc., are attractive, but a tree-stem that has been -bored by the caterpillar of the goat moth will be visited by nearly -every Red Admiral in the district. One observer mentions that he once -saw quite thirty of these butterflies gathered around one wounded birch -tree on Wimbledon Common. There was not room for all to imbibe at the -same time, but those unable to satisfy their desire at the moment were -content to sit around and await a favourable opportunity of joining in -the feast. The seductive fluid obtained from such trees is evidently -more potent than the nectar from flowers, as under its influence the -insect is so listless that it may be taken up between the finger and -thumb. - -Its range extends throughout the British Islands, and seems to be very -similar to that of the Painted Lady. - - -The Silver-washed Fritillary (_Argynnis paphia_). - -The wings of this fine butterfly are fulvous, with the veins and spots -black; the spots on the hind wings are band-like, and the central spots -on the fore wings are sometimes connected. The female is paler than the -male, and is without the heavy black scales (_androconia_) on veins 1, -2, and 3; the basal third of the fore wing, and a larger area of the -hind wing, tinged with greenish. The form of the female with all the -wings greenish is the var. _valesina_ (Plate 52), and between this and -the type there are various intergrades, one of which is shown on the -plate. Specimens with white spots on the fore wings, and chiefly in the -males, are sometimes not uncommon in the New Forest, as, for instance, -in the year 1893, when quite a large number were secured. Very much more -rarely white spots occur on all the wings (Plate 57, Fig. 1). In a very -remarkable male specimen, taken in the New Forest in 1881, the central -area of all four wings is black, and the veins beyond are broadly edged -with the same colour. A curious female aberration has the central black -spots much reduced or absent, whilst those on the outer margin are -united, and form elongate blotches between the veins, the upper one -being wedge-shaped. Aberrations of the _valesina_ form, similar to that -figured on Plate 57, Fig. 2, and Fig. 25 on next page, are not often met -with; the ground colour is greenish, but much suffused and clouded with -black. Now and then gynandrous specimens are obtained, the one side -normal male and the other side typical female, or var. _valesina_. - -The egg when newly laid, in July, is whitish tinged with green, ribbed, -and cross-furrowed, the alternate ribs not extending to the top. As the -caterpillar matures, the egg-shell appears blackish and the ribs hoary. - -The caterpillar when full grown is velvety black with two bright yellow -lines along the back; the spines are of a reddish-ochreous colour with -the extreme tips and branches black. There are only two on the first -ring, and these are inclined forward over the head. The chrysalis is of -a pale ochreous colour, streaked and mottled with brownish; the hollow -part of the back has a brilliant golden sheen, and the points on the -rest of the body are gold tipped. Suspended by the anal hooks to a -silken pad spun on a twig, rock, or other object in the vicinity of its -feeding-place, it is capable of much activity in the way of wriggling -when touched, and displays the beauty of its metallic adornment to the -greatest advantage when so engaged. - -The caterpillar hatches in August, and after eating its egg-shell and -nibbling a leaf or two of dog-violet (_Viola canina_), goes into winter -quarters whilst in its second skin, and consequently very small; the -spines, which are such an imposing feature of the adult caterpillar, -have not yet appeared. In April, after feeding again, it moults the -second time, and the spines are then disclosed. - -Sometimes caterpillars continue to feed in the autumn instead of -hibernating. This, at least, has happened to Mr. Frohawk on two -occasions, notably in 1893, when he had several individuals of a brood, -from eggs laid by a female of the _valesina_ form, that departed from -the usual custom of their kind by feeding and growing until they -eventually passed through all the stages and emerged perfect butterflies -in September and October of that year. Something similar occurred in a -brood that he was rearing in the autumn of 1895, but on this occasion -only one caterpillar continued to feed beyond the normal time. - -The English name by which we now know this, the largest of the six -British Argynnids, seems to have been given to it by Moses Harris in -1778. Sixty years or so before that date it was called the "Greater -Silver-streaked Fritillary." Fortunately, in this case, as in others -where the vulgar tongue is entomologically concerned, the law of -priority does not apply, so that the name Silver-washed, which so well -expresses the underside ornamentation, may be retained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25. - -=Aberration of var. valesina.=] - -The butterfly is probably to be found in most of the Southern English -and Welsh counties, especially where there are extensive woods. In North -Devon, however, it occurs in places where there is not much in the way -of woodland. It is abundant in the New Forest, and also in some parts of -Ireland. Although it has been observed as far north as the Clyde, it is -scarce in North England and Scotland. The _valesina_ form is to be seen, -in July and August, in the New Forest every year, and sometimes in -numbers. This variety has been reported from Kent, Sussex, Devon, and -Dorset; also from "near Reading" and "the border of Hertfordshire." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 50. - -=Silver-washed Fritillary.= - -1, 3 _male_; 2, 4, 5 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 51. - -=Silver-washed Fritillary.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -Abroad, the typical form is distributed through Europe and Asia to -China, Corea, and Japan. The _valesina_ variety is uncommon in Northern -Europe, but in some parts of China it seems to be the dominant form. - - -The High Brown Fritillary (_Argynnis adippe_). - -Bright fulvous with black spots and veins. The female is not so bright -in tint as the male, and is without the thick patch of scales on veins 2 -and 3. The series of black spots parallel with the outer margin of the -fore wing are normally six in number, but the third is usually small and -sometimes absent, whilst the fourth and fifth are often much larger than -others of the series. In the corresponding row on the hind wing the -first and third spots are sometimes wanting. On the under side the -silvery spots are generally as seen in Plate 54, but they are subject to -modification, and not infrequently are absent from the tips of the fore -wings, and sometimes from the outer margin of the hind wings also. A -very rare aberration has the central area of the fore wings black on the -upper and under sides; the hind wings are black above with fulvous -lunules on the outer margin, and the silvery spots on the under side are -reduced to five, and these are confined to the basal area. In another -remarkable form the hind wings above are similar to the last-mentioned -variety, but on the under side the silvery spots on the basal half are -united and form a large patch, which is divided by the nervures, and -there are no silvery spots on the outer margin. The variety shown on -Plate 57 has the under side of the hind wings buff in colour, the -markings on the outer margin are reddish-brown with a few silvery scales -towards the anal angle, and the basal silvery spots are confluent, -agreeing in the latter character with the preceding variety, and also -with var. _charlotta_ of the next species. In var. _cleodoxa_ the spots -on the under side are yellowish instead of silvery, but the red spots on -the outer area are sometimes silver centred; this form is only rarely -found in Britain. Possibly some of the reputed British examples of _A. -niobe_ may have been referable to _cleodoxa_, but what appears to be -more certain is that the actual occurrence of _niobe_ in England is -exceedingly doubtful. - -The egg when newly laid is yellowish-green; it afterwards turns pink, -and then rosy red; during the winter it changes to greyish or -bluish-green. As a rule, the eggs are laid at the end of July, and the -caterpillars do not hatch until the following March or early in April. -In 1893, however, Mr. Frohawk had a few caterpillars hatch out between -the middle of August and September 20, from a number of eggs laid at the -end of June. One of these, fed up, pupated on October 13, and the -butterfly emerged on November 21. The majority of the eggs remained over -to the following spring. According to an observation made by Mr. W.H.B. -Fletcher, the caterpillar is fully formed soon after the egg is laid, -but remains within the shell all the winter. - -The caterpillar, which feeds upon dog-violet, and also the sweet violet, -is figured on Plate 53. The head is pinkish-brown, covered with short -greyish bristles. Body black, incrusted with ochreous grey on the sides, -and on the back marked with ochreous grey on the hinder half of each -ring; dorsal line white. The branched spines are pinkish-brown. - -The chrysalis is deep brown, freckled with paler; points along the -back of the body brilliant greenish-golden, as also are the four points -on the thorax. The wing-cases are rather paler. The foregoing brief -description was taken on July 10, and the butterfly emerged five days -afterwards. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 52. - -=Greenish Silver-washed Fritillary.= - -_Var. valesina, female._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 53. - -=High Brown Fritillary.= - -_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -Barrett says, "Apparently found in most of the larger woods of the -southern counties, from Kent, Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk on the east, -to Devonshire, Glamorganshire, and Merionethshire on the west; also in -similar situations through the north-western counties and the more -sheltered woods of the Midlands to Herefordshire, Shropshire, -Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire. Found in several localities in Yorkshire, -in the favoured Grange and Silverdale districts of Lancashire, and near -Lake Windermere in Westmoreland, its extreme northern boundary being -reached in Cumberland." - -It is widely distributed over Europe, and its range extends into Asia -Minor and Amurland. In China and Japan it is represented by various -forms, the commonest of which is var. _locuples_. - - -The Dark Green Fritillary (_Argynnis aglaia_). - -This butterfly is bright fulvous in the male, paler in the female; the -latter sex is blackish towards the base, and has paler spots on the -outer margin. The black marking is pretty much as in the previous -species, but the male has the black scales (_androconia_) on veins 1 and -2, and these are less conspicuous. The basal two-thirds of the hind -wings is greenish on the under side. The silvery spots are arranged in -fairly regular series, and there are no silvery centred red spots -between the two outer series. The blackish crescents on the outer margin -of the fore wings are edged with silver, but this is chiefly towards the -tips of the wings. - -There is some variation in the tone of the ground colour, lighter or -darker than normal in both sexes; the female seems to be the most -variable in this respect, and sometimes, especially in the north, -examples of this sex are much suffused with blackish or greenish-black. -Occasionally the colour is quite pale, as shown in the middle figure on -Plate 61, and sometimes it is clouded with greyish. The black spots are -apt to run together, and so form bands and blotches. An example of this -kind of aberration is shown on the plate. - -Var. _charlotta_ differs very little from the type on the upper side, -but on the under side of the hind wings the basal silvery spots are -united, as shown in the upper reverse side figure on the plate. This -variety was known to the entomologist of Haworth's time as the "Queen of -England Fritillary," and there is a figure of it in Sowerby's "British -Miscellany," which was published in 1806. - -The egg is yellowish when first laid, and a day or two afterwards -violet-brown rings appear above the base and the apical half. It is -ribbed and finely cross-ribbed, and some of the ribs are continued to -the truncate and slightly depressed top. - -When full grown the caterpillar is shining purplish-grey, thickly mixed -with velvety black; the grey is most in evidence between the rings and -along the lower part of the sides. There is a yellow stripe along the -middle of the back, and this has a central black line of irregular -width; along the lower part of the sides there is a row of reddish -spots, and these are connected by a fine yellowish line. The black -spines are branched, and, except on the first three rings, which have -only two rows, arranged in three rows on each side of the yellow stripe. -The head is glossy black, and, like the body, hairy. (_Adapted from -Buckler._) - -It feeds in May and June on dog-violet, and has been reared on garden -pansy. The chrysalis has the head, thorax, and wing-cases black, very -glossy, and marked with pale brownish; the body is pale brownish, and -the points black. Suspended in a tent-like arrangement of leaves. - -Moorlands, downs, sea-cliffs, and flowery slopes are the kind of -situations most to the fancy of this agile butterfly. It is on the wing -in July and August, and is much more easily seen than caught. However, -it is rather fond of perching on the taller kinds of thistles, and is -then not difficult to capture, if quietly approached. It is common -locally in most of the English and Welsh counties. In Ireland it seems -to be chiefly attached to the coast, and is plentiful in some of its -localities. In Scotland it occurs in many suitable districts, but Skye -is the only one of the isles from which it has been reported. Its -distribution extends through Europe and Asia to Amurland, China, and -Japan. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 54. - -=High Brown Fritillary.= - -1, 4, 5 _male_; 2, 3 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 55. - -=Dark Green Fritillary.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - - -The Queen of Spain Fritillary (_Argynnis lathonia_). - -In shape and in general appearance this butterfly is not unlike a small -example of the Silver-washed Fritillary; the large silvery, or sometimes -pearly, blotches on the under side of the hind wings at once reveal its -higher British rank. When flying it has a curious resemblance to the -Wall, and sometimes it has been taken when the captor supposed that he -was netting a specimen of that plebeian butterfly. The black markings on -the upper side vary somewhat in size, and occasionally those on the -front area, or those on the inner area of the fore wings, are more or -less confluent; very rarely the wings are suffused with a steely-blue or -bronze colour. The specimens occurring in this country do not, however, -exhibit so much variation as has been observed in this butterfly abroad. - -I have not seen any of the early stages. The figures of the caterpillar -and the chrysalis (Plate 58) are after Hübner, and the following -descriptions of the egg and other stages are adapted from the detailed -life-history of the species by Mr. Frohawk, published in the -_Entomologist_ for 1903:-- - -"The egg is one-fortieth of an inch high, of a rather straight-sided -conical form, widest at the base, where it is smooth and rounded off at -the edge. There are about forty longitudinal keels, irregularly formed -and of different lengths, some not reaching halfway up the side, and -others running the entire length from base to crown, where they -terminate abruptly, and form a series of triangular peaks round the -summit surrounding the granulated micropyle; the spaces between the -keels are finely ribbed transversely. When first laid it is of a very -pale lemon-yellow colour, inclining to ochreous, appearing almost white -in certain lights; the colour gradually deepens, becoming yellower with -a greenish tinge. On the fifth day the crown of the egg assumes a dull -grey, finally changing to a lilac-grey." - -The female butterfly, when placed in the sunshine, laid about a hundred -eggs during the day--August 7. These were mostly placed singly on the -leaves or other parts of a plant of heart's-ease (_Viola tricolor_), but -some were laid on the gauze cover of the cage. All the caterpillars -hatched out on August 14. - -The caterpillar when full grown is velvety black, densely sprinkled with -tiny white dots, each bearing a black bristle; there are six rows of -spines, which are of various shades of brown with yellowish bases and -shining black bristles; along the back there are two white streaks on -the fore part of each ring, and white warts emitting black bristles on -the hind part. The head is amber-coloured above, but black below, and is -covered with bristles like the body. - -The chrysalis has the head, thorax, and wing-cases shining olive-brown; -the body chequered and speckled with olive-brown, ochreous, black, and -white. The spiracles are black and conspicuous, and the points on the -body are amber-coloured. The thorax and first two body rings have -brilliant burnished silver-gilt ornamentation. - -The butterflies commenced to emerge on September 25, and between that -date and the 28th ten came out. Although he succeeded in rearing almost -all the caterpillars to the chrysalis, no less than eighty died in this -stage, and he states that "there is no doubt that the late autumn -English climate is quite unsuited for the existence of this species," as -well as for others that come to us from abroad. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 56. - - 1, 2, 3 _Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ - 4, 5 _Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ - 6, 7 _Heath Fritillary vars._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 57. - - 1, 2 _Silver-washed Fritillary vars._ - 3 _High Brown Fritillary var._] - -Moses Harris, in 1775, gave this butterfly the name "Queen of Spain;" it -had been known to English entomologists from 1710 until then as the -"Lesser Silver-spotted Fritillary." Gamlingay in Cambridgeshire seems to -have been the only British locality in which it had been observed until -1795, when Lewin mentions a specimen taken in a Borough (London) garden -in August. All the Cambridge specimens had been captured in the month of -May. Stephens, writing in 1828 ("Ill. Brit. Ent. Haust.," i. 37), says-- - -"Previously to the year 1818, few cabinets possessed even a single -specimen; and from the very few known instances of its capture (six -only, according to Mr. Haworth), there is reason to believe that some of -the specimens at that time [1803] placed in collections were foreign; -but in the above remarkable year for the appearance of certain -papilionaceous insects, this species occurred simultaneously in several, -and very distant, parts, having been taken in August by Mr. Haworth at -Halvergate, in Norfolk; by Mr. Vigors in Battersea-fields; by myself at -Dover, and, during that and the following month, near Colchester; -Birchwood, Kent; and Hertford in plenty by others. At the latter place I -saw several specimens, but was not fortunate enough to secure any." - -The butterfly has been taken, chiefly odd specimens, in many of the -eastern and southern counties, from Norfolk to Dover, and almost always -in the autumn. It has also occurred at Scarborough (1868), and at least -once in Ireland (1864). - -The neighbourhood of Dover seems to have always been the most favoured -locality, and no less than twenty-five specimens were captured there in -1882. Several examples were also obtained at Dover in 1883, and a single -specimen in other parts of Kent in 1884 and 1885. The most recent -records are--Brighton, one example in 1892; Clifton, one in July, 1898; -Christchurch, one in August, 1899; Poole, one in 1901. There does not -seem to be any authentic record of the caterpillar having been observed -in Kent or any other British locality in which the butterfly has been -noted. This may possibly be due to its love of concealment. - -There are two flights of the butterfly in the year, one in the spring -and the other in the autumn. - -Females from the Continent may arrive on our east or south coasts in -May, and deposit eggs from which the autumn butterflies are developed. -Some of these might wander farther inland, but eggs would almost -certainly be laid on the spot. The fate of the caterpillars from -autumnal eggs would depend on the winter; if mild they, or at least some -of them, might manage to get through and attain the butterfly state -about May, but their doing so is rather doubtful. - -The species is widely distributed and often common on the Continent, and -its range extends to Persia, Northern Asia, and North Africa. In Eastern -Asia it is represented by var. _isoea_. - - -The Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Argynnis euphrosyne_). - -Some authors consider the smaller Fritillaries to be generically -separable from the larger kinds, and place this and the next species in -the genus _Brenthis_, whilst the Queen of Spain is referred to the genus -_Issoria_, Hübner. Here, however, they are retained in _Argynnis_. - -In colour and in the marking of the upper side the Pearl-bordered is -very like the High Brown, but, as will be seen from the figures, it is -much smaller in size, and the ornamentation on the under side is -different. There is one silvery spot at the base of the hind wings, a -larger one about the middle of the wings, and a row of spots on the -outer margin. The female is rather larger than the male, and darker at -the bases of the wings. - -[Illustration: _Pl. 58._ - -=Queen of Spain Fritillary.= - -_Caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 59. - -=Dark Green Fritillary.= - -1, 4 _male_; 2, 3, 5 _female_.] - -Variation on the upper side consists of more or less black suffusion on -the basal or general area of the wings, and an increase in the size of -the black spots, resulting in the formation of bands or patches; or the -black spots may be much reduced in size, and some of them entirely -absent. Some of the more striking kinds of aberration, both above and -below, are represented on Plate 56, Figs. 1-3, and Plate 65, Figs. 1-4. -The usual colour is sometimes replaced by buff, and this may be -yellowish or whitish in tint; occasionally white spots appear on the -wings. The life-history of this butterfly is depicted on Plate 60. - -The egg, which is laid in May or June, is whitish-green at first, and -afterwards turns brownish. It is distinctly ribbed, and the top is -somewhat rounded and hollowed in the centre. - -The full-grown caterpillar is black, and the numerous minute hairs with -which it is clothed give it a velvety appearance. There is a -greyish-edged black line down the middle of the back, and the spines on -each side of this are whitish or yellowish, with the tips and the -branches black; all the other spines are black. A greyish stripe runs -along the lower part of the sides, and this is traversed from the fourth -to the last ring by a blackish line. Head black, shining, downy, and -slightly notched on the crown. The natural food-plant is dog-violet -(_Viola canina_), but the caterpillar will also eat garden pansy, and -has been known to nibble a leaf of primrose. It retires for hibernation -when quite small, and recommences to feed in March. - -The chrysalis is brownish, with the raised parts of the thorax and head -greyish; the body is paler brown, and the points thereon are blackish. - -This butterfly seems to be fairly common in woods throughout England -and Wales, and it is often abundant in some of the more extensive -woodlands, especially in the southern counties. It used to be plentiful -in Northumberland and Durham, but has become scarcer in those counties, -and in some others in the north of England. It occurs in Scotland, and -is not uncommon in Sutherlandshire, but Kane does not include it in his -Irish catalogue. - -Clearings in woods are generally the best places in which to find this -pretty little Fritillary; but it also seems to have a fondness for the -margins of brooks and rills, where these run through or by the sides of -woods. Usually it is on the wing in May or June, but sometimes, in early -seasons, it puts in an appearance at the end of April. To entomologists -of a bygone age it was known as the "April Fritillary," but this name -would hardly be a suitable one for it in the present day. Very rarely a -few specimens have been taken in August; and there is at least one -record of caterpillars that had ceased feeding in July, in the usual -way, and were apparently settled down for hibernation, suddenly arousing -from their slumbers, and completing their growth in August. - -Abroad, the species is distributed throughout Europe, except the extreme -south, and extends into Armenia, Northern Asia Minor, the Altai, and -Amurland. It is stated to be double-brooded on the Continent. - - -The Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary (_Argynnis selene_). - -This butterfly differs from the last one referred to in having a rather -deeper colour on the upper side, and heavier black markings on the outer -margin of the hind wings. The female is slightly more orange in tint, -and has a series of pale spots on the outer margin of each wing. On the -under side the red markings are browner in tint, and there are more -silvery spots on the hind wings. Variation in colour and marking is -similar to that mentioned under the Pearl-bordered. On Plate 66 a white -spotted female and a specimen with the hind wings clouded with black are -represented. These are rather uncommon aberrations. The life-history of -this species is figured on Plate 62. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 60. - -=Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; partly grown caterpillar; chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 61. - -=Dark Green Fritillary vars.= - -1, 2, 4, 5 _male_; 3 _female_.] - -The egg is at first greenish, then yellowish, and afterwards greyish, -and then becoming blackish towards the hollowed top. The ribs seem to be -eighteen or twenty in number; laid in June or July on plants of -dog-violet. On emerging from the egg the young caterpillar devours most -of the shell. It is then of a pale olive colour with brownish warts, -from each of which there is a pale and rather long jointed bristle; the -head is black. The full-grown caterpillar is smoky pink and -velvety-looking. There is a brownish line along the middle of the back. -The spines are "ochreous in colour, tinged with pink, and beset with -fine pointed black bristles." The upper ones are rather stouter than the -others, and the pair on the first ring, the only spines on this ring, -are rather more than twice the length of the others, and are directed -forward over the head, thus giving the appearance of a pair of horns; -the second and third rings have each four spines, which are rather finer -than those on the rest of the body, which are arranged in six rows. A -pale pinkish stripe runs along the lower part of the body; just above -the feet. Head black and notched on the crown (Buckler). The chrysalis -is brown on the thorax and the body; the wing-cases are more ochreous -and marked with black near the edge. There is a black V-mark on the -thorax, with a silvery spot on each side, one silvery spot on each side -of the head, and other metallic spots on the body near the thorax -(Buckler). - -On the Continent there are two broods of the butterfly, and specimens -are occasionally seen in August in this country; one of these late -examples, taken by Mr. Barker in 1881, is shown on the plate (Fig. 6). -Sometimes one or two caterpillars of a brood in confinement will feed up -and attain the perfect state in August instead of settling down with -their companions for hibernation. - -The butterfly in June and July frequents similar places to those -favoured by the Pearl-bordered, and its distribution in Britain is -somewhat similar, although it is a more local species. It seems, -however, to be commoner in Scotland than the Pearl-bordered, and has -been recorded at least once from Ireland. - -Its range abroad extends farther east, as it is found in Corea. - - -The Heath Fritillary (_Melitæa athalia_). - -The ground colour of this butterfly, sometimes called the -"Pearl-bordered Likeness" or "May Fritillary," is brownish-orange, and -the markings are black or blackish; the bases of the wings are clouded -with blackish, and the fringes are white checkered with black. - -The ground colour varies in tint, and may be pale tawny or deep reddish. -The black markings are subject to modification in two directions; in one -leading up to almost complete disappearance from the central area, and -in the other they are much intensified and greatly obscure the ground -colour. Sometimes the whole of the wings, with the exception of a series -of orange spots on the outer area, are blackish. This form is known as -var. _navarina_. The left-hand figure at the bottom of Plate 68 shows an -aberration approaching this form, whilst the right-hand figure comes -close to var. _corythalia_. Specimens with all the wings thinly marked -with black, as in the fore wing of the variety last referred to, would -be referable to var. _obsoleta_. - -According to Barrett, specimens from Essex have the ground colour on -the under side of the hind wing much yellower than are the same parts in -specimens from Sussex. I have not noticed this, but some Essex examples -that I have seen were much darker and more heavily marked with black on -the upper side, and especially on the hind wings, than any that I have -seen from other parts of England, except, perhaps, a few individuals -from North Devonshire. These Essex specimens reminded me very much of -_M. dictynna_, a Continental species, with which, it appears, the Heath -Fritillary was confounded by some of the old authors. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 62. - -=Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler), -and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 63. - -=Queen of Spain Fritillary.= - -1, 2 _male_; 3, 4 _female_.] - -There is a good deal of variation on the under side, but chiefly of a -minor character, and most often unconnected with variation on the upper -side. The following are more important varieties. - -Var. _tessellata_, the Straw May Fritillary of Petiver, and figured by -him in 1717 and by Stephens in 1827, has the under side of the hind -wings entirely straw-coloured with black veins. There are three large -squarish yellow spots on the basal area, outlined in black; a yellow -central band, margined and traversed by black lines. On the outer margin -there is a series of yellow crescents, outlined in black. - -Var. _eos_ of Haworth (the Dark Underwing Fritillary) is the _pyronia_ -of Hübner and Stephens, and a modification of var. _corythalia_, Hübn. -On the under side the fore wings are fulvous, and have two black spots -in the discal cell, and a black band, intersected by the veins, on the -central area. On the hind wings the basal third is fulvous with eight -black spots; the central area is whitish intersected by the black veins. -On the yellow-tinged whitish outer area there is a series of -black-margined orange crescents; a row of black lunules precedes a thin -black line on the outer margin. - -The egg is upright, ribbed, and pale whitish-green in colour. As the -caterpillar matures the shell becomes greyish. The eggs were laid in a -cluster on a leaf of cow-wheat (_Melampyrum pratense_) as shown in the -figure, but failed to hatch. - -The full-grown caterpillar is black on the back, becoming olive tinged -on the sides and olive-brown underneath; the divisions between the rings -are olive. The whole of the upper surface, except a line along the -middle of the back, is dotted with white, and there are eleven -white-tipped orange or yellowish spines on each ring, except the last -two and the three nearest the head; the first and the last each have -four spines, the third has eight, and the second and the eleventh have -each ten spines. The head is black marked with white, and is clothed -with short, stiff, black hair or bristles (Buckler). The chrysalis is -pale whitish-ochreous, the markings on the wing-cases are black, and -those on the other parts are orange and black. - -Cow-wheat appears to be the chief food of the caterpillar, but it will -also eat, and has been found on, foxglove (_Digitalis purpurea_) and -woodsage (_Teucrium scorodonia_). Plantain is also said to be a -food-plant, but Buckler says that his caterpillars would not eat this. -The caterpillars are rather shy in their habits, and, except when the -sun is shining brightly, require to be carefully looked for among their -food-plant and the dead leaves, etc., around. They hatch from the egg in -July, feed for a few weeks, and then hibernate in companies under a web. -In April and May they become active again, feed up quickly, and appear -as butterflies in June and early July. - -The species is, unfortunately, becoming scarcer in England than it used -to be. It seems quite to have disappeared from some of the districts in -which it was formerly common. No doubt in one or two of its old and -well-known localities the butterflies, and perhaps the caterpillars -also, have been too freely taken, and its natural enemies have probably -completed the business. Clearings in woods or heathy borders of woods -are the kind of places this species appear to prefer. Its headquarters -in any given locality seems to be changed from time to time, so that the -exact spot where it will occur next year cannot be predicted from this -year's observations. - -The butterfly seems to be unknown in Scotland, and has only been -recorded from Killarney in Ireland. In England it is to be found in the -counties of Essex, Kent, Surrey, and Devonshire. - -Its geographical distribution extends through Europe into Asia Minor, -East Siberia, and Northern Amurland. In Corea and Japan it is -represented by a larger form known as var. _niphona_. - - -The Glanville Fritillary (_Melitæa cinxia_). - -This butterfly is bright brownish-orange with black markings, as shown -on Plate 71. The under side of the hind wings and the tips of the fore -wings are very pale yellowish; the former with two black-margined -brownish-orange bands, and lines of black dots; the tip of the fore wing -is also dotted and marked with black. The female is slightly paler, and -the markings are often blurred. - -There is variation in the black markings on the upper side. Sometimes -these are enlarged, but more often they are much reduced, and the -central one may be completely absent from all the wings. Connected with -the suppression of the middle black line above there is usually -aberration on the under side of the hind wings also, where the central -area is clear of black dots, and the basal area is fulvous, edged and -marked with black. Two very remarkable aberrations are represented on -Plate 65, Figs. 7, 8. - -The eggs, which are yellowish-white, and sometimes tinged with green, -are laid in a cluster on the under side of the tip of a leaf of the -narrow-leafed plantain (_Plantago lanceolata_). The caterpillars hatch -in July and August, and hibernate in companies under a web. The mature -caterpillar is black with white dots, and black bristles arising from -greenish warts. The red head, which is notched on the crown, and the red -fore legs distinguish this at once from the caterpillars of the Heath, -or the Marsh Fritillary. It feeds in early spring on plantain, but seems -to prefer _Plantago maritima_ to _P. lanceolata_ when both are present. - -The chrysalis is brownish in colour, and is ornamented with orange on -the thorax, and with orange points and black marks on the body. It may -be found in April and early May suspended from the lower parts of the -stems of the plantain or other plants around. Newman states that he -found "dozens of the chrysalids in company," but I have only -occasionally met with them, and always singly. - -Quite early in the eighteenth century this butterfly had only been -observed in England in Lincolnshire, where, according to Ray, it was -common, and in a wood at Dulwich. Petiver, who mentioned the last-named -locality, calls it the "Dullidge Fritillary." Wilkes in 1773 wrote of it -as the "Plantain Fritillary," although he gives clover and grass, as -well as plantain, as the food of the caterpillar. Moses Harris in the -Aurelian (1779) calls the butterfly the "Glanville Fritillary," and -states that it was named after Lady Glanville, who was interested in -butterflies, and whose will was disputed on that ground. This fact will -serve to show that entomology as a pursuit was not much in vogue at that -time, and that those who collected butterflies, etc., were apt to be -regarded by their friends as being--well, just a "wee bit daft." - -Both Wilkes and Harris, it may be remarked, seem to have been acquainted -with the caterpillar of this species as well as with that of the Marsh -Fritillary, and there seems little reason, therefore, to suspect that -they confused the two species. The localities given by the earlier -authors appear, however, to suggest that the butterfly they wrote about -may have been the Marsh Fritillary; but there is no direct evidence of -this. - -Stephens in 1827 ("Illustrations of British Entomology," Haustellata, -vol. i. p. 34) wrote-- - -"This is a very local species, and is found in meadows by the sides of -woods; in Wilkes' time it was not uncommon in Tottenham wood; recently -the places where it has been chiefly observed have been near Ryde and -the Sandrock Hotel, Isle of Wight; in the latter place in plenty: also -at Birchwood, and near Dartford and Dover, and in a wood near Bedford. I -believe that it has been found in Yorkshire." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 64. - -=Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= - -1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 65. - - 1, 2, 3, 4 _Pearl-bordered Fritillary vars._ - 5, 6 _Marsh Fritillary vars._ - 7, 8 _Glanville Fritillary vars._] - -There is no doubt that between 1858 and 1863 the butterfly was more -or less common on parts of the Kentish coast between Folkestone and -Sandgate, but it seems to be equally certain that the species has long -been absent from that part of England as well as from other localities -that have been mentioned, except the Isle of Wight, where it is still to -be found. It flies in May and June, and seems to have a preference for -the rougher parts of the undercliff; but I have seen butterflies and -caterpillars too on the higher slopes of St. Boniface. Whenever the -caterpillars are met with, it will be well to remember that only the -full-grown ones should be taken, as the smaller ones do not thrive very -well in confinement. A little self-denial in this matter will bring its -own reward in the shape of fine specimens for the cabinet, and the -pleasant reflection that the useless sacrifice of a number of -caterpillars has been avoided. - -The butterfly is widely spread and generally common on the Continent, -and in the Channel Islands it is plentiful in Alderney and Guernsey. Its -range extends into Asia Minor, Central Asia, and Siberia. - - -The Marsh Fritillary (_Melitæa aurinia_). - -This species, of which several forms are represented on Plate 73, is -subject to considerable variation in depth of colour, and also in size -and intensity of the markings, in all localities. The varieties here -referred to are more or less characteristic of the countries in which -they occur. To mention all the forms, or even those to which varietal -names have been given, would occupy more space than is available for the -purpose. - -Reddish-orange or bright tawny, veins black, breaking up the yellow or -yellowish transverse bands; there are three or four transverse black -lines, the first and second, counting from the base of the wing, not -always distinct; basal area more or less suffused with black. On the -under side the fore wings are fulvous, with faint traces of the -upper-side markings; the hind wings are rather redder, especially on the -outer half, and have yellowish markings, comprising some spots towards -the base of the wings, a band beyond the middle, a series of black -centred spots, and crescents on the outer margin. The above applies more -particularly to the form of the butterfly occurring in England and -Wales. - -The Irish form known as _præclara_ has the transverse band -straw-coloured, the red colour is more vivid, and the black veins and -cross-lines heavier; the area nearest the base of the wings is often -blacker. - -In a form occurring in Scotland, and known as var. _scotica_, the black -is still more intense, and the straw-coloured markings are dull in -colour. - -The egg is pale brownish and very glossy. It appears smooth towards the -rounded base, but is ribbed from just before the middle to the top. The -eggs are laid in batches on leaves of scabious, chiefly the Devil's bit -(_Scabiosa succisa_). - -The full-grown caterpillar is black, with a number of tiny whitish -dots, each bearing a short black hair; short black spines are arranged -in nine rows from ring four, the first ring is only hairy, the second -and third have each two spines. The head is black, with a groove down -the front and short hairs on the sides. The true legs are black, and the -false legs and the under parts of the body are dull rust-coloured. The -caterpillars hatch from the egg in June or July, and towards the end of -August they construct silken webs, in which they establish themselves -for hibernation. Early in March they recommence feeding, and under the -influence of much sunshine feed up quickly. Besides wild scabious, they -will eat honeysuckle and the garden kinds of _Scabiosa_. The chrysalis -is pale buff, with orange points on the body; the wing-cases are marked -with black and orange. The chrysalids are suspended from a silken web, -which is attached to a leaf or drawn-together leaves. The early stages -are figured on Plate 70. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 66. - -=Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.= - -1, 3, 4 _male_; 6 _do. (second brood)_; 7 _do. var._; 2, 5 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 67. - -=Heath Fritillary.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler), -and chrysalis._] - -Kane (_Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Ireland_), referring to this -species, remarks: "This butterfly has been known to increase so -prodigiously that whole fields and roads became blackened by the moving -myriads of larvæ. An instance of this was observed by the Rev. S.L. -Brakey, near Ennis, Co. Clare, where he drove out to see a reported -'shower of worms,' and found as above described, the larvæ being so -multitudinous in some fields that the black layer of insects seemed to -roll in corrugations as the migrating hosts swarmed over each other in -search of food. The imagines that resulted from the starved survivors -were extremely small and faded in colour." - -These caterpillars are destroyed in great numbers by Hymenopterous -parasites, chiefly _Apanteles_, and it is almost certain that a large -percentage of those collected will prove to have been stung. - -The butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and seems to affect damp -meadows, marshy ground on the sides of hills, and such kind of places. -It does not necessarily occur wherever its food-plant is abundant, but -scabious is always found to be present in the haunts of the butterfly; -so if we know that the insect occurs in a particular district we should -probably get a clue to its exact whereabouts by noting the likely places -in that district where the food-plant flourishes. - -Although it has seemingly disappeared from various English localities -where it was formerly common, the butterfly may be found in many parts -of the British Islands, but it is local and does not occur northwards -much beyond the Caledonian Canal. - -Abroad it spreads over Europe to Northern Africa, and its range extends -eastward through Asia to Amurland and Corea. - - * * * * * - -The fine butterfly next in order is regarded as a member of the Danainæ -by most authors. Although its generic position seems to be established, -its proper place in the classification of butterflies is still unfixed; -and even the question of its trivial or specific name is not finally -settled. According to Kirby, this butterfly is _Anosia menippe_, Hübner, -and not the true _Papilio plexippus_ of Linnæus, nor the _P. archippus_ -of Cramer. American authors, however, consider it to be the Linnean -_plexippus_, and give _menippe_ Hb. as a synonym. The species is here -retained in Danainæ, but Holland places it in Euploeinæ and Skinner in -the Family Lymnadidæ. - - -The Milkweed Butterfly (_Anosia plexippus_). - -The butterfly figured on Plate 120 is brownish-orange, with black veins -and margins on all the wings. White spots are arranged in double rows on -the black outer margin of each wing, and there are seven other rather -larger white spots on the black apical patch of the fore wings. The male -has a patch of black scales, covering the scent pouch, close to vein 2 -on the hind wings. - -The egg is long, oval in shape, with over twenty low upright ridges and -many cross-lines; is of a pale green colour; and is laid singly on the -food-plant of the caterpillar (various kinds of milkweed, especially the -commonest kind, _Asclepias cornuti_), and usually upon the under surface -of the upturned apical leaves near the middle. The egg state lasts only -about four days (Scudder). The caterpillar has the head smooth and -rounded, yellow, conspicuously banded with black. Body cylindrical, -tapering a little in front, naked, but with two pairs of long and very -slender black thread-like filaments, one pair, the longer, on the second -thoracic, the other on the eighth abdominal segment. The body is white, -with numerous slender black and yellow, and especially black, transverse -stripes, repeated with considerable regularity on each of the segments, -so that there are nowhere any broad patches of colour (Scudder). - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 68. - -=Heath Fritillary.= - -1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 69. - -=Glanville Fritillary.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -The chrysalis is stout and not elongated, largest in the middle of the -abdomen; where it is transversely ridged; elsewhere it is smooth and -rounded, with no striking prominences, but with little conical -projections at most of the elevated points, like those which half -encircle the body at the abdominal ridge, all of a golden colour except -the latter, which are situated in a tri-coloured band, black in front, -nacreous in the middle, and gilt behind (Scudder). - -According to Dr. Holland, "the butterfly is considered to be -polygoneutic, that is to say, many broods are produced annually; and it -is believed by writers, that with the advent of cold weather these -butterflies migrate to the South [in America], the chrysalids and -caterpillars which may be undeveloped at the time of the frosts are -destroyed, and that when these insects reappear, as they do every summer -in North America, they represent a wave of immigration coming northward -from the warmer regions of the Gulf States. It is not believed that any -of them hibernate in any stage of their existence. This insect sometimes -appears in great swarms on the eastern and southern coasts of New Jersey -in late autumn. The swarms pressing southward are arrested by the -ocean." Within quite recent years it seems to have effected a settlement -in Australia, "and has thence spread northward and westward, until in -its migrations it has reached Java and Sumatra, and long ago took -possession of the Philippines. Moving eastward on the lines of travel, -it has established a more or less precarious foothold for itself in -Southern England.... It is well established at the Cape Verde Islands, -and in a short time we may expect to hear of it as having taken -possession of the continent of Africa, in which the family of plants -upon which the caterpillars feed is well represented." - -So far as is shown by the published records, the actual number of -specimens of the Milkweed, or, as it is sometimes called, Monarch -butterfly, seen or caught in England between 1876, in which year it was -first observed in this country, and the present time, does not much -exceed thirty, and about one-third of these were obtained in September, -1885. In 1876 single specimens were captured at Neath, S. Wales; -Hayward's Heath and Keymer, Sussex; and Poole, Dorset. In 1896 single -specimens were reported as seen at Lymington, Hants, in May; Newlands -Corner, Surrey, in July; and the Lizard, Cornwall, in September. The -years in which the butterfly has been noticed in Britain are 1876, 1881, -1884, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1890, and 1896. It was first observed on the -Continent in 1877, when, according to Barrett, a specimen was taken in -La Vendée, France. In 1886, when half a dozen were recorded from -England, single specimens were obtained in Guernsey, and at Oporto and -Gibraltar. "More recently," Barrett states, "Mr. H.W. Vivian found it, I -believe not uncommonly, in the Canaries, and very kindly brought me a -specimen." - -There seems to be no question that the species is migratory in its -habits, but exactly how it reaches this country is not definitely known. -Neither is it known whether the species, having arrived, is able to -reproduce its kind here. From the fact of its recurrence in England for -four years in succession, the possibility of its breeding in this -country might be assumed. One objection to any such inference, however, -is that it is a many-brooded species, but, with the exception of two -records in 1896, all British specimens were captured or seen in August, -September, or October, and none seem to have been observed in the -earlier months of those years in which the autumnal butterflies were -obtained. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 70. - -=Marsh Fritillary.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar (after Buckler) -and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 71. - -=Glanville Fritillary.= - -1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5, 6, 7 _female_.] - -The Milkweeds (_Asclepias_) are not indigenous plants, but, as -pointed out by the late Mr. J. Jenner Weir, _A. purpurescens_ and _A. -tuberosa_ are hardy in this country. He endeavoured to ascertain whether -these plants, or either of them, were grown in any of the gardens in the -Cornish locality where four fresh specimens were captured in September, -1885. I do not find that the desired information was furnished. Recently -I have ascertained that _A. cornuti_, which grows to a height of four -feet, is used as a border plant in some parts of England. It is commonly -known as Swallow-wort, and is esteemed for its fragrant pale purple -flowers. - - * * * * * - -We now come to the Satyrinæ, which, as regards the number of species -belonging to it, is a very large sub-family. In Great Britain, however, -there are but eleven species, and although some of these are rather -local, none are really scarce, and most are common. - - -The Marbled White (_Melanargia galatea_). - -Older English names for the butterfly figured on Plate 75 are "Our -Half-mourner" (Petiver, 1717), "The Marmoris" (Wilkes), and "The -Marmoress" (Harris). The ground colour is white or creamy white, and the -markings are black. On the under side the markings are similar in design -to those on the upper side, but much fainter: the eye spots, which are -not always in evidence above, are well defined below, and especially so -on the hind wings. The female is generally whiter and larger than the -male, and has the basal half of the costa, or front margin of the fore -wing ochreous brown, and the markings on the under side of the hind -wings are tinged with the same colour. - -Variation consists chiefly of increase or decrease in the size of the -black markings. At least one specimen is known in which all the wings -are uniform smoky black. This is in the collection of Mr. A.B. Farn, and -was captured near Rochester, Kent, in 1871. Between this extreme and -specimens with the black markings of typical proportions there are -various modifications; but striking aberrations are rare in this -country. Sometimes there is entire or partial absence of black pigment. -A remarkable example of this kind of aberration, taken on the cliffs -between Dover and Walmer some years ago, is described as of a clear -milky-white colour, and has not, either on the upper or under side of -the wings, the smallest speck of black. The ground colour is sometimes -decidedly yellow, and very occasionally brownish. - -The life-history of this butterfly is figured on Plate 74. - -The egg is whitish, opaque, with a dark speck on the apex; base -flattened and slightly hollowed; finely reticulated, but without -distinct striations or anything resembling ribs. The eggs are laid in -July, and are not attached to anything. - -The caterpillar when full grown, is whity-brown in colour with brownish -lines. The head is brown, tinged with pink, and the tail-like points on -the last ring are pink. The head, as well as the body, is clothed with -short hair. - -The chrysalis is also whity-brown with a pinkish tinge, browner -speckling on the wing cases, and the body is marked down the back with -yellow. - -Hellins says, "It hibernates when very small, becomes full fed in June, -and changes to a pupa without suspending itself in any way, or making a -cocoon; I think it would hide itself, as my examples did; I found they -had got among the thick moss with which I had furnished the bottom of -their cage, and apparently made little hollows for themselves by turning -round." - -Cock's-foot grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) and cat's-tail grass (_Phleum -pratense_) are given as food-plants, but the caterpillars in confinement -seem to eat any kind of grass that is supplied. - -The butterfly is found in most of the Midland counties and in nearly -all of the Southern ones, but is especially common on the chalk downs of -the South-west. It does not occur in Ireland or Scotland, and seems to -be absent from the Northern counties of England except Yorkshire. In the -last-named county it was supposed to be extinct, but during the past ten -years it has been observed at Sledmere, and near Scarborough and -Helmsley. It is also reported to be not uncommon in three localities not -far from York. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 72. - -=Milkweed Butterfly.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis -(after Smith)._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 73. - -=Marsh Fritillary.= - - 1, 3, 5, 9, 10 _male_; 2, 4, 6, 7, 11 _female_. - 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9 _English_; 8 _Welsh_; 3, 5, 10, 11 _Irish_.] - -The butterflies usually affect broken ground, rough fields, grassy -slopes near woods, or even sunny banks on the edges of cornfields. -Occasionally an odd specimen or two may be met with here and there, but -as a rule they seem to keep pretty much together, so that when one comes -upon a colony of these butterflies, the selection of a series on the -spot is quite an easy matter, and can be effected without destroying a -single specimen over and above the required number. - -Abroad, this species is abundant in Central and Southern Europe, and its -range extends to Northern Asia Minor and Armenia. - - -The Small Mountain Ringlet (_Erebia epiphron_). - -The typical form of this butterfly, _epiphron_, Knock, has the tawny -bands unbroken on the fore wings, and almost so on the hind wings; the -black dots on the hind wings of the female are often pupilled with -white, and more rarely this is so in the male also. It has been stated -that specimens occur in Perthshire which exhibit these characters. All -the British examples of the Small Mountain Ringlet that I have seen are -referable to the form known as _cassiope_, Fab. (Plate 77). The tawny, -or orange, bands are rarely so entire on the fore wings as in -_epiphron_, and are generally rather narrower; and that on the hind wing -is broken up into three or four rings. The black dots are usually -smaller and without white pupils. The female is somewhat larger and the -bands or rings paler. - -Variation in the markings is extensive. The bands on the fore wings -become less and less complete, until they are reduced to a series of -mere rings around the black dots. The black dots decrease in size and in -number until they, together with the tawny marking, entirely disappear, -and a plain blackish-brown insect only remains. This extreme form has -been named _obsoleta_, Tutt. The earliest rings to vanish seem to be the -third on the fore wings and the first on the hind wings. Similar -modifications occur on the under side also, but there may be aberration -on the upper side of a specimen, and not, or at least not in the same -way, on the under side. - -The egg, when first laid, is yellow, changing afterwards to fawn colour -with darker markings, especially towards the top. It is laid in July on -blades of grass. The larva hatches in about sixteen days. - -The young caterpillar, before hibernation in October, is greenish, with -darker green and yellow lines. Head brownish. Feeds in July and after -hibernation on various grasses, among which _Poa annua_, _Festuca -ovina_, _Aira præcox_, and _A. cæspitosa_ have been specified as eaten -by caterpillars in confinement. A distinct preference, however, has been -shown for mat grass (_Nardus stricta_), and it has been suggested that -this may be the natural food. The full-grown caterpillar appears to be -undescribed. - -The chrysalis is described by Buckler as being "little more than -three-eighths of an inch in length, rather thick in proportion, being -less dumpy in form than _hyperanthus_, but more so than _blandina_. The -colour of the back of the thorax and wing cases is a light green, rather -glaucous; the abdomen a pale drab or dirty whitish; a dark brown dorsal -streak is conspicuous on the thorax, and there is the faintest possible -indication of its being continued as a stripe along the abdomen. The -eye-, trunk-, antenna-, and leg-cases are margined with dark brown, and -the wing nervures are indicated by the same colours." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 74. - -=Marbled White.= - -_Eggs enlarged, caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 75. - -=Marbled White.= - -1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5, 6 _female_.] - -As is indicated by its English name, this interesting little -butterfly only frequents high ground, and is rarely found below about -1500 feet. All its English localities are in the lake district of -Cumberland and Westmoreland. It seems to like boggy ground, and in such -places on Gable Hill, Red Skrees, and at Langdale Pikes, among others, -it is not uncommon. Previous to 1809 the species was unknown to occur in -Britain, but in June of that year specimens were captured by Mr. T. -Stothard on the mountains at Ambleside. Haworth, in 1812, referred to -these specimens as from Scotland, but the butterfly was not taken in -that country until 1844, when it was discovered by Mr. R. Weaver in -Perthshire. It is now known to occur, sometimes in abundance, on Ben -Nevis and other adjacent hills, also in suitable spots and the proper -elevation around Lochs Rannoch and Vennachar, as well as in the Tay -district and Argyleshire. - -In Ireland it was taken by Mr. E. Birchall, in June, 1854, in a grassy -hollow about halfway up the Westport side of Croagh Patrick. About five -years ago Mr. W.F. de Vismes Kane met with the butterfly on Nephin, -Mayo, and he mentioned a specimen believed to have been taken on the -hilly slopes on the eastern shores of Lake Gill, Sligo. - -Abroad the species is found in mountainous parts of South Germany, -Switzerland, France, North and Central Italy. The typical form, -_epiphron_, is more especially obtained in the Hartz and Alsatian -Mountains, Silesia, Hungary, and Bulgaria. - - -The Scotch Argus (_Erebia æthiops_ = _blandina_). - -The butterfly figured on Plate 77 is deep velvety brown, appearing -almost black in very fresh male specimens. There is a broad fulvous band -on the outer area, but not reaching either the costa or the inner -margin; it is contracted about the middle, the upper part encloses two -white pupilled black spots, and the lower part has one such spot. The -hind wings have a narrow fulvous band, usually enclosing three white -pupilled black spots. The under side is more distinctly brown and not -velvety, band of fore wings similar to above; the hind wings have a -greyish band beyond the middle, with three small white pupilled black -spots on its outer edge; the basal area is often greyish also. The -female is generally less dark and velvety, the bands are rather wider, -more orange in colour, and the white pupils of the spots are more -conspicuous; on the under side the alternate dark and pale bands are -more striking, and sometimes the grey colour is replaced by ochreous, -which seems to constitute the aberration named _ochracea_, Tutt. The -spots on the fore wings, upper side, are often increased to four by the -addition of a small one between those previously mentioned. More rarely -there is an extra spot above the upper pair, and still less frequently, -and in the female sex, an additional pair is found below the usual lower -spot, thus making six in all. On the other hand, the only spots in -evidence may be the pair in the upper part of the band. The spots on the -hind wings range in number from two to five, but occasionally all are -absent. The fulvous bands on the fore wings may be reduced to rings -around the upper and lower spots respectively, and altogether wanting on -the hind wings. Such an aberration would be referable to _obsoleta_, -Tutt, which is considered to be very rare. There are many other -modifications, but these mentioned will serve to show the variable -character of this local butterfly. - -The egg is ochreous white, or bone colour, finely freckled with pale -brown or pinkish-brown; it has a number of ribs, and is also -reticulated. - -The caterpillar in its last skin is pale drab, the warts pale -whitish-brown, emitting short tapering bristles; dorsal stripe -blackish-brown, enclosed by two paler drab lines; subdorsal stripe paler -drab, becoming narrow towards the anal point, edged above with a -greenish-brown thread, and below with blackish or brownish dashes, that -almost form a continuous line; below this come two thin pale lines, -above the lower of which are the circular black spiracles; the under -parts and the legs are of a somewhat warmer tint of the ground colour of -the back. It changed on June 22nd to a pupa, unattached, but placed in -an upright position amongst the grass near the ground. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 76. - -=Small Mountain Ringlet.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; young caterpillar._ - -=Scotch Argus.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 77. - -=Small Mountain Ringlet.= - -1, 4 _male_; 3 _female (English)_; 2, 5, 6, 7 _male (Scotch)_. - -=Scotch Argus.= - -8, 11 _male (Scotch)_; 9 _do. (English)_; 10, 12 _female (Scotch)_.] - -The chrysalis has the body ochreous, with a darker stripe down the back, -and other lines; the eye covers are black, and the thorax, antennæ -cases, and wing covers are dingy, dark purplish-brown. - -The above descriptions of caterpillar and chrysalis are adapted from -Buckler, whose figures of these stages are also reproduced on the plate. - -_Aira præcox_, _A. cæspitosa_, and _Poa_ are the grasses that seem to be -the food of the caterpillar. - -Mr. Haggart, of Galashiels, who had exceptional opportunities for -observing the habits of this butterfly in its natural home, gives a most -interesting account of it in the _Entomologist_ for November, 1895. He -writes-- - -"The haunt of this species is, almost without exception, the margin of a -plantation or wood where the different species of _Poa_ grow abundantly, -and always situated in such a position as to receive the first rays of -the rising sun. This last-mentioned fact is so plainly evident, that the -least observant cannot fail to notice it. The insect is truly sun -loving, and no collector need go in search of it with any thought of -success if the day be dull. - -"It is most interesting to observe the extreme sensibility of the insect -to shine and shade. A very good day to illustrate this is one when heavy -clouds at intervals obscure the sun; the moment it disappears so also -does the butterfly, and no sooner does it shine forth again than, as if -by magic, scores of the insect are on the wing. - -"The under side of the insect bears a marked resemblance to that of a -dead leaf, and I have often watched the males being deceived by withered -leaves lying among the moss. They would flutter down quite close to the -leaf, immediately rise with a disappointed air and fly a little further, -only to be deceived again and again. - -"The ova are deposited amongst the _Poa_ grass, and hatch in September. -Towards the end of October the larvæ go down and hibernate throughout -the winter and spring, coming up to feed again in May; they are -generally full-fed about the end of June; and the insect appears in July -or August. The larvæ are nocturnal feeders, coming up to feed on the -grass just about dusk. The method of procuring the larvæ is by no means -enviable, even to the most ardent entomologist, as in the uncertain -light it necessitates crawling on one's hands and knees amongst the -grass, and there is always the risk of grasping those little brown slugs -in mistake, which resemble the larvæ very much in shape and colour. No -artificial light can be used, as the larvæ immediately drop down amongst -the grass if this is done. The only alternative, therefore, is to use -one's eyes to the best advantage until the darkness makes that -impossible. - -"They are not difficult to rear in confinement if the larvæ are kept -properly supplied with food." - -This butterfly, which as a British species was discovered in the Isle of -Arran in 1804, only occurs in the north of England and in Scotland. Its -localities in the latter country are Glen Tilt and other valleys in the -Perthshire highlands, Strathglass in Inverness, Altyre woods at Forres; -Selkirk, Roxburgh, and various parts of Argyleshire; around the Lowther -Hills, Dumfrieshire; also in Arran and the Isle of Skye. In most of the -places it is plentiful. In England it occurs in the counties of Durham, -Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancashire, and Yorkshire. It is common in -Castle Eden Dene, Durham; at Grassington, in Yorkshire; at Witherslack -and Arnside, in Westmoreland; and at Grange and Silverdale, in -Lancashire. - -Abroad, it is distributed through Central and Southern Europe, and its -range extends into Northern Asia Minor, Kurdistan, and Armenia; the -Altai and South Siberia. - -It may be noted here that _E. ligea_ was supposed to have been taken in -Arran at the same time as _E. blandina_, that is in 1804. If this were -so, it would seem that the captor must have exterminated the species, -for, although the island has often been closely explored, no one has -been able to detect the "Arran Brown" again. - - -The Grayling (_Satyrus semele_). - -On the upper side, this butterfly (Plate 78) is brown, more or less -suffused with black, and this is especially noticeable on the outer area -of the wings in the male, where it obscures the ochreous or -rust-coloured bands, which in the female are almost free from the -suffusion. The fore wings have two black spots, the upper one generally, -and the lower often, pupilled with white. On the hind wings the bands -are clear of blackish suffusion to a greater or lesser extent, and there -is one black spot towards the anal angle which may be pupilled with -white. Apart from its larger size and brighter bands, the female may be -distinguished from the male by the absence of the blackish brand on the -disc of the fore wings. On the under side, the fore wings are ochreous, -tinged with orange on the basal half or two-thirds; hind wings are -greyish, with darker markings, and an irregular white or whitish band -beyond the middle. - -Variation is largely confined to the under side of the hind wings, and -these wings, as well as the costal edge and the tips of the fore wings, -are coloured and marked, in various localities that the butterfly -affects, so that the insects may be protected from their enemies when -resting. - -On the upper side of the fore wings an additional spot is sometimes -present below one or other of the usual ones. The bands of the wings are -pale ochreous in some examples, and rust-coloured in others; but it is -not unusual for a specimen with ochreous bands on the fore wings to have -rust-coloured bands on the hind wings, or ochreous bands with -rust-coloured patches on the outer portion; these patches are most -frequently triangular in shape, and placed between the veins. Gynandrous -specimens also occur, but very rarely. - -The egg is of a dull creamy tint, ribbed, and with a slight depression -on the top. The eggs were laid early in August, on blades and stems of a -kind of grass; also on the leno covering, and the sides of the glass jar -in which the female butterfly was enclosed. - -The caterpillar when full grown "is drab, delicately mottled, with -longitudinal stripes broadest along the middle segments, viz. a dorsal -stripe of olive-brown, very dark at the beginning of each segment, with -a thin edging of brownish-white. Along the subdorsal region are three -stripes, of which the first is composed of a double narrow line of -yellowish-brown, the second wider of the mottled ground colour, edged -with paler above and with white below; the third of similar width is of -a dark grey-brown, edged above with black. The spiracular stripe is -broader and of nearly equal width, pale ochreous-brown, edged with -brownish-white both above and below; the spiracles are black. The head -is brown, and the principal stripes of the body are delicately marked -with darker brown" (Buckler). - -The chrysalis is described as "obtuse, rounded, tumid, and smooth, the -abdominal rings scarcely visible, and wholly of a deep red mahogany -colour." It was "in a hollow space a quarter of an inch below the -surface, the particles of sand and earth very slightly cohering -together, and close to the roots of the grass, yet free from them." The -figures of caterpillar and chrysalis are drawn from those in Buckler's -"Larvæ of British Butterflies." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 78. - -=Grayling Butterfly.= - -_Males_, 1, 3 _(Chalk)_, 2 _(Heath); females_, 4 _(Heath)_; 5, 6 -_(Chalk)_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 79. - -=Grayling Butterfly.= - -_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis (both after Buckler)._] - -The caterpillars hatch in August, hibernate when quite small, and feed -up in the spring and early summer. They live upon grasses, such as -_Triticum repens_, _Aira cæspitosa_, and _A. præcox_. - -The butterfly delights in sitting rather than flying about cliffs and -sand-hills, heaths and downs, stony hillsides, dry fields, and even open -woodlands. It is fond of sunning itself on rocks, and by some of the old -Aurelians it was called the "Rock Underwing," no doubt in reference to -the pattern and colour of the under side. It was also known as the -"Tunbridge Grayling" some two hundred years ago, when it was said to be -"very rare about London." It has long since been ascertained to occur in -almost every county in England and Wales, as far north as -Sutherlandshire in Scotland, and is widely distributed in Ireland. - -On the chalk downs and cliffs the butterfly has the under side of its -hind wings so admirably agreeing in colour and marking with the soil, -etc., that although one may watch it settle a few yards ahead, it is not -to be seen when one reaches the spot. Whilst we are intent on the search -the insect starts up, flies a short distance, and there repeats the -disappearing butterfly trick. The same remarks apply to those Graylings -that affect peaty or sandy heaths, etc. When the butterfly alights on -the ground--and it rarely gets on the wing unless disturbed--it -immediately closes its wings, and then allows them to fall more or less -on one side, so that the whole of one hind wing is presented to view. It -is said to have a fancy for the resinous sap that oozes from pine trees, -and has also been observed to visit the trunks that have been "sugared." - -Abroad, it is found commonly throughout the temperate parts of Europe, -North Africa, and Northern and Western Asia. - - -The Speckled Wood (_Pararge egeria_). - -Quite early in the eighteenth century Petiver met with the butterfly -shown on Plate 80 at Enfield, so he figured it as the "Enfield Eye" in -that curious old book entitled "Papiliorium Britanniæ Icones." Later on, -Wilkes named the butterfly the "Wood Argus," thus indicating its -favourite haunts, as well as a prominent character in its ornamentation. -Harris changed the name to the "Speckled Wood Butterfly," which seems -even more suitable. - -The general colour is blackish-brown, and the spots are yellowish. The -fore wings have one white-pupilled black eye spot towards their tips, -and the hind wings have three such eye spots on the outer area. The male -has a long oblique patch of blackish scales on the middle of the fore -wings, which is, perhaps, more easily detected if the insect is held up -to the light. The female is usually slightly larger than the male, the -wings rather rounder, and the yellowish spots, are, as a rule, -distinctly larger. The typical or southern form of this butterfly has -the spots of a tawny colour, but it does not occur in Britain. Our form, -in all its modifications, belongs to _egerides_, Staudinger. -Occasionally, in the south of England, specimens are found in which the -spots are tinged with fulvous; others have almost white spots. The spots -are sometimes much reduced in size in the male, or greatly enlarged in -the female. - -The egg is pale greenish, finely reticulated; as the caterpillar matures -within, the shell becomes less glossy than at first, and the upper part -is blackish. - -The caterpillar has a green head, which is larger than the first ring -of the body (1st thoracic), covered with short fine whitish hairs, with -which are mixed a few dark hairs. The body is rather brighter green, -with darker lines, edged with yellowish, along the back and sides; the -skin is transversely wrinkled, the rings being subdivided, and the whole -of the body is clothed with fine whitish hair and a few dark hairs -arising from warts; the anal points are whitish and also hairy. It feeds -on various grasses, among which are _Triticum repens_ and _Dactylis -glomerata_. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 80. - -=Speckled Wood.= - - _Spring Brood:_ 1, 2 _male_; 3, 5 _female_. - _Summer brood:_ 4, 6 _male_; 7 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 81. - -=Speckled Wood.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -The chrysalis is pale green, tinged with yellowish or whitish; the edges -of the wing covers are brown, and there are whitish dots on the body. -According to Hellins the colour varies, and green chrysalids may be -covered all over with very fine smoky freckles. Barrett states that they -are occasionally brownish with darker brown lines. Suspended by the -cremaster from a silken pad. - -From eggs laid in early May butterflies were reared at the end of June; -and from eggs laid at the end of June butterflies resulted during middle -August. Early July eggs produced perfect insects in early September, and -from caterpillars fed up in October butterflies were obtained in -November. These observations were not all made in the same year. - -Barrett writes, "In the south of Surrey in 1862, the first emergence -took place in April in abundance, these specimens became worn and -disappeared, and a second emergence took place at the end of May, a -third at the end of July, and a fourth in September; the next year the -first emergence was in the third week in March, and again four broods -were observed, but this is not the case every year, three emergences -being probably the rule." - -Mr. Joy has recorded that of caterpillars, resulting from a pairing -induced in captivity, in August, eighty per cent. hibernated as pupæ, -twenty per cent. as half-fed caterpillars. Butterflies from the winter -pupæ emerged in May, but the caterpillars that had gone through the -winter in that state did not produce butterflies until June. Possibly -something of this sort occurs in the open, and we may suppose that the -early and late spring butterflies are not separate broods, but early and -late emergences of one brood. Butterflies seen on the wing in November -may be a few individuals that, owing to favourable weather, have emerged -from chrysalids which under ordinary conditions would have remained as -such during the winter. - -Shady lanes, rides in woods, as well as the borders of the same, are its -favourite haunts. It is not a sun-loving butterfly, but is generally -found to frequent places where the sun's rays are more or less -intercepted by a leafy screen. It seems to be more abundant in wet -seasons than in dry ones. It is generally distributed throughout England -and Wales, but more plentiful in southern and western counties than in -the eastern and northern. In Ireland, Kane says, it is "everywhere -abundant and double brooded." It is local in Scotland, and rare north of -the Caledonian Canal. - -Abroad our form of the butterfly _egerides_ is found commonly in Central -and Northern Europe, except in the extreme north, and in Northern Asia -Minor and Armenia. The typical form, _egeria_ proper, occurs in -South-Western Europe, North Africa, and Syria. - - -The Wall Butterfly (_Pararge megæra_). - -The butterfly now under consideration is figured on Plate 82. It is -bright fulvous in colour, with blackish-brown veins, margins, and -transverse lines. There is one white pupilled black spot on the fore -wings, and four of such spots on the outer area of the hind wings; the -fourth, which is generally blind, is placed at the end of the series -near the anal angle. The male has a very conspicuous sexual brand on the -central area. The under side of the fore wings is paler than above, but -the markings are similar, except that the brand is absent and the -margins are greyer; the hind wings on the under side are greyish marked -with brown and traversed by dark lines; there is a row of six eyed spots -on the outer area; that nearest the anal angle is double. The female has -more ample wings, and as the brand is absent on the fore wings in this -sex, the central black transverse lines are more distinct. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 82. - -=Wall Butterfly.= - -1, 2, 5 _male_; 3, 4, 6 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 83. - -=Wall Butterfly.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. - -The Wall Butterfly just emerged from the Chrysalis, and with wings -distended.] - -Variation is chiefly in the size of the eyed spots; sometimes the -apical one of the fore wings has a smaller one attached to its lower -margin, or in the interspace (_i.e._ between the veins) above it or -below it; or both extra spots, which are usually without white pupils, -may be present. Very rarely the apical spot may be almost absent on one -fore wing, but well defined on the other. The central transverse lines -on the fore wings of the female are sometimes broad, and very -occasionally the space between the lines is blackish; blackish-banded -male specimens are also found in some localities, such as the slopes of -Dartmoor, Devon, as mentioned by Barrett. - -The ground colour varies in tint, darker or lighter than normal, but -specimens of a bright golden yellow-brown, straw colour, or whitish are -known to occur, although such extreme aberrations are exceptional. - -The egg is pale green when first laid, and in shape it is almost -spherical, but rather higher than broad; it is finely ribbed and -reticulated, but unless examined through a lens it appears to be quite -smooth. - -The caterpillar when full grown is whitish-green, dotted with white. -From the larger of these dots on the back arise greyish bristles; the -three lines on the back (dorsal and subdorsal) are whitish, edged with -dark green; the line on the sides (spiracular) is white, fringed with -greyish hairs; anal points green, hairy, extreme tips white. Head larger -than the first ring (1st thoracic segment), green dotted with white and -hairy, jaws marked with brownish. It feeds on grasses. - -The chrysalis is green, with yellow-tinted white markings on the edge of -the wing covers and ridges; the spots on the body are yellowish, or -sometimes white. Occasionally the chrysalids are blackish, with white or -yellow points on the body. - -There are certainly two broods of this butterfly in the season, and in -favourable years there may be three broods. In an ordinary way the first -flight is in May and June, and the second flight in July and August. The -caterpillars feed on _Poa annua_, _Dactylis glomerata_, etc. Those -hatched in autumn hibernate more or less completely, and become full -grown in early or late spring according to the season. Sometimes, -however, they seem to feed during the winter, and assume the chrysalis -in March. Probably it is from such precocious caterpillars that the -butterflies sometimes seen in April result. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 84. - -=Meadow Brown.= - -1, 2, 3, 4 _male_; 5, 6, 7 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 85. - -=Meadow Brown.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] - -The Speckled Wood, it was noted, prefers shady places; the present -butterfly is more partial to sunshine and plenty of it. As its English -name suggests, it is fond of basking on walls, but it does this also on -dry hedge banks, sides of gravel pits, tree-trunks--in fact, wherever it -can enjoy the full sunshine. It is not at all shy, and will be pretty -sure to introduce itself to the notice of the collector as soon as he -enters its domain. Although it now seems to be absent from certain -districts in which it was once abundant, it may still be regarded as a -generally common species in England and Wales, and even plentiful, in -some years, in the southern, eastern, and western counties; it appears -to be more local in North England. In Scotland it seems fairly -distributed, and not scarce in the south; its range extends to -Aberdeenshire. Kane states that it is everywhere abundant throughout -Ireland. Abroad it is common throughout Europe, except the extreme -north, and extends into North Africa, Asia Minor, and Armenia. - - -The Meadow Brown (_Epinephele ianira_). - -The female is the _jurtina_ of Linnæus, and as he described this sex -before the male, under the impression that they were distinct species, -the law of priority, we are told, must be observed and the earlier name -be adopted. - -This fuscous-brown butterfly of the meadows is marked, especially in -the female, with dull orange. The male, of which sex three specimens are -shown (Plate 84, Figs. 1-3), has a broad black sexual brand on the -central area of the fore wings, and a white pupilled black spot towards -the tips of the wings; this spot is usually encircled with orange, and -there is often more or less of this orange colour below it (Fig. 2 -typical). The under side of the fore wings is orange with the costa -narrowly, and the outer margin broadly, greyish-brown to match with the -colour of the under side of the hind wings. The female is without the -black brand, and is more ornamented with orange, which generally forms a -broad patch on the outer area of the fore wings (Fig. 6), but it is -sometimes continued inwards, so that almost the whole of the discal -area--that is, nearly all but the margins, appears to be orange (Fig. -7); the hind wings have an indistinct paler band on the outer area, and -this is sometimes suffused or clouded with orange. On the under side the -pale band is more defined (Fig. 5). The apical spot of fore wings is -sometimes double, and a tendency to this variation is shown in Fig. 6, -but in the complete form there are two white dots (bi-pupillated). At -the other extreme, and generally in the male, the apical spot is -entirely absent (var. _anommata_), or is greatly reduced in size, and is -without the white pupil. Spots on the under side are as often absent as -present. They may be from one to five in number, and either simply black -dots or ringed with orange, as in Fig. 4. Occasionally the orange on the -upper side of the female gives place to a pale straw or even whitish -colour; and on the under side to whitish-grey. - -Not infrequently a greater or lesser area of the wings is "bleached," -and this seems to be due to absence of pigment in the scales on such -parts. This bleaching may affect the whole or a portion of one wing -only, or it may take the form of symmetrical blotches on each wing. All -such abnormal specimens of this, and of other species similarly -affected, are certainly of value to those who are interested in -teratology, but they seem to be out of place in a collection of -butterflies where the aim should be to show the true variation of -species rather than "freaks," which are the result of accident or -disease. - -The egg, laid on a blade of grass as shown (Plate 85), is upright and -ribbed; the top is flattened, with an impressed ring thereon. Colour, -whitish-green inclining to brownish-yellow as it matures, and marked -with purplish-brown. - -The caterpillar is bright green, clothed with short whitish hairs; -there is a darker line down the back, and a diffused white stripe on -each side above the reddish spiracles; the anal points are white. Head -rather darker green, hairy. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 86. - -=Gatekeeper.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 87. - -=Gatekeeper.= - -1, 2, 6, 7 _male_; 3, 4, 5 _female_.] - -The chrysalis is pale green, marked with brownish on the wing-covers, -the thorax is spotted with blackish, and the points on the body are -brownish. Suspended, and with the old skin attached, as shown in the -figure. - -From its wide distribution and general abundance, this may be said to be -our commonest butterfly. It appears to be always on the wing, in dull -weather as well as in sunshine, and, except for a short interval in -early August, it is to be seen in hayfields, open places in woods, on -grassy slopes, or borders of highways and byways from June to September. - -Although quite fresh specimens are fuscous-brown, the butterfly, after a -short time on the wing, loses the dusky tinge and becomes brown. It is, -therefore, always desirable to rear specimens for the cabinet from -caterpillars. These feed on grasses of various kinds in May, are easily -managed, and may be found in most hay meadows at night, when, of course, -a lantern will be needed to throw a light on the business of collecting -them. - -The not infrequent occurrence of fresh specimens in the autumn is strong -presumptive evidence of at least an occasional second brood. Perhaps, as -has been suggested by Mr. R. Adkin, "a late emergence of _Epinephele -ianira_ is the rule rather than the exception," especially in the warmer -parts of the country. - -The butterfly is found throughout England and Wales, Ireland, and -Scotland, including Isles of Lewis and Orkney. Abroad it occurs in all -parts of Europe except the most northern, Asia Minor, Armenia, North -Africa, and the Canary Isles. - - -The Gatekeeper (_Epinephele tithonus_). - -Other English names in use at the present time for this butterfly -(Plate 87) are "Small Meadow Brown," "Hedge Brown," and "Large Heath," -but the latter is more often applied to another species which will be -referred to later. Petiver called it the "Hedge Eye." - -The general colour is brownish-orange, and the margins are -fuscous-brown; there is a black spot towards the tips of the fore wings, -and this, as a rule, encloses two white dots; one or both of these dots -sometimes absent in the male. The male differs from the female in its -rather smaller size, and in having a fuscous band on the central area; -the latter is broadest towards the inner margin, and in this part are -some patches of blackish androconial scales or plumules; at the upper -end of the band there is sometimes a fuscous cloud. Occasionally, one or -more small black spots, some with white pupils, are present below the -apical one. Four such spots are rare, but specimens with one or with two -are not uncommon. There is usually a white-pupilled black spot towards -the anal angle of the hind wing, but I have several males and females -that are without this spot. Sometimes there are as many as four spots on -the hind wings, but this is perhaps exceptional (Plate 113, Fig. 5). On -the under side of the hind wings there are often two white dots, -sometimes ringed with black, towards the costa, and two or three other -similar dots towards the anal angle; but the number of dots may be -reduced to two, one of which is near the costa, or be increased to six. -Colour changes, similar to those in the last species, occur, and the -orange colour, in both sexes, may be replaced by yellow (var. _mincki_, -Seebold), or by white (var. _albida_, Russell, Plate 119, Figs. 6, 7). -Such aberrations are very local and rare; a few have been obtained on -chalk hills in South Hampshire. - -In an extraordinary aberration, taken in Sussex in 1897, the whole of -the dark brown colour of margins and band is replaced by pale -pinkish-ochreous, but the normal brownish orange remains. Other somewhat -similar specimens have been recorded. - -The egg (Plate 86) is pale yellowish when first laid, becoming lighter -and irregularly blotched with reddish-brown, the upper blotches forming -a sort of band round the egg; as the caterpillar matures the shell -assumes a darker tinge, inclining to slaty, and the markings are less -distinct. - -The caterpillar, when full grown, is pale ochreous, clothed with short -pale hair, and freckled with brownish; the line down the back is darker, -one on each side is paler, and that above the feet is yellowish. The -head is rather darker than the body, marked with brownish, and bristly. - -According to Hellins, the newly hatched caterpillar is whitish-grey, -with rusty yellow lines on the back. In October, after the first moult, -it becomes green with a brownish head. In April the body is -greenish-grey, and the head pale greenish-brown. At the end of April it -moults for the last time, and is then pale ochreous generally, but some -caterpillars are darker than this, and some paler with a greenish-grey -tinge. - -The chrysalis is whitish-ochreous, with dark brown streaks on the -wing-covers and some brownish spots and clouds on the back and sides. -Suspended from stem or blade of grass; the old skin remains attached. - -The caterpillars feed at night on grasses, such as _Poa annua_, -_Triticum repens_, and _Dactylis glomerata_, from September to June. The -butterfly is on the wing in July and August. Although these butterflies -may be seen, sometimes in considerable numbers, where the rides are -grassy, in woods, they are perhaps more attached to hedgerows. Bramble -flowers are their special attraction, but they are not indifferent to -the blossoms of the wood sage (_Teucrium scorodonia_) or of marjoram -(_Origanum vulgare_). - -Pretty generally distributed throughout England, it is often -exceedingly plentiful in the south and also in South Wales. In Scotland -the butterfly seems to be common in Kircudbrightshire, but not common in -other southern counties up to Argyle and Fife. Kane says that in Ireland -it is almost confined to the southern counties. - -Abroad it is found throughout Europe, except the North-East, and its -range extends into Northern Asia Minor. - - -The Ringlet (_Aphantopus hyperanthus_). - -The sombre-looking butterfly, of which several figures will be found on -Plate 89, has been known by its present English name since 1778, the -year in which Moses Harris published "The Aurelian." The Latin specific -name was written _hyperantus_ by Linnæus, but Esper corrected this to -_hyperanthus_. It has, however, been supposed that Linnæus really -intended to have written _hyperanthes_ (a son of Darius), and this form -of the name has been used, but Esper's emendation is here adopted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. - -=Var. lanceolata.=] - -All the wings are sooty-brown, the male when quite fresh appearing -almost black, and the sexual brand is then difficult to see; there are -one or more black spots with pale rings, and sometimes white pupils, on -the fore wings, but these are always more prominent in the female than -in the male; in the latter sex they may be entirely absent. On the under -side there are generally two, sometimes three, ocellated spots on the -fore wings, and there are five such spots on the hind wings, the two -nearest the costa being double, and not very infrequently there is a -smaller spot near or attached to the lower edge of the double one. In -the matter of size of the spots on the under side there is a wide range -of variation, and at one end of this is var. _lanceolata_, Shipp, and at -the other var. _obsoleta_, Tutt, in which not a trace of any of the -spots remains. Specimens with a varying number of white dots, with or -without yellow rings, are usually referred to var. _arete_, but Fig. 6 -on the Plate represents a modification of this variety, known as -_coeca_. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 88. - -=Ringlet.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 89. - -=Ringlet.= - -1, 2, 3, 7 _male_; 4, 5, 8 _female_; 6 _var. cæca_, _male_.] - -Occasionally, on the under side, there are transverse lines on the outer -half of all the wings, and the space between these lines is suffused -with whitish. The specimen showing these lines faintly (Fig. 3 on the -Plate) is from North Cumberland. - -The early stages are figured on Plate 88. - -The egg is yellowish-white at first, but soon turns to a pale brown. As -will be seen on comparing the enlarged figure of this egg with those of -the two previous species, it is quite different in shape, and is pitted -rather than ribbed. The eggs are not attached to anything, but are -allowed to fall down among the roots of the grass over which they are -deposited. - -The caterpillar is described by Newman as pale wainscot brown in colour, -with a darker line down the back, and the head has three broad, slightly -darker but faint, stripes on each cheek. According to others it is -ochreous or brownish-grey, with a dark brown line on the back, a pale -one with darker edge on the sides, and a whitish stripe above the feet. - -The chrysalis is ochreous-brown sprinkled with reddish-brown, and marked -with brown on the wing-covers. It lies low down among the tufts of -grass. The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis are from Buckler's -"Larvæ of British Butterflies." - -The caterpillars feed upon various grasses, including _Poa annua_ and -_Dactylis glomerata_, growing about damp places in woodland districts. -They emerge from the egg in August, feed leisurely until October, when -they appear to hibernate. In March they resume feeding, but do not -attain full growth until June. The butterflies are on the wing in July -and August, and frequent lanes and the outskirts of woods. They usually -fly along the shady side, but they are not averse to the nectar of the -bramble blossom, and I have seen them taking a sip here and there -although they were fully exposed to sunshine all the time. - -Wherever there are suitable haunts the butterfly may be found throughout -the greater part of England and Wales. It seems, however, to have -disappeared from some districts in Lancashire and Yorkshire where it was -formerly common. It is fairly plentiful in most of the southern counties -of Scotland, and its range extends north to Aberdeen. In Ireland it is -abundant in the south and the west, and seems to occur in most suitable -places; also common in certain localities in Donegal and Antrim. Abroad -it is distributed through Europe and Northern Asia eastward to Japan. - - -The Large Heath (_Coenonympha typhon_). - -The butterfly now to be considered is a most variable one, both as -regards colour and marking. Several of the varieties have been named, -and in the time of Haworth down to Stephens, and even much later, at -least three of these were regarded as distinct species. In the present -day, however, it is generally accepted that all the varieties are forms -of one species, although two local races are recognized. - -The typical form is _typhon_, Rottemburg, and _polydama_ (The Marsh -Ringlet) of Haworth (Plate 90, Figs. 1, 2, 5, 7-11). The colour ranges -from darkish-brown to a pale tawny; there is an ochreous ringed black -spot towards the tips of the fore wings, sometimes another similar spot -above the inner angle, and occasionally when both spots are present -there is an ochreous spot between them; the hind wings have from one to -three of these spots, but a larger number than three is exceptional. The -under side of the fore wings is either bright or dull fulvous, and the -spots are pretty much as above, but with white pupils, and there is a -whitish band before them; the under side of the hind wings is olive -brown on the basal two-thirds, covered with pale hair, and the outer -third is brownish merging into greyish on the outer margin; an irregular -white or whitish band limits the two areas; there are six ochreous -ringed black spots, with white pupils, but they are always rather small -in size. The female is much paler than the male. - -This is the usual form in Northumberland, Cumberland, Yorkshire, and -Ireland; it also occurs in Lancashire, Westmoreland, and the South of -Scotland. - -Var. _philoxenus_, Esper. This is _davus_ (Small Ringlet), Haworth, and -_rothliebii_, Newman (Plate 90, Figs. 3, 4, 6). - -On the upper side the colour is dark brown in the male and rather paler -in the female; the spots are very distinct, ringed with fulvous; those -on the hind wings are generally three in number, and often five or six; -on the under side, the bands are whiter, and often broader, and the -spots are very black, large, and conspicuous. - -This form is found on some of the mosses in Lancashire and Westmoreland, -in Delamere Forest, Cheshire, and in North Shropshire; but the most -characteristic examples of the form are chiefly obtained in the -first-named county, from which it was first made known, in 1795, as the -"Manchester Argus," or "Manchester Ringlet." - -Var. _scotica_, Staudinger (_laidion_, Staud., but not of Borkhausen), -Pl. 90, Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5 male, 3 female, is the _typhon_ of Haworth, as -stated by Newman; the latter author, however, figures it as _davus_, -Fabricius, which is doubtful. - -The ground colour is pale tawny, sometimes suffused with brownish, -greyish on the margin, and broadly so on the outer area of the hind -wings; the spots are often absent, and when present are rarely very -distinct. The female is much paler than the male. The under side of the -hind wings is somewhat similar to that of the typical form, but -sometimes the whole area is a uniform greyish; the spots are only rarely -at all distinct, and then only one, or perhaps two, on a wing, and not -infrequently they are entirely absent. This form occurs in Scotland, -especially in Aberdeenshire and Sutherlandshire, also in the Isle of -Arran, in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, and in the Outer Hebrides. Kane -states that he has met with single specimens at "Killarney, Westmeath, -Galway, and Sligo." - -In some localities, such as Carlisle, Rotherham, and others in -Yorkshire, forms intermediate between the type and var. _philoxenus_ are -found; modifications of the type form in the direction of var. _scotica_ -occur in Cumberland, Northumberland, and Co. Leitrim, in Ireland; and -forms approaching the type more nearly than var. _scotica_ are met with -in the Glasgow district, and at Pitcaple in Aberdeenshire. - -The egg is very pale greenish-yellow at first, but the green fades, -brownish blotches appear, and some dark markings appear around the upper -part a short while before the caterpillar hatches out. It is finely -scored almost from the base to the top, which is depressed, and has a -raised boss in the centre, as in the egg of the Small Heath. - -From some eggs sent to me in July, caterpillars hatched in August. They -fed on ordinary meadow grass, and in September were figured, when they -were about half an inch in length. Head shallowly notched in front, -green, roughened with whitish dots, eyes and jaws brownish. Body green, -roughened with white dots, with darker line down the back, and paler, -almost white lines along the sides, anal projections reddish (these were -greenish when younger). - -The figure of the full-grown caterpillar is after Buckler, who -describes it as "of a bright green, with dark bluish-green dorsal line, -edged with pale lemon-yellow, the subdorsal and spiracular lines are of -the same pale yellow, but the subdorsal is edged above with dark -bluish-green, and between these two lines is an interrupted streak of a -darker colour, posteriorly with a slight tinge of reddish or pink, and -the caudal fork is tipped with pink." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 90. - -=Large Heath.= - - 1, 3, 4, 6 _male_, 2 _female (Delamere)_; 7, 9 _male_, - 5 _female (Arran)_; 8 _male (N. Salop)_; 10 _do. (Ireland)_; - 11 _do. (Carlisle)_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 91. - -=Large Heath.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] - -The chrysalis is bright green, with brown streaks on the edges and -centre of the wing-covers, and at the tip of the tail, turning dark -brown just before the butterfly emerges. (Figure and description after -Buckler.) - -The eggs are laid in July on blades of grass, and the caterpillars hatch -out in that month and August. The food of the caterpillars is said to be -the beaked-rush (_Rhynchospora alba_); those that I had from Witherslack -eggs fed well upon ordinary grass until October, but they died during -the winter. After hibernation they recommence feeding, and are full -grown in May and June, when they pupate, and the butterflies appear at -the end of June and in July. - -Barrett, writing of the butterfly in all its forms, says, "Its most -southern known locality in England is Chartley Park, Derbyshire, and it -is common in all 'mosses' of Lancashire and Cheshire--all moors about -Grange, and in Chat Moss, Risley Moss, Rixton Moss, Simondswood, Lindon -Moss, and Carrington Moss, as well as at Delamere Forest. In Yorkshire -abundant in Thorne Waste, not scarce in Wensleydale, and found on -Cottingham Moor, Hatfield Moors, and elsewhere. Northward it is found in -all suitable mosses and moors in Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, -but seems to have been exterminated in Northumberland." - -In Scotland it appears to be pretty generally distributed, and occurs -up to an elevation of some 2000 feet. Kane states that in Ireland it is -widely spread throughout, on the bogs and mountains. It is stated to -have occurred in North Wales a long time ago, but there are no recent -records from that country. Abroad it is found in Central and Northern -Europe, extending to Lapland, and through Northern Asia to Amurland. In -North America it is represented by two forms, which are not quite like -any of those occurring elsewhere. - - -The Small Heath (_Coenonympha pamphilus_). - -To the ancient fathers the male of the butterfly on Plate 92 was known -as the "Selvedged Heath Eye," and the female was called the "Golden -Heath Eye." Harris figured it as "The Small Heath," or "Gatekeeper;" the -latter name being now associated with another species, it may be allowed -to drop out in the present connection. - -The wings are pale tawny, with a brownish or greyish-brown border, of -variable width, on all the wings, and stronger in the male than the -female; there is a black spot towards the tip of the fore wing. The -under side resembles that of the last species in some degree, but the -eyed spots of the hind wings are not always prominent, often only white -dots, and may be absent altogether (Fig. 9). - -Variation in this species is extensive, but not striking. The tint of -the ground colour may be reddish or yellowish; occasionally brownish or -greyish-brown specimens of the male occur, and more rarely -purplish-brown examples of the same sex have been found. Females, in all -cases paler, and generally larger than the male, are sometimes -whitish-ochreous in colour, and, very rarely, yellowish-white. The brown -border is also a variable character, and may be very dark and broad -(var. _lyllus_), or reduced to linear proportions. The apical spot on -the fore wings may be of fair size and very black, very pale and -indistinct (Figs. 8, 12), or entirely absent; it does not seem to be -pupilled with white (as it is on the under side), but sometimes there is -a pale speck in the centre. On the under side of the hind wings there is -variation in the width of the central whitish band-like patch, in some -specimens with unusually dark ground colour this patch is very broad; in -other examples, of normal coloration, the band is complete, and extends -to the inner margin. The white dots that normally do duty as ocelli are -not infrequently set in reddish-brown spots, and then become rather more -noticable (Fig. 14). This form is var. _ocellata_, Tutt. - -The egg is green at first, afterwards becoming whitish or bone-colour; -later on a brownish irregular ring appears a little above the middle, -and there are various brownish freckles. It is finely ribbed, and the -top is depressed, forming a hollow with a central boss. Laid in a -cluster of four on a blade of grass, but this may have been accidental. -Others were deposited singly on muslin and on fine grass, all in -mid-June. The caterpillar is of a clear green colour, "with darker green -dorsal stripe, and a spiracular stripe not so dark; the anal points -pink" (Hellins). - -The chrysalis is of "a delicate pale rather yellowish-green, with a -faintly darker green dorsal stripe, the edge of the projecting -wing-covers on each side whitish, outlined with a streak of -reddish-brown; the abdomen freckled very delicately with paler green; -the tip of the anal point, with a short streak of brownish-red on each -side; the wing-cases faintly marked with darker green nervures" -(Buckler). - -The figures of caterpillar and chrysalis on Plate 93 are from Buckler's -"Larvæ of British Butterflies." - -Some caterpillars, from eggs laid in May or June, become full-grown in -four or five weeks, and appear as butterflies in August, but others do -not complete their growth until the following spring. Just exactly what -happens in the case of eggs from autumn females does not seem to be very -definitely ascertained. It has, however, been stated that caterpillars -hatching from eggs laid in August, attain the size of the slow-growing -contingent from May eggs, and then hibernate. Probably, therefore, it is -these that produce the July butterflies, and if so, the succession of -emergences may be something in this way: May and June butterflies from -May and June eggs (twelve months' cycle), July butterflies from August -eggs (eleven months cycle), August and September butterflies (partial -second brood) from May and June eggs (four months' cycle). - -This interesting little butterfly is to be seen almost everywhere, but -it is perhaps most frequently to be found in grassy places in lanes, on -heaths and downs, railway banks, in rough meadows, etc. It occurs on -mountains even up to an elevation of 2000 feet. When flying in company -with the blues and coppers, all frolicking together over some patch of -long grass, the colour combination has an exceedingly pleasing effect. -They rest by day, and sleep at night on grass or rushes. - -A common species throughout England and Wales, Ireland and Scotland, as -far north as Nairn, also in the Outer Hebrides. Abroad its distribution -extends over Europe to South-West Siberia, Central and North-East Asia, -Asia Minor, and North Africa. - - * * * * * - -We now arrive at the Hairstreaks, Coppers, and Blues. These belong to -the Lycænidæ, a very large family of butterflies which is represented in -all parts of the globe. There are eighteen species in Britain, but at -least one of these is extinct and another is supposed to be so; two are -very rare, and the chances of meeting with either are probably about -equal. - - -The Brown Hairstreak (_Zephyrus betulæ_). - -The butterfly is represented on Plate 94, Figs. 1-3. The male is -blackish-brown with a faint greyish tinge, and there is a conspicuous -black bar at the end of the discal cell of the fore wing, followed by a -pale cloud; there are two orange marks at the anal angle of the hind -wings. The female is blackish-brown, and has the black bar at end of the -cell, and an orange band beyond; there are usually three orange marks on -the hind wings at the anal angle, but sometimes there are only two. The -under side of the male is ochreous, but that of the female is more -orange; the fore wings have the black bar edged on each side with white, -and there is a white-edged, brownish triangular streak beyond, the outer -margin is tinged with reddish; on the hind wings there are two white -irregular lines and the space between them is brownish, the outer margin -is reddish, becoming broadly so towards the anal angle, where there is a -black spot. Variation is not of a very striking character. The shade -following the black bar at end of the discal cell on the fore wings in -the male is sometimes yellowish tinged, not infrequently fairly large, -and with two smaller spots below it. More rarely all three spots are -distinctly ochreous-yellow (var. _spinosæ_, Gerhard). A similar -aberration, but with the marks white instead of yellow, has been named -_pallida_, Tutt. The orange band in the female varies in width and in -length; occasionally it extends well below vein 2, and into the discal -cell within the black bar. I have one specimen in which the band is -broken up into three parts, and the upper one of these is but little -wider than the same spot in var. _spinosæ_, the other two being almost -exactly of the same size as in that variety. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 92. - -=Scotch Large Heath.= 1, 2, 5 _male_; 3, 4 _female_. - -=Small Heath.= 6, 9, 10, 14 _male_; 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 93. - -=Small Heath.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -The life-history is figured on Plate 95--the lower set of figures. - -The egg is described by Newman "as a depressed sphere and white," and he -states, "it is attached to the twigs of blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in -the autumn, often as late as the end of September or beginning of -October; it is not hatched until the spring." - -The caterpillar is bright pale green, and the lines on the back and -sides are yellowish, as also are the oblique streaks on the sides and -the border of the ridge above the feet. There are some bristles along -the ridge on the back and also on that above the feet. It feeds on -blackthorn in May and June, and will eat the foliage of almost any kind -of plum. I have reared fine specimens from caterpillars which fed on -greengage. - -The chrysalis is pale reddish-brown with a dark line down the middle of -the back and some pale oblique streaks on each side; the wing-cases are -freckled with darker brown. Barrett, quoting Fenn, says, "Suspended by -the tail and a silken girth to the stem of the food-plant close to the -ground." Those that I have seen pupated on or under leaves, and so far -as I could observe without any girth, and certainly not suspended. - -Nearly two hundred years ago the male of this butterfly was known as the -Brown Hairstreak, whilst the female was called the Golden Hairstreak. -The caterpillar seems to have been observed in quite early times. It has -always been a local species, and although it appears to frequent -hedgerows occasionally, its haunts generally are open grounds in the -neighbourhood of woods, where blackthorn or sloe is plentiful. August -and September are the months for the butterfly, but it does not seem to -be very often observed on the wing, even in places where the -caterpillars are known to occur. When seen it is generally high up on, -or around, some oak tree. Occasionally, however, it visits the bramble -blossoms, and at such times becomes a fairly easy prey. The caterpillar -is obtained by beating sloe bushes. - -Barrett, who seems to have worked out its distribution in England and -Wales pretty closely, remarks, "In the eastern counties it has been -taken occasionally in Norfolk and Suffolk, more frequently in Essex, -where, in Epping Forest, it has been fairly common; also in -Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northamptonshire, in some plenty. -In very few localities in Kent, Sussex, Hants, and Dorset; rarely in -Gloucestershire, and possibly Somerset; but found in many Devonshire -localities, especially in the sheltered valleys around the Dartmoor -range, and in the charmingly wooded districts about Axminster and -Sidmouth; becoming common towards Dartmouth. It has also been found -commonly near Marlborough, Wilts, and plentifully in some parts of North -Wales; apparently rare in South Wales, but certainly existing in some -parts of the wooded districts skirting Milford Haven. Also recorded from -Worcestershire, and Cannock Chase in Staffordshire; and northward in the -favoured districts of Grange and Silverdale in North Lancashire, and -Witherslack in Westmoreland." As Surrey is not quoted in the foregoing, -it may be mentioned as one of the counties in which the species is -found. In Ireland Kane says that it is "abundant in certain localities -in Munster; and in Co. Galway at Claring Bridge, and Oranmore; Cork; -Killoghrum Wood, Enniscorthy; Blarney, Killarney." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 94. - -=Brown Hairstreak.= 1, _male_; 2, 3 _female_. - -=White-letter Hairstreak.= 4, 6 _male_; 5, 7 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 95. - -=White-letter Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ - -=Brown Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -It is distributed throughout Central and Northern Europe, except the -Polar region, and its range extends through Northern Asia to Amurland, -Ussuri, and China. - - -The Purple Hairstreak (_Zephyrus quercus_). - -The butterfly (figured on Plate 96) has the sexes differently -ornamented, as in the last species. The male is strongly tinged with -purplish-blue, the veins are blackish; the outer margin of the fore -wings are narrowly, and the costa and outer margin of the hind wings are -broadly, bordered with black. The female is purplish-black, with two -patches of bluish-purple in the discal cell and space below; often there -is a smaller patch of the same colour between them, the whole forming a -large blotch interrupted by the blackish veins. Under side greyish with -blackish shaded white lines; two or three blackish clouds on the outer -margin of fore wings above the inner angle; these are sometimes edged -with orange; a black spot on anal angle of the hind wings, with an -orange one above it, and a black-centred orange spot between veins 2 and -3. - -Variation in this species is exceptional. An aberration known as -_bella_, Gerhard, has a yellowish mark at end of the cell on the upper -side of the fore wings, and at least one such variety has been taken in -England. Sometimes the blotch on the female is rather blue than purple; -a male specimen with blue streaks on the costa of the fore wings has -been recorded, and Barrett mentions a gynandrous specimen in which the -right side was that of the male. - -The egg is pale brown tinged with pink, and over this is a whitish -network. The caterpillar is reddish-brown and downy; a black line along -the back has a whitish edge, and there are whitish oblique stripes, with -blackish edge, on each side of the central line; the segmental divisions -are well marked, and the spiracles are blackish with pale rings. The -head, which, when the caterpillar is resting, is hidden within the first -body ring, is brownish and glossy, and there is a greyish shield-like -mark on the second ring. The chrysalis is red-brown, with darker -freckles; the body is downy, and there are traces of oblique marks -thereon. It does not appear to be fastened by the tail, but the cast -larval skin remains attached; there are a few strands of silk around and -about the chrysalis, but these are very flimsy, although they hold it in -position on the ground or under a leaf. - -The eggs are laid in July or August on twigs of oak, but the -caterpillars, it is said, do not hatch out until the following spring. -In May and early June the caterpillars are full grown, and may be -obtained by beating or jarring the branches of oak trees in places where -the butterfly is known to occur. They have also been found on sallow. - -This species frequents oak woods, or the borders thereof, in July and -August, and is often more easy to see than to capture, as it has a -tantalizing trick of flying around the upper branches of the trees. -Occasionally it resorts to lower growing aspens, probably to feast on -the honey dew, the secretions of Aphides, with which the leaves are -often covered in hot summers. It seems to be pretty generally -distributed in all parts of England and Wales, and in Scotland as far -north as Ross. In Ireland it appears to be more local, and has only been -recorded from the east and south. - -It is found in all parts of Europe, except the northern. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 96. - -=Purple Hairstreak.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. - -=Black Hairstreak.= 4, 6 _male_; 5 _female_. - -=Green Hairstreak.= 7 _male_; 8, 9 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 97. - -=Black Hairstreak.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and -enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ - -=Purple Hairstreak.= _Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._ - -=Green Hairstreak.= _Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and -enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - - -The Black Hairstreak (_Thecla pruni_). - -This butterfly is figured on Plate 96. In colour it is dark brown or, -when quite fresh, brownish-black; there are some orange marks on the -outer margin of the hind wings, and these are most distinct in the -female, in which sex there are orange spots on the fore wings also. The -male has a pale sexual mark at the end of the cell of the fore wings, -but this is less distinct than in the following species. The under side -is brown, with a bluish-white interrupted transverse line on each wing, -that on the hind wings angled before reaching the inner margin. All the -wings have an orange band on the outer margin, but on the fore wings of -the male this is often indistinct; there are some white-edged black -spots before it, and, on the hind wings, beyond it also. - -The eggs are laid in July on the twigs of blackthorn, but the -caterpillars do not hatch until the following spring. The egg figured on -Plate 97 was reddish-brown and appeared rather shiny. The caterpillar is -described as yellowish-green, with a darker green furrow and purplish -ridges along the back; the latter are edged with whitish and the -divisions between the rings are yellowish. The head is pale brown. The -chrysalis, which is attached by the tail and has a silken thread around -it, is black, marked on the head and body with yellowish-white. - -The caterpillars feed on blackthorn (_Prunus spinosa_) in a state of -nature, but will eat the leaves of damson in confinement. They may be -obtained in May, in their particular haunts, by beating sloe bushes with -a beating tray, or an inverted open umbrella, held under to intercept -the evicted caterpillars, etc. - -This butterfly was not known as British until 1828, when a number of -specimens were captured at Monkswood in Huntingdonshire. These were sold -by the captor as _T. w-album_, which was then called the Black -Hairstreak. As soon as the mistake was detected, it was given out that -the specimens had been taken in Yorkshire, but this was only a ruse, as -_T. pruni_ has never occurred in that county. It is confined, so far as -Britain is concerned, to three or four of the midland counties. "Mr. -Herbert Goss, who has found it at Barnwell Wold, and in other wooded -districts of Northamptonshire, at intervals, for more than twenty years -past, says that it is fond of sitting on the flowers of privet -(_Ligustrum_), and of _Viburnum lantana_, in the woods, and sometimes is -to be found in numbers. Its time of emergence is very variable, -apparently regulated by the lateness of the spring--from June 17th to -the first week in July. Reared specimens made their appearance from June -13th to 27th. He writes, 'It was the greatest possible pleasure to see -them walking about the table while I was at breakfast.' In 1858 it was -found commonly at Kettering, and in 1859 at Oundle, and has been -recorded at Warboys Wood, Huntingdonshire, and in Buckinghamshire. One -specimen was taken at Brandeston, Suffolk, by the Rev. Joseph Green; and -Mr. Allis found it commonly in the Overton Woods and about St. Ives. -There is also a record in Monmouthshire, which may require confirmation. -This butterfly does not appear to be losing ground in this country, its -fondness for trees and lofty bushes rendering it difficult to capture" -(Barrett). - -A writer in the _Entomologist_ for 1874 mentions Linford Woods, in -Bucks, as a locality where he had observed several specimens, mostly -females, on flowers of privet. - -It is found throughout the greater part of Europe and also in Amurland -and Corea. - - -The White Letter Hairstreak (_Thecla w-album_). - -The male of this butterfly (Plate 94) is blackish, with a small whitish -sex mark at end of the discal cell of the fore wing; there is a small -orange spot at the anal angle of the hind wings. The female agrees in -colour with the male, but the tails are longer, and there is no sex mark -on the fore wings. The under side is brownish, with a white line on each -wing, that on the hind wings forming a =W= before the inner margin; the -hind wings have a black-edged orange band on the outer margin which is -finely tapered towards the costa. Captured specimens are usually browner -than those that are reared from caterpillars. - -The species does not exhibit much tendency to variation. The white lines -on the under side may be rather broad or very narrow, and that on the -hind wings is sometimes so broken up towards the inner margin that the -=W= character disappears; when absence of the anal orange spots on the -upper side is associated with the broken line, the form is known as -_butlerowi_. I have several males without the =W=, and some of these -have the orange spot above, whilst others are without it. Barrett refers -to a specimen in which there is "on the under side an extension of white -colour from the white line towards the margin, in the fore wings forming -a broad wedge-shaped band, but in the hind wings occupying the whole -space from the white line to the orange band." - -The egg has been described as whitish in colour, and in shape something -like an orange with a depression on the top. The eggs are laid on twigs -of elm in July, and, according to some writers, remain thereon -throughout the winter. The caterpillar when full grown is -yellowish-green and covered with short hairs; the ridges on the back are -yellowish, and there are oblique whitish streaks on each side of the -darker dorsal line. The head is black. When about ready to assume the -chrysalis state, the whole body becomes purplish-brown. The chrysalis is -brownish, sometimes tinged with purple; covered with tiny bristles -except on the blackish wing cases, and there are two purplish lines on -the back. It is attached by the tail, and has a strand or two of silk -around it, generally on the under side of a leaf. - -In a state of nature the caterpillar feeds on wych-elm (_Ulmus -montana_), but it will eat the leaves of the common elm (_Ulmus -campestris_). It is to be obtained in May and June by beating wych-elms -in localities where the butterfly is known to occur. - -The butterfly is on the wing in July, and usually disports itself -around the elm trees, but it is fond of bramble blossoms, and may often -be netted when feasting on those flowers. It is a local species, but, as -a rule, plentiful enough in its localities. It is rare in Hampshire and -Dorsetshire, scarce in Sussex, and not found in many parts of Kent. -Ripley, in Surrey, was a well-known locality for it in the early part of -the last century, and the caterpillars were found there commonly quite -recently. In Essex it is generally common near Maldon. And, according to -Barrett, it is "plentiful in various parts of Suffolk; very scarce in -Norfolk; found more or less plentifully in Herts, Hants., Cambs., and -Northamptonshire; very rare in Nottinghamshire; but again to be found in -North Lincolnshire; and common in several localities near Doncaster, -Barnsley, and elsewhere in Yorkshire. This appears to be its northern -limit, and in this respect it contrasts curiously with _Thecla betulæ_ -[The Brown Hairstreak], since it extends farther north in the east than -that species; yet in the west is recorded no farther than Cheshire and -Shropshire, where I found it thirty-five years ago upon Benthall Edge. -In Herefordshire it is recorded but rarely; more commonly in -Worcestershire; also in Derbyshire and Needwood Forest, Staffordshire; -common around Burton-on-Trent and elsewhere in Leicestershire; and in -Oxfordshire, Bucks, and Berks. But its metropolis seems to be Wiltshire, -where Mr. Perkins has found it around Marlborough and Savernake in -thousands, as well as in Gloucestershire." It has also been obtained in -Monmouthshire, but its extreme western limit seems to be -Weston-super-Mare, Somersetshire. Abroad it is widely distributed in -Europe, except the extreme north and south-west; its range extends into -Asia Minor, and to Amurland and Japan. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 98. - -=Large Copper.= - -1, 4, _male_; 2, 3, 5 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 99. - -=Large Copper.= - -_Caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -_Thecla spini_ and _T. ilicis_, two species of Hairstreak butterflies -belonging to Central and Southern Europe, have been mentioned as -occurring in Britain by some of the earlier authors. There is not, -however, the slightest reason to suppose that either of them ever -occurred naturally in this country. - - -The Green Hairstreak (_Callophrys rubi_). - -Both sexes of this butterfly (Plate 96) are brown with a faint golden -tinge above, and green on the under side. The male has a dark, or, when -the plumules are dislodged, pale sexual mark, which is oval in shape, -and placed at the upper corner of the discal cell in the fore wings. -Occasionally there are some orange scales at the anal angle of the hind -wings, and more rarely, and in the female, at the extremities of veins -two and three also. On the under side of some specimens, chiefly from -Northern localities, there is a transverse series of white dots across -all the wings; more often these are confined to the hind wings, and -sometimes they are almost or quite absent from all the wings. Now and -then the under side of the hind wings is found to be brown in colour, -and this change in colour has been ascribed to the action of moisture. -The life-history is figured on Plate 97. - -The egg is greenish, reticulated with paler or with whitish-green; the -reticulation is somewhat rough on the side, but becomes finer towards -and on the top, which has the centre hollowed. Laid on the petals of the -common furze (_Ulex europæus_), and on leaves of rock-rose -(_Helianthemum chamæcistus_). - -The caterpillar feeds in June and July. It is pale green, with a darker -line along the back, and yellow oblique stripes on the sides. Among the -plants that it has been found upon, or is known to eat, are dyer's -greenweed (_Genista tinctoria_), needle furze (_G. anglica_), broom -(_Cytisus scoparius_), dwarf furze (_Ulex nanus_), whortleberry -(_Vaccinium myrtillus_); also the berries of buckthorn (_Rhamnus_), -making holes through which the contents of the berry is extracted; buds -of bramble (_Rubus_), and of dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), are also -attacked in a similar way. - -The chrysalis is clothed with tiny hairs, and when freshly formed is -green in colour, but becomes purplish-brown after a time. It appears to -be unattached to anything. I think, however, that there are generally a -few strands of silk around or about it, but these are so easily broken -when the chrysalids are removed that they escape observation. May and -June are the months for the butterfly, which occurs in various kinds of -situations, such as the outskirts of woods, high hedgerows, hill slopes, -and boggy heaths. I once saw it in abundance about the entrance from -Lynton to the Valley of Rocks. Its resemblance on the under side to the -leaves on which it perches is as baffling to the collector as is the -resting habit of the Grayling butterfly previously referred to. It seems -to be pretty generally distributed throughout the kingdom, but is rather -more local in Ireland than elsewhere, and it has not yet been recorded -from the Orkney or Shetland Isles. Its range extends throughout the -Palæarctic Region. - - -The Large Copper (_Chrysophanus dispar_). - -The brilliant butterfly, figured on Plate 99, is of a coppery orange -colour. In the male the fore wings have two black dots in the discal -cell, the outer one linear, and the outer margin is narrowly blackish; -the hind wings have a linear black mark in the cell, and the outer -margin is narrowly edged with blackish and dotted with black. The female -is more conspicuously marked with black; there are two, sometimes three, -spots in the cell of the fore wings, and a transverse series of seven or -eight beyond; the outer margin is broadly bordered with black, and there -are generally two spots above the inner angle; the hind wings have a -black spot in the cell, and a series of black spots beyond, but the -whole basal three-fourths of these wings is often deeply suffused with -blackish; the outer margin is bordered and spotted with black. The sexes -are much alike on the under side, and have reddish-orange fore wings -with bluish grey outer margins, and black spots as on the upper side of -the female; the hind wings are bluish-grey, powdered with bluish towards -the base, and with whitish ringed black spots; five of these spots are -before the linear discal mark, and a series of nine or ten beyond; an -orange band on the outer margin has black dots on each edge. - -Except as regards the size and the shape of the spots, especially in the -female, there appears to have been but little variation noted in this -species in England. - -The two fine female specimens figured on the plate have a more or less -distinct wedge-shaped black spot in the basal end of the discal cell of -the fore wings. Dale mentions that he has an "almost entirely black" -example of the female in his collection. - -The var. _rutilus_, which is the continental form of our butterfly, is -smaller in size, as a rule, the spots are not so large, and the orange -band is always narrower on the under side of the hind wings. It has been -averred that some of the British specimens are referable to this form. - -Newman, writing about 1870, gave the following life-history -details:--"The egg is laid on the leaves of the great water-dock (_Rumex -hydrolapathum_) during the month of August, and the young caterpillars -(never, to the best of my belief, observed) probably emerge during the -following month, and hibernate very early at the base of the petioles. - -"The caterpillar is full fed in June, and then lies flat on the -dock-leaf, rarely moving from place to place, and, when it does so, -gliding with a slug-like motion, the legs and claspers being entirely -concealed. The head is extremely small, and can be completely withdrawn -into the second segment: the body has the dorsal surface convex, the -ventral surface flat; the divisions of the segments are distinctly -marked, the posterior margin of each slightly overlapping the anterior -margin of the next, and the entire caterpillar having very much the -appearance of a _Chiton_; the sides are slightly dilated, the legs and -claspers are seated in closely approximate pairs, nearly on a -medio-ventral line. The colour is green, scarcely distinguishable from -that of the dock-leaf; there is an obscure medio-dorsal stripe, slightly -darker than the disk, and in all probability due to the presence of food -in the alimentary canal. The chrysalis is obese, blunt at both -extremities, attached by minute hooks at the caudal extremities, and -also by a belt round the waist." Newman adds, "My acquaintance with the -caterpillar and chrysalis was made very many years ago in Mr. -Doubleday's garden at Epping, where the very plant of _Rumex -hydrolapathum_, on which the caterpillars fed, is still in existence." - -The caterpillar was described by Stephens, in 1828, as somewhat hairy, -bright green, with innumerable white dots. The same author states that -the chrysalis was "first green, then pale ash-coloured, with a dark -dorsal line and two abbreviated white ones on each side, and, lastly, -sometimes deep brown." - -The figure of the caterpillar on Plate 98 is after Westwood, and that of -the chrysalis after Newman ("Grammar of Entomology"). - -Although he refers to it as "_hippothoë_," the Large Copper seems to -have been known to Lewin (1795), as he states that specimens had been -taken in Huntingdonshire. Haworth (1803) mentions its occurrence in the -fens of Cambridgeshire, and Stephens, twenty-five years later, -wrote:--"This splendid insect appears to be confined to the fenny -counties of Cambridge and Huntingdon, with the neighbouring ones of -Suffolk and Norfolk, unless the account of its capture in Wales by -Hudson be admitted; but this may probably be the following species -[_hippothoë_], which may, moreover, eventually prove synonymous with -_Ly. dispar_. In the first two localities it appears to occur in great -profusion, as several hundred specimens have been captured within these -last ten years by the London collectors, who have visited Whittlesea and -Yaxley Meres, during the month of July, for the sole purpose of -obtaining specimens of this insect." - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 100. - -=Small Copper.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 101. - -=Small Copper.= - -1, 2 _Typical male_; 3 _typical female_; 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 -_varieties_; 7 _var. schmidtii_.] - -Dale states that "the latest capture, consisting of five specimens, -appears to have been made in Holme Fen, by Mr. Stretton either in 1847 -or 1848." - -There is evidence that floods, which were not uncommon in the home of -the Large Copper, were not really injurious to the butterfly, and -therefore the occasional submergence of its feeding grounds can hardly -have been the cause of its almost sudden destruction. It seems more -probable that its disappearance was due to the draining of the fens, and -at least it is significant that the two events were almost coincident. - -There are records of the butterfly having been taken in various odd -localities since it was last seen in fenland, but the latest of those -dates back to the year 1865. There seems to be no question that the -butterfly is now extinct in England, and, lamentable to relate, the -chief locality where we can hope to secure a specimen or two for our -collection is in the neighbourhood of Covent Garden, where the only -requirement for the capture will be a well-lined purse. - -The continental form _rutilus_ is found in Germany, France, Northern -Italy, South-Eastern Europe (except Greece), Northern Asia Minor, -Armenia, and the Altai. The Asian form _auratus_ occurs in South-Eastern -Siberia, Amurland, Corea, Northern China, and Amdo. - - * * * * * - -Four other kinds of "Coppers" have been reported as occurring in -England: these are _Chrysophanus hippothoë_ and _C. virgaureæ_, both of -which have even had English names bestowed upon them, to wit, the -Purple-edged Copper and the Scarce Copper; _C. gordius_, and _C. circe_ -(_dorilis_). These are only mentioned to afford an opportunity for -saying that there does not appear to be the least reason for considering -either of them to be a British butterfly. Kirby, Barrett, and others, -however, think it possible that the first two may have inhabited England -in ancient times. - - -The Small Copper (_Chrysophanus phlæas_). - -This little butterfly is very smart, in activity as well as appearance. -In colour it is very similar to the last species, but both sexes are -spotted with black on the fore wings, the outer series of six spots -forming a very irregular row; the hind wings are black, with a wavy -orange-red band on the outer margin. - -There is considerable variation, and it is, therefore, deemed advisable -to give a number of figures representing some of the more striking -aberrations. The three figures at the top of Plate 101 depict the normal -male and female; the latter sex is Fig. 3. For the loan of the other -specimens (Figs. 4-12) my thanks are due to Mr. E. Sabine, who has a -very fine and extensive series of varieties of this butterfly. Other -examples of aberration on the under side are shown on Plate 119. Blue -spots are sometimes found on the hind wings; these are placed near the -orange-red band, and occasionally they attain a good size. Specimens -much suffused with blackish sometimes occur; these are referable to var. -_eleus_, which is the usual summer form in some of the warmer countries -abroad. A very rare form is that known as _schmidtii_ (Fig. 7), in which -the ground colour of the fore wings and the band on the hind wings are -silvery white instead of orange or coppery-red. A modification of this -form which is hardly less rare has a creamy tint. Straw-coloured or pale -golden specimens are rather more frequently met with. The colour of the -hind wings in fresh specimens is sometimes steely-grey, but blackish is -the more usual hue; the band on the outer area, which as a rule agrees -in colour with the fore wings, varies in width a good deal, and -occasionally is more or less obscured by the blackish ground colour. The -arrangement, size, and shape of the black spots, both above and below, -are subject to much vagary, sometimes of a very striking kind, as, for -example, when the spots of the outer series on the fore wings are united -with the discal pair and form a large irregular blotch. A remarkable -specimen taken some years ago in the Isle of Wight had a small patch of -copper with a black spot in it on the under side. This gave one the idea -of a clumsy attempt at patching, but as I happened to take that -particular specimen, I know that it had not been tampered with. -Gynandrous specimens of this butterfly sometimes occur, but these are -very rare. - -The egg is of a yellowish-white colour at first, and afterwards becomes -greyish; the pattern on the shell, which resembles network, is always -whiter. - -The caterpillar is green and similar in tint to the leaf of dock or -sorrel upon which it feeds. It is clothed with short greyish hair which -arises from white dots; the dorsal line is brownish-olive, and the ring -divisions, especially along the back, are well defined. Head very small, -pale brownish, marked with blackish, drawn into the first ring of the -body when resting. The legs and prolegs are tinged with pink, and -sometimes the body is marked with pink. - -The chrysalis is pale brown, sometimes tinged with greenish, and -freckled with darker brown; there is a dark line along the middle of the -thorax and body, the wing cases are streaked with blackish, and the body -is dotted with black. Attached by the tail and loose silken threads -around the body to a leaf or stem. - -There seem to be three broods of this species in most years: the first -is on the wing in May, sometimes in April; the second in July or early -August; and the third in early October. It is not a difficult species to -rear from the egg, and as varieties appear to be most frequent in the -third brood, the eggs should be obtained from females of the second -brood. Dock and sorrel (_Rumex_) are the food-plants of the caterpillar, -and these are most useful in a growing condition. - -The butterfly frequents all kinds of open situations, and is fond of -basking upon flowers, more particularly those of the Compositæ, from -which vantage ground it dashes with great alertness at any other small -butterfly that may happen to fly that way. Whether these seeming attacks -are really due to pugnacity, as has been stated by some writers, or are -merely of a sportive character, is not altogether clear. As, however, -the meeting of the two butterflies usually results, when both are Small -Coppers, in a series of aërial evolutions by the pair, it would seem -that there is a good deal of playfulness in the business. After the -gambol is over, one butterfly may dart off with the other in hot -pursuit, and then both move so rapidly that their course is difficult to -follow. If the butterfly intercepted happens to be a Blue or a Small -Heath, the Copper returns to the flower from which it started, and -prepares for another raid when the opportunity offers. It occurs -throughout the United Kingdom, but in Scotland it does not extend -northwards beyond the Caledonian Canal. - -Abroad it is found throughout the Palæarctic Region, and is represented -in North America by the form _hypophlæas_. - - -The Long-tailed Blue (_Lampides boeticus_). - -The male is purplish-blue suffused with fuscous, especially on all -margins except the inner one; there are two velvety black spots -encircled with pale blue at the anal angle of the hind wings, and a -slender black tail, tipped with white, appears to be a continuation of -vein 2. The under side is grey-brown, with numerous white wavy lines and -broader streaks; there is a whitish band on each wing before the outer -margin, and black spots as above, but these are ringed with metallic -blue. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 102. - -=Short-tailed Blue.= _Eggs enlarged._ - -=Long-tailed Blue.= _Caterpillar and chrysalis (after Millière)._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 103. - -=Long-tailed Blue.= - -1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_. - -=Short-tailed Blue.= - -4, 6 _male_; 5, 7 _female_.] - -I have not seen any of the early stages of this butterfly. The -caterpillar, which feeds upon the green seeds in pods of the Leguminosæ, -including the garden pea and the lupine, is figured on Plate 102. It is -described as being green or reddish-brown in colour, with a dark stripe -on the back, double oblique lines on the sides, and a white line below -the yellow spiracles; head black. The chrysalis is of a red or yellowish -colour, and dotted with brown. It has a silken girdle and is said to be -attached to a stem, as shown in the figure, but probably it is more -often fixed up among the withered leaves of the food-plant. Two of the -earliest known British specimens of this butterfly were taken by the -late Mr. Neil McArthur on August 4th and 5th, 1859, on the Downs at -Brighton; the third example was captured by Captain de Latour at -Christchurch, where it was flying about a plant of the everlasting pea -in his garden on August 4th of the same year. Newman has noted that in -that particular year the butterfly was very abundant in the Channel -Islands and on the coast of France. No other specimen seems to have been -observed in England until 1879, in which year one was taken at -Freshwater in the Isle of Wight on August 23rd. In 1880 a specimen was -captured in a garden near Bognor, Sussex, on September 12th. On October -2nd, 1882, one was obtained at West Bournemouth. Three were netted in -1893, one of these in late August, and one in the third week of -September, both in Sussex; the third was taken in Kent (inland) in -September. In 1899 a specimen was found at Winchester on September 1st, -and one at Deal on the 16th of the same month; each of these, curiously, -was sitting on a window. On August 2nd, 1904, one example was taken in a -garden near Truro, Cornwall. In addition to the above, single specimens -have been reported as taken at Brighton, July, 1890, and at Heswell, -Cheshire, in 1886 or 1887. - -It will thus be seen that the occurrence of this butterfly in England is -exceedingly infrequent. The species is common in Africa and in Southern -Europe; thence it extends eastward through Asia to China and Japan, and -southwards to Australia. It is also found in the Sandwich Islands. It is -believed to be migratory in its habits, and it is supposed that the -occasional specimens that arrive in this country come to us _viâ_ the -west coast of Europe. - -In its proper home there is a succession of broods of the butterfly, and -if by chance a few females were to visit this country in the early -summer, they most probably would lay eggs, and the caterpillars -resulting from these would almost certainly be able to feed up and -attain the perfect state here. So far there is no reason to suppose that -the caterpillar has ever occurred in England. - - -The Short-tailed or Bloxworth Blue (_Cupido argiades_). - -The interesting little butterfly represented on Plate 103 was not -known to occur in Britain until 1885, when the Rev. O. Pickard Cambridge -made the startling announcement that his sons had captured two -specimens, a female on August 18th, and a male on August 20th of that -year, the scene of capture being Bloxworth Heath, Dorset. Shortly after -this fact was made public the Rev. J.S. St. John added a record of two -males that he had discovered in a small collection of Lepidoptera made -by Dr. Marsh, who stated that he had taken the specimens of _C. -argiades_ in 1874, close to a small quarry near Frome. In addition to -these a specimen, also recorded by Mr. Cambridge, was taken at -Bournemouth in August, 1885; one is reported to have been captured at -Blackpool, about 1860; and one at Wrington, about twelve miles north of -Bristol, in 1895 or 1896. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 104. - -=Brown Argus.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis; - -(a) Egg of "Scotch Argus" enlarged._ - -=Silver-studded Blue.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] - -[Illustration: Pl. 105. - -=Silver-studded Blue.= 1, 2, 3 _male_; 4, 5, 6 _female_. - -=Brown Argus.= 10, 12 _male_; 7, 8, 9 _female_; 11, 13, 14 -_male (Durham)_; 15 _male_, 16, 17 _female (Scotland)_.] - -The following details of the early stages are obtained from Mr. -Frohawk's life-history of the species published in the _Entomologist_ -for October, 1904. The egg (Plate 102, figured from a photomicrograph by -Mr. Tonge) is of a pale greenish-blue, but varies both in the extent of -the ground colour and in the structure of the reticulations, which are -white, resembling frosted glass. - -The full-grown caterpillar (August 23rd) measures 3/8 inch in length. It -is of the usual wood-louse shape, with only a very shallow furrow on the -back, bordered on each side by a fringe of spinous bristles, which vary -in length; the whole surface is densely studded with shorter but -similarly formed whitish or brownish bristles. The ground colour is pale -green, with a darker green stripe along the centre of the back, and -fainter green oblique stripes on the sides. The head is black and -shining, and is hidden under the first ring when the caterpillar is not -feeding or moving about. - -The caterpillars hatched on July 30th, from eggs that were laid in the -South of France on July 24th, and were reared on bird's-foot trefoil -(_Lotus corniculatus_), of which they ate the flowers, seeds, and -leaves. - -The chrysalis, which is attached to the food-plant by a silk pad at the -tail and a thread round the body, is pale green and very finely -reticulated; the wing-cases are rather whiter green, sprinkled with -minute black specks, and the veins are white; there is a blackish line -along the centre of the back, but this is only well defined on the head -and thorax. The whole surface, except the wings, is sprinkled with -slightly curved and moderately long white hairs. - -The butterfly emerges in about ten to fourteen days, according to -temperature. - -The male is violet-blue with the veins rather darker; the outer margin -is narrowly bordered with blackish, and there are some black dots on the -outer margin of the hind wings; the fringes are white, and there is a -slender tail on the hind wings. The female is brownish, tinged with -violet towards the base; the hind wings have black spots on the outer -margin, and some of these are inwardly edged with orange; the tails are -slightly longer than those of the male. - -All the available information concerning the occurrence of this species -in England has already been given. No doubt the localities from which -specimens were recorded have been closely investigated during the past -twenty years, but no further captures of this butterfly have been -recorded. This seems to indicate that it is not really indigenous, but -that its presence here may possibly have been due to accidental -introduction. - -The spring form, _polysperchon_, is smaller than the specimens occurring -in the summer, but so far that form has not been seen in England. - -The species is widely distributed over Central and Southern Europe, and -its range extends through Northern Asia to Amurland, Corea, and Japan. -It is also represented in Northern and Central America by var. -_comyntas_, and has been recorded from Australia. - - -The Silver-studded Blue (_Lycæna argus_ = _ægon_). - -The male of this butterfly (Plate 105) is purplish-blue with a black -border on the outer margins, and sometimes black dots on that of the -hind wings. The female is sooty-brown, powdered to a greater or lesser -extent with blue scales on the basal area; there is generally a series -of orange marks forming a more or less complete band on the outer margin -of the hind wings, and sometimes on the fore wings also. The under side -is bluish-grey in the male, and brownish-grey in the female; the black -spots are ringed with white, and on the fore wings there is one at the -end of the discal cell and a series of seven beyond; the hind wings have -from three to five spots before the discal spot, and a curved series of -seven beyond; there is a black-edged orange band on all the wings, and -beyond this on the hind wings there is a series of metallic blue centred -spots; hence the English name of the butterfly, given to it by Moses -Harris, which is certainly more suitable than Petiver's "Lead Argus." - -In a general way the male is rather larger than the female, but this is -not invariably the case. The colour of the male varies in shade, and -very occasionally, perhaps, is of a lilac tint; the border varies in -width, and is sometimes reduced to a mere line. In the female the orange -marks may be of a brownish or yellowish tint, and now and then there may -be a series of wedge-shaped blue spots above these marks on the hind -wings. On the under side there is a good deal of modification of the -black spots as regards size and shape, and occasionally there is at -least one extra spot on the fore wings placed between the discal spot -and the base of the wing; white markings sometimes appear on the fore -wings between the outer series of black spots and the orange band, and -with this there is generally a white band in a similar position on the -hind wings. Female specimens with splashes of the male colour on one or -more of the wings have been obtained, and, more rarely, examples -entirely male on one side and female on the other have been recorded. - -Frohawk states that the egg both in colour and texture, resembles white -porcelain; "all the depths produce a deep purplish-grey shade. The ova -are deposited singly, and adhere firmly to the receptacle." - -Caterpillars hatched out from eggs, laid the previous summer, on April -1st to 3rd. They were reared on gorse (_Ulex europæus_), pupated towards -the end of June, and the first butterfly, a male, appeared on July 10th. - -The caterpillar figured on Plate 104, when full grown, was -reddish-brown, finely dotted with white, and from each dot a tiny hair -arose; the stripe on the back and line on the side were black edged with -white, head black and shining. This caterpillar was found on the last -day of May, crawling on the ground under heather at Oxshott. It was then -about half-grown, and was reared on heather, pupated in due course, and -produced a female butterfly on July 11th. - -The chrysalis, of which two figures are given, had a pale brownish and -rather shining head; the body was brown with a darker line on the back; -the thorax and wing-cases dull yellowish-green, the former rather -glossy. It was placed in an angle formed by a side and the floor of the -cage, lying quite flat and secured by silken threads, which, owing to -position, I was unable to examine. Some of the caterpillars that Mr. -Frohawk reared were pale green with a dark purplish stripe on the back. -Another food-plant is bird's-foot vetch (_Ornithopus perpusillus_). - -The butterfly is on the wing in July and August, and seems to be more -often found on sandy heaths than elsewhere. It is especially common, in -some years, in the heather-clad districts of Surrey and Hampshire, as -well as other counties in England. In Norfolk and Suffolk it is said to -be common, but scarce in Gloucestershire and Somersetshire. Its range -extends through the greater part of England and Wales, and into Scotland -as far as Perthshire. Specimens from the northwest coast of Wales are -said to be larger than those from inland localities. - -As regards Ireland, there is only Birchall's record, "The Murrough of -Wicklow, and near Rostrevor," in evidence of the butterfly occurring in -that country at all. - -Abroad, it appears to range pretty well over the whole of Europe, and -through Asia eastward to Siberia, Corea, and Japan. - - -The Brown Argus (_Lycæna astrarche_). - -Fore wings blackish or sooty-brown with a black discal spot, and a row -of reddish-orange spots on the outer margin of all the wings; the -fringes are white, sometimes with blackish interruptions. The under side -is greyish or greyish-brown, and the black spots are distinctly ringed -with white. On the fore wing there are seven of these spots, one at the -end of the cell, and the others in an irregular series beyond; the last -in this series is sometimes double, or it may be absent. On the hind -wings the spots comprise a series of four preceding the white discal -mark, and a series of seven beyond; the second spot in this series is -placed directly under the first, forming a colon-like mark, and this -character will help to distinguish the Brown Argus from the blackish or -brown females of the next species. - -The female has larger orange markings, and the outline of the fore wings -is rather rounder on the outer margin, otherwise the sexes are very -similar. - -The orange spots referred to in the male are sometimes absent towards -the tips of the fore wings, and in this respect lead up to the form -known as the Durham Argus (var. _salmacis_, Stephens), which is blackish -above and ochreous-brown below; the black spots on the under side are -much smaller then in typical specimens, and some may be absent -altogether. The male has a black discal spot, and the female a white -one, on the upper side of the fore wings; the hind wings have a red or -orange band on both surfaces. Sometimes the male also has a white spot -on the fore wings. Specimens with the orange spots on upper side almost -entirely absent are referable to var. _allous_. - -_Artaxerxes_ is the form occurring in Scotland, and is known as the -"Scotch White Spot." Both sexes have a conspicuous white discal spot on -the fore wings, and the spots on the under side are white, and rarely -centred with black. In var. _quadripuncta_, Tutt, all four wings have a -white discal spot above. Occasionally an odd specimen with white discal -spots is found in the south. - -Figures of the butterfly will be found on Plate 105, and of its life -history on Plate 104; the upper egg is that from a typical female, and -the lower one was laid by a female _artaxerxes_. - -The egg, which is whitish, with a faint greyish tinge, is laid on the -upper side of a young leaf of the rock-rose (_Helianthemum -chamæcistus_). The caterpillar has a black shining head; the body is -green with whitish hairs, a pinkish line along the back, a whitish one -bordered with pinkish along the sides; the green colour becomes dingy as -the caterpillar matures. The chrysalis is obscure yellowish-green, the -front of the thorax is edged with pinkish, and there are bands of the -same colour on the back and sides of the body; the thorax and the -wing-cases are rather glossy. Held in position by a few silken threads -between leaves of the food-plant. - -The ordinary form of the butterfly is on the wing in May and June, and -again in August. It is widely distributed throughout the southern half -of England, and also in Wales. - -Although chiefly associated with rock-rose, especially in chalky -districts, it occurs too among stork's-bill (_Erodium cicutarium_), upon -which plant the caterpillar also feeds, in sandy places inland as well -as on the coast. - -Caterpillars from the first flight of butterflies may be found in July, -and those from the second flight hibernate and feed up in April. - -The butterfly has a marked liking for roosting on the flower stems of -long grasses, and quite a number may often be found resting together -towards sundown, or on dull days, in sheltered hollows. Sometimes -several specimens of this species and of the Common Blue may be found on -the same perch. It is rather less frequently seen in the Midland -counties, but it is more or less common in some parts of Derbyshire, -Yorkshire, and Lancashire. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 106. - -=Common Blue.= - -1, 2, 7, 10, 12 _male_; 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 107. - -=Common Blue.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalids._] - -The intermediate form, _salmacis_ and its modifications, is found in the -neighbourhood of Richmond, Yorks, and thence northward to the Scottish -border. - -Var. _artaxerxes_ occurs in Scotland from Roxburgh to Aberdeenshire on -the east, and from Dumfries to the Clyde on the west. Kane records four -specimens from Co. Galway, and these are all that are known of the -species from Ireland. This form, together with the var. _salmacis_, are -not found anywhere outside the United Kingdom, and, it may be added, the -latter appears to be getting scarce--at least, in some of its old haunts -in Durham. - -The species is distributed throughout the Palæarctic Region, except the -Polar parts. - - -The Common Blue (_Lycæna icarus_). - -The male is blue, with either a tinge of violet or mauve in its -composition. Sometimes, though rarely, it assumes the brighter shade of -the Adonis Blue. All the wings are very narrowly edged with black on the -outer margins; the veins are generally pale, shining blue, sometimes -becoming blackish towards the outer margins, and occasionally continued -into the fringes, but not to their tips. The female is most often brown, -with some blue scales on the basal area of all the wings; there is a -black discal spot on the fore wings, and a series of orange crescents -before a row of black spots on the outer margin; the hind wings have an -outer marginal row of black spots, edged outwardly with white and -inwardly with orange. - -On Plate 106, Fig. 1 represents a typical male, and Fig. 3 a typical -female, whilst the normal under sides of the sexes are shown in Figs. 10 -and 11. The size of this butterfly ranges from one inch and a half to -three-quarters of an inch. The large specimens at the bottom of the -plate are from Scotland. - -Scotch and Irish males often have some black spots on the outer margin -of the hind wings, as in Fig. 2, but this is from Ventnor in the Isle of -Wight. The female is sometimes of a uniform brown coloration, devoid of -blue scales, and, with the exception of slight traces of orange on the -outer margin of the hind wings, entirely without marking. On the other -hand, this sex is sometimes almost as blue as the male in colour (var. -_cærulea_), but the discal spot, outer marginal borders, and orange -markings are present. Occasionally the orange spots give place to yellow -ones. The discal spot on the fore wings may be encircled with -bluish-white scales, and now and then this spot on all the wings is -surrounded very distinctly with bluish-white. I have seen the latter -form from Durham and Ireland only, but it probably occurs in other parts -of the kingdom. - -Quite a number of gynandrous specimens of this species have been -recorded, some of them being male on the right side and female on the -left, in others the reverse was the case. - -On the under side the male is greyish and the female brownish, -consequently the white rings around the black spots show up more -distinctly in the latter sex. A not uncommon aberration is without spots -between the discal spot and the base of the fore wing; this is known as -_icarinus_. Another form that occurs fairly often has the lower basal -spot united with the last spot of the outer series, as in Fig. 9, this -is ab. _arcua_, and a modification, with the junction bar-like instead -of arched, has been named _melanotoxa_. Very rarely the whole of the -under side, except the outer margins, is free of spots (Plate 119). A -specimen exhibiting aberration in this direction is shown on Plate 118, -Fig. 6, whilst Figs. 1 and 3 show modifications of what is known as the -streaked form. - -I am indebted to Mr. E. Sabine, of Erith, for the loan of all the fine -aberrations of the Blues figured on Plate 118. - -On Plate 107 will be found figures of the early stages. - -The egg, which is usually laid on the upper side of a terminal leaf of -bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus corniculatus_) or on rest-harrow (_Ononis -spinosa_), is whitish-green in colour, netted with glossy white. - -The caterpillar is green, covered with short brownish hairs, with which -are mixed some longer ones; it is wrinkled on the side, ridged on the -back, and the line along the middle of the back is darker. Head black -and glossy. - -The chrysalis is green, with the head, wing-cases, and sometimes the -hinder parts of the body, tinged with buff; thorax brighter green, -rather shiny; a darker line down the centre of the body. - -The plants mentioned, and especially rest-harrow, are known to be the -food of the caterpillar, but eggs have also been found, in Scotland, on -red clover, plantain, burnet saxifrage, and yarrow. The caterpillars are -to be found, after hibernation, in April, and a second brood in June and -July. Those feeding on rest-harrow seem to prefer the blossom. - -This caterpillar is stated to form a cocoon, but the only approach to -any such structure made by the seven individuals I had under observation -was in the case of two caterpillars that pupated among leaves of -_Lotus_, which were drawn together by the slenderest of threads. Four -effected the change at the bottom of the cage and seemed to be quite -free, one had climbed to the leno top of the cage and there spun a -silken carpet under itself, which drew the leno together, and so formed -a shallow cave in which the chrysalis rested. In every case the cast -skin was attached to the tail, and so remained after the butterflies -emerged. - -The butterfly is to be found almost everywhere in the country, and its -distribution extends throughout the United Kingdom, except, perhaps, the -Shetland Isles. There appears to be only one flight in the north of -Scotland and Ireland, and this occurs in June and July. In England there -are two broods, and in some years probably three in the southern -counties. It may be seen on the wing, in greater or lesser numbers, all -through the season from May to September. - -Abroad, the range extends over the whole of Europe to North Africa, and -through Western and Northern Asia to Amurland and China. - -The Common Blue, as well as the Chalk Hill and the Adonis Blues, are to -be found, often commonly and sometimes in large numbers, in their -favourite haunts. Each of them is subject to a considerable range of -variation on the under side, and this seems to be of a similar character -in all. Very striking aberrations are, perhaps, not often obtained, but -still many modifications are to be found, and the possibility of a -really good thing turning up, induces one to give attention to the -business of overhauling these butterflies. A very good method of -conducting this kind of work is to first ascertain the places where they -chiefly congregate, and then to visit there on dull days or late in the -afternoon, when the butterflies are asleep or, at all events, resting. -They can then be easily examined as they sit on the long grass stems, -etc. (Plate 27), but only the under sides can be viewed in this way. So -to avoid passing over a good upper-side variety, it will be needful to -take each specimen between the finger and thumb of the right hand, -seizing the closed wings gently, but firmly, near their base, and then -quickly secure the thorax from underneath with thumb and index finger of -the left hand, when the upper as well as the under side becomes -available for inspection. There is no reason whatever to damage the -insects in any way, and those that are not required may be set free -again none the worse for their short detention. Work against the wind, -and to avoid a second interview, turn rejected specimens to the rear. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 108. - -=Chalkhill Blue.= - -_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 109. - -=Chalkhill Blue.= - -1, 2, 8, 10 _male_; 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 _female_.] - - -The Chalk Hill Blue (_Lycæna corydon_). - -Although this butterfly (Plate 109) is, in England, fairly constant in -the matter of colour, and, as regards the male especially, differences -in tint are noticeable when series from various localities are ranged -side by side. Silvery-blue perhaps best expresses the general colour of -the male on the upper surface, sometimes very pale, and sometimes -faintly tinged with greenish. The blackish border on the outer margin of -the fore wings varies in width and in intensity; often there are -indications of eyed spots on this margin, and occasionally these spots -are quite distinct, although the whitish rings are not always clearly -outlined. The black border on the outer margin of the hind wings is -often narrow and external to a series of white-edged black spots, but -sometimes it is broad and obscures the spots; orange markings rarely -appear on this margin, but such aberrations have been taken on the -Dorset coast. The fringes are white chequered with blackish on the fore -wings, but with seeming continuation of the veins through those of the -hind wings. The female is sooty-brown above, with a black discal spot on -the fore wings, and sometimes on the hind wings also, and these spots -may be ringed with blue or bluish-white; the outer marginal borders are -hardly darker, and those on the fore wings are limited by a wavy pale -line, which may be faintly or strongly marked with orange, but orange -marking on these wings is rather the exception than the rule; on the -outer margin of the hind wings there are some black spots, edged -outwardly with white and inwardly with orange. The fringes are white -chequered with brown, and those of the fore wings are tinged with brown. -There are generally some blue scales at the base of the fore wings and -over a larger portion of the basal area of the hind wings, but -occasionally the whole discal area of the hind wings (Fig. 7, Plate -117), or of all the wings, var. _syngrapha_ (Fig. 8, Plate 117), is of -the male colour. The former is from Eastbourne and the latter from -Wiltshire. They are rather uncommon varieties, but intermediate forms -are more often met with in the same localities as well as in other parts -of England where the species occurs. - -On the coast of Dorsetshire a very unusual form occurs. The border of -the outer margin is white instead of the usual black or blackish; the -inner limit of this border is, on the fore wings, defined by a dusky -shade, and the black nervules break up the border into six spots; on the -hind wings four or five of the white spots are centred with black dots. -The female has a similar border, but on the hind wings it is inwardly -edged with orange. It has been named var. _fowleri_, and I have seen one -example of this form without black dots in the marginal white spots of -the hind wings. On the under side variation is on somewhat similar lines -to that adverted to in the last species. On Plate 109, Fig. 8 represents -the typical under side of the male, and Fig. 7 that of the female. It -will be noticed that the male is greyer than the female. Some of the -ordinary aberrations are shown on the same plate, and some rarer ones -will be found on Plate 118, and of these Fig. 12, if without the basal -spot on the fore wings, would represent var. _lucretia_. - -For figures of the early stages see Plate 108; that of the caterpillar -is after Buckler. The egg is flat on the top, with a slightly darker pit -in the centre (the micropyle); the sides are rounded, netted, and -studded, and the colour whitish-green. The above short description was -taken from one of a few eggs of this butterfly sent me in August last by -Mr. Ovenden, and the same egg has been figured. - -Mr. Frohawk has described the egg more fully in the _Entomologist_ for -1900. With reference to the egg-laying of the butterfly he writes: "On -August 13th, 1900, I watched several females in the act of depositing, -on various stems of the usual stunted herbage to be found growing on -chalk downs. They frequently crawled among the plants for a distance of -about a couple of feet, occasionally curving the abdomen downwards among -the small plant-stems and grasses, and here and there depositing an egg. -I therefore dug up portions of the turf, potted it, and placed a couple -of females on each lot; they deposited ova on the 14th and 15th, on the -stems of various plants; a few were laid upon the brown dead trefoil -leaves, as well as on the living leaves; but the site generally chosen -is the intermingled stems of both plants and grasses. Another female, -placed upon a similar pot of plants, deposited about fifty ova on -September 10th, nearly all being placed upon the stems, and a few upon -the under side of the leaves of rock-rose; in all cases the eggs are -deposited singly." - -The caterpillars do not hatch out until the following spring. According -to Buckler and Hellins, the only difference between the caterpillar of -this butterfly and that of the next species, _Adonis_, is that the -latter "has its ground colour deeper green, with the hairs or bristles -black, while _Corydon_ has the ground colour of a lighter, brighter -green (a green with more yellow in its composition), and the hairs light -brown." - -The butterfly is common and often abundant in July and August, chiefly -the latter month, on chalk downs in Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, -Berkshire, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex; it is also found in the Newmarket -district of Cambridgeshire and on one chalk hill in Norfolk, according -to Barrett, who adds: "on the oolite as well as the chalk in Wilts, -Dorset, Gloucestershire, and Somerset; and on limestone at Grange and -Silverdale in North Lancashire, in Lincolnshire, Westmoreland, and -Cumberland. It has also been taken in Essex, Hants, Cornwall, and in one -locality in Glamorganshire." - -Mr. Sydney Webb has stated that a dwarf form occurs pretty regularly in -a valley about two miles east of Dover, but that it only appears to be -found at odd times in other parts of England. - -Abroad, the species is found in Central Europe, also in the Pyrenees, -Aragonia, and the Balkan Peninsula. - - -The Adonis Blue (_Lycæna bellargus_). - -The butterfly on Plate 110 is the Clifden Blue of Moses Harris (1775), -so named because it was said to have been first observed at Clifden in -Bucks. The male is of a beautiful bright blue colour, but as in the same -sex of the previous two species, it is not quite constant in tint. In -some specimens we find a distinct mauve shade, and in others, but more -rarely, the blue colour is tinged with greenish (Plate 118, Fig. 11): -the veins become distinctly black on the outer margins, and appear to -run through the white fringes on all the wings. Often there are black -dots on the outer margin of the hind wings. The female is dark brown, -sometimes slaty-black, with orange spots or crescents on the outer -margins; these are often only faintly in evidence on the fore wings, and -sometimes this is the case on the hind wings also; there is a black -discal spot on the fore wings, and the fringes of all the wings are -white chequered with black. The bases of the wings are powdered with -blue, but this is more noticeable on the hind wings. On the under side -the fore wings of the male are greyish, and the hind wings -greyish-brown; all the wings of the female are brownish, with a faint -grey tinge in some specimens; the ornamentation is very similar to that -of the Common Blue. The two figures on Plate 110, showing specimens with -the wings closed, represent typical male and female, and the other -figures of under sides on this plate exhibit minor aberrations from -typical lines; examples of the more extreme variations will be found on -Plate 118, where also are figured some uncommon aberrations in the -colour of the male on the upper side. - -There is often a tendency in the female to assume the colour of the -male, and this is usually seen on the hind wings, but occasionally on -the fore wings also. In the extreme form of this phase of variation, -var. _ceronus_, the whole of the upper surface, with the exception of -the orange-spotted borders, is almost as blue as that of the male. This -is a parallel aberration to that of the Chalk Hill Blue known as -_syngrapha_, but it seems to be somewhat rarer in this country. - -Figures of the early stages will be found on Plate 111. - -The egg is greenish-white, becoming rather greener in tint towards the -top, which is depressed; the netting is whitish and shining, and -somewhat rougher on the sides than towards and on the top. - -Buckler describes the full-grown caterpillar as deep, full green in -colour, covered with tiny black speckles, bearing little black bristles, -which are longest on the dorsal humps and on the yellow-edged ridge -above the spiracles; on the top of each of the eight pairs of dorsal -humps is a deep bright yellow longitudinal dash, somewhat wider behind -than in front; these dashes form in effect two yellow stripes -interrupted by the deeply sunk segmental divisions; the line along the -back is darker than the ground colour, and the spiracles are black. The -head is dark brown, and there are two yellow dots on the first ring of -the body near the head. - -The chrysalis, when first formed, is greenish-brown with the wing-cases -greenish, the whole afterwards becomes ochreous; the thorax and -wing-cases are rather glossy, and the body is slightly hairy. Buckler -states that some of his caterpillars buried themselves about half an -inch deep in the loose soil, and formed a weak sort of cocoon; others, -not having been supplied with soil that could be so easily penetrated, -retired under the stems of their food-plants, and in angles formed by -the branching stems spun a few weak threads to keep themselves in place. - -The food-plant is the horseshoe vetch (_Hippocrepis comosa_). From eggs -laid in August, the caterpillars appear to hatch towards the end of -September, but do not feed up until the spring. Butterflies from these -caterpillars are on the wing between the middle of May and the middle of -June, thus occupying about nine months in passing through the various -stages from egg to perfect insect. From eggs laid in May and June the -butterflies appear in August and September. Although it is found in -similar kinds of situations to those affected by the last species, and -sometimes on the same grounds, it is more local, and almost confined to -the counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. It is, however, rather common -at Ventnor and in some other parts of the Isle of Wight, and is found -near Winchester. Barrett states that it is abundant at Corfe Castle, -Dorset, and gives as localities for the butterfly Wotton-under-Edge, and -near Bristol, near Torquay, Sidmouth, and Seaton. Its range abroad -extends through Central and Southern Europe, to Armenia, Northern Asia -Minor, and Western Kurdistan. It is also found in North-West Africa, -where the males are greenish-blue with conspicuous black spots on the -outer margins of the hind wings; this is the var. _punctifera_. - - -The Holly Blue (_Cyaniris argiolus_). - -About the beginning of the eighteenth century this butterfly (Plate -113) was known as the "Blue Speckt," but Harris, in 1775, changed the -name to the "Azure Blue." The male is a pretty lilac-tinged blue, with a -narrow black edging on the outer margin of the fore wings, often only in -evidence towards the tip, and a narrow black line on the outer margin of -the hind wings. The white fringes of the fore wings are distinctly -marked with black at the ends of the veins. The female is of the same -shade of blue, or sometimes much paler (var. _clara_, Tutt), with a -broad blackish border on the outer margin of the fore wings extending -along the front margin to about the middle; this border varies in width -and seems to be wider in summer specimens than in those of the earlier -flight; the discal mark on the fore wings is black, but this is -sometimes very faint; there is a series of black dots on the outer -margin of the wings. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 110 - -=Adonis Blue.= - -1, 2, 4, 5, 9 _male_; 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 111 - -=Adonis Blue.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars and chrysalis._] - -Although the colour of the upper side is somewhat like that of the -Common Blue, it should not be confused with that species, as the under -side is very different both as regards the colour, which is -bluish-white, and the arrangement of the black spots. On the outer -margins of the wings in some specimens there are more or less distinct -traces of blackish crescents. - -There is no considerable variation in this species, but the spots on the -under side are subject to slight modification in the matters of size and -shape; the borders also vary in width, and in the female the blue area -is thus sometimes much restricted. A gynandrous specimen has been -recorded, in which the right side is male. - -The egg (Plate 112) is described as whitish or bluish-green in colour. - -The full-grown caterpillar has a blackish head, the body is bright -yellowish-green with paler lines; eight rings from and including the -second are crested with two ridges of humps, between which lies the sunk -dorsal space; the whole skin of the body is velvety, with its surface -thickly covered with yellowish warty granules, each bearing a minute -bristly white hair. Sometimes the humps and the middle of the back are -marked with rose-pink. - -The chrysalis is pale brownish-ochreous with a thin blackish-brown line -on the back of the brown freckled thorax; the body is marked with rather -blotchy arrow-head dashes, and some larger dark brown blotches; the -wing-cases are pale greyish freckled and outlined with brown, their -surface is smooth and rather more glistening than the other parts, which -are thickly studded with fine, short, brownish bristles. (Adapted from -Buckler.) - -The following is a brief summary of a paper by Mr. R. Adkin (_Proc. S. -Lond. Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc._ for 1896), in which he gives a most -interesting account of the earlier stages of the second brood of this -species. - -At the time when the butterflies of the second brood are on the wing, -the flower-buds of the ivy (_Hedera helix_) are still young, and form -compact heads. The butterfly, having selected one of these heads, -settles upon its top, closes her wings over her back, and bending her -abdomen down and round underneath the buds, affixes an egg to the under -side of one of the slender single bud-stalks. In about a week the eggs -hatch. The young larva which in colour matches the buds very closely, -rests on the bud-stalk with its anterior segments, which completely -cover its head, pressed closely against the bud, and looks so exactly -like a slight swelling of the upper part of the stalk as to make -detection a matter of great difficulty, even with the aid of a fairly -powerful lens. The larva is very sluggish in its habits, seldom leaving -the head of the buds on which it is hatched, so long as sufficient food -remains for its nourishment, or occasionally when about to change its -skin. It appears to feed only at night, and its manner of feeding, which -is the same throughout its life, is to eat a round hole through the -outer shell of a bud, and pressing its head forward through it to clear -out the soft inside of the bud. In from four to six weeks it is -full-fed; it then quits the buds, and attaches itself by slender threads -to a leaf, and in a few days becomes a pupa, in which state it passes -the winter. - -Normally the eggs of the spring butterflies are laid on the under side -of the calyces of flower-buds of holly (_Ilex_). The caterpillars feed -on the flower-buds and also on the young green berries. They are full -grown in about a month, change to chrysalids, and the butterflies emerge -in July and August. Among other pabula that have been mentioned are the -flowers of dogwood (_Cornus sanguinea_), berry-bearing alder (_Rhamnus -frangula_), and spindle (_Euonymus europæus_). - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 112. - -=Holly Blue.= - -_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 113. - -=Holly Blue.= - -1, 2, 6 _male_; 3, 4, 7 _female (spring)_; 5 _male_; 8, 9 _female -(summer)_.] - -In confinement the caterpillars will eat young leaves of holly and -probably of ivy also, but where flower-buds are available they prefer -them and ignore the tender leaves. - -The Rev. Gilbert Raynor, on May 18, 1901, observed a female deposit an -egg on an unopened flower-bud of rhododendron in his garden; and he also -mentions that he beat a number of the caterpillars of all sizes from -holly during the first week of July in the same year. - -Mr. Dennis reported that on October 9, 1902, all stages of the species -were to be found at Earl's Colne, Essex. - -Butterflies of the first flight are usually to be seen in April and May, -and of the second, which is perhaps only partial and may not be -represented at all, in July and August. Specimens have been observed as -early as the last week of March, and, as adverted to above, as late as -October. For a few years in succession the species may become -increasingly numerous, and then suddenly become quite scarce for a year -or two. Most probably this is the result of favourable or unfavourable -weather conditions. - -The taller hollies, where these grow in gardens, open woody places, on -hillsides, or even in hedgerows, are frequented by these butterflies in -the spring; and the ivy-clad walls, etc., are their haunts in the -summer. - -The species is widely distributed, and often common, over the whole of -the south of England and Wales. North of the Midlands, as well as in -Ireland, it is more local, and occurs, I believe, only in the first -brood. Possibly in the South of Ireland there may be a second brood. -Barrett states that there is no reliable record for Scotland. - -Abroad, its range extends throughout Europe and Northern Asia, except -the Polar Regions, to China and Japan. It also occurs in North Africa. - - -The Small Blue (_Zizera minima_). - -The butterfly on Plate 115 is sometimes referred to as the "Bedford -Blue" and also as the "Little Blue." - -Both sexes are blackish, or sooty-brown; the male is powdered, more or -less, with silvery-blue scales. The under side is greyish-white with a -tinge of blue at the base of each wing, but chiefly on the hind pair; -the spots are black encircled with white. As will be seen on turning to -the plate, there is variation in size. Fig. 5 represents a giant race -occurring in some localities, and the particular specimen depicted was -taken, with many others, on the coast near Lymington, Hants; it seems to -be referable to var. _alsoides_, Gerhard. Variation on the under side is -usually in the direction of complete absence of spots, but Mr. Joy has -recorded a specimen with the spots on the hind wings extended into -streaks of considerable but varying length. - -Figures of the early stages will be found on Plate 114. - -The egg is pale greenish in colour, netted with whitish; it is laid in -June on the calyx of a flower-bud, generally low down, of the -kidney-vetch (_Anthyllis vulneraria_). - -According to Buckler, caterpillars hatched on June 21 from eggs laid -between the 16th and 18th of that month, and at once commenced to feed -on the flowers of the kidney-vetch, and made their way to the seed, for -which they evinced a marked preference. When full grown, the caterpillar -is brownish, sometimes tinged with pink. The fine bristles are dark -brown; there is a darker line along the middle of the back, and a line -of dark marks on each side. The head is black and shining. - -The chrysalis is described by Buckler as "dirty whitish-grey, -approaching to drab, palest on the back of the abdomen, greyish on the -head and thorax, both of which are marked with a black dorsal stripe, -which is a little interrupted; on either side is a subdorsal row of -short slanting black dashes. The pale ground colour is sprinkled with -some very minute black specks. The head, thorax, and abdomen are hairy -with bristly whitish hairs." Although the caterpillars feed up rather -quickly and are full grown and apparently ready to assume the chrysalis -state, they do not effect the change until the following May or June. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 114. - -=Small Blue.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalids._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 115. - -=Small Blue.= 1 _male_; 2, 3 _female_; 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 _male vars_. - -=Mazarine Blue.= 9, 11 _male_; 10, 12 _female_.] - -The butterfly emerges in about three weeks, so it will be seen that this -species continues the caterpillar existence for something over ten -months. - -On the Continent there are two broods of the butterfly, and in England -there appears to be a partial second flight in some years, as, for -instance, in 1901, when captures in August were reported from Herts, -Kent, Surrey, and Wilts. Its haunts are warm and sunny grassy hollows -and slopes, and it is often common in such places on the chalk hills in -the south, from the end of May to the end of June. According to Barrett -it is scarce in the Eastern Counties; widely distributed but local in -the Midland and Western Counties, even to Devon, and in Wales, where -chalk or limestone is found; also in extremely restricted localities in -Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Durham, and in various places in -Scotland, extending as far north as Aberdeen. In Ireland it is much more -plentiful, especially on the limestone of the west and on the coast -hills near Belfast, and even frequents the sand-hills of the Dublin -coast. - -It is widely spread over Europe, except the Polar parts, and, -apparently, the south of Portugal and Spain; its range extends eastward -to Amurland, Mongolia, and China. - - -The Mazarine Blue (_Nomiades semiargus_). - -The male is dull purplish-blue, narrowly bordered with blackish on the -outer margin; the female is dark brown. On the underside both sexes are -pale greyish-brown, with a bluish tinge at the base; there is a black -discal spot and a series of black spots beyond, all ringed with white. - -The egg is described as being white in colour and small, and round in -shape. - -The caterpillar is of a dingy yellowish-green, with darker lines on the -back and sides; there are fine hairs on the body, and the head and -spiracles are dark brown (Rühl). - -It feeds in July and August on the flowers and seeds of thrift (_Armeria -vulgaris_), kidney-vetch (_Anthyllis vulneraria_), and melilot -(_Melilotus officinalis_). - -The chrysalis is rather oval in shape, pale olive-green in colour when -first formed, in September, but olive-brown later; it is attached by the -tail to a stalk of the food-plant and has a silken girdle (Rühl). - -This butterfly (Plate 115) is the _cymon_ of Lewin, who, writing in -1795, considered it very rare. In 1828 Stephens refers to it as scarce -and local, "found in chalky districts in Norfolk, Cambridge, Yorkshire, -and Dorsetshire; also near Brockenhurst and Amesbury, Hants; and on -Windlesham Heath, Surrey, towards the end of May and of July." Newman -(1871) adds Warwickshire, Herefordshire, Gloucestershire, Monmouthshire, -Glamorganshire, Somersetshire, and Lincolnshire. Curtis gives -Leicestershire and Worcestershire. It seems to have been fairly common, -and even plentiful in some years around Glanville's Wotton, Dorset, but -has not been seen in that district since 1841; at Wotton-under-Edge, -Gloucester, it was not uncommon up to 1858; as late as 1864 it occurred -at Epworth, North Lincolnshire. Probably the latest captures in Britain -were the specimens taken in Glamorganshire in the years 1874-77. Tutt -mentions that the butterfly was taken near Cuxton in Kent, some -thirty-five years ago, but it has not since been seen in that locality. - -Occurs in May and June and again in July and August over the greater -part of Europe; its range extends to Asia Minor, and eastward to -Siberia, Mongolia, and Amurland. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 116. - -=Large Blue.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 117. - -=Large Blue.= 1, 5 _male_; 2, 3, 4, 6 _female_. - -=Chalkhill Blue vars.= 7 _female_; 8 _do. var. syngrapha_.] - - -The Large Blue (_Nomiades arion_). - -The butterfly on Plate 117, Figs. 1-6, is the largest "Blue" found in -this country. All the wings on the upper side are deep blue, and their -outer margins are bordered with blackish; the discal spot, and a row of -spots beyond, are black; the hind wings have a row of black dots on the -outer margin, and sometimes, and especially in the female, there is a -series of black dots just beyond the central area; the fringes are -white. The under side is greyish tinged with blue towards the base of -each wing, but covering nearly the whole of the basal third of the hind -pair; the spots are black ringed or edged with white; on the fore wings -there are two in the discal cell and a row of six beyond; on the hind -wings there are four or five before the discal spot, and a series of -seven beyond; all the wings have a double marginal series, and some -black dots at the ends of the nervules. Sometimes the wings have a -purplish tinge, and this is more usually so in Gloucestershire -specimens. The chief variation is in the number and the size of the -spots; these are occasionally only faintly in evidence, but more rarely -perhaps those beyond the discal spot on the fore wings are of large size -and bar or wedge-like in shape; the smaller cell-spot is often absent. A -dwarf form is stated to occur at times in all localities. - -The complete life-history of this species has yet to be ascertained; no -one seems to be acquainted with the caterpillar after hibernation. -Pretty much all that is known of the early stages has been worked out by -Mr. Frohawk, who has published some very interesting accounts of his -observations in the _Entomologist_ for 1899 and 1903, and from these the -following details have been obtained. - -The egg (Plate 116) is bluish-white in colour, and is laid singly among -the buds of wild thyme (_Thymus serpyllum_). - -Caterpillars hatched on July 10 from eggs received the previous day; -they were placed upon thyme blossoms and soon commenced to feed, one -being observed to eat its way into the base of the calyx so that the -forepart of the caterpillar was hidden. In its colouring and downy -covering the caterpillar so closely resembles the flower-buds of the -thyme that it is very difficult to detect. After the third moult (July -26) the colour is a uniform, dull, ochreous-pink; there are four rows of -long curved hairs, each row composed of a single hair on each ring from -the fourth to the ninth inclusive; the first three rings have each a set -of three subdorsal hairs, those on the first ring curving forwards; the -bases of the hairs resemble glass-like pedestals with fluted sides. The -head is ochreous with dark brown markings in front. The caterpillar at -this stage develops an aversion to thyme or any other plant offered to -it, and seems to be anxious to hide itself in the ground. - -The chrysalis, which is figured on Plate 116 (after Frohawk), is -ochreous when first formed, but becomes darker gradually; the -wing-cases, however, remain of the original colour, but their hind -margins darken. From a chrysalis found on July 12 the butterfly emerged -on July 16. - -There is some evidence in favour of the supposition that this -caterpillar is in some way dependent upon ants for nourishment after the -third moult, if not before, but what the exact requirement may be is not -known. Probably the circumstances connected with the discovery of the -chrysalis in 1905 by Messrs. Frohawk & Rayward may afford a valuable -clue to the direction in which their future investigation will have to -be conducted. We may hope, therefore, that the mystery that has so long -hung over the last stages of the caterpillar will be solved before very -long. - -Lewin (1795) and Donovan (1796) both refer to this as a rare English -butterfly. The former states that it is on the wing in July, and is -found on high chalky lands in different parts of the kingdom, having -been taken on the cliffs in the neighbourhood of Dover, Marlborough -Downs, the hills near Bath, and near Clifden in Bucks. - -Stephens, in 1828, wrote of it as "an insect of great rarity." He -mentioned the localities given by the older authors, and added that it -had been taken in the Mouse's Pasture, near Bedford, in rocky situations -in North Wales, and had been plentiful near Winchester. - -Newman (1871) wrote, "Its 'metropolis,' if I may borrow an expression -from the revered fathers of British entomology, is in South Devon; it -has occurred in some abundance in Somersetshire, and on the Cotswold -Hills in Gloucestershire; from Gloucestershire we ascend to a Midland -county, Northamptonshire, in which county (at Barnwell Wold) a -considerable number have been taken." One specimen was reported from -Charmouth in Dorsetshire, and the butterfly has also been recorded from -Herefordshire, but these are matters of ancient history. At the present -time the species is only to be found in limited numbers in the -Cotswolds; it seems to have become much rarer than formerly in its South -Devon locality, _i.e._ Bolthead, near Plymouth; one never hears of it -now from Clovelly, in North Devon, where, according to Dale, it was once -reported to be abundant. In 1891 Messrs. Waterhouse obtained a fine -series of specimens in West Cornwall, and since that time the district -has been annually visited by an increasing number of entomologists. -Judging from the "big bags" that are made each year it would seem that -the butterfly has a very strong and widely distributed settlement in -those parts. - -Abroad it is distributed throughout Europe, except the Polar and the -south-western parts, and is also found in Armenia, Bithynia, and South -Siberia. - - * * * * * - -Our next species belongs to the Nemeobiinæ, a sub-family of Lemoniidæ = -Erycinidæ. Only one member of the family is known to occur in Europe; -this is _Nemeobius lucina_. - -As the fore legs of the male butterfly are aborted, and are therefore -useless for walking, the species would seem to come near the Nymphalidæ, -in which the fore legs of the butterflies, in both sexes, are reduced. -In its early stages, however, the species seems to be most nearly -related to the Lycænidæ. - - -The Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (_Nemeobius lucina_). - -This butterfly is figured on Plate 120. The male is black, with three -transverse tawny bands on the fore wings; these are crossed by the black -veins, and so form series of irregular spots. Those on the outer margin -have black centres; on the hind wings there are three or four tawny -spots on the disc, and a series of black centred tawny spots on the -outer area. The female is similar to the male, but the tawny markings -are wider, so that the fore wings appear to be of this colour, with a -black patch at the base, two black irregular lines, and a series of -black spots on the outer margin. On the under side of the hind wings -there are two transverse series of whitish spots, and a series of black -spots on the outer margin. The wings of this sex are always broader than -those of the male, and the apex of the fore wings is not so distinctly -pointed. Variation is not usually of a very pronounced character, and in -a general way it consists mainly in a greater or lesser amount of black -in the male, and this more particularly on the hind wings, and an -increase in the tawny colour in the female; in the latter sex, outer -marginal black spots are sometimes absent from all the wings. Barrett -mentions two extreme aberrations. In one, a female, the usually dark -spaces, bands, and veins are of an exceedingly pale brown, suffused with -fulvous, so as to be comparatively indistinct; another example, a male, -has the basal area of the fore wings pale, and the first transverse dark -band absent. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 118. - - 1, 3 =Common Blue vars.=, _male_; 6 _do. female_. - 2, 5, 8, 11 =Adonis Blue vars.=, _male_; 4, 7, _do. female_. - 9, 10 =Chalkhill Blue vars.=, _female_; 12 _do. male_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 119. - - 1, 2, 3 =Small Copper vars.=; 4 =Adonis Blue var.= - 5 =Common Blue var.=; 6, 7, 8 =Gatekeeper vars.=] - -The eggs of this species are to be found at the end of May on the -under sides of the leaves of the cowslip (_Primula veris_), sometimes as -many as ten on one leaf, but as a rule there will only be one or two on -a plant. When laid, the egg is very glassy in appearance, but it -gradually turns to a pinkish-grey; and when the caterpillar is formed -inside, the shell becomes transparent, and its occupant can be clearly -seen. It eats a considerable portion of the shell in making its exit -therefrom, and afterwards consumes the remainder of the shell. When in -its last skin the caterpillar is brown, covered with short whitish hair, -among which are some longer dark brown or blackish hairs; the lines on -the back and sides are blackish, and there are black dots on the front -part of each segment or ring. Head, honey brown, notched on the crown; -eyes and jaws, brownish. It feeds from June to August on cowslip, but -will also eat primrose (_Primula vulgaris_), and hides among dead and -withered leaves beneath the food-plant (Plate 121). - -The chrysalis is pale whity-brown, hairy above, with black dots; head -and the upper edge of the wing-cases streaked with black. - -Occasionally a few butterflies emerge in August, but they usually remain -in the chrysalis until May or June. - -This is a woodland species, and prefers the sunny but sheltered nooks -and glades, but also resorts to the broader rides and pathways. Flowers -do not seem to have any strong attraction for it, but it may often be -seen sitting on the foliage of a bush or sapling tree. It appears to be -pretty widely distributed, although to a certain extent local, -throughout the southern half of England, but seems to have almost or -quite disappeared from the counties of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and -Essex. Dumfries is the only locality in Scotland from which it has been -reported. - -Its distribution abroad is limited to Central Europe, Denmark, Livonia, -Southern Sweden, Central Spain, North Italy, and the Balkans. - -Now follow the Skippers (Hesperiidæ), of which kind of butterfly we have -eight species in England. Of these the first two belong to the -Hesperiinæ and the others to the Pamphilinæ. - - -The Grizzled Skipper (_Hesperia malvæ_). - -The wings of the butterfly figured on Plate 122 are blackish, ornamented -with numerous white spots, which are more or less square in shape, on -the fore wings. The fringes are chequered black and white. - -The male differs from the female in having the front edge of the fore -wings folded towards the base, and these wings have scattered greyish -scales on the basal area; the central series of spots on the hind wings -are also more in evidence, and not infrequently unite and become -band-like. Variation consists in modification of the markings, chiefly -in a tendency of the spots to run together, culminating in var. _taras_, -Bergstr., in which the white spots of the fore wings are confluent and -form a large blotch. This variety was figured by Petiver in 1717, but -was not named by Bergsträsser until 1780. Haworth described it as -_lavateræ_, and Newman figured it under the same name. - -On a small plant of Alpine strawberry, sent by the Rev. Gilbert Raynor, -were three eggs of this butterfly. These were pale green in colour, -ribbed, and delicately netted with cross-lines. On June 26, three -caterpillars were noticed on the upper side of the leaves, each on a -separate leaf, and under cover of a few coarse silken threads. They were -pale steely-grey, with black heads, and plates on the first and last -segments of the body. - -As the supply of strawberry foliage was failing, the caterpillars -were given bramble on July 21, and the next day each was found enclosed -in a sort of envelope formed of a bramble leaf. They were then seemingly -in their last skin, whitish-green in colour, and covered with short -whitish hair; a whitish edged dark olive-brown line along the back, and -similar lines on the sides; between the rings the colour was pale -ochreous. The date of pupation was not noted, but on September 9, one of -the spun-together bramble leaves was opened, and a chrysalis found -within. This was pale brown, with dark brown or blackish marks along the -back and sides; the head and back were covered with dense pale -reddish-brown bristles; the wing, leg, and antennæ cases were greenish, -smooth, and shaded with brownish. Between the head and first ring of the -body above there was a deep furrow, with a black-centred white spot on -each side of it (Plate 123). - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 120. - -=Duke of Burgundy Fritillary.= 1, 2, 4 _male_; 3, 5 _female_. - -=Milkweed Butterfly.= 6 _male_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 121. - -=Duke of Burgundy Fritillary.= - -_Egg enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -Besides the plants adverted to above, the caterpillars will eat -raspberry (_Rubus idæus_) and cinquefoil (_Potentilla fragariastrum_ and -P. _reptans_). - -The butterfly is pretty generally distributed in Great Britain, but does -not seem to be common in Ireland, as Kane only mentions two examples, -from Killarney. It is found in May and June on chalk downs and other -hillsides, especially in the hollows and sheltered nooks, also in and -around woods, and in rough fields. On dull days and at night it may be -found sitting, with the wings erect over the back, on various -seed-heads, etc. - -The species is double brooded on the Continent, and occasionally a few -butterflies will appear in August, but such emergences depend on a -combination of favourable circumstances. In very forward seasons it has -been seen on the wing during the last week in April. - -Its range extends over Europe and into Northern Asia. - - * * * * * - -As Barrett refers to the capture in Norfolk (May or June, 1860) of -several specimens of the Central and South European species, _H. -alveus_, Hüb., it maybe well to mention it here, if only for the purpose -of quoting his remarks thereon. After detailing the facts connected with -the occurrence, he states, "It seems undesirable now to introduce the -species to a place in the British list, but rather to record the -captures in question as specimens accidentally introduced with plants, -or else the result of a very exceptional act of migration." - - -The Dingy Skipper (_Thanaos tages_). - -The wings are fuscous, with darker fuscous transverse bands on the -middle third of the fore wings; the space between these is sometimes, -and in both sexes, whitish; there are some whitish spots on the outer -band, usually towards the costa, but occasionally on the middle also, -and a series of white points on the outer margin of all the wings. The -hind wings have a whitish discal dot and a band beyond the middle, which -is almost parallel with the outer margin. The male has a well-marked -fold on the costa (Plate 122). - -The egg is whitish-green when freshly laid; it afterwards changes in -colour to orange. The caterpillar is yellowish-green with a darker line -along the back and a paler line on each side; the spiracles are red and -edged with whitish. The head is pale brown, striped and marked with -purplish-black. The body, together with the head, is covered with a -short whitish pile. It feeds on bird's-foot trefoil (_Lotus -corniculatus_) from June until August, when it hibernates. I have not -seen the chrysalis, but it has been described as dark green with the -body tinged with rosy red. - -The butterfly is on the wing in May and June; in some seasons it has -been seen as early as the end of April. Very occasionally, perhaps, -there is a partial second flight in August. It has been reported as -plentiful at Lyme Regis in August. - -I took one or two specimens about the middle of August, 1903, in the -New Forest district, and in the same month of 1905 one of two -caterpillars sent to me by Dr. Chapman pupated in August, and the -butterfly emerged some time in the autumn, as I found it dead in the box -early in October. Both the caterpillars had spun together sprays of the -food-plant as shown in the figure, Plate 123. One was removed for its -portrait to be taken, and it was supposed that the other bundle -contained a caterpillar also, and was not examined. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 122. - -=Grizzled Skipper.= - -1, 2, 7 _male_; 4, 5, 8 _female_; 3 _var. male_; 6 _do. female_. - -=Dingy Skipper.= - -9, 10, 12 _male_; 11, 13, 14 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 123. - -=Dingy Skipper.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and its shelter._ - -=Grizzled Skipper.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar and shelter; chrysalis -in cocoon._] - -The butterfly affects open places in, or the edges of, woods in chalky -districts, also the slopes of chalk downs and other hillsides, as well -as railway banks and even rough fields. It evidently delights in -sunshine, and may often be seen basking on a stone or the bare earth. -When at rest at night or on dull days it sits on a dead seed-head or -grass glume, with the wings closed down over its back like a noctuid -moth, and is then difficult to detect until the eye becomes accustomed -to its appearance. It is widely distributed in Great Britain, but it is -more at home on chalk and limestone than elsewhere. In such localities -as the fens of Norfolk and Cambridge it is scarce, and seems to have a -rather limited distribution in Ireland, in which country Galway is its -headquarters, according to Kane. - -Abroad, it is found throughout Europe, and its range extends to Western -Asia. - - -The Small Skipper (_Adopæa thaumas_). - -All the wings are brownish-orange, with the veins darker and becoming -black towards the outer margins, especially on the fore wings. The male -has a black sexual mark (Plate 125). - -Except that the colour varies in the direction of a pale golden tint -there is little in the way of aberration in this butterfly. At least one -gynandrous specimen has been recorded. - -The following descriptions of the early stages (Plate 124), as well as -the figures of the caterpillar and the chrysalis, are from Buckler's -"Larvæ of British Butterflies":-- - -The egg "is of a long oval figure, half as long again as wide, the -shell glistening, devoid of ribs or reticulation; at first white, then -turning dull yellowish, and at last paler again, with the dark head of -the caterpillar showing through. The young caterpillar eats part of the -empty egg-shell." - -The full-grown caterpillar is of a delicate light green, the stripe -along the back is rather bluish-green, with paler green central and side -lines; the spiracles are flesh-coloured, and below these there is a -somewhat creamy-white stripe. The head is deeper green than the body, -and roughened with minute points. It feeds in June on _Holcus lanatus_, -_Brachypodium sylvaticum_, and probably other kinds of soft grasses, and -its assimilation, both in colour and texture, with the blades of grass -is remarkable. Before changing to the chrysalis it encloses itself -within two or sometimes three leaves of the grass, joined together -longitudinally by lacing or spinning with white silk, the edges more or -less close to each other, and becomes completely hidden. - -The chrysalis is secured in the silken chamber, head upward, by an -oblique cincture behind the thorax, and the anal tip fastened by a -fan-like spread of fine hooks at the extremity fixed in the silk. The -colour is similar to that of the caterpillar, and the lines are fairly -in evidence. Caterpillars that spun up on June 18 to 23 produced -butterflies on July 15 and 16. - -Hellins states that eggs were laid in a row in a folded blade of grass -about July 29, and that the caterpillars hatched out on August 12. - -According to Hawes, the caterpillar of this species does not hatch from -the egg until the following spring. - -Although it does not seem to be very plentiful in fenlands, this -butterfly certainly has a partiality for damp places, whether in the -rides, or on the sides of woods, on hill slopes, or waste ground. -Wherever there is a fairly large growth of the taller soft grasses that -the caterpillars feed upon, there the butterfly may be found in July and -August throughout the greater part of England and Wales. Reported from -the Edinburgh district in Scotland; and in Ireland from Powerscourt and -near Cork. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 124. - -=Small Skipper.= - -_Caterpillar and chrysalis._ - -=Essex Skipper.= - -_Eggs, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar._ - -=Lulworth Skipper.= - -_Eggs enlarged; caterpillar and chrysalis._] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 125. - - =Small Skipper.= 1, 3 _male_; 2, 4 _female_. - =Essex Skipper.= 5, 7 _male_; 6, 8 _female_. - =Lulworth Skipper.= 9, 11 _male_; 10, 12 _female_.] - - -The Essex Skipper (_Adopæa lineola_). - -This butterfly is very like the Small Skipper, but may be separated from -it, in both sexes, by the black under sides of the knobs of the antennæ. -The black sexual mark in the male is finer, shorter, and much less -oblique (Plate 125). - -The egg (Plate 124) is pale greenish-yellow, oval in shape, flattened -above and below; the top is slightly depressed. The eggs are deposited -in July or August, in dried grass seed-heads and inside the sheath of a -leaf, and the caterpillars, according to Hawes, do not hatch until -April. - -The caterpillar is green, with the incisions between the rings -yellowish; there is a darker green stripe on the back, and the lines on -the sides are yellow. The head is pale brown and striped with darker -brown. It feeds from April to June on coarse grasses, such as _Triticum -repens_. When full grown "it spins together the stems of the grass low -down, with a network of white silk for pupation" (Hawes). The chrysalis -is described as being long, yellowish-green in colour, and retaining the -dark dorsal stripe seen in the caterpillar. - -No doubt this butterfly has been with us all the time, but it appears -to have escaped detection until the year 1888, when Mr. Hawes, in July -of that year, met with it in Essex. He, however, did not then consider -the three specimens that he had taken with _A. thaumas_ anything more -than queer varieties of that species, and it was not until January, -1890, that the fact of _A. lineola_ being British was published. Since -that time this Skipper has been found in a great many parts of Essex, -but chiefly along the coast, and in such localities as Benfleet, Canvey, -Dovercourt, Shoeburyness, Southend, etc. At Hadleigh it is often very -abundant. Other localities are Sheerness, Cliffe, and Gravesend, in -Kent. It has also been reported from near Sudbury, and from Harwich, and -Chappel in Suffolk; from Ashton Wold in Northamptonshire. In 1898 five -specimens, identified by the Rev. Gilbert Raynor, were taken near -Bedford. Barrett, who mentions Wicken Fen and Burwell among other -localities, says that it has a "partiality for the embankments which -protect the cultivated land from the inroad of the high tides which -flood the salt marshes. Here it flits about, or sits on the coarse -seaside grasses or on blossoms of thistle, or _Lotus corniculatus_, -indicating rather sluggish habits, yet flying swiftly when disturbed. -Further inland it seems to frequent chalky hillsides and marshes." It is -on the wing in July and August. - -The species is found in all parts of the Palæarctic Region except the -most northern and the Canary Isles. - - -The Lulworth Skipper (_Adopæa actæon_). - -Compared with the other two species on Plate 125, the coloration of this -butterfly is somewhat dingy; it is, however, enlivened, especially in -the female, by a short dash and a curved series of orange spots in the -upper half of the fore wings. The male has a black sexual mark which is -very similar to that of the Small Skipper. There seems to be very little -to note in variation, except that the orange markings referred to are -subject to modification, and in the male may be altogether absent. An -example taken at Swanage, in 1903, had the wings on the left side male, -and those on the right side female. - -The egg, figured, from a photograph, on Plate 124, is whitish, faintly -tinged with yellowish. - -The mature caterpillar is pale greyish, or yellowish, green, with the -dorsal vessel darker, and edged with a slender pale yellow line on -either side, and enclosing a pale longitudinal line along its middle. A -narrow yellowish line runs above on the side and a broader one below. -The two dorsal lines are prolonged as far as the middle of the head, and -run to the end of the flat anal shield, which is narrowly edged with -pale yellow. The head is greenish with two yellowish lines. The two -snow-white patches on the under side of the ninth and tenth rings of the -body are conspicuous as in _lineola_, _sylvanus_, and _comma_. This -white substance is spread out at the tail end of the caterpillar of -_actæon_, when it has formed its chrysalis case (Zeller). - -Buckler, referring to four caterpillars found on _Brachypodium -sylvaticum_, June 11, states that they completed their growth on a diet -of _Triticum repens_. They ate out wedge-shaped portions from the sides -of the grass blades, and when they had finished their repast, they -crawled down to the middle of the blade, and there spun a coating of -white silk from one side to the other, causing the two edges of the -blade to draw together a little, and then in the silk-lined hollow they -rested until hunger obliged them to ascend the blade again for another -meal. About June 23 they had ceased to feed, and were beginning to -fasten themselves within more closely constructed retreats, formed where -two blades of grass obliquely crossed each other. The colour of the -chrysalis is similar to that of the caterpillar, and the lines are -faintly traceable. The butterflies appeared July 14 to 18, emerging at -night, and ready for flight in the morning. - -This insect received its English name in 1832, when it was first -discovered in this country at Lulworth Cove, in Dorsetshire. It has -since been found to occur at Durdle Cove, and the Burning Cliff, -Weymouth, and the latter locality appears to be its most eastern limit. -Its range extends westward along the coast of Dorsetshire and Devonshire -to Sidmouth, Seaton, and Torquay; and there are records of its having -been observed in Cornwall. According to Mr. E.R. Bankes, as quoted by -Barrett, this butterfly is not confined to the coast line in Dorset, but -is to be found in two or three spots along the chalk range of the -Purbeck Hills, at a distance of four or five miles from the sea. He also -states that the species is only single brooded, that the best time for -it is from the beginning of July to the middle of August, and that the -food-plant of the caterpillar is _Brachypodium pinnatum_. - -The blossoms of rest-harrow (_Ononis arvensis_) are said to be the -particular vanity of the butterfly, and it is seldom found visiting any -other flower. Abroad the species is not especially attached to the -sea-coast, but occurs inland throughout Central and Southern Europe, its -range extending to Asia Minor and Syria, and also to North-West Africa. - - -The Large Skipper (_Augiades sylvanus_). - -The male has the discal area of the fore wings bright fulvous, and the -outer area broadly brown; the sexual mark is black; the hind wings are -tinged with fulvous on the disc, and have brighter fulvous spots. The -female is brown with a fulvous discal wedge on the fore wings, and an -angulate series of fulvous spots beyond; hind wings as in the male, but -spots rather more defined. In some examples of this sex the spots on the -fore wings are confluent, and the discal area is then fulvous as in the -male (Plate 126). - -The egg is whitish or greenish-white, and is laid on a blade of grass. -Hellins states that from eggs laid about July 1 the caterpillars hatched -on July 13; they chose cocks-foot grass (_Dactylis glomerata_) for food, -and rested in the middle of a blade, fastening its edges across with -five or six distinct little ropes of white silk. - -The young caterpillar figured on Plate 127 was on September 11 about -half an inch in length, and had been removed from the grass tube, also -shown, to be figured; the head was then pale brown, bordered and lined -with purplish brown; the body was darkish green, paler on the last ring, -and with darker lines on the back and sides. After hibernation (the -figure of this stage of the caterpillar is from Buckler), in May, the -caterpillar is about one inch long, pale green in colour; the skin is -thickly covered with very short dark brown bristles, "the head dirty -white with a dark brown stripe down the outer edge of each lobe, the -neck whitish-green" (Hellins). - -The chrysalis was formed in the grass cocoon shown with it. The general -colour was brown with the wing-cases darker, and a darker suffusion on -the back. - -The egg-laying of this butterfly has been observed by Mr. Ullyett, who -states that the female, having selected a suitable grass-stem, deposits -eggs in a line in a sheath formed by the leaf round the stem. The -caterpillars hibernate in tubes of grass, and feed up in the spring. - -This butterfly has been supposed to be double brooded, but there does -not seem to be any direct evidence that this is so. It is on the wing in -grassy places on the slopes of downs and other hillsides, also in rides, -and on the margins of woods, from early June until well into July, and -sometimes even later in the year. It is found in most of our English -counties, and also in Scotland, south of the Forth. In Ireland it is not -uncommon in a meadow in Lord Kenmare's demesne, Killarney, and has been -recorded from the Morrough of Wicklow. - -Abroad its distribution extends through Europe and Northern Asia to -China and Japan, and also to North Africa. - - -The Silver-spotted Skipper (_Augiades comma_). - -This butterfly is very similar on the upper side to the Large Skipper, -but the spots, especially those nearest the front edge of the fore -wings, are yellower. On the under side the greenish tinge of the ground -colour, and the silvery spots, make the identification quite easy. The -black sex mark in the male is very similar to that of the last species -(Plate 126). - -The males vary a little in the width of the marginal border, and in some -females there is almost as much fulvous on the discal area of the wings -as in the male; in the darkest females the spots always appear paler -than in fulvous specimens. On the under side the ground colour is -sometimes olive-brown rather than green. - -The following account of the life-history of this butterfly is adapted -from Mr. Frohawk's article on the subject published in the -_Entomologist_ for 1901:-- - -In August, whilst watching some of the butterflies on the wing over a -patch of chalky ground covered with a short dense growth of various -grasses, etc., he noted a female hovering close over the plants. -Presently it settled on a tuft of hair grass (_Aira cæspitosa_), and -after walking over and among it a little time, she curved her abdomen -down, and deposited a single egg on one of the fine hair-like blades, -or, rather, spines, and close by, within an inch, another egg was found. -Afterwards some plants of this grass were potted up, and some females -placed on them. These deposited a large number of eggs upon the -grass-stems and blades. - -The egg when newly laid is pearl white with the slightest -yellowish-green tinge, which very gradually turns deeper in colour, -assuming a pale straw-yellow on the sixth day, and so it remains until -January, when it becomes paler. - -The caterpillar hatches out at the end of March or early in April. It -does not eat the empty egg-shell, but directly after leaving the egg it -starts spinning the fine grass together into a somewhat dense cluster an -inch or two above the ground. In this compact shelter the larva lives -and feeds upon the grass surrounding it, remaining almost always -completely hidden. Sometimes as many as three or four live together. -When full grown and about one hundred days old, the caterpillar is of a -dull olive-green colour, with a black collar on the first ring, and the -entire surface densely sprinkled with minute shining black warts, each -emitting a tiny amber-coloured spine with a cleft knobbed apex. The head -is blackish marked with ochreous lines. It still resides in a tube of -grass spun closely together, and feeds on any other kind of grass that -happens to be interwoven with the _Aira_. Just before pupation the -caterpillar often crawls restlessly about, but in some instances it does -not leave its place of feeding, and spins a strong, coarse network -cocoon among the grass close to the ground, weaving the gnawed loose -pieces of grass with the fine stems and blades, and therein pupates -during the latter part of July. - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 126. - - =Large Skipper.= 1, 3, _male_; 2, 4 _female_. - =Silver-Spotted Skipper.= 5, 7 _male_; 6, 8 _female_. - =Chequered Skipper.= 9, 10 _male_; 11 _female_.] - -[Illustration: _Pl._ 127. - -=Large Skipper.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillars, chrysalis and cocoon._ - -=Silver-spotted Skipper.= - -_Egg, natural size and enlarged; caterpillar._ - -=Chequered Skipper.= - -_Egg enlarged and caterpillar._] - -The chrysalis is secured in the cocoon by hooks at the tail and by -hooked bristles on the head; the head and thorax are pale olive mottled -with blackish; the body olive, spotted with dark olive, and inclining to -yellow on the ventral surface; below each spiracle is a short -longitudinal mark; the spiracles are amber-brown. - -The butterfly is to be found in August on most of our chalk hills, but -has not been recorded from either Scotland or Ireland. - -It is a very quick flyer and difficult to capture when on the wing, but -it is fond of sitting on low-growing thistles, and is then sometimes -easy to take. Abroad it occurs throughout Europe and Northern Asia to -China and Japan. - - -The Chequered Skipper (_Carterocephalus palæmon_). - -The well-defined yellow or orange spots on the blackish-brown ground -colour distinguish this butterfly from all other British Skippers. - -The variation is only of a minor kind, and chiefly in the direction of -an increase or a decrease in the number and the size of the spots. -Occasionally those on the central area of the fore wings are much -enlarged and more or less confluent; and the spots on the outer margin -of the hind wings are sometimes very small or entirely absent. - -The following particulars of the early stages are abstracted from Mr. -Frohawk's life-history of the species (_Entomologist_, 1892):-- - -Living females received in June were placed on a growing plant of brome -grass (_Bromus asper_), and a few eggs were deposited, some upon the -blades of grass, others upon the gauze-covered glass jar in which the -plant was placed; they were laid singly, firmly adhering to whatever -laid upon. The first lot of eggs were deposited on June 14. The egg has -a pearly appearance, being whitish or yellowish-white in colour. Ten -days after the egg is deposited the young caterpillar emerges by eating -away the crown. Soon after hatching out the young caterpillar makes a -little tubular dwelling, drawing together the edges of the grass-blade -by spinning about three or four stout cords of silk, which quickly -contract, causing the edges to draw together, and sometimes to overlap, -forming a compact short tube; generally before spinning it nibbles off -the extreme edge of the blade where the silk is afterwards attached. It -feeds upon the blade both above and below its abode, devouring so much -that frequently only the midrib of the blade remains, and the tube only -just long enough to conceal it; it then shifts its quarters, and -prepares a new home. - -On October 3, when one hundred and one days old, the caterpillar was -pale primrose-yellow, and the stripes of a slightly darker hue, the -white lateral line showing clearly, and spiracles brownish; the head -pale buff with a faint lilac tinge, with a black patch above the mouth -and brownish at the sides. In the previous stage the caterpillar was -whitish-green with a rather dark green line along the middle of the -back, this line bordered on each side by an almost white, very fine -line, followed by alternate darker and lighter lines, the lightest being -extremely fine; "then a subdorsal darker green line, bordered laterally -by a conspicuous whitish line, which is again bordered below by a paler -and indistinct green line, and a very faint spiracular whitish stripe, -on which the spiracles are placed; they are white, outlined by a dark -but indistinct ring; the under surface is whitish-green." - -About the middle of October the hibernaculum was formed by spinning two -blades of grass together at the edges, so making a tube, in which the -caterpillar remained during the winter. On March 21 it left its retreat, -but did not seem to feed, and generally remained quiet, lying along a -grass-blade. On April 3 "it had drawn together with silk six blades of -grass at the ends, forming a tent-like structure, and along the surface -of one of the broadest a little carpet of silk was spun, upon which it -rested with its head uppermost; a silk cord also encircled its body -round the fourth segment." It assumed the chrysalis state on April 8, -and had then passed two hundred and eighty-nine days in the caterpillar -condition. The chrysalis measures five-eighths of an inch in length, is -fairly cylindrical, but tapering to the tail. "Dorsal view: the head is -pointed in front in the form of a short conical beak; the eyes are -rather prominent; the thorax is swollen in the middle, the widest part, -and then gradually tapers towards the last segment, which is elongated -and flattened. Lateral view: the beak is slightly upturned, the thorax -convexed, and the segment next to the thorax is rather swollen in the -middle, so forming a rather decided depression at the base of the -thorax, where the silken cord passes round; the body gradually tapering -to the last segment, which terminates in a long compressed curved -process furnished with long hooks; the wing-cases extend down two-thirds -its length, and only very little, if at all, swollen; the antennæ and -legs are but feebly modelled; the tongue is well defined, it is dusky at -the base, blending into black at the apex; the colour is of a very pale -primrose-yellow, shading into pearly grey, and semi-transparent on the -head, wings, and flap; a dark medio-dorsal line commences at the base of -the beak, and passes down the entire length, gradually fading off in the -anal extremity; it is blackest on the head and first abdominal segment, -and palest on the thorax, where it is light brown; there are two -rust-red subdorsal lines, which run parallel from the base of the -antennæ to the last segment; another similar line, united along the -inner margin of the wing, passes over two spiracles, and then runs -parallel with the subdorsal lines.... The antennæ and wings are faintly -outlined with dusky brown. In general appearance and colouring the pupa -closely resembles a piece of dead withered grass." - -A female butterfly emerged on May 20, the transformation from egg to -perfect insect thus occupying about eleven months. This local butterfly -is on the wing in June; sometimes it is seen in the latter part of May, -and, more rarely perhaps, in July. - -This species appears to have been first noticed as an inhabitant of -Britain in 1798, in which year specimens were taken in Clapham Park -Wood, Bedfordshire, by Dr. Abbott, who, four years later, also reported -the butterfly from White Wood, Gamlingay, Cambridgeshire. In 1823 it was -found to occur at Castor Hanglands, near Peterborough; and in 1841 -Doubleday met with it, in large numbers, in Monk's Wood, -Huntingdonshire. Among other localities from which it has been reported -are Ropsley Wood, near Grantham, Notts, and Wychwood Forest, -Oxfordshire. - -In its special localities, which, at the present time, are chiefly the -larger woods in Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, and Buckinghamshire, it -frequents the flowers of ground ivy (_Nepeta glechoma_) and of the bugle -(_Ajuga reptans_). - -Abroad it is locally common in various parts of Central Europe; also -occurs in Finland, Central and Northern Russia, Dalmatia, Piedmont, and -in Labrador, and other parts of North America. - - - - -A CLASSIFIED LIST OF THE BRITISH BUTTERFLIES - - - =Papilionidæ.= - - PAPILIONINÆ - - Papilio machaon - - PIERINÆ - - Aporia cratægi - - Pieris brassicæ - " rapæ - " napi - " daplidice - _Pontia daplidice_ - - Euchloë cardamines - - Leucophasia sinapis - _Leptidia sinapis_ - - Colias hyale - _Eurymus kirbyi_ - - Colias edusa - _Eurymus hyale_ - - Gonepteryx rhamni - _Colias rhamni_ - - - =Nymphalidæ.= - - APATURINÆ - - Apatura iris - - NYMPHALINÆ - - Limenitis sibylla - _Limenitis camilla_ - - Polygonia c-album - _Grapta c-album_ - - Vanessa polychloros - _Eugonia polychloros_ - - Vanessa urticæ - _Aglais urticæ_ - - Vanessa io - " antiopa - _Euvanessa antiopa_ - - Pyrameis cardui - " atalanta - - Argynnis paphia - " adippe - " aglaia - " lathonia - " euphrosyne - _Brenthis euphrosyne_ - - Argynnis selene - _Brenthis selene_ - - Melitæa athalia - " cinxia - " aurinia - - DANAINÆ - - Anosia plexippus - - SATYRINÆ - - Melanargia galatea - - Erebia epiphron - _Melampias epiphron_ - - Erebia æthiops - - Satyrus semele - _Hipparchia semele_ - - Pararge egeria - " megæra - _Satyrus megæra_ - - Epinephele ianira - _Epinephele jurtina_ - - Epinephele tithonus - - Aphantopus hyperanthus - _Hipparchia hyperanthus_ - _Enodia hyperanthus_ - - Coenonympha typhon - _Coenonympha tiphon_ - - Coenonympha pamphilus - - - =Lycænidæ.= - - LYCÆNINÆ - - Zephyrus betulæ - _Thecla betulæ_ - - Zephyrus quercus - _Thecla quercus_ - - Thecla pruni - " w-album - - Callophrys rubi - _Thecla rubi_ - - Chrysophanus dispar - _Polyommatus dispar_ - _Lycæna dispar_ - - Chrysophanus phlæas - _Polyommatus phlæas_ - _Lycæna phlæas_ - - Lampides boeticus - _Lycæna boeticus_ - - Cupido argiades - _Lycæna argiades_ - - Lycæna argus - _Lycæna ægon_ - _Plebeius argus_ - - Lycæna astrarche - _Lycæna agestis_ - - Lycæna icarus - _Plebeius alexis_ - _Polyommatus icarus_ - - Lycæna corydon - _Polyommatus corydon_ - - Lycæna bellargus - _Lycæna adonis_ - _Polyommatus thetis_ - - Cyaniris argiolus - - Zizera minima - _Lycæna minima_ - - Nomiades semiargus - _Lycæna acis_ - _ " semiargus_ - - Nomiades arion - _Polyommatus arion_ - _Lycæna arion_ - - - =Lemoniidæ.= - - NEMEOBIINÆ - - Nemeobius lucina - - - =Hesperiidæ.= - - HESPERIINÆ - - Hesperia malvæ - - Thanaos tages - _Nisoniades tages_ - - PAMPHILINÆ - - Adopæa thaumas - " lineola - " actæon - - Augiades comma - _Erynnis comma_ - - Augiades sylvanus - - Carterocephalus palæmon - _Pamphila palæmon_ - - - - -INDEX. - -* Species so marked in this Index are _reputed_ British. - - - Adonis Blue, 170. _Plates_ 110, 111, 119 - - _Adopæa actæon_, 190, _Plates_ 124, 125; - _lineola_, 189, _Plates_ 124, 125; - _thaumas_, 187, _Plates_ 124, 125 - - Ammonia jar, 19 - - Androconia, 14 - - Angles of wings, 12. Fig. 9 - - _Anosia menippe_, 106; - _plexippus_, 106, _Plates_ 72, 120 - - Antennæ, 4, 9 - - _Apatura iris_, 56, _Plates_ 28, 29, 31; - var. _iole_, 57, _Plate_ 31 - - _Aphantopus hyperanthus_, 130, _Plates_ 88, 89; - var. _arete_, 131; - var. _cæca_, 131, _Plate_ 89; - var. _lanceolata_, 131; - var. _obsoleta_, 131 - - _Aporia cratægi_, 32. _Plates_ 4, 5 - - _Argynnis adippe_, 87, _Plates_ 53, 54, 57; - var. _cleodoxa_, 88; - var. _locuples_, 89; - _aglaia_, 89, _Plates_ 55, 59, 61; - var. _charlotta_, 90; - _euphrosyne_, 94, _Plates_ 56, 64, 65; - _lathonia_, 91, _Plates_, 58, 63; - _niobe_,* 88; _paphia_, 84, _Plates_ 50, 51, 52, 57; - var. _valesina_, 84, Plates 52, 57; - _selene_, 96, _Plates_ 56, 62, 66 - - Armature, 2 - - "Arran Brown," 117 - - _Augiades comma_, 193, _Plates_ 126, 127; - _sylvanus_, 192, _Plates_ 126, 127 - - - Bath White, 41. _Plates_ 12, 14 - - Benzine, 28 - - Black Hairstreak, 143. _Plates_ 96, 97 - - Black-veined White, 32. _Plates_ 3, 4 - - Bloxworth Blue, 156, _Plates_ 102, 103 - - Board for Flat-setting, 22. Figs. 15-17 - - Brace and Band Modes of Setting, 24. Fig. 20 - - Brimstone, 54. _Plates_ 25, 26 - - Brown Argus, 161. _Plates_ 104, 105 - - " Hairstreak, 138. _Plates_ 94, 95 - - - _Callophrys rubi_, 147. _Plates_ 96, 97 - - Camberwell Beauty, 73. _Plates_ 41, 42, 43 - - _Carterocephalus palæmon_, 195. _Plates_ 126, 127 - - Caterpillar stage, 2 - - Chalk Hill Blue, 127. _Plates_ 108, 109, 117 - - Chequered Skipper, 195. _Plates_ 126, 127 - - Chloroform Bottle, 19 - - Chorion, 1 - - Chrysalis, 6 - - _Chrysophanus dispar_, 148, _Plates_ 98, 99; - var. _rutilus_, 149; - _circe_,* 152; - _dorilis_,* 152; - _gordius_,* 152; - _hippothoë_,* 152; - _phlæas_, 152, _Plates_ 100, 101, 119; - var. _eleus_, 152; - var. _schmidtii_, 152, _Plate_ 101; - var. _hypophlæus_, 154; - _virgaureæ_,* 152 - - Classification, x - - Clouded Yellow, 51. _Plates_ 22, 23, 24 - - Clubs of Antennæ, 9. Fig. 7 - - _Cænonympha pamphilus_, 136, _Plates_ 92, 93, var. _lyllus_, 136; - var. _ocellata_, 137, Plate 92; - _typhon_, 132, _Plates_ 90, 91, 92; - var. _davus_, 133; - var. _laidion_, 133; - var. _philoxenus_, 133; - var. _rothliebii_, 133; - var. _scotica_, 133 - - _Colias edusa_, 51, _Plates_ 22, 23, 24; - var. _helice_, 52, _Plate_ 24; - _hyale_, 48, _Plates_ 20, 21 - - Collecting, 16 - - Comma, the, 62. _Plates_ 32, 35 - - Common Blue, 163. _Plates_ 106, 107, 118, 119 - - Compound Eye, 9 - - Cremaster, 6. Fig. 5. - - _Cupido argiades_, 156, _Plates_ 102, 103; - var. _comyntas_, 158; - var. _polysperchon_, 158 - - Cyanide Bottle, 19 - - _Cyaniris argiolus_, 172. _Plates_ 112, 113 - - - Dark Green Fritillary, 89. _Plates_ 55, 59, 61 - - Dehiscence, 7 - - Dimorphism, viii - - Dingy Skipper, 186. _Plates_ 122, 123 - - Drying House, 26 - - Duke of Burgundy, 182. _Plates_ 120, 121 - - - Ecdysis, 5 - - Egg-stage, 1 - - Emergence of a Butterfly, 7 - - _Epinephele ianira_, 125, _Plates_ 84, 85; - _jurtina_, 125; - _tithonus_, 127, _Plates_ 86, 87, 119; - var. _albida_, 128, _Plate_ 119; - var. _mincki_, 128 - - _Erebia æthiops_, 113, _Plates_ 76, 77; - var. _obsoleta_, 114; - var. _ochracea_, 114; - _blandina_, 113; - _epiphron_, 111; - var. _cassiope_, 111, _Plates_ 76, 77; - var. _obsoleta_, 112; _ligea_,* 117 - - Essex Skipper, 189. _Plates_ 124, 125 - - _Euchloë cardamines_, 43, _Plates_ 15, 17; - var. _hesperidis_, 44 - - Eyes or Ocelli, 4 - - - False legs of caterpillar, 4. Fig. 2A - - Feelers, 4, 9 - - Feet, 3 - - - Gatekeeper, 127. _Plates_ 86, 87, 119 - - Glanville Fritillary, 101. _Plates_ 65, 69, 71 - - - _Gonepteryx rhamni_, 54. _Plates_ 25-27 - - Grayling, 117. _Plates_ 78, 79 - - Green Hairstreak, 147. _Plates_ 96, 97 - - Green-veined White, 38. _Plates_ 10, 13, 14 - - Grizzled Skipper, 184. _Plates_ 122, 123 - - Gynandromorphism, viii - - - Head of Butterfly, 8, Fig. 6; - of Caterpillar, 4, Fig. 3 - - Heath Fritillary, 98. _Plates_ 67, 68 - - Hermaphrodite, viii - - _Hesperia alveus_, 185; - _malvæ_, 184, _Plates_ 122, 123; - var. _lavateræ_, 184; - var. _taras_, 184 - - Heterocera, vii - - High Brown Fritillary, 87. _Plates_ 53, 54, 57 - - Holly Blue, 172. _Plates_ 112, 113 - - Horns, 9 - - - Instar, 5 - - - Killing, 18 - - Kite net, 7. Fig. 13 - - - Labium, 4 - - Labrum, 4 - - _Lampides boeticus_, 154. _Plates_ 102, 103 - - Large Blue, 179. _Plates_ 116, 117 - - " Copper, 148. _Plates_ 98, 99 - - " Heath, 132. _Plates_ 90, 91, 92 - - " Skipper, 192. _Plates_ 126, 127 - - Large Tortoiseshell, 65. _Plates_ 34, 36 - - " White, 34. _Plates_ 5, 6, 9 - - _Leucophasia sinapis_, 46, _Plates_ 16, 18, 19; - var. _diniensis_, 46; - var. _erysimi_, 46; - var. _lathyri_, 46 - - _Limenitis sibylla_, 59, _Plates_ 30, 31, 33; - var. _nigrina_, 59, _Plate_ 31 - - Lingua, 4 - - Long-tailed Blue, 154. _Plates_ 102, 103 - - Lulworth Skipper, 190. _Plates_ 124, 125 - - _Lycæna adonis_, 170; - _ægon_, 158; - _argus_, 158, _Plates_, 104, 105; - _astrarche_, 161, _Plates_ 104, 105; - var. _artaxerxes_, 161; - var. _salmacis_, 161; - var. _quadripuncta_, 162; - _bellargus_, 170, _Plates_ 110, 111, 119; - var. _ceronus_, 170; - _corydon_, 167, _Plates_ 108, 109, 117, 118; - var. _fowleri_, 168; - var. _lucretia_, 168; - var. _syngrapha_, 168, _Plate_ 118; - _icarus_, 163, _Plates_ 106, 107, 118, 119; - var. _arcua_, 164; - var. _coerulea_, 164; - var. _icarinus_, 164; - var. _melanotoxa_, 164 - - Mandibles, 4, 10 - - Marbled White, 109. _Plates_ 74, 75 - - Margins of Wings, 12. Fig. 9 - - Marsh Fritillary, 103. _Plates_ 65, 70, 73 - - Marsh Ringlet, 132 - - Maxillæ, 4, 10 - - Mazarine Blue, 177. _Plate_ 115 - - Meadow Brown, 125. _Plates_ 84, 85 - - _Melanargia galatea_, 109. _Plates_ 74, 75 - - _Melitæa athalia_, 98; _Plates_ 67, 68; - var. _corythalia_, 98; - var. _eos_, 99; - var. _navarina_, 98; - var. _niphon_, 100; - var. _obsoleta_, 98; - var. _pyronia_, 99; - var. _tessellata_, 99; - _aurinia_, 103; _Plates_, 65, 70, 73; - var. _præclara_, 104; - var. _scotica_, 104; - _cinxia_, 101, _Plates_ 65, 69, 71 - - Micropyles, 1 - - Milkweed Butterfly, 106. _Plates_ 72, 120 - - Monarch Butterfly, 107 - - Mould and Mites, 28 - - Moulting, 5 - - Naphthaline, 27, 28 - - _Nemeobius lucina_, 182. _Plates_ 120, 121 - - Nervures and Nervules, 13 - - Nets, 16 - - Nomenclature, x - - _Nomiades arion_, 179, _Plates_ 116, 117; - _semiargus_, 177, _Plate_ 115 - - - Ocelli, 4 - - Orange-tip, 43. _Plates_ 15, 17 - - - Painted Lady, 78. _Plates_ 44, 45, 49 - - Pale Clouded Yellow, 48. _Plates_ 20, 21 - - Palpi, 5, 10 - - _Papilio machaon_, 29. _Plates_ 1, 2 - - _Pararge egeria_, 120; - var. _egerides_, 120, _Plates_ 80, 81; - _megæra_, 122, _Plates_ 82, 83 - - Peacock, 70. _Plates_ 39, 40, 41 - - Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 94. _Plates_ 60, 64, 65 - - _Pieris brassicæ_, 34, _Plates_ 5, 6, 9; - var. _chariclea_, 34, _Plate_ 6; - _daplidice_, 41, _Plates_ 12, 14; - _napi_, 38; _Plates_ 10, 13, 14; - var. _bryoniæ_, 40; - var. _flava_, 39; - var. _napææ_, 40; - var. _orientis_, 41; - var. _sabellicæ_, 39; - var. _rapæ_, 36, _Plates_ 7, 8, 11; - var. _metra_, 37; - var. _novangliæ_, 37 - - Pinning, 20; - Pinning stage, 21, Fig. 14 - - Pins, 21 - - Plumules, 14 - - _Polygonia c-album_, 62, _Plates_ 32, 35; - var. _hutchinsoni_, 63, _Plate_ 35 - - Proboscis, 4, 9 - - Prolegs, 2 - - Purple Emperor, 56. _Plates_ 28, 29, 31 - - Purple Hairstreak, 141. _Plates_ 96, 97 - - _Pyrameis atalanta_, 81, _Plates_ 46-49; - var. _klemensiewiczi_, 82; - _cardui_, 78, _Plates_ 44, 45, 49; - _huntera_,* 81; - _virginiensis_,* 81 - - - Queen of Spain, 91. _Plates_ 58, 63 - - - Rearing from the Egg, 28 - - Red Admiral, 81. _Plates_ 46-49 - - Rhopalocera, vii - - Ringlet, 130. _Plates_ 88, 89 - - - Saddles, 24. Fig. 18 - - _Satyrus semele_, 117. _Plates_ 78, 79 - - Scales, 13. Fig. 10 - - Scotch Argus, 113. _Plates_ 76, 77 - - Seasonable Dimorphism, viii - - Segments, 2 - - Setting, Methods of, 22-24 - - Sexual Dimorphism, viii - - Silver-studded Blue, 158. _Plates_ 104, 105 - - Silver-washed Fritillary, 84, _Plates_ 50, 51 - - Small Blue, 176. _Plates_ 114, 115 - - " Copper, 152. _Plates_ 100, 101, 119 - - " Heath, 136. _Plates_ 92, 93 - - " Mountain Ringlet, 111. _Plates_ 76, 77 - - " Pearl-bordered Fritillary, 96. _Plates_ 56, 62, 66 - - " Skipper, 187. _Plates_ 124, 125 - - " Tortoiseshell, 68. _Plates_ 37, 38 - - " White, 36. _Plates_ 7, 8, 11 - - Speckled Wood, 120. _Plates_ 80, 81 - - Spinnerets, 4 - - Spiracle, 3 - - Stadium, 5 - - Subsegments, 3 - - Swallow-tail, 29. _Plates_ 1, 2 - - - Thanaos tages, 186. _Plates_ 122, 123 - - _Thecla ilicis, spini_,* 147; - _pruni_, 143, _Plates_ 96, 97; - _w-album_, 144, _Plates_ 94, 95; - var. _butlerowi_, 145 - - Thoracic legs, 2 - - Tracheæ, 3 - - Tubercles, 2 - - - Vanessa _antiopa_, 73, _Plates_ 41, 42, 43; - var. _hygiæa_, 73; - var. _lintneri_, 73; - _io_, 70, _Plates_ 39, 40, 41; - var. _belisaria_, 71, _Plate_, 41; - var. _cyanosticta_, 71; - _polychloros_, 65, _Plates_ 34, 36; - var. _testudo_, 66; - _urticæ_, 68, _Plates_ 37, 38; - var. _ladakensis_, 69; - var. _polaris_, 69 - - Venation, 12. Fig. 9 - - - Wall, The, 122. _Plates_ 82, 83 - - White Admiral, 59. _Plates_ 30, 31, 33 - - White-letter Hairstreak, 144. _Plates_ 94, 95 - - Wings, 11. Fig. 9 - - Wood White, 46. _Plates_ 16, 18, 19 - - - _Zephyrus betulæ_, 138. _Plates_ 94, 95; - var. _pallida_, 139; - var. _spinosa_, 139; - _quercus_, 141, _Plates_ 96, 97; - var. _bella_, 141 - - _Zizera minima_, 176. _Plates_ 114, 115 - - -THE END. - - * * * * * - - +--------------------------------------------------------------+ - | Transcriber's notes: | - | | - | Fixed various punctuation. | - | P. 71. 'wing' changed to 'wings'. | - | P. 137. 'emergencies' changed to 'emergences'. | - | P. 168. 'localties' changed to 'localities'. | - | P. 197. 'next to the thorax'. Added 'to'. | - | Emphasis Notation: _Italic_ and =Bold=; | - | Mathematical Notation: Whole and Fractional Part: 3-5/8. | - +--------------------------------------------------------------+ - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Butterflies of the British Isles, by -Richard South - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUTTERFLIES OF THE BRITISH ISLES *** - -***** This file should be named 43713-8.txt or 43713-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/1/43713/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Jane Robins, Anna Whitehead and -the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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