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diff --git a/44192-0.txt b/44192-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9a2520f --- /dev/null +++ b/44192-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6829 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44192 *** + +Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: Transverse Section of the Building, showing the Interior +completed.] + + + + +The + +Crystal Palace: + +Its + +Architectural History + +and + +Constructive Marvels. + +By + +Peter Berlyn, and Charles Fowler, Junr. + +London: + +James Gilbert, Paternoster Row. + +mdcccli. + + +---- + + + + +PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION BY + +JAMES GILBERT, 49 PATERNOSTER ROW, + +(UNIFORM WITH THE PRESENT VOLUME), + +The Curiosities and Wonders + +contained within + +The Crystal Palace. + +BY + +PETER BERLYN, ESQ. + +Illustrated by Several Hundred Engravings. + +---- + + + + +[Illustration] + +TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT, + +The Following Pages, + +DESCRIPTIVE OF + +THE ARCHITECTURAL AND CONSTRUCTIVE MARVELS OF + +THE STOREHOUSE OF THE WORLD'S WONDERS + +OF ART, SCIENCE, AND MANUFACTURE, + +ARE, BY PERMISSION, MOST HUMBLY DEDICATED, + +AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE + +OF THE ADMIRATION AND GRATITUDE + +WHICH, IN COMMON WITH THE WHOLE CIVILIZED WORLD, + +ARE AMPLY SHARED IN BY + +HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS'S + +MOST DEVOTED, FAITHFUL, AND OBEDIENT SERVANT, + + THE PUBLISHER. + +---- + + + + +Contents. + + + PAGE. + INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1 + COMMITTEE FOR ALL MATTERS RELATING TO THE BUILDING 2 + LABOURS OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE 3 + THE COMPETITION DESIGNS 6 + BUILDINGS USED FOR PREVIOUS EXHIBITIONS IN FRANCE, GERMANY, AND + ENGLAND 15 + DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE'S DESIGN 21 + OPPOSITION TO THIS DESIGN 24 + THE TENDERS 24 + HISTORY OF MR. PAXTON'S DESIGN 27 + GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDING 33 + THE PAXTON'S GUTTERS 40 + THE SASH-BARS 44 + THE RIDGES 46 + THE GLASS 46 + THE BOX GUTTERS 47 + THE ROOF GIRDERS 47 + THE IRON DRILLING MACHINE 49 + THE PUNCHING MACHINE 50 + THE ADZING AND PLANING MACHINE 51 + THE COLUMNS AND CONNECTING-PIECES 52 + THE BASE-PIECES 53 + THE CAST-IRON GIRDERS 54 + THE GALLERIES 55 + TESTING THE CAST-IRON GIRDERS 55 + ROOF OF TRANSEPT 58 + THE FACEWORK 59 + THE DIAGONAL BRACING 60 + THE STAIRCASES 60 + THE FLOOR AND FOUNDATIONS 62 + FIRST OPERATIONS ON THE GROUND 63 + SETTING-OUT THE GROUND 64 + FIXING THE BASE-PLATES 65 + HENDERSON'S DERRICK CRANE 67 + RAISING AND FIXING THE COLUMNS AND GIRDERS 68 + HOISTING THE ROOF TRUSSES 69 + PROVISION FOR EXPANSION OF GIRDERS 70 + GLAZING THE ROOF 71 + STAGE FOR REPAIRING THE GLASS, ETC. 73 + HOISTING THE RIBS FOR TRANSEPT ROOF 73 + GLAZING THE TRANSEPT ROOF 76 + THE PAINTING 76 + THE HAND-RAIL MACHINE 78 + GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORKS 79 + PAYING THE WORKMEN 80 + GENERAL STATISTICS 82 + THE PARTI-COLOURED PAINTING 83 + THE WATER SUPPLY 87 + THE STABILITY OF THE BUILDING 87 + TESTING THE GALLERIES 88 + GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF THE BUILDING 89 + CONCLUSION 89 + + APPENDIX:-- + LIST OF COMPETITORS FOR THE BUILDING i + LIST A.--COMPETITORS ENTITLED TO FAVOURABLE MENTION vi + LIST B.--COMPETITORS ENTITLED TO FURTHER HIGHER HONORARY + DISTINCTION viii + THE TWO COMPETITION DESIGNS SPECIALLY MENTIONED BY THE BUILDING + COMMITTEE ix + MEMORANDUM ON THE SITE xi + REPORT OF THE ROYAL COMMISSIONERS, PRESENTED TO HER MAJESTY ON THE + OPENING OF THE BUILDING xvii + + + + +List of Illustrations. + + + + PAGE. + TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE BUILDING, SHOWING THE + INTERIOR COMPLETED-- _frontispiece_. + PLAN OF THE BUILDING FOR THE FRENCH EXPOSITION IN 1849 16 + VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL ENTRANCE OF THE SAME 17 + INTERIOR VIEW OF THE "PALACE" 18 + INTERIOR VIEW OF THE CATTLE-SHED 19 + VIEW OF KROLL'S WINTERGARTEN AT BERLIN _facing_ 19 + PLAN OF KROLL'S WINTERGARTEN 20 + VIEW OF THE BIRMINGHAM EXPOSITION BUILDING 20 + GROUND-PLAN OF THE DESIGN OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE _facing_ 22 + EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE SAME _facing_ 24 + COMMON MODE OF GLAZING ROOFS 28 + METHOD BY RIDGE AND FURROW 29 + CUTTERS OF MR. PAXTON'S SASH-BAR MACHINE 30 + THE VICTORIA REGIA HOUSE, CHATSWORTH 32 + INTERIOR OF THE SAME 33 + GROUND-PLAN OF THE BUILDING FOR THE EXHIBITION 34 + VIEW OF ONE 24-FEET SQUARE BAY OF ROOF PARTLY COMPLETED 36 + PORTION OF THE LOWER STOREY OF THE PRINCIPAL ELEVATIONS 37 + VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF THE TRANSEPT _facing_ 38 + VIEW OF GLASS ROOF FROM THE LEAD FLAT _facing_ 39 + GENERAL VIEW OF THE BUILDING FROM THE SOUTH-WEST _facing_ 40 + THE EXTERNAL RAILING 40 + SECTION OF THE PAXTON'S GUTTER, WITH THE STRONG SASH-BAR 41 + THE CIRCULAR PLANING MACHINE 41 + PORTION OF THE SAME SHOWING DETAIL 41 + SECTIONS OF THE PAXTON'S GUTTER, SHOWING DIFFERENT STAGES IN THE + MACHINE 42 + THE GUTTER-CUTTING MACHINE 42 + MACHINE FOR FINISHING ENDS OF GUTTERS AND RIDGES 43 + MACHINE FOR CUTTING OUT SASH-BARS 44 + THE SASH-BAR DRILLING MACHINE 45 + PORTION OF THE SAME, ENLARGED 46 + SECTION OF THE RIDGES, ETC 46 + DIAGRAM OF 48-FEET GIRDER 48 + DIAGRAM OF 72-FEET GIRDER 48 + THE IRON DRILLING MACHINE 50 + THE PUNCHING MACHINE AND SHEARS 50 + THE ADZING-CUTTERS 51 + THE ADZING AND PLANING MACHINE 52 + SECTION OF A COLUMN 52 + A BASE-PIECE 54 + VIEW OF THE INTERIOR FROM THE LEVEL OF GALLERIES _facing_ 55 + FRAME AND HYDRAULIC PRESS FOR TESTING THE GIRDERS 56 + INTERIOR VIEW OF THE CENTRAL AVENUE TOWARDS THE WEST _facing_ 58 + LOUVRE FRAME 60 + VIEW OF STAIRCASE 61 + FIXING CAST-IRON DRAIN-PIPE 62 + VIEW OF CRANE AND PROVING-PRESS 66 + HENDERSON'S DERRICK CRANE 67 + PORTIONS OF THE SAME 67 + FIXING THE GIRDERS 68 + GENERAL VIEW OF THE WORKS IN PROGRESS _facing_ 69 + HOISTING THE 72-FEET TRUSSES 70 + GLAZING-WAGGON FOR FLAT ROOF 72 + A PAIR OF RIBS PREPARED FOR RAISING 74 + HOISTING THE RIBS FOR THE TRANSEPT ROOF _facing_ 75 + STAGE FOR GLAZING TRANSEPT ROOF 76 + THE SASH-BAR PAINTING MACHINE 77 + PORTION OF THE SAME IN DETAIL 77 + THE HAND-RAIL CUTTING MACHINE 78 + PORTION OF THE SAME 78 + THE BRASS TICKETS FOR WORKMEN 80 + THE INTERIOR OF THE PAY-OFFICE 81 + THE MEN TAKING THEIR WAGES 81 + THE WORKMEN WAITING TO BE PAID 82 + VIEW OF THE BUILDING FROM THE NORTH BANK OF THE SERPENTINE _facing_ 86 + TESTING AN EXPERIMENTAL BAY OF THE GALLERY FLOOR _facing_ 88 + VIEW OF THE BOILER-HOUSE, ETC. _facing_ 88 + VIEW OF SOUTH FRONT OF THE BUILDING 92 + + APPENDIX:-- + EXTERIOR VIEW OF MONS. HOREAU'S DESIGN FOR THE BUILDING _facing_ ix + INTERIOR OF THE SAME _facing_ ix + VIEW OF EXTERIOR FROM ONE END OF MESSRS. TURNERS' DESIGN + FOR THE BUILDING _facing_ x + TRANSVERSE SECTION AND VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF THE SAME _facing_ x + + + + +INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. + + +So much has already been said and written, both wisely and well, upon the +marvellous edifice which has just been reared with such magical rapidity to +enshrine the results of the skill and industry of all nations, that it +would appear an almost hopeless task to present the subject in any new +point of view to the reader. + +If, therefore, the authors cannot lay claim to novelty or originality in +the execution of the pleasurable work which they have undertaken, they are +not without hopes that, from their having been connected with this gigantic +undertaking during the greater part of its progress, they will be enabled +to trace in a more detailed and consecutive manner than has yet been +attempted the history of the design and execution of the building up to the +period of its completion. + +A great deal has been lately said upon the want of distinctive character in +almost all the buildings of the present day; and it is certainly a striking +fact that in scarcely any of our important modern structures does the +exterior appearance in any way lead the spectator to form an idea of the +purposes or arrangement of the interior, the former being apparently +governed by fancy, or the fashion for some particular style, while the +latter only, is accommodated to the peculiar requirements of the case. Thus +we have porticos which do not shelter from the weather, or in which no one +is allowed to walk; Venetian palaces appear piled upon a substructure of +plate-glass; baronial castles prove to be model prisons; and +richly-decorated mansions, from the time of "Good Queen Bess," or fanciful +Italian villas, are made to serve for the accommodation of paupers. + +The ancients appear to have been more careful in this respect, so that the +form and external arrangement afforded in most cases a ready key to the +purposes of their structures. Their temples, their fora, theatres and +amphitheatres, baths, and other public edifices, seem each to have been +stamped with their own characteristic features, at the same time without in +any way producing a monotonous uniformity among the different examples of +the same class of building. + +Now, if this criterion of excellence be applied to the remarkable building +recently erected in Hyde Park, it will be found that the constructive +arrangement of the interior is plainly expressed without, and it must be +conceded that it possesses at least those elements of beauty arising from +consistency and simplicity which, in combination with its vast size, give +it also that of grandeur. That it is faultless it would be needless to +assert, or to imagine that, from its example, a new style of architecture +will originate; but that it is admirably suited to its purpose, that it is +a remarkable specimen of the constructive skill of this country, and that +it will certainly form one of the most interesting objects of the Great +Exhibition by which it has been called into being, if not the most +interesting of all, must, we think, be admitted by all candid observers. + +Although the building in its present form was designed, as well as carried +out, in a singularly short space of time, this could not have been +accomplished but for the great amount of thought and labour which had been +previously bestowed upon the subject. In order, therefore, to trace the +whole of the progress of the design, it will be necessary briefly to advert +to the early labours bestowed upon the project. + +On the 5th of January, 1850, the Royal Commission for carrying out this +great scheme was gazetted; its first and second meetings, which were +respectively held on the 11th and 18th of the same month, were entirely +devoted to preliminary arrangements, and determining the mode of conducting +its proceedings. + +Among the most urgent matters calling for the attention of the +Commissioners, the subject of the building early presented itself, as it +was of the utmost importance that the longest possible time should be +allowed for its erection; and, accordingly, at the third meeting, held on +the 24th of January, the following noblemen and gentlemen were appointed to +act as a + +Committee for all Matters relating to the Building. + + His Grace the Duke of BUCCLEUCH, K.G., F.R.S. + The Right Hon. the Earl of ELLESMERE, F.S.A. + CHARLES BARRY, Esq., R.A., F.R.S. + WILLIAM CUBITT, Esq., F.R.S., Pr. of J.C.E. + ROBERT STEPHENSON, Esq., M.P., F.R.S. + C. R. COCKERELL, Esq., R.A. + I. K. BRUNEL, Esq., F.R.S. + THOMAS L. DONALDSON, Esq., M.I.B.A. + +From which list it will be seen that some of the very highest professional +talent in the country was enlisted on behalf of the undertaking. + + + + +Labours of the Building Committee. + + +The first point to be ascertained by this Committee was where to find an +eligible site; for although they were not able at that early stage of their +labours to determine the exact amount of space that would be required, they +appear to have been of opinion that, from the general data before them, +about sixteen acres would be necessary--an amount which has been +subsequently considerably exceeded, but which was already an enormous area +to be covered by one building; and in dealing with it the Committee must +have felt that a very heavy amount of responsibility rested upon them, as +appears, indeed, from their recommendation to the Royal Commission given +below. + +After about a month of attentive deliberation, the Committee made a report +upon this part of their labours. + +With regard to the site, it had appeared to the Committee that--firstly, +the north-eastern portion of Hyde Park; secondly, the long space between +her Majesty's private road and the Kensington road, in the southern part of +Hyde Park; and thirdly, the north-western portion of Regent's Park, were +the only available spaces about the metropolis which would afford the +necessary accommodation; and it was believed that the order in which they +were named represented also their relative eligibility. As regarded the +first, the Committee had been informed by the Chief Commissioner of her +Majesty's Woods and Forests that considerable objections would arise to its +occupation for such a purpose, and that no such objections would be raised +to the use of the second; and the Committee, therefore, recommended the +adoption of this site, which, amongst other advantages, is remarkable for +the facility of access afforded by the existing roads. + +As regarded the extent of the building, the Committee were not yet in +possession of sufficient data to enable them to determine this accurately, +but, from such information as they had before them, they thought that it +might be assumed, for the present, that about sixteen acres of covered +space would be required. + +And finally, as regarded the mode of proceeding to determine the general +interior arrangements or ground-plan of the building, a subject to which +they had given much consideration, they resolved, "That, in their opinion, +it was desirable to seek, by public competition, for suggestions as to the +general arrangements of the ground-plan of the building." + +It was deemed by the Committee that the peculiar object for which the +building was required, namely, the encouragement of the widest and most +liberal competition in all the branches of arts and manufactures--the +circumstance of the cost of the erection being defrayed by the public--the +peculiar character of the building, for the designing of which were +especially required judgment and contrivance in the detail of arrangement, +and experience in the management of large crowds, and for the construction +of which the mechanical skill and knowledge of the application and of the +economical use of materials now so generally possessed by builders and +practical men were necessary--all seemed, in the opinion of the Committee, +to be reasons for recommending that the designs for the general +arrangements should, as far as practicable, be the result of public +competition, and that the actual construction should be so to the fullest +extent. The Committee were, moreover, of opinion that the general design or +arrangement of such a building was one of those subjects, perhaps few in +number, on which many good ideas may be elicited by a general contribution +of plans; and that a mode might be adopted of obtaining such plans, and +collecting useful suggestions from them, which should not eventually lead +to any loss of time, or be attended with those delays which too frequently +render ordinary competition inconvenient. + +Great objections were made in some quarters to the proposed site in Hyde +Park; but as they were not raised on really public grounds, they were +gradually overcome by the interest which the public at large manifested in +the success of the undertaking. + +In consequence of the latter recommendation in the Report which was adopted +by the Royal Commissioners, the following document was published by them on +March 13th, 1850, copies of which appear to have found their way into +almost every corner of Europe:-- + +"The Committee appointed by the Royal Commission to advise on 'all matters +relating to the building,' having received the sanction of the Commission, +are desirous of obtaining from all parties who are disposed to assist them +suggestions for the general arrangement of the buildings and premises +required for this Exhibition. Upon the general form of the building in +plan, the distribution of its parts, the mode of access, and the internal +arrangements and contrivances, will depend the convenience and general +fitness of such a building; and it is upon these points that the Committee +seek information and suggestions, and wish to encourage the most extended +competition in the preparation of plans. The Committee do not propose to +offer any pecuniary reward for such plans--they rely upon the desire which +men of all countries will feel to forward the objects of the proposed +Exhibition. The Committee think it probable that, when the plans are +received, they may not be limited to the selection of any one plan, but may +derive useful ideas from many; and that the best plan may be determined +upon by the help of this general assistance. As the credit of any such plan +will be due solely to the contributors, the Committee propose to make a +report, in which they will acknowledge by name those whose plans had been +wholly or partially adopted, or who had afforded the most useful +suggestions; and the Committee hope to be able to offer such other honorary +distinction to the successful contributors as the circumstances may appear +to warrant. In order to guide the contributors in the preparation of such +plans and designs, and to facilitate the examination and the comparison of +them when received, the Committee have enumerated concisely the principal +'desiderata' for such a building, and have laid down certain rules and +conditions to which they earnestly request the contributors to conform, as +the Committee will be under the necessity of abiding strictly by the +regulation of not acknowledging any plans which may be sent in a form +inconsistent with these rules. Copies of the engraved plan of the ground +referred to may be had on application to the secretaries of the Commission, +at the New Palace at Westminster." + +An engraved plan of the site which had been fixed upon, together with the +subjoined regulations, which all competitors would be expected to observe, +were subsequently issued to all applicants:-- + +"1. The communications from contributors must consist of a single sheet of +paper, not larger than the accompanying engraving, with a simple +ground-plan upon a scale of 1·1000 of the full size, with such elevations +and sections only of the building, and on the same sheet, as may be +necessary to elucidate the system proposed--such elevations and sections +not being intended to convey more than a general idea of the building, and +not entering into details of construction or of architectural +decoration--to be accompanied by a short, clear-written explanation of the +system recommended, on a separate sheet. Any contributor wishing to send +two designs must send separate and distinct communications, each conforming +to the above conditions. No communications made inconsistent with these +conditions, or any plan prepared upon a different scale from that +prescribed, can be received. The plans, &c., must be sent on or before the +8th of April next, addressed to the Secretaries of the Exhibition, New +Palace at Westminster, London. It is suggested that the most convenient +mode of preparing the plan, elevation, and section, would be to draw them +upon one of the engraved copies of the plan of the ground which accompany +these instructions.--2. The building is to be erected on the space marked A +B C D, and must not extend beyond the boundaries of the shaded portion. The +groups of trees shown on the plan must be preserved. The principal public +approaches are by the roads E F and G H. The road K L will be available +only for foot-passengers. There will be no objection to the formation of +cross-roads between the two last, G H and K L, if the design of the +building requires it.--3. The roofed portion of the building is to cover a +space of 700,000 square feet, or about 65,000 square metres; and the whole +building must not occupy, including open spaces, an area of more than +900,000 square feet, or about 84,000 square metres. The building generally +will be of one storey only.--4. No space will be required for cattle, or +for shrubs or flowers.--5. It may be assumed, so far as it affects the +ground-plan, that the light will be obtained entirely from the roof, and +the building will be constructed of fire-proof materials. + +"The general requirements are--simplicity of arrangement; economy of space; +capability of extending or curtailing the building without destroying its +symmetry as a whole, or interfering with the general arrangement, it being +impossible to determine the exact extent of roof required until a late +period of construction. Adaptation for the erection of separate portions of +the building at different periods. Conveniences of ingress and egress, with +facilities of access to all parts of the Exhibition, either from the +exterior or interior. Means of classification of the various objects of +different departments. Wall-space for the display of articles requiring it. +Means of affording private access and accommodation for exhibitors, with +counting-houses, if required. Committee-rooms, council-rooms, public +refreshment-rooms, and all other public and private accommodation. (This +portion of the building may be in two or more storeys if required.) +Internal arrangements, by which, under proper regulations, large crowds of +visitors may circulate freely, and have convenient access to all parts of +the Exhibition, and uninterrupted means of examining the various objects +exhibited." + + + + +The Competition Designs. + + +Though the time allowed for the preparation of drawings was but short, +being only about one month, no less than 233 designs were sent in, many of +them of an elaborate architectural character. Of these, thirty-eight, or +one-sixth of the whole, were received from the different foreign countries +of Europe (France, twenty-seven; Belgium, two; Holland, three; Hanover, +one; Naples, one; Switzerland, two; Rhine Prussia, one; Hamburgh, one); +138, or more than half the entire number, from London and its vicinity, +where the interest excited was naturally more immediate; fifty-one from the +provincial towns of England; six from Scotland, and three from Ireland. +Seven were sent anonymously. The small number contributed by the sister +kingdoms seems rather remarkable. + +The greater part of these designs were, of course, contributed by members +of the architectural and engineering professions, but some were the +productions of amateurs, and one among them purported to be the suggestion +of a lady. Here, then, was matter enough not only to assist, but even, from +its great variety, to perplex the Committee, since at once every possible +variety of style in decoration, material in construction, and system in +arrangement, were strenuously recommended by the authors of the respective +designs as the great ultimatum sought for. + +To Mr. Digby Wyatt, whose services were to a great extent withdrawn from +the Executive Committee, in order that his professional knowledge of the +subject might be placed at the disposal of the Building Committee, was +intrusted the arduous task of examining and classifying these incongruous +materials, and of eliminating from them such general principles of +arrangement as seemed most worthy of the attentive consideration of the +Committee. The result of this gentleman's minute examination was embodied +in a Report, upon the basis of the recommendations contained in which the +subsequent utilitarian portions of the design of the Building Committee +would appear to have been founded. + +After holding about fifteen protracted sittings, the Committee presented +the following Report to the Royal Commission on the 9th of May:-- + +"May it please your Royal Highness, + +"_My Lords and Gentlemen_, + +"We have the honour to report that we have examined the numerous plans so +liberally contributed by native and foreign architects in accordance with +the public invitation. + +"Exhausting in their numerous projects and suggestions almost every +conceivable variety of building, the authors of those designs have +materially assisted us in arriving at the conclusions which we have now the +honour to report. + +"We have been aided in our analysis of this subject by a great amount of +thought and elaboration thus brought to bear upon it from various points of +view. + +"We have, however, arrived at the unanimous conclusion, that able and +admirable as many of these designs appeared to be, there was yet no single +one so accordant with the peculiar objects in view, either in the principle +or detail of its arrangements, as to warrant us in recommending it for +adoption. + +"In some of the least successful of the designs submitted, we find +indicated errors and difficulties to be avoided, whilst in the abler and +more practicable of them, there are valuable conceptions and suggestions +which have greatly assisted us in framing the plan we have now the honour +to lay before you. In preparing this design we have been governed mainly by +three considerations:-- + +"1. The provisional nature of the building. + +"2. The advisability of constructing it as far as possible in such a form +as to be available, with the least sacrifice of labour and material, for +other purposes, as soon as its original one shall have been fulfilled, thus +insuring a minimum ultimate cost. + +"3. Extreme simplicity, demanded by the short time in which the work must +be completed. + +"For the arrangements of the plan we rely for effect on honesty of +construction, vastness of dimension, and fitness of each part to its end. + +"The principal points of excellence we have endeavoured to attain are-- + +"1. Economy of construction. + +"2. Facilities for the reception, classification, and display of goods. + +"3. Facilities for the circulation of visitors. + +"4. Arrangement for grand points of view. + +"5. Centralisation of supervision. + +"6. Some striking feature to exemplify the present state of the science of +construction in this country. + +"The first of these, ECONOMY, is attained by doing away with any internal +walls (all divisions being made by the necessary stalls), by reducing the +whole construction, with the exception of the dome, to cast iron columns, +supporting the lightest form of iron roof in long unbroken lines, and by +the whole of the work being done in the simplest manner, and adapted in all +respects to serve hereafter for other purposes. + +"The second, facilities for the RECEPTION, CLASSIFICATION, and DISPLAY of +goods. The main central entrance for the reception of objects for +exhibition will probably be that most approachable from the public road. +All cases accompanying goods will be examined, registered, catalogued, &c., +in the offices of the Executive; the packing-cases will then be put upon a +truck running on a line of rails laid down temporarily, and conveyed to the +centre turn-table, from which they may be carried by a line of rails at +right angles to the first, to the end of the transverse gallery, in which +they may be destined to be placed. + +"The most important condition to insure successful _classification_ is, +that those to whom the duty of arrangement may be confided should be +hampered by no fixed limits of space, such as would have been the case had +the building been divided into a number of halls, sections, or chambers. +The plan submitted fulfils this condition perfectly; as objects can be +arranged just as they are received, and moved, if necessary, from gallery +to gallery with great facility. + +"The successful display of the goods would be best insured by leaving, +under certain general restrictions, the fitting up of each stall to the +Exhibitor or his Agent, floor-space only being allotted to each; and +stands, frames, brackets, shelves, &c., being put up by a contractor's +carpenter, at a fixed tariff. + +"The best light is provided, and the most economical wall-space is proposed +to be furnished by connecting pillar to pillar transversely, on the extreme +north and south sides of the building, by rods, from which draperies, &c., +can be suspended. + +"The third, FACILITIES FOR THE CIRCULATION OF VISITORS, is thus attained. +The visitor, on arrival at the central hall, proceeds at choice to any one +of the four sections. He will, most probably, desire either to follow the +whole course of the section selected, or will wish to go at once to some +particular class or object. He will be enabled to do either the one or the +other, without interfering with the general current, by means of gates or +other arrangements, which shall insure the current of visitors passing in +one direction. If he desire to proceed rapidly from one end of the building +to the other, and finds the great central gangway at all blocked up, he +will, no doubt, be able to get on by either the north or south corridors, +fifteen feet wide. Numerous doors of egress in these latter afford ready +means of exit for a large number of persons. Seats are provided in the +middle of the great central gangway for those who may desire to rest. + +"The fourth, ARRANGEMENT FOR GRAND POINTS OF VIEW. The view from or to the +centre of the building will, from its extent, be necessarily imposing. The +seats and main avenues are arranged so that, on the occasion of the +distribution of the prizes, an immense number of persons may be +accommodated. Most interesting views might be obtained from galleries +constructed at either end of the building and around the dome, for the +admission of the public to which some small charge might be made. + +"The fifth, CENTRALISATION OF SUPERVISION. All the business of the +Exhibition will be carried on in one spot, and be readily under control. +The Royal Commission, the principal Committees, Clerks, Accountants, +Police, &c., would be together, and in so large an establishment it would +be absolutely necessary, or much time would be wasted in walking from one +point to another. Passages running behind the money-takers' boxes, with +glazed doors into them, would enable each accountant to detect anything +improper that might be going on, and to exchange and balance checks, money, +&c., at any moment. Telegraphic communication with each of the four +pay-places will permit orders to be given, cash accounts, &c., to be issued +and returned, from and to the head-accountant's office, as often as may be +necessary. + +"Four Committee-rooms, one for a Jury in each section, have been provided +at the extreme east and west ends. The duties of such Committees being +deliberative, and not executive, it is not necessary that they should be +accommodated in the Central Establishment, where they would be more liable +to be disturbed than at the extremity of the building. + +"A policeman stationed in each gallery would, from his elevated position, +be enabled to observe much which might escape detection if he mingled only +with the crowd. + +"The sixth, SOME STRIKING FEATURE TO EXEMPLIFY THE PRESENT STATE OF THE +SCIENCE OF CONSTRUCTION IN THIS COUNTRY. In order that the building, in +which England invites the whole world to display their richest productions, +may afford, at least in one point, a grandeur not incommensurate with the +occasion, we propose, by a dome of light sheet iron 200 feet in diameter, +to produce an effect at once striking and admirable. From calculations +which have been made of the cost of so grand a Hall, we have reason to +expect that it may be executed for a sum not greatly exceeding the cost of +the simplest form of roof likely to be adopted to cover the same area. + +"It is to be borne in mind that a considerable amount of any such +difference may be recovered, should this portion of the building be +converted hereafter to other purposes, which is more than probable. This +vast dome it is proposed to light mainly from one circle of light in its +centre, and thus the sculpture will be pleasingly and suitably lit. + +"Six out of the eight openings in the cylinder of the dome would be well +adapted for the exhibition of stained glass windows of great extent, while +the two remaining arches will open to the main central gallery. The lower +part of some of the voids will admit the eye to turf and shrubs, and +produce a great freshness of effect. + +"The immense continuity of the Central Avenue will be broken and relieved +by a variation in the roof opposite the openings to the second and third +sets of refreshment-rooms, and windows for the reception of Stained Glass +may be placed at the ends of each transverse gallery, thus terminating the +vista for each. + +"It now only remains to explain the course of action we would recommend for +adoption as soon as the principles of the plan, &c., shall be positively +decided. + +"We consider this to be an occasion upon which the greatest amount of +intellectual and commercial ingenuity and ability should be called out; and +that a generous rivalry among those best fitted to execute the principal +portions of this vast structure may lead to results which no amount of +detailed study that we could possibly give to this matter would supply. + +"We would therefore recommend that every advantage should be taken of the +accumulated and experimental knowledge and resources of intelligent and +enterprising contractors, and that every opportunity should be afforded to +them of DISTINGUISHING THEMSELVES. We would therefore recommend as the best +means of enlisting their services the following course of action: + +"Adopting the approved design as a basis, we would proceed immediately to +prepare such working-drawings and specifications as may be necessary, and +to issue invitations for tenders to execute Works in accordance with them, +requesting from competitors, in addition, such suggestions and +modifications, accompanied with estimates of cost, as might possibly become +the means of effecting a considerable reduction upon the general expense. + + + +The following Report of the Committee on the competition plans submitted, +and which was so unfavourably received by the public, and more particularly +by the profession, was presented to the Royal Commission on the 16th of +May:-- + +"May it please your Royal Highness, + +"_My Lords and Gentlemen_, + +"Your Committee beg leave to report, that the invitation issued by the +Commissioners, requesting information and suggestions for the general +arrangement of the Building and premises required for the Exhibition of +1851, has been responded to in the most ample and satisfactory manner, both +as respects the variety of useful ideas presented to their consideration, +and the liberality with which many experienced and skilful men of foreign +countries, no less than of our own, have contributed their valuable time to +this great undertaking, thereby evincing their entire sympathy both with +the great cause of Arts and Industry in which her Majesty's Commissioners +have embarked, and with the arduous labours of the Directors of the +undertaking. + +"The Designs and Specifications transmitted to the Committee amount to the +surprising number of 233, offering an aggregate of professional sacrifice +of very considerable importance; for, not confining themselves to +suggestions only, which were invited by the Programme, a large proportion +of them are remarkable for elaboration of thought and elegance of +execution. + +"Penetrated with admiration and respect for these gratuitous and valuable +contributions, unexampled, they believe, in the history of competition, +your Committee have devoted the most careful attention to the collection of +these projects, and hasten to offer those acknowledgments which are due to +their merits, and to the generous motives which have led to their +execution; and they trust that the public may shortly be witnesses of the +effect of this very noble emulation of the skill of all countries, by the +public exhibition of these designs, offering the opportunity, in the true +spirit of the whole undertaking, of mutual improvement, respect, and +friendship amongst the cultivators of the liberal arts in the several +countries of Europe. + +"It is remarkable that, while many of these contributions may be attributed +to the laudable motive of professional reputation and advancement on the +part of practitioners not yet sufficiently known to the public, a great +number are from Gentlemen whose position in the confidence of their +respective Governments or in the Republic of Arts and Letters is of the +highest eminence, and who can have been actuated by no such personal +motives. Already entitled to respect and admiration, they could have little +to gain, while they have something to lose, in the competition for glory. +The kind and frank communication, therefore, of their thoughts and +experience towards this great work is to be the more highly commended. +Every possible mode of accomplishing the object in view has been displayed +by the respective contributors as regards economy of structure and +distribution, and these qualities are united with various degrees of +architectural symmetry and features in many designs. Our illustrious +continental neighbours have especially distinguished themselves by +compositions of the utmost taste and learning, worthy of enduring +execution--examples of what might be done in the architectural illustration +of the subject, when viewed in its highest aspect, and, at all events, +exhibiting features of grandeur, arrangement, and grace which your +Committee have not failed to appreciate. + +"Amongst these several classes of design, the practical character of our +own countrymen, as might have been expected, has been remarkably +illustrated in some very striking and simple methods suited to the +temporary purposes of the Building, due attention having been paid to the +pecuniary means allotted to this part of the undertaking. The principle of +suspension has been applied in a single tent of iron sheeting, covering an +area averaging 2,200 feet by 400 feet by a lengthened ridge, or in separate +tents on isolated supports. Others display the solution of this problem by +the chapter-house principle, and a few by the umbrella or circular +locomotive-engine-house system of railway-stations, either with a central +column or groups of columns sustaining domes or roofs to the extent of four +hundred feet diameter. + +"Grandeur and simplicity of distribution are carried out with great +architectural effect in other compositions, and the general arrangement by +columnar supports has been also variously and elegantly developed. The +system of iron roofing, with all the architectural powers of which that +material is susceptible, has been adopted by some with signal enterprise, +ingenuity, and power. + +"In another class of design the authors have viewed with enthusiasm the +great occasion and object of the proposed Exhibition, and have waived all +considerations of expense. They have indulged their imaginations, and +employed the resources of their genius and learning, in the composition of +arrangements which present the utmost grandeur and beauty of architecture, +suited to a permanent Palace of Science and Art. These, as addressed to the +architectural Student, are of the highest value, reminding him of all the +conditions of his art--the Egyptian hypostyle, the Roman thermæ, or of the +Arabian or Saracenic inventions. And though their expense has placed them +beyond reach, they cannot fail to inspire and elevate the treatment of the +reality. They at all events confer great obligations on the lovers of the +Fine Arts, for the authors have evidently felt that, if one of the results +to be expected from the proposed Exhibition may be to prove that the +simplest object of ingenuity and skill should not be devoid of some of the +attractions of taste, the Building itself ought to be an illustration of +that important principle. + +"The Committee, however, have been unable to select any one design as +combining all the requisites which various considerations render essential. +But the judgment and taste evinced by a large number of the contributors +have enabled the Committee to arrive more promptly at their conclusions, +and they have freely availed themselves of most valuable suggestions in +directing the preparation of a fresh design for the proposed building. + +"They have consequently been most earnest in the desire to fulfil the just +expectations of the various competitors, and feel assured that your Royal +Highness and the Commission will be of opinion that the most unreserved and +handsome acknowledgments are due to those able men of science and art who +have in so disinterested a manner submitted such admirable projects for the +consideration and assistance of the Committee. They beg, therefore, to +submit, as their opinion, that the following gentlemen are entitled to +honourable and favourable mention, on account of architectural merit, +ingenious construction or disposition, or for graceful arrangement of plan. + +"And they cannot conclude without calling attention to the designs, +accompanied by models, of M. Hector Horeau, Architect of Paris, and of +Messrs. Turner, of Dublin, as evincing most daring and ingenious +disposition and construction.[1] + + + +Some of the strongest objections to this Report are very fairly urged in a +letter which appeared in the _Builder_ of the 15th of June, a part of which +is subjoined:-- + +"Part II. of the Report contains what I suppose is to be taken as the best +exposition of the merits of contributors that the Committee can give, which +commences by stating, in a tone of commendation, that, 'not confining +themselves to SUGGESTIONS ONLY, which were invited by the PROGRAMME, a +large proportion of them are remarkable for elaboration of thought and +elegance of execution.' This, I would contend, is clearly a breach of the +specified conditions, viz., that SUGGESTIONS ONLY were to be given--that +the plan or drawing sent in was to be A MERE OUTLINE SKETCH, upon a SINGLE +SHEET; and the Committee even recommended that it would be most convenient +merely to trace it upon the common paper on which the 'plan of site' was +supplied to the public, a space being left upon the sheet for SKETCHING any +sections or elevations that might be necessary to illustrate the design; +and that a written description, limited also to 'a single sheet,' was all +the exposition of their ideas that authors would be allowed to give. The +Report goes on to state, that 'our illustrious continental neighbours have +especially distinguished themselves [in designing a temporary building for +an exhibition] by compositions of the utmost taste and learning, worthy of +enduring execution--examples of what might be done in the ARCHITECTURAL +illustration of the subject [the conditions strictly enjoined contributors +not to enter into architectural detail] when viewed in its highest aspect, +and, at all events, exhibiting features of grandeur, arrangement, and grace +which your Committee have not failed to appreciate.' It then places in +contradistinction to these no doubt admirable but out-of-place productions +of architectural genius, the 'practical character of the designs of our own +countrymen,' which it states, 'as might have been expected, has been +remarkably illustrated in some very striking and simple methods, suited to +the temporary purposes of the building, due attention having been paid by +them to the pecuniary means allotted to this part of the undertaking.' Yet, +notwithstanding this comparison, clearly and indisputably in favour of our +own countrymen, as regards the object sought and the conditions stipulated +by the Committee, we find by the selected list of those authors who are to +receive 'the highest honorary distinction' the Commissioners can award, +that the Committee can only discover, out of 195 English and 38 foreign +contributors, THREE Englishmen entitled to reward, the remaining FIFTEEN +out of the eighteen selected being foreigners; or, as regards the whole +numbers, in proportion of 1 to 65 of 'our own countrymen,' the authors of +the 'striking and simple,' so admirably 'suited to the temporary purpose of +the building,' and 1 to about 2½ of foreigners, who, in designing for a +temporary building, to be simple, cheap, and readily constructed, have so +overshot the mark as to produce 'compositions' commendable only for the +'utmost taste and learning, and worthy of enduring execution.' Surely +something must be wrong here, either the Report or the selected +list--possibly both. + +"In conclusion, I cannot help avowing the opinion that a wrong, though I +believe unintentionally, has been done to many of the 233 who so readily +and 'generously' responded to the call for their ideas; more particularly +as I know, from personal inspection, that at least ONE of the plans +altogether omitted from the Report contains FIVE of the leading features of +the approved design." + +But to judge of this matter fairly, it must be mentioned that, although the +number of foreign competitors was small, the majority of them were men +already well known for their talents and professional skill; in all cases +their designs evinced considerable study of the subject (both +architecturally and in a practical point of view), and manifested a desire +to exhibit to English professional men the proficiency of their continental +brethren. On the other hand, many of the designs from the competitors at +home were much slighter suggestions presented in a less elaborate form. +Under these circumstances, it is not to be wondered at that those eminent +men of the technical professions who, on this occasion, came forward with +practical suggestions for the assistance of the Committee, and designs +calculated rather to assist with thoughts than to charm by the graces of +elegant drawing or symmetrical disposition, should seem to have been found +wanting in this first trial with all the world. It should further be borne +in mind, that the nature of competitions is not so well understood in some +foreign countries, where they are of less frequent occurrence, than with +us. It must at the same time be admitted that the practice of disregarding +and exceeding the instructions in competitions is too much a matter of +general complaint in England to be brought forward as a new grievance +against our continental brethren. + +After the publication of the above Report, the competition designs were all +exhibited in the rooms of the Institution of Civil Engineers, in Great +George-street, which were liberally placed at the disposal of the Committee +for this purpose; and of those who visited this interesting exhibition, +many, no doubt, must have sympathised with those feelings which dictated +the decision of the Committee. From an attentive examination of these +designs, presenting the subject in such exceedingly varied forms, one of +the peculiar difficulties of the case becomes apparent, namely, the total +absence of any precedent to guide or afford suggestions to the designer; +for the small number of buildings erected or adapted for a similar purpose +have been on so limited a scale that their example could not afford much +assistance in designing a structure to meet all the requirements of the +present case. This building differed from all previous ones in being +intended to accommodate the products of all nations, instead of being +confined to those of one only; in which case the arrangement would have +been more certain and more readily provided for. + + + + +Buildings used for previous Exhibitions. + + +As a comparison of some of these earlier buildings with the first erected +in London for a similar purpose cannot fail to be interesting, a short +notice of them may not be deemed out of place. The most important amongst +them are those temporary structures which have been erected in Paris for +the periodical Industrial Expositions, with reference to the last of which +we cannot do better than quote, from Mr. Digby Wyatt's instructive and +masterly Report, that part where the building is treated of:-- + +"The vast edifice which has been erected to contain the specimens of +manufacture selected for exhibition in the year 1849 is situated on the +same site as that occupied by a similar building in the year 1844. The +Carré de Marigny, on which it has been placed, is a large oblong piece of +ground, abutting on the main avenue of the Champs Elysées, and as a site +offers every possible advantage, being of a gravelly soil, already +efficiently drained, and standing on the line of a continually moving +series of public conveyances. The Champs Elysées, though at some +considerable distance from the great centre of Parisian population, are +still so universal a place of resort, that they may be fairly assumed to be +"in the way" of even the poorest classes of the community. The elevation +may be admirably seen from all the approaches to the building, and it has +the advantage of being in immediate proximity to the residence of the +President of the Republic. + +PLAN OF THE BUILDING FOR THE FRENCH EXPOSITION IN 1849. + +[Illustration] + + 1. Cattle-shed. + 2. Machinery. + 3. Chemical Products. + 4. Metal Works. + 5. Productions of Parisian Industry. + 6. Horticulture. + 7. Woven Goods. + 8. Principal Entrance. + 9. Guard-house. + 10. Fountain. + 11. Reservoir of Rain Water. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL ENTRANCE.] + +"The whole plot of the present building (exclusive of the agricultural +department) covers a vast parallelogram of 206 metres by 100 (about 675 by +328 feet English), round the outline of which runs a gallery about 90 feet +wide, divided into two avenues by a double range of pilasters. In the +centre of each avenue is a set of stalls, placed back to back, for the +exhibition of merchandise; and both between the central pilasters, and +round, and upon the walls, other objects are placed, so that on traversing +either of the four gangways (each about ten feet wide) the public have upon +their right and left hands objects for inspection. In the part of the +building appropriated to large machinery, of course this system cannot be +carried out with the same regularity. The vast parallelogram, inclosed by a +somewhat similar gallery in the year 1844, was left as one magnificent +hall, within which were placed the most important objects; in the present +building we find it divided by two transverse galleries, similarly arranged +to those we have described, forming three court-yards; the central one +being about 140 feet square, and the two lateral ones 80 feet by 140. The +central court-yard is open to the sky; in the middle rises an elegant +fountain placed on a platform of turf, and around are disposed sheds for +the exhibition of flowers and horticultural ornaments and implements. One +of the lateral courts (inclosed) receives a large collection of objects in +metal-work, cast-iron, &c., and the other contains an immense reservoir, in +which all the drainage from the roofs is collected, so as to form a supply +of water immediately serviceable in case of fire. In addition to this great +building, which corresponds with that previously erected, there is this +year constructed a vast shed for the exhibition of agricultural produce and +stock. It extends to a length rather greater than the width of the great +parallelogram, and is about 100 feet (English) wide. Its construction is +ruder than that of the 'Palace,' but it is not on that account less +effective. It appears to have been originally contemplated to fill the +whole of this gigantic hall with cattle, &c., and to place the agricultural +implements in a long narrow gallery intervening between it and the main +building; but as the stock of animals forwarded for exhibition has not +proved so large as was anticipated, it has been half-filled with +semi-agricultural machines, and the whole of the long narrow gallery +alluded to crammed with stoves, and miscellaneous domestic mechanism. + +"The whole of the building is constructed of wood, the roofs being covered +with zinc: of the latter material 400,000 kilogrammes, equal to nearly +4,000 tons, are stated to have been used; and of the former, nearly 45,000 +pieces of timber. + +"It is hoped that the accompanying plan and views will convey a tolerably +good idea both of the exterior and interior arrangements of the Exhibition. +They will serve to show, at least, that a somewhat unnecessary expenditure +has been gone into, and to manifest the possibility of constructing a much +more simple building, possessing all the advantages of this one, at a far +less cost. + +"Both externally and internally there is a good deal of tasteless and +unprofitable ornament; all the pilasters are papered and painted in a +species of graining to imitate light oak, and even the ceiling is covered +over with the same work. Large 'carton pierre' trusses apparently support +the timbers, and a painted bronze bas-relief fills the tympanum of the +pediment, at the principal entrance. The architecture of the whole is +'mesquin,' although the gigantic scale of the building necessarily elevates +the general effect into something of impressiveness; not, however, to +nearly the extent which the same outlay might have produced." + +[Illustration: INTERIOR VIEW OF THE "PALACE."] + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE CATTLE-SHED.] + +Mr. Wyatt further states that the total cost of this building was about +450,000 francs, or about 18,000_l._, which, however, he considers was an +unnecessarily large outlay. He mentions, also, that the building erected on +the previous occasion, in 1844, was in some respects more suitable for the +purpose, especially from its greater simplicity of arrangement, a remark it +will be well to bear in mind in considering the various designs for the +building in Hyde Park. The accompanying plates will enable the reader +readily to follow all the details of the description. + +The permanent building erected by the King of Bavaria at Munich, likewise +for periodical Exhibitions, is on a much smaller scale than those in Paris, +and must be regarded rather as having afforded an opportunity for that +manifestation of architectural display in public buildings for which its +Royal projector was so well known, than as being peculiarly fitted for its +purpose. It is divided internally into various halls for the different +classes of objects; but as the proportion of these must necessarily vary at +every Exhibition, such an arrangement cannot be deemed the most suitable +for the purpose. + +At Berlin, where several Industrial Exhibitions have taken place, no +distinct building has been provided, but some already existing one has been +temporarily adapted and fitted up for the purpose; thus, on the last +occasion, Kroll's WINTERGARTEN, a large establishment for public amusement, +which has been recently destroyed by fire, was made use of. The large +central saloon, with the smaller ones flanking it, forming, in fact, one +space 310 feet long, and 82 feet broad at the widest point, afforded a very +good opportunity for the arrangement of the objects to be exhibited, some +of which were placed in the gallery of the large saloon. + + +[Illustration: View of Kroll's Wintergarten at Berlin.] + +PLAN OF KROLL'S WINTERGARTEN, BERLIN. + +[Illustration] + + 1. Electric Telegraph. + 2. Chemical Products. + 3. Porcelain and Bronzes. + 4. Machinery. + 5. Hardware. + 6. Zinc Works. + 7· Plate and Jewellery. + 8. Lithography. + 9. Watches, &c. + 10. Cutlery. + 11. Scientific Instruments. + 12. Bookbinding. + 13. Embroidery. + 14. Ornamental Blinds. + 15. Silks and Velvets. + 16. Furs. + 17. Pianofortes. + 18. Carriages. + 19. Furniture. + 20. Lamps, &c. + 21. Turned Articles. + 22. Woollen Fabrics. + 23. Leather Articles. + 24. Hats & Felt Articles. + 25. Machinery. + 26. Carriages. + +On a previous occasion a part of the Royal Arsenal building was +appropriated, and the Exhibition embraced two storeys. + +In our own country, exhibitions of manufactures have taken place in several +of the most important towns, generally in spaces only temporarily adapted; +but in 1849 the first building in this country intended solely for the +purpose of an exhibition of manufactures was erected at Birmingham, on the +occasion of the meeting of the British Association in that town. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF THE BIRMINGHAM EXPOSITION BUILDING.] + +The building alluded to included a space extending to 10,000 square feet, +and a corridor, giving additional accommodation of 800 square feet, +connected the temporary exhibition-room with Bingley-house, within the +grounds of which the building was erected; and including the rooms of the +old mansion, the total area covered by the Exhibition was equal to 12,800 +feet, or only about one-seventeenth of the area covered by the last +building erected in the Champs Elysées. The cost of this building was about +1,300_l._ It was opened to the public on the 3rd of September, 1849. + +In most of the buildings alluded to above, the principal defect seemed to +be that a definite and fixed subdivision of space was made for a +classification of objects which was necessarily uncertain. This appears to +have determined the Committee in the arrangement of the plan which they +presented in a general form to the Royal Commission at the same time with +the Report already quoted; and although the design was slightly modified +during the progress of the working-drawings subsequently made, this is, +perhaps, the best place for introducing a description of it. + +It has been already mentioned that at the time the Committee received the +competition designs, they obtained the assistance of Mr. Digby Wyatt, the +secretary to the Executive Committee, to aid them in the preparation of +drawings, although Mr. Scott Russell officially filled the post of +secretary to the Building Committee. At a somewhat later stage of the +Committee's proceedings, when the general design for the proposed building +had been approved by the Royal Commission, and it became necessary to +prepare working drawings for the same with extraordinary despatch, Mr. +Charles Heard Wild, as engineer, and Mr. Owen Jones, as architect, were +appointed to co-operate with Mr. Wyatt in carrying out this object. + + + + +Description of the Building Committee's Design. + + +The site to have been occupied by the building designed by the Committee +was the same as that on which the building has been actually erected, +namely between Rotten-row and the drive in Hyde Park, but the area proposed +to be covered was somewhat larger, the length of the building being about +2,200 feet, and the greatest width nearly 450 feet. The central space was +occupied by an immense rotunda 200 feet in diameter, the cupola rising to a +height of more than 160 feet, and exceeding the span of that of St. Peter's +at Rome by 61 feet, and of St. Paul's in London by 88 feet. The dome for +covering this rotunda consisted of wrought-iron ribs, supporting a covering +of corrugated iron, the whole resting on a wall or drum of brickwork, about +60 feet high; a large opening in the centre was to be glazed for the +admission of light. + +This large open area was intended for the exhibition of groups of +sculpture, fountains, and other objects requiring great space in order to +be seen to advantage; at the same time the cupola would have presented a +striking instance of the constructive skill of this country. + +The remaining area of the building was divided into avenues 48 feet wide, +by iron columns 24 feet apart, this dimension having been determined on as +that most likely to work in well for the division of the counters and +passages. One of the 48-feet avenues on the main axis of the building was +spanned by semicircular ribs of wrought iron supporting the roof, which +rose here to a greater height than the rest of the building; the other +avenues were covered with roofing very similar to that commonly seen in +railway-sheds, the whole being rendered as light as possible, and +constructed in iron covered with slating; the light being in all cases +admitted by a range of sky-lights at the apex of the roof, which was also +adapted for ventilation. The height of the main avenue was 52 feet, and of +the others 36 feet, from the floor throughout. A corridor of communication +15 feet wide was carried round the whole of the building, interrupted only +by the open courts; this, with the main avenue, afforded the visitor to the +Exhibition the means of reaching any particular point without threading a +maze of small passages. The inclosing walls were to be of brick, relieved +externally by panels in two colours; but there were to be no internal +division walls except those necessary to surround the various courts which +were left on account of the trees. + +The executive offices were grouped on either side of the principal +entrance, which was placed immediately opposite Prince's Gate; and at this, +as well as at the entrances at either end and on the north front, large +arched recesses were introduced which served as vestibules, and formed at +the same time prominent and striking features to relieve the necessarily +monotonous aspect of the building. Along the whole of the principal front +and at the ends of the building a pent or overhanging roof projected about +15 feet, to enable visitors in bad weather to be set down under cover, and +the exit-doors, of which there were altogether 24, were further protected +by porches. + +The water was to be conveyed from the roof through the columns which +supported it, and which were for this purpose connected with the necessary +drain-pipes, &c. + +Very ample accommodation was provided for refreshments in the open courts +which were necessarily left for the preservation of the trees, particularly +in that at the western end of the building, where there was proposed to be +placed a large establishment, comprising two storeys, with somewhat the +arrangement of the French cafés, including a fine saloon on the first +floor, upwards of thirty feet wide and nearly one hundred feet long; +separate spaces were also provided for the accommodation of exhibitors. +This was the only part of the building, with the exception of the executive +offices, which was to have an upper storey. + + +GROUND PLAN OF THE BUILDING COMMITTEE'S DESIGN. + +[Illustration] + + 1. Machinery in Motion. + 2. Other Machinery. + 3. Seats for Visitors. + 4. Refreshment Courts. + 5. Raw Materials. + 6. Manufactures. + 7. Sculpture and the Plastic Arts. + 8. Small Court. + 9. The Rotunda. + 10. Principal Entrance and Executive Offices. + 11. The Other Entrances. + 12. The Drive in the Park. + 13. The Kensington Road. + 14. The Queen's Private Road. + +An objection might, perhaps, be raised to this part of the building, that +it was too commodious, and that there might be some danger of its being +converted into a lounge, while it was occupying too much of the space +intended for the Exhibition, for a secondary, though certainly necessary +purpose; it was, however, considered by the Committee, that of the vast +number of visitors that might be expected to be in the building at one +time, so many would avail themselves of the accommodation provided as to +render a less amount undesirable. The principal courts were surrounded by a +covered way, where refreshments were also to be served at long counters, in +the manner of the railway-stations. + +All these arrangements will readily be understood by a reference to the +plan of the design we have been describing, which plan, together with a +view taken from the south-east angle of the building, will place before the +reader the result of the labours of the Committee. The materials proposed +for the construction of this building were fire-proof throughout, with the +exception of the floor and its supporting timbers. + +The above design, at least in all its leading features, for some of the +details were subsequently added, was laid before the Royal Commission, at +the same time with the Report already quoted, and was by them approved, and +the Committee proceeded to prepare the necessary working-drawings and +specifications for the execution of the work. These proceedings of the +Committee occupied until the 24th of June, when large lithographed copies +of the most important of the drawings, together with printed copies of the +specifications and other details, were issued from the offices of the +Executive, contractors having been some time previously invited by public +advertisement to send in tenders for the execution of either a part or the +whole of the work. The tenders were to be on two systems, one on the +supposition that the Royal Commission were to become the _bona fide_ +purchasers of the building; the other, that the contractors were to erect +and maintain the building during the time of the Exhibition, after which +they were to remove it and take back the materials at their own risk, +receiving a proportionably diminished sum. + +It has been considered necessary to describe thus minutely the labours of +the Committee and the design in which they resulted, in order to show how +far it paved the way for that which was subsequently adopted, and to give +them that credit which they undoubtedly deserve for devoting so much of +their valuable time for the furtherance of a great public undertaking. + + + + +Opposition to this Design. + + +The design of the Building Committee, when published to the world, met with +anything but public approbation; some of the objectors called in question +the practicability of the execution of the enormous dome, at least within +the time assigned; others complained that the outlay would be unnecessarily +large for a purpose avowedly temporary, and expressed their fears that so +costly a structure once erected, there would be the less probability of its +subsequent removal; but the objection which appeared to have most weight +with the public at large was, the great amount of solid brick construction +in the walls, &c., which, it was urged, would require a longer time than +could be allowed for their erection, and that the carting of the materials +would cause serious injury in the Park and the surrounding neighbourhood. +This strong current of objection seemed to bid fair to overwhelm the +much-abused design. To increase the difficulties which seemed to gather +round the progress of this noble undertaking, an exceedingly vexatious and +factious agitation was got up in opposition to the proposed site in Hyde +Park, and petitions and counter-petitions were presented to both Houses of +Parliament, and much of the time of the Legislature was wasted in fruitless +discussion on the subject. The Building Committee thought it desirable, +under these circumstances, to lay before the public their reasons for +recommending the site in the Park, and therefore issued a memorandum of the +grounds on which it had been selected.[2] The result was, that the +opposition was defeated in the Legislature, and finally crushed by the +force of public opinion. + + + + +The Tenders. + + +In the mean time the competing contractors had been obliged to strain every +nerve to get their tenders ready by the 10th of July, when, altogether, +nineteen were sent in, but eight only were for undertaking the whole of the +work; the amounts of these are stated to have ranged between 150,000_l._ +and 120,000_l._, and this for the use only of the materials for the +building. But, at the same time, in accordance with the recommendation and +invitation contained in the last part of the Report already quoted, Messrs. +Fox, Henderson and Co. presented a tender upon a design entirely different +in construction and appearance, though resembling that of the Committee in +the general arrangement of the plan. + + +[Illustration: Exterior View of the Building Committee's Design] + +This design was by Mr. Joseph Paxton, and resembled in its general form the +building as it is now executed, with the exception of the transept and +semicircular roof, which were subsequently added, and were suggested by Mr. +Barry. + +The result of the tenders appears to have been unfavourable to the +Committee's design; and in their Report to the Royal Commission on the +subject, made a few days afterwards, they proposed to omit the great dome +and some portions of the design which were not essential, by which they +considered that the cost of its execution might be reduced below +100,000_l._; at the same time, they made special mention of Mr. Paxton's +design, which, however, they considered would prove more expensive. + +Mr. Paxton's design had been brought before the public before this period; +for, considering that his best road to success would be to get a favourable +verdict from that many-headed jury, he published a view and description of +it in the _Illustrated News_, and, through the influence of Mr. Stephenson, +he got his plans laid before the Royal Commission, in consequence of which +he obtained an interview with his Royal Highness the President. The +encouragement given him by the attention bestowed upon his design by the +Royal Commission, and the favourable opinion of the public, had determined +him to procure a tender for the execution of the work, to be sent in with +those upon the Committee's design. This he was enabled to do by the great +energy and promptitude of the contractors, Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to +whom he applied at the eleventh hour. The difficulties that had to be +overcome, owing to the shortness of the time remaining for the estimates to +be made up, can scarcely be better laid before the reader than they have +been by an able writer in "Household Words:"-- + +"It was now Saturday, and only a few days more were allowed for receiving +tenders. Yet before an approximate estimate of expense could be formed, the +great glass-manufacturers and iron-masters of the north had to be +consulted. This happened to be _dies mirabilis_ the third; for it was the +identical Saturday on which the Sunday postal question had reached its +crisis, and there was to be no delivery the next day! But in a country of +electric telegraphs, and of indomitable energy, time and difficulties are +annihilated; and it is not the least of the marvels wrought in connexion +with the great edifice that, by aid of railway-parcels and the electric +telegraph, not only did all the gentlemen summoned out of Warwickshire and +Staffordshire appear on Monday morning at Messrs. Fox and Henderson's +office, in Spring Gardens, London, to contribute their several estimates to +the tender for the whole, but within a week the contractors had prepared +every detailed working-drawing, and had calculated the cost of every pound +of iron, of every inch of wood, and of every pane of glass. + +"There is no one circumstance in the history of the manufacturing +enterprise of the English nation which places in so strong a light as this +its boundless resources in materials, to say nothing of the arithmetical +skill in computing at what cost and in how short a time those materials +could be converted to a special purpose. What was done in those few days? +Two parties in London, relying on the accuracy and good faith of certain +iron-masters, glass-workers in the provinces, and of one master-carpenter +in London, bound themselves for a certain sum of money, and in the course +of some four months, to cover eighteen acres of ground with a building +upwards of a third of a mile long, and some four hundred and fifty feet +broad. In order to do this, the glass-maker promised to supply, in the +required time, nine hundred thousand square feet of glass (weighing more +than four hundred tons), in separate panes, and these the largest that ever +were made of sheet glass; each being forty-nine inches long. The +iron-master passed his word in like manner to cast in due time three +thousand three hundred iron columns, varying from fourteen feet and a half +to twenty feet in length: thirty-four miles of guttering-tube, to join +every individual column together under the ground; two thousand two hundred +and twenty-four girders (but some of these are of wrought iron); besides +eleven hundred and twenty-eight bearers for supporting galleries. The +carpenter undertook to get ready within the specified period two hundred +and five MILES of sash-bar, flooring for an area of thirty-three millions +of cubic feet, besides enormous quantities of wooden walling, louvre-work, +and partition.[3] + +"It is not till we reflect on the vast sums of money involved in +transactions of this magnitude that we can form even a slight notion of the +great, almost ruinous loss, a trifling arithmetical error would have +occasioned, and of the boundless confidence the parties must have had in +their resources and in the correctness of their computations. Nevertheless, +it was one great merit in Mr. Paxton's original details of measurement that +they were contrived to facilitate calculation. + +"There was little time for consideration, or for setting right a single +mistake, were it ever so disastrous. On the prescribed day the tender was +presented, with whatever imperfections it might have had, duly and +irredeemably sealed. But after-checkings have divulged no material error." + +The Royal Commission appear from the first to have been favourably +impressed with Mr. Paxton's design, partly, no doubt, because its adoption +would at once silence the great bricks-and-mortar objection to the +occupation of the site in Hyde Park; and the result was that, on the 16th +of July, Messrs. Fox and Henderson's tender of 79,800_l._ for Mr. Paxton's +design was verbally accepted, and, as soon as the necessary arrangements +could be made, the contract was formally concluded. + + + + +History of Mr. Paxton's Design. + + +As Mr. Paxton himself has stated, the design for a building of such +magnitude could not have been produced in so short a space of time without +the aid of the experience he had gained in constructing other great +buildings of a somewhat similar character; the progress of this experience +Mr. Paxton has described in the lecture he delivered to the Society of Arts +on the 13th of November, 1850, from which we have made the following +extracts; and we hope to be excused by the reader for their copiousness, on +the ground that no man can so well relate his own doings as the actor +himself:-- + +"The Great Industrial Building now in the course of erection, and which +forms the subject of the present paper, was not the production of a +momentary consideration of the subject. Its peculiar construction, in +cast-iron and glass, together with the manner of forming the vast roof, is +the result of much experience in the erection of buildings of a similar +kind, although on a smaller scale, which has gradually developed itself +through a series of years. It may not, therefore, be uninteresting to give +a brief account of the reasons which led me to investigate the subject of +glass roofs and glass structures generally, and which have resulted in the +Exhibition Building. + +"In 1828, when I first turned my attention to the building and improvement +of glass structures, the various forcing-houses at Chatsworth, as at other +places, were formed of coarse thick glass and heavy woodwork, which +rendered the roofs dark and gloomy, and, on this account, very ill suited +for the purposes they were intended to answer. My first object was to +remove this evil, and, in order to accomplish it, I lightened the rafters +and sash-bars, by bevelling off their sides; and some houses which were +afterwards built in this manner proved very satisfactory. I also at this +time contrived a light sash-bar, having a groove for the reception of the +glass; this groove completely obviated a disadvantage connected with the +old mode of glazing, namely, the putty becoming continually displaced by +sun, frost, and rain, after the sashes had been made for a short time, and +the wet by this means finding its way betwixt the glass and the wood, and +producing a continual drip in rainy weather. + +"About this period the desire for metallic roofs began to extend in every +direction; and as such structures had a light and graceful appearance, it +became a question of importance as to the propriety of using metal sashes +and rafters, instead of wooden ones, for horticultural purposes. After +carefully observing the effects of those built by various persons, it +became apparent to me that the expansion and contraction of metal would +always militate against its general adoption, as at no season of the year +could the sashes and rafters be made to fit. + +"The extra expense, also, of erecting metallic-roofed houses was a +consideration. In 1833 I contemplated building a new range of hot-houses; +and being desirous of knowing how much they would cost, if erected of +metal, a plan of the range was prepared and sent to Birmingham, and another +to Sheffield, with a desire to be furnished with estimates for that +purpose. The estimate from Birmingham was 1,800_l._; and the other, from +Sheffield, was 1,850_l._ These appeared to me such enormous sums, that I at +once set about calculating how much the range would cost if built of wood +under my own inspection; and the result was, that I was able to complete +the whole range, including masonry (which was omitted in the metal +estimates), for less than 500_l._ + +"Besides the extra cost of metallic roofs, we must add the extreme heat of +such houses in hot weather, and their coldness in times of frost; the +liability to breakage of glass from expansion and contraction of the metal; +the very limited duration of the smaller portions, as sash-bars, from +corrosion, by exposure to the alternations of heat, cold, and moisture, +inseparable from gardening operations, and which could only be prevented by +making use of the expensive material, COPPER; and the difficulty, when +compared with wood, of repairing any damages, as a wooden roof could at any +time be set to rights by a common carpenter. These different items formed +in my mind so many objections to its use, and the same disadvantages soon +became generally apparent. + +"It was now thought advisable by some parties that, in order to obviate the +many disadvantages in the use of metal, the rafters and frame-work of the +sashes ought to be made of wood, and the sash-bars of metal. This plan +certainly presented more advantages than the other, yet it was quite +obvious that materials so incongruous could never give satisfaction; and +accordingly, in a few years, as I had anticipated, the rage for these +structures gradually subsided, and the use of wood again became resorted to +by most persons, as the best material for horticultural purposes. + +[Illustration: COMMON MODE OF GLAZING ROOFS.] + +"In the construction of glass-houses requiring much light, there always +appeared to me one important objection, which no person seemed to have +taken up or obviated; it was this. In plain lean-to or shed roofs, the +morning and evening sun, which is on many accounts of the greatest +importance in forcing fruits, presented its direct rays at a low angle, +and, consequently, very obliquely to the glass. At those periods most of +the rays of light and heat were obstructed by the position of the glass and +heavy rafters, so that a considerable portion of time was lost both morning +and evening; it consequently became evident that a system by which the +glass would be more at right angles to the morning and evening rays of the +sun would obviate the difficulty, and remove the obstruction to rays of +light entering the house at an early and late hour of the day. + +[Illustration: METHOD BY RIDGE-AND-FURROW.] + +"This led me to the adoption of the ridge-and-furrow principle for glass +roofs, which places the glass in such a position that the rays of light in +the mornings and evenings enter the house without obstruction, and present +themselves more perpendicularly to the glass at those times when they are +the least powerful; whereas at mid-day, when they are most powerful, they +present themselves more obliquely to the glass. Having had this principle +fixed in my mind, and being convinced of its importance, I constructed a +pine-house in 1833 as an experiment, which still exists unimpaired, and has +been found fully to answer the purpose. + +"In 1834 I resolved to try a further experiment on a larger scale, on the +ridge-and-furrow principle, in the construction of a green-house of +considerable dimensions, which also remains and answers admirably. For this +building I made a still lighter sash-bar than any I had previously used; on +which account the house, when completed (although possessing all the +advantages of wood), was as light as if constructed of metal. The whole +length of this structure is 97½ feet, and its breadth 26 feet; the height +at the back is 16 feet 9 inches, and in the front 12 feet 3 inches. A span +so large as 26 feet could not be safely covered with a roof constructed in +the ordinary way, unless the sash-bars were stronger, and the assistance of +heavy rafters and numerous supports was afforded. The house presents a neat +and light appearance, and consists of 15 bays, and pediments in front, +supported by 16 slender reeded cast-iron columns. Whilst it makes an +admirable green-house, it is also an economical building; for, at the +period of its construction, notwithstanding the heavy tax on glass (since +removed), it only cost at the rate of twopence and a fraction per cubic +foot. At the present time, considering the change in the price of material, +and the removal of the glass-tax, it could be constructed at a considerably +smaller amount. + +"Having in contemplation the erection of the Great Conservatory in its +present form, it was determined, in 1836, to erect a new curvilinear +hot-house 60 feet in length and 26 feet in width, with the elliptical roof +on the ridge-and-furrow principle, to be constructed entirely of wood, for +the purpose of exhibiting how roofs of this kind could be supported. The +plan adopted was this: the curved rafters were composed of several boards +securely nailed together on templets of wood cut to the exact curve; by +this means a strength and firmness were obtained sufficient to support an +enormous weight. + +"In 1837 the foundations of the Great Conservatory were commenced; and in +constructing so great a building it was found desirable to contrive some +means for abridging the great amount of manual labour that would be +required in making the immense number of sash-bars requisite for the +purpose. Accordingly, I visited all the great workshops in London, +Manchester, and Birmingham, to see if anything had been invented that would +afford the facilities I required. The only apparatus met with was a +grooving-machine, which I had at once connected with a steam-engine at +Chatsworth, and which was subsequently so improved as to make the sash-bar +complete. + +[Illustration: CUTTERS OF MR. PAXTON'S SASH-BAR MACHINE.] + +"For this apparatus the Society of Arts, in April, 1841, awarded me a +medal; and this machine is the type from which all the sash-bar machines +found in use throughout the country at the present time are taken. As the +Conservatory was erected under my own immediate superintendence, I am able +to speak accurately as to the advantages of the machine: it has, in regard +to that building alone, saved in expenses 1,400_l._ The length of each of +the bars of the Conservatory is 48 inches; only one inch shorter than those +of the Exhibition Building. The machine was first used in its present form +in August, 1838; and its original cost, including table, wheels, and +everything complete, was 20_l._ The motive power is from a steam-engine +employed on the premises for other purposes; and any well-seasoned timber +may be used. The attendants required are only a man and a boy, and the +expense of the power required for it when in use is comparatively trifling. +The sash-bars may be made of any form, by changing the character of the +saws. + +"There is one particular feature in working the machine, namely, the bar is +presented to the saws below the centre of motion, instead of above it (as +is usual); and to the sides of the saw which are ascending from the table, +instead of those which are descending. These arrangements were necessary to +suit the direction of the teeth to the grain of the wood; for when the bars +were presented to the saws in the usual way, the wood was crushed instead +of being cut and cleaned. It is essential that the machine should revolve +1,200 times in a minute to finish the work in a proper manner. + +"The glass and glazing of the Chatsworth Conservatory caused me +considerable thought and anxiety, as I was very desirous to do away +altogether with the numerous overlaps connected with the old system of +glazing with short lengths. This old method, even under the best of +management, is certain, in the course of a few years, to render unsightly +any structure, however well built. + +"In the course of my inquiries, I heard that Messrs. Chance and Co., of +Birmingham, had just introduced from the Continent the manufacture of sheet +glass. Accordingly, I went to see them make this new article, and found +they were able to manufacture it three feet in length. I was advised to use +this glass in two lengths, with one overlap; but to this I could not +assent, as I observed, that since they had so far advanced as to be able to +produce sheets three feet in length, I saw no reason why they could not +accomplish another foot; and, if this could not be done, I would decline +giving the order, as, at that time, sheet glass was altogether an +experiment for horticultural purposes. These gentlemen, however, shortly +afterwards informed me that they had one person who could make it the +desired length, and, if I would give the order, they would furnish me with +all I required. + +"It may just be remarked here that the glass for the Exhibition Building is +forty-nine inches long--a size which no country except England is able to +furnish in any large quantity, even at the present day. + +"In 1840 the Chatsworth Conservatory was completed and planted. The whole +length of this building is 277 feet; its breadth, 123 feet over the walls; +and the height, from the floor to the highest part, 67 feet. + +"Notwithstanding the success which attended the erection of these +buildings, it became to me a question of importance how far an extensive +structure might be covered in with _flat_ ridge-and-furrow roofs; that is, +the ridge-and-valley rafters placed on a level, instead of at an +inclination, as in the green-house, or curvilinear, as in the Great +Conservatory. I therefore prepared some plans for an erection of the kind +for the Earl of Burlington, somewhere about ten years ago; but, on account +of the lamented death of the Countess, the design of erection was +abandoned. However, from that time I felt assured, not only that it could +be done satisfactorily, but that the most appropriate manner to form and +support level glass roofs, to a great extent, was that adopted this year +for the New Victoria House at Chatsworth, which may be considered a +miniature type of the Great Industrial Building. + +"Before describing this house, however, it may be well to notice two +instances in which the flat roofs had been previously tried, and in both +cases with the most perfect success. + +"The first of these was a conservatory attached to a villa in Darley Dale, +only a short distance from Chatsworth. This building is divided into five +bays, with a glass door in the centre, and glass pilasters separating the +bays; the ridge-and-furrow roof covers an opening of seventeen feet in the +clear. The ventilation is simultaneously effected by a lever connected with +a rod, which is attached to all the ventilators.... + +[Illustration: THE VICTORIA REGIA HOUSE, CHATSWORTH.] + +"The second instance is this. In the spring of 1848, plans were prepared +for the erection of an ornamental glass structure, to cover the +conservatory wall at Chatsworth. This wall was previously a plain flued +structure, devoted to the growth of rare and choice plants. The new +erection is 331 feet in length, and 7 feet in width. It is divided into ten +bays, with an ornamental centre projecting beyond the general line of the +building. Each bay is subdivided by smaller bays, which are separated by +glass pilasters; the glass sashes are so arranged that they can be removed +in summer, and the whole thrown open to the gardens, whilst in winter the +building affords an extensive promenade under cover. The ground on which +this structure is built has a fall of 25 feet 6 inches in its whole length; +consequently, there is a proportionate fall at each bay, which gives great +variety, and obviates the monotony that would be exhibited in a building of +such length and dimensions placed on a uniform level. The lower side of +each bay is finished by a glass pilaster, three feet in width, and +surmounted by a vase on the wall behind. The roof is on the +ridge-and-furrow principle, with the rafters on a very slight inclination; +and the ventilation is effected in a similar but more perfect manner than +that already described as in use at the conservatory at Darley Dale. + +"The new Victoria Regia House, which presents a light and novel appearance, +is 60 feet 6 inches in length, and 46 feet 9 inches in breadth. Although, +when compared with the Great Industrial Building, the Victoria House is a +very diminutive structure, yet the principles on which it is constructed +are the same, and may be carried out to an almost unlimited extent. The +form of the roof, the general elevation, the supports, and the mode of +construction, are all quite simple, and yet fully answer the purposes for +which they were intended. + +[Illustration: INTERIOR OF VICTORIA REGIA HOUSE.] + +"The Victoria House, however, was so built as to retain as much moisture +and heat as possible, and yet to afford a strong and bright light at all +seasons; whilst, on the contrary, the Industrial Building, being intended +to accommodate a daily assemblage of many thousands of individuals, and a +vast number of natural and mechanical productions, many of which would be +destroyed by moisture and heat, is constructed so as fully to answer that +end." + +This, then, was the experience which enabled Mr. Paxton to conceive his +design for the "Crystal Palace," a description of which as it has +subsequently been carried out we must now proceed with. + + + + +General Description of the Building. + + +The plan forms a parallelogram, 1,848 feet long and 408 feet wide, besides +a projection on the north side, 48 feet wide and 936 feet long. A main +avenue, 72 feet wide and 66 feet high, occupies the centre through the +whole length of the building. Flanking this on either side are smaller +avenues alternately 24 feet and 48 feet wide; the two first on either side +of the centre are 43 feet, and the remainder 23 feet high. About the centre +of the entire length, at a point determined by the position of a row of +large trees, which it was resolved to inclose, these avenues are crossed by +a transept of the same width as the main avenue, or 72 feet, and 108 feet +high; two other groups of trees on the ground give occasion for open +courts, which are inclosed within the building. The area thus inclosed and +roofed over amounts to no less than 772,784 square feet, or about 19 +acres;[4] the building is, therefore, about four times the size of St. +Peter's at Rome, and more than six times that of St. Paul's, London. Three +entrances lead to this vast interior, one in the centre of the principal or +south front, and one at either end of the building. The number of these is +necessarily small, in order to facilitate the arrangements for the +money-taking, and to avoid having too large a staff of officers; on the +other hand, it was equally desirable to afford the most ample opportunities +of egress for visitors, and accordingly fifteen exit doors are placed at +frequent intervals. + + + +GROUND-PLAN OF THE BUILDING. + +[Illustration] + + A. Principal Entrance. + B. West Entrance. + C. East Entrance. + D. Refreshment Courts. + E. Entrance. + F. Gentlemens' Ante-rooms. + G. Ladies' Ante-rooms. + H. Pay Place. + I. Accountant. + K. Exits. + L. Ante-rooms. + M. Committee Waiting-room. + N. Royal Commission. + O. Clerks. + P. Stairs. + Q. Engine House. + +It will be well to mention here that the horizontal measure of 24 feet, +which we have seen as the unit in the plan of the Building Committee, is +also preserved in the present plan; every horizontal dimension of which is +either a certain number of times or divisions of twenty-four feet. + +The avenues into which the plan is divided are formed by hollow cast-iron +columns twenty-four feet apart, which rise in one, two, and three storeys +respectively, to support the roof at the different heights given above; in +the lower storey these columns are nineteen feet high, and in the two upper +ones seventeen feet. Between the different lengths of the columns short +pieces are introduced, called "connecting-pieces," from the office they +perform; these are three feet long, and are so contrived that they serve to +support girders in horizontal tiers, dividing the greatest height into +three storeys as already mentioned. The girders, of which some are of cast +and some of wrought iron, are all of the same depth, namely, three feet, +with the exception of four, to be specially named hereafter, and by this +arrangement the same horizontal lines are preserved throughout the whole of +the building. They are also all similar in appearance, forming a kind of +lattice-work, by which construction they do not look too heavy for the +slight supports; and large solid masses are avoided, practically showing +how great strength may be combined with elegance and lightness. The first +or lower tier of these girders, in parts of the building more than one +storey in height, forms the support for the floor of the galleries, which +are twenty-four feet wide, and extend the whole length of the building in +four parallel lines, intercepted only by the transept, round the ends of +which they are continued. Numerous cross galleries connect each pair of +longitudinal lines on either side of the centre avenue, which remains +uninterrupted from end to end, and can only be crossed on the gallery-floor +at the extremities. + +These galleries are reached by eight double staircases, of easy ascent and +ample width, which are placed between the lines of gallery so as to +communicate equally readily with either, and are so distributed as to give +two to each quarter of the building; in the eastern or foreign half two +supplementary staircases of smaller dimensions have been added. + +In those parts of the building more than two storeys in height, the second +horizontal tier of girders does not support a gallery, but serves only to +give stiffness to the columns. The upper tier of girders, in all cases, +supports the roof, which is one of the most peculiar features in the +structure. In its general form the roof is flat; but it is made up of a +series of ridges and furrows, the rise and fall of which is but small, and +is thus arranged: the roof-girders or trusses being twenty-four feet apart, +and lying in the transverse direction of the building, the space between +them is spanned by light beams or rafters, which are cambered or bent +upwards, and are hollowed out in a groove on the top to form a gutter. The +rafters are placed eight feet apart, their ends resting on the +roof-girders, and lying, therefore, in the opposite direction to them, that +is, in the direction of the length of the building; these rafters are +commonly called the Paxton's Gutters. Between the rafters so described, +_ridges_ are supported by light sash-bars sloping up to them, at an +inclination of two-and-a-half to one, and the rafter itself forms the +bottom of the _furrow_. The advantage of this form of roofing is the +facility it affords for the escape of the water, which runs from the +surface of the roof into the Paxton's gutters; from them it is discharged +into the main gutters resting on the roof-girders, by which it is conducted +to the hollow columns, and passes down through them into the drains. A drop +of water falling on the most distant point from the discharge would only +have to traverse a distance of forty-eight feet; but in most cases the +length to be passed over before reaching the down pipe would be +considerably less.[5] The covering of the roof is glass, fixed between the +sash-bars, which are grooved to receive it; and in order to carry off the +moisture arising from condensation on the inner surface of the glass, the +rafters have a small groove on each side, which makes the Paxton's gutter +complete, and from which the moisture is also discharged into the main +gutters. The essential portions of the roof may therefore be considered as +a network of gutters; one set, the main gutters, lying in a transverse +direction, and the others resting on them, and lying in the direction of +the length of the building; by which arrangement any amount of surface can +always be covered by roofing of a small span. The principle is precisely +the same as that of subdividing large fields of arable land into strips or +"lands" with furrows between them, in order to facilitate the +surface-drainage. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF ONE 24-FEET SQUARE BAY OF ROOF PARTLY COMPLETED.] + +The outer inclosure, on the ground-floor, is formed by dividing each +24-feet bay between the columns into three 8-feet bays by half columns of +wood, between which is placed boarding, held in its place by iron clips and +bolts; a plinth, four feet high, is formed immediately above the floor by +frames, filled with what are commonly called louvre-blades, which are hung +on pivots, and of which a large number can be moved simultaneously for the +admission of air; similar ventilating-frames, three feet deep, are +introduced at the top of each storey round the entire circuit of the +building, and by this means a ventilating-surface of no less than 40,800 +square feet is obtained, or rather more than one acre. + +[Illustration: PORTION OF THE LOWER STOREY OF THE PRINCIPAL ELEVATIONS.] + +Externally some light arches are inserted, and open panels form the +inclosure for the upper louvre-frames. The details we have been describing +may be readily traced in the engraving of a portion of the lower storey as +seen from the outside. The exit doors occupy one of the 8-feet bays opening +about six feet wide. The inclosure to the upper storeys closely resembles +those of the ground-floor, but glazed sashes are substituted for the close +boarding, and the plinth is omitted. Each storey is crowned externally with +a cornice and cresting ornament, and over the columns posts are carried up, +to which flagstaffs will be fixed. + +To return to the interior. The whole of the floor is boarded; that below is +laid with an interval of half an inch between the boards, to allow the +passage of dust from the millions of feet by which it will be trod; the +gallery floor, on the contrary, has iron tongues between the boards to +prevent the dust from coming through on the heads of the visitors below. + +The roof of the transept, which we have described as crossing the building +about the centre of its length, differs from that of the other parts, its +general form being semicircular instead of flat, and rising above the rest +of the building so as to show the whole of the semicircle externally. This +roof is supported by arched timber ribs placed twenty-four feet apart, or +one over every column, which forms a socket, into which the foot of the rib +is fitted and secured by iron straps. Between the ribs, timbers are fixed +which carry minor ribs at a distance of eight feet apart, and upon these +the ridge-and-furrow roofing is constructed in the manner that has been +described for the flat roofing, but following the curve of the arched ribs. +At the springing or foot of the arch on either side of the transept there +is a range of louvre-frames to assist in the ventilation of the building, +and on the top of the arch externally a narrow passage is formed to give +access to the different parts of this roof. On the inner side of the arch +diagonal tie-rods are introduced between the main ribs, which, while they +serve to increase the strength of the construction by tying together all +the parts from end to end, produce an agreeable play of lines forming a +kind of network over the whole of the surface. + +The ends of the transept are closed in with fan-like tracery, reminding the +spectator of the magnificent wheel windows of our Gothic cathedrals; this +elegant feature is not visible in our interior view, but will be seen in +some of the exteriors. + +There is, perhaps, no part of this interesting building in which the great +size and singular lightness, almost airiness, of the construction are so +strikingly displayed as in the TRANSEPT, inclosing as it does a row of fine +old elm-trees, as if to protect them in their venerable age from the smoke +of the thousands of chimneys that have been gradually forming a destructive +circle around them. + +The only portion of solid untransparent roofing in the whole of this +building is formed on either side of the arched roof just described, where +there is a lead flat twenty-four feet wide. This was partly required for a +platform to serve for carrying on the works for the arched roof, and was +also exceedingly useful in giving access to the other roofs on either side; +it likewise afforded the opportunity of giving some additional strength at +the springing of the arched ribs to resist any possible tendency they might +have to spread outwards. + + + +[Illustration: View of the Interior of the Transept.] + + +[Illustration: View of Glass Roof from the Lead Flat.] + +As the weight of such lead roofing considerably exceeds that of the glass +ridge-and-furrow covering, it was necessary at the point where it crosses +the wide span of the main avenue to introduce some stronger roof-girders +than those used elsewhere; of these there are two on either side of the +transept, the inner one of which has also to sustain two of the large +arched ribs with their superincumbent roofing, and its strength is +therefore increased in proportion to the additional load placed upon it. +The extra-strong roof-girders are six feet deep, or twice that of the +others; but their general construction is similar, the diagonal ties +forming a kind of latticework, and thus keeping up the same character. +These, like all the roof-girders of large span, are constructed principally +of wrought-iron. Those who visited the building during its erection, and +were among the fortunate few who were enabled to ascend to the "lead-flat," +must have been very much struck with the singular appearance presented by +the great expanse of acres of glass stretching in long lines of +"ridge-and-furrow" roofing on each side of the centre, while the eye, +penetrating the transparent covering, became lost in endeavouring to follow +the apparently intricate lines of the interior. Such a view might fairly be +said to justify the title of "Crystal Palace," by which this building is so +commonly known; and it would require no great stretch of imagination to +believe that it had been reared by fairy hands, as a votive offering at the +world's jubilee of labour. + +But we must descend again to the interior, to point out the arrangement of +the offices for the staff of the Executive. The principal of these are +naturally placed in the centre, on either side of the principal entrance, +where they occupy in two storeys the space underneath the gallery, which is +continued uninterrupted over them. The entrances at the end are also +flanked by offices of less extent. The outer inclosure of these spaces is +formed with glazed sashes, similar to those which are placed on the +exterior of the building, and boarded partitions divide the interior. The +rooms are arranged to be heated and lighted by gas when required, and ample +means of ventilation are provided. + +The simplicity of the construction renders it very easy to extend or +contract the accommodation much more readily than would be possible under +ordinary circumstances. + +It now remains to notice the arrangements provided for refreshments, which +are introduced in connexion with the open courts left on account of the +groups of trees. These happen to occur towards the ends of the building, +and on the north side of the main avenue; the space at the north end of the +transept, next to the inclosed trees, is also appropriated for this +purpose. The roofing over these parts is a continuation of that over the +rest of the building; and the partitions necessary for inclosing the +different spaces are formed chiefly with glazed sashes, avoiding as much as +possible any solid construction, which would appear out of character. The +open courts are inclosed with sashes and doors, rendered necessary by the +uncertain nature of our climate. + +A small detached building which has not been mentioned serves for the +boiler-house, and is placed near the west end of the building. As it had +been determined to afford the means of exhibiting some of the machinery in +actual motion, it was necessary to erect boilers to supply the steam to the +different machines, as it would clearly be inadmissible for each to +generate steam for its own use in the building. The house to contain the +boilers is ninety-six feet long and twenty-four feet wide, and is placed as +near as practicable to the machinery-department; but at the same time it is +quite detached from the main building to avoid risk from the fires. In +appearance it resembles the one-storey portion of the main building, but it +is constructed entirely of fire-proof materials. It contains five boilers, +each to supply steam for twenty-horse power, which is distributed by a pipe +to the different machinery. + + +[Illustration: General View of the Building from the South-West.] + +An ornamental cast-iron railing designed by Mr. Owen Jones incloses the +building, being placed at a distance of about eight feet from it along the +principal fronts, but carried much further off at the ends, so as to +inclose a considerable space, which will thus be available for exhibiting +any large objects that will bear exposure to the weather, if there should +not be sufficient room in the interior of the building. Gates are placed +opposite all the entrances and exits, and these are so arranged that when +closed they are uniform in appearance with the rest of the railing. + +[Illustration: EXTERNAL RAILING.] + +Having thus given a general sketch of the arrangement and appearance of the +building, we shall proceed to describe somewhat more minutely the various +details of the construction, of which the essential parts are few in number +compared with the great repetition of each individually. To assist in this +multiplied reproduction of the same form, some exceedingly ingenious +machinery has been employed, which will therefore be described in connexion +with the parts it has been used to form; and thus these will be traced +through their various stages, from the raw material to their finished state +as portions of the building. The greater part of this machinery has been +used in shaping out those parts which are of wood, and particularly the +different portions of the roof, with which we will therefore commence. + + + + +The Paxton's Gutters. + + +It has been mentioned that the rafters which span the space between the +roof-girders serve, at the same time, as gutters, for which purpose they +are hollowed out on the upper face, besides having smaller grooves at the +sides to take the condensation-water. The bottom of the gutter is of a +circular form, which is universally considered the best for conveying +liquids with the least amount of friction, and therefore the least liable +to obstruction from an accumulation of dirt. + +[Illustration: SECTION OF THE PAXTON'S GUTTER, WITH THE STRONG SASH-BAR.] + +[Illustration: THE CIRCULAR PLANING-MACHINE.] + +[Illustration: PORTION OF PLANING-MACHINE, WITH THE REVOLVING ARM AND +CUTTERS.] + +A section of the gutter, as finished, is shown. To bring it into this form, +after the timbers had been sawn into the requisite general dimensions they +were brought under the action of the planing-machine, where they were +planed on the four sides. This machine is patented by W. Furness, of +Liverpool, and was worked at the Chelsea Wharf Saw-mills. The operation was +effected by cutters (_a_) attached to the ends of an arm revolving with +great rapidity in a horizontal plane; the timbers to be planed were wedged +up into a frame (_b_) traversing on rails, and as this was passed under the +revolving cutters the upper surface was removed by them, at the same time +the timbers were held down upon the frame by a large iron disc (_c_) +pressing upon their upper surface. The disc, together with the revolving +arm carrying the cutters, was capable of being adjusted vertically to the +exact dimensions of the timber. The traversing-frame was slowly propelled +by the machinery, and three widths of timber were operated upon at one +time. On leaving the planing-machine these quarter baulks were passed on to +the gutter-cutting machine. Four different cutters were required to form +the section, as shown above; they were placed one behind the other, so that +the piece of timber, which was presented to their action above the centre +of motion, passed over each of them in succession. The first set, which +revolved in a vertical plane, roughly hollowed out the larger groove to the +section shown in Fig. 1; the two next were counterparts, and formed the +same section in opposite directions; they were set at an inclination to the +upright of about 45 degrees, the one to the right, the other to the left; +and each hollowed out one of the small side grooves, and one side of the +larger gutter, leaving the section of the timber respectively of the forms +shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Fig. 4 shows the form of its section after it had +passed both; the fourth set of cutters again revolved vertically, and gave +the gutter its finished form, as shown above. As the timber passed over the +cutters it was supported at the ends on revolving rollers, and was held in +its place by guiding grooves, being pressed gradually forwards against the +cutters. + +[Illustration: SECTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE PAXTON'S GUTTERS.] + +[Illustration: THE GUTTER-CUTTING MACHINE.] + +In this manner forty-two lengths of solid gutter, each twenty-four feet and +a fraction long, were completed in a day of ten hours; and as the machine +was worked double time, a length of more than 2,000 feet was turned out +daily ready for use: this, it has been calculated, would have required the +labour of about three hundred men to be employed for the same length of +time. The absolute necessity for such rapid production will be evident when +it is known that no less than 110,000 feet, or about twenty miles length, +of such gutters were required--very nearly the distance from Buckingham +Palace to Windsor Castle. + +Finished as described above, the Paxton's gutters arrived at the building, +where the first operation they underwent was that of cutting them to the +exact length requisite. This was a nice operation, as the smallest +deviation would have caused a difficulty in fitting them into their place, +and to perform it a framework was constructed by which the solid gutter +could be bent to the same curve it would have when fixed; a precaution that +was necessary in order that the ends might be cut off quite vertically so +as to fit together when in their place. At one end of this frame-work was +placed a circular saw, twenty inches diameter, hung with a pulley and +balance weight, so as to be moved up and down by means of a lever. The +gutter being fixed in the frame by means of hinged guage-plates, one end +was cut by the circular saw being brought down upon it; and at the same +time another operation was performed: two cutters, placed in the centre of +the circular saw, were so arranged that when brought down upon the end of +the solid gutter they cut out a semi-circular notch, so that when the ends +of two gutters were afterwards placed together there was a circular hole +left, through which the water passed down into the main gutter. When these +operations were completed at one end of the gutter, the guage-plates were +taken off, and the timber was swung round on a pivot or crutch in the +centre, and the same process gone through as before; the whole scarcely +occupying two minutes. We shall presently have to return to this piece of +machinery, as it was also used in finishing the ridge rafters. + +[Illustration: MACHINE FOR FINISHING ENDS OF GUTTERS AND RIDGES.] + +The solid gutter was now transferred to the hands of the carpenter, who +fixed at each end, on the under-side, a small cast-iron shoe; and two +struts, nine inches long, were placed so as to divide the whole length into +three equal parts--the struts spread out at the top in order to present a +large surface of pressure against the under-side of the gutter; and tenons +projected upwards, which were fitted into mortices cut into the timber. The +lower end of the struts were formed so as to give them a firm hold upon a +wrought-iron rod, thirteen-sixteenths of an inch diameter, which was passed +under them and through the shoes, where it was screwed up with nuts; and +the struts pressing up against the timber produced the requisite bend or +camber. Twenty-seven notches, to receive the sash bars, were marked with a +templet and cut out on each edge of the upper-side of the gutter; and a +small cast-iron plate having been fitted on the under-side at each end, the +Paxton's gutter was complete and ready for fixing. The under-trussing of +the rafters increased their strength considerably, so that a weight of +one-and-a-half tons was required to break one which was experimented upon. + + + + +The Sash-bars. + + +We will next consider the sash-bars which support the ridge of the roof and +receive the glass. The total length which was required of these amounts to +about two hundred miles; it will, therefore, be easily understood that +mechanical contrivance for cutting them out became an absolute necessity; +this Mr. Paxton appears to have discovered in his works at Chatsworth, as +he mentions in his lecture. + +[Illustration: MACHINE FOR CUTTING OUT SASH-BARS.] + +The sash-bars are one inch thick and one-and-a-half inches deep, and are +grooved on each side, besides having all the four edges bevelled or +chamfered; all which was done in one passage through the machine. The plank +which was to form the sash-bars was passed in at one end of the machine, +between pressure-rollers; it then passed between cutters placed both above +and below it, which made about twelve hundred revolutions per minute, and +hollowed out the different grooves; and, lastly, it passed between circular +saws which divided it into separate sash-bars, after which they had only to +be cut into their proper lengths.[6] The exact length of each sash-bar when +finished is four feet one inch. + +In this state the skylight bars were sent to the building, where they +underwent several finishing operations, necessary to make the ends fit down +into the notches prepared in the ridges and gutters. Thirty of the bars +were first placed together in a horizontal traversing-frame on a saw-table, +on each side of which circular saws were fixed at the distance of the +required length of the sash-bar; the frame was then moved forward against +the saws, so that both ends of the whole set of bars were cut off +simultaneously, and at the same time a cut was made at one end half-way +through the bar, in order to form the shoulder against the gutter. They +were then removed to another bench, where the end of the bar was bevelled +and the shoulder formed by means of a small instrument having a handle with +two projecting jaws fitting into the ends of the glass grooves of the bars; +between these there was a small blade which, being pressed down, cut out +the shoulder which had been sawn through in the other direction, and +another blade was placed at the proper angle to remove the bevelled piece +at the end of the bar. + +[Illustration: THE SASH-BAR DRILLING-MACHINE.] + +One more process made the sash-bars complete for fixing--this was the +drilling a hole at each end to nail them down on the gutter and ridge; and +this was also done by machinery, to insure all the holes being drilled at +the same angle. On one side of a horizontal bench were placed a set of +four-inch driving pulleys (_a a_), with as many horizontal drills +projecting towards the other side of the bench; a wooden traversing-plate +(_c_) opposite each drill, and working towards it, received one end of the +sash-bar, while the other rested in an inclined position against a wooden +rail (_b_) placed longitudinally above the pulleys, having as many sinkings +thereon as there were drills. The traversing-plate being then pushed +forward, the sash-bar was perforated by the drill; the plate was then drawn +back, and the same operation repeated with the other end of the bar, which +left it ready for fixing. + +The action of the traversing-plate (_c_) is shown more distinctly in the +second engraving.[7] One out of every nine of the sash-bars of the roof is +stronger than the rest, to serve for fixing the ridge previous to glazing. +These extra-strong bars are two inches wide and one inch and a half deep, +and were formed by the same machinery already described, by an adjustment +of the different cutters and saws. + +[Illustration: PORTION OF SASH-BAR DRILLING-MACHINE.] + + + + +The Ridges. + + +The total length of these required was about sixteen miles. They are cut +out of timber three inches square, in section, and are of the form shown in +the diagram, with a groove on each side to receive the glass. This was also +done by machinery which, with about five-horse power, turned out one +hundred lengths of twenty-four feet in a day of ten hours, allowing the +time for the necessary stoppages. After they had been delivered at the +building, these ridge-pieces were cut to the exact lengths by means of the +same apparatus used for the solid gutters which has already been described. +At each end of the ridge-piece two holes were also drilled to receive +dowells to connect it with the adjoining length. By no other than +mechanical means could the immense number of holes thus drilled have been +placed so exactly that those in the opposite ends of any two ridge-pieces +should correspond precisely. + +[Illustration: SECTION OF RIDGE AND ORDINARY SASH-BAR.] + +The different essential component parts of the roof having thus been +described, we propose to take the different members of the construction in +succession downwards. + + + + +The Glass. + + +But first it may be mentioned here that the glass used throughout the +building is sheet, on an average about one-sixteenth of an inch thick, and +weighing one pound per foot superficial. This gives an aggregate weight of +about four hundred tons for the whole of the work, the greater part of +which was supplied by Messrs. Chance and Co., of Birmingham. Each square is +forty-nine inches long and ten wide, the greatest length of sheet glass +that has ever been made in this country. The manufacture of this kind of +glass is of comparatively recent introduction into England, though +practised for some time on the Continent; and the rapid progress made by +the manufacturers alluded to must be in a great measure attributed to the +wise removal of the fiscal burden on the article, made by the late Sir +Robert Peel. That lamented statesman, with his usual foresight, doubtless +contemplated that great social benefits would follow from that enactment; +and it is, perhaps, not too much to say that, but for Sir Robert's +enlightened measure, this "huge pile of transparency" would never have been +reared. + + + + +The Box Gutters. + + +It has been mentioned that the triple gutters deliver the water into main +gutters running in the transverse direction of the building; these are +formed of wood, with a bottom piece, into which are grooved two upright +sides, they are firmly bolted down upon the upper flange of the +roof-girders, and where these are quite horizontal the fall in the gutter +is given by a false bottom laid to a slope. Of these gutters there is a +length of about five-and-a-half miles in the building, which, added to the +aggregate length of the Paxton's gutters, makes a total of about +twenty-five-and-a-half miles of gutter. + + + + +Roof Girders. + + +These are of cast-iron, where not more than twenty-four feet long, and the +rest of wrought-iron. The cast-iron ones are precisely the same in +appearance as those used for the galleries, but lighter in metal; a +separate description of them is not, therefore, necessary. The weight of +each of these girders is twelve cwt., and each was proved to nine tons +previously to being used; but it is calculated that the greatest weight +they may have to bear will not exceed five tons: the total number required +was about 470. + +The wrought-iron girders, or trusses, are partly forty-eight and partly +seventy-two feet long, to span the avenues of those respective widths; the +principle of the construction is the same in each. The top rail (if it may +be so called) of the truss is formed with two pieces of [L section] iron +placed back to back [double L sections], and the bottom rail with two flat +bars [parallel flat bars], the total depth being three feet; at the ends +these bars are riveted on to cast-iron standards, and the intermediate +distance is divided into eight-feet lengths by other cast-iron standards, +to which the bars are also riveted, and thus a framework of rectangles is +formed. In the trusses forty-eight feet span there are, therefore, six such +divisions in the length, and nine in those of seventy-two feet span. These +are then divided in the direction of ONE of the diagonals by a flat bar +passing between and riveted to those forming the top and bottom rails. This +completes the constructional part of the truss; but to render the +appearance more uniform with that of the cast-iron girders, a flat bar of +wood (shown by the dotted lines) is made to form the other diagonal of the +rectangles. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF 48-FEET GIRDER.] + +The trusses for a span of seventy-two feet are cambered or bent upwards +about ten inches, which both adds to their strength and improves the +appearance. The form and arrangement of these roof-trusses may be clearly +traced in several of the views of the interior which are presented to the +reader. The weight, when completed, of each of the trusses of seventy-two +feet span is about thirty-five cwt., and of those of forty-eight feet span +about thirteen cwt. + +It has been already mentioned that four of the roof-trusses vary from the +rest on account of the greater load they have to sustain. The depth of +these exceptional trusses is six feet, and their length seventy-two feet, +or the width of the main avenue, which they bridge over. The principle of +their construction is similar to that employed in the lighter trusses; but +the arrangement of the parts is somewhat modified. The top rail consists of +two pieces of [L section] iron, placed, as before, back to back; but they +are further connected on the top by a flat piece [double L sections with +flat]. The lower rail is formed by two flat bars placed upright [parallel +flat bars], and these are riveted at the ends to standards of cast-iron, +which, however, are considerably heavier in construction than those before +described; and they have also in the centre, at (_a_) two slots, or +sinkings, into which the ends of two of the diagonal bars are riveted. The +whole length is then divided into three equal parts, each 24 feet long, by +strong CAST-iron standards at (_b_) the ends of which are riveted between +the rails, and these spaces are again subdivided into three eight-feet +lengths by WROUGHT-iron standards at (_c c_). The top of each standard is +next connected with the foot of the next but one to it by diagonal flat +bars, which, together with the short pieces fastened into the slots at +(_a_), complete the figure of the whole, forming a kind of trellis-work, +two diamonds in depth. In the diagram only half the length of the girder is +shown. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF ONE-HALF OF 72-FEET GIRDER.] + +The dimensions of the different bars of iron in this piece of construction +are proportional to the amount of strain they have to bear. The two heavier +out of the four trusses just described weighed when completed eight tons +each, and the other two, which are of rather lighter construction, six tons +each. + +The riveting together of the wrought-iron trusses was performed on +horizontal supports, on which the curve that they were to be made to was +marked out. The bars having been previously cut to the requisite lengths, +and punched and drilled with holes for the rivets, were laid out on the +stages in the proper forms with the cast-iron standards, which were +temporarily kept in place by bolts passed through some of the rivet-holes. +The whole framework was then riveted up with red-hot rivets supplied from +small portable furnaces, several sets of men being employed upon each +truss, by which means as many as sixteen were completed in one day. The +whole of the trusses, three hundred and seventy-two in number, required for +the building were put together on the ground, and several ingenious +mechanical contrivances were made use of to facilitate and hasten the work. +To form some idea of the amount of labour that had to be performed, it may +be mentioned that each of the trusses forty-eight feet in length, or the +smallest, is held together by more than fifty rivets, requiring more than +twice that number of holes to be made in bars of iron varying in thickness +from a quarter of an inch upwards. About 25,000 rivets were thus required +for the whole of the work. + + + + +Iron Drilling Machine. + + +The holes for the rivets were made partly by drilling and partly by +punching. In the machine used for the former the bar to be bored was laid +upon a flat surface forming part of the solid cast-iron stand of the +machinery; the drilling-point worked vertically, and could be moved in that +direction to suit the different thicknesses of iron brought under its +operation. It was suspended at one end of a lever, with a counterpoise at +the other. This lever was also connected by a rod and crank, with another +near the ground, one end of which was formed into a tread to be worked by +the foot. The workman, when he had arranged the iron in the right position +under the drill, pressed his foot upon the tread; thus raising the +counterpoise end of the upper lever, and pressing the point of the drill, +which was of a spear-head form, down upon the iron. Underneath the iron to +be drilled was placed a piece of wood to protect the point of the drill +when it had passed through the iron. It was also necessary to moisten the +iron during the operation, in order to keep the drill-point cool. Three men +were required to attend to this work, which was not so rapid as the other +method of making the holes by punching. + +[Illustration: THE DRILLING-MACHINE.] + + + + +The Punching Machine. + + +[Illustration: THE PUNCHING-MACHINE AND SHEARS.] + +The enormous power exerted by this piece of machinery renders it necessary +that the stand containing the punch, &c., should be exceedingly solid, and +it is formed accordingly by a heavy mass of cast-iron, in which there are +two indentations, as seen by the engraving. In the lower of these the +punching operation is performed, and in the upper there are shears for +cutting off the ends of the bars when required. The motion is communicated +to each of these by means of a cogged wheel at the back; but both the punch +and the shears work in a vertical direction, slowly moving up and down with +irresistible force. There is no sudden blow or jerk, which makes the effect +the more striking, as the unpractised eye has no means of discovering the +amount of the force which is being put in operation. It is, however, so +great that, although the punching of a hole scarcely occupies two or three +seconds, the iron becomes quite hot from the effect of the pressure. In +using this machine, the workman arranges the iron bar on a solid rest, +placing it so that when the punch descends it makes the hole in the +position required. As soon as the punch has passed through the bar, the +action of the machinery is reversed, and the instrument ascends again; +during which time the bar is re-arranged, and the operation is thus +continually repeated. This piece of machinery also requires three men to +work it, if the bars to be punched are of considerable length, so as to +require the ends to be held up; otherwise, one alone is sufficient; and in +the course of a ten-hours day about three thousand holes can be punched +out--the number, of course, varying according to the thickness of the bars. + +Neither of the mechanical contrivances just described are novel inventions, +though they are thus, perhaps, brought for the first time under the notice +of many of our readers, to whom they may be so far rendered interesting +from their being connected with the execution of THE building of the day. + + + + +The Adzing and Planing Machine. + + +[Illustration: THE ADZING-CUTTERS.] + +At the Chelsea Saw-mills, where the reader has already seen the Paxton's +gutters shaped out, another interesting piece of machinery was in use for +these works, for the purpose of finishing planks to a certain size and +thickness, called the adzing and planing machine. An adze is a tool used by +carpenters to remove any unevenness in the surface of a board in a +particular spot. In this piece of machinery two cutters are fixed to a +revolving arm, under which the plank is made to pass; and as it does so the +cutters remove a certain thickness from the whole of the surface. The +arrangement of these cutters is very plainly shown in the annexed +engraving. On the under-side of the same bench to which this apparatus is +fixed, three planes are set, each at an angle of about 5 degrees, by which +the under-side of the plank is brought to an even face, while the upper +surface is operated on by the adzing-cutters, and in this manner the plank +is reduced to an even thickness throughout. As it passes on it is brought +between two circular saws, which are adjusted to the width which it is +desired to give to the plank. It is dragged forward towards the planes and +cutters by means of an endless chain, composed of open links; which chain +passes over a wheel provided with projecting pegs, so arranged as to fit +into the links. The plank is kept down upon the planes, and otherwise held +in position, by pressure-rollers. + +[Illustration: THE ADZING AND PLANING MACHINE.] + + + + +The Columns and Connecting Pieces. + + +[Illustration: SECTION OF COLUMN.] + +The columns in the building perform three important offices. They support +the roof and the galleries, and serve as pipes to convey the rain-water +from the roofs. Their form, which is beautiful, both mechanically and +artistically, was suggested by Mr. Barry; it is a ring, eight inches in +diameter externally, the thickness varying in the different columns, +according to the weights they have to support respectively. Four flat +faces, about three inches wide, are added on the outside of this ring, so +that when the column is in its place, they face nearly north, south, east, +and west. The column may therefore be considered as a hollow tube, of the +section just described, and of the same form at each end, having at its +extremities horizontally projecting rings called SNUGS, through which the +bolts are passed, to fasten the columns to the connecting-pieces and +base-pieces. That the hollow form adopted for the columns is that best +suited to obtain the greatest strength with the least amount of material +has been abundantly shown by experiments, as even two straws placed in an +upright position will bear a very considerable weight; it is that also seen +in the structure of the bones of animals. Of these columns there are 3,300 +in the whole building. + +Those portions of the height of the columns which correspond with the depth +and position of the girders form separate lengths, which are called +connecting-pieces, as they unite the lengths of columns of the different +storeys. These connecting-pieces have the same sectional form as the +columns themselves, and, like them, are the same at each end, where there +are projections cast on, which serve to support the girders, and which are +provided with holes through which the bolts pass to connect them with the +columns. These holes alternate with the projections to receive the girders, +which projections are so formed that they clip others cast on to the ends +of the girders, which will be hereafter described. In the centre of each +projection there is formed a small notch which receives the key or wedge +for fixing the girders. + +The meeting faces of the columns and connecting-pieces were all turned in a +lathe, in order that, when set up, they might fit so precisely as not to +require any packing to adjust them in an upright position; and only in the +cases of those columns which serve as water-pipes is any such packing +introduced. In those a piece of canvass, with white lead, is put into the +joint. An enormous amount of additional labour was involved by this +proceeding, as no less than twelve hundred of such faces had to be operated +on; but this did not deter the enterprising contractors, who were fully +alive to the importance of the object to be attained. When fixed, the +projecting "snugs," with the bolts passing through them, were covered by +ornamental caps and bases of cast-iron, fixed after the rest of the work +was completed. + + + + +The Base Pieces. + + +The lower storey of columns in every case stands upon base-pieces of which +the upright portion is a continuation of the column, with "snugs" at the +top, to correspond with those of the column, and standing on a horizontal +bed-plate, from which "shoulders" rise to strengthen the upright portion. +These bed-plates vary in size from three feet by two feet to one foot six +inches by one foot, in proportion to the weight which the several +superincumbent columns have to sustain. The longest dimension of the +bed-plate is in the transverse direction of the building, in which the +greatest overturning strain might be expected to act upon the columns. From +the vertical portion of the base-pieces, sockets six inches in diameter +project, in the direction of the length of the building, into which are +fitted the cast-iron drain-pipes, which convey away the water brought down +by the columns from the roof. The height of the base-pieces varies to suit +the different levels at which the floor is supported above the ground. +These levels had therefore to be determined in every individual instance +previous to the castings being made. It was done, however, with such +precision that, when they came to be used, they were all found to be of the +exact length required for their situation. Of these base-pieces, 1,074 were +required for the building. + +[Illustration: BASE-PIECE.] + + + + +Cast-iron Girders. + + +It has been mentioned that the columns supported girders at three different +heights, dividing the greatest altitude of the building into three storeys; +and that the lower tier of girders, where the building consisted of more +than one storey, served to support a gallery. + +These gallery girders are all twenty-four feet long and three feet deep, +the upper and lower "flanges" or rails having a [T section] formed section +with standards at the ends of similar section. The rectangular space +between them is then divided into three equal parts, by uprights having a +[+ section] form of section, and the three smaller spaces thus obtained +have diagonal "struts" in each direction. The girder thus described forms a +double truss, in which the diagonal braces are subjected both to the strain +of compression and tension. At the top and bottom of the end-standards +small projections are cast on, by which the connecting-pieces hold the +girders; and at each end of the flat portion of the top and bottom rails +small sinkings are cast, by means of which the girder is keyed up to its +position. The flat portion of the upper and lower "flanges" of the girder +is swelled out in width from the ends towards the centre, in order to +increase the quantity of metal in that part where the strain is greatest. + +The description just given of the gallery girders will apply to all the +cast-iron girders throughout the building, of which there are 2,150; the +only difference between them being, that those for the roofs or other +internal portions, where no gallery is to be supported, are cast with a +less amount of metal. The form of girder just described, which is unusual, +was the result of several experiments performed under the superintendence +of Messrs. W. Cubitt, C. H. Wild, C. Fox, and other gentlemen, previous to +the commencement of the building; and the thickness of metal for the +different parts of these, as well as for all the other cast-iron work in +the building, was minutely calculated and determined by Mr. C. H. Wild and +Mr. C. Fox, under the supervision of Mr. Cubitt, the President of the +Institution of Civil Engineers, to whom the Royal Commission had intrusted +the responsible duty of the chief superintendence of the whole of the work. + + +[Illustration: View of Interior from the Level of Galleries.] + + + + +The Galleries. + + +To proceed to the gallery itself, supported by the girders just described. +The timbers supporting the floor are so arranged that the weight of each +bay of twenty-four feet square is distributed equally to the four girders +inclosing it, and in such a manner as to bear upon them at the points +immediately over the vertical standards. + +In the transverse direction of the building two pairs of joists, eight feet +apart in each bay, are formed into trusses by tie-rods, 1-3/8 inches +diameter, passed through a cast-iron shoe at each end, and pressing up two +"struts," which are made to bear against the under-side of binding-timbers +running longitudinally, or crossing the joists, and immediately under them. +The cast-iron shoes for the trusses are bolted down to the girders, and +serve at the same time to receive the standard supports of the gallery +railing. The ends of the binding-timbers are secured by bolts and oak +suspension-pieces to the other two girders inclosing the square. Joists +about two feet six inches apart bear from girder to girder parallel to the +trusses, and resting on the binding-timbers. On these is laid the floor, 1¼ +inches thick, grooved and iron-tongued. A light cast-iron railing, forming +a kind of trellis-work, is fixed between the columns, and is capped with a +round mahogany hand-rail. From the view at page 60 the arrangement of the +galleries will be readily understood. + + + + +Testing the Cast-iron Girders. + + +From the very important office which the girders perform throughout the +building, but more particularly those supporting the galleries, it was of +the utmost importance that, previously to their being fixed in their +places, the soundness of the casting should be proved; for it could hardly +be expected that so large a number of girders could be produced without +some of them being defective. The ordinary means of testing girders, by +loading them with weights, would have occupied far too much time; and +therefore an ingenious apparatus was devised by Mr. C. H. Wild for this +purpose, by the use of which the testing of a girder occupied but a few +minutes. + +[Illustration: FRAME AND HYDRAULIC PRESS FOR TESTING THE GIRDERS.] + +It consisted of a very strong cast-iron frame rather longer than the +girder, the bottom of which was formed by two fixed beams placed eight +inches apart, and supported a few inches above the ground. At each end of +these a cast-iron standard was firmly bolted between them and rose to a +height rather greater than the depth of the girder to be tested; on the +inner faces of these standards two "shoulders" were formed, which received +the projections cast on the ends of the girder, as before mentioned. +Between the fixed beams below, at two points dividing the whole length into +three equal parts, were placed strong cylinders, with rising pistons +connected with a forcing-pump, together with which they formed a Bramah's +hydraulic press. A girder being placed in this frame, in an inverted +position, the force applied by means of the pistons rising from the +cylinders acted upon it precisely at those points, and in the same manner, +as the load from the gallery or the roof would do when afterwards fixed in +its place. + +The essential parts of the Bramah's press may be thus briefly described. It +consists of two cylinders, the diameter of one being considerably larger +than that of the other. The smaller cylinder is fitted with a solid plunger +or piston, by means of which water may be forced from it into the larger; +this being also fitted with a rising piston, the force is communicated by +it to the weight which it is desired to raise. The power obtained by means +of this apparatus arises from the distributive power of fluids and the +practical incompressibility of water, and it is proportioned to the +difference of the diameters of the two cylinders; so that if a pressure of +one pound per square inch be applied on the surface of the piston in the +smaller cylinder, and the piston in the larger cylinder present a surface +ten times greater, the power is multiplied by that number; whilst, in +addition, the lever power used in applying the pressure to the smaller +piston is obtained. The cylinders are fitted with valves, so arranged as to +prevent the return of the water from the larger to the smaller, while the +apparatus is in action, and thus the power is accumulated in the former. + +In the instance before us, the two 3-inch cylinders already alluded to in +the proving-frame took the place of the larger cylinder of the ordinary +apparatus; and they were connected with the forcing-pump by a strong metal +tube. When a girder had been fixed in the frame for proving, the force-pump +was worked till the pistons underneath the girder carried it off its lower +bearings and pressed it upwards against the "shoulders," by which it was +firmly held, and the pressure was then continued until the amount +previously fixed upon as necessary for proof had been obtained. This was +ascertained by means of a self-adjusting apparatus attached to the +hydraulic press. + +An iron cylinder 1½ inches diameter was placed in communication with the +pipe connecting the pump and the press, so that the pressure obtained in it +was, in proportion to its diameter, the same as that in the large cylinder; +and it was fitted with a piston-rod, working in a vertical direction. This +piston-rod was connected with a lever, from the end of which a scale-pan +was suspended, at a distance from the fulcrum ten times greater than that +of the point of attachment of the piston from the same. The weight of the +scale-pan and lever were balanced by a large mass of iron at the other end. +In the scale-pan a certain weight was placed, proportioned to the proof +desired to be obtained; and the action of the pump was continued until the +water, rising in the iron cylinder just described, forced up the lever, and +with it the weight attached; and thus indicated that the pressure to which +it was desired to subject the girder had been reached. The weight to be +placed in the scale-pan was thus determined: the diameter of the lever +cylinder being 1½ inches, and that of each of those in the proving-frame +three inches, the pistons or "rams" in the latter presented together eight +times the surface of that in the lever cylinder; which being multiplied by +the difference of length of the two parts of the lever, determines the +weight for the scale-pan to be one-eightieth of that to which it was +desired to prove the girder. + +The ordinary gallery girders were tested with a pressure equivalent to a +weight of fifteen tons; but it was calculated that, when fixed, the +greatest weight they would have to sustain would be seven-and-a-half tons. +In one instance, for the sake of experiment, the pressure was continued +beyond the proof weight of fifteen tons, to see what amount of strain the +girders would bear without fracture, and it was found that a strain of +thirty tons produced no injurious effect; but the girder broke with an +additional weight of half a ton. + + + + +Roof of Transept. + + +We will now return to describe that portion of the roof which varies in +form and arrangement from the rest, namely, the semicircular covering of +the transept. This is supported by arched ribs, placed twenty-four feet +apart, and constructed of Memel timber, in three thicknesses; the +centre-piece four inches thick, with a 2-inch piece on each side of it. +They are formed in lengths of about nine feet, placed so as to break joint; +that is, the joints of the outer pieces fall upon the centre of the inner +one. The thicknesses are fastened together by bolts passing through them +about two feet six inches apart, besides being nailed at other points. On +the inner circumference of the rib thus constructed there is then placed a +piece of timber moulded to correspond with the form of the columns; and on +the outer circumference two boards, each one inch thick, are bent round and +attached to the rib with strong nails. On both the outer and inner +circumference a flat bar of iron is secured by bolts passing through the +whole depth of the rib, which, thus finished, measures eighteen inches in +depth by eight inches in thickness. The ends of the ribs are fitted into +sockets, formed by the upward continuation of the columns, to which they +are attached by iron straps. + +The ribs, which are supported by the trusses over the main avenue, have +their ends bolted down upon a piece of timber secured on the upper portion +of the truss; and they are further fixed in their places by oak brackets, +forming a spreading foot on each side upon the same piece of timber. + +Between these large ribs horizontal timbers, called "purlins," are fixed +about nine feet apart, by means of cast-iron shoes, bolted both to them and +to the ribs. These serve to support the minor or intermediate ribs, +occurring at distances of eight feet apart; which consist of a single +square piece of timber, having the two thicknesses of 1-inch board bent +round their outer circumference, as on the main ribs. The boards form the +gutters or furrows between which rise the ridges, in the same manner as in +that portion of the roof which is horizontal. + +The ridges, in this case, instead of being cut out of solid pieces, are +formed in three thicknesses, bent round to the requisite curve, and so +retained by small bolts tying them down to the "purlins." The sash-bars +which receive the glass form, as elsewhere, the sloping rafters or supports +of the ridge. + + +[Illustration: Interior View of the Central Avenue towards the West.] + +The space below the first "purlin" or plate at the springing of the arch, +down to the level of the lead-flat beneath it, is fitted with louvre-frames +for ventilation. The diagonal bracing between the main ribs has been +already alluded to. Each set consists of four wrought-iron rods three +quarters of an inch in diameter, having eyes at one end, by means of which +they are secured with bolts, passing through the thickness of the ribs; in +the centre they meet in a cast-iron ring, on the inner side of which the +ends are screwed up with nuts. + +The semicircular ends of the transept are filled in with tracery, formed by +radiating timbers, strutted apart with short pieces placed in concentric +rings. The circular heads of the openings are formed by iron castings +screwed into their places, and the eye from which the radiating lines of +the tracery proceed is also formed by solid iron castings bolted together. +On the outer face the ribs of the tracery are moulded, and on the inner +side glazed sashes are fixed, filling in the openings. + +The lead-flat, twenty-four feet wide, extending the whole length of the +transept, on either side of the semicircular roof, is constructed in a +similar manner to the floor of the galleries, by under-trussing two pairs +of joists in each bay. In the width of the lead-flat roof a horizontal +truss is formed by flat bars of iron fixed in the direction of the diagonal +of the 24-feet square bays, to resist any possible thrust or tendency of +the ends of the ribs to open outwards at the springing. + + + + +The Facework. + + +The external inclosures of the building, on the levels of the different +storeys, require but little description in detail beyond that already +given. The sash-bars dividing the sashes of the upper tiers are grooved for +glass similarly to those used in the roof, and were cut out by the same +machinery. The glass was put in after they were framed together, so that it +was necessary to arrange the ends of the bars that it could be slipped in +at one end. As the bars of these sashes were of slight dimensions and +considerable length, they were strengthened by wrought-iron rods passed +through the sash-frame and the bars, and screwed up at the ends, causing +the whole to work together. The sashes are held in their position by small +cast-iron clips, which are bolted on to the columns; and as the surface +presented to the wind by the upright sides of the building is of such +considerable extent, wooden bridges are fixed against the sashes on the +inside, by small cast-iron shoes bolted to the columns; and at the internal +angles, where the wind would exert its greatest force, these bridges are +further strengthened by wrought-iron rods half an inch in diameter, +pressing against the back of them, which is grooved for the purpose, and +screwed up at each end in the cast-iron shoes. In this manner a connected +chain of resistance to any external pressure is established round the whole +circuit of the building. + +[Illustration: THE LOUVRE-FRAME.] + +The louvre-frames, which form part of the face-work in all the different +storeys, consist of a deal frame in which bent louvre-blades are hung on +pivots at each end. These blades are of galvanised iron of an [S section] +form. On the back of each blade is fixed a loop of thin iron, to which a +rack is fitted; and by these means all the blades in each frame are moved +simultaneously. A considerable number of these racks may also be connected, +so that a large area of ventilation may be regulated at once. + + + + +The Diagonal Bracing. + + +From the total absence in this building of any internal division-walls, +which in ordinary structures considerably add to their stability, it was +thought desirable to introduce into the construction something to +compensate for this deficiency. At several points in the length of the +building, where a continuous connexion could be established transversely, +the squares formed by the columns and girders on the different storeys have +their four corners connected by diagonal rods, seven-eighths of an inch in +diameter, having eyes at the ends, by which they are secured to the bolts +connecting the different parts of the columns. In the centre of the square +the four rods meet in a cast-iron ring, and are screwed up with nuts; +ornamental faces are fitted into the rings, so that this addition to the +construction is by no means detrimental to the general effect. + +In a similar manner this diagonal bracing is introduced in a horizontal +direction immediately under the floor of some portions of the galleries; of +these there are twenty-two sets, and of those placed vertically there are, +altogether, 220 sets in the building, and the manner of their introduction +will be readily understood from the views of the interior. + + + + +The Staircases. + + +The double staircases, of which it has been mentioned there are eight in +the building, consist each of four flights, about eight feet wide; two +parallel ones, leading from the ground-floor to a landing, at the +half-height, and the other two branching in opposite directions from the +landing to the two galleries. The treads of the steps are made of a species +of mahogany called sabicu, which is much harder than oak, and therefore +peculiarly suited to the purpose for which it is here employed. The risers, +or faces of the steps, are of deal. The stairs are supported by cast-iron +girders, following the slope, the lower ones being fixed at the foot to +stout timbers under the flooring, and the upper ends bolted to the +cast-iron columns which support the landing. These columns are of the same +pattern as the rest throughout the building, but only five inches in +diameter. They are supported on concrete, and eight of them are required +for each staircase. The floor of the landing is carried by lesser cast-iron +girders, with flooring-joists. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF STAIRCASE.] + +The girders carrying the upper flights spring from the landing girders, and +have their upper ends bolted on to the main girders supporting the +galleries, which are varied in pattern for this purpose. The railing of the +staircase is formed in separate cast-iron standards, one to each step, +which are bolted on to the top flange of the girders; and the foot of the +standard is so continued that the ends of the treads are fitted into it, +and are thus supported. The pattern of these standards is assimilated to +that of the gallery railing. + +The hand-rail is formed of Honduras mahogany, with carved ends. On each +side of the upper flight, which occupies the centre of a 24-feet space, +connecting-galleries about eight feet wide are carried, establishing a +communication between the two lines of gallery without descending to the +level of the landing and then re-ascending. The landing is sufficiently +high above the ground-floor to give ample headway for passing underneath +it; so that the space occupied by the staircases on the ground-floor is but +small. + + + + +The Floor and Foundations. + + +It now only remains to mention briefly the construction of the floor of the +building, and the foundations for the base-pieces. The substratum of the +site consists of gravel of an excellent quality, and sufficiently dense to +have sustained, perhaps without any preparation, the load brought upon it +by the bases of the columns. A thickness of concrete, proportioned in all +cases to the amount of the weight to be borne by the superincumbent +columns, and of such a size as to be two feet in each direction larger than +the bed-plates, was placed upon the gravel, and the upper surface was +finished with a bed of fine mortar to receive the bed-plates. In this +manner it was calculated that in no case would a greater weight than +two-and-a-half tons be borne by each foot superficial of the +gravel--previous experiments having shown that a considerably larger weight +could be placed upon it without any injurious effect. + +The timbers supporting the joists for the floor are also placed upon small +blocks of concrete, about one foot cube, at a distance of eight feet apart. +On these are fixed the flooring-joists, and a deal floor an inch and a half +thick is laid on them, as has been already mentioned, with intervals of +about half an inch between the boards. + +[Illustration: FIXING CAST-IRON DRAIN-PIPE.] + +In order to carry off the water brought down from the roof by every +alternate longitudinal row of columns, 6-inch cast-iron pipes are fitted +into the sockets described in the base-pieces, and are carried in the lines +of those columns through the whole length of the building, with discharges +into the larger drains at the centre and at each end; the natural slope of +the ground gives a sufficient fall to the pipes. + +Having thus described in detail all the different portions of the +construction of the building, we must proceed to give some account of its +actual erection, which will enable us to mention many very ingenious +mechanical contrivances which were employed in the course of its progress. + + + + +The First Operations on the Ground. + + +From the great extent of the area required for the building, it was not to +be expected that any site would be found of the necessary size, perfectly +level. On the ground occupied by the building there is a difference of +level between the two extreme ends of about eight feet. In consequence of +this fall of the natural surface from west to east, and in order to avoid +having a considerable flight of steps at one end of the building to +compensate for it, it was determined to arrange the floor with an +inclination following nearly that of the ground, such fall being at the +rate of one inch in twenty-four feet. All the lines of the building which +would be called horizontal in fact follow this line of the floor, and those +which are supposed to be upright are placed at right angles to the floor, +and therefore slightly inclined from the perpendicular towards the east. +The deviation, however, is so exceedingly small as to be perfectly +imperceptible even to those who are aware of the fact; and no one who was +not previously informed of it would be able to detect it. + +It has been mentioned that Messrs. Fox and Henderson's tender for the +building was verbally accepted on the 16th of July, 1850, and on the 30th +of that month they obtained possession of the site from the Commissioners +of Woods and Forests. + +The first proceeding was to inclose the whole area (including a +considerable space at each end more than would be covered by the building) +with a hoarding about eight feet high, put together in a very simple +manner, so that the boards were afterwards available for the flooring. The +supports for the hoarding consisted of pieces of timber fixed in the ground +in pairs, at intervals of the length of the boards, leaving a narrow space +between them, into which the boards were dropped, and thus held in their +place without any nails. Temporary offices were then erected in a +convenient portion of the site, and were covered with a roofing which was a +specimen of that to be used in the building itself. Considerable ranges of +carpenters' sheds were also put up, and even stables for twenty or thirty +horses, which were required in the progress of the works. + + + + +Setting out the Ground. + + +The first thing to be done towards the building itself was to set out +accurately all the points where the columns would stand, as well as the +general outline of the building. It will be readily understood that this +was an exceedingly important part of the work, as upon its accuracy +depended the fitting together of the various parts that had afterwards to +be put in place. + +This part of the work was executed with great precision by Mr. W. G. +Brounger. He commenced by determining the four extreme angles of the +building, and the centre lines of the main avenues. These formed fixed +points from which were determined the whole of the centres for the columns. + +Our readers will recollect that the dimension of twenty-four feet occurs +horizontally throughout the building, either in multiples or sub-multiples. +In order to measure off the different distances, rods of American pine were +made, into which, near the ends, pieces of metal were fixed, having +corresponding notches at the exact distance of twenty-four feet apart. By +these means the lengths were measured off with great accuracy, as the wood +used is not liable to alteration in the length of its fibre; and by means +of the metal notches the rods were sure to be placed correctly together. It +was necessary to make these sockets or notches of metal, from the great +amount of work the rods had to perform. + +In determining the length of the rods, the standard of the Astronomical +Society was used; and this was referred to in all important measurements +for the castings and other parts of the building, to insure their precise +eventual agreement in length. This will hardly be considered to have been +unnecessary when it is remembered that, from the great length of the +building, a very minute error in any of the parts would have been so +multiplied as sensibly to throw out the ends. + +To those who are unacquainted with the fact, it may be well to mention that +the standard of length referred to is obtained from a pendulum, which +oscillates seconds, in the latitude of London, in a vacuum, at the level of +the sea, at a certain fixed temperature. The length of this pendulum is +then divided into a certain registered number of feet and inches. + +The rods above described were carried along the centre lines of the +columns, and the position of each column was marked by a small stake driven +into the ground; and in order still more accurately to fix the centre, a +long nail was driven into the head of the stake. In this manner the +position of every column throughout the building was determined. + +The level at which the floor was to be fixed was the next point determined +by the ordinary method of levelling, and stakes, with a [T section] piece +at the top, called boning-sticks, were fixed in different parts of the +building; by the aid of which the tops of the base-pieces for the columns +were all afterwards fixed in one plane of the required slope. + + + + +Fixing the Base Plates. + + +The next proceeding was to excavate the holes for the concrete, on which +the base-pieces were to stand. To do this, the stakes marking the centres +of the columns had to be removed, and it was therefore necessary to adopt +some method of finding those centres again with precision. For this purpose +a large carpenter's square, as it is called, was made. This instrument +forms a right-angled triangle, and in this instance was used in the +following manner:--The centre of its longest side, or hypothenuse, was +marked by a line, which, if continued, would pass through the right angle +of the triangle, and at an equal distance along each of the other sides of +the triangle from the right angle an upright saw-cut or notch was made. The +square was then placed horizontally, so that the line marked on the +hypothenuse coincided with that of the centres of a row of columns, and so +that the right-angled corner of the square touched the nail marking the +exact site of a column. Two small stakes were then driven under the notches +in the short arms of the square, and nails were driven into them through +the notches. It will be seen that by these means the site of the first +stake could easily be again ascertained after its removal. The holes for +the concrete were then dug of an oval form and of the various sizes and +depths required, and the concrete filled in to the proper height. The +gravel used for the concrete was raised in a pit at one end of the ground. + +Next to the setting out of the positions of the columns, perhaps the +operation of fixing the base-pieces was that in which the greatest accuracy +was required; for as there were in some parts three storeys of columns to +be fixed over them, any inaccuracy as to their level or position would be +very much increased at the top of the building. To fix the base-pieces over +the centres that had been determined for the columns, another carpenter's +square was made use of, like that already described, but having the +right-angled corner cut out to the form of the section of a column. This +square being placed with the notches in its short sides over the two stakes +already described, the upright portion of the base-piece was fitted into +the notch at the angle; and as the reader will at once see, if he has +followed us in the description of the various processes, its correct +position was thus exactly found. + +In order to determine the level of the top of the base-pieces, +boning-sticks were placed in the lines of the columns, and when the +base-piece had been approximately fixed, a piece of wood was placed on it +edgeways, the top of which was to range with the top of the boning-sticks. +This was easily arranged by looking along them; and the workmen drove down +the base-piece with a wooden mallet till the desired level was obtained. + +From what has been previously stated, it may be gathered that the +base-pieces had to be fixed truly upright in one direction, but slightly +inclined in the other; and to effect this a plumb-rule was made, on which +the deviation from the perpendicular line was marked; and this, when +applied to those faces of the base-pieces which were to incline, served to +show when the proper inclination was arrived at, whilst an ordinary +plumb-rule applied to the other upright faces tested their vertical +position. + +The first column was raised on the ground on the 26th of September, but +little more than two months after the tender had been accepted. In the +meantime, many of the different castings had already arrived on the ground, +and a considerable advance had been made in the carpenter's work for the +gutters and other parts. The semi-circular ribs for the transept roof were +also being put together, and stacked in such a manner as not to stand in +the way of the other works. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF CRANE AND PROVING-PRESS.] + +We may mention here that every casting, as it came on to the ground, was +weighed and registered, and every girder proved, as already described; in +doing which considerable assistance was derived from one of Mr. Henderson's +patent Derrick cranes, which was erected near the proving-apparatus. By its +means a girder was raised from the waggon in which it arrived, placed on +the weighing-machine, weighed, removed to the proving-press, tested, raised +again, and deposited on the ground in a stack, in less than four minutes. + + + + +Henderson's Derrick Crane. + + +[Illustration: (FIG. 1.) HENDERSON'S DERRICK CRANE.] + +[Illustration: (FIG. 2.) PART OF HENDERSON'S DERRICK CRANE.] + +[Illustration: (FIG. 3.) PART OF HENDERSON'S DERRICK CRANE.] + +A brief description of this useful engine may not be out of place here. It +consists of an upright mast (E), steadied when the crane is in use by two +sloping stays (F F). These stays are fixed into horizontal timbers (G) on +the ground, connected with the foundation-plate (H) on which the mast +turns. At the foot of the mast is fixed a combination of wheels and working +handles for raising the weight, technically called a crab. A beam (A) +working at the bottom in a socket (B, Fig. 3) fixed to the foot of the +mast, but hanging out from it in a sloping direction, is called the +DERRICK, and forms the principal peculiarity of the crane, as it can be +raised more to the upright line, or lowered to slope more outwards, as may +be desired, by means of the chain (C). The advantage of this is obvious; +for a weight may thus be raised from or deposited at any point within a +circle of a certain radius, depending on the length of the derrick; +whereas, in an ordinary crane, the weight can only be placed at points upon +the circumference of that circle. The whole engine revolves on a pivot (H, +Fig. 2) at the foot of the mast. Cranes of this description are made +varying in power from one to forty tons, and with derricks ranging from +twenty to sixty feet radius. + + + + +Raising and Fixing the Columns and Girders. + + +Many of the persons who visited the building during the progress of its +erection were heard to inquire "where was the scaffolding;" and others even +imagined that the skeleton framework they saw was, in fact, only the +scaffolding for the building, and not parts of its actual construction. +This leads us to point out one of the most interesting peculiarities of the +structure; namely, that it formed, as it were, the scaffolding for its own +erection. In order to raise the columns upon the base-pieces, two poles +were placed upright, connected by a horizontal piece, forming what is +called shear-legs; the whole being steadied in its position by ropes from +the summit fixed to the ground in various directions. A rope with pulleys +fixed to the horizontal piece served to hoist the column, and sustain it in +a vertical position until the bolts were passed through the projecting +rings at the bottom of the column and the corresponding ones at the top of +the base-piece, and screwed up. When two columns had been thus fixed, a +connecting-piece was attached to each end of a girder, and the whole raised +by the same apparatus, and fixed on the top of the columns; bolts being +passed through the holes in the projections of the connecting-pieces, +corresponding with those on the top of the columns. The shear-legs were +then moved on twenty-four feet to perform the same duties to another pair +of columns; and two sides of a 24-feet bay were thus formed. To complete +the square, two more girders were raised in a similar manner, and fixed +between the connecting-pieces over the columns. The square bay then became +a firm structure, requiring no further support; and by repeating these +operations all the smaller avenues of the building were erected, of the +different heights of one, two, or three storeys. The greatest number of +columns thus fixed in one week was 310. + +[Illustration: FIXING THE GIRDERS.] + + +[Illustration: General View of the Works in Progress.] + + + + +Hoisting the Roof Trusses. + + +The wrought-iron roof-trusses over the 48-feet avenues were raised in a +similar manner to the columns and girders; and in all cases horses were +employed to run out the end of the fall-rope, which was passed through a +pulley or catch-block at the foot of the shear-legs, in order to change its +direction from vertical to horizontal. + +For raising the roof-trusses of seventy-two feet span over the main avenue +a somewhat different method was employed. A single mast or derrick, more +than seventy feet high, was placed in the centre of the avenue, and +steadied in an upright position by guide-ropes spreading from the top in +various directions. Near its summit the hoisting-tackle was firmly lashed +on. The trusses to be hoisted were brought from the places where they had +been put together, and placed across the main avenue at the points where +they were to be fixed. Two ends of a stout chain were passed round the +upper portion of the truss, at points dividing its length into about three +equal parts. To this chain the hoisting-tackle was attached, guide-ropes +being further fastened to each end of the truss to steady it in its ascent. +In order to stiffen the truss horizontally, struts were attached at the +centre projecting on each side, and held in their place by tie-rods +attached to the upper part of the truss, and forming a triangle on each +side. Before the truss, therefore, could bend in a horizontal direction, +the attachment of these tie-rods must have given way. Six horses drew out +the end of the fall-rope, and in the course of a very few minutes the truss +was hoisted to its giddy height, and each end slipped in between the +projections made in the connecting-pieces to receive it. + +The animated scene presented by these operations was highly interesting +from the number of men employed, both on the ground and for fixing the +trusses in their position aloft, and from the rapid progress so many hands +made. Each gang of men was managed by a foreman, who was obliged to issue +his orders through a speaking-trumpet, to enable his voice to be heard in +the din caused by the other works going on around. Besides the two large +gangs of men engaged in the hoisting of the trusses, other smaller gangs +were at work at different points getting up the columns and girders. In one +part, the roofing of which was completed as early as practicable, a crowd +of carpenters were preparing the Paxton's gutters and other portions of the +work. In another place, as soon as a sufficient space could be roofed over +and a temporary floor laid, various parts of the machinery we have already +described were fitted up and worked by portable steam-engines. Of these +there were three in different parts: one drove the machinery for finishing +the sash-bars, gutters, ridges, &c.; another worked the drilling, punching, +and other machinery connected with the iron-work; and a third was used for +working circular saws. + +Of the number of trusses that were hoisted as above described, in only one +instance (and that the first) was the result otherwise than perfectly +successful. The first truss was raised by its ends, instead of from the +centre; but that method was afterwards abandoned, from the difficulty of +maintaining the truss in an upright position during its ascent; which was +important, as, if it turned on its side, its lateral strength was not +sufficient to prevent it from bending, which would have destroyed the +joints of the work. + +One of the tall masts was worked on each side of the transept, from the +centre to the ends of the building, being maintained constantly in an +upright position, while traversing from point to point, by alternate +slackening and hauling up of the ropes which steadied it; and it was +curious to witness the motion of these tall giants, as they slowly +progressed from one point to another, in the performance of their important +office. Stout planks were laid along the ground, upon which the foot of the +mast was forced forward by crowbars and levers; the planks served also to +distribute the weight, which would otherwise have sunk the end into the +ground. As many as seven trusses were hoisted in one day by each derrick, +which had therefore to travel a distance of 168 feet. + +So careful were the men, under the direction of the manager (to whom was +intrusted the active superintendence of the whole erection of the +building), that no accident of importance occurred in these difficult +operations. + +[Illustration: HOISTING THE 72-FEET TRUSSES.] + + + + +Provision for Expansion of Girders. + + +In connexion with the fixing of the girders, it may be desirable to mention +the provision that was made for the expansion and contraction of the iron, +which in so great a length as that of the building might have otherwise +produced results prejudicial to its stability. + +Between the projections cast on to the connecting-pieces and those +projecting from the ends of the girders which they were made to clip, +sufficient space was left for the introduction of oak keys, by driving in +which the girder was fixed in its place, whilst the compressibility of the +wood left sufficient play for the expansion of the metal. In describing the +girders, it was mentioned that in the upper and lower flat flanges small +sinkings were cast near the ends. Corresponding with these sinkings, a +notch was left in the projection which came out from the connecting-piece; +and when the girder was put into its place, iron wedges were driven in +between the notch and the sinking, by which means any lateral motion of the +girder was prevented. It was a great advantage to have the means of fixing +the girders of so simple a nature, as any arrangement presenting the least +complication, or requiring great nicety, would have materially retarded the +progress of the work. + +The wrought-iron trusses were held by the connecting-pieces in a similar +manner to the cast-iron girders; but, as an additional security, bolts were +passed through holes provided in the standards at the ends, and through the +connecting-pieces, where they were screwed up with nuts. + +The raising and fixing of the extra-strong roof-trusses crossing the main +avenue near the side of the transept required particular care, from their +great weight; the heaviest being, as we have before mentioned, no less than +eight tons. These trusses were the first that were fixed across the central +avenue, and about 150 men were engaged in the hoisting of each one. They +are secured to the columns by four strong bolts passing through the +end-standards. + +In order to provide additional support for the great weight brought upon +the last-mentioned trusses by the transept roof, extra columns were +introduced underneath them. These were built up in storeys corresponding +with those of the other columns, with which they were connected, at the +levels of the girders, by bolts and straps. A cast-iron shoe, fixed on the +top of the columns, provided a bearing for the ends of the truss. The +columns just described project slightly into the main avenue from the line +of the other columns; and this is the only instance in the interior of the +building of the iron columns occurring at a less distance than twenty-four +feet apart. + + + + +Glazing the Roof. + + +We have now traced the erection of the building up to the level of the +roof, in which it will be readily conceived the operation of glazing was +one of extreme difficulty, there being no scaffolding to aid the workmen in +conducting their operations. When the glazing was first commenced a light +scaffolding was suspended from the rafters; but this was found to be too +tedious and troublesome a method of proceeding for so large an extent of +roofing. It was, moreover, of great importance that some means should be +devised for completing this part of the construction independently of the +weather; a matter of some moment, when it is remembered that the work had +to be done in the winter, when in our climate such operations are liable to +be very much impeded by heavy rain. The arrangements made to meet this +difficulty, as well as some others for carrying on the works, are very +clearly described in a paper by Mr. Digby Wyatt, read at the Institution of +Civil Engineers, on the 14th January, 1851, from which we quote some +passages, by permission, for the benefit of our readers. + +With reference to the means employed for glazing the roof he says: "To +effect this purpose, a travelling stage was devised by Mr. Fox, which +superseded the necessity of any scaffolding for glazing, and by means of +seventy-six of these machines nearly the whole of the work has been +executed. The stage was about eight feet square, and rested on four small +wheels travelling in the Paxton's gutters. It thus embraced a width of one +bay of eight feet of the roof, with one ridge and two sloping sides. Each +bay in width required, therefore, a separate stage." + +"Each stage was occupied by two workmen, and was covered by an awning of +canvass stretched over hoops, to protect them in bad weather, and was +further provided with a box on each side to contain a supply of glass. The +sash-bars and other materials were piled upon the stage itself, the centre +of the platform being left open for the convenience of hoisting up +materials, for which purpose there was a small iron arm with a single block +pulley." + +[Illustration: GLAZING-WAGGON, FOR FLAT ROOF.] + +"Whilst working, the men sat at one end of the platform (the ridge having +been previously fixed in position by means of the extra-strong sash-bars), +and they fixed the glass in front of them, pushing the stage backwards as +they completed each pane. On coming to the strong sash-bars previously +fixed, they temporarily removed them to allow the stage to pass. In this +manner each stage travelled, uninterruptedly, from the transept to the east +and west ends of the building, and the glaziers were enabled to follow up +the previously-fixed work very closely. The average amount of glazing done +by one man per day was fifty-eight squares, or about 200 superficial feet; +and the largest amount done by any one man in a working-day was 108 +squares, or 367 superficial feet." + +The mode of fixing the squares of glass was this: a sash-bar having been +nailed down between the ridge and the gutter, the workman inserted one long +edge of a square of glass into the groove in the sash-bar, he then placed a +loose bar against the other long edge of the glass and brought the whole +down to bear upon the ridge and gutter, the second sash-bar fitting into +the notches prepared for it; the glass was then pressed up a little, in +order to insert its upper edge into the groove in the ridge, and the +workman then filled in the grooves on the outside of the glass with putty, +the lower edge of the glass having been also bedded on putty where it bears +on the edge of the gutter. The ends of each sash-bar were fixed with a nail +driven into the holes previously drilled. + + + + +Stage for Repairing Glass. + + +As it might naturally be expected that out of the thousands of panes of +glass employed, particularly in the flat roof of the building, many would +be broken in the course of the works, subsequently to their being fixed, it +was necessary that a ready means should be devised for repairing any such +damage, as the glazing-waggons used for the first execution of the work +would not be available for that purpose. A light stage was therefore +constructed, travelling with wooden wheels upon the ridges instead of in +the gutters; and from this the men were able to perform their work without +walking along the narrow gutters, which would have been attended with much +risk. This stage was also used for fixing the canvass on the outside of the +roofing, where it is nailed along the ridges, and allowed to bag down +slightly between them. The object of the canvass, which covers externally +the whole of the roof except the transept, is twofold: it preserves the +glass from damage, and also protects the objects exhibited from the direct +rays of the sun, which would, of course, in many instances, be very +prejudicial; for the latter purpose the upright sashes on the south side +are also covered with canvass on the inside. + + + + +Hoisting the Ribs for Transept Roof. + + +One of the most interesting operations which attracted the attention of the +numerous visitors to the works was the raising the ribs for the +semicircular roof of the transept, the description of which we give from +Mr. Wyatt's paper:-- + +"The operation about which most anxiety had been felt was the hoisting of +the arched ribs of the transept. These ribs were constructed on the ground +horizontally, and when completed with all their bolts, two of them were +reared on end, and maintained in a vertical position, at a distance of +twenty-four feet from each other, by guy-ropes. As the ribs singly +possessed little lateral stiffness, they were framed together in pairs with +the purlins, intermediate small ribs and diagonal tie-rods, forming a +complete bay of the roof twenty-four feet long; two complete sets of +temporary ties were also introduced to provide for the strains incident to +the variations in position of the ribs during the hoisting. The feet of the +ribs were bolted on to a stout piece of timber, and the lower purlins +strutted up from the same." In this state the framework is shown in the +engraving. + +[Illustration: A PAIR OF RIBS PREPARED FOR RAISING.] + +"The whole framework was then moved on rollers to the centre of the square +formed by the intersection of the transept and the main avenue, where it +was afterwards hoisted. All the ribs were landed over this square, and were +afterwards moved on a tramway formed of a half baulk of timber constructed +over the columns on either side of the transept, at a height of about four +feet above the lead-flat. The hoisting-tackle consisted of four crabs, each +one being placed on the side of the transept opposite to the part of the +ribs to be lifted by it, so that the men at the crabs might watch the +effect of their exertions with greater convenience." + +"The hoisting-shears were placed on the lead-flat immediately over the deep +trusses of seventy-two feet span; each set consisted of three stout +scaffold-poles, lashed together at the top, and footed on planks laid +across the flat, and secured by the necessary guy-ropes. The hoisting-rope +passed from each of the crabs across the transept horizontally, to a +leading block attached to the foot of the opposite angle column of the +square; it then passed up to a treble block fastened to the shears on the +flat, and from thence down to a double block secured by chains to the +bottom part of the ribs." + + +[Illustration: Hoisting the Ribs for the Transept Roof.] + +"There was a peculiar difficulty to be overcome in this operation, which +arose from the circumstance that the width of the framework was greater +than that of the transept, the extreme width of the framework to be hoisted +being seventy-four feet, and the clear width apart of the trusses above +which it had to be hoisted being only seventy-one feet four inches. It was +therefore necessary to raise one side to a height of thirty-five feet +before raising the other, so as to diminish the horizontal width of the +whole, the diameter of the semicircle being maintained at this angle; the +whole was then hoisted, until the highest end could clear the tramway." + +This accounts for the slanting position in which the ribs are shown in the +view given. + +"The foot of the ribs on one side was then passed over the tramway +sufficiently to allow the other side to clear the opposite truss; after +which the whole was hoisted to the full height, and rested on rollers of +hard wood placed between the sills attached to the framework and the +tramway, by means of which it was moved to its permanent position. There it +was again raised by another set of shears, while the sill and tramway were +removed from under it; and the ribs were then lowered into the sockets +prepared for them, formed by the continuation of the columns above the +level of the lead-flat." + +"Each successive pair of ribs was fixed at a distance of twenty-four feet, +or one bay from the preceding one; and the purlins, &c., were fixed in the +intervening space without any scaffolding from the ground, by means of +jointed ladders, which were adjusted to the form of the roof." + +The first pair of ribs was hoisted December 4th, and the eighth pair on +December 12th. The operation, which was one of great excitement and +considerable anxiety, was personally superintended by the contractors, +aided by their most able foremen and assistants; and a crowd of visitors, +including many of the illustrious promoters of the undertaking, watched +with intense interest the steady ascent of the apparently unwieldy piece of +construction, and every spectator seemed astonished at the mechanical +regularity with which the whole operation proceeded. It took about one hour +to raise a pair from the ground to the level of the lead-flat, and the +whole was done without any accident whatever. About sixty men were employed +in the hoisting, there being eleven men to each crab, and the remainder on +the lead-flats. + + + + +Glazing the Transept Roof. + + +The semicircular form of the transept roof rendered it necessary to adopt a +different mode of operation for glazing it to that used in the horizontal +portion. A stage, thirty-two feet long and about three feet wide, with a +protecting rail at the side, was constructed, so that it rested upon +rollers, travelling on the ridges. It was slung by ropes from the crown of +the arched roof, and could be raised and lowered at pleasure. It +accommodated eight workmen, with the necessary quantity of materials in +sash-bars and glass; and they thus performed, with ease and rapidity, an +operation which before the fitting-up of the stage appeared at least +extremely difficult, and to the uninitiated next to impossible. + +[Illustration: STAGE FOR GLAZING THE ROOF OF TRANSEPT.] + +The men commenced fixing the glass at the bottom or springing of the arch, +and as they completed their work the stage was raised at intervals by +labourers stationed on the lead-flat. A portion of the glazing at the crown +of the arch was effected by men working on a light scaffold, suspended +within from the temporary ties mentioned as having been attached to the +ribs; whilst those upon the stage worked upwards till they joined the +portion done from the top. + + + + +The Painting. + + +A portion of the work which necessarily occupied a very large amount of +time was the painting, which was necessary for the preservation of all the +parts, as well as for their appearance; and when it is considered that +every portion required to be gone over four times, it must be evident that +it was highly desirable to adopt some means for facilitating the operation. +It was found that the sash-bars of the roof, being in short lengths and of +small dimensions, could readily be operated upon by some mechanical +contrivance. + +[Illustration: THE SASH-BAR PAINTING-MACHINE.] + +A wooden trough was made sufficiently long to receive the sash-bars, and +this was filled with paint; a number of the bars were then put into it, and +upon being taken out separately, they were passed through a frame into +which a set of brushes were fixed in such a manner as to clear off all the +unnecessary paint. Two small brushes, placed where the bar first entered +the frame, cleared out the grooves. One workman pushed the bar in at one +end of the frame, which was about two feet six inches long, and another +drew it out at the other end, where a trough was placed to receive any +droppings of paint. The bars were then stacked upright, until they were +sufficiently dry for the next coat. The first coat only was put on by this +apparatus, the second being done in the ordinary manner, and the last not +till after the work was all fixed in its place. By means of this apparatus +a workman could perform at least ten times the amount of work done in the +ordinary way. + +[Illustration: THE FRAME-WORK WITH BRUSHES.] + +The finishing the painting of the various parts of the roof internally, +after they had been put together, was very ingeniously managed, so that +while the workmen were able to work with ease to themselves, the +scaffolding on which they stood required no supports from the ground, where +they would have been much in the way of other operations; loops of +wrought-iron were hooked on to the roof-trusses, and by means of these a +perfect cloud of scaffold-boards was suspended, enabling between 400 and +500 men to be at work at one time. The roof of the main avenue, +particularly, presented a very singular appearance, as nearly one half of +the entire length was thus covered at one time, and a crowd of painters +were at work over the heads of many, perhaps unconscious exhibitors, who +were arranging their goods undisturbed below. + + + + +The Hand-rail Machine. + + +One of the mechanical contrivances which were put up on the ground during +the works, for saving labour and increasing the rapidity of production, +remains to be mentioned; it was contrived for turning out the rounded +mahogany hand-rail for the gallery railing as well as that for the +staircases. + +The mahogany being supplied in slabs of the requisite thickness, these were +first cut up by circular saws into pieces of a square section, and the +angles of these were then bevelled off by the same means; the lengths were +afterwards transferred to the hand-rail cutting machine to be rounded. + +[Illustration: THE HAND-RAIL CUTTING MACHINE.] + +[Illustration: PART OF HAND-RAIL MACHINE.] + +The principal portion of the machine consists of a hollow cast-iron +cylinder, round which a strap may be passed to drive it. At one end of this +cylinder four cutters are fixed, so that a piece of wood passing between +them and through the cylinder, as it revolves, is rounded off to a true +circular form of section, and is turned out so smoothly finished as to +require scarcely any further work upon it before fixing. In advance of the +cutters pressure-rollers are placed, furnished with teeth; and these, as +they are turned round by a cranked handle, seize upon a piece of mahogany +and force it forward against the cutters, which form, as it were, the jaws +of the hollow cylinder, which thus seems to be constantly swallowing +lengths of rough mahogany, which escape from it finished. The wooden rail +is passed up to the cutters along a groove, the end of which is shown in +the small engraving; and opposite each end of the revolving cylinder +springs are fixed, which prevent the rail from shifting its position. The +hand-rail was all turned out in 21-feet lengths, of which about thirty were +completed in the day. + + + + +General View of the Works. + + +We have mentioned that the actual commencement of the building was made by +fixing one of the columns on the 26th of September; and, within a few +weeks, more than a thousand men were at work, though, from the great extent +of the ground they were spread over, it was difficult to estimate their +number, which was, however, made apparent by the rapidity with which the +building began to grow. The place presented an animated and interesting +scene, which attracted a great number of visitors; and crowds of the fair +sex were not deterred by the rough state of the ground from endeavouring to +satisfy their proverbial thirst for knowledge. In one part of the ground +might be seen the putting together of the wrought-iron roof-girders to the +deafening tune of more than a hundred hammers; in another place gutters +were being put together by the mile, for which some hundred or two of +sawyers were cutting up ship-loads of timber. Three portable steam-engines +in various parts were driving the different machinery already described, +which, however, was mostly grouped in one place near the transept. The +central avenue formed, of course, the great thoroughfare, where teams of +horses were constantly passing, dragging the slender columns, or +unwieldy-looking girders, to their places, while other teams were engaged +in running them up to their final position. Over-head, too, the glaziers' +waggons, dotted about the roof, seemed to be running on some new aerial +railways; in every direction that the eye turned the busy scene extended. + +For carrying on these extensive works an immense number of men were +necessarily employed on the spot, besides those occupied in preparing the +various parts at different places. The greatest number of men on the ground +in any one week was 2,260; and the season of the year frequently rendered +it necessary for the workmen to continue their labours after dark, which +they did partly by the light of huge bonfires of shavings and odd scraps of +wood. The effect of these great fires, which were generally lighted in some +part of the main avenue, was exceedingly grand. The light of the tall +flames was reflected from the glass of the roof far away into the darkness +which concealed all the other parts; whilst occasionally a lantern carried +by a workman engaged in fixing the upper columns, or some part of the roof, +glimmered like some new star. + +On one occasion, when the greatest efforts were being made to push on the +progress of the works, no less than twelve large bonfires lighted the men +at their midnight toil; and had the building been formed of combustible +materials, a passing observer would have imagined that the whole was in +flames. + + + + +Paying the Workmen. + + +The process of distributing their wages among so large a number of men, on +every recurring Saturday evening, was one which could only be effected +within a reasonable time by some systematic arrangement; and to such +perfection was this brought in the course of the works, that the whole +number of 2,000 men or upwards were sometimes paid in little more than an +hour; though at first it occupied a considerably longer time. + +The mode in which this was effected was as follows:--When a workman was +engaged his name was entered in a book against a certain number, which was +stamped on several brass tickets, three of which were given to each workman +before leaving the ground in the evening. + +[Illustration: THE BRASS TICKETS AND MONEY-BOX.] + +Every man had to enter the premises three times in the course of the day; +namely, the first thing in the morning, after returning from breakfast, and +after returning from dinner. On each occasion he was required to deposit at +the gate one of these tickets, which were afterwards sorted by the clerks, +and entered in the time-book. In this way, if a man failed to come to his +work, his ticket would be missing, and the time during which he was absent +would not be entered; a corresponding amount being deducted from his week's +wages. + +On the Saturday, each man's time was made up from the book; and his wages +calculated accordingly, and the amount entered against his name. The money +due to each man was then counted out and placed in a small tin box, with a +ticket, on which was written the man's name and number, and the amount of +wages paid to him. + +[Illustration: THE INTERIOR OF THE PAY-OFFICE.] + +All this was done in the time-keeper's office, which was conveniently +placed near the entrance to the works. When all the preliminary +arrangements had been completed, the workmen's bell was rung, and they +assembled (a motley and sometimes clamorous crowd) round the pay-office, +which was provided with two small openings through which the payments were +made. + +[Illustration: THE MEN TAKING THEIR WAGES AT THE PAY-OFFICE.] + +Two men stationed outside the office then called over the numbers of the +workmen, who presented themselves, in the order in which they were called, +at the pay-windows, where each man took the small box passed out to him +with the money, and left the box in passing out at the gate. If any man +considered the amount of wages paid to him not correct, he presented the +ticket given to him with the wages at the office on the Monday morning +following, when the matter was arranged by the time-keeper. + +[Illustration: THE WORKMEN WAITING TO BE PAID.] + +Any person acquainted with the irregular habits of vast numbers of our +workmen, who will often be absent from their work a quarter of a day, and +at other times a whole day, thus varying the amount of wages due at the end +of the week to almost every man, will at once see that, without a +well-arranged system, such as that described, the payment of so large a +body of men would have occupied as many days as it really did hours. The +engravings annexed, in illustration of this part of our subject, will +convey to the reader some idea of the scene we have endeavoured to +describe, though it must fall far short of the picturesque reality. + + + + +General Statistics. + + +It is with great pleasure that we are able to mention that, notwithstanding +the difficult character of some of the work, and the extreme rapidity with +which it was carried on, very few accidents of importance occurred; a +circumstance which must be ascribed to the great care taken by the +contractors for the safety of the men while engaged in their work: and in +the cases where the accidents that occurred were of a serious or fatal +kind, their origin was mostly to be traced to a neglect of those +precautions which the men were constantly urged and ordered to take. + +A few statistics of the quantities of different parts of the work not +already mentioned will complete this portion of our subject. The whole +amount of iron-work in the building is stated at about 4000 tons; and about +1,200 loads of timber were required for the wood-work. There are 2,941 +trussed gutters in the roof, and 1,495 glazed sashes were required to +inclose the sides of the building. As many as 316 iron girders were cast, +in one week, and 442 lengths of the Paxton's gutters were cut out by the +machinery in the same time. No less than 18,392 squares of glass, +containing 62,508 feet superficial, or about one-and-a-half acres, were +also fixed in one week. + +It may be further mentioned that the weight of the different parts forming +the flat ridge-and-furrow roofing amounts to three-and-a-quarter pounds per +foot superficial, on the whole surface; the weight of the arched roof of +the transept, including the ribs, amounts to five-and-three-quarter pounds +per superficial foot; and the timbers and boards of the gallery floor weigh +eight-and-a-half pounds to the superficial foot: from these data the actual +weight on the different girders may be calculated. + +The light iron-work, with the exception of some of the gallery railing, was +cast at the works of the contractors near Birmingham; and the remainder, +including the columns, girders, &c., was distributed between their own +foundry, and those of the Messrs. Cochrane, of Wood Side, and Mr. Jobson, +of Holly Hall, both near Dudley. The wrought-iron was supplied by Messrs. +Fothergill, and the timber by Messrs. Dowson and Co. + + + + +The Parti-coloured Painting. + + +The coloured decoration introduced in finishing the painting of the +building is a subject which has been much discussed, and many suggestions +have been made by persons generally received as authorities on the subject. +The system adopted was proposed by Mr. Owen Jones, under whose active +superintendence it has been carried out. That gentleman explained his +reasons for its adoption, and the effect which he expected it to produce, +in a lecture at the Institute of British Architects, on the 16th of +December, 1850, some portions of which are submitted to our readers:-- + +"It is not necessary for me to describe the building, the painting of which +we are now about to discuss, as it is well known to most of you by its +marvellous dimensions, the simplicity of its construction, and the +advantage which has been taken of the power which the repetition of simple +forms will give in producing grandeur of effect; and I wish now to show +that this grandeur may be still further enhanced by a system of colouring +which, by marking distinctly every line in the building, will increase the +height, the length, and the bulk. + +"The very nature of the material of which this building is mainly +constructed, viz., iron, requires that it should be painted. On what +principle shall we do this? Should we be justified in adopting a simple +tint of white or stone colour, the usual method of painting iron? Now, it +must be borne in mind that this building will be covered on the south side, +and over the whole of the roof, with canvass, so that there can be but +little light and shade. The myriads of similar lines, therefore, of which +the building is composed, falling one before the other, would lose all +distinctness, and form, in fact, one dull cloud overhanging the Exhibition. + +"A line of columns (as it may be seen even now at the building) would +present the effect of a white wall, and it would be impossible, in the +distance, to distinguish one column from another. This mode of painting +would have the further disadvantage of rendering the building totally +unconnected with the various objects it is to contain. + +"May the building be painted of a dark colour, like the roofs of some of +our railway-stations? This, equally with the white method, would present +one mass of indistinctness; the relief of the cast-iron would disappear, +and each column and girder would present to the eye but a flat silhouette. + +"Let us now consider the building as painted with some pale neutral tint, +dull green or buff. In doing this we should be perfectly safe, as, provided +the colours were not too pale so as to be indistinct, or too dark so as +sensibly to affect the eye, we could hardly make a mistake. Yet how tame +and monotonous would be the result! It would be necessary that this tint, +whichever we might choose, should be of a very subdued neutral character, +in order to avoid the difficulty well known to mounters of drawings and +painters of picture-galleries, viz., that in proportion as you incline to +any particular shade of colour, so in that exact proportion you injure or +destroy those objects it is intended to relieve which may have similar +colour. To this, then, we should be reduced--a dull monotonous colour +without character. How unworthy this would be of the great occasion! How +little would it impress the public! How little would it teach the artist! +It would be to cut instead of patiently to unravel the knot. + +"We are now brought to the consideration of the only other well-defined +system which presents itself, namely, parti-colouring. This, I conceive, if +successfully worked out, would bring the building and its contents into +perfect harmony, and it would fitly carry out one of the objects for which +this Exhibition was formed, namely, that of promoting the union of the +fine-arts with manufactures. It would be an experiment on an immense scale, +which, if successful, would tend to dispel the prejudices of those whose +eyes are yet unformed to colour, to develope the imperfect appreciations of +others, and to save this country from the reproach which foreign visitors, +more educated in this particular than ourselves, would not fail to make +were the building otherwise painted; it would everywhere bring out the +construction of the building, which, as I said before, would also appear +higher, longer, and more solid." + +Mr. Jones then adduced the practice of the ancient and mediæval artists, +and explained the kind of colours they generally adopted, mentioning that +in the best periods of art the primary colours were chiefly or exclusively +used. + +"In the decoration of the Exhibition building I therefore propose to use +the colours blue, red, and yellow, in such relative quantities as to +neutralise or destroy each other; thus no one colour will be dominant or +fatiguing to the eye, and all the objects exhibited will assist, and be +assisted by, the colours of the building itself. + +"In house-decoration we occasionally find a run on one colour; thus we have +a green room, a pink room, and a red room; but it would obviously be unwise +to adopt any one colour for this building, whose contents will be of all +imaginable hues from white to black. Discarding, on the other hand, the +perfect neutral white as unfit for the occasion, we naturally adopt the +colours blue, red, and yellow, in or near the neutral proportions of eight, +five, and three; but to avoid any harsh antagonism of the primary colours +when in contact, or any undesired complementary secondaries arising from +the immediate proximity of the primaries, I propose, in all cases, to +interpose a line of white between them, which will soften them and give +them their true value. + +"As one of the objects of decorating a building is to increase the effect +of light and shade, the best means of using blue, red, and yellow is to +place blue, which retires, on the concave surfaces; yellow, which advances, +on the convex; and red, the colour of the middle distance, on the +horizontal planes; and the neutral white on the vertical planes. + +"Following out this principle on the building in question, we have red for +the under-side of the girders, yellow on the round portions of the columns, +and blue in the hollow parts of the capitals. + +"Now, it is necessary not only to put the several colours in the right +places, but also to use them in their due proportions to each other. + +"Mr. Field, in his admirable works on colour, has shown by direct +experiment that white light consists of blue, red, and yellow, neutralising +each other in the proportions of eight, five, and three. It will readily be +seen, that the nearer we can arrive at this state of neutrality the more +harmonious and light-giving will a building become; and an examination of +the most perfect specimens of harmonious colouring of the ancients will +show that this proportion has generally obtained among them; that is to +say, broadly, there has been as much blue as the yellow and red put +together, the light and the shade balancing each other. + +"Of course, we cannot in decorating buildings always command the exact +proportions of coloured surface which we require; but the balance of +colours can always be obtained by a change in the colours themselves. Thus, +if the surfaces to be coloured should give too much yellow, we should make +the red more crimson and the blue more purple; that is, we should take the +yellow out of them. So, if we had too much blue, we should make the yellow +more orange, and the red more scarlet. + +"A practised eye will as readily do this as a musician can tune a musical +instrument; it is here that science abandons the artist, who must trust to +his own perceptions, cultivated by renewed trials and repeated failures." + +In concluding, Mr. Jones said, with reference to some specimens of the +proposed decoration which had been executed, "I would ask you to banish +from your minds the glare of light by which this decoration is now seen--to +forget the rough foreground, where men are engaged in every variety of +occupation for the completion of this great building; and I would ask you +to fill it in imagination with the gorgeous products of every clime. I +would ask you to picture to yourselves in the foreground the brilliant +primaries, blue, red, and yellow--the rich secondaries, purple, amber, and +green, moulded in forms of every conceivable diversity; and, lastly, +against them the darker tertiaries fading into neutral perspective. + +"The conception of such an effect, difficult even to the artist accustomed +to abstract his attention from present interruptions and to calculate +future harmonies, is impossible to the uninstructed spectator, who, from +the experimental decoration of a single column, draws a premature and, +necessarily, a fallacious inference as to the collective effect of the +whole. + +"From my brother architects I hope for a more patient, a more +comprehensive, and a fairer appreciation; for myself, I have a confident +hope, grounded on the experience of years devoted to this particular branch +of art, that the principles and plans I have had the honour to propose to +the Royal Commission, for the decoration of this magnificent structure, +will be found, when complete, not to disappoint the public expectations, or +to prove wholly unworthy of the great occasion." + +In this lecture, Mr. Owen Jones asked his hearers, and the public +generally, to suspend their final judgment upon his system of colouring +until the whole should be completed, and the building filled with the +objects to be exhibited, as he considered that many of the objections which +were raised to his proposition resulted from a want of consideration of the +ultimate effect to be produced by the whole, when completed and occupied; +and so far as this effect has been realised, we believe it has inclined the +public opinion more in favour of the coloured decoration than originally, +when it was undoubtedly very strongly commented upon in various quarters. +Without venturing to express any opinion ourselves, we may trust that Mr. +Owen Jones's fondest hopes will be fully realised. + + +[Illustration: View of the Building from the North Bank of the Serpentine.] + + + + +The Water Supply. + + +The supply of water necessary both for the protection of this enormous +building from fire, and for the use of fountains and machinery to be +exhibited, is furnished at a very liberal rate by the Chelsea Waterworks' +Company. It is brought into the building by a 9-inch main pipe, at about +the centre of its length, branching out into three 6-inch pipes, which +extend throughout the whole length of the building. Short pipes branch off +from these, terminating in fire-cocks, placed at such distances that a +circle of 120-feet radius from any one of them will touch a similar circle +described round the adjacent ones; by which means the whole extent of the +building may be brought under the action of hose attached to each of the +fire-cocks. The water is supplied at a pressure equal to a column of about +seventy feet, so as to work the fountains that will be exhibited, and to +play efficiently from hose in case of any accident by fire. The quantity +which the Company have undertaken to supply is 300,000 gallons a day. + + + + +The Stability of the Building. + + +The subject of the strength and stability of the building is one on which +considerable anxiety has been felt, both by the public at large and by +those professional bodies more capable of forming a correct judgment upon +it. In the prolonged discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Wyatt's +paper at the Institution of Civil Engineers, many points of objection were +raised which seemed at first sight of a very serious nature; but, in most +cases, the answers that were given to them were perfectly satisfactory. The +two greatest difficulties raised were, firstly, the enormous surface +presented by the exterior to the pressure of the wind, with apparently but +a slight power of resistance; and, secondly, the construction of the +galleries, which, it was thought, would not be able to resist the vibratory +motion likely to be produced by great numbers of people walking upon them. +The results of several calculations were adduced on the occasion alluded to +in support of the objections on the first point; but perhaps the best +answer that could be given to them was the circumstance mentioned by Mr. +Fox--that on the 5th of that month (January) the pressure of the wind, +which blew a perfect gale, was not only much above the average, but very +nearly reached the greatest amount known within a considerable period in +London--about 25lbs. per square foot; and that as the building, although in +an incomplete state, had resisted that pressure without receiving any +injury, it was fair to conclude that, when finished, it would be able to +sustain the greatest force which the wind could be reasonably expected to +exert upon it. + +The question of the strength of the galleries was one of even greater +importance than the other, as, in case of any failure in that part of the +building, human life must almost inevitably have been sacrificed to a great +extent. It was therefore deemed necessary to ascertain, as far as was +practicable, by experiment, that their strength was abundantly sufficient; +and in Mr. Wyatt's paper, as printed, the following description of the +experiments instituted for this purpose will be found. + + + + +Testing the Galleries. + + +In the interval between the reading of this paper and its going to press a +series of experiments have been tried to ascertain the action of these +galleries under the strain of a moving load. A complete bay, twenty-four +feet square, was constructed, raised slightly from the ground, consisting +of the four cast-iron girders, with the connecting-pieces at the angles, +and on this the timbers and boards of the flooring. Rows of planks the full +width of the platform led up to it and down from it, so that a body of men +as wide as the gallery might be able to march up and down in close rank. + +"The area of the platform was first covered over with labourers packed as +closely together as possible; but no action of walking, running, or jumping +that 300 men could perform did any injury whatever to it, and the greatest +deflection of the girders did not exceed a quarter of an inch. Soldiers of +the corps of Royal Sappers and Miners were then substituted for the +contractors' men; and although the perfect regularity of their step in +marking time sharply appeared a remarkably severe test, a minute +examination of the construction after the completion of the experiments +showed that no damage whatever had been done by their evolutions. + +"But as the Commissioners were deeply impressed with the necessity of +thoroughly convincing the public, who should visit the Exhibition, that +they might feel perfectly secure in every part of the building, it was +deemed desirable to apply a still further test to the actual galleries as +they stand; as it might perhaps be said that the single bay which had been +experimented upon was not similarly circumstanced to those forming parts of +the building. + + + +[Illustration: Testing the Gallery Floor.] + +[Illustration: View of the Boiler House.] + +"For this purpose a very ingenious apparatus was devised by the late Mr. +Field, President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, for testing the +stability of the galleries _in situ_, and on being applied over the greater +part of the building not a single bolt or girder gave way under its action. +This apparatus consisted of eight square wooden frames divided into +thirty-six compartments, each just capable of containing and allowing to +rotate a 68-pounder shot. The surfaces of the balls placed in each of these +compartments came in contact with the gallery floor, the frames themselves +being attached to one another and running along the floor by means of +castors fixed at the angles; the whole apparatus being drawn along by a +number of men. Two hundred and eighty-eight 68-pound shot confined in a +limited area were thus set rolling over more than half the extent of the +galleries; when, not the slightest mishap having occurred, the experiment +was considered decisive, and a persistence in it deemed unnecessary." + +The pressure obtained in this experiment amounted to about a hundred pounds +per square foot, and it had been ascertained that the greatest pressure +caused by packing men together as closely as possible was equal to about +ninety-five pounds per square foot; so that the testing force applied was +considered amply sufficient, as a considerable portion of the surface of +the gallery will be occupied by light articles exhibited in the cases and +stalls which are placed along the centre of the gallery, where a great +weight would have most effect. + +This ingenious method of proving the strength of the galleries _in situ_, +without endangering those engaged in the experiment, is admirable; and the +result of the proof will no doubt allay all fear in the mind of the public +as to the safety of this portion of the building. + + + + +General Advantages of the Building. + + +It is always much easier to point out the defects of any work than its +excellences; whilst we may, therefore, safely leave the former, as regards +our present subject, to be discovered and enlarged upon by those who may be +perhaps more competent than ourselves, we will attempt to point out what we +conceive to be some of the advantages obtained in the present building. + +One of the principal of these, considering throughout the purpose of the +structure, is, perhaps, the uninterrupted view of the interior which the +spectator may obtain from any point of the building--a matter of great +importance to the general grandeur of its effect. From the galleries more +particularly, which will be less obstructed by large objects, the eye of +the spectator will be able to range from end to end of the vast edifice; +while the transparency of the material used for the roof allows every +object to be brilliantly illuminated. The slender lines of the supports, +though they serve to sustain a protecting covering, scarcely interrupt the +view of the objects protected, and the absence of any fixed divisions or +partitions enables all the articles exhibited to be so arranged as to suit +the peculiar requirements of each particular class; while the ample space +between the supports has admitted of the formation of large open avenues +for the free passage of visitors, who may thus reach as readily the +remotest corners of the building as those situated near the entrances; and +whenever the visitor may find himself fatigued by the labour of +sight-seeing, he will be sure to find himself near one of the numerous +exit-doors, whereby he may immediately free himself from the crowd of +spectators. + +From the simplicity of the details of the construction, and their constant +recurrence, it will be seen that so long as the ends of the building were +left incomplete, its size could easily be limited or expanded, so as to +include that precise amount of space which, up to the last moment when the +point could be kept open, appeared most likely to be required. This +simplicity of arrangement will also be found very advantageous in case the +building is removed after the termination of its present temporary purpose; +as the parts may be easily separated without much injury, and as readily +re-erected, either as a whole, or even in many separate buildings, having +the same arrangement of parts, without the same general form or appearance. + +It has been calculated that the passages remaining in the building, after +deducting the space appropriated to the objects exhibited, will hold more +than 100,000 persons; though it is not to be expected that half that number +will be collected there at one time. The ventilation and supply of fresh +air for so vast a throng was therefore a matter of the first importance; +and the means already described for accomplishing this great object are so +ample, that any inconvenience from oppressive heat or foul air can hardly +be expected. The canvass with which the roof is covered will not only serve +to modify the heat of the sun in the interior, but it is expected that if +it be watered by the hose of engines, it may even reduce the temperature +within to considerably below that of the external air. From his experience +in glass-houses for horticultural purposes, Mr. Paxton speaks confidently +on this point. + +The arrangement of the construction of the building resting on isolated +instead of continuous supports, will enable all traces of it to be readily +effaced from the site if it is removed; and, on the other hand, if it +remains, it is evidently peculiarly suited to form a vast winter-garden and +public promenade. + + + + +Conclusion. + + +Before taking leave of the reader who may have patiently followed us thus +far, a few words may be necessary on the general arrangement of the +articles to be exhibited in the building whose outline and details we have +been endeavouring to trace. The first classification is geographical. All +the western half of the building is given to England, and the eastern, +which is rather the larger of the two, to foreign countries; the space +assigned to each country being distinctly defined, so as to avoid the +possibility of any disputes. As far as it was possible, the space for each +country is so arranged as to have a frontage towards the main central +avenue, and in most cases occupies a strip the whole width of the building; +the visitor, therefore, passing up and down the length, will not miss out +any country. + +In the central avenue, and immediately on either side of it, are placed the +most remarkable specimens of objects coming under the class of fine-arts, +or otherwise sufficiently remarkable to entitle them to such a prominent +place. Behind these, in the side avenues, will be found the various +specimens of manufactured articles; and along the outside longitudinal +avenues are placed, on the south side, those belonging to the class of raw +products (a portion being devoted to agricultural implements), and the +projecting portion of the building on the north side forms the hall of +machinery, which is separated by a partition of glazed sashes from the rest +of the building. Many of the articles will be grouped in courts, an +arrangement which the construction particularly leads to; and these will +probably form some of the greatest attractions in the Exhibition, each +being, as it were, complete in itself, and the inclosures preventing the +eye from being distracted by distant objects. To enter further into the +detail of this part of the subject would be foreign to the purpose of this +work, the building itself being our text. + +We have now, we believe, completed the pleasant task we proposed to +ourselves at the outset, and we hope that in doing so we may have been able +to render interesting to our general readers this description of +operations, usually occupying the attention of the technical professions +only. With this intention, we have avoided as far as possible the use of +technical terms, which would be a dead letter to the uninitiated, at the +risk, perhaps, of being considered inaccurate by those acquainted with all +the details of the subject. + +So many men whose eminent talent is well known and appreciated by the +public have been engaged in perfecting the designs and carrying out the +erection of this vast structure, that the critic should be one of no mean +reputation who would venture to raise even a small voice of individual +criticism on its merits. We have considered it, therefore, to be our part +rather to record the opinions of others on any points where a discussion +has been raised than to trouble the reader with any personal views, which +would, perhaps, have only appeared impertinent. + +The nature and extent of the difficulties which have been successfully +surmounted in carrying out this great work can only be fully appreciated by +those intimately acquainted with all its structural details and with its +rapid progress; and its completion in so short a period must be regarded as +a striking instance of the productive power and spirit of commercial +enterprise of this country, while the fact of its being defrayed by the +voluntary contributions of the people will illustrate in an interesting +manner to our continental visitors that principle of self-government which +forms the basis of all our institutions, and the spirit of private +enterprise which characterises most of our great undertakings. + +The illustrative engravings with which we have endeavoured to render more +interesting the descriptive details, necessarily somewhat dry to the +general reader, are only intended to convey general ideas, without +attempting that minute accuracy which would be required in a more technical +work; and with reference to some of them we take this opportunity of +acknowledging the assistance our artists have derived from views already +published elsewhere, others having been exclusively drawn for the present +work. + +We have much pleasure in presenting our readers, in the Appendix, with +views and descriptions of two of the most striking designs sent in the +first competition for the building, the materials for which have been +kindly afforded us by their respective authors; and we may remind the +reader that these two designs were specially mentioned by the Building +Committee in their Report already quoted. In the same place some +interesting documents connected with the building will also be found, which +we were unable to insert in the text. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF SOUTH FRONT OF THE BUILDING.] + + + + +APPENDIX. + +LIST OF COMPETITORS FOR THE BUILDING PROPOSED TO BE ERECTED IN HYDE PARK. + + Mons. Acollas, Architecte, 33, Rue Lafayette, à Paris. + Messrs. Aickin and Capes, 1, Clarence-street, Islington. + W. Albon, Esq., 32, Abingdon-street, Westminster. + C. B. Allen, Architect, 9, Great College-street, Westminster. + F. C. Anderson, Esq., 9, Holles-street, Cavendish-square. + _Architekton_ (W. Bardwell, 4, Great Queen-street, Westminster). + Henry Ashton, Esq., 50A, Lower Brooke-street. + John S. Austin, Architect, Bedford. + William Austin, Esq., High-street, East Dereham, Norfolk. + C. Badger, Esq., Architect, 40, Rue Blanche, Paris. + R. Baly, Esq., 14, Buckingham-street, Adelphi. + Alfred Beaumont, Architect, 5, Warwick Chambers, Beak-street. + Richard Bell, Architect, Pope's Head Chambers, Cornhill. + W. Bell, Esq., Clift Cottage, Coronation-road, Bristol. + Thomas Bellamy, Esq., 8, Charlotte-street, Bedford-square. + Mons. Felix Belleflamme, Brussels. + J. S. Benest, Esq., 21, Rutland-street, Hampstead-road. + J. H. Bertram, M. Inst. C. E., Reading. + John Black, Esq., 33, Ernest-street, Regent's Park. + E. Blatchley, Esq., Jun., 362, Oxford-street. + Mons. Alphonse Botrel, Architecte, 121, Rue Poissonnière, Paris. + A. W. Boulnois, Esq., Bazaar, King-street, Baker-street. + W. Boyle, Esq., 5, Little George-street, Westminster. + R. Brandon, Architect, 11, Beaufort-buildings, Strand. + R. Broad, Esq., Horseley Works, Tipton. + B. Broadbridge, Architect, 35, Ladbroke-square, Notting-hill. + F. Brown, Esq., Francis-street, Torrington-square. + R. Brown, Esq., 41, Lord-street, Liverpool. + J. B. Bunning, Esq., Guildhall. + George A. Burn, Architect, George-place, Hammersmith. + H. P. Burt, Esq., 238, Blackfriars-road. + John G. Grace, Esq., 14, Wigmore-street. + E. I. C., Alnwick. + Mons. J. Cailloux, 25, Marché St. Honoré, Paris. + A. F. Campbell, Esq., 104, Pall Mall, Reform Club. + Henry Case, Esq., 19, Hanover Villas, Kensington Park. + James Catt, Esq., Blackheath Park. + Mons. J. Charpentier, Architecte, 15, Rue Larochefoucalt, Paris. + J. Claringbull, Esq., 95, Herbert-street, New North-road. + Mons. Henri van Cléemputte, Laon, France. + Mons. J. P. Cluysenaar, Architecte, Bruxèlles. + J. Colshurst, Esq., 36, Jermyn-street, St. James's. + John Colson, Architect, Winchester. + Mons. J. W. Conrad, Chief Engineer, La Haye, Holland. + C. E. Coote, Esq., Clifton. + W. R. Corson, Architect, 3, Albion-place, Leeds. + H. Courtney, Esq., 39, Awylne-road, Canonbury-square, Islington. + David Cowan, Esq., 9, Hungerford-street, Strand. + Mons. Crémont, 10, Place des Vosges, Paris. + W. Cruikshank, Esq., 24, Duke-street. + Mons. E. Damas de Culture, 20, Rue Mazayran, Paris. + G. J. Darley, Esq., C.E., 7, Kildare-street, Dublin. + Mons. A. Delaage, 6, Place de l'Oratoire du Louvre, Paris. + W. Dennis, Esq., Church-street, Hackney. + Charles Downes, Esq., 29, Coleshill-street, Eaton-square. + Francis Drake, Esq., 11, Calthorpe-street, Gray's-inn-road. + Henry Duesbury, Architect, Kensington Gore. + Mons. Duflocq, 96, Rue Rochechouart, Paris. + Mons. Dupuy, 9, Rue Duplessés, Versailles. + Mons. Dusillion, Architecte, Thoune Suisse, Faubourg St. Germain, Paris. + Mons. A. Durand, Moulins, France. + O. C. Edwards, Esq., Gloucester. + J. Eldudge, Esq., 16, Somerset-place, New Road, Commercial-rd. East. + J. Elliott, Architect, 28, Portland-terrace, Southampton. + M. G. Fétar van Elven, Architecte, Amsterdam. + D. Erskine, Esq., 58, Clerk-street, Edinburgh. + W. J. Everitt, Esq., 1, Garden-street, Stepney-green. + Mons. Théodore Faure, 2, Little Argyle-street, Regent-street. + Mons. F. Desaint Félix, and E. E. White, Architects, Ipswich. + Mons. Henri Fevre, Architecte, 41, Rue de Vaugirard, à Paris. + F. Finlay, Esq., 26, Duke-street, Westminster. + Charles Folkard, Esq., C.E., 56, King-street, Whitehall. + David Colin Forbes, Esq., Stirling. + James Forrest, Esq., C.E., 25, Great George-street. + W. Freebody, Esq., 9, Duke-street, Westminster. + S. C. Fripp, Architect, Bristol. + L. Fürges, Architecte, Crefeld. + C. E. G., Warwick. + A. Garrard. Esq., Surveyor. + Mons. Gaulle, 81, Rue Française, à Calais. + Arthur Gearing, Esq., 2, Ranelagh-street, Leamington Spa. + William Geggie, Esq., Knaresbro'. + J. Gibson, Esq., Great Western Railway, Paddington. + Robert Gilingham, Esq., 31, Clarence-road, Kentish Town. + Mons. Godeboeuf, Architecte, 12, Place Breda, à Paris. + C. W. Gooch, Esq., 42, Connaught-terrace, Edgeware-road. + John Gould, Esq., Tottenham Park, Wiltshire. + Richard Greene, Esq., F.S.A., Sec. to Lichfield Architectural Society. + Edmund W. Grubb, Esq., Newnham, Gloucestershire. + Robert S. Grubb, Esq., Newham-on-Severn, Gloucestershire. + T. R. Guppy, Esq., Naples. + J. C. Haddan, Esq., 29, Bloomsbury-square. + Thomas Roberts Hannaford, Architect, 21, Trigon-terrace, Kennington. + O. Hansard, Architect, 2, Kensington-gardens-terrace, Hyde Park. + Robert Hardy, Carpenter, 32, North Conduit-street, Bethnal-green. + John Thornhill Harrison, Esq., East Bolden, near Gateshead. + J. P. Harrison, Esq., 11, Chancery-lane. + Thomas Haw, Esq., 27, Prospect-terrace, Globe-road, Mile-end. + Thomas Hayes, Esq., 7, St. George's-terrace, Hyde Park. + Samuel Heilton, Esq., 54, Red Cross-street, City. + Mons. J. Henard, 98, Rue St. Lazarre, Paris. + James Hendrey, Esq., 4, Pancras-lane, Cheapside. + J. Hewitt, Esq., Oxford. + W. S. Hollands, Esq., 37, King William-street. + Mons. Hector Horeau, 70, Rue Richelieu, Paris. + George Horton, Esq., 6, Green-street, Grosvenor-square. + Albert P. Howell, Architect, 2, Holywell-street, Westminster. + Mons. C. Huchon, 28, Rue Meslay, Paris. + Benjamin Hurwitz, Esq., 1, Brydges-street, Strand. + John Imray, Esq., Engineer, 12, Howley-street, Lambeth. + A. Jackson, Esq., Barkhart House, Orpington, Kent. + Mons. Ch. Schoech Jaquet, 238, Rue de la Vertasse, Geneva. + Charles Jayne, Architect, 7, Chancery-lane. + Adam Jizkowski, Architect to the Government, Warsaw. + Joseph Jopling, Esq., Felton Villa, Finchley-road. + H. J. Kaye, Esq., 63, Sloane-street, Knightsbridge. + G. P. Kennedy and R. Kennedy, Esqrs., Sussex Chambers, Duke-street, St. + James's. + J. T. Knowles, Esq., 1, Raymond-buildings, Gray's Inn. + Herr Friedrich Krahe, Brunswick. + Louis Kûhne, Brunswick. + A Lady with great diffidence submits this plan. + M. Laves, Architect to the King of Hanover, Hanover. + Mons. A. G. Ledrut, Claremont. + S. W. Leonard, Assistant-Curator Micrological Society, 11, Upper + Stamford-street, Waterloo-road. + W. B. Lewis, Esq., Rainbow-hill, Worcester. + R. Lobb, Esq., 8, Goulden-terrace, Barnsbury-road, Islington. + Locke Brothers, New Peckham. + Henry Lockwood, F.S.A., and William Mawson, Architects, Bradford. + Henry Lote, Esq., 51, Brompton-row. + R. Lovely, Esq., C.E., 1, Victoria-terrace, Queen's-road, Nottingham. + George Mackenzie, Esq., 3, Claremont-row, Barnsbury-road, Islington. + Messrs. Magni and Thummeloup, 26, Boulevard du Temple, Paris. + R. Mallet, Esq., Victoria Foundry, Dublin. + Mansell and Elliott, Architects, Halkin-street West, Belgrave-square. + R. M. Marchant, Esq., 18, Great George-street. + P. J. Margary, Esq., Dawlish, Devonshire. + W. P. Marshall, Esq., Temple-buildings, New-street, Birmingham. + D. Mickle, Esq., 37, Queen-square, Bloomsbury. + Joseph Mitchell, Architect, St. James's-street, Sheffield. + J. Montheath, Esq., 10, Stanley-street, Paddington. + James Moon, Architect, 1, Millman-street, Bedford-row. + Captain W. S. Moorsom, 17½, Great George-street. + G. Morgan, Architect, 6, Charles-street, Westminster. + J. H. Muller, Gaes, Holland. + Charles C. Nelson, Esq., 30, Hyde-park-gardens, London. + Mons. C. Frédéric Nepveu, 13, Place d'Armes, Versailles. + W. Nethersole, Esq., C.E., 73, Oakley-square, St. Pancras. + I. W. Newberry, Esq., Hook Norton, Chipping Norton, Oxon. + Francis B. Newman, Architect, 14, Heathcote-street, Mecklenburgh-sq. + C. H. Newton, Esq., 92, Camden-road Villas, Regent's Park. + Mons. Paliard, 23, Rue d'Enghein, Paris. + E. Paraire, Architect, 16, Woodstock-street, Bond-street. + Mons. Henri le Pâtre, 47, Grande Rue de la Chapelle, St. Denis, Paris. + Thomas Peacock, Esq., High-street, Kensington. + J. D. Pemberton, Esq., Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. + G. Perry, Architect, 42, Newington-place, Kennington. + Mons. Casimir Pétiaux, Paris. + William Radley, Chemical Engineer, Regent-street, Lambeth. + W. Railton, Esq., 12, Regent-street. + W. Rankin, Esq., Stirling. + W. Reed, Esq., Cannon Cottage Hill, Southampton. + Messrs. Reid and Butcher, Architects and Surveyors, 38, Red Lion-square, + London. + Stanley Reilly, Architect, 3, Upper Kennington-green, Kennington. + George Banks Rennie, Esq., Whitehall-place. + Harry Ralph Ricardo, Esq., Beaulieu Lodge, Norwood, Surrey. + W. Riddle, Esq., East Temple Chambers, Whitefriars, Fleet-street. + H. S. Ridley, Architect, 31, Vincent-square, Westminster. + J. B. Roberts, Architect, Sleaford, Lincolnshire. + R. Roberta, Esq., Globe Works, Manchester. + Andrew John Robertson, Esq., C.E., Newcastle-upon-Tyne. + William Robertson, Esq., 12, Gordon-street, City-road. + A. Rosengarten, Architect, Hamburg. + Alex. M. Ross, Esq., 3, Parliament-street, Westminster. + Rough Draught, 42, Stainford-street. + Henry Rouse, Esq. + H. H. Russell, Esq., C.E., M.R.S.A. + W. Russell, Esq., 3, Frederick-street, Hampstead-road. + E. Ryde, Esq., 14, Upper Belgrave-place, Eaton-square. + George Sanderson, Esq., 136, Solly-street, Sheffield. + Charles Sanderson, Esq., Friar-street, Reading. + Robert Sandeman, Architect, Greenside, Edinburgh. + H. Savage, Esq., 22, Beaumont-street. Mary-le-bone. + W. Scurry, Esq., 7, Denbigh-place, Pimlico. + Sed quis custodiet Custodes. + J. P. Seddon, Esq., Gray's-inn-road. + J. R. Sewell, Esq., Carrington, near Nottingham. + Mons. A. Slater, Architecte, Elève de Mons. l'Architecte Cluysenaar. + E. Smallwood, Architect, 86, Park-street, Camden Town. + F. Smallman Smith, Esq., 18, Brunswick-st., Barnsbury-road, Islington. + C. H. Smith, Esq., 29, Clipstone-street. + J. M. Smith, Esq., 1, Chapel-place, Duke-street, Westminster. + W. J. Smith, Esq., 18, Bond-street, Commercial-road, Lambeth. + G. Campbell Smith, Esq., Banff. + Messrs. Soyer and Warrener, Reform Club. + Paul Sprenger, Esq., Architect to the Government, Vienna. + Herr Friederich Stammann, Hamburg. + Francis Sternitz, Esq., 10, Berner-street, Commercial-road East. + W. Stewart, Esq., Seacombe, Cheshire. + M. J. Stutely, Architect, 4, Doughty-street, Mecklenburgh-square. + H. Suckling, Esq., 1, Conduit-street, Regent-street. + George Tate, Esq., Bawtry, Yorkshire. + J. Taylor, Architect, 22, Parliament-street. + T. Taylor, Architect, 33, Clarendon-street, Oakley-square. + J. H. Taunton, Esq., 2, Gordon-place, Kensington. + D. W. Thomas, Esq., 20, St. Petersburg-place, Bayswater. + R. M. Thompson, Esq., 46, Leicester-square. + P. Thompson, Architect, 1, Osnaburgh-place, New-road. + F. Thompson, Esq., 15, Trafalgar-square, Peckham. + James Thrupp, Architect, 2, Park-place, Bath. + H. W. Todd and W. Allingham, 91, Newman-street, Oxford-street. + Richard Turner and Thomas Turner, Hammersmith Works, Dublin. + Henry Turner, Esq., Low Heaton, Haugh, Newcastle-on-Tyne. + F. Tyerman, Jun., Architect, 14, Parliament-street. + Mons. Véron, 2, Quai des Armes, Paris. + John Walker, Esq., Crooked-lane Chambers, King William-street. + George Wallis, Artist, and Henry Summers, Architect, 14, College-place, + Camden Town. + J. N. Warren, Esq., C.E., 18, Adam-street, Adelphi. + J. E. Watson, Esq., 74, Grey-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. + Henry Whitcombe, Esq., Slough. + George Wightwick, Architect, 3, Athenæum-terrace, Plymouth. + George Wilkie, Esq., C.E., 8, Powell-street West, King's-square. + George Wilkinson, Esq., Horsham. + S. J. Wilkinson, Esq., 7, Jeffry's-square, St. Mary Axe. + James Williams, Esq., 18, Westgate-buildings, Bath. + George Wilson, Esq., Knaresbro', Yorkshire. + Ralph Wilson, Architect, 16, Bridge-street, Westminster. + James G. Wilson, Esq., 18, Great George-street, Westminster, + Richard Winder, Esq., Fenchurch-street. + R. A. Withall, Architect, 80, Cheapside. + W. H. Wontner, Architect, St. Ann's-road, North Brixton. + Frederick Wood, Esq., 6, Franklin-road, Queen's-road, East Chelsea. + Thomas Worthington, Architect, 54, King-street, Manchester. + James Wylson, Architect, 112, Fyfe-place, Glasgow. + + + +---- + +LIST A. + +ENTITLED TO FAVOURABLE AND HONOURABLE MENTION. + + + C. B. Allen, Architect, Great College-street, Westminster. + W. Allingham (and Todd), 91, Newman-street, Oxford-street. + _Architekton_ (W. Bardwell, 4, Great Queen-street, Westminster). + H. Ashton, 50A, Lower Brooke-street. + C. Badger, Architect, Rue Blanche, Paris. + B. P. Baly (four designs). + R. Bell, Architect, Pope's Head Chambers, Cornhill. + Thomas Bellamy, Architect, Charlotte-street, Bedford-square. + J. H. Bertram, C. E., Reading. + A. Botrel, Architect, 121, Rue Poissonnière, Paris. + R. Brandon, Architect, Little Beaufort-buildings, Strand. + F. Brown, Francis-street, Torrington-square. + J. B. Bunning, Architect, Guildhall, City of London. + G. A. Burn, Architect, George-place, Hammersmith. + J. Cailloux, Architect, 25, Marché St. Honoré, Paris. + H. Case, 19, Hanover Villas, Kensington Park. + J. Charpentier, Architect, 15, Rue Larochefoucalt, Paris. + Henri Van Cléemputte, Architect, Laon, France. + J. P. Cluysenaar, Architect of King of the Belgians, Brussels. + J. W. Conrad, Chief Engineer, La Haye, Holland. + H. Courtney, Esq., 39, Alwyne-road, Canonbury-square, Islington. + Mons. Crémont, Architect, 10, Place des Vosges, Paris. + W. Cruikshank, 24, Duke-street. + A. Delaage, Architect, 6, Place de l'Oratoire du Louvre, Paris. + C. Downes, Coleshill-street, Eaton-square. + A. Durand, Moulins, France. + Mons. Dusillion, Architect, Thoune Suisse, Faubourg St. Germain, Paris. + M. G. Fétar Van Elven, Architect, Amsterdam. + H. Fevre, Architect, 41, Rue de Vaugirard, à Paris. + S. C. Fripp, Architect, Bristol. + Mons. Gaulle, 81, Rue Française, Calais. + A. Gearing, 2, Ranelagh-street, Leamington Spa. + Eugene Godeboeuf, 12, Place Breda, Paris. + J. T. Harrison, East Bolden, near Gateshead. + T. Hayes, 7, St. George's-terrace, Hyde-park. + J. Henard, Architect, 98, Rue St. Lazarre, Paris. + H. Horeau, 70, Rue Richelieu, Paris. + C. Huchon, 28, Rue Meslay, Paris. + J. Imray, C. E., Howley-street, Lambeth. + Ch. Schoech Jaquet, 238, Rue de la Vertasse, Geneva. + Louis Kûhne, Brunswick. + J. T. Knowles, Architect, 1, Raymond-buildings, Gray's Inn. + M. Laves, Architect of the King, Hanover. + A. G. Ledrut, Clermont, France. + W. B. Lewis, Rainbow-hill, Worcester. + C. C. Nelson, 30, Hyde-park-gardens, London. + C. F. Nepveu, 13, Place d'Armes, Versailles. + Mons. Paliard, Rue d'Enghein, Paris. + H. le Pâtre, Architect, 47, Grande Rue de la Chapelle, St. Denis, Paris. + Casimir Pétiaux, Paris. + H. S. Ridley, Architect, 31, Vincent-square, Westminster. + J. B. Roberts, Architect, Sleaford, Lincolnshire. + A. Rosengarten, Architect, Hamburg. + H. Rouse, Esq. + W. Russell, 3, Frederick-street, Hampstead-road. + H. Savage, 22, Beaumont-street, Marylebone. + J. P. Seddon, Esq., Gray's-inn-road. + A. Slater, Architect, Elève de Mons. Cluysenaar. + F. Smallman Smith, 18, Brunswick-street, Barnsbury-road, Islington. + C. H. Smith, Clipstone-street, London. + Paul Sprenger, Architect, Vienna. + H. Sumners, Architect, 14, College-place, Camden Town. + Richard and Thomas Turner, Hammersmith Works, Dublin. + F. Tyerman, Jun., Architect, 14, Parliament-street. + Mons. Véron, 2, Quai des Ormes, Paris. + J. Watson, 74, Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. + W. H. Wontner, Architect, St. Ann's-road, North Brixton. + T. Worthington, Architect, King-street, Manchester. + + + +---- + +LIST B. + +ENTITLED TO FURTHER HIGHER HONORARY DISTINCTION. + + + C. Badger, Architect, Rue Blanche, Paris. + Thomas Bellamy, Architect, Charlotte-street, Bedford-square. + J. H. Bertram, C. E., Reading. + A. Botrel, Architect, 121, Rue Poissonnière, Paris. + J. Cailloux, Architect, 25, Marché St. Honoré, Paris. + Henri Van Cléemputte, Architect, Laon, France. + Mons. Crémont, Architect, 10, Place des Vosges, Paris. + A. Delaage, Architect, 6, Place de l'Oratoire du Louvre, Paris. + M. G. Fétar Van Elven, Architect, Amsterdam. + J. Henard, Architect, 98, Rue St. Lazarre, Paris. + H. Horeau, 70, Rue Richelieu, Paris. + C. Huchon, 28, Rue Meslay, Paris. + A. G. Ledrut, Clermont, France. + H. le Pâtre, Architect, 4K, Grande Rue de la Chapelle, St. Denis, Paris. + Casimir Pétiaux, Paris. + Paul Sprenger, Architect, Vienna. + Richard and Thomas Turner, Hammersmith Works, Dublin. + Mons. Véron, 2, Quai des Ormes, Paris. + + +[Illustration: Mons. Hector Horeau's Design for the Building. Exterior] + +[Illustration: View of the Interior.] + + + + +TWO OF THE COMPETITION DESIGNS. + +---- + +The following descriptions and plates of two of the designs sent in +competition for the Building, and specially mentioned by the Committee in +their Report, are given from information obligingly furnished to us by +their respective authors. + + +DESIGN BY M. HECTOR HOREAU, ARCHITECT, OF PARIS. + + This was one of the most striking of all that were submitted to the + Commission; it formed one immense hall, or shed, more than 2000 feet + long, by about 270 feet wide throughout, with several small detached + buildings on the north side, for refreshments, &c. + + The interior of the main building was divided into five avenues, the + centre one about ninety feet wide, those next adjoining rather more than + fifty feet, and the outside ones about forty feet wide. Iron columns, + about twenty-three feet apart, formed these avenues and supported arched + ribs for the roof. One end of the building was semicircular, the other + forming an ornamental façade, and about the centre of the length a + transept was formed. + + M. Horeau says: "Simplicity, grandeur, ready means of construction, and + of increasing or diminishing the accommodation, and of removal if + required, forming altogether a specimen of the most recent improvements + introduced into the art of building--these are the principal objects + which it has been sought to attain. The whole of the construction is of + iron, without a single piece of wood, the foundation being executed in + brick; the façade to be in metal, porcelain, and glass, the floor of + asphalte, the roof to be principally covered with ornamental thick glass, + in large dimensions, or ground glass with patterns. + + "Of the trusses or arched ribs supporting the roof there were to be but + three varieties, each in three pieces, with which the whole of the + building could be erected. This subdivision of the roof-trusses would + have facilitated the conversion of the building for other purposes; for, + taken singly, or in various combinations, they would have formed many + kinds of buildings for ordinary purposes. The attached buildings placed + on the north side would have shown several modes of effecting this. The + ornamental spandrils of the roof-trusses would be formed in stamped-work + out of copper, and gilt. + + "The façade shows at a glance the purpose of the building, as well as its + interior disposition, in which the different widths of avenues would + afford space for objects of all varieties of dimensions. The façade + itself was to be formed with tracery or trellis-work of cast-iron, the + lower part being covered with sheet-iron; the cornice and ornamental + panels of porcelain; the medallions in coloured stone-ware; the doors and + inclosures of metal, silvered and gilt; the ornamental details to be + either cast or stamped; the scrolls in the panels being in coloured glass + or mosaic. + + "The pediment is crowned with a group of figures representing the Genius + of Industry crowning the Arts and Sciences; in the cornice are placed the + names of all the principal cities of the world, and the names of eminent + men in panels. In the medallions are represented allegorical figures of + the different branches of science and industry. At the angles of the + building are placed trophies, the base of which would serve as + guard-houses." + + The engravings will serve to show the general effect of this design in + its interior and exterior. + +---- + +DESIGN BY MESSRS. R. AND T. TURNER, OF DUBLIN. + + In this design also the interior was arranged as one uninterrupted space, + about 1,940 feet long, and 408 wide, the roof in one span rising about + 120 feet above the floor; the supports, consisting of semicircular ribs, + forming the interior into three avenues, the centre one 200 feet wide and + the full height, the side ones 104 feet wide and about sixty feet high. + In the centre of the length a transept was proposed, and the square area + at the meeting of that with the central avenue was to be covered with a + glass dome. + + The ends of the building, as well as those of the transept, were to be + filled in with tracery in the upper part, a colonnade below protecting + the entrances. Galleries, if necessary, were to be placed in the side + avenues. The construction of this building was proposed to be principally + of wrought iron, which would have given to the circular ribs and other + parts a great lightness of effect; but, on the other hand, the + difficulties of producing and putting together such an enormous amount of + wrought-iron work in so short a space of time as that required was + considered an almost insuperable objection to the design. Large portions + of the roof were to be covered with glass, so as to admit an abundance of + light into the interior. + + The accompanying views of the exterior and interior of this design, from + the simplicity of the arrangement, consisting of a repetition of similar + parts, require but little description for their elucidation. + + +[Illustration: Messrs. R and T. Turner's Design. View of Exterior from one +end.] + + +[Illustration: Messrs. R. and T. Turner's Design. Transverse Section, and +View of the Interior.] + + + + +MEMORANDUM ON THE SITE. + + +_Return to an Order of the Honourable the House of Commons, dated 1st July, +1850; for_ + +COPY of a LETTER addressed by the Commissioners of the EXHIBITION of 1851 +to the Lords of the Treasury, inclosing Memorandum as to the Site of the +Exhibition Building in Hyde Park. + +---- + + + +SIR,--I am directed by her Majesty's Commissioners for the Exhibition of +1851 to transmit to you herewith, for the information of the Lords +Commissioners of her Majesty's Treasury, a memorandum of the grounds on +which the present site has been selected for the Exhibition, and of the +proceedings that have been taken in consequence of that selection.--I have, +&c. + + + + The Right Honourable W. G. Hayter, M.P., &c. &c. &c. + +---- + +Memorandum of the grounds on which the site has been selected for the +Exhibition of 1851, and of the proceedings which have been taken in +consequence of that selection, prepared for the information of the Lords of +the Treasury by the Royal Commissioners for promoting the Exhibition. + + 1. It is within the knowledge of the Lords of the Treasury, that from + the time of the earliest announcement of the proposed Exhibition it has + always been intended that it should take place in the Metropolis. Not + only was such an intention matter of notoriety at the time that the + question of issuing a Royal Commission was under consideration, but the + Commission itself, when issued formally recited that it was proposed "To + establish an Enlarged Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, + to be holden in London, in the year 1851;" and it was to further the + holding of such an exhibition that the present Commissioners were + specially appointed. + + 2. Considering the importance of the undertaking, and the circumstances + attending its promulgation, the selection of the Metropolis as its + intended locality appears to have been both natural and proper. It will + be borne in mind that the exhibitions which have from time to time been + held in foreign countries have generally, and, as the Commissioners + believe, invariably, been held in the capitals of the respective + countries. In the present case it was peculiarly important that an + undertaking which required the constant superintendence of a body of + Commissioners, whose occupations for the most part confine them to + London, should be carried on within their immediate cognisance, and not + removed to a distant situation. + + 3. It being thus distinctly evident that the Exhibition ought to take + place in London, it is further obvious that the actual site which may be + selected for it should be within the precincts of, or in the closest + vicinity to, the most central and accessible parts of the Metropolis + itself. It need hardly be pointed out that it would be objectionable to + impose upon persons who may have come to London from a great distance the + necessity of an additional journey to visit the Exhibition; a + consideration which has already been urged upon the Commissioners by the + representatives of several of the most important provincial towns, who + are apprehensive of the inconvenience to which artizans in particular + might thus be subjected. Moreover, the removal of the Exhibition to any + distance sufficient to diminish the number of visitors would not only + militate against its essential character of general accessibility, but + might most seriously affect the receipts upon which its self-supporting + character must depend, a point upon which it appears that much stress has + been laid. + + 4. Although Hyde Park, and even the particular space now in question, + had been already mentioned before the issue of the Commission, and indeed + so far back as October, 1849, as a probable site for the Exhibition, it + is unnecessary to assure the Lords of the Treasury that the Commissioners + approached the question of the site after their appointment without + having in any degree prejudged the merits of particular localities. On + the 14th of February, their attention having been directed to the + importance of determining the site by the Committee then recently + appointed for all matters relating to the building, they deputed two + Commissioners, namely, Lord Granville and Mr. Labouchere, to wait upon + the Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and to confer with him upon + the subject. The result of this conference is set forth in the Report + presented by the Building Committee at the next meeting of the + Commissioners (Feb. 21), of which the following is the portion which + relates to the question of the site:-- + + "With respect to the site, it has appeared to your Committee that, + firstly, the north-eastern portion of Hyde Park; secondly, the long space + between her Majesty's private road and the Kensington-road, in the + southern part of Hyde Park; and, thirdly, the north-western portion of + Regent's Park, are the only available spaces about the Metropolis which + would afford the necessary accommodation; and it is believed that the + order in which they have been named represents also their relative + eligibility. As regards the first, the Committee are informed by the + Chief Commissioner of her Majesty's Woods and Forests, that considerable + objections would arise to its occupation for such a purpose, and that no + such objections would be raised to the use of the second; the Committee, + therefore, recommend the adoption of this site, which, amongst other + advantages, is remarkable for the facility of access afforded by the + existing roads. Upon this occasion a letter was received from the + Westminster Committee, stating that the local Commissioners for + Westminster had visited the site in Hyde Park, and a site suggested in + the Regent's Park, and that they were of opinion that the site in Hyde + Park was the preferable one." + + The recommendation of the Building Committee having been agreed to, a + form of advertisement, requesting plans and suggestions for the building, + was, at the next meeting (28th February), submitted for approbation, and + was ordered to be immediately issued in the English, French, and, German + languages. To this advertisement was appended a ground-plan of the site + in Hyde Park for the guidance of those to whom the advertisement was + addressed. The details of this plan were discussed in the presence of the + Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, and were settled in conformity + with his lordship's wishes. + + 5. In consequence of the advertisement thus issued, no less than 248 + plans and suggestions, many of them the productions of foreign artists, + were sent in to the Commissioners. A large number of these were of a very + elaborate character, and bore evident marks of considerable application + and ability. + + 6. Soon after the site had been selected, some other important + arrangements having also by this time been made, the Commissioners + prepared and published a statement (21 February) explanatory of the + nature and objects of the Exhibition, which was widely circulated in this + country, was forwarded to our consuls abroad and to the foreign consuls + in England, and was officially transmitted by the Secretary of State to + all Foreign Governments, and to all the Governors of the British + Colonies, as well as to India. In this statement it was announced that + "Her Majesty had been graciously pleased to grant a site for the purpose + (of the Exhibition) on the south side of Hyde Park, lying between the + Kensington Drive and the ride commonly called Rotten Row." + + 7. The site having been thus deliberately chosen and formally announced, + all subsequent proceedings connected with the building have been taken + with direct reference to it. The plans have been prepared with a view to + its peculiarities, and the form of the building and its internal as well + as its external arrangements have been determined by them. The amount of + space available for the display of articles has been calculated upon the + data afforded by the site, and from a calculation of this amount the + Commissioners have been able to assign to each foreign country a definite + space for the arrangement of its own productions. All the necessary + working-drawings and specifications have been prepared with very great + labour and at considerable expense, and have now been issued in a form + which will insure to the Commissioners the certainty of obtaining, within + a few days, _bonâ fide_ tenders for the execution of a design presenting + every facility for construction within the time prescribed. The + mechanical difficulties have been surmounted, and all the preliminary + arrangements, even to the extent of provision for an effective drainage + and a sufficient water supply, have been entered into. The whole of these + preparations have reference to this particular site only, and are + inapplicable or unsuitable to any other. + + 8. From what has been already stated, it will be seen that the present + site was not selected without consideration, and that the proceedings + which have been taken with respect to it were not commenced until the + Commissioners had good ground for believing that there would be no + objection to its occupation. The attention, however, which has lately + been directed to the point, has caused them anxiously to reconsider the + whole subject, and renders it now necessary for them to enter into + somewhat more of detail as to the grounds upon which they have come to + the conclusion which they have formed, that this is the only site in or + about the Metropolis which is at once suitable and practically available + for the purposes of the Exhibition. + + 9. Of the other sites which have been suggested, the following are the + only ones deserving of particular consideration:-- + + (_a_) The North-eastern portion of Hyde Park. + (_b_) The North-western portion of Regent's Park. + (_c_) Battersea Park. + (_d_) Victoria Park. + (_e_) Wormwood Scrubbs. + + 10. The north-eastern portion of Hyde Park would, in the opinion of many + members of the Building Committee, be a very eligible situation; but, as + has been already mentioned, an objection was taken to this locality on + the part of the Commissioners of Woods and Forests, on the ground that + the building would interfere with some important thoroughfares in that + part of the park, and on account of other considerations of public + importance; and the idea was abandoned in consequence. + + 11. The site suggested in the Regent's Park has been found, since it was + visited by the Building Committee, not to be available, as the leases + under which the houses in the neighbourhood are held contain a clear and + stringent provision that no new building of any kind shall be erected + within the limits of the park. + + 12. With regard to the ground in the neighbourhood of Battersea proposed + to be purchased by the Government, and to be converted into a park to be + called Battersea Park, the Lords of the Treasury are of course aware that + only a small proportion of the whole area has as yet been purchased; and + the Commissioners found on inquiry that this proportion consists of + numerous small detached pieces, utterly insufficient to accommodate a + building of the contemplated size, and separated from each other by + intervening plots of ground, many of them in a state of high cultivation, + and belonging to a great number of different proprietors, with whom it + would be absolutely impossible to effect arrangements within any time + which would afford the slightest chance of the Commissioners being put in + possession of a site in time to complete their building by the spring of + next year. It should be added that the site of this district is very low, + a great portion of it being some feet under high-water mark, and that the + nature of the soil presents serious objections to its use as a + building-ground. + + 13. Victoria Park is situated in an inconvenient and not very accessible + part of the town. It would, moreover, be impossible to erect in it a + building of the required size without most seriously interfering with the + plantations and ornamental water which have been recently laid out there; + thus inflicting on the classes for whose recreation that park has been + opened an inconvenience infinitely more serious than could be caused to + the frequenters of the very much larger area of Hyde Park by the proposed + occupation of a comparatively small portion of it. + + 14. Lastly, as regards Wormwood Scrubbs, besides that the distance is a + very serious objection, the rights of the commoners in that locality + would prevent its appropriation; and the Commissioners are advised that + it would be impossible to erect the building there without risk, as any + single commoner would have it in his power to interrupt the proceedings, + and to cause them to be discontinued at any stage of the work, however + advanced. Similar objections apply to Wandsworth and some other commons + in the neighbourhood of London, which have been occasionally mentioned as + possible sites. + + 14_a_. As regards Primrose Hill and the Isle of Dogs, the want of level + space on the former, and the objectionable situation and dampness of the + latter, render them so obviously unsuitable as to make any particular + observations unnecessary. + + 15. But even could the objections to any of these sites be removed, or + could another and an unobjectionable site be pointed out, the + Commissioners feel hound to state, from their experience of the time, + thought, and labour necessarily consumed in the investigation, + arrangement, and preparation of the great mass of detail requisite to + enable them to carry out this extensive work, that they are fully + convinced of the impossibility of now adapting their plans to any other + site, with any reasonable prospect of being able to complete the work + within the time to which they stand pledged in the face of the world; and + they could only regard a change of site, particularly if it should + involve a change of plan, as tantamount to the postponement of the + Exhibition till another year. And the Commissioners cannot shut their + eyes to the fact, that a postponement of the Exhibition would, under the + circumstances, certainly lead to its entire abandonment. + + 16. In order to give the Lords of the Treasury some idea of the + consequences of an abandonment of this scheme, the Commissioners would in + the first place direct their attention to the large amount of money + already subscribed towards its completion (which is at present nearly + 64,000_l_.), to the number of local committees (now about 240) which have + been called into existence throughout the country, to the funds now being + raised by subscriptions out of their wages among the working-classes in + all parts of the country towards enabling them to visit an Exhibition to + which they are anxiously looking forward, and the abandonment of which + would be a great disappointment to numbers, and still more to the + extensive preparations which are now making for the supply of articles + for exhibition. It is within the knowledge of the Commissioners that + several individuals in this country have incurred several thousand + pounds' expense in such preparations, besides the anxiety which they have + occasioned. + + 17. But the evils which would result from postponement, so far as this + country is concerned, are as nothing when compared with those which would + arise in the case of foreign nations and the colonies. The plan of the + Exhibition has been widely circulated for several months, and the + following States have already signified, through their respective + Governments, that they have appointed Committees or Commissioners, + consisting of the most distinguished individuals in those countries, to + co-operate with the Royal Commissioners in this country:-- + + Russia, + Sweden, + Norway, + Denmark, + Prussia, + Saxony, + Austria, + Bavaria, + Hanover, + Oldenburg, + Mecklenburg, + Hanse Towns, + France, + Holland, + Belgium, + Spain, + The United States, + Turkey, + Sardinia, + Venezuela, + Switzerland, + Nassau, + Anhalt, Dessau, &c. + + Besides which it may be mentioned that special Commissioners have been + sent to this country by France, Russia, and one or two other States; and + that in most cases the Governments have undertaken the collection and the + transmission to this country, at their own expense, of the articles + intended for exhibition, for which, of course, their preparations are now + made. + + 18. In all the countries which have been mentioned active preparations + for the Exhibition are now going on, and in some considerable expense is + known to have been incurred. The Russian Government has announced that + the goods intended for exhibition will be shipped from that country in + the autumn of this year, and questions pointing to a similar arrangement + have recently been put by the Government of Denmark. The Austrian + Government have given notice, that the Great Exhibition which was to have + been held at Vienna in the year 1851 has been postponed till the year + 1852, in order not to clash with the Exhibition in London. All these + circumstances tend to show that the postponement of the Exhibition would + be seriously inconvenient to many countries, and would probably occasion + considerable and natural irritation at what would appear like national + vacillation, besides the certainty of rendering these countries unwilling + to run the risk of a second disappointment, and of deterring them from + continuing their preparations for a later period. + + 19. These inconveniences would be felt also by the British Colonies. + Committees have been announced as formed in Malta, Ceylon, Nova Scotia, + Barbadoes, Guiana, and several of the West India Islands, and it is + probable that others have been appointed elsewhere. In India most + extensive preparations are being made, and the East India Company have + incurred very great expense by their exertions to contribute to the + Exhibition. + + 20. After what has been said, it is unnecessary that the Commissioners + should enlarge any further upon the consequences to be apprehended from + the postponement which would be occasioned by an alteration of the site + of building. They will proceed to offer a few remarks upon some of the + objections which have been taken to that at present proposed. + + 21. An idea appears to prevail in some quarters that the occupation of + the Park is intended to be of a permanent, and not, as has been + repeatedly announced, of a merely temporary character, and the + Commissioners are given to understand that by proposing to construct a + building into which a good deal of brickwork is to enter, they have shown + an intention at variance with their professions. Upon this point they + have to remark, in the first place, that, although the eminent architects + and engineers whom they have consulted, and to whom they have uniformly + given instructions to prepare plans suitable to a temporary structure, + have agreed to recommend the use of brick and other durable materials, + they have left it perfectly open to contractors to send in their tenders + for the execution of the work in any material or materials whatsoever, + and have notified their readiness to entertain such tenders, on the + single condition of their being "accompanied by working-drawings and + specifications, and fully priced bills of quantities." It is probable + that some such tenders will be made, and if made they will be impartially + considered; but the Commissioners must protest against the supposition + that it is necessarily more judicious to construct a temporary building + of perishable than of enduring materials. The first requisite of the + building is, that it should be suitable for its purpose, capable of + protecting the valuable goods deposited in it from injury of every + kind--as, for instance, from the weather, from the effects of the + dampness of the soil, from the danger of fire, and so forth, and that it + should be strong enough to avert all risk of accidental damage. Its next + requisite is, that it should be economical, and in estimating its cost + regard must be had not only to the expense of erection, but to the + facility of removal and the value of the materials when removed, as a + building may easily be conceived to be cheaper which should cost + 100,000_l._ to erect, but of which the materials could afterwards be sold + for 50,000_l._, than another would be which cost but 80,000_l._ in the + first instance, but of which the materials should become so far + deteriorated as to produce only 20,000_l._ when taken down. It is the + opinion of those who have devised the plans in the present case, that a + building constructed of durable materials will in the end be cheaper than + one constructed of such as are more perishable; particularly as a + considerable portion of the building, namely, the iron roofing, will be + of a kind which is generally used in the construction of + railway-stations, and will probably be disposed of for that purpose after + the close of the Exhibition, as its temporary application to the purposes + of the Exhibition will be of no detriment to its being so. An opportunity + of testing the correctness of this opinion will be given when the tenders + are received, as, in addition to the customary form, it has been required + that they should also be sent upon the understanding that the materials + shall remain the property of the contractor, and shall in fact only be + hired for the purposes of the Exhibition. The third requisite of the + building is, that it should be at least seemly, though it may not be + necessary that it should be highly ornamental. The Commissioners trust + that it will fulfil this condition, while they would at the same time + point out that no expense is to be incurred for merely ornamental + purposes, unless it should be thought desirable to select a dome for + covering in the large space which must necessarily be left in the centre + of the building to suit the internal arrangements. A cheaper mode of + covering in this space will probably be resorted to, and the + Commissioners have directed that a special estimate of the cost of the + dome should be laid before them when the tenders are complete, in order + that they may judge of the propriety of sanctioning its erection. + + Having offered this short explanation, they can only repeat once more the + assurances they have already given, that the building is not intended to + be permanent, and that it will be entirely removed, in accordance with + the conditions prescribed by the Lords of the Treasury on yielding up the + site, within seven months after the closing of the Exhibition, which + cannot be deferred after the 1st of November, and will probably take + place at an earlier period in the autumn of next year. + + 22. Another ground of apprehension is stated to be, lest the Park should + be injured by the erection of the building, and the injury should + continue after the structure is removed. This apprehension is, however, + groundless; a small clump of ten trees has been allowed to be removed, in + compensation for which, it is proposed by the Commissioners of Woods and + Forests to plant another clump elsewhere. It is not intended to cut down + any more than that clump. As regards the surface of the ground to be + occupied, it will not only not be injured, but will ultimately be + materially improved by being drained and freshly sown with grass seed. It + will be a strict condition with the contractors for the building that + they shall, on its removal, restore the ground to its present condition. + + 23. Some dissatisfaction has been expressed at the prospect of a furnace + being erected to heat the boiler and drive the steam-apparatus. It is + however, intended to construct such furnace on the principle of consuming + its own smoke, or to burn coke instead of coal, should that, upon the + whole, appear the best mode of preventing annoyance. Care will also be + taken not to erect any chimney of an unsightly character. + + 24. As regards the amount of traffic which will be occasioned by the + transport of materials and goods to the site, the Commissioners have been + furnished by the Building Committee with an approximate estimate that it + will not in the whole exceed the ordinary amount of three weeks' general + traffic of a single railway-station, and as this traffic will be spread + over a period of more than six months, it is manifest that its amount has + been enormously exaggerated by public estimation. + + 25. The Queen's Ride, though in the immediate vicinity of the site, will + not be in any degree interfered with, except that it may be advisable to + rail off a strip not exceeding ten feet, or one-sixth of the whole in + width, for foot-passengers, in order to prevent the inconvenience of + crowding the space open to riding parties. By this arrangement the riders + will be secured from annoyance. + + 25 _a._ It has been said that the effect of the erection of the building + will be to drive the inhabitants of London out of their Parks. The + Commissioners think it right to draw the attention of the Lords of the + Treasury to the following statistics:-- + + The area of Hyde Park is 387 acres. + " Kensington Gardens 290 " + " Regent's Park 403 " + " St. James's Park 83 " + " Green Park 71 " + " Victoria Park 160 " + " Greenwich Park 174 " + + making a total of 1,568 acres, while only twenty acres are proposed to be + taken or the purposes of this Exhibition. + + 26. In conclusion, the Commissioners think it desirable to call + attention to the fact, that the three last Exhibitions of this nature + which have taken place in Paris have been held on a site (the Champs + Elysées) very closely corresponding to our own Hyde Park in many + respects, and particularly resembling it in being the most fashionable + and the most frequented promenade in Paris--more frequented, indeed, than + the particular spot selected on the present occasion has ever been, or is + likely to be; and yet it does not appear that the Parisians have had + occasion to complain of those annoyances which are now apprehended by + some persons in this country. And the Commissioners are informed, that + the Exhibition in Vienna was held in the Prado, the principal public + place in that city; and that the Exhibition in Berlin was held in the + Thiergarten, which is not only the principal public place within the + city, but is remarkable as being the only open Park of any sort within + several miles. + + 27. In the foregoing observations the Commissioners have thought it + right to confine themselves strictly to a discussion of the practical + difficulties which would attend a change of site. They cannot, however, + but express their decided opinion, that the renouncement of the selection + of the most beautiful park in London for the scene of the Exhibition may + be looked upon as indicating a diminution of interest in the undertaking, + and would materially detract from that appearance of hospitality on the + part of England which has been one great cause for the very favourable + reception which this proposal has everywhere secured. + + They must add, that the possibility that the bringing the Exhibition into + Hyde Park should be considered as an interference with the enjoyment of + that Park by the public has never entered their minds. They have, on the + contrary, always intended it as a means of recreative and intellectual + enjoyment for the greatest portion of her Majesty's subjects: and they + have hitherto had reason to believe that it has been so regarded by the + country in general. + +---- + + +REPORT OF THE ROYAL COMMISSIONERS, + +PRESENTED TO HER MAJESTY ON THE OPENING OF THE BUILDING. + +The following Report, together with her Majesty's Answer, on the occasion +of the inauguration of the building, cannot fail to be interesting as a +brief record of the proceedings connected with this noble undertaking up to +that period:-- + + "May it please your Majesty,--We, the Commissioners appointed by your + Majesty's royal warrant of the 3rd of January, 1850, for the promotion of + the Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, and subsequently + incorporated by your Majesty's Royal Charter of the 15th of August in the + same year, humbly beg leave, on the occasion of your Majesty's auspicious + visit at the opening of the Exhibition, to lay before you a brief + statement of our proceedings to the present time. + + "By virtue of the authority graciously committed to us by your Majesty, + we have made diligent inquiry into the matters which your Majesty was + pleased to refer to us, namely, into the best mode of introducing the + productions of your Majesty's colonies and of foreign countries into this + kingdom, the selection of the most suitable site for the Exhibition, the + general conduct of the undertaking, and the proper method of determining + the nature of the prizes and of securing the most impartial distribution + of them. + + "In the prosecution of these inquiries, and in the discharge of the + duties assigned to us by your Majesty's Royal Charter of Incorporation, + we have held constant meetings of our whole body, and have, moreover, + referred numerous questions connected with a great variety of subjects to + committees, composed partly of our own members and partly of individuals + distinguished in the several departments of science and the arts, who + have cordially responded to our applications for their assistance at a + great sacrifice of their valuable time. + + "Among the earliest questions brought before us was the important one as + to the terms upon which articles offered for exhibition should be + admitted into the building. We considered that it was a main + characteristic of the national undertaking in which we were engaged that + it should depend wholly upon the voluntary contributions of the people of + this country for its success; and we therefore decided, without + hesitation, that no charge whatever should be made on the admission of + such goods. We considered, also, that the office of selecting the + articles to be sent should be intrusted in the first instance to local + committees, to be established in every foreign country, and in various + districts of your Majesty's dominions; a general power of control being + reserved to the Commission. + + "We have now the gratification of stating that our anticipations of + support in this course have in all respects been fully realised. Your + Majesty's most gracious donation to the funds of the Exhibition was the + signal for voluntary contributions from all, even the humblest, classes + of your subjects, and the funds which have thus been placed at our + disposal amount at present to about 65,000_l._ Local committees, from + which we have uniformly received the most zealous co-operation, were + formed in all parts of the United Kingdom, in many of your Majesty's + colonies, and in the territories of the Hon. East India Company. The most + energetic support has also been received from the Governments of nearly + all the countries of the world, in most of which Commissions have been + appointed for the special purpose of promoting the objects of an + Exhibition justly characterised in your Majesty's royal warrant as an + Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations. + + "We have also to acknowledge the great readiness with which persons of + all classes have come forward as exhibitors. And here again it becomes + our duty to return our humble thanks to your Majesty for the most + gracious manner in which your Majesty has condescended to associate + yourself with your subjects by yourself contributing some most valuable + and interesting articles to the Exhibition. + + "The number of exhibitors whose productions it has been found possible to + accommodate is about 15,000, of whom nearly one-half are British. The + remainder represent the productions of more than forty foreign countries, + comprising almost the whole of the civilised nations of the globe. In + arranging the space to be allotted to each, we have taken into + consideration both the nature of its productions and the facilities of + access to this country afforded by its geographical position. Your + Majesty will find the productions of your Majesty's dominions arranged in + the western portion of the building, and those of foreign countries in + the eastern. The Exhibition is divided into the four great classes of--1, + Raw Materials; 2, Machinery; 3, Manufactures; and 4, Sculpture and the + Fine Arts. A further division has been made according to the geographical + position of the countries represented; those which lie within the warmer + latitudes being placed near the centre of the building, and the colder + countries at the extremities. + + "Your Majesty having been graciously pleased to grant a site in this your + royal Park for the purposes of the Exhibition, the first column of the + structure now honoured by your Majesty's presence was fixed on the 26th + of September last. Within the short period, therefore, of seven months, + owing to the energy of the contractors and the active industry of the + workmen employed by them, a building has been erected, entirely novel in + its construction, covering a space of more than eighteen acres, measuring + 1,851 feet in length, and 456 feet in extreme breadth, capable of + containing 40,000 visitors, and affording a frontage for the exhibition + of goods to the extent of more than ten miles. For the original + suggestion of the principle of this structure the Commissioners are + indebted to Mr. Joseph Paxton, to whom they feel their acknowledgments to + be justly due for this interesting feature of their undertaking. + + "With regard to the distribution of rewards to deserving exhibitors, we + have decided that they should be given in the form of medals, not with + reference to merely individual competition, but as rewards for excellence + in whatever shape it may present itself. The selection of the persons to + be so rewarded has been intrusted to juries equally composed of British + subjects and of foreigners, the former having been selected by the + Commission from the recommendations made by the local committees, and the + latter by the Governments of the foreign nations the productions of which + are exhibited. The names of these jurors, comprising, as they do, many of + European celebrity, afford the best guarantee of the impartiality with + which the rewards will be assigned. + + "It affords much gratification that, notwithstanding the magnitude of + this undertaking, and the great distances from which many of the articles + now exhibited have had to be collected, the day on which your Majesty has + been graciously pleased to be present at the inauguration of the + Exhibition is the same day that was originally named for its opening, + thus affording a proof of what may, under God's blessing, be accomplished + by goodwill and cordial co-operation among nations, aided by the means + that modern science has placed at our command. + + "Having thus briefly laid before your Majesty the results of our labours, + it now only remains for us to convey to your Majesty our dutiful and + loyal acknowledgments of the support and encouragement which we have + derived throughout this extensive and laborious task from the gracious + favour and countenance of your Majesty. It is our heartfelt prayer that + this undertaking, which has for its end the promotion of all branches of + human industry and the strengthening of the bonds of peace and friendship + among all nations of the earth, may, by the blessing of Divine + Providence, conduce to the welfare of your Majesty's people, and be long + remembered among the brightest circumstances of your Majesty's peaceful + and happy reign." + +Her Majesty returned the following gracious answer:-- + + "I receive with the greatest satisfaction the address which you have + presented to me on the opening of this Exhibition. + + "I have observed with a warm and increasing interest the progress of your + proceedings in the execution of the duties intrusted to you by the Royal + Commission, and it affords me sincere gratification to witness the + successful result of your judicious and unremitting exertions in the + splendid spectacle by which I am this day surrounded. + + "I cordially concur with you in the prayer, that by God's blessing this + undertaking may conduce to the welfare of my people and to the common + interest of the human race, by encouraging the arts of peace and + industry, strengthening the bonds of union among the nations of the + earth, and promoting a friendly and honourable rivalry in the useful + exercise of those faculties which have been conferred by a beneficent + Providence for the good and the happiness of mankind." + + +THE END. + + +SALISBURY, PRINTER, PRIMROSE-HILL, SALISBURY-SQUARE, FLEET-STREET. + +* * * * * * + + +THE FOLLOWING INTERESTING AND IMPORTANT + +NEW BOOKS AND MAPS + +ARE PUBLISHED BY + +JAMES GILBERT, 49, PATERNOSTER-ROW, LONDON, + +Wholesale and Retail Bookseller, Publisher, and Newsvendor. + + +* * * * * * + + +NOW READY, in 200 pages, demy 18mo, with Illustrations, price, in fancy +binding, only 1s. 6d., or post free, 2s., the SECOND EDITION, + +DEDICATED TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT, + +GILBERT'S + +POPULAR NARRATIVE OF THE ORIGIN, HISTORY, PROGRESS, & PROSPECTS + +OF THE + +GREAT INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, + +1851: + +With a Guide to the future Rules and Arrangements. + +BY PETER BERLYN, ESQ. + + +---- + + + +OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. + + ATHENÆUM. + + "A well-written volume. A useful record of the history and progressive + development of the marking incident of our age and nation. Mr. Berlyn + was, we believe, officially employed by the Executive Committee in the + earlier stages of their labours; his statements, therefore, are on good + authority and may be relied on. The narrative is sufficiently full in its + details for the general public now and hereafter." + + + EXAMINER. + + "This is a clever book, full of timely and interesting matter, and with + sufficient merit as a record of the origin and history of the Great + Exhibition to outlive the mere curiosity of the hour. Mr. Berlyn has had + official opportunities of becoming well acquainted with the subject, and + has not neglected them. He puts his materials together with spirit and + intelligence, and indulges a hopeful strain of anticipation and prophecy + very properly befitting his theme." + + + LITERARY GAZETTE. + + "Within a small compass we have here gathered together all that is + interesting in connexion with the great undertaking of the present + year--an undertaking which must form a most important chapter in the + world's history. We are bound to say that the work has been judiciously + done, and the result is a very satisfactory review of all that has been + effected in the way of Industrial Exhibitions up to the present time." + + + MORNING CHRONICLE. + + "GILBERT'S POPULAR NARRATIVE OF THE EXHIBITION.--With this title a small + work has just been published, written by Mr. Peter Berlyn, from authentic + and official sources, tracing the origin, history, and progress, and + pointing to the prospects, of the Great Exhibition. The author has + carefully avoided all speculation and gossip on the subject, and has + applied himself with very considerable ability to the statement and + elucidation of all those facts, derived from authentic records, which + bear upon the progress of this most important national movement. Many + interesting facts are stated in connexion with the previous expositions + which have taken place on the Continent and in this country, and the + difficulties with which, upon its first announcement, the present + undertaking had to contend, and the means by which the Executive were + enabled to overcome them, are clearly and consecutively stated. The work + also contains some valuable statistical and other information connected + with the building, and copies of the most recent of the regulations + issued by the Executive. We would cordially recommend this very + interesting work." + + + EXPOSITOR. + + "The volume before us has fair claim to its title of a Narrative of the + Exhibition. It commences with an account of such British and foreign + exhibitions as may be supposed to have led to the idea of the great + international show of industry to be held in the present year. The work + also contains a complete account of how the world's industrial products + have come to be housed in the present building; gives all the rules and + orders of the Commissioners and Executive Committee; special instructions + to colonial and foreign exhibitors and Custom-house authorities; names of + authorised agents for foreign countries; Custom-house agents recommended + by the Royal Commissioners; and such other information as renders it a + really useful volume of practical information to all exhibitors and + visitors at the Exhibition." + + + SUN. + + "Within the compass of an elegant pocket-volume the author of the present + narrative has contrived to furnish his readers with a very copious + history of the origin, progress, and prospects of the Great Exhibition. + Throughout the work he has written with an especial regard at once to + simplicity and perspicuity, so that we rest satisfied his labours will + prove eminently successful, the book being incontestibly _the_ narrative + of the Great Industrial Exposition. Beginning with all the preliminary + particulars, which are absolutely essential for the comprehension of the + entire scheme of the Prince Consort, the narrative describes very lucidly + the growth of the first crude idea to its present gigantic dimensions. + The share taken in the project by the Society of Arts is duly celebrated, + and the influence of the successive expositions of French industry + especially notified. The volume is altogether a very clever and most + complete work." + + + WEEKLY DISPATCH. + + "Works upon the above subject will become highly popular from the very + necessity of the case; and consequently that which the public must + chiefly look for amidst all the competition that will ensue will be + correctness and compactness combined with economy. Mr. Peter Berlyn's + book combines every requisite information regarding the Exhibition from + first to last. Its clever compilation, tasteful form, quantity and + variety of information, and the dependance that may be placed upon it for + correctness, combine with its early appearance to render it one of the + most valuable hand-books that are likely to be generally used." + + + ART JOURNAL. + + "A very useful and sound history of the rise and progress of the Great + International Exhibition of 1851, in which the first movements towards it + are carefully and ably detailed; and a very good analysis is given of all + preceding industrial exhibitions, at home and abroad, as well as a large + amount of information connected with the construction of the building + itself, and abstracts of official documents connected with the entire + movement. The author has done justice to the efforts which have been made + to interest the English manufacturer, and stimulate him in his artistic + endeavours; and we feel bound to acknowledge his courteous notice of the + exertions made by 'The Art Journal' in helping forward its consummation + in 1851." + + + LEADER. + + "For those who wish to know all about the rise and progress of the Great + Exhibition and its Crystal Palace this neat hand-book is the very thing. + Mr. Berlyn has performed his task with laudable industry. He has drawn + together and arranged a large amount of scattered information regarding + the Exhibition in a pleasant form. As an elegant and trustworthy + hand-book, the narrative deserves to be popular." + + + OBSERVER. + + "This neat volume gives a history of previous Exhibitions--some on small, + some on large scales--that have taken place in divers parts of Europe of + late years. It then points out the precise origin of the Exhibition of + all Nations, snowing the share his Royal Highness Prince Albert had in + it; its history and progress are thus minutely detailed, and its + prospects are foreshadowed without exaggeration. We cordially recommend + it as a pocket-companion necessary to all those who have not as yet + mastered the chief facts connected with the erection of the Palace of + Industry." + + + JOHN BULL. + + "An able and complete history of the scheme, which we have all to accept + as _un fait accompli_, and a useful guide to the transparent mazes of the + Crystal Palace." + + + WEEKLY NEWS. + + "Of the works already published, and professing to treat of this gigantic + undertaking in its national, social, scientific, and artistic light, we + have not met with one so completely pervaded by a spirit of universality + as this book of Mr. Berlyn's. In matters of detail and relation his + narrative is explicit and lucid; where he has touched on the history of + an art or a manufacture he is correct in his data; and in tracing the + Exhibition to its true source he has displayed a highly philosophical + insight into the spirit of the age. Within the pages of his book will be + found a faithful record of the most important meetings of the Royal + Commissioners, as well as those convened by the corporations of cities, + by societies, or by private individuals, for the furtherance of the great + work in hand. To these is appended a verbatim report of the speeches + delivered at these meetings by the distinguished men who were invited to + preside over them; and the enlightened, liberal, and hopeful spirit which + pervades their addresses forms a cheerful contrast to the ominous + predictions of certain political and theological fanatics. After a full + discussion of what may be termed the _business_ portion of the subject, + Mr. Berlyn closes his excellent little book with a brief but eloquent and + comprehensive consideration of the beneficial results which are likely to + accrue from this great national undertaking, not only to ourselves but + mankind in general. The entire absence of partiality or prejudice + throughout the book, and the very interesting information contained in it + for all matters directly or indirectly connected with the Exhibition, + induce us to recommend the author to publish editions of it in the French + and German languages. By this means he would be conferring a boon on our + country's guests." + + + LADY'S NEWSPAPER. + + "Mr. Peter Berlyn has produced a well arranged, clear, and concise hand + book to this wonder of the world, in which he traces its origin, + progress, and prospects, in a pleasing and interesting manner. This must + have been a most difficult task, as the materials out of which he has + formed his narrative are so widely scattered that it requires some one + who perfectly and profoundly understands the subject (as we are convinced + Mr. Berlyn does) to collect and arrange them in so satisfactory a manner. + The ladies also will hail this work with pleasure, because, though + containing every information on the subject, it is at the same time + light, interesting, and infinitely superior to the dry and prosy style + usually adopted in similar works. It is tastefully illustrated, has an + elegant fancy binding, and forms a guide-book either for the library or + the pocket." + + + NOTES AND QUERIES. + + "A volume carefully compiled from authentic sources of information upon + the several points set forth in its ample title page." + + + GARDENER AND FARMERS' JOURNAL. + + "We do not go out of our province as horticultural journalists in + noticing a work recently issued by Mr. Gilbert, of Paternoster-row. Our + friends in the provinces will do well to study beforehand as many of the + probable incidents of their trip as possible; and, though innumerable + prints and tabular descriptions of the Exhibition Building have been + issued, we have not had anything before like a connected history of the + great project itself. The work before us is called 'A Popular Narrative + of the Origin, History, Progress, and Prospects of the Great Exhibition + of 1851; and we think the author, Mr. Berlyn, has treated his subject in + perfect accordance with the title. More than this it is quite unnecessary + to say as to the merits of the work; but we may just notice that the + 'getting-up' has evidently been intrusted to careful hands. The binding + is neat and tasteful, and, besides a ground-plan, a perspective view of + the building is given." + + + MINING JOURNAL. + + "This volume, which unostentatiously treats on the highly interesting + subjects indicated in the title, is based on records of unimpeachable + value. All speculation has been wisely avoided, and its pages present an + unvarnished history of one of the most extraordinary undertakings of + which the history of the world can boast; extraordinary in the fact of + the people of this little island challenging the people of the universe + to meet on its shores with specimens of their several productions of + industry; and extraordinary in the magnitude, decidedly novel, and + inconceivably rapid erection of the building for their reception. The + history of every similar exhibition is traced back to its source; those + of Manchester, Birmingham, London, and France are minutely recorded; the + growing interest which followed every subsequent exposition statistically + described, and every detail connected with the Royal Commission, the + arrangements, the building, future rules, throughout a space of 200 + pages, and finishing with a list of the local committees, conveys a vivid + and correct picture of this vast national undertaking." + + + CHURCH AND STATE GAZETTE. + + "A work that was wanted. It puts the public in full possession of every + iota of intelligence in connexion with the Great Exhibition worth having, + and has some very sensible remarks on the prospects of home exhibitors, + especially at the forthcoming display. It is indispensable to all + interested in the subject." + + + GUARDIAN. + + "'A Popular Narrative of the Great Exhibition' was really needed, + explaining its whole history from its first conception in the Prince + Consort's brain, and Mr. Berlyn's book has amply supplied the need. It is + a very smart volume, and the writer is duly impressed with the grandeur + of his theme." + + + LEIGH HUNT'S JOURNAL. + + "We can hardly speak too highly of this elegant and useful volume. Mr. + Berlyn has done his part admirably, and the publisher has seconded him in + the business department no less satisfactorily. All the floating and + disconnected accounts that have hitherto been brought before the public + from time to time are here collected and arranged in a very popular and + lucid manner, while a mass of fresh information, entirely new and + authentic, renders this book the only complete compendium of the + Exhibition in all its bearings. The history of its origin is written with + a graphic power and a narrative vigour very surprising on such a subject. + You are carried along with as much interest as if reading a work of + fiction. The contents fully justify the ample title, and in that tact + lies more of eulogy than columns of praise could say." + + + THE EVENING EXPRESS. + + "A neatly-printed volume on the History of the Exhibition; containing a + careful digest of all the documents which the Commissioners have issued." + + + THE TABLET. + + "Mr. Berlyn's book is an elegant volume by way of a guide to the Crystal + Palace. It contains a well-condensed summary on everything connected with + the subject of the Exhibition." + + + MORNING ADVERTISER. + + "A gaily-boarded volume, nattily emblazoned on the outside with colours, + with a tinted frontispiece of the Glass House from the same familiar + aspect. It is dedicated to Prince Albert, and contains an elaborate + introduction, in which the by-past expositions of Paris, Birmingham, + Manchester, Dublin, &c. are duly noticed. It is as a whole a neat mode of + preserving all the 'printed gossip,' as well as weightier reports of + Commissioners, relating to the preparations of the shell of the + Exhibition." + + + MARK-LANE EXPRESS. + + "A most interesting record of the history and opinions as to the probable + results of the World's Fair, to be held in the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park. + The author has condensed into a most readable work every transaction + which has given rise to this exhibition of the choice products of the + world." + + + THE BUILDER. + + "This book gives, in a concise and agreeable manner, a narrative of the + progress of the scheme towards fruition, and an account of the building. + The account is put together pleasantly, and makes a pretty book." + + + CHRISTIAN TIMES. + + "A valuable and elegant introduction to the Great Industrial Exhibition. + It contains much useful information, lucidly and carefully arranged." + + + NORTHERN STAR. + + "Mr. Berlyn's book is all it professes to be. It contains an ample and + popular narrative of the circumstances connected with the conception and + ultimate realisation or the idea; and incidentally throws much light upon + the progress and effects of similar exhibitions abroad. The author + deserves the greatest credit for the lively, interesting, and accurate + manner in which he has recorded all the leading events connected with the + Exhibition. In doing this we are happy to perceive also that he has the + manliness to do justice to those who first introduced the idea of such + Exhibitions into this country, and who had to struggle with all the + difficulties which usually dog the footsteps of innovators and inventors. + The first exhibitions had to encounter prejudice and apathy, and the + funds for carrying them out were comparatively small, and difficult to be + procured; they had not the _prestige_ of princely and titled names, to + give them acceptance with the vulgar herd, who eagerly copy the fashion + set by the great. They were the production of a pure love of art, and + science, and industry, and a desire to promote the improvement of public + taste and skill. One of the first promoters 'of the plan of National + Expositions, similar to those on the Continent,' was Mr. George Wallis, + formerly master of the Manchester School of Design; of whose exertions + Mr. Berlyn makes honourable mention. It is exceedingly interesting to + have presented at one view the gradual expansion of the original idea, + through a succession of varied phases, to its ultimate development as an + Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations. It appears clear that Prince + Albert is entitled to the merit of giving it this cosmopolitan character; + other exhibitions have always been either local, provincial, or national. + The idea of making that of 1851 universal is due to the Prince Consort + alone. The circumstances under which Mr. Paxton conceived the idea of the + structure which now attracts the admiration of every beholder, in Hyde + Park, read more like a sketch of the imagination than a sober reality; + and the almost incredible rapidity with which the plan has been + translated into a great fact is one of the proudest testimonies that can + be borne to the industrial resources, skill and enterprise of this + country. Of all the marvels that will be exhibited at the World's Fair + next May, none will be so marvellous as the structure in which they are + collected; and we confidently commend Mr. Berlyn's book as an agreeable + companion and guide to every visitor, as well as a record of the growth + of the Exhibition, well deserving of preservation on account of its + intrinsic merits and historical value." + + + MANCHESTER EXAMINER AND TIMES. + + "Mr. Berlyn (whom many of our readers will remember as an active and + earnest promoter of the interests of our Athenæum, in his character of + honorary secretary to that institution), having held an official + situation in connexion with the Royal Commission for carrying out the + business detail of the intended Exhibition, finds means to present us + with an extremely able and instructive volume. His narrative is cleverly + written, and affords ample information of the origin and progress of a + movement which has already acquired a world-wide fame. The gradual + advance of public opinion and feeling in reference to the study of art, + and to the more general cultivation of a love for the ideal and the + beautiful among the people, are care fully traced, and we have every + reason to believe that credit is justly given to the humble but earnest + workers in the cause." + + + LEEDS MERCURY. + + "A popular narrative of the origin, history, progress, and prospects of + the Great Exhibition, with a guide to the future rules and arrangements, + by Peter Berlyn, has just been published by Gilbert, of Paternoster-row. + It is a very able and useful volume, beautifully got up, and at a cheap + rate." + + + LEEDS TIMES. + + "Mr. Berlyn's book supplies a _desideratum_. It is the first attempt, so + far as we know, to give a consecutive narrative of the circumstances + which have given birth to the great design, whose realisation is to + illustrate the history of the present year. He has done his work well. + The narrative is entirely derived from authentic and official sources, to + which Mr. Berlyn, from his connexion with the undertaking, had peculiar + opportunities of access. The author regards the Exhibition, not as a + sudden individual thought, but as the natural result of certain + industrial ideas and tendencies which have been gradually developing + themselves during several years; and this view leads him to trace the + history of various prior exhibitions on a minor scale in this country, + such as the polytechnic exhibitions in different towns, and the + exhibitions of art and manufactures which have taken place, many years, + in Manchester, Birmingham, and the metropolis. The proceedings more + immediately connected with the great World's Exhibition now in + preparation are then related from the commencement, and in a manner at + once concise and complete. Finally, we have a full account of the rules + and regulations determined on for the conduct of this remarkable + undertaking. The volume contains several excellent illustrations, is + tastefully bound, and in a portable form." + + + LIVERPOOL COURIER. + + "This is an exceedingly interesting and useful book. It has been got up + as a hand-book for the visitors to the Great Exhibition, but its object + is more to give a condensed account of the history of the event than to + serve as a guide within the building. The writer, who treats his subject + most clearly and ably, enters into a brief narrative of all that has been + hitherto done, in this and other countries, to foster national taste in + connexion with these public displays. In our own countries he goes on, at + length, into an investigation of what may be termed the initiatory + exhibition lately held at Birmingham, and which, in its results, far + exceeded the expectations of its founders. He also gives a concise + history of the proceedings relative to the 'Palace of Glass,' from the + time that its erection was a dreamy idea until it rose in its gigantic + transparency to astonish the world." + + + LIVERPOOL ALBION. + + "This is a book for the times and to the purpose. Its title-page tells + with what object it has been written, and is well borne out by its + contents. When we open it we find a concise and faithful account of the + causes and progress of the world's gathering which is just upon us. In + preparing his volume the author has taken care to avoid all 'culling of + simples,' and to give only such information as may be depended upon, and + which possesses more than ephemeral interest. It abounds also, in + practical suggestions and philosophical observations. We will only say + further that the publisher, although he does not puff the work by talking + of giving it away, certainly comes as near as possible to that point in + the price which he has fixed upon it. We can safely recommend it." + + + BIRMINGHAM JOURNAL. + + "A cleverly-written and carefully-condensed little volume, containing all + that has been done, and much that should be known, respecting the great + event of the year. The author culls with great judgment from the + addresses delivered at various meetings held throughout the country; the + regulations issued by the Executive Committee are also introduced. + Altogether, a more complete record, within the same amount of space, it + would be impossible to find; it confers great credit upon the writer, who + in addition is evidently an enthusiast in the work about which he writes + so well." + + + LEICESTERSHIRE MERCURY. + + "This volume should be in the hands of all who take an interest in the + great event of this _annus mirabilis_, 1851. What it promises in the + title-page it performs in those which follow. It contains an accurate and + deeply interesting record of the causes and progress of the preparation + for that gathering of the nations of the earth which we are about to + witness, and chronicles all the official information on the subject which + is worth preserving. The practical suggestions and observations to be + found in it are greatly to the credit of the writer. We must also give + our praise to the publisher, Mr. Gilbert, for the manner in which he has + brought it out, and the low price at which he offers it to the buyer." + + + LIVERPOOL TIMES. + + "Of course we are already deluged with hand-books, guide-books, &c., to + the Exhibition. Such little works, properly compiled, will not only be + interesting, but absolutely serviceable, to the country visitor. We have + had oceans sent to us, varying in price as in truthfulness and English + grammar. The best we have seen is a 'Popular Narrative of the + Exhibition,' by Peter Berlyn, published by Gilbert, of Paternoster-row; a + book distinguished not only by correctness and labour, but also by very + considerable literary merit." + + + LINCOLNSHIRE TIMES. + + "What the flower-garden is to the bees, attracting them to gather honey + from its sweets, the Grand Exhibition has been to many a candidate + anxious to take his place in the ranks of authorship. The book before us + is one of the proofs of its stimulating powers. It fully and ably + accomplishes all which the title-page leads us to expect, setting forth + the causes and progress of that wondrous festival of industry at which + the world is to meet in Britannia's Crystal Palace. The information which + it contains may be relied upon as derived from the best sources; the + practical suggestions are valuable; and the observations are penned in a + highly philosophical spirit. We can safely recommend the work to our + readers, and we are quite certain that everybody who buys it will be + satisfied that his money has been well laid out. We speak not from our + own authority only, but have our verdict backed by the opinion of persons + competent to pronounce upon the merits of the volume before us." + + + INVERNESS COURIER. + + "This little volume has a merit which belongs to but few books published + in the present age. It is wanted. There has no doubt been a great deal + written on the subject of which it treats, as well as a great deal + spoken; but till now we have had only scattered and almost inaccessible + information on the one hand, or mere catchpenny pamphlets on the other. + Mr. Berlyn's excellence is, that he is honest; that his work fulfils the + promise of its title-page. Officially connected from its outset with the + great scheme which he describes, he has enjoyed peculiar facilities for + this task, has known where to look for materials, and been able to judge + of their relative usefulness and importance. Of these opportunities he + has diligently availed himself, and the result is to be seen in the + elegant book before us. Simple and popular in style, it is comprehensive + and instructive in its contents; we therefore recommend it." + + +* * * * * * + + + + +_Beautifully printed in 8vo, price only 7s. 6d., or postage free, 8s. 6d., +Illustrated by Eighty very splendid Pictures, engraved by George Measom,_ + +DEDICATED TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT, + +GILBERT'S DESCRIPTION + +OF THE + +CRYSTAL PALACE, + +Its Architectural History and Constructive Marvels. + +BY PETER BERLYN & CHARLES FOWLER, JUN., ESQRS. + +The Engravings will depict the various peculiarities and novelties of this +wonderful Building as well as the Machinery, &c., used in its construction. +The combined efforts of the Proprietor, as well as the Authors and Artists, +are to produce a work worthy to be purchased and preserved by every visitor +to the Great Exhibition. + + +---- + + +GILBERT'S + +VISITOR'S ILLUSTRATED MAP OF LONDON, + +DRAWN ON A NEW PRINCIPLE, + +HAVING IN VIEW THE DEPICTING OF THE PRINCIPAL ROADS AND STREETS OF THE +METROPOLIS, + +_With Illustrations of its most Important Buildings and Sights,_ + +Engraved on their exact Localities. + +This novel Map will be found an interesting, intellectual, and practical +guide to all Visitors who may wish to proceed readily to the more Important +Sights and Attractions of London. The price, in sheet, coloured, with +Letter-press Keys and References, is 1s. 6d.; or in Case for the pocket, +2s.; postage free, 3s. + + +---- + + +GILBERT'S + +GUIDE TO THE STREETS OF LONDON, + +AS A COMPANION TO THE "VISITOR'S ILLUSTRATED MAP." + +WITH FIVE THOUSAND REFERENCES; + +Frontispiece and Tables of Cab Fares; the Rules and Laws relative to +Metropolitan Conveyances; and Explanations in four Languages--to enable the +Visitor to find his own way throughout the length and breadth of the +Metropolis.--Price 6d; or postage free, 1s. + + +* * * * * * + + +_Price 1s. 6d., or 2s. bound; postage free, 6d. extra,_ + +GILBERT'S GUIDE TO LONDON, + +WITH MAP, &C. + +This original work, which has long been in full preparation for +publication, is especially intended as a useful and indispensable pocket +companion to every visitor to the Metropolis during the Great Exhibition of +1851. + +*** Separate Editions of the book issued in the French and German +Languages, price 6d. each extra. + + +---- + + + "Contains much useful information for residents as well as visitors. It + has also a good Map, and is very moderate in price."--_English + Churchman._ + + "A very useful companion throughout the streets and sights of + London."--_Lady's News._ + + "The distinguishing excellences of this guide are, that it is cheap, and + that it is written especially for the benefit of the visitors to London + during the Great Exhibition."--_Standard of Freedom._ + + "A publication prompted by the Great Exhibition: it is a plain and + business-like affair, giving a good deal of information upon various + subjects connected with the comfort of visitors, as well as directions + for sight-seeing."--_Spectator._ + + "This hand-book contains the most complete information connected with the + localities, customs, public buildings, amusements, and resources of the + capital city of this kingdom; and for travellers or foreigners we say it + is an indispensable work, if they desire to possess an accurate knowledge + of London during their visit to the Great Exhibition."--_Mark-lane + Express._ + + "Unquestionably the most useful little work of its sort we have met with. + It abounds with accurate, ample, and valuable information respecting + London and its suburbs. We know of no more interesting or cheaper + publication."--_Catholic Standard._ + + +---- + + +_Price, on a large sheet, only 6d.; in case, 1s. 6d.; or on roller, +varnished, 3s. 6d.,_ + +GILBERT'S KEY TO LONDON, + +ON ONE LARGE SHEET; + +Containing particulars of its Palaces, Public Buildings, Religious +Edifices, Hospitals, Inns of Court, Parks, Gardens, Bridges, Museums, +Literary Institutions, Theatres, Public Amusements, Exhibitions, Cab Fares, +Railway Stations, Ambassadors, Bankers, Hotels, Docks, Arcades, Private +Galleries, Curiosities, Churches and Chapels, Cab, Omnibus, and Coach Rules +and Laws, Omnibus Routes, Environs, Post-offices, Steamers, Foreign Money +Tables, &c. + + +---- + + +_Price, coloured and mounted in cloth case for the pocket, only 1s.; or +paper case, 6d.; in sheet, 4d._ + +GILBERT'S MAP OF LONDON, + +BEAUTIFULLY ENGRAVED ON STEEL, + +WITH A KEY TO THE STREETS AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS. + + +* * * * * * + + +THE GREAT EXHIBITION IN 1851. + + +---- + + +_Just Published, size of the Engraving 18 inches by 10, printed on paper, +size 21 inches by 14½,_ + +GILBERT'S NEW PICTORIAL VIEW + +OF THE + +CRYSTAL PALACE, + +FOR THE + +GREAT INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION, 1851. + +With several Hundred Scenic and Characteristic Figures, beautifully and +accurately Drawn from the Official Documents, + +BY JOSEPH PAXTON, ESQ., F.L.S. + +_With Statistical Details in English, French, and German._ + + +---- + + +The exciting interest which the Exhibition creates throughout the world, +has prompted the production of this carefully-executed, large, and +beautiful Illustration of the Exhibition Building. It is got up in +first-rate style, printed on the best paper, and published at the low price +of SIXPENCE; or coloured, ONE SHILLING. The special object of its combined +beauty and cheapness is not only to command sale in the United Kingdom, but +to induce our Merchants, Manufacturers, and all interested in this glorious +Institution to send this Illustration of the Building to every part of the +world. It may also be had in a neat gilt frame and glazed, price only 5s.; +or stretched on a frame and varnished, price 3s. Either of these two can +also be had packed in a deal box for transit by railway, or other +conveyance, at 1s. extra; or the 6d. and 1s. 6d. editions packed on roller, +for transit by post free, at 8d. each extra. + + +---- + + +GILBERT'S EXHIBITION LETTER-PAPER, + +4to post size, of superior quality, with a beautiful Illustration of the +Building printed in tints. Price 2s. per quire, or 34s. per ream. + + +GILBERT'S EXHIBITION NOTE-PAPER, + +8vo post, of superior quality, with a beautiful Illustration of the +Building. Price 1s. 6d. per quire, or 21s. per ream. + + +GILBERT'S EXHIBITION CARD, + +With a View of the Building. Price One Penny. Size, 4½ inches by 3. + + +GILBERT'S LARGE EXHIBITION CARD, + +With a View of the Building. Price Twopence. Size, 7 inches by 4½. + + +* * * * * * + + +_Just Published, in Thirty-Six Sheets, of different Subjects, at the +extremely low price affixed,_ + +JERRARD'S + +COLOURED PICTURES + +OF + +GROUPS AND BOUQUETS OF + +FLOWERS, FRUITS, BIRDS, LANDSCAPES, + +&c. &c. + + +---- + + +These beautiful Pictures are on folio-sized drawing-paper, and produced in +the first-rate style, being most beautiful and successful imitations of +Original Drawings. They are admirably adapted for framing; would also form +a tasteful ornament to Ladies' Portfolios, or as patterns for Drawing in +colours. + + +---- + + + Sheet 1, price only 2s.--Fruit: Peaches, Purple Grapes, Green Grapes. + Flowers: Moss Rose, Campanula (Canterbury-bell), Wallflower, Convolvulus. + Sheet 2, price 1s. 6d.--Poppy, Ranunculus, Pæonia, Hollyhock, + Convolvulus, Anagallis, Rosebud. + Sheet 3, price 1s. 6d.--White Rose, Red Rose, Anemone, Single Dahlia, + Cineraria, Nastertium, Auricula, Veronica. + Sheet 4, price 1s. 6d.--Passion Flower, Rose, Tulip, Geranium, Pinks, + Convolvulus. + Sheet 5, price 1s. 6d.--Anemone, Petunia, Mountain Aster, Heartsease, + Viola Tricolor, Anagallis. + Sheet 6, price 1s. 6d.--White Lilies, Tiger Lily, Tulip, White Fuschia. + + Sheet 7, price 2s.--Fruit: Peach, Apple, Pineapple, Purple Grapes, Green + Grapes, Egg Plum, Red Currants, White Currants. + Flowers: Rose, Convolvulus. + Sheet 8, price 2s.--Fruit: Peach, Apple, Pear, Plums, Red Grapes, Green + Grapes. + Flowers: Lilium Lancifolium, Picotee, Fuschia, Scarlet Geranium, Marigold + Sonicera. + Sheet 9, price 1s. 6d.--Ipomæa Horsfallii, Ipomæa Rubro-cærulea. + Sheet 10, price 1s. 6d.--Hibiscus Splendens. + Sheet 11, price 1s. 6d.--Ipomæa. + Sheet 12, price 1s. 6d.--Yellow Hibiscus. + + Sheet 13, price 2s.--Fruit: Peaches, Plums, Red Grapes, White Currants. + Flowers: Convolvulus Major, White Rose, Heartsease, Fumaria Anagallis. + Sheet 14, price 1s. 6d.--Noisette Rose. + Sheet 15, price 1s. 6d.--Orange Lily, Geranium, White Pink, Mule Pink, + Petunia, China Aster, Yellow Mallow, Anagallis, Malvi, Primula, + Mouse-ear, Tropæolum. + Sheet 16, price 1s. 6d.--Anemones, Tulip, Jonquil, Aster, Marigold, + Semi-double Rose, Yellow Rose, Convolvulus Minor, Auricula, + Nastertium, White Rose. + Sheet 17, price 2s.--Fruit: Melon, Pomegranate. + Flowers: Tulip, Honeysuckle, Lily of the Valley. + Sheet 18, price 1s. 6d.--Pinks, Carnations. + + Sheet 19, price 1s. 6d.--A pair of Bullfinches, Nest, Eggs, and Flowers. + Sheet 20, price 1s. 6d.--A pair of Greenfinches, Nest, Eggs, and Flowers. + Sheet 21, price 1s. 6d.--A pair of Goldfinches, Nest, Eggs, and Flowers. + Sheet 22, price 1s. 6d.--A pair of Titmouse on the Stump of a Tree. + Sheet 23, price 1s. 6d.--A pair of Redstarts, with Nest, Eggs, and + Flowers. + Sheet 24, price 1s. 6d.--A pair of Chaffinches, with Nest, Eggs, and + Flowers. + + Sheet 25, price 1s. 6d.--A View of the Castle of Chillon, Lake of Geneva. + Sheet 26, price 1s. 6d.--A View of Tintern Abbey. + Sheet 27, price 1s. 6d.--View of Caerphilli Castle and Vale. + Sheet 28, price 1s. 6d.--View of Snowdon from the Valley of Dolydellan. + Sheet 29, price 1s. 6d.--View of Llangollen, Castle Dinas-Bran. + Sheet 30, price 1s. 6d.--View of Fountain, St. Mary-le-Wigford, Lincoln. + + + +---- + + +It must be distinctly observed that the whole of the above are in full +colours, and most successful imitations of original drawings, the price of +each sheet being also fixed at extremely low prices. A variety of other +sheets are in active preparation. + + +* * * * * * + + +STEREOTYPED EDITION. + +_The 53rd Thousand, price only 1s. sewed, or 1s. 6d. bound (postage free, +4d. extra)_, + +With a very useful steel-plate Genealogical Chart of the Sovereigns of +England, + +OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY, + +WITH INTERESTING + +Remarks on Manners, Customs, Arts, Dresses, &c. + +BY HENRY INCE, M.A. + + +---- + + +*** In consequence of the rapidly extended sale and approval of this Work, +every page of the present Edition has been carefully enlarged and much +improved. By a judicious enlargement of the width and length of the page, +one-third more letter-press is introduced without any increase of price. + +---- + + + "In the system of Education sufficient regard is not always paid to + impressing on the pupil's mind the leading points in a branch of study. + His memory is confused with a too great variety of details. This manual + of Mr. Ince's is well calculated to counteract this defective method, by + affording a well-digested outline, which should be carefully committed to + memory, and afterwards filled up by means of oral instruction or + reference to larger works. Lively chapters of historical memoranda, and + brief sketches of manners and customs, are appropriately introduced. We + can cordially recommend this well-digested manual."--_Sharpe's Magazine._ + + "A neat and accurate compendium, and written with perspicuity. The events + of each reign are arranged under different heads, so as to give at a + glance a comprehensive view of the whole."--_Athenæum._ + + "A new edition, with improvements. It is a little 'Rapin' in its way, a + history condensed into a nutshell; and we feel assured will, with its + companion works, form the future text-books of the young of both sexes. + Works intended for the mental culture of the young are sure to meet our + approval when properly deserving it; and in the present instance we feel + inclined to extend the usual limit of our remarks in favour of the lucid + and well-arranged books which Mr. Ince has issued for the rising + generation. We could not forbear a smile, on glancing over their + contents, at the recollection of the sundry fat quartos and huge folios + through which in boyhood we were obliged to wade for the acquirement of a + less amount of information than is here presented within the space of one + hundred pages."--_The Mirror._ + + "Well-digested and useful outlines of our History, and deserves to be a + standard educational work."--_Eclectic Review._ + + "Superior to anything of the kind; here is a clear and comprehensive + outline of the whole History of England. We cordially recommend + it."--_Wesley Banner._ + + "The leading points are clearly traced, and adapted for easy transmission + to the mind."--_Mark-lane Express._ + + "A valuable addition to those books specially designed for + education."--_Bell's Messenger._ + + "These 'Outlines' are particularly well done."--_Bankers Magazine._ + + "A good compendium; it contains the essence of very many volumes, serving + not only as helps for the education of youth, but as refreshers to the + memory to those who are old."--_Sunday School Magazine._ + + "This book is not undeserving of the popularity it has obtained: it is + full of information, and contains the substance of more knowledge of the + social progress, manners, and customs of our ancestors than many works of + far larger pretensions."--_The third review of the Athenæum._ + + "A great deal of information in a small compass, and the author has + availed himself of the latest authorities. We prefer the form of Outlines + to Catechisms. It contributes to the formation of more logical views, + both by the teacher and scholar. Catechisms are the school-books of + parrots."--_Spectator._ + + "Both the plan and style are perspicuous; it is admirably adapted for + what it is intended."--_The Times._ + + "Contains a vast amount of interesting and useful knowledge, and + admirably adapted as helps to parents and teachers of youth."--_Tait's + Magazine._ + + "A well-digested little book."--_Literary Gazette._ + + "A very useful book for the instruction of youth, being a complete + _resumé_ of the whole History of England."--_Metropolitan._ + + "Well adapted for the education of the young."--_New Monthly Magazine._ + + "The brief statements of the principal events of each Sovereign's reign + are neat and succinct."--_The Economist._ + + "An improved edition of Mr. Ince's very useful book."--_The Rambler._ + + "Ince's 'Outlines' is a very excellent book to put into the learner's + hands: it is clear and well-arranged."--_Author's Institute Circular._ + + +---- + + +_In 18mo, price 1s., 1s. 6d. bound (postage free, 4d. extra)_, + +THE SIXTH EDITION OF + +OUTLINES OF FRENCH HISTORY, + +WITH NOTICES OF + +THE MANNERS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, ETC., OF THE DIFFERENT PERIODS. + +BY HENRY INCE, M.A. + + "It affords a very pleasing view of the whole History of France. The + author being gifted with a philosophical mind and a classical taste, the + subjects, though treated in a detached, are far from being treated in a + dry and unentertaining manner."--_The Times._ + + "It is embellished with some capital engravings, and abounds in the + narration of those romantic events which form the groundwork of so many + delightful works."--_The Mirror._ + + "Mr. Ince is not of those men who speak much without saying anything; he + says much in a few words."--_French Paper._ + + "A very useful educational work."--_Literary Gazette._ + + +* * * * * * + + +_Price 1s. sewed, or 1s. 4d. bound (postage free, 4d. extra), the Eleventh +Thousand of_ + +OUTLINES + +OF + +GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. + +By Henry Ince, M.A. + + +---- + + +*** This Edition has been very much extended and improved; by an +enlargement of the size of the page, and careful arrangement of the type, a +very great quantity of highly valuable information has been added. + + +---- + + + "The 'Outlines of General Knowledge' embrace a great variety of facts + connected with the natural sciences. Even the names of all the divisions + into which the moderns have classified knowledge fill no inconsiderable + space. Add to them the names and height of mountains, and names and + length of rivers, the names of constellations, the names of the chemical + elements, the amount of population of the different kingdoms of the + world, the amount of their respective taxation per head, &c. &c., and the + mere nomenclature seems calculated to fill a tolerably large book. All + this, and more than this, is collected in Mr. Ince's 'Outlines,' and + those not accustomed to the art of the author will wonder how one small + head could carry all he has brought together."--_The Economist._ + + "Well-digested 'Outlines,' which should be committed to everybody's + memory."--_Sharpe's Magazine._ + + "A capital book, deserving especial attention."--_Family Friend._ + + "Contains for its size a remarkable quantity of interesting and + well-arranged information. It would make a valuable present to Sunday + Schools and lending libraries."--_Athenæum._ + + "A vast amount of condensed information."--_The Rambler._ + + "Contains a considerable amount of information of a very valuable kind, + on a variety of subjects, that in ordinary routine of education are too + much overlooked, an acquaintance with which is every day becoming more + and more indispensable. They are germs which cannot fail to vegetate in + the mind, to fructify in the head, and eventually to produce a fourfold + reward to him who labours in the acquisition of them."--_Sunday School + Magazine._ + + "Calculated to instruct anyone of common intelligence on every known + topic of importance, and to start him with a mind stored with the + accumulated learning of 6000 years."--_The Mirror._ + + "A valuable little publication, full of information in a small compass, + creating an appetite for deeper investigation."--_Bell's Life._ + + +* * * * * * + + +A NEW SERIES OF PENNY MAPS. + + +---- + + +_Now publishing in Monthly Parts, price only 4½d., or 8½d. coloured (each +Part to contain four Maps)_, + +PHILIPS' + +PENNY ATLAS OF THE WORLD, + +IN A + +Series of fifty-two Imperial Quarto Maps, Engraved on Steel, + +INCLUDING + +FIVE ANCIENT MAPS, ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE IMPORTANT EVENTS IN ANCIENT HISTORY, + +WITH A COPIOUS CONSULTING INDEX OF PLACES. + + +---- + + +Geographical Knowledge was to a considerable extent an essential necessity +even in the early periods of our world, cultivated indeed at first for +almost purely social purposes, yet in the same proportion as our +progenitors increased in numbers, so also did their extended range of +observation instil into their minds the necessity of more practical +observations on the relative bearings of the districts through which they +passed, noting at the same time the numerous changes of hill and dale, +rivulet and stream, and the countless varieties of the wonderful products +with which it pleased Almighty God to bless its various regions. Hence +progressively arose the Topographical and Geographical Delineations with +which the Scriptures abound; to a similar cause may also be traced the +contributions which the savage tribes have at various periods of our +World's History added to the branches of Geographical science. + +Now, in the same proportion as any people forming a Nation develope their +commercial and intellectual strength, in the same ratio has it pleased +Providence to render it necessary that its inhabitants should not only +become acquainted with the Topographical and Geographical features, +relative distances and bearings, of their own and neighbouring nations, but +of every portion of the known world, even extending their researches to +unknown regions. Indeed, no member of a commercial nation, especially in +one where education is much diffused, is qualified to act his part aright +as one of its people, unless he is able to form a tolerably accurate notion +of the names of Nations, Places, Seas, Rivers, Mountains, &c., their +relative position and extent, as well as to learn how richly the Creator of +the Earth has endowed them all with the means of ministering to those +comforts and pleasures of which man in every state of society and climate +so much stands in need. + +These reflections might be much extended, but the limits of a prospectus +will not permit it. Suffice it to say that every Englishman, be he rich or +poor, should have access to modern Maps of the various portions of the +World, in order to possess the means of cultivating a knowledge of its +divisions, the names of the chief Nations, Places, &c. &c., as well as to +be able to form intellectual and commercial ideas of its numerous products, +and the respective regions from whence come the countless varieties of +foreign substances now in use among us as articles of ornament or +necessity. + +Now, though a Modern Atlas of the World is so essential to every family in +this kingdom, still it has been almost limited in its possession, on +account of the high price at which all really good and practical works have +hitherto been issued. To remove this difficulty has been the principal +motive which has induced the Proprietors of "PHILIPS' PENNY MODERN ATLAS" +to issue a work which they feel satisfied will be universally admitted to +be surprisingly cheap, and not surpassed in usefulness by any attempt +hitherto made to extend the knowledge of Geography. + + +---- + + +LIST OF THE MAPS + +Which will appear in PHILIPS' PENNY ATLAS, any of which may now be had +separately, price ONE PENNY each Plain, or TWOPENCE Coloured:-- + + MODERN MAPS. + + 1. Western Hemisphere. + 2. Eastern Hemisphere. + 3. World on Mercator's Projection--Double Map. + 4. Arctic Regions. + 5. Europe--General Map. + 6. British Isles. + 7. England and Wales. + 8. Scotland. + 9. Ireland. + 10. France, in Provinces. + 11. France, in Departments. + 12. Belgium. + 13. Holland. + 14. Prussia. + 15. Poland. + 16. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. + 17. Denmark. + 18. Russia in Europe. + 19. Germany. + 20. Austria. + 21. Switzerland. + 22. Spain and Portugal. + 23. Italy. + 24. Turkey in Europe, and Greece. + 25. Asia--General Map. + 26. Turkey in Asia. + 27. Russia in Asia. + 28. Persia and Cabool. + 29. Hindostan. + 30. China. + 31. East India Islands and Australia. + 32. New South Wales. + 33. Tasmania, or Van Dieman's Land. + 34. New Zealand. + 35. Africa--General Map. + 36. Egypt. + 37. America--General Map. + 38. North America. + 39. United States. + 40. Canada. + 41. Mexico, Guatimala, and Texas. + 42. West Indies. + 43. South America. + + ANCIENT MAPS. + + 44. Palestine. + 45. Orbis Veteribus Notus. + 46. Orbis Romani Pars Occidentalis. + 47. Orbis Romani Pars Orientalis. + 48. Græcia Antiqua. + 49. Table of the Comparative Height of Mountains. + 50. Ditto ditto Length of Rivers. + + +* * * * * * + + +THE CHEAPEST MAPS EVER ISSUED. + + +---- + + +PHILIPS' SERIES + +OF + +LARGE SIXPENNY MAPS, + +Size--Full Sheet Imperial, 22 by 27 Inches, Full Coloured. + +_Engraved in the best style, and embracing all the recent Geographical +Discoveries._ + + +---- + + + LIST OF THE MAPS. + + 1. The World on Mercator's Projection. + 2. " Northern Hemisphere. + 3. " Southern ditto. + 4. " Eastern ditto. + 5. " Western ditto. + 6. North Horizontal ditto. + 7. South ditto. + 8. Europe. + 9. Asia. + 10. Africa. + 11. America--General Map. + 12. North America. + 13. South America. + 14. England. + 15. Scotland. + 16. Ireland. + 17. British Isles. + 18. The Channel Islands, including Isle of Man and Isle of Wight. + 19. Chart of the Baltic Sea. + 20. Sweden and Norway. + 21. Denmark. + 22. Germany--Northern part. + 23. Germany--Southern part. + 24. Holland. + 25. Belgium. + 26. France, in Departments. + 27. France, in Provinces. + 28. Spain and Portugal. + 29. Chart of the Mediterranean. + 30. Turkey in Europe and Greece. + 31. Italy. + 32. Venetian States. + 33. Milanese States. + 34. Tuscany and the States of the Church. + 35. Naples and Sicily. + 36. Switzerland. + 37. Austria. + 38. Prussia. + 39. Poland. + 40. Russia in Europe. + 41. Russian Empire. + 42. Tartary. + 43. Corea and Islands of Japan. + 44. China. + 45. East India Islands. + 46. Hindostan. + 47. British India--Northern part. + 48. British India--Southern part. + 49. Birman Empire. + 50. Persia. + 51. Turkey in Asia. + 52. Arabia. + 53. Egypt and Abyssinia. + 54. Palestine. + 55. North and South Africa. + 56. Atlantic Islands. + 57. Chart of the Atlantic. + 58. Canada, Nova Scotia, &c. + 59. United States. + 60. California, Mexico, &c. + 61. Panama, Guatimala, &c. + 62. West Indies. + 63. Isles of Bermuda, Bahama, and Cuba. + 64. Jamaica. + 65. St. Domingo and Virgin Isles. + 66. St. Christopher's, with Nevis and St. Lucia. + 67. Antigua, with Guadaloupe, &c. + 68. Dominico, with Martinico, &c. + 69. Barbadoes and St. Vincent. + 70. Trinidad, Grenada, Tobago, and Caraçoa. + 71. Peru, Chili, and La Plata. + 72. Caraccas and Guiana. + 73. Islands in the Pacific. + 74. Australia. + 75. New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land. + 76. South Australia. + 77. New Zealand. + 78. Chart of the North-west Passage between Europe and America. + 79. Chart of the Discoveries of Ross, Parry, and Franklin in the Arctic + Regions. + 80. Table of the comparative Height of Mountains. + 81. Ditto ditto Length of Rivers. + + +---- + + +*** This series of Maps is by far the largest, best, and cheapest ever +offered for separate sale. Persons desirous of having a specimen of the +series, can order a single Map, through their booksellers, or remit 10d. in +postage-stamps to the Publishers, who will send any Map named, postage +free. + + +* * * * * * + + +_Just published, complete in 400 very large and full pages, Demy 8vo_, + +Containing matter equal in quantity to 1,500 pages of ordinary 8vo volumes, +Price only 4s., or postage free, 5s., strongly and neatly bound in cloth, + +GILBERT'S COPIOUS SERIES OF PAMPHLETS + +ON THE + +ROMAN CATHOLIC QUESTION; + +CONTAINING + +Important Documents of Permanent Historical Interest having reference to +the re-Establishment of the + +CATHOLIC HIERARCHY IN ENGLAND, + +1850-1. + +The Editor of these Pamphlets deems it almost superfluous to dwell on the +paramount importance of every respectable family possessing this volume of +very special present and permanent interest. During the discussion of the +exciting matters now at issue in this all-absorbing question, there can be +no questioning the well-recognised fact that the possession of this copious +and cheap volume is essential to every thoughtful and inquiring person in +our beloved country. For those who are as yet unaware of the immense mass +of interesting and important documents that are in its pages, AN INDEX OF +ITS CONTENTS IS ISSUED FOR GRATUITOUS DISTRIBUTION--this will abundantly +testify to the fact; and the Editor, thinks it only necessary to state +that, with scarcely an exception, the whole of the documents are printed, +verbatim, as they originally appeared, and in very numerous cases they have +had the additional advantage of the direct and special revision of the +authors. + +The Editor expresses his conviction that all the important facts and +documents relative to the "Roman Catholic Question" have appeared in the +pages of these pamphlets. Doubtless, during the progress of the +Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill through the Houses of Parliament +speeches of interest will be made; still the Editor thinks they will be +merely elaborations of the materials already in these pages, devoid of +original facts or documents. + +*** Any persons who may wish to possess the Series or sheet containing +specific articles particularised in the Index, will be at liberty to +purchase it separately, at One Penny or Three-halfpence each sheet +respectively, or at Twopence each extra post-free, through the publisher. +Series 1 to 17 sell at 1d., and 18 to 25 at 1½d. each; but it must be +observed that each sheet or Series contains several documents. + + +---- + + +_Just Published, demy 18mo, sewed, Price 2s. 6d., or accompanied by a large +and accurate Map, and bound in Cloth, Price 5s._ + +THE TRAVELLER'S HAND-BOOK + +AND NEW GUIDE FOR + +EMIGRANTS THROUGH THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. + +Containing a description of the States, Cities, Towns, Villages, +Watering-places, Colleges, &c.; with the Railroad, Stage, and Steam-boat +Routes; the distances from place to place; and the Fares on the great +Travelling Routes. + +BY J. CALVIN SMITH. + + +* * * * * * + + +_Just Published, in a neat Cover_, + +PHILIPS' + +SHILLING ATLAS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, + +CONTAINING NINE IMPERIAL QUARTO MAPS, + +ENGRAVED ON STEEL, & CONSTRUCTED FROM THE MOST RECENT AUTHORITIES. + + CONTENTS. + + EASTERN HEMISPHERE. + WESTERN HEMISPHERE. + EUROPE. + ASIA. + AFRICA. + AMERICA. + ENGLAND. + IRELAND. + SCOTLAND. + + +---- + + +_Lately Published, price 2s.; or 2s. 6d. bound in Cloth_, + +PHILIPS' YOUNG SCHOLAR'S ATLAS, + +CONTAINING + +Thirteen Large Quarto Maps, Full Coloured. + + CONTENTS. + + EASTERN HEMISPHERE. + WESTERN HEMISPHERE. + ENGLAND. + SCOTLAND. + IRELAND. + FRANCE. + EUROPE. + ASIA. + AFRICA. + NORTH AMERICA. + SOUTH AMERICA. + PALESTINE. + UNITED STATES. + + +---- + + +_Just Published, Price 3s. 6d. in Sheets, carefully coloured; 4s. 6d. in +case; or 7s. 6d. mounted on black rollers and varnished_, + +A NEW TRAVELLING + +MAP OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, + +BEAUTIFULLY ENGRAVED ON STEEL, + +AND COMPILED FROM THE MOST RECENT AMERICAN GOVERNMENT SURVEYS AND OTHER +AUTHENTIC SOURCES, + +Showing the whole of the Railways, Canals, &c., to the present time, and +the distances from place to place in hundreds of miles, taking the City of +New York as the centre. + +_The Publishers can, with confidence, recommend this Map of the United +States as the most authentic and elaborate Map that has ever been +produced._ + + +---- + + +*** The works on this and the fifteen preceding pages are published by +JAMES GILBERT, 49, Paternoster-row, London, wholesale and retail +bookseller, publisher, and newsvendor. + +Foreign Orders will be executed by J. GILBERT on liberal terms; or they can +be either sent to any wholesale bookseller or stationer; or to any of the +numerous merchants and manufacturers who export to all parts of the world. + +It will be necessary, however, to order GILBERT'S Editions, Published at +49, Paternoster-row, London. + + +* * * * * * + + +SALISBURY, PRINTER. PRIMROSE HILL, SALISBURY-SQUARE, FLEET-STREET. + + +* * * * * * + + + + +Notes. + +[1] A complete list of the names of all the competitors, together with + those selected by the Committee, will be found in the Appendix; also a + description and views of the two designs specially referred to. + +[2] This "memorandum" will be found in the Appendix. + +[3] The figures quoted are not quite correct, as will be seen hereafter. + +[4] The surface covered by the Basilica of St. Peter's at Rome amounts to + 223,900 square feet, the Cathedral at Milan occupies 124,100, and St. + Paul's, London, 114,900 square feet. + +[5] It is perhaps necessary to mention here, that the leakage of the roof + which was at first much complained of was owing to incomplete + construction, and not to any defect in the principle, or in the manner + in which it has been carried out. + +[6] About three hundred planks were passed through the machine in a + working-day of ten hours, allowing the necessary stoppages for + sharpening the cutters; and if only three widths of sash-bar were + produced out of each blank, the quantity finished per diem would amount + to about two miles and three quarters. This machinery, as well as that + for grooving and moulding the ridges, was worked at the Phoenix + Saw-mills, Cumberland-basin, Regent's Park, belonging to Mr. Birch. + +[7] A This piece of machinery is only novel in its application, as it is + similar to that used by brush-makers for drilling a number of small + holes in close and regular arrangement. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Crystal Palace, by +Peter Berlyn and Charles Fowler + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 44192 *** |